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The Register-Guard
| 1,169,183,831 |
Newspaper in Eugene, Oregon
|
[
"1867 establishments in Oregon",
"Mass media in Eugene, Oregon",
"Newspapers established in 1867",
"Newspapers published in Oregon",
"Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association"
] |
The Register-Guard is a daily newspaper in the northwestern United States, published in Eugene, Oregon. It was formed in a 1930 merger of two Eugene papers, the Eugene Daily Guard and the Morning Register. The paper serves the Eugene-Springfield area, as well as the Oregon Coast, Umpqua River valley, and surrounding areas. As of 2016, it has a circulation of around 43,000 Monday through Friday, around 47,000 on Saturday, and a little under 50,000 on Sunday.
The newspaper has been owned by The Gannett Company since Gannett's 2019 merger with GateHouse Media. It had been sold to GateHouse in 2018. From 1927 to 2018, it was owned by the Baker family of Eugene, and members of the family served as both editor and publisher for nearly all of that time period. It is Oregon's second-largest daily newspaper and, until its 2018 sale to GateHouse, was one of the few medium-sized family newspapers left in the United States.
## History of The Guard
### Establishment
The Guard was launched in 1867 in Eugene City on Saturday, June 1, by John B. Alexander, and has been continuously published since October 24. The paper began as a weekly organ expressing allegiance to the states' rights-oriented Democratic Party and it joined an existing Republican paper in the field, the Oregon State Journal, published by Harrison R. Kincaid.
Founding publisher Alexander was born about 1830 and came to Oregon from Illinois as a pioneer in 1852. Alexander initially worked as a farmer, supplementing his income as a surveyor and local justice of the peace before learning the printing trade working for the town's earlier pro-Southern newspapers. Although his own venture as a publisher was short and unprofitable, Alexander unwittingly was the scion of a local newspaper dynasty in Oregon, with two of his sons later themselves publishing The Guard (following the tenure of several intermediate owners), while a grandson, George L. Alexander, would one day edit another Oregon paper, the Lebanon Express.
Alexander and his paper vocally supported the old governing class of the former Confederate States of America and were rabid in their opposition to the policies of the Reconstruction era imposed upon the South by the Northern-based Republican Party. Such views were out of step with the majority of Oregonians, however, with the Republicans coming to dominate Oregon politics during the last quarter of the 19th century. Alexander was forced to liquidate his stake in his money-losing newspaper in 1868.
### Ownership changes
A short interregnum followed, during which ownership was transferred to J. W. Skaggs. Skaggs continued to push Alexander's Democratic Party/states' rights agenda during his short five weeks at the helm. The poor economics of the weekly paper were unchanged, however, and Skaggs immediately moved to unload his newly acquired white elephant. He cut his losses and avoided the stigma of financial failure for himself and the conservative political movement by giving away the paper outright to two men who worked for him as printers, William Thompson and William Victor. According to Thompson's later recollection, Skaggs sweetened the transfer of ownership by tossing in two bundles of paper and two cords of firewood for the new owners.
The leading partner in the new ownership pair, William Thompson (1846 1934), had come to Oregon from his native Missouri aboard a wagon train during the 1850s and had worked as a printer's devil for the Democratic Eugene City newspapers the Democratic Register and The Review from the age of 16. His acquisition of The Guard required only that he fulfill a contractual obligation "to run the paper and keep it alive." This he and Victor managed to do successfully, earning Thompson a healthy \$1,200 for his work before his sale of the paper to George J. Buys and A. Eltzroth on December 24, 1869. Thompson would subsequently move to Roseburg, Oregon, and there establish a new newspaper, the Roseburg Plaindealer.
George J. Buys bought out his business partner Eltzroth in July 1870 and subsequently remained solely at the publisher's desk for more than seven years. He continued to battle for the Democratic Party, "first, last, and always" in competition with the Republican Oregon State Journal and the short-lived Eugene City Hawk-Eye, which professed allegiance to the similarly shorter-lived Oregon Independent Party, which ran a full slate of candidates for state and local office in the election of 1874.
Buys ended his tenure as owner of The Guard in May 1877 when he sold out to the sons of the original publisher, F. R. Alexander and W. R. Alexander. Their stint as publishers was nearly as brief as their father's, and in November 1878 they sold the paper yet again, this time to the brothers John R. Campbell and Ira Campbell, who would remain owners for 30 years.
### Growth
In 1890, the Eugene Guard became a daily newspaper. Charles H. Fisher took over the paper in 1907 and published it until 1912 when E. J. Finneran purchased the paper. Finneran bankrupted the newspaper in 1916, partly due to the purchase of a perfecting press that proved too expensive for such a small newspaper. The University of Oregon's journalism school briefly ran the paper during the receivership under the guidance of Eric W. Allen.
In April 1916, Fisher returned along with partner J. E. Shelton, forming The Guard Printing Company. Fisher continued to publish the Capital Journal in Salem until 1921. In 1924, after Fisher died, Paul R. Kelty purchased the Guard and published it with his son, before selling it in 1927. The paper was purchased in 1927 by publisher Alton F. Baker Sr., whose father had published The Plain Dealer. Three years later, Baker bought the Morning Register and merged the two papers on November 17, 1930; the first Register-Guard edition was the next afternoon. Reporter William Tugman was recruited from The Plain Dealer to be the managing editor of the new paper.
## Post-merger history
In 1953, Tugman was one of four editors in the country to sign a declaration opposing Senator Joseph McCarthy's questioning of New York Post editor James Wechsler in closed Senate hearings. Eugene S. Pulliam of The Indianapolis Star, J. R. Wiggins of The Washington Post, and Herbert Brucker of the Hartford Courant were the other editors to sign the declaration, calling Senator McCarthy's actions "a peril to American freedom."
Alton F. "Bunky" Baker Jr., son of Alton F. Baker Sr., inherited the newspaper in 1961 and later passed it on to his brother Edwin. In the late 1980s, it was handed down to Alton F. "Tony" Baker III, who remained the paper's editor and publisher for more than 28 years, until 2015.
It was an afternoon paper on weekdays until 1983; the last evening edition was on Friday, September 9, and it dropped "Eugene" from its title. Saturday editions had shifted to mornings a dozen years earlier, in 1971; the last afternoon edition was July 17.
In August 1996, a photographer and reporter from the paper were arrested by the United States Forest Service for trespassing at the site of a timber protest in a national forest. The Register-Guard responded by suing the Forest Service for violating the First Amendment freedom of the press. The criminal charges were later dropped and the civil suit was settled out of court.
Originally located in downtown Eugene, the paper moved to its current location in northeast Eugene in January 1998. The former Register-Guard building was leased by the University of Oregon and renamed the Baker Downtown Center for the Baker family. The building houses the university's printing and mailing facility, archives, and continuing education program, as well as the Oregon Career Information System.
In 2000, the company began negotiations with the employee's union for a new contract, and during negotiations banned the use of the company email system by the union. This led to an unfair labor practice charge against the newspaper, with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) ruling for the paper in December 2007 that employers can ban employees' pro-union emails from the company email system. The NLRB reconsidered the decision on emails on June 26, 2011, under a remand for reconsideration by the United States Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C. Upon review, the NLRB agreed with the Court that the R-G violated union members' rights by changing rules. The new decision allowed Register-Guard employees to send union-related emails without restrictions. On December 27, 2014, the NLRB overturned the 2007 ruling with Purple Communications, Inc., which gave union members the right to send union emails during non-work time.
In the weeks following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the newspaper saw a 1.6 percent increase in paper sales. In 2006, the paper received protests regarding its policy against including birth announcements from same-sex couples. It was reported that managing editor Dave Baker was very helpful when same-sex couples first complained "until he talked to Alton Baker [III], and then he stopped returning our phone calls." In November 2008, the Register-Guard finally changed its policy and printed a birth announcement featuring names of both the child's female parents.
In 2003, the newspaper reduced the width of the printing to 12.5 inches (320 millimeters) to reduce costs, and further shrank the paper to 11 inches (280 mm) in 2009.
In 2009, two separate layoffs reduced the newspaper's staff by the equivalent of 41 positions; by August 2009, it had 305 full- and part-time employees. The company's management blamed the layoffs on the "lousy economy" and advertising revenues that were 16 percent below projections in May and about 25 percent for June, July, and the first half of August.
In May 2015, Tony Baker stepped down as the Register-Guard's editor and publisher, after 28 years, making the end of an 88-year span in which someone from the Baker family had headed the paper. He was succeeded as editor and publisher by N. Christian Anderson III, who had been publisher of The Oregonian since 2009 and president of the Oregonian Media Group since 2013. Anderson began working in the new position on June 1, 2015, but held it for less than seven months. In mid-December 2015, Tony Baker, the chairman of the Guard Publishing Company, announced that Anderson "is no longer Editor and Publisher" of the Register-Guard, and that the Baker family was taking control again. Tony Baker returned to the position of editor and publisher. In July 2016, Logan Molen took over as publisher and CEO of RG Media Company (the newspaper, marketing, advertising and digital services part of Guard Publishing Company), while Baker remained as chairman of the board of Guard Publishing.
### Sale to GateHouse Media
In January 2018, the Register-Guard announced its sale to newspaper conglomerate GateHouse Media. The paper's ownership was officially transferred on March 1 of that year, with Molen replaced as publisher by GateHouse hire Shanna Cannon.
### Ownership by Gannett
GateHouse Media purchased Gannett in November 2019, retaining the Gannett name for the merged operation.
In April 2020, Cannon departed the paper. Gannett announced Executive Editor Alison Bath would resume leadership of the newspaper. Gannett eliminated the executive editor position May 2, 2020, citing the ongoing integration of Gatehouse-Gannett merger. Managing Editor Michelle Maxwell is the highest-ranking editor in the Eugene newsroom. The Register-Guard will collaborate more closely in the Gannett network and with Pacific Northwest newsrooms, including the Statesman Journal in Salem, Oregon; the Kitsap Sun in Bremerton, Washington, and the Great Falls Tribune in Montana.
In May 2023, it was reported that since the paper's sale in 2018, the newsroom staff had shrunk from over eighty employees to six (including only two reporters), the paper no longer employed a local editor, publisher, or advertising representatives, and all advertising and editorial decisions were now made by the staff of Salem's Statesman-Journal.
## Awards
The paper won in a tie for best feature photo in 1997 from the Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association. In 1998, the paper took first place for science reporting from the Pacific Northwest Society of Professional Journalists competition for Excellence in Journalism. The Register-Guard took first place in the same competition in 2001 for best arts coverage. In 1999, the newspaper was a Pulitzer Prize finalist for Spot News Photography, for its coverage of the community's reaction to shootings at Springfield's Thurston High School by student Kip Kinkel.
The Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association's 2010 General Excellence Award again went to The Register-Guard, and so did the association's Best Overall Website award.
## Blocked in Turkey
Since June 17, 2008, by court order, access to the website of The Register-Guard has been blocked in Turkey because its domain name was once linked to a phishing scam.
## See also
- Alton Baker Park, named for founder Alton F. Baker Sr.
|
10,533,235 |
Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry
| 1,158,384,883 | null |
[
"1794 establishments in Great Britain",
"Military units and formations established in 1794",
"Military units and formations in Wiltshire",
"Military units and formations of the Second Boer War",
"Organisations based in Wiltshire",
"Regiments of the British Army in World War II",
"Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry",
"Yeomanry regiments of the British Army",
"Yeomanry regiments of the British Army in World War I"
] |
The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry (RWY) was a Yeomanry regiment of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the United Kingdom established in 1794. It was disbanded as an independent Territorial Army unit in 1967, a time when the strength of the Territorial Army was greatly reduced. The regiment lives on in B (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) and Y (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) Squadrons of the Royal Wessex Yeomanry.
The regiment took part in the Second Boer War as part of the Imperial Yeomanry. In the First World War, it fought on the Western Front, but saw relatively little action as horsed cavalry. After conversion to infantry, it fought in the trenches, notably during 3rd Ypres in 1917 and during the German spring offensive in 1918.
In the Second World War, the regiment fought in the Middle East, seeing action in Syria against Vichy French forces, as well as operations in Iraq and Iran. It then joined 9th Armoured Brigade, seeing action in North Africa and Italy. With this formation, it took part in the Second Battle of El Alamein, spearheading the break-out of the 2nd New Zealand Division during Operation Supercharge on 2 November 1942.
The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry cap badge is the Prince of Wales's feathers on a red baize backing, and vehicles carry the New Zealand fern leaf emblem.
## History
### Formation and early history
On 4 June 1794, a meeting of country gentlemen at the Bear Inn in Devizes decided to raise a body of ten independent troops of Yeomanry for the county of Wiltshire. The decision was implemented by the High Sheriff Richard Long. Five gentlemen were identified to be captains in the unit. The existing troops were regimented into the Wiltshire Yeomanry Cavalry in 1797. Neither the Yeomanry, nor the Militia (the infantry counterpart of the Yeomanry), were liable for service overseas and so the regiment took no part in the Napoleonic or later wars of the 19th century. However the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry was called to deal with civil disorders, such as a mutiny by the county Militia in Devizes, the Swing Riots and the 'machine riots'. In recognition of this service, the regiment was awarded the title 'Royal' by King William IV in 1831; the first yeomanry regiment to be so honoured. Contrary to common belief, the regiment was not involved in the restoration of order after the Bristol riots, which followed the rejection of the 1830 Reform Bill (although they did mobilise for the duty before regular troops restored order).
In 1863, it provided an escort to the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) through the Savernake Forest, in recognition of which it was the first regiment in the British Army to be awarded the title of 'Prince of Wales's Own' (entitling it to wear the Prince of Wales's feathers as a badge). In 1884, it was placed at the head of the newly formed Yeomanry Order of Precedence by Queen Victoria.[^1]
### Second Boer War
The Yeomanry was not intended to serve overseas, but due to the string of defeats during Black Week in December 1899, the British government realized they were going to need more troops than just the regular army. A Royal Warrant was issued on 24 December 1899 to allow volunteer forces to serve in the Second Boer War. The Royal Warrant asked standing Yeomanry regiments to provide service companies of approximately 115 men each for the Imperial Yeomanry. The regiment provided:
- 1st (Wiltshire) Company, 1st Battalion in 1900
- 2nd (Wiltshire) Company, 1st Battalion in 1900
- 63rd (Wiltshire) Company, 16th Battalion in 1900, transferred to 1st Battalion in 1902
In 1900, the regiment represented the Yeomanry cavalry at the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia.
On 17 April 1901, the regiment was renamed as the Royal Wiltshire Imperial Yeomanry (Prince of Wales's Own Royal Regiment) and reorganised in four squadrons and a machine gun section. On 1 April 1908, the regiment was renamed as the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry (Prince of Wales's Own Royal Regiment) and transferred to the Territorial Force, trained and equipped as hussars. The regiment was based at the Yelde Hall in Chippenham at this time. Its organisation was:
It was ranked 1st (of 55) in the order of precedence of the Yeomanry Regiments in the Army List of 1914.
### First World War
In accordance with the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 (7 Edw. 7, c.9) which brought the Territorial Force into being, the TF was intended to be a home defence force for service during wartime and members could not be compelled to serve outside the country. However, on the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914, many members volunteered for Imperial Service. Therefore, TF units were split in August and September 1914 into 1st Line (liable for overseas service) and 2nd Line (home service for those unable or unwilling to serve overseas) units. Later, a 3rd Line was formed to act as a reserve, providing trained replacements for the 1st and 2nd Line regiments.
#### 1/1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry
The regiment was mobilised in August 1914 in the 1st South Western Mounted Brigade, but did not proceed to France until December 1915. In May 1916, two squadrons joined the XV Corps cavalry unit, with two further squadrons joining IX Corps Cavalry regiment. During 1916–17, duties mainly involved policing, traffic control, despatch riding and similar activities. In March 1917, the regiment played its only part in the War as horsed cavalry, during the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line. Over an eleven-day period, German forces retreated 20–25 miles to prepared positions. The RWY formed part of the advanced guard of the British Army, attempting to keep in touch with the German rearguards, but this was difficult owing to the broken nature of the ground behind the original German lines. Contact was made several times with Uhlans and a lance captured in one of these engagements is still in possession of the regiment.
In September 1917, it was finally conceded that there was little place for horsed cavalry in the Western Front. The regiment was converted to infantry and joined the 6th Battalion, The Wiltshire Regiment (6th Wilts), fighting in the trenches at Ypres and Cambrai in 1917. In March 1918, the German army mounted its Spring Offensive and 6th Wilts at one point took the whole weight of the offensive at Bapaume. After a week of combat, 6th Wilts (half of whom were ex-RWY) had taken over 500 casualties. In April, they received reinforcements but later that month took another 400 casualties on the Messines Ridge. Shortly after this, it was decided to disband 6th Wilts as they had effectively ceased to exist. The regiment won 13 battle honours for the First World War, most earned with 6th Wilts.
#### 2/1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry
The 2nd Line regiment was formed in 1914. In May 1915, it was with 2/1st South Western Mounted Brigade in the Calne area and moved in September to Canterbury. On 31 March 1916, the remaining Mounted Brigades were ordered to be numbered in a single sequence; the brigade became the 15th Mounted Brigade and joined 4th Mounted Division at Colchester.
In July 1916, there was a major reorganization of 2nd Line yeomanry units in the United Kingdom. All but 12 regiments were converted to cyclists and as a consequence the regiment was dismounted and joined the 6th Cyclist Brigade (and the division became 2nd Cyclist Division) at Tolleshunt d'Arcy near Tiptree. Further reorganization in November 1916 saw the 2nd Cyclist Division being broken up and the regiment was merged with the 2/1st North Somerset Yeomanry to form 10th (Wiltshire and North Somerset) Yeomanry Cyclist Regiment in 4th Cyclist Brigade at Ipswich. In March 1917 it resumed its identity as 2/1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry'', still in 4th Cyclist Brigade at Ipswich. In July it was at Wivenhoe and later moved to Frinton and Clacton. Early in 1918, the regiment moved to Ireland with 4th Cyclist Brigade and was stationed in Dublin; there was no further change before the end of the war.
#### 3/1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry
The 3rd Line regiment was formed in 1915 that summer it was affiliated to a Reserve Cavalry Regiment at Tidworth. In the summer of 1916, it was affiliated to the 11th Reserve Cavalry Regiment, also at Tidworth. Early in 1917, it was absorbed in the 3rd Reserve Cavalry Regiment at Aldershot. By 1918, it had left the 3rd Reserve Cavalry Regiment as the 1st Line had been converted to infantry. It joined the 4th (Reserve) Battalion of the Wiltshire Regiment at Larkhill.
### Between the wars
Post war, a commission was set up to consider the shape of the Territorial Force (Territorial Army or TA from 1 October 1921). The experience of the First World War made it clear that cavalry was surfeit. The commission decided that only the 14 most senior regiments were to be retained as cavalry (though the Lovat Scouts and the Scottish Horse were also to remain mounted as "scouts"). Eight regiments were converted to Armoured Car Companies of the Royal Tank Corps (RTC), one was reduced to a battery in another regiment, one was absorbed into a local infantry battalion, one became a signals regiment and two were disbanded. The remaining 25 regiments were converted to brigades of the Royal Field Artillery between 1920 and 1922. As the most senior regiment in the order of precedence, the regiment was retained as horsed cavalry.
During the interwar period, it remained an important part of the social scene of the county having its officers drawn from the nobility, landowners, and larger farmers, while other ranks coming largely from their estates. Hunting, point-to-points, and social events seem to have been as important as military training. The chapter of the Regimental History relating to the period 1920–1939 is even entitled "The Long Weekend".
This brought the regiment into contact for the first time with someone it would later meet more seriously, Brigadier Bernard Law Montgomery (often referred to as "Monty"), then commanding the 9th Infantry Brigade in Portsmouth. In 1937, the brigade was on an exercise in Wiltshire and RWY was attached to it for their two-week annual camp. The brigade major wrote that "[The Regiment] was run like so much of the TA those days on rather feudal lines...when they heard they were going to have those tremendous exercises – three nights out at a time – they jibbed violently....Most of them had looked forward to exercises all day and then going out for a bit of jollity at night." The upshot was that the regiment was banished to a distant part of the camp where their socialising would not be disturbed by the Regulars. However, apparently the Yeomanry were so intrigued by Monty's exercises that their Commanding Officer (CO) approached him, asking to be included in the last brigade exercise.
### Second World War
The regiment began to mobilise in August 1939, a few days before the Second World War began. Initially, it was assigned as Divisional Cavalry to the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, then to the 4th Cavalry Brigade commanded by Brigadier J. J. Kingstone, as part of the 1st Cavalry Division bound for Palestine. The regiment served there and in Syria, North Africa and Iraq. In North Africa, the unit served as a searchlight regiment in ports such as Tobruk and Benghazi. In January 1941, after 150 years, its horses were finally replaced by motorised transport. In June, it was involved in the successful campaign against Vichy French forces in Syria, in spite of being desperately short of equipment and serviceable machine-guns. In July 1941, the 4th Cavalry Brigade became the 9th Armoured Brigade and participated in the expedition into Persia, with the regiment fighting as motorized infantry. In December, it received its first Honey tanks, finally becoming an armoured regiment.
In May 1942, the regiment moved to Egypt with the brigade, which became an independent brigade placed under the operational control of Lieutenant-General Bernard C. Freyberg's 2nd New Zealand Division, part of the British Eighth Army, then under the command of General Claude Auchinleck, later replaced by Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery. The brigade was in reserve during the Battle of Alam el Halfa in late August and in October began training for the Battle of El Alamein.
#### El Alamein – Lightfoot
The opening of the battle saw four divisions (9th Australian, 51st Highland, 2nd New Zealand and 1st South African) in the assault on the north of the Axis positions. RWY was in support of the 5th New Zealand Brigade (Brigadier Howard Kippenberger); the aim was for infantry to secure the Miteiriya Ridge during darkness, with the armour to pass beyond them at first light to establish a screen. By now, the regiment was equipped with a mix of M4 Sherman, Crusader and Grant (M3 Lee) tanks. On the morning of 24 October 1942, A and C squadrons were ahead of the infantry on the western slopes of the ridge. B squadron had been delayed in the devil's gardens minefields and had lost numerous tanks. Throughout that day, A and C Squadrons engaged German panzers on the plain below, and were in turn hit by anti-tank fire. Initially, the heavier Sherman tanks were not vulnerable to this, but, when the German 88mm anti-tank guns joined in, they took severe casualties. By midday, the two squadrons were reduced to one Sherman and three Grants and the commanding officer had been badly wounded and evacuated. The 10th Armoured Division, under the command of Major-General Alexander H. Gatehouse, was at this stage supposed to pass through and onwards to start the break-out, but seemed to be reluctant to do so.
At 6 p.m. the regiment was ordered to withdraw. It had lost almost all of its tanks and taken 42 casualties killed or wounded. In reserve, the regiment was issued with new tanks, a hasty mix of Shermans, Grants, and Crusaders (types II and III), mostly salvaged from the battlefield and rapidly repaired. Montgomery had been impressed with the performance of the 2nd New Zealand Division and wanted them to spearhead the next thrust, but Freyberg was unwilling to do so without reinforcements, as his troops had suffered so many casualties. Montgomery therefore placed 151 (from 50th Division) and 152 Infantry (from 51st Division) brigades under Freyberg's command for the next phase of the battle.
#### El Alamein – Supercharge
On the night of 1/2 November 1942, the Eighth Army attacked again in the north, with 2nd New Zealand Division in the lead. Freyberg placed 151 Brigade on the right and 152 Brigade on the left. The aim was to attack directly westwards across the Rahman track, with the infantry leading the night assault and 9th Armoured Brigade (now commanded by Brigadier John C. Currie) again passing through to break the enemy gun line and allow X Corps to break out. The assault went to plan except that opposition on the left was heavier than expected which slowed the advance. As a result, the advancing tanks were highlighted against the dawn sky in the east and began to be picked off by Axis anti-tank fire. The Regiment was in the centre of the 9th Armoured Brigade, and the CO lost touch with both his artillery support and close anti-tank support. In the growing light, the B squadron commander (Major M.StJ.V.Gibbs) realised that he was in a ring of enemy anti-tank guns, ahead and to both flanks. He gave the order to 'Charge' and B Squadron overran the anti-tank positions, losing some vehicles but destroying the enemy gun line. Meanwhile, the 21st Panzer Division was counter-attacking A and C Squadrons and at 4pm the Regiment (now down to four tanks) was withdrawn. The 1st Armoured Division from X Corps were just behind the 9th Armoured Brigade but there were no liaison officers between the units and 1st Armoured did not take the opportunity to push on through the broken Axis gun-line.
After the 9th Armoured Brigade's action, Brigadier Gentry of the 6th New Zealand Brigade went ahead to survey the scene. On seeing Brigadier Currie asleep on a stretcher, he approached him saying, 'Sorry to wake you John, but I'd like to know where your tanks are?' Currie waved his hand at a group of tanks around him, replying 'There they are.' Gentry was puzzled. 'I don't mean your headquarters tanks, I mean your armoured regiments. Where are they?' Currie waved his arm and again replied, 'There are my armoured regiments, Bill.'
Nevertheless, the assault of the 2nd New Zealand Division had drawn in both 15 and 21 Panzer Divisions, with the result that there was a wide gap in the Axis lines to the south west. Through this gap Montgomery pushed the remainder of his armour, breaking the Afrika Korps line and pushing westwards into its rear areas and supply lines. By 4 November, the battle was won and Montgomery was entertaining the captured Afrika Korps commander, von Thoma, to dinner in his caravan.
In an account of the battle published to mark its 25th anniversary, Montgomery wrote:
> I must mention the magnificent fight put up by 9th Armoured Brigade — 3rd Hussars, Wiltshire Yeomanry, Warwickshire Yeomanry.... If the British armour owed any debt to the infantry of 8th army, the debt was paid on November 2nd by 9th Armoured Brigade in heroism and blood....
#### Syria and Italy
Following El Alamein, the 9th Armoured Brigade was withdrawn first to Cairo and then to Syria for internal security duties, where it remained throughout 1942 and 1943. In May 1944, it reached the Italian Front and was placed under the command of Major-General Charles F. Keightley's 78th "Battleaxe" Division, then under Lieutenant-General Sidney C. Kirkman's XIII Corps. The RWY was to support the 36th Infantry Brigade, with one squadron in support of each of the brigade's three infantry battalions. In May–June 1944, it took part in the advance on Rome, working its way up in close country between the central mountains and the sea to the west. At one point, the 78th Division withdrew, but outlying elements of the regiment did not get the message and continued forwards. The Corps HQ diary for 23 June records 'RWY water truck reports Vaiano clear of enemy'.
In July and August, the 9th Armoured Brigade worked in support of the 4th and 10th Indian Infantry Divisions in the central mountains south east of Florence, on the approach to the Gothic Line. In August, the order was received that all men with over 41⁄2 years service overseas should be repatriated, and this reduced the regiment's strength by half. This made it impossible to function as a fighting unit and it was withdrawn from the line of battle. In October 1944, the regiment returned to England to train replacements for armoured regiments still fighting in Europe. It continued in this role until 1946, although the pace slowed after victory in Europe in May 1945.
During the Second World War, officers and soldiers serving with the regiment received three Distinguished Service Orders, four Military Crosses and ten Military Medals. The regiment lost 59 dead during the war, with the biggest single loss being 20 dead on or around 2 November 1941 during Operation Supercharge.
### Cold War
In 1947, the regiment again ceased to exist, but the following year was re-established as a heavy tank unit in support of 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, equipped with Cromwell and Charioteer tanks.
In 1958, the regiment converted to a light reconnaissance role equipped with armoured cars, such as the Daimler, Humber, Saladin and Ferret. By 1964, there were just three armoured regiments in the Territorial Army and, in 1967, it was decided to reduce the TA even further and the regiment was disbanded as an independent unit. However, a new TA unit, the Royal Yeomanry, was formed from five different predecessor units and the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry was reborn as A Squadron, The Royal Yeomanry.
During the Cold War, its role in the event of war would have been as a medium reconnaissance unit for the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). In 1971, a second Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry-based squadron was raised, as B squadron, Royal Wessex Yeomanry. This was initially a home defence unit trained as infantry, but later equipped with stripped down Land Rovers to perform reconnaissance duties. In 1983 as part of the reorganisation of the Royal Wessex Yeomanry, E (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) (Home Service Force) Squadron was formed in Old Sarum, Salisbury. This HSF squadron was in-fact a lightly-equipped infantry unit tasked with home defence and guarding certain points in the event on mobilisation.
### Modern day
A (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) Squadron changed command and name from the Royal Yeomanry on 1 July 2014 to become Y (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) Squadron, Royal Wessex Yeomanry and, like B (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) Squadron, Royal Wessex Yeomanry, started to train on Challenger 2 tanks.
The Royal Wessex Yeomanry now operates as the Armoured Reserve Regiment providing formed crews for three Regular Army regiments operating the Challenger 2 main battle tank.
## Battle honours
The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry was awarded the following battle honours (honours in bold are emblazoned on the regimental guidon):
The regiment's battle honours are summarised and illustrated in the picture of the RWY guidon which forms the frontispiece of the regimental history.
## Uniforms and insignia
During the 19th century, the regiment, in common with other Yeomanry and Militia units, sported a range of uniforms. Jackets were always dark blue. Between 1812 and 1873, a leather shako was worn, replaced in 1873 by a fur Busby with a red cloth bag. Service dress during the First World War was a khaki tunic and breeches, with a red stripe down the seam and a red lanyard worn by all ranks round the left armpit. The chevrons of sergeants and corporals were surmounted by a regimental badge on a red baize backing, a practice that continued through the inter-war years and beyond.
The regimental colours of green, red and yellow, which appear on the regimental tie and Stable belt, were decided on in the late 19th century. One officer (who was also a Conservative MP) suggested green with a red stripe, but this was objected to because it was similar to the Rifle Brigade. Another officer (a Liberal MP) suggested adding yellow, which was agreed. The joke was that red and yellow were Liberal colours, and the Liberal MP got away with this under his rival's nose.
The cap badge of the RWY is the Prince of Wales's feathers is a slightly different design to other regiments wearing the same symbol, such as the Royal Regiment of Wales. It is worn on the brown beret with a red baize and a black baize backing. During the First World War, men from the RWY carved their cap badge into the chalk hillside above the village of Fovant where it can still be seen today, alongside those of other units.
The New Zealand 'fern leaf' emblem was painted on the regiment's vehicles when it was under the command of 2nd New Zealand Division, a tradition which continues to this day. The brigade sign, worn during the Italian campaign but not subsequently, was a white horse on a green square background.
## See also
- Imperial Yeomanry
- List of Yeomanry Regiments 1908
- Yeomanry
- Yeomanry order of precedence
- British yeomanry during the First World War
- Second line yeomanry regiments of the British Army
[^1]: Official Programme for - "Royal Review of Serving Regiments & Yeomanry Old Comrades by HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN" Yeomanry Titles in order of Parade, 1994.
|
36,451,733 |
Dinosaurs on a Spaceship
| 1,109,180,054 | null |
[
"2012 British television episodes",
"Cultural depictions of Nefertiti",
"Eleventh Doctor episodes",
"Fiction set in 1902",
"Fiction set in the 14th century BC",
"Fiction set in the 24th century",
"Television episodes about dinosaurs",
"Television episodes written by Chris Chibnall"
] |
"Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" is the second episode of the seventh series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who. It first aired on BBC One in the UK on 8 September 2012 and on BBC America on the same date in the United States. It was written by Chris Chibnall and directed by Saul Metzstein.
The episode features alien time traveller the Doctor (Matt Smith) and his companions Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill) accompanied by Rory's father, Brian (Mark Williams), Queen Nefertiti (Riann Steele), and John Riddell, a British big-game hunter (Rupert Graves). The group lands on a large spaceship that contains dinosaurs and discover that it is a Silurian ark, though the Silurians have been murdered by Solomon (David Bradley), a black market trader who is intent on finding something of value.
"Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" was conceived to be a fun episode, based on a suggestion from the special effects teams about incorporating dinosaurs into Doctor Who. The storyline and characters were developed between Chibnall and head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat. Due to budget limitations, a wider plot had to be developed because the dinosaurs could not be the centrepiece. The dinosaurs were a mix of props and computer-generated imagery. Along with the third episode, "A Town Called Mercy", "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" was in the first production block of the seventh series, with production commencing in early 2012 in the studio and on Southerndown beach in the Vale of Glamorgan. The episode was watched by 7.57 million viewers in the UK and received generally positive reviews from critics.
## Plot
The Eleventh Doctor receives a call from the Indian Space Agency in 2367 about a vast spaceship which will crash into Earth in six hours. The ISA plans to destroy it with missiles unless the Doctor stops it first. He takes Queen Nefertiti of Egypt, Edwardian game hunter John Riddell, companions Amy and Rory, and, inadvertently, Rory's father Brian. Amy discovers the ship is a Silurian ark designed to carry the reptilian humanoids to a new planet along with flora and fauna from their time period to escape a destructive impact. The ship, however, registers no Silurian life forms left on board. After escaping from a group of pterosaurs in the engine room, the Doctor, Rory and Brian are escorted by two robots to a brutal man called Solomon who has been injured in a raptor attack and requires medical help. Solomon reveals himself to be a lawless exotic black market trader who has raided the spaceship in order to steal the dinosaurs. Having had the robots murder all of the Silurians, Solomon was unable to take control of the ship himself and the computer defaulted to its point of origin, causing it to return to Earth. Discovering Queen Nefertiti's identity and value, he decides to kidnap her and leave in his own ship. Though the Doctor refuses, Nefertiti agrees to go with him to save the others. Meanwhile, the ISA proceeds to fire their missiles at the ark, against the Doctor's wishes.
While Amy and Riddell shoot hostile dinosaurs with "anaesthetic" guns, the Doctor disables Solomon's robots and rescues Nefertiti, then tricks the ISA missiles into targeting Solomon's ship rather than the ark: it is destroyed, taking him with it. Rory and Brian pilot the ark away from the Earth, as the ship can only be piloted by two people of the same gene chain. The Doctor then takes Amy, Rory and Brian back home where Brian, having overcome his fear of travelling, starts a world tour (with one of his postcards showing the dinosaurs on their new home of Siluria). Nefertiti, who has been flirting and clashing with Riddell, opts to go with him rather than return to her own time.
## Production
### Writing and casting
Showrunner Steven Moffat said that putting dinosaurs on a spaceship was "the secret of success". The idea to use dinosaurs in Doctor Who came from the special effects teams The Mill and Millennium FX. As "Asylum of the Daleks" was a darker opening episode, "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" is more about fun. In Moffat's pitch to writer Chris Chibnall, he proposed, "Maybe it's a ship heading towards Earth, and Earth is on alert". Chibnall had previously written the Doctor Who episodes "42" (2007), "The Hungry Earth"/"Cold Blood" (2010), as well as work for the spinoff series Torchwood. The Doctor had previously encountered dinosaurs in the 1974 serial Invasion of the Dinosaurs. Moffat suggested the spaceship was Silurian, and Chibnall, who had written the return of the Silurians in "The Hungry Earth"/"Cold Blood", felt that it was "a nice reveal and shows you more about them, even in a story that isn’t really about them".
Chibnall suggested including a "bonkers" gang of characters picked from around time and space. He felt that Doctor Who could have "collisions of characters that no other show in the world can do", and that it was about finding a "disparate" group of characters who would "bounce" off each other. Nefertiti's decision not to return to her own time fits in with the historical record, as the date and cause of her death are unknown. Chibnall asked to introduce Rory's father, as Amy and Rory would be leaving in four episodes and Rory's family life had not been explored yet. Mark Williams, who played Rory's father, previously appeared in the Fifth Doctor audio adventure The Eternal Summer. Rupert Graves, who played an Edwardian hunter in this episode, previously worked with Moffat on the BBC series Sherlock. David Bradley's character, Solomon, was modelled on a "well-known nightclub owner with long hair". Chibnall described him as "half businessman, half Somali pirate". Bradley and Williams had previously worked together on the Harry Potter film franchise. Bradley was later cast as the First Doctor William Hartnell for the 50th anniversary documentary drama An Adventure in Space and Time and reprised his role in the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi)'s last Christmas special episode, Twice Upon a Time. Comedy duo Mitchell and Webb provided the voices of Solomon's two robots; executive producer Caroline Skinner called the casting choice "perfect". Richard Hope, who played the Silurian Bleytal, previously appeared as Malohkeh in the episodes "The Hungry Earth", "Cold Blood" and "The Wedding of River Song".
### Filming and effects
"Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" and the following episode, "A Town Called Mercy", were the first episodes to be produced for the seventh series, both directed by Saul Metzstein. The two episodes are Metzstein's first Doctor Who credits. The episode contains one of the biggest sets ever built for the show. The scenes in the "engine room" were filmed at Southerndown beach, Vale of Glamorgan in late February 2012. The beach had previously been used as "Bad Wolf Bay" in "Doomsday" (2006) and "Journey's End" (2008), and as the planet Alfava Metraxis in "The Time of Angels"/"Flesh and Stone" (2010).
The production team had to be mindful of the series' budget when planning the effects and sets; Chibnall commented that "it would be very easy to spend £300m on this but we don’t have it". As such, the dinosaurs could not dominate the episode, and Chibnall had to tell "a big other story". The scene where Amy, Riddell, and Nefertiti stumble upon a sleeping Tyrannosaurus rex was almost cut as it was originally intended to feature computer-generated (CGI) raptors, which were too expensive. However, Millennium FX realised they could use a baby T-Rex that had been in an exhibit they designed. The episode contains a variety of "favourite" dinosaurs; some were built from scratch, while others were CGI. Smith had to wear padded trousers when riding the triceratops, and recalled it was "a painful couple of hours, a laugh though and definitely worth it". Half of the triceratops was actually built and pushed by crewmen when Smith, Darvill, and Williams were riding it. The rest of it was filled in with CGI by The Mill. The Doctor Who logo in the title sequence featured the texture of a dinosaur's hide, in keeping with the varied "blockbuster" themes for each of the opening five episodes of the series. A preview clip of the episode was released at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con International.
## Broadcast and reception
"Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 8 September 2012, and on the same date on BBC America in the United States. Overnight ratings showed that it had been watched by 5.5 million viewers live in the UK. Final consolidated ratings rose to 7.57 million viewers. The episode also received 1.8 million requests during the month of September on BBC's online iPlayer, placing it second on the chart behind "Asylum of the Daleks". It also received an Appreciation Index of 87, considered "excellent". In Canada, on Space, the episode was watched by an average calculation of 575,000 viewers, making it the most watched item on the channel that week.
### Critical reception
"Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" received generally positive reviews from critics, with a few detractors. Dan Martin of The Guardian described it as "fun", with praise to the expensive-looking sets and dinosaurs, the usefulness of Amy and Rory, and the concept of the gang. While he admitted it was "flimsy" and "pretty much a story built around a title", he thought it was "the finest episode two from Doctor Who in some time". However, he was unsettled by the underscore of darkness that was "almost disturbing enough to ruin everything". Similarly, Charlie Anders of io9 called it "the most fun I can remember Doctor Who being in years", while also noting gradual distancing between the Doctor and the Ponds and identifying a recurrent theme in this season: the Doctor "not being recognized". Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern was pleased that the "flawlessly realised" CGI dinosaurs redeemed the ones seen in Invasion of the Dinosaurs. He also praised Bradley's Solomon and the "fresh slant" of having the ark built by Silurians, rather than humans as previously seen in the programme. The A.V. Club's Keith Phipps gave it a B, finding that it was formulaic but executed well. Unlike Martin, he enjoyed the dark turns. Will Barber-Taylor of The Consulting Detective wrote that "[a] mixture between good CGI and a rather nicely paced story means that 'Dinosaurs on a Spaceship' keeps you hooked to the end."
Dave Golder of SFX gave the episode four out of five stars, describing it as "slight and fluffy and silly, with the occasional creaky bit of plotting ... but enormously entertaining". He was pleased that the guest characters were played "straight" rather than for comedy, and found the dinosaur effects "great" and the Silurian twist "enriching continuity". However, he felt that the teaser was too fast-paced, Nefertiti was "rather bland", and wrote that it was unlikely the Doctor would have a friendship with a big game hunter. IGN's Matt Risley rated "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" 7 out of 10, noting that it "isn't going to win any awards for scriptwriting or pathos, but it certainly succeeded on a family-friendly level full of whimsy". Though he wrote that Brian was "brilliant", he overall criticised the "gang", feeling that they "served little purpose other than to inject some conveniently timed plot devices when needed". He also did not like the "bickering Marvin the Paranoid Android-lite" robots. However, Neela Debnath of The Independent enjoyed the gang, writing, "the more companions there are the more variety it adds to the show because each one has their own flaws and backstory".
Digital Spy's Morgan Jeffery was more mixed, giving it three stars out of five. He described it as "rather over-stuffed", with Riddell and Nefertiti one-dimensional and under-used. He also criticised the robots and felt that the Doctor leaving Solomon to die might have been "a step too far". However, he praised the three leads and Brian, as well as the foreshadowing with Amy and Rory. Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph was even more negative, only rating it two stars out of five. He described it as "ultimately a bit of a mess", calling the contrast between the "uneasy mix of the humorous and downright daft" gang and the "sinister" Solomon story "jarring". Fuller also noted that the dinosaurs were "a sideshow to the main plot". Like Morgan, he also felt that the Doctor's actions at the end would "sit uneasily within the viewers".
|
2,499,027 |
Cockroach
| 1,170,632,822 |
Insects of the order Blattodea
|
[
"Cockroaches",
"Household pest insects",
"Insect common names",
"Insects in culture"
] |
Cockroaches (or roaches) are insects belonging to the order Blattaria. About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600 are associated with human habitats. Some species are well-known as pests.
The cockroaches are an ancient group, with their ancestors, known as "roachoids", originating during the Carboniferous period, some 320 million years ago. Those early ancestors, however, lacked the internal ovipositors of modern roaches. Cockroaches are somewhat generalized insects lacking special adaptations (such as the sucking mouthparts of aphids and other true bugs); they have chewing mouthparts and are probably among the most primitive of living Neopteran insects. They are common and hardy insects capable of tolerating a wide range of climates, from Arctic cold to tropical heat. Tropical cockroaches are often much larger than temperate species.
Modern cockroaches are not considered to be a monophyletic group, as it has been found based on genetics that termites are deeply nested within the group, with some groups of cockroaches more closely related to termites than they are to other cockroaches, thus rendering Blattaria paraphyletic. The group containing cockroaches and termites is called Blattodea.
Some species, such as the gregarious German cockroach, have an elaborate social structure involving common shelter, social dependence, information transfer and kin recognition. Cockroaches have appeared in human culture since classical antiquity. They are popularly depicted as dirty pests, although the majority of species are inoffensive and live in a wide range of habitats around the world.
## Taxonomy and evolution
Cockroaches are members of the superorder Dictyoptera, which includes the termites and mantids, a group of insects once thought to be separate from cockroaches. Currently, 4,600 species and over 460 genera are described worldwide. The name "cockroach" comes from the Spanish word for cockroach, cucaracha, transformed by 1620s English folk etymology into "cock" and "roach". The scientific name derives from the Latin blatta, "an insect that shuns the light", which in classical Latin was applied not only to cockroaches, but also to mantids.
Historically, the name Blattaria was used largely interchangeably with the name Blattodea, but whilst Blattaria was used to refer to 'true' cockroaches exclusively, the Blattodea also includes the termites. The current catalogue of world cockroach species uses the name Blattodea for the group. Another name, Blattoptera, is also sometimes used to refer to extinct cockroach relatives.
The earliest cockroach-like fossils ("blattopterans" or "roachoids") are from the Carboniferous period 320 million years ago. Fossil roachoids differ from modern cockroaches in that they had long external ovipositors and are the ancestors of mantises, as well as modern cockroaches. As the body, hind wings and mouthparts are not preserved in fossils frequently, the relationship of these roachoids and modern cockroaches remains disputed. The first fossils of modern cockroaches with internal ovipositors appeared in the early Cretaceous. Recent phylogenetic analysis suggests that cockroaches arose by the Jurassic.
The evolutionary relationships of the Blattodea (cockroaches and termites) shown in the cladogram are based on Inward, Beccaloni and Eggleton (2007). The cockroach families Anaplectidae, Lamproblattidae, and Tryonicidae are not shown but are placed within the superfamily Blattoidea. The cockroach families Corydiidae and Ectobiidae were previously known as the Polyphagidae and Blattellidae.
Termites were previously regarded as a separate order Isoptera to cockroaches. However, recent genetic evidence strongly suggests that they evolved directly from 'true' cockroaches, and many authors now place them as an "epifamily" of Blattodea. This evidence supported a hypothesis suggested in 1934 that termites are closely related to the wood-eating cockroaches (genus Cryptocercus). This hypothesis was originally based on similarity of the symbiotic gut flagellates in termites regarded as living fossils and wood-eating cockroaches. Additional evidence emerged when F. A. McKittrick (1965) noted similar morphological characteristics between some termites and cockroach nymphs. The similarities among these cockroaches and termites have led some scientists to reclassify termites as a single family, the Termitidae, within the order Blattodea. Other scientists have taken a more conservative approach, proposing to retain the termites as the Termitoidae, an epifamily within the order. Such a measure preserves the classification of termites at family level and below.
## Description
Most species of cockroach are about the size of a thumbnail, but several species are larger. The world's heaviest cockroach is the Australian giant burrowing cockroach Macropanesthia rhinoceros, which can reach 8 centimetres (3 in) in length and weigh up to 35 grams (1.2 oz). Comparable in size is the Central American giant cockroach Blaberus giganteus. The longest cockroach species is Megaloblatta longipennis, which can reach 97 mm (3+7⁄8 in) in length and 45 mm (1+3⁄4 in) across. A Central and South American species, Megaloblatta blaberoides, has the largest wingspan of up to 185 mm (7+1⁄4 in). At the other end of the size scale, Attaphila cockroaches that live with leaf-cutter ants include some of the world's smallest species, growing to about 3.5 mm in length.
Cockroaches are generalized insects with few special adaptations, and may be among the most primitive living Neopteran insects. They have a relatively small head and a broad, flattened body, and most species are reddish-brown to dark brown. They have large compound eyes, two ocelli, and long, flexible antennae. The mouthparts are on the underside of the head and include generalized chewing mandibles, salivary glands and various touch and taste receptors.
The body is divided into a thorax of three segments and a ten-segmented abdomen. The external surface has a tough exoskeleton which contains calcium carbonate; this protects the inner organs and provides attachment to muscles. This external exoskeleton is coated with wax to repel water. The wings are attached to the second and third thoracic segments. The tegmina, or first pair of wings, are tough and protective; these lay as a shield on top of the membranous hind wings, which are used in flight. All four wings have branching longitudinal veins, as well as multiple cross-veins.
The three pairs of legs are sturdy, with large coxae and five claws each. They are attached to each of the three thoracic segments. Of these, the front legs are the shortest and the hind legs the longest, providing the main propulsive power when the insect runs. The spines on the legs were earlier considered to be sensory, but observations of the insect's gait on sand and wire meshes have demonstrated that they help in locomotion on difficult terrain. The structures have been used as inspiration for robotic legs.
The abdomen has ten segments, each having a pair of spiracles for respiration. In addition to the spiracles, the final segment consists of a pair of cerci, a pair of anal styles, the anus and the external genitalia. Males have an aedeagus through which they secrete sperm during copulation, while females have spermatheca for storing sperm and an ovipositor through which the oothecae are laid.
## Distribution and habitat
Cockroaches are abundant throughout the world and live in a wide range of environments, especially in the tropics and subtropics. Cockroaches can withstand extremely low temperatures, allowing them to live in the Arctic. Some species are capable of surviving temperatures of −122 °C (−188 °F) by manufacturing an antifreeze made out of glycerol. In North America, 50 species separated into five families are found throughout the continent. 450 species are found in Australia. Only about four widespread species are commonly regarded as pests.
Cockroaches occupy a wide range of habitats. Many live in leaf litter, among the stems of matted vegetation, in rotting wood, in holes in stumps, in cavities under bark, under log piles and among debris. Some live in arid regions and have developed mechanisms to survive without access to water sources. Others are aquatic, living near the surface of water bodies, including bromeliad phytotelmata, and diving to forage for food. Most of these respire by piercing the water surface with the tip of the abdomen which acts as a snorkel, but some carry a bubble of air under their thoracic shield when they submerge. Others live in the forest canopy where they may be one of the main types of invertebrate present. Here they may hide during the day in crevices, among dead leaves, in bird and insect nests or among epiphytes, emerging at night to feed.
## Behavior
Cockroaches are social insects; a large number of species are either gregarious or inclined to aggregate, and a slightly smaller number exhibit parental care. It used to be thought that cockroaches aggregated because they were reacting to environmental cues, but it is now believed that pheromones are involved in these behaviors. Some species secrete these in their feces with gut microbial symbionts being involved, while others use glands located on their mandibles. Pheromones produced by the cuticle may enable cockroaches to distinguish between different populations of cockroach by odor. The behaviors involved have been studied in only a few species, but German cockroaches leave fecal trails with an odor gradient. Other cockroaches follow such trails to discover sources of food and water, and where other cockroaches are hiding. Thus, cockroaches have emergent behavior, in which group or swarm behavior emerges from a simple set of individual interactions.
Daily rhythms may also be regulated by a complex set of hormonal controls of which only a small subset have been understood. In 2005, the role of one of these proteins, pigment dispersing factor (PDF), was isolated and found to be a key mediator in the circadian rhythms of the cockroach.
Pest species adapt readily to a variety of environments, but prefer warm conditions found within buildings. Many tropical species prefer even warmer environments. Cockroaches are mainly nocturnal and run away when exposed to light. An exception to this is the Asian cockroach, which flies mostly at night but is attracted to brightly lit surfaces and pale colors.
### Collective decision-making
Gregarious cockroaches display collective decision-making when choosing food sources. When a sufficient number of individuals (a "quorum") exploits a food source, this signals to newcomer cockroaches that they should stay there longer rather than leave for elsewhere. Other mathematical models have been developed to explain aggregation dynamics and conspecific recognition.
Cooperation and competition are balanced in cockroach group decision-making behavior.
Cockroaches appear to use just two pieces of information to decide where to go, namely how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are. A study used specially scented roach-sized robots that seem real to the roaches to demonstrate that once there are enough insects in a place to form a critical mass, the roaches accepted the collective decision on where to hide, even if this was an unusually lit place.
### Social behavior
When reared in isolation, German cockroaches show behavior that is different from behavior when reared in a group. In one study, isolated cockroaches were less likely to leave their shelters and explore, spent less time eating, interacted less with conspecifics when exposed to them, and took longer to recognize receptive females. Because these changes occurred in many contexts, the authors suggested them as constituting a behavioral syndrome. These effects might have been due either to reduced metabolic and developmental rates in isolated individuals or the fact that the isolated individuals had not had a training period to learn about what others were like via their antennae.
Individual American cockroaches appear to have consistently different "personalities" regarding how they seek shelter. In addition, group personality is not simply the sum of individual choices, but reflects conformity and collective decision-making.
The gregarious German and American cockroaches have elaborate social structure, chemical signaling, and "social herd" characteristics. Lihoreau and his fellow researchers stated:
There is evidence that a few species of group-living roaches in the genera Melyroidea and Aclavoidea may exhibit a reproductive division of labor, which, if confirmed, would make these the only genuinely eusocial lineage known among roaches, in contrast to the subsocial members of the genus Cryptocercus.
### Sounds
Some species make a buzzing noise while other cockroaches make a chirping noise. Gromphadorhina species and Archiblatta hoeveni produce sound through the modified spiracles on the fourth abdominal segment. In the former species, several different hisses are produced, including disturbance sounds, produced by adults and larger nymphs; and aggressive, courtship and copulatory sounds produced by adult males. Henschoutedenia epilamproides has a stridulatory organ between its thorax and abdomen, but the purpose of the sound produced is unclear.
Several Australian species practice acoustic and vibration behaviour as an aspect of courtship. They have been observed producing hisses and whistles from air forced through the spiracles. Furthermore, in the presence of a potential mate, some cockroaches tap the substrate in a rhythmic, repetitive manner. Acoustic signals may be of greater prevalence amongst perching species, particularly those that live on low vegetation in Australia's tropics.
## Biology
### Digestive tract
Cockroaches are generally omnivorous; the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana), for example, feeds on a great variety of foodstuffs including bread, fruit, leather, starch in book bindings, paper, glue, skin flakes, hair, dead insects and soiled clothing. Many species of cockroach harbor in their gut symbiotic protozoans and bacteria which are able to digest cellulose. In many species, these symbionts may be essential if the insect is to utilize cellulose; however, some species secrete cellulase in their saliva, and the wood-eating cockroach, Panesthia cribrata, is able to survive indefinitely on a diet of crystallized cellulose while being free of microorganisms.
The similarity of these symbionts in the genus Cryptocercus to those in termites are such that these cockroaches have been suggested to be more closely related to termites than to other cockroaches, and current research strongly supports this hypothesis about their relationships. All species studied so far carry the obligate mutualistic endosymbiont bacterium Blattabacterium, with the exception of Nocticola, an Australian cave-dwelling genus without eyes, pigment or wings, which recent genetic studies indicate is a very primitive cockroach. It had previously been thought that all five families of cockroach were descended from a common ancestor that was infected with B. cuenoti. It may be that N. australiensis subsequently lost its symbionts, or alternatively this hypothesis will need to be re-examined.
### Tracheae and breathing
Like other insects, cockroaches breathe through a system of tubes called tracheae which are attached to openings called spiracles on all body segments. When the carbon dioxide level in the insect rises high enough, valves on the spiracles open and carbon dioxide diffuses out and oxygen diffuses in. The tracheal system branches repeatedly, the finest tracheoles bringing air directly to each cell, allowing gaseous exchange to take place.
While cockroaches do not have lungs as do vertebrates, and can continue to respire if their heads are removed, in some very large species, the body musculature may contract rhythmically to forcibly move air in and out of the spiracles; this may be considered a form of breathing.
### Reproduction
Cockroaches use pheromones to attract mates, and the males practice courtship rituals, such as posturing and stridulation. Like many insects, cockroaches mate facing away from each other with their genitalia in contact, and copulation can be prolonged. A few species are known to be parthenogenetic, reproducing without the need for males.
Female cockroaches are sometimes seen carrying egg cases on the end of their abdomens; the German cockroach holds about 30 to 40 long, thin eggs in a case called an ootheca. She drops the capsule prior to hatching, though live births do occur in rare instances. The egg capsule may take more than five hours to lay and is initially bright white in color. The eggs are hatched from the combined pressure of the hatchlings gulping air. The hatchlings are initially bright white nymphs and continue inflating themselves with air, becoming harder and darker within about four hours. Their transient white stage while hatching and later while molting has led to claims of albino cockroaches. Development from eggs to adults takes three to four months. Cockroaches live up to a year, and the female may produce up to eight egg cases in a lifetime; in favorable conditions, she can produce 300 to 400 offspring. Other species of cockroaches, however, can produce far more eggs; in some cases a female needs to be impregnated only once to be able to lay eggs for the rest of her life.
The female usually attaches the egg case to a substrate, inserts it into a suitably protective crevice, or carries it about until just before the eggs hatch. Some species, however, are ovoviviparous, keeping the eggs inside their body, with or without an egg case, until they hatch. At least one genus, Diploptera, is fully viviparous.
Cockroaches have incomplete metamorphosis, meaning that the nymphs are generally similar to the adults, except for undeveloped wings and genitalia. Development is generally slow, and may take a few months to over a year. The adults are also long-lived; some have survived for as many as four years in the laboratory.
### Parthenogenesis
When female American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana) are housed in groups, this close association promotes parthenogenic reproduction. Oothecae, a type of egg mass, are produced asexually. The parthenogenetic process by which eggs are produced in P. americana is automixis. During automixis, meiosis occurs, but instead of giving rise to haploid gametes as ordinarily occurs, diploid gametes are produced (probably by terminal fusion) that can then develop into female cockroaches.
### Hardiness
Cockroaches are among the hardiest insects. Some species are capable of remaining active for a month without food and are able to survive on limited resources, such as the glue from the back of postage stamps. Some can go without air for 45 minutes. Japanese cockroach (Periplaneta japonica) nymphs, which hibernate in cold winters, have survived twelve hours at −5 to −8 °C (23 to 18 °F) in laboratory experiments.
Experiments on decapitated specimens of several species of cockroach found a variety of behavioral functionality remained, including shock avoidance and escape behavior, although many insects other than cockroaches are also able to survive decapitation, and popular claims of the longevity of headless cockroaches do not appear to be based on published research. The severed head is able to survive and wave its antennae for several hours, or longer when refrigerated and given nutrients.
It is popularly suggested that cockroaches will "inherit the earth" if humanity destroys itself in a nuclear war. While cockroaches do, indeed, have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, with a lethal dose perhaps six to 15 times that for humans, they are not exceptionally radiation-resistant compared to other insects, such as the fruit fly.
The cockroach's ability to withstand radiation has been explained through the cell cycle. Cells are most vulnerable to the effects of radiation while they are dividing. A cockroach's cells divide only once each molting cycle (which is weekly, for the juvenile German cockroach). Since not all cockroaches would be molting at the same time, many would be unaffected by an acute burst of radiation, although lingering and more acute radiation would still be harmful.
## Relationship with humans
### In research and education
Because of their ease of rearing and resilience, cockroaches have been used as insect models in the laboratory, particularly in the fields of neurobiology, reproductive physiology and social behavior. The cockroach is a convenient insect to study as it is large and simple to raise in a laboratory environment. This makes it suitable both for research and for school and undergraduate biology studies. It can be used in experiments on topics such as learning, sexual pheromones, spatial orientation, aggression, activity rhythms and the biological clock, and behavioral ecology. Research conducted in 2014 suggests that humans fear cockroaches the most, even more than mosquitoes, due to an evolutionary aversion.
### As pests
The Blattodea include some thirty species of cockroaches associated with humans; these species are atypical of the thousands of species in the order. They feed on human and pet food and can leave an offensive odor. They can passively transport pathogenic microbes on their body surfaces, particularly in environments such as hospitals. Cockroaches are linked with allergic reactions in humans. One of the proteins that trigger allergic reactions is tropomyosin, which can cause cross-reactive allergy to dust mites and shrimp. These allergens are also linked with asthma. Some species of cockroach can live for up to a month without food, so just because no cockroaches are visible in a home does not mean that they are not there. Approximately 20–48% of homes with no visible sign of cockroaches have detectable cockroach allergens in dust.
#### Control
Many remedies have been tried in the search for control of the major pest species of cockroaches, which are resilient and fast-breeding. Household chemicals like sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) have been suggested, without evidence for their effectiveness. Garden herbs including bay, catnip, mint, cucumber, and garlic have been proposed as repellents. Poisoned bait containing hydramethylnon or fipronil, and boric acid powder is effective on adults. Baits with egg killers are also quite effective at reducing the cockroach population. Alternatively, insecticides containing deltamethrin or pyrethrin are very effective. In Singapore and Malaysia, taxi drivers use pandan leaves to repel cockroaches in their vehicles. Natural methods of cockroach control have been advanced by several published studies especially by Metarhizium robertsii (syn. M. anisopliae).
Some parasites and predators are effective for biological control of cockroaches. Parasitoidal wasps such as Ampulex wasps sting nerve ganglia in the cockroach's thorax, causing temporary paralysis and allowing the wasp to deliver an incapacitating sting into the cockroach's brain. The wasp clips the antennae with its mandibles and drinks some hemolymph before dragging the prey to a burrow, where an egg (rarely two) is laid on it. The wasp larva feeds on the subdued living cockroach. Another wasp considered to be a promising candidate for biological control is the ensign wasp Evania appendigaster, which attacks cockroach oothecae to lay a single egg inside. Ongoing research is still developing technologies allowing for mass-rearing these wasps for application releases. Widow spiders commonly prey on cockroaches.
Cockroaches can be trapped in a deep, smooth-walled jar baited with food inside, placed so that cockroaches can reach the opening, for example with a ramp of card or twigs on the outside. An inch or so of water or stale beer (by itself a cockroach attractant) in the jar can be used to drown any insects thus captured. The method works well with the American cockroach, but less so with the German cockroach.
A study conducted by scientists at Purdue University concluded that the most common cockroaches in the US, Australia and Europe were able to develop a “cross resistance” to multiple types of pesticide. This contradicted previous understanding that the animals can develop resistance against one pesticide at a time. The scientists suggested that cockroaches will no longer be easily controlled using a diverse spectrum of chemical pesticides and that a mix of other means, such as traps and better sanitation, will need to be employed.
Researchers from Heriot-Watt University demonstrated that a power laser can, with high effectiveness, neutralise cockroaches in a home, and suggest it might be an alternative to pesticides.
### As food
Although considered disgusting in Western culture, cockroaches are eaten in many places around the world. Whereas household pest cockroaches may carry bacteria and viruses, cockroaches bred under laboratory conditions can be used to prepare nutritious food. In Thailand and Mexico, the heads and legs are removed, and the remainder may be boiled, sautéed, grilled, dried or diced. Frying makes the insect crispy with soft innards that taste like cottage cheese. Recipes from Taiwan also call for its use in omelets. It can be a feeder insect for pet reptiles.
### Medicinal use
Cockroaches are raised in large quantities in China for the production of traditional medicine and cosmetics. There are about 100 cockroach farms in the country. Running a farm involves relatively low starting and operating costs due to how tough and easy to process the insects are. Chinese and South Korean researchers are investigating cockroaches for treating baldness, AIDS, cancer, and as a dietary supplement.
### Conservation
While a small minority of cockroaches are associated with human habitats and viewed as repugnant by many people, a few species are of conservation concern. The Lord Howe Island wood-feeding cockroach (Panesthia lata) is listed as endangered by the New South Wales Scientific Committee, but the cockroach may be extinct on Lord Howe Island itself. The introduction of rats, the spread of Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) and fires are possible reasons for their scarcity. Two species are currently listed as endangered and critically endangered by the IUCN Red List, Delosia ornata and Nocticola gerlachi. Both cockroaches have a restricted distribution and are threatened by habitat loss and rising sea levels. Only 600 Delosia ornata adults and 300 nymphs are known to exist, and these are threatened by a hotel development. No action has been taken to save the two cockroach species, but protecting their natural habitats may prevent their extinction. In the former Soviet Union, cockroach populations have been declining at an alarming rate; this may be exaggerated, or the phenomenon may be temporary or cyclic. One species of roach, Simandoa conserfariam, is considered extinct in the wild.
## Cultural depictions
Cockroaches were known and considered repellent but medicinally useful in Classical times. An insect named in Greek "σίλφη" (silphe) has been identified with the cockroach, though the scientific name Silpha refers to a genus of carrion beetles. It is mentioned by Aristotle, saying that it sheds its skin; it is described as foul-smelling in Aristophanes' play Peace; Euenus called it a pest of book collections, being "page-eating, destructive, black-bodied" in his Analect. Virgil named the cockroach "Lucifuga" ("one that avoids light"). Pliny the Elder recorded the use of "Blatta" in various medicines; he describes the insect as disgusting, and as seeking out dark corners to avoid the light. Dioscorides recorded the use of the "Silphe", ground up with oil, as a remedy for earache.
Lafcadio Hearn (1850–1904) asserted that "For tetanus cockroach tea is given. I do not know how many cockroaches go to make up the cup; but I find that faith in this remedy is strong among many of the American population of New Orleans. A poultice of boiled cockroaches is placed over the wound." He adds that cockroaches are eaten, fried with garlic, for indigestion.
Several cockroach species, such as Blaptica dubia, are raised as food for insectivorous pets. A few cockroach species are raised as pets, most commonly the giant Madagascar hissing cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa. Whilst the hissing cockroaches may be the most commonly kept species, there are many species that are kept by cockroach enthusiasts; there is even a specialist society: the Blattodea Culture Group (BCG), which was a thriving organisation for about 15 years although now appears to be dormant. The BCG provided a source of literature for people interested in rearing cockroaches, which was otherwise limited to either scientific papers, general insect books, or books covering a variety of exotic pets; in the absence of an inclusive book, one member published Introduction to Rearing Cockroaches, which still appears to be the only book dedicated to rearing cockroaches.
Cockroaches have been used for space tests. A cockroach given the name Nadezhda was sent into space by Russian scientists as part of a Foton-M mission, during which she mated, and later became the first terrestrial animal to produce offspring that had been conceived in space.
Because of their long association with humans, cockroaches are frequently referred to in popular culture. In Western culture, cockroaches are often depicted as dirty pests. In a 1750–1752 journal, Pehr Osbeck noted that cockroaches were frequently seen and found their way to the bakeries, after the sailing ship Gothenburg ran aground and was destroyed by rocks.
Donald Harington's satirical novel The Cockroaches of Stay More (Harcourt, 1989) imagines a community of "roosterroaches" in a mythical Ozark town where the insects are named after their human counterparts. Madonna has famously quoted, "I am a survivor. I am like a cockroach, you just can't get rid of me." An urban legend maintains that cockroaches are radiation-resistant, and thus would survive a nuclear war.
|
60,426 |
Symbiogenesis
| 1,172,043,506 |
Evolutionary theory holding that eukaryotic organelles evolved through symbiosis with prokaryotes
|
[
"Biological hypotheses",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Evolutionary biology",
"Symbiosis"
] |
Symbiogenesis (endosymbiotic theory, or serial endosymbiotic theory) is the leading evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms. The theory holds that mitochondria, plastids such as chloroplasts, and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells are descended from formerly free-living prokaryotes (more closely related to the Bacteria than to the Archaea) taken one inside the other in endosymbiosis. Mitochondria appear to be phylogenetically related to Rickettsiales bacteria, while chloroplasts are thought to be related to cyanobacteria.
The idea that chloroplasts were originally independent organisms that merged into a symbiotic relationship with other one-celled organisms dates back to the 19th century, when it was espoused by researchers such as Andreas Schimper. The endosymbiotic theory was articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967.
Among the many lines of evidence supporting symbiogenesis are that new mitochondria and plastids are formed only by splitting in two, and that cells cannot create new ones otherwise; that the transport proteins called porins are found in the outer membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and bacterial cell membranes; that cardiolipin is found only in the inner mitochondrial membrane and bacterial cell membranes; and that some mitochondria and plastids contain single circular DNA molecules similar to the circular chromosomes of bacteria.
## History
The Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski first outlined the theory of symbiogenesis (from Greek: σύν syn "together", βίος bios "life", and γένεσις genesis "origin, birth") in his 1905 work, The nature and origins of chromatophores in the plant kingdom, and then elaborated it in his 1910 The Theory of Two Plasms as the Basis of Symbiogenesis, a New Study of the Origins of Organisms. Mereschkowski knew of the work of botanist Andreas Schimper. In 1883, Schimper had observed that the division of chloroplasts in green plants closely resembled that of free-living cyanobacteria. He had tentatively proposed (in a footnote) that green plants had arisen from a symbiotic union of two organisms. In 1918 the French scientist Paul Jules Portier published Les Symbiotes, in which he claimed that the mitochondria originated from a symbiosis process. Ivan Wallin advocated the idea of an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria in the 1920s. The Russian botanist Boris Kozo-Polyansky became the first to explain the theory in terms of Darwinian evolution. In his 1924 book A New Principle of Biology. Essay on the Theory of Symbiogenesis, he wrote, "The theory of symbiogenesis is a theory of selection relying on the phenomenon of symbiosis."
These theories did not gain traction until more detailed electron-microscopic comparisons between cyanobacteria and chloroplasts were made, such as by Hans Ris in 1961 and 1962. These, combined with the discovery that plastids and mitochondria contain their own DNA, led to a resurrection of the idea of symbiogenesis in the 1960s. Lynn Margulis advanced and substantiated the theory with microbiological evidence in a 1967 paper, On the origin of mitosing cells. In her 1981 work Symbiosis in Cell Evolution she argued that eukaryotic cells originated as communities of interacting entities, including endosymbiotic spirochaetes that developed into eukaryotic flagella and cilia. This last idea has not received much acceptance, because flagella lack DNA and do not show ultrastructural similarities to bacteria or to archaea (see also: Evolution of flagella and Prokaryotic cytoskeleton). According to Margulis and Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking" (i.e., by cooperation). Christian de Duve proposed that the peroxisomes may have been the first endosymbionts, allowing cells to withstand growing amounts of free molecular oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. However, it now appears that peroxisomes may be formed de novo, contradicting the idea that they have a symbiotic origin. The fundamental theory of symbiogenesis as the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts is now widely accepted.
## From endosymbionts to organelles
Biologists usually distinguish organelles from endosymbionts – whole organisms living inside other organisms – by their reduced genome sizes. As an endosymbiont evolves into an organelle, most of its genes are transferred to the host cell genome. The host cell and organelle therefore need to develop a transport mechanism that enables the return of the protein products needed by the organelle but now manufactured by the cell.
### Free-living ancestors
Alphaproteobacteria were formerly thought to be the free-living organisms most closely related to mitochondria. Later research indicates that mitochondria are most closely related to Pelagibacterales bacteria, in particular, those in the SAR11 clade.
Nitrogen-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria are the free-living organisms most closely related to plastids.
Both cyanobacteria and alphaproteobacteria maintain a large (\>6 Mb) genome encoding thousands of proteins. Plastids and mitochondria exhibit a dramatic reduction in genome size when compared with their bacterial relatives. Chloroplast genomes in photosynthetic organisms are normally 120–200 kb encoding 20–200 proteins and mitochondrial genomes in humans are approximately 16 kb and encode 37 genes, 13 of which are proteins. Using the example of the freshwater amoeboid, however, Paulinella chromatophora, which contains chromatophores found to be evolved from cyanobacteria, Keeling and Archibald argue that this is not the only possible criterion; another is that the host cell has assumed control of the regulation of the former endosymbiont's division, thereby synchronizing it with the cell's own division. Nowack and her colleagues gene sequenced the chromatophore (1.02 Mb) and found that only 867 proteins were encoded by these photosynthetic cells. Comparisons with their closest free living cyanobacteria of the genus Synechococcus (having a genome size 3 Mb, with 3300 genes) revealed that chromatophores had undergone a drastic genome shrinkage. Chromatophores contained genes that were accountable for photosynthesis but were deficient in genes that could carry out other biosynthetic functions; this observation suggests that these endosymbiotic cells are highly dependent on their hosts for their survival and growth mechanisms. Thus, these chromatophores were found to be non-functional for organelle-specific purposes when compared with mitochondria and plastids. This distinction could have promoted the early evolution of photosynthetic organelles.
The loss of genetic autonomy, that is, the loss of many genes from endosymbionts, occurred very early in evolutionary time. Taking into account the entire original endosymbiont genome, there are three main possible fates for genes over evolutionary time. The first is the loss of functionally redundant genes, in which genes that are already represented in the nucleus are eventually lost. The second is the transfer of genes to the nucleus, while the third is that genes remain in the organelle that was once an organism. The loss of autonomy and integration of the endosymbiont with its host can be primarily attributed to nuclear gene transfer. As organelle genomes have been greatly reduced over evolutionary time, nuclear genes have expanded and become more complex. As a result, many plastid and mitochondrial processes are driven by nuclear encoded gene products. In addition, many nuclear genes originating from endosymbionts have acquired novel functions unrelated to their organelles.
### Gene transfer mechanisms
The mechanisms of gene transfer are not fully known; however, multiple hypotheses exist to explain this phenomenon. The possible mechanisms include the Complementary DNA (cDNA) hypothesis and the bulk flow hypothesis.
The cDNA hypothesis involves the use of messenger RNA (mRNAs) to transport genes from organelles to the nucleus where they are converted to cDNA and incorporated into the genome. The cDNA hypothesis is based on studies of the genomes of flowering plants. Protein coding RNAs in mitochondria are spliced and edited using organelle-specific splice and editing sites. Nuclear copies of some mitochondrial genes, however, do not contain organelle-specific splice sites, suggesting a processed mRNA intermediate. The cDNA hypothesis has since been revised as edited mitochondrial cDNAs are unlikely to recombine with the nuclear genome and are more likely to recombine with their native mitochondrial genome. If the edited mitochondrial sequence recombines with the mitochondrial genome, mitochondrial splice sites would no longer exist in the mitochondrial genome. Any subsequent nuclear gene transfer would therefore also lack mitochondrial splice sites.
The bulk flow hypothesis is the alternative to the cDNA hypothesis, stating that escaped DNA, rather than mRNA, is the mechanism of gene transfer. According to this hypothesis, disturbances to organelles, including autophagy (normal cell destruction), gametogenesis (the formation of gametes), and cell stress release DNA which is imported into the nucleus and incorporated into the nuclear DNA using non-homologous end joining (repair of double stranded breaks). For example, in the initial stages of endosymbiosis, due to a lack of major gene transfer, the host cell had little to no control over the endosymbiont. The endosymbiont underwent cell division independently of the host cell, resulting in many "copies" of the endosymbiont within the host cell. Some of the endosymbionts lysed (burst), and high levels of DNA were incorporated into the nucleus. A similar mechanism is thought to occur in tobacco plants, which show a high rate of gene transfer and whose cells contain multiple chloroplasts. In addition, the bulk flow hypothesis is also supported by the presence of non-random clusters of organelle genes, suggesting the simultaneous movement of multiple genes.
Ford Doolittle proposed that (whatever the mechanism) gene transfer behaves like a ratchet, resulting in unidirectional transfer of genes from the organelle to the nuclear genome. When genetic material from an organelle is incorporated into the nuclear genome, either the organelle or nuclear copy of the gene may be lost from the population. If the organelle copy is lost and this is fixed, or lost through genetic drift, a gene is successfully transferred to the nucleus. If the nuclear copy is lost, horizontal gene transfer can occur again, and the cell can ‘try again’ to have successful transfer of genes to the nucleus. In this ratchet-like way, genes from an organelle would be expected to accumulate in the nuclear genome over evolutionary time.
## Endosymbiosis of protomitochondria
Endosymbiotic theory for the origin of mitochondria suggests that the proto-eukaryote engulfed a protomitochondrion, and this endosymbiont became an organelle, a major step in eukaryogenesis, the creation of the eukaryotes.
### Mitochondria
Mitochondria are organelles that synthesize the energy-carrying molecule ATP for the cell by metabolizing carbon-based macromolecules. The presence of DNA in mitochondria and proteins, derived from mtDNA, suggest that this organelle may have been a prokaryote prior to its integration into the proto-eukaryote. Mitochondria are regarded as organelles rather than endosymbionts because mitochondria and the host cells share some parts of their genome, undergo division simultaneously, and provide each other with means to produce energy. The endomembrane system and nuclear membrane were hypothesized to have derived from the protomitochondria.
### Nuclear membrane
The presence of a nucleus is one major difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Some conserved nuclear proteins between eukaryotes and prokaryotes suggest that these two types had a common ancestor. Another theory behind nucleation is that early nuclear membrane proteins caused the cell membrane to fold and form a sphere with pores like the nuclear envelope. As a way of forming a nuclear membrane, endosymbiosis could be expected to use less energy than if the cell was to develop a metabolic process to fold the cell membrane for the purpose. Digesting engulfed cells without energy-producing mitochondria would have been challenging for the host cell. On this view, membrane-bound bubbles or vesicles leaving the protomitochondria may have formed the nuclear envelope.
The process of symbiogenesis by which the early eukaryotic cell integrated the proto-mitochondrion likely included protection of the archaeal host genome from the release of reactive oxygen species. These would have been formed during oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production by the proto-mitochondrion. The nuclear membrane may have evolved as an adaptive innovation for protecting against nuclear genome DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species. Substantial transfer of genes from the ancestral proto-mitochondrial genome to the nuclear genome likely occurred during early eukaryotic evolution. The greater protection of the nuclear genome against reactive oxygen species afforded by the nuclear membrane may explain the adaptive benefit of this gene transfer.
### Endomembrane system
Modern eukaryotic cells use the endomembrane system to transport products and wastes in, within, and out of cells. The membrane of nuclear envelope and endomembrane vesicles are composed of similar membrane proteins. These vesicles also share similar membrane proteins with the organelle they originated from or are traveling towards. This suggests that what formed the nuclear membrane also formed the endomembrane system. Prokaryotes do not have a complex internal membrane network like eukaryotes, but they could produce extracellular vesicles from their outer membrane. After the early prokaryote was consumed by a proto-eukaryote, the prokaryote would have continued to produce vesicles that accumulated within the cell. Interaction of internal components of vesicles may have led to the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, both being parts of the endomembrane system.
### Cytoplasm
The syntrophy hypothesis, proposed by López-García and Moreira around the year 2000, suggested that eukaryotes arose by combining the metabolic capabilities of an archaean, a fermenting deltaproteobacterium, and a methanotrophic alphaproteobacterium which became the mitochondrion. In 2020, the same team updated their syntrophy proposal to cover an Asgard archaean that produced hydrogen with deltaproteobacterium that oxidised sulphur. A third organism, an alphaproteobacterium able to respire both aerobically and anaerobically, and to oxidise sulphur, developed into the mitochondrion; it may possibly also have been able to photosynthesise.
## Organellar genomes
### Plastomes and mitogenomes
Some endosymbiont genes remain in the organelles. Plastids and mitochondria retain genes encoding rRNAs, tRNAs, proteins involved in redox reactions, and proteins required for transcription, translation, and replication. There are many hypotheses to explain why organelles retain a small portion of their genome; however no one hypothesis will apply to all organisms, and the topic is still quite controversial. The hydrophobicity hypothesis states that highly hydrophobic (water hating) proteins (such as the membrane bound proteins involved in redox reactions) are not easily transported through the cytosol and therefore these proteins must be encoded in their respective organelles. The code disparity hypothesis states that the limit on transfer is due to differing genetic codes and RNA editing between the organelle and the nucleus. The redox control hypothesis states that genes encoding redox reaction proteins are retained in order to effectively couple the need for repair and the synthesis of these proteins. For example, if one of the photosystems is lost from the plastid, the intermediate electron carriers may lose or gain too many electrons, signalling the need for repair of a photosystem. The time delay involved in signalling the nucleus and transporting a cytosolic protein to the organelle results in the production of damaging reactive oxygen species. The final hypothesis states that the assembly of membrane proteins, particularly those involved in redox reactions, requires coordinated synthesis and assembly of subunits; however, translation and protein transport coordination is more difficult to control in the cytoplasm.
### Non-photosynthetic plastid genomes
The majority of the genes in the mitochondria and plastids are related to the expression (transcription, translation and replication) of genes encoding proteins involved in either photosynthesis (in plastids) or cellular respiration (in mitochondria). One might predict that the loss of photosynthesis or cellular respiration would allow for the complete loss of the plastid genome or the mitochondrial genome respectively. While there are numerous examples of mitochondrial descendants (mitosomes and hydrogenosomes) that have lost their entire organellar genome, non-photosynthetic plastids tend to retain a small genome. There are two main hypotheses to explain this occurrence:
The essential tRNA hypothesis notes that there have been no documented functional plastid-to-nucleus gene transfers of genes encoding RNA products (tRNAs and rRNAs). As a result, plastids must make their own functional RNAs or import nuclear counterparts. The genes encoding tRNA-Glu and tRNA-fmet, however, appear to be indispensable. The plastid is responsible for haem biosynthesis, which requires plastid encoded tRNA-Glu (from the gene trnE) as a precursor molecule. Like other genes encoding RNAs, trnE cannot be transferred to the nucleus. In addition, it is unlikely trnE could be replaced by a cytosolic tRNA-Glu as trnE is highly conserved; single base changes in trnE have resulted in the loss of haem synthesis. The gene for tRNA-formylmethionine (tRNA-fmet) is also encoded in the plastid genome and is required for translation initiation in both plastids and mitochondria. A plastid is required to continue expressing the gene for tRNA-fmet so long as the mitochondrion is translating proteins.
The limited window hypothesis offers a more general explanation for the retention of genes in non-photosynthetic plastids. According to this hypothesis, genes are transferred to the nucleus following the disturbance of organelles. Disturbance was common in the early stages of endosymbiosis, however, once the host cell gained control of organelle division, eukaryotes could evolve to have only one plastid per cell. Having only one plastid severely limits gene transfer as the lysis of the single plastid would likely result in cell death. Consistent with this hypothesis, organisms with multiple plastids show an 80-fold increase in plastid-to-nucleus gene transfer compared with organisms with single plastids.
## Evidence
There are many lines of evidence that mitochondria and plastids including chloroplasts arose from bacteria.
- New mitochondria and plastids are formed only through binary fission, the form of cell division used by bacteria and archaea.
- If a cell's mitochondria or chloroplasts are removed, the cell does not have the means to create new ones. In some algae, such as Euglena, the plastids can be destroyed by certain chemicals or prolonged absence of light without otherwise affecting the cell: the plastids do not regenerate.
- Transport proteins called porins are found in the outer membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts and are also found in bacterial cell membranes.
- A membrane lipid cardiolipin is exclusively found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and bacterial cell membranes.
- Some mitochondria and some plastids contain single circular DNA molecules that are similar to the DNA of bacteria both in size and structure.
- Genome comparisons suggest a close relationship between mitochondria and Alphaproteobacteria.
- Genome comparisons suggest a close relationship between plastids and cyanobacteria.
- Many genes in the genomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts have been lost or transferred to the nucleus of the host cell. Consequently, the chromosomes of many eukaryotes contain genes that originated from the genomes of mitochondria and plastids.
- Mitochondria and plastids contain their own ribosomes; these are more similar to those of bacteria (70S) than those of eukaryotes.
- Proteins created by mitochondria and chloroplasts use N-formylmethionine as the initiating amino acid, as do proteins created by bacteria but not proteins created by eukaryotic nuclear genes or archaea.
## Secondary endosymbiosis
Primary endosymbiosis involves the engulfment of a cell by another free living organism. Secondary endosymbiosis occurs when the product of primary endosymbiosis is itself engulfed and retained by another free living eukaryote. Secondary endosymbiosis has occurred several times and has given rise to extremely diverse groups of algae and other eukaryotes. Some organisms can take opportunistic advantage of a similar process, where they engulf an alga and use the products of its photosynthesis, but once the prey item dies (or is lost) the host returns to a free living state. Obligate secondary endosymbionts become dependent on their organelles and are unable to survive in their absence. A secondary endosymbiosis event involving an ancestral red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote resulted in the evolution and diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages including Cryptophyta, Haptophyta, Stramenopiles (or Heterokontophyta), and Alveolata.
A possible secondary endosymbiosis has been observed in process in the heterotrophic protist Hatena. This organism behaves like a predator until it ingests a green alga, which loses its flagella and cytoskeleton but continues to live as a symbiont. Hatena meanwhile, now a host, switches to photosynthetic nutrition, gains the ability to move towards light, and loses its feeding apparatus.
Despite the diversity of organisms containing plastids, the morphology, biochemistry, genomic organisation, and molecular phylogeny of plastid RNAs and proteins suggest a single origin of all extant plastids – although this theory is still debated.
Some species including Pediculus humanus (lice) have multiple chromosomes in the mitochondrion. This and the phylogenetics of the genes encoded within the mitochondrion suggest that mitochondria have multiple ancestors, that these were acquired by endosymbiosis on several occasions rather than just once, and that there have been extensive mergers and rearrangements of genes on the several original mitochondrial chromosomes.
## Date
The question of when the transition from prokaryotic to eukaryotic form occurred and when the first crown group eukaryotes appeared on earth is still unresolved. The oldest known body fossils that can be positively assigned to the Eukaryota are acanthomorphic acritarchs from the 1.631 Gya Deonar Formation of India. These fossils can still be identified as derived post-nuclear eukaryotes with a sophisticated, morphology-generating cytoskeleton sustained by mitochondria. This fossil evidence indicates that endosymbiotic acquisition of alphaproteobacteria must have occurred before 1.6 Gya. Molecular clocks have also been used to estimate the last eukaryotic common ancestor, however these methods have large inherent uncertainty and give a wide range of dates. Reasonable results include the estimate of c. 1.8 Gya. A 2.3 Gya estimate also seems reasonable, and has the added attraction of coinciding with one of the most pronounced biogeochemical perturbations in Earth history, the early Palaeoproterozoic Great Oxygenation Event. The marked increase in atmospheric oxygen concentrations at that time has been suggested as a contributing cause of eukaryogenesis, inducing the evolution of oxygen-detoxifying mitochondria. Alternatively, the Great Oxidation Event might be a consequence of eukaryogenesis, and its impact on the export and burial of organic carbon.
## See also
- Angomonas deanei, a protozoan that harbours an obligate bacterial symbiont
- Hatena arenicola, a species that appears to be in the process of acquiring an endosymbiont
- Hydrogen hypothesis, the theory that mitochondria were acquired by hydrogen-dependent archaea, their endosymbionts being facultatively anaerobic bacteria
- Kleptoplasty, the sequestering of plastids from ingested algae
- Mixotricha paradoxa, which itself is a symbiont, contains numerous endosymbiotic bacteria
- Parasite Eve, fiction about endosymbiosis
- Strigomonas culicis, another protozoan that harbours an obligate bacterial symbiont
- Viral eukaryogenesis, hypothesis that the cell nucleus originated from endosymbiosis
|
3,126,150 |
Northover Projector
| 1,163,199,465 | null |
[
"Anti-tank weapons",
"Grenade launchers of the United Kingdom",
"Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1940",
"World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom"
] |
The Projector, 2.5 inch—more commonly known as the Northover Projector—was an ad hoc anti-tank weapon used by the British Army and Home Guard during the Second World War.
With a German invasion of Great Britain seeming likely after the defeat in the Battle of France, most available weaponry was diverted to the regular British Army, leaving the Home Guard short on supplies, particularly anti-tank weaponry. The Northover Projector was designed by Home Guard officer Robert Harry Northover to act as a makeshift anti-tank weapon, and was put into production in 1940 following a demonstration to the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill.
The weapon consisted of a hollow metal tube attached to a tripod, with a rudimentary breech at one end. Rounds were fired with the use of black powder ignited by a standard musket percussion cap, and it had an effective range of between 100 and 150 yards. Although it was cheap and easy to manufacture, it did have several problems; it was difficult to move and the No. 76 Special Incendiary Grenades it used as one type of ammunition had a tendency to break inside the breech, damaging the weapon and injuring the crew. Production began in late 1940, and by the beginning of 1943 nearly 19,000 were in service. Like many obsolete Home Guard weapons, it was eventually replaced by other weapons, such as the 2-pounder anti-tank gun.
## Development
With the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from the port of Dunkirk between 26 May and 4 June 1940, a German invasion of Great Britain seemed likely. However, the British Army was not well-equipped to defend the country in such an event; in the weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation it could field only twenty-seven divisions. The Army was particularly short of anti-tank guns, 840 of which had been left behind in France, leaving only 167 available in Britain; ammunition was so scarce for the remaining guns that regulations forbade even a single round being used for training purposes.
Given these shortcomings, any modern weapons that were available were allocated to the British Army, and the Home Guard was forced to supplement the meagre amount of outdated weapons and ammunition they had with ad hoc weapons. One such weapon was the Northover Projector, the invention of Major Robert Harry Northover. Northover, an officer in the Home Guard, designed it to be an easily manufactured and cheap anti-tank weapon, costing just under £10 to produce, excluding the required tripod. The Major wrote directly to the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, with his design and arranged for Churchill to attend a demonstration of the Northover Projector. The Prime Minister approved of the weapon and gave it his personal endorsement, ordering in October 1940 that the weapon be mass-produced on a scale of one for every Home Guard platoon.
## Design
The Northover Projector—which was officially labelled the "Projector, 2.5 inch" by the War Office—was formed of a hollow metal tube, resembling a drain pipe, mounted on top of a cast-iron tripod. It weighed approximately 27.2 kilograms. A simple breech was attached to one end of the tube, and rounds were fired from the Projector with a small quantity of black powder ignited by a "top hat" copper cap as used in muzzle loading rifles \<Curtis (HBSA)2014\>; any recoil from the weapon was absorbed by the legs of the tripod, which were also hollow. It had a maximum range of approximately 300 yards but was accurate only to between 100 and 150 yards Home Guard units often added their own modifications to the weapon, which included mounting it on carriages or even the sidecars of motorcycles. It was served by a crew of three. Ammunition for the weapon consisted of the No. 76 Special Incendiary Grenade, a glass bottle "containing a phosphorus mixture which burst into livid flames, giving off quantities of suffocating smoke upon exposure to the air", as well as normal hand and rifle grenades.
The Projector had a number of defects. It was difficult to move, the tripod had the tendency to damage itself if it was dropped, and its discharge pressure has been described as "feeble." The phosphorus grenades exhibited a number of faults when used in the Projector; they could often explode inside the weapon if too much black powder were added, or fall short if too little were used, or even fail to explode. They could also break inside the barrel when fired which often led to the weapon being damaged and its crew injured. Even when fired properly, the Projector gave off a large cloud of smoke which could take up to a minute to clear and revealed the weapon's position. Bishop argues that its anti-tank abilities would have been 'doubtful' when it fired hand and rifle grenades, although he considers that the phosphorus grenades might have been more successful. To make handling easier, a lighter version of the weapon, the Northover Projector Mk 2 was developed in 1941, but few were produced.
## Operational history
The Northover Projector was issued to both Home Guard and regular British Army units, and by August, 1941 over 8,000 Northover Projectors were in service. This number had increased to 18,919 by the beginning of 1943.
Initial reactions to the Northover Projector were varied, with a number of Home Guard volunteers uncertain about the weapon's unusual design, and some officers never accepted that it could be useful. However, most Home Guard units came to accept the weapon and have confidence in it, aided by large amounts of what Mackenzie terms "War Office propaganda" which cited the positive qualities of the weapon, such as its simplicity of use, ease of manufacture and low maintenance requirements. It was, as one Home Guard volunteer put it, "something to be accepted gratefully until something better arrived."
Like many of the obsolete weapons designed for the Home Guard, the Northover Projector was only taken out of service when it could be replaced with "marginally less ineffective" weapons provided by the Army, such as the 2-pounder anti-tank gun.
## See also
- Ampulomet — similar Soviet weapon of World War II
- Smith gun
- Blacker Bombard
|
9,333 |
Ethan Allen
| 1,155,795,784 |
Farmer and founder of Vermont (1738–1789)
|
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"1738 births",
"1789 deaths",
"18th-century Christian universalists",
"American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain",
"American deists",
"American people of English descent",
"American spies during the American Revolution",
"British deists",
"Burials in Vermont",
"Continental Army officers from Connecticut",
"Ethan Allen",
"Lay theologians",
"Members of the Universalist Church of America",
"Military history of Vermont",
"Militia generals in the American Revolution",
"People of Vermont in the American Revolution",
"People of colonial Connecticut",
"People of pre-statehood Vermont",
"Politicians from Litchfield, Connecticut",
"Vermont militiamen in the American Revolution"
] |
Ethan Allen ( – February 12, 1789) was an American farmer, businessman, land speculator, philosopher, writer, lay theologian, American Revolutionary War patriot, and politician. He is best known as one of the founders of Vermont and for the capture of Fort Ticonderoga early in the Revolutionary War. He was the brother of Ira Allen and the father of Frances Allen.
Allen was born in rural Connecticut and had a frontier upbringing, but he also received an education that included some philosophical teachings. In the late 1760s, he became interested in the New Hampshire Grants, buying land there and becoming embroiled in the legal disputes surrounding the territory. Legal setbacks led to the formation of the Green Mountain Boys, whom Allen led in a campaign of intimidation and property destruction to drive New York settlers from the Grants. He and the Green Mountain Boys seized the initiative early in the Revolutionary War and captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. In September 1775, Allen led a failed attempt on Montreal which resulted in his capture by British authorities. He was imprisoned aboard Royal Navy ships, then paroled in New York City, and finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778.
Upon his release, Allen returned to the New Hampshire Grants which had declared independence in 1777, and he resumed political activity in the territory, continuing resistance to New York's attempts to assert control over the territory. Allen lobbied Congress for Vermont's official state recognition, and he participated in controversial negotiations with the British over the possibility of Vermont becoming a separate British province.
Allen wrote accounts of his exploits in the war that were widely read in the 19th century, as well as philosophical treatises and documents relating to the politics of Vermont's formation. His business dealings included successful farming operations, one of Connecticut's early iron works, and land speculation in the Vermont territory. Allen and his brothers purchased tracts of land that became Burlington, Vermont. He was married twice, fathering eight children.
## Early life
Allen was born in Litchfield, Connecticut Colony, the first child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen, both descended from English Puritans. The family moved to the town of Cornwall shortly after his birth due to his father's quest for freedom of religion during the Great Awakening. As a boy, Allen already excelled at quoting the Bible and was known for disputing the meaning of passages. He had five brothers (Heman, Heber, Levi, Zimri, and Ira) and two sisters (Lydia and Lucy). His brothers Ira and Heman were also prominent figures in the early history of Vermont.
The town of Cornwall was frontier territory in the 1740s, but it began to resemble a town by the time that Allen was a teenager, with wood-frame houses beginning to replace the rough cabins of the early settlers. Joseph Allen was one of the wealthier landowners in the area by the time of his death in 1755. He ran a successful farm and had served as town selectman. Allen began studies under a minister in the nearby town of Salisbury with the goal of gaining admission to Yale College.
### First marriage and early adulthood
Allen was forced to end his studies upon his father's death. He volunteered for militia service in 1757 in response to the French siege of Fort William Henry, but his unit received word that the fort had fallen while they were en route, and they turned back. The French and Indian War continued over the next several years, but Allen did not participate in any further military activities and is presumed to have tended his farm. In 1762, he became part owner of an iron furnace in Salisbury. He also married Mary Brownson from Roxbury in July 1762, who was five years his senior. They first settled in Cornwall, but moved the following year to Salisbury with their infant daughter Loraine. They bought a small farm and proceeded to develop the iron works. The expansion of the iron works was apparently costly to Allen; he was forced to sell off portions of the Cornwall property to raise funds, and eventually sold half of his interest in the works to his brother Heman. The Allen brothers sold their interest in the iron works in October 1765.
By most accounts, Allen's first marriage was unhappy. His wife was rigidly religious, prone to criticizing him, and barely able to read and write. In contrast, his behavior was sometimes quite flamboyant, and he maintained an interest in learning. Nevertheless, they remained together until Mary's death in 1783. They had five children together, only two of whom reached adulthood.
Allen and his brother Heman went to the farm of a neighbor whose pigs had escaped onto their land, and they seized the pigs. The neighbor sued to have the animals returned to him; Allen pleaded his own case and lost. Allen and Heman were fined ten shillings, and the neighbor was awarded another five shillings in damages. He was also called to court in Salisbury for inoculating himself against smallpox, a procedure that required the sanction of the town selectmen.
Allen met Thomas Young when he moved to Salisbury, a doctor living and practicing just across the provincial boundary in New York. Young taught him a great deal about philosophy and political theory, while Allen shared his appreciation of nature and life on the frontier with Young. They eventually decided to collaborate on a book intended as an attack on organized religion, as Young had convinced Allen to become a Deist. They worked on the manuscript until 1764, when Young moved away from the area taking the manuscript with him. Allen recovered the manuscript many years later, after Young's death. He expanded and reworked the material, and eventually published it as Reason: the Only Oracle of Man.
Heman remained in Salisbury where he ran a general store until his death in 1778, but Allen's movements are poorly documented over the next few years. He lived in Northampton, Massachusetts in the spring of 1766, where his son Joseph was born and where he invested in a lead mine. The authorities asked him to leave Northampton in July 1767, though no official reason is known. Biographer Michael Bellesiles suggests that religious differences and Allen's tendency to be disruptive may have played a role in his departure. Allen briefly returned to Salisbury before settling in Sheffield, Massachusetts with his younger brother Zimri. It is likely that his first visits to the New Hampshire Grants occurred during these years. Sheffield was the family home for ten years, although Allen was often absent for extended periods.
## New Hampshire Grants
New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth was selling land grants west of the Connecticut River as early as 1749, an area to which New Hampshire had always laid claim. Many of these grants were sold at relatively low prices to land speculators, with Wentworth also reserving for himself a share of each grant. In 1764, King George issued an order resolving the competing claims of New York and New Hampshire in favor of New York. New York had issued land grants that overlapped some of those sold by Wentworth, and authorities there insisted that holders of the Wentworth grants pay a fee to New York to have their grants validated. This fee approached the original purchase price, and many of the holders were land-rich and cash-poor, so there was a great deal of resistance to the demand. By 1769, the situation had deteriorated to the point that surveyors and other figures of New York authority were being physically threatened and driven from the area.
A few of the holders of Wentworth grants were from northwestern Connecticut, and some of them were related to Allen, including Remember Baker and Seth Warner. In 1770, a group of them asked him to defend their case before New York's Supreme Court. Allen hired Jared Ingersoll to represent the grant-holder interest in the trial, which began in July 1770 and pitted Allen against politically powerful New York grant-holders, including New York's Lieutenant Governor Colden, James Duane who was prosecuting the case, and Robert Livingston, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who was presiding over the case. The trial was brief and the outcome unsurprising, as the court refused to allow the introduction of Wentworth's grants as evidence, citing their fraudulently issued nature. Duane visited Allen and offered him payments "for going among the people to quiet them". Allen denied taking any money and claimed that Duane was outraged and left with veiled threats, indicating that attempts to enforce the judgment would be met with resistance.
Many historians believe that Allen took these actions because he already held Wentworth grants of his own, although there is no evidence that he was issued any such grants until after he had been asked to take up the defense at the trial. He acquired grants from Wentworth to about 1,000 acres (400 ha) in Poultney and Castleton prior to the trial.
### Green Mountain Boys
On Allen's return to Bennington, the settlers met at the Catamount Tavern to discuss their options. These discussions resulted in the formation of the Green Mountain Boys in 1770, with local militia companies in each of the surrounding towns. Allen was named their Colonel Commandant, and cousins Seth Warner and Remember Baker were captains of two of the companies. Further meetings resulted in creating committees of safety; they also laid down rules to resist New York's attempts to establish its authority. These included not allowing New York's surveyors to survey any land in the Grants, not just land owned through the Wentworth grants. Allen participated in some of the actions to drive away surveyors, and he also spent much time exploring the territory. He sold some of his Connecticut properties and began buying land farther north in the territory, which he sold at a profit as the southern settlements grew and people began to move farther north.
Friction increased with the provincial government in October 1771, when Allen and a company of Green Mountain Boys drove off a group of Scottish settlers near Rupert. Allen detained two of the settlers and forced them to watch them burn their newly constructed cabins. Allen then ordered them to "go your way now, and complain to that damned scoundrel your Governor, God damn your Governor, Laws, King, Council, and Assembly". The settlers protested his language but Allen continued the tirade, threatening to send any troops from New York to Hell. In response, New York Governor William Tryon issued warrants for the arrests of those responsible, and eventually put a price of £20 (around £3.3k today, or \$4.4k) on the heads of six participants, including Allen. Allen and his comrades countered by issuing offers of their own.
The situation deteriorated further over the next few years. Governor Tryon and the Green Mountain Boys exchanged threats, truce offers, and other writings, frequently written by Allen in florid and didactic language while the Green Mountain Boys continued to drive away surveyors and incoming tenants. Most of these incidents did not involve bloodshed, although individuals were at times manhandled, and the Green Mountain Boys sometimes did extensive property damage when driving tenants out. By March 1774, the harsh treatment of settlers and their property prompted Tryon to increase some of the rewards to £100.
### Onion River Company
Allen joined his cousin Remember Baker and his brothers Ira, Heman, and Zimri to form the Onion River Company in 1772, a land-speculation organization devoted to purchasing land around the Winooski River, which was known then as the Onion River. The success of this business depended on the defense of the Wentworth grants. Early purchases included about 40,000 acres (16,000 ha) from Edward Burling and his partners; they sold land at a profit to Thomas Chittenden, among others, and their land became the city of Burlington.
The outrage of the Wentworth proprietors was renewed in 1774 when Governor Tryon passed a law containing harsh provisions clearly targeted at the actions of the "Bennington Mob". Vermont historian Samuel Williams called it "an act which for its savage barbarity is probably without parallel in the legislation of any civilized country". Its provisions included the death penalty for interfering with a magistrate, and outlawing meetings of more than three people "for unlawful purposes" in the Grants. The Green Mountain Boys countered with rules of their own, forbidding anyone in the Grants from holding "any office of honor or profit under the colony of N. York".
Allen spent much of the summer of 1774 writing A Brief Narrative of the Proceedings of the Government of New York Relative to Their Obtaining the Jurisdiction of that Large District of Land to the Westward of the Connecticut River, a 200-page polemic arguing the position of the Wentworth proprietors. He had it printed in Connecticut and began selling and giving away copies in early 1775. Historian Charles Jellison describes it as "rebellion in print".
### Westminster massacre
Allen traveled into the northern parts of the Grants early in 1775 for solitude and to hunt for game and land opportunities. A few days after his return, news came that blood had finally been shed over the land disputes. Most of the resistance activity had taken place on the west side of the Green Mountains until then, but a small riot broke out in Westminster on March 13 and led to the deaths of two men. Allen and a troop of Green Mountain Boys traveled to Westminster where the town's convention adopted a resolution to draft a plea to the King to remove them "out of so oppressive a jurisdiction". It was assigned to a committee which included Allen. The American Revolutionary War began less than a week after the Westminster convention ended, while Allen and the committee worked on their petition.
## Revolutionary War
### Capture of Fort Ticonderoga
Allen received a message from members of an irregular Connecticut militia in late April, following the battles of Lexington and Concord, that they were planning to capture Fort Ticonderoga and requesting his assistance in the effort. Allen agreed to help and began rounding up the Green Mountain Boys, and 60 men from Massachusetts and Connecticut met with Allen in Bennington on May 2, where they discussed the logistics of the expedition. By May 7, these men joined Allen and 130 Green Mountain Boys at Castleton. They elected Allen to lead the expedition, and they planned a dawn raid for May 10. Two small companies were detached to procure boats, and Allen took the main contingent north to Hand's Cove in Shoreham to prepare for the crossing.
On the afternoon of May 9, Benedict Arnold unexpectedly arrived, flourishing a commission from the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. He asserted his right to command the expedition, but the men refused to acknowledge his authority and insisted that they would follow only Allen's lead. Allen and Arnold reached an accommodation privately, the essence of which was that Arnold and Allen would both be at the front of the troops when they attacked the fort.
The troops procured a few boats around 2 a.m. for the crossing, but only 83 men made it to the other side of the lake before Allen and Arnold decided to attack, concerned that dawn was approaching. The small force marched on the fort in the early dawn, surprising the lone sentry, and Allen went directly to the fort commander's quarters, seeking to force his surrender. Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham was awakened by the noise, and called to wake the fort's commander Captain William Delaplace. He demanded to know by what authority the fort was being entered, and Allen said, "In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!" Delaplace finally emerged from his chambers and surrendered his sword, and the rest of the fort's garrison surrendered without firing a shot. The only casualty had been a British soldier who became concussed when Allen hit him with a cutlass, hitting the man's hair comb and saving his life.
### Raids on St. John
On the following day, a detachment of the Boys under Seth Warner's command went to nearby Fort Crown Point and captured the small garrison there. On May 14, following the arrival of 100 men recruited by Arnold's captains, and the arrival of a schooner and some bateaux that had been taken at Skenesboro, Arnold and 50 of his men sailed north to raid Fort St. John, on the Richelieu River downstream from the lake, where a small British warship was reported by the prisoners to be anchored. Arnold's raid was a success; he seized the sloop HMS Royal George, supplies, and a number of bateaux.
Allen, shortly after Arnold's departure on the raid, decided, after his successes at the southern end of the lake, to take and hold Fort St. John himself. To that end, he and about 100 Boys climbed into four bateaux, and began rowing north. After two days without significant food (which they had forgotten to provision in the boats), Allen's small fleet met Arnold's on its way back to Ticonderoga near the foot of the lake. Arnold generously opened his stores to Allen's hungry men, and tried to dissuade Allen from his objective, noting that it was likely the alarm had been raised and troops were on their way to St. John. Allen, likely both stubborn in his determination, and envious of Arnold, persisted.
When Allen and his men landed above St. John and scouted the situation, they learned that a column of 200 or more regulars was approaching. Rather than attempt an ambush on those troops, which significantly outnumbered his tired company, Allen withdrew to the other side of the river, where the men collapsed with exhaustion and slept without sentries through the night. They were awakened when British sentries discovered them and began firing grapeshot at them from across the river. The Boys, in a panic, piled into their bateaux and rowed with all speed upriver. When the expedition returned to Ticonderoga two days later, some of the men were greatly disappointed that they felt they had nothing to show for the effort and risks they took, but the capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point proved to be important in the Revolutionary War because it secured protection from the British to the North and provided vital cannon for the colonial army.
### Promoting an invasion
Following Allen's failed attempt on St. John, many of his men drifted away, presumably drawn by the needs of home and farm. Arnold then began asserting his authority over Allen for control of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Allen publicly announced that he was stepping down as commander, but remained hopeful that the Second Continental Congress was going to name "a commander for this department ... Undoubtedly, we shall be rewarded according to our merit". Congress, for its part, at first not really wanting any part of the affair, effectively voted to strip and then abandon the forts. Both Allen and Arnold protested these measures, pointing out that doing so would leave the northern border wide open. They both also made proposals to Congress and other provincial bodies for carrying out an invasion of Quebec. Allen, in one instance, wrote that "I will lay my life on it, that with fifteen hundred men, and a proper artillery, I will take Montreal". Allen also attempted correspondence with the people of Quebec and with the Indians living there in an attempt to sway their opinion toward the revolutionary cause.
On June 22, Allen and Seth Warner appeared before Congress in Philadelphia, where they argued for the inclusion of the Green Mountain Boys in the Continental Army. After deliberation, Congress directed General Philip Schuyler, who had been appointed to lead the Army's Northern Department, to work with New York's provincial government to establish (and pay for) a regiment consisting of the Boys, and that they be paid Army rates for their service at Ticonderoga. On July 4, Allen and Warner made their case to New York's Provincial Congress, which, despite the fact that the Royal Governor had placed a price on their heads, agreed to the formation of a regiment. Following a brief visit to their families, they returned to Bennington to spread the news. Allen went to Ticonderoga to join Schuyler, while Warner and others raised the regiment.
### Allen loses command of the Boys
When the regimental companies in the Grants had been raised, they held a vote in Dorset to determine who would command the regiment. By a wide margin, Seth Warner was elected to lead the regiment. Brothers Ira and Heman were also given command positions, but Allen was not given any position at all in the regiment. The thorough rejection stung; Allen wrote to Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull, "How the old men came to reject me I cannot conceive inasmuch as I saved them from the incroachments of New York."
The rejection likely had several causes. The people of the Grants were tired of the disputes with New York, and they were tired of Allen's posturing and egotistic behavior, which the success at Ticonderoga had enhanced. Finally, the failure of the attempt on St. John's was widely seen as reckless and ill-advised, attributes they did not appreciate in a regimental leader. Warner was viewed as a more stable and quieter choice, and was someone who also commanded respect. The history of Warner's later actions in the revolution (notably at Hubbardton and Bennington) may be seen as a confirmation of the choice made by the Dorset meeting. In the end, Allen took the rejection in stride, and managed to convince Schuyler and Warner to permit him to accompany the regiment as a civilian scout.
### Capture
The American invasion of Quebec departed from Ticonderoga on August 28. On September 4, the army had occupied the Île aux Noix in the Richelieu River, a few miles above Fort St. John, which they then prepared to besiege. On September 8, Schuyler sent Allen and Massachusetts Major John Brown, who had also been involved in the capture of Ticonderoga, into the countryside between St. John and Montreal to spread the word of their arrival to the habitants and the Indians. They were successful enough in gaining support from the inhabitants that Quebec's governor, General Guy Carleton, reported that "they have injured us very much".
When he returned from that expedition eight days later, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery had assumed command of the invasion due to Schuyler's illness. Montgomery, likely not wanting the troublemaker in his camp, again sent Allen out, this time to raise a regiment of French-speaking Canadiens. Accompanied by a small number of Americans, he again set out, traveling through the countryside to Sorel, before turning to follow the Saint Lawrence River up toward Montreal, recruiting upwards of 200 men.
On September 24, he and Brown, whose company was guarding the road between St. John's and Montreal, met at Longueuil, and, according to Allen's account of the events, came up with a plan in which both he and Brown would lead their forces to attack Montreal. Allen and about 100 men crossed the Saint Lawrence that night, but Brown and his men, who were to cross the river at La Prairie, did not. General Carleton, alerted to Allen's presence, mustered every man he could, and, in the Battle of Longue-Pointe, scattered most of Allen's force, and captured him and about 30 men. His capture ended his participation in the revolution until 1778, as he was imprisoned by the British. General Schuyler, upon learning of Allen's capture, wrote, "I am very apprehensive of disagreeable consequences arising from Mr. Allen's imprudence. I always dreaded his impatience and imprudence."
## Imprisonment
Much of what is known of Allen's captivity is known only from his own account of the time; where contemporary records are available, they tend to confirm those aspects of his story.
Allen was first placed aboard HMS Gaspée, a brig anchored at Montreal. He was kept in solitary confinement and chains, and General Richard Prescott had, according to Allen, ordered him to be treated "with much severity". In October 1775, Gaspée went downriver, and her prisoners were transferred to the merchant vessel Adamant, which then sailed for England. Allen wrote of the voyage that he "was put under the power of an English Merchant from London, whose name was Brook Watson: a man of malicious and cruel disposition".
On arrival at Falmouth, England, after a crossing under filthy conditions, Allen and the other prisoners were imprisoned in Pendennis Castle, Cornwall. At first his treatment was poor, but Allen wrote a letter, ostensibly to the Continental Congress, describing his conditions and suggesting that Congress treat the prisoners it held the same way. Unknown to Allen, British prisoners now included General Prescott, captured trying to escape from Montreal, and the letter came into the hands of the British cabinet. Also faced with opposition within the British establishment to the treatment of captives taken in North America, King George decreed that the men should be sent back to America and treated as prisoners of war.
In January 1776, Allen and his men were put on board HMS Soledad, which sailed for Cork, Ireland. The people of Cork, when they learned that the famous Ethan Allen was in port, took up a collection to provide him and his men with clothing and other supplies. Much of the following year was spent on prison ships off the American coast. At one point, while aboard HMS Mercury, she anchored off New York, where, among other visitors, the captain entertained William Tryon; Allen reports that Tryon glanced at him without any sign of recognition, although it is likely the New York governor knew who he was. In August 1776, Allen and other prisoners were temporarily put ashore in Halifax, owing to extremely poor conditions aboard ship; due to food scarcity, both crew and prisoners were on short rations, and scurvy was rampant. By the end of October, Allen was again off New York, where the British, having secured the city, moved the prisoners on-shore, and, as he was considered an officer, gave Allen limited parole. With the financial assistance of his brother Ira, he lived comfortably, if out of action, until August 1777. Allen then learned of the death of his young son Joseph due to smallpox.
According to another prisoner's account, Allen wandered off after learning of his son's death. He was arrested for violating his parole, and placed in solitary confinement. There Allen remained while Vermont declared independence, and John Burgoyne's campaign for the Hudson River met a stumbling block near Bennington in August 1777. On May 3, 1778, he was transferred to Staten Island. Allen was admitted to General John Campbell's quarters, where he was invited to eat and drink with the general and several other British field officers. He stayed there for two days and was treated politely. On the third day Allen was exchanged for Colonel Archibald Campbell, who was conducted to the exchange by Colonel Elias Boudinot, the American commissary general of prisoners appointed by General George Washington. Following the exchange, Allen reported to Washington at Valley Forge. On May 14, he was breveted a colonel in the Continental Army in "reward of his fortitude, firmness and zeal in the cause of his country, manifested during his long and cruel captivity, as well as on former occasions," and given military pay of \$75 per month. The brevet rank, however, meant that there was no active role, until called, for Allen. Allen's services were never requested, and eventually the payments stopped.
## Vermont Republic
### Return home
Following his visit to Valley Forge, Allen traveled to Salisbury, arriving on May 25, 1778. There he learned that his brother Heman had died just the previous week and that his brother Zimri, who had been caring for Allen's family and farm, had died in the spring following his capture. The death of Heman, with whom Allen had been quite close, hit him quite hard.
Allen then set out for Bennington, where news of his impending return preceded him, and he was met with all of the honor due to a military war hero. There he learned that the Vermont Republic had declared independence in 1777, that a constitution had been drawn up, and that election had been held. Allen wrote of this homecoming that "we passed the flowing bowl, and rural felicity, sweetened with friendship, glowed in every countenance". The next day he went to Arlington to see his family and his brother Ira, whose prominence in Vermont politics had risen considerably during Allen's captivity.
### Politics
Allen spent the next several years involved in Vermont's political and military matters. While his family remained in Arlington, he spent most of his time either in Bennington or on the road, where he could avoid his wife's nagging. Shortly after his arrival, Vermont's Assembly passed the Banishment Act, a sweeping measure allowing for the confiscation and auction by the republic of property owned by known Tories. Allen was appointed to be one of the judges responsible for deciding whose property was subject to seizure under the law. (This law was so successful at collecting revenue that Vermont did not impose any taxes until 1781.) Allen personally escorted some of those convicted under the law to Albany, where he turned them over to General John Stark for transportation to the British lines. Some of these supposed Tories protested to New York Governor George Clinton that they were actually dispossessed Yorkers. Clinton, who considered Vermont to still be a part of New York, did not want to honor the actions of the Vermont tribunals; Stark, who had custody of the men, disagreed with Clinton. Eventually the dispute made its way to George Washington, who essentially agreed with Stark since he desperately needed the general's services. The prisoners were eventually transported to West Point, where they remained in "easy imprisonment".
While Allen's service as a judge in Vermont was brief, he continued to ferret out Tories and report them to local Boards of Confiscation for action. He was so zealous in these efforts that they also included naming his own brother Levi, who was apparently trying to swindle Allen and Ira out of land at the time. This action was somewhat surprising, as Levi had not only attempted to purchase Allen's release while he was in Halifax, but he had also traveled to New York while Allen was on parole there and furnished him with goods and money. Allen and Levi engaged in a war of words, many of which were printed in the Connecticut Courant, even after Levi crossed British lines. They would eventually reconcile in 1783.
Early in 1779, Governor Clinton issued a proclamation stating that the state of New York would honor the Wentworth grants, if the settlers would recognize New York's political jurisdiction over the Vermont territory. Allen wrote another pamphlet in response, entitled An Animadversory [sic] Address to the Inhabitants of the State of Vermont; with Remarks on a Proclamation under the Hand of his Excellency George Clinton, Esq; Governor of the State of New York. In typical style, Allen castigated the governor for issuing "romantic proclamations ... calculated to deceive woods people", and for his "folly and stupidity". Clinton's response, once he recovered his temper, was to issue another proclamation little different from the first. Allen's pamphlet circulated widely, including among members of Congress, and was successful in casting the Vermonters' case in a positive light.
In a dispatch to Clinton from Westminster, two prisoners from New York sentenced after Allen’s intervention pleaded with the governor to free them from being at “the disposal of Ethan Allin [sic] which is more to be dreaded than Death with all its Terrors.”
In 1779, Allen published the account of his time in captivity, A Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity ... Containing His Voyages and Travels, With the most remarkable Occurrences respecting him and many other Continental Prisoners of Observations. Written by Himself and now published for the Information of the Curious in all Nations. First published as a serial by the Pennsylvania Packet, the book was an instant best-seller; it is still available today. While largely accurate, it notably omits Benedict Arnold from the capture of Ticonderoga, and Seth Warner as the leader of the Green Mountain Boys.
### Negotiations with the British
Allen appeared before the Continental Congress as early as September 1778 on behalf of Vermont, seeking recognition as an independent state. He reported that due to Vermont's expansion to include border towns from New Hampshire, Congress was reluctant to grant independent statehood to Vermont. Between 1780 and 1783, Allen participated, along with his brother Ira, Vermont Governor Thomas Chittenden, and others, in negotiations with Frederick Haldimand, the governor of Quebec, that were ostensibly about prisoner exchanges, but were really about establishing Vermont as a new British province and gaining military protection for its residents. The negotiations, once details of them were published, were often described by opponents of Vermont statehood as treasonous, but no such formal charges were ever laid against anyone involved.
## Later years
As the war had ended with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, and the United States, operating under the Articles of Confederation, resisted any significant action with respect to Vermont, Allen's historic role as an agitator became less important, and his public role in Vermont's affairs declined. Vermont's government had also become more than a clique dominated by the Allen and Chittenden families due to the territory's rapid population growth.
In 1782, Allen's brother Heber died at the relatively young age of 38. Allen's wife Mary died in June 1783 of consumption, to be followed several months later by their first-born daughter Loraine. While they had not always been close, and Allen's marriage had often been strained, Allen felt these losses deeply. A poem he wrote memorializing Mary was published in the Bennington Gazette.
### Publication of Reason
In these years, Allen recovered from Thomas Young's widow, who was living in Albany, the manuscript that he and Young had worked on in his youth and began to develop it into the work that was published in 1785 as Reason: the Only Oracle of Man. The work was a typical Allen polemic, but its target was religious, not political. Specifically targeted against Christianity, it was an unbridled attack against the Bible, established churches, and the powers of the priesthood. As a replacement for organized religion, he espoused a mixture of deism, Spinoza's naturalist views, and precursors of Transcendentalism, with man acting as a free agent within the natural world. While historians disagree over the exact authorship of the work, the writing contains clear indications of Allen's style.
The book was a complete financial and critical failure. Allen's publisher had forced him to pay the publication costs up front, and only 200 of the 1,500 volumes printed were sold. (The rest were eventually destroyed by a fire at the publisher's house.) The theologically conservative future president of Yale, Timothy Dwight, opined that "the style was crude and vulgar, and the sentiments were coarser than the style. The arguments were flimsy and unmeaning, and the conclusions were fastened upon the premises by mere force." Allen took the financial loss and the criticism in stride, observing that most of the critics were clergymen, whose livelihood he was attacking.
### Second marriage
Allen met his second wife, a young widow named Frances "Fanny" Montresor Brush Buchanan, early in 1784; and after a brief courtship, they wed on February 16, 1784. Fanny came from a notably Loyalist background (including Crean Brush, notorious for acts during the Siege of Boston, from whom she inherited land in Vermont), but they were both smitten, and the marriage was a happy one. They had three children: Fanny (1784–1819), Hannibal Montresor (1786–1813), and Ethan Alphonso (1789–1855). Fanny had a settling effect on Allen; for the remainder of his years he did not embark on many great adventures.
The notable exception to this was when land was claimed by the Connecticut-based owners of the Susquehanna Company, who had been granted titles to land claimed by Connecticut in the Wyoming Valley, in an area that is now Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. The area was also claimed by Pennsylvania, which refused to recognize the Connecticut titles. Allen, after being promised land, traveled to the area and began stirring up not just Pennsylvania authorities but also his long-time nemesis, Governor Clinton of New York, by proposing that a new state be carved out of the disputed area and several counties of New York. The entire affair was more bluster than anything else, and was resolved amicably when Pennsylvania agreed to honor the Connecticut titles.
Allen was also approached by Daniel Shays in 1786 for support in what became the Shays's Rebellion in western Massachusetts. He was unsupportive of the cause, in spite of Shays's offer to crown him "king of Massachusetts"; he felt that Shays was just trying to erase unpayable debts.
In his later years, independent Vermont continued to experience rapid population growth, and Allen sold a great deal of his land, but also reinvested much the proceeds in more land. A lack of cash, complicated by Vermont's currency problems, placed a strain on Fanny's relatively free hand on spending, which was further exacerbated by the cost of publishing Reason, and of the construction of a new home near the mouth of the Onion River. He was threatened with debtors' prison on at least one occasion, and was at times reduced to borrowing money and calling in old debts to make ends meet.
Allen and his family moved to Burlington in 1787, which was no longer a small frontier settlement but a small town, and much more to Allen's liking than the larger community that Bennington had become. He frequented the tavern there, and began work on An Essay on the Universal Plenitude of Being, which he characterized as an appendix to Reason. This essay was less polemic than many of his earlier writings. Allen affirmed the perfection of God and His creation, and credited intuition as well as reason as a way to bring Man closer to the universe. The work was not published until long after his death, and is primarily of interest to students of Transcendentalism, a movement the work foreshadows.
### Death
On February 11, 1789, Allen traveled to South Hero, Vermont with one of his workers to visit his cousin, Ebenezer Allen, and to collect a load of hay. After an evening spent with friends and acquaintances, he spent the night there and set out the next morning for home. While accounts of the return journey are not entirely consistent, Allen apparently suffered an apoplectic fit en route and was unconscious by the time they returned home. Allen died at home several hours later, without ever regaining consciousness. He was buried four days later in the Green Mount Cemetery in Burlington. The funeral was attended by dignitaries from the Vermont government and by large numbers of common folk who turned out to pay respects to a man many considered their champion.
Allen's death made nationwide headlines. The Bennington Gazette wrote of the local hero, "the patriotism and strong attachment which ever appeared uniform in the breast of this Great Man, was worth of his exalted character; the public have to lament the loss of a man who has rendered them great service". Although most obituaries were positive, a number of clergymen expressed different sentiments. "Allen was an ignorant and profane Deist, who died with a mind replete with horror and despair" was the opinion of Newark, New Jersey's Reverend Uzal Ogden. Yale's Timothy Dwight expressed satisfaction that the world no longer had to deal with a man of "peremptoriness and effrontery, rudeness and ribaldry". It is not recorded what New York Governor Clinton's reaction was to the news.
## Family
Allen's widow Fanny gave birth to a son, Ethan Alphonso, on October 24, 1789. She eventually remarried. Allen's two youngest sons went on to graduate from West Point and serve in the United States Army. H.M. Allen was the 7th graduate, a member of the Class of 1804, and served until 1813. E.A. Allen was the 22nd graduate, a member of the Class of 1806, and served until 1821. His daughter Fanny achieved notice when she converted to Catholicism and entered a convent. Two of his grandsons were Henry Hitchcock, Attorney General of Alabama and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, served as a Union Army general in the American Civil War. Reportedly General Hitchcock strongly resembled his famous grandfather. Two of Henry Hitchcock's sons were Henry Hitchcock and Ethan Allan Hitchcock.
## Disappearance of his grave marker
Sometime in the early 1850s, the original plaque marking Allen's grave disappeared; its original text was preserved by early war historian Benson Lossing in the 1840s. The inscription read:
In 1858, the Vermont Legislature authorized the placement of a 42-foot (13 m) column of Vermont granite in the cemetery, with the following inscription:
The exact location within the cemetery of his remains is unknown. While there is a vault beneath the 1858 cenotaph, it contains a time capsule from the time of the monument's erection. According to the official 1858 report on the Ethan Allen monument, the funeral of Ethan Allen had taken place within Green Mount Cemetery; however the reason his remains had not been found at his memorial plaque {tablet} was because "... by the fact that some twenty years since, the dead of the Allen family had been arranged in a square enclosed by stone posts and chains, by Herman Allen, the nephew of Ethan Allen, and this tablet, then lying upon a dilapidated wall of brick work, was reconstructed with cut stone work, and it is presumed that, as a matter of convenience in giving a regular form to the enclosure, was removed some feet from its original position ..." It was thus apparent it was actually a cenotaph tomb reconstruction that Benson Lossing sketched and presumed to be the actual tomb of Ethan Allen in his 1850 The Pictorial Field-book of the Revolution.
## Likenesses
No likenesses of Allen made from life have been found, in spite of numerous attempts to locate them. Efforts by members of the Vermont Historical Society and other historical groups through the years have followed up on rumored likenesses, only to come up empty. Photographs of Allen's grandson, General Ethan Allen Hitchcock, are extant, and, Hitchcock's mother said that he bore a strong resemblance to her father. The nearest potential images included one claimed to be by noted Revolutionary War era engraver Pierre Eugene du Simitiere that turned out to be a forgery, and a reference to a portrait possibly by Ralph Earl that has not been found (as of Stewart Holbrook's writing in 1940). Alexander Graydon, with whom Allen was paroled during his captivity in New York, described him like this:
> His figure was that of a robust, large-framed man, worn down by confinement and hard fare; but he was now recovering his flesh and spirits; and a suit of blue clothes, with a gold laced hat that had been presented to him by the gentlement of Cork, enabled him to make a very passable appearance for a rebel colonel ... I have seldom met with a man, possessing, in my opinion, a stronger mind, or whose mode of expression was more vehement and oratorical. Notwithstanding that Allen might have had something of the insubordinate, lawless frontier spirit in his composition ... he appeared to me to be a man of generosity and honor.
## Memorials
Allen's final home, on the Onion River (now called the Winooski River), is a part of the Ethan Allen Homestead and Museum. Situated in Burlington, Allen's homestead is open for viewing via guided tours.
Two ships of the United States Navy were named USS Ethan Allen in his honor, as were two 19th-century fortifications: a Civil War fort in Arlington County, Virginia and a cavalry outpost in Colchester and Essex, Vermont. The Vermont Army National Guard's facility in Jericho, Vermont is called the Camp Ethan Allen Training Site. A statue of Allen represents Vermont in National Statuary Hall of the United States Capitol. A city park in the Montreal borough of Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve commemorating his capture bears his name.
The Spirit of Ethan Allen III is a tour boat operating on Lake Champlain. Allen's name is the trademark of the furniture and housewares manufacturer, Ethan Allen Inc., which was founded in 1932 in Beecher Falls, Vermont. The Ethan Allen Express, an Amtrak train line running from New York City to Burlington, Vermont, is also named after him.
The Ethan Allen School was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.
## Publications
Allen is known to have written the following publications:
- The 1779 edition of Allen's Narrative.
- An 1849 edition of Allen's Narrative.
- A 2000 edition of Allen's Narrative available at Amazon in March 2009
- The essay is reprinted in four sections in this bound edition of The Historical Magazine and Notes and Queries: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4
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Church architecture in Scotland
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"Architecture in Scotland",
"Church architecture"
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Church architecture in Scotland incorporates all church building within the modern borders of Scotland, from the earliest Christian structures in the sixth century until the present day. The early Christian churches for which there is evidence are basic masonry-built constructions on the west coast and islands. As Christianity spread, local churches tended to remain much simpler than their English counterparts. By the eighth century more sophisticated ashlar block-built buildings began to be constructed. From the eleventh century, there were larger and more ornate Romanesque buildings, as with Dunfermline Abbey and St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney. From the twelfth century the introduction of new monastic orders led to a boom in ecclesiastical building, often using English and Continental forms. From the thirteenth century elements of the European Gothic style began to appear in Scotland, culminating in buildings such as Glasgow Cathedral and the rebuilt Melrose Abbey. Renaissance influences can be seen in a move to a low-massive style that was probably influenced by contacts with Italy and the Netherlands.
From the mid-sixteenth century the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland. It resulted in a rejection of the elaborate ornamentation of existing churches. New churches were produced in a plain style, often with a T-plan that emphasised the pulpit and preaching. This style was adopted by both Presbyterian and Episcopalian wings of the Scottish Kirk, but there were some attempts to introduce Baroque elements into church building after the Restoration. In the eighteenth century the influence of James Gibbs led to churches that employed classical elements, with a pedimented rectangular plan and often with a steeple. This classicism continued into the early nineteenth century, but became increasingly controversial and began to be rejected for a version of the Gothic Revival, which flourished into the early twentieth century. Between the world wars, a form of Neo-Romanesque became the norm for new churches. In the second half of the twentieth century new churches were highly influenced by Modernism, resulting in rectangular and irregularly shaped buildings, built in new materials, although many of these were later demolished. As the level of new building reduced from the 1970s there was a move to functional and unambitious new churches, but in the 1980s there was a move back to more striking and original designs.
## Middle Ages
### Early churches
The introduction of Christianity into Scotland from Ireland from the sixth century led to the construction of the first churches. These may originally have been wooden, like that excavated at Whithorn, but most of those for which evidence survives from this era are basic masonry-built churches, beginning on the west coast and islands and spreading south and east. Early chapels tended to have square-ended converging walls, similar to Irish chapels of this period. Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England, with many churches remaining simple oblongs, without transepts and aisles, and often without towers. In the Highlands they were often even simpler, many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings.
Monasteries also differed significantly from those on the continent, and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall. At Eileach an Naoimh in the Inner Hebrides there are huts, a chapel, refectory, guest house, barns and other buildings. Most of these were of timber and wattle construction and probably thatched with heather and turves. They were later rebuilt in stone, with underground cells and circular "beehive" huts like those used in Ireland. Similar sites have been excavated on Bute, Orkney and Shetland. From the eighth century more sophisticated buildings emerged. The development of early ashlar masonry produced block-built stone buildings, like the eleventh century round tower at Brechin Cathedral and the square towers of Dunblane Cathedral and The Church of St Rule.
### Romanesque
After the eleventh century, as masonry techniques advanced, ashlar blocks became more rectangular, resulting in more stable walls that could incorporate refined architectural moulding and detailing that can be seen in corbelling, buttressing, lintels and arching. At the same time there was increasing influence from English and continental European designs, known as Romanesque. The Romanesque style had its origins in Roman building techniques and early churches in the Byzantine Empire and Italy and was characterised by massive reinforced walls and round arches that could bear the weight of rounded barrel vault roofs. The introduction of this style to Scotland is associated with the ecclesiastical reforms that began in the reign of Máel Coluim III (r. 1058–93), bringing continental ideas of monasticism and church organisation to the country. The oldest Romanesque church in Scotland is probably the small chapel built for Máel Coluim's wife Margaret on Castle Rock, Edinburgh, with a vaulted semi-circular apse. In the twelfth century a number of new parish churches were built by lords on their land. They were often small aisless buildings with two or three connected cells, each of diminishing size, ending in a rounded apse. One of the best preserved is at Dalmeny in Lothian.
St. Regulus Chapel at St. Andrews dates from around 1150 and was probably built as a reliquary church. Only the aisleless choir and tall square tower survive. Its detailing derives from work on a church at Wharram-le-Street in England and it may have been carried out by the same Yorkshire masons. The first monastic establishment built in the Romanesque style was Dunfermline Abbey, begun at the behest of Queen Margaret about 1074. An existing small chapel was expanded with a square choir and rounded apse. About fifty years later it was replaced by a grander cruciform church of which only the nave now survives. The chevron pattern in the detailing on the piers was modelled on that at Durham Cathedral. Similarly, St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney, begun in 1137, may have employed masons who had worked at Durham, with which it shares a similar pattern of great round arches based on thick cylindrical pillars. The arrival of the new monastic orders in Scotland from the twelfth century led to a boom in ecclesiastical building using English and continental forms, including abbeys at Kelso, Holyrood, St Andrews and Jedburgh, one of the most complete Romanesque buildings to survive.
### Gothic
The style that developed from the Romanesque, originating in twelfth-century France, is now known as Gothic. It was characterised by pointed arches, ribbed vaults and flying buttresses. It was brought to Britain by the Cistercians, whose abbeys retained thick walls, but pierced them with lancet arches with slender pointed arches. This style became characteristic of the early Gothic in Britain and can be seen at Dundrennan Abbey, begun around 1142, which resembles religious foundations in northern England. The style can also be seen in the East end of Elgin Cathedral, which incorporated typical European Gothic mouldings and tracery.
A more elaborate style known as decorated Gothic, applying ornamentation to vaults and pillars, particularly using curved motifs, began to be adopted in the thirteenth century and was characteristic of Scottish church building in the fourteenth century. It was used at Dunblane Cathedral, built in the thirteenth century, particularly to decorate the nave and East end. At Fortrose in the Highlands the elaborate decoration of this style is still visible in the south aisle. One of the finest examples is Sweetheart Abbey near Dumfries, a Cistercian monastery, named after the burial of John de Balliol's heart alongside the body of his wife. The period of the Wars of Independence (1296–1357) saw a large number of ecclesiastical buildings ruined, including Melrose and Jedburgh Abbeys. Church building was largely confined to the parish churches in the relatively secure areas like Fife, as at St. Monans, originally a church of the Dominican friars.
In the fifteenth century, continental builders are known to have been working in Scotland. French master-mason John Morrow was employed at the building of Glasgow Cathedral and the rebuilding of Melrose Abbey, both considered fine examples of Gothic architecture. Compared with after the Reformation, the interiors of churches were often elaborate, with highly decorated sacrament houses, like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell. The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel, depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins, were created in the mid-fifteenth century. They are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style. Late Medieval Scottish churches also often contained elaborate burial monuments, like the Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas.
### Renaissance
The impact of the Renaissance on ecclesiastical architecture can be seen in the re-adoption of low-massive church building with round arches and pillars, in contrast to the perpendicular Gothic style that was particularly dominant in England in the late Medieval era. The adoption of the low-massive style may have been influenced by close contacts with Rome and the Netherlands, and was perhaps a conscious reaction against English forms in favour of continental ones. It can be seen in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral, begun in 1406, the facade of St Mary's, Haddington from the 1460s and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone's Kings College, Aberdeen (1500–09). About forty collegiate churches were established in Scotland in late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Many, like Trinity College, Edinburgh, showed a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles. The early sixteenth century saw crown steeples built on churches with royal connections, symbolising imperial monarchy, as at St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh.
## Early modern era
### Reformation
From about 1560, the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland. Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship. With no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual there was widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings, ornaments and decoration. There was a need to adapt old buildings and build new churches suitable for reformed services, particularly by putting the pulpit and preaching at the centre of worship.
Many of the earliest buildings were simple gabled rectangles, a style that continued to be built into the seventeenth century. Examples include Dunnottar Castle in the 1580s, Greenock (1591) and Durness (1619), These new buildings often had windows on the south wall and none on the north, which became a unique feature of Reformation kirks. There were continuities with pre-Reformation materials, with some churches using rubble, as at Kemback in Fife (1582). Others employed stone and a few added wooden steeples, as at Burntisland (1592). The church of Greyfriars, Edinburgh, built between 1602 and 1620, used a rectangular layout with a largely Gothic form, but that at Dirleton (1612), had a more sophisticated classical style.
A variation of the rectangular church that developed in post-Reformation Scotland was the "T"-shaped plan, often used when adapting existing churches, which allowed the maximum number of parishioners to be near the pulpit. They can be seen at Kemback and Prestonpans after 1595. It continued to be used into the seventeenth century as at Weem (1600), Anstruther Easter, Fife (1634–44) and New Cumnock (1657). In the seventeenth century a Greek cross plan was used for churches such as Cawdor (1619) and Fenwick (1643). In most of these cases one arm of the cross would have been closed off as a laird's aisle, meaning that they were in effect "T"-plan churches. Larger churches often had a steeple, as at Tron Kirk, Edinburgh (1636–47).
### Restoration
By the later seventeenth century both the Presbyterian and episcopalian wings of the church had adopted the modestly sized and plain form of churches that had emerged after the Reformation. Most had a centralised plan with two or three arms, in a rectangular or T-planned arrangement. Steeples continued to be a major feature, either centrally on the long axis, or on an end gable, in as had been the case in pre-Reformation churches. As a result, there was little of the Baroque extravagance in church building seen on the Continent and England. Some minor innovations may indicate a move back toward episcopacy in the Restoration era. Lauder Church was built by Sir William Bruce in 1673 for the Duke of Lauderdale, who championed the bishops in the reign of Charles II and the Gothic windows of which may have emphasised antiquity, but its basic Greek cross plan remained within the common framework of new churches. The drive to episcopalian forms of worship may have resulted in more linear patterns, including rectangular plans with the pulpit on the end opposite the entrance. The major exceptions to the standard pattern are in the work of James Smith, who had become a Jesuit in his youth. These included the rebuilding of Holyrood Abbey undertaken for James VII in 1687, which was outfitted in an elaborate style. In 1691 Smith designed the mausoleum of Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, in Greyfriars Kirkyard, a circular structure modelled on the Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio, designed by Donato Bramante (1444–1514). The Latin Cross form, increasingly popular in Counter Reformation Catholicism, was also used, as in Smith's Canongate Kirk (1688–90), but here it never saw episcopal service as the Presbyterian revolution of 1689–90 occurred before it was completed and the chancel was blocked up, making it, in effect, a T-plan.
### Eighteenth-century Neo-Classicism
In the eighteenth century established patterns continued, with T-shaped churches with steeples on the long side, as at New Church, Dumfries (1724–27), and Newbattle Parish Church (1727–29). William Adam's Hamilton Parish Church (1729–32), was a Greek cross plan inscribed in a circle, while John Douglas's Killin Church (1744) was octagonal. Scots-born architect James Gibbs was highly influential on British ecclesiastical architecture. He introduced a consciously antique style in his rebuilding of St Martin-in-the-Fields, London, with a massive, steepled portico and rectangular, side-aisled plan. Similar patterns in Scotland can be seen at St Andrew's in the Square (1737–59), designed by Allan Dreghorn and built by the master mason Mungo Nasmyth, and at the smaller Donibristle Chapel (completed 1731), designed by Alexander McGill. Gibbs' own design for St. Nicholas West, Aberdeen (1752–55), had the same rectangular plan, with a nave-and-aisles, barrel-vaulted layout with superimposed pedimented front. After the Toleration Act of 1712, episcopalians began building a limited number of new chapels including Alexander Jaffray's St Paul's chapel in Aberdeen (1721), the meeting house designed by McGill in Montrose, an Edinburgh chapel opened in 1722 and St Andrew's-by-the-Green in Glasgow (1750–52), which adopted a simpler version of Gibbs' pedimented rectangular plan.
In the second half of the eighteenth century, Scotland's rapidly expanding economy and population resulted in the laying out of numerous new towns and remodelled settlements, resulting in a need for new churches to support the local residents. These included St Andrew's and St George's West Church, George Street, in the New Town of Edinburgh, designed by Andrew Frazer (1782–87), followed in the tradition of Gibbs, with an oval plan, tetrastyle Corinthian portico and a tall steeple. The builder, Alexander Stevens, probably also designed the steeple of St Cuthbert's Church (1789–90). At Fochabers, from 1776 John Baxter redesigned the village on a grid plan, with a central square focused on Bellie Church (1795–97), still following in the tradition of Gibbs, with a tetrastyle portico and steeple.
## Nineteenth century
### Neo-Classicial decline
In the early nineteenth century the Gibbs-influenced steepled tradition continued, as can be seen in Robert Nisbet's Inveresk Church (1803–10). A Grecian form was developed at William Burn's North Leith Church (1813) and St John's Episcopal Church, Edinburgh (1816). The controversy over the style of the Scottish National Monument in 1816 led to the labelling of Greek temple motifs as "pagan" and relatively few columnar Greek churches were built after that in the capital. An exception was Archibald Elliot's Broughton Church (1820–21), which had a Doric temple front. More common in Edinburgh were churches that combined classical elements with other features, like the domed St George's, Charlotte Square (1811–14), executed by Robert Reid, or the Gracco-Baroque of William Playfair's St Stephen's (1827–28). In Glasgow there was a tradition of grafting porticoes on to existing meeting-houses, which continued in Gillespie Graham's West George Street Independent Church (1818), which was criticised as "popish", and John Baird I's Greyfriars United Secession Church (1821), which was fronted by a Roman Doric portico. Classical designs for the established Church included the redevelopment by William Stark of St George's-Tron Church (1807–08), David Hamilton's St Enoch's Parish Church (1827) and St Paul's Parish Church (1835).
### Gothic Revival
As elsewhere in Western Europe, in the nineteenth century there was a return to Medieval styles, grouped together into a Gothic revival. Early examples included Adams' St George's Episcopal Chapel in Edinburgh (1792), which included octagonal lantern on ogival arches. Other examples included James Playfair's chapel-like Farnell Church (c. 1789) and Richard Crichton's towered Craig Parish Church (1799). In the early nineteenth century examples influenced by the English Perpendicular included Glenorchy Church (1810–11), built by the Earl of Breadalbane, John Paterson's octagonal reconstruction of St Paul's Church, Perth (c. 1800–07) and Fetteresso Church, Stonehaven (1810–12). Examples of a more explicitly perpendicular form can be seen in Gillespie Graham's Collace (1813), or David Hamilton's Old Erskine (1813–14).
As urban populations grew, major Neo-Gothic churches were built to accommodate them. After the passing of the Catholic Relief Act, James Gillespie Graham designed St Andrew's Roman Catholic Chapel in Glasgow (1814–17). There was also growth in the Episcopal Church, which benefited from the mainly Anglican migrant English workers. In Edinburgh these were modelled on the English Perpendicular, as at St Paul's York Place (1816–18), the towered St John's Chapel (1816–18) and St David's (Ramshorn) (1824–26). In Glasgow, the Ramshorn Kirk's has a T-plan and symmetrical front with tall tower.
The Kirk began to concern itself with providing churches in the new towns and relatively thinly supplied Highlands, establishing a church extension committee in 1828. Led by Thomas Chalmers, by the early 1840s it had added 222 churches, largely through public subscription. When the Great Disruption occurred in 1843, and roughly a third of ministers and their congregations left the established church and its buildings to form the Free Church of Scotland, Chalmers' organisational skills helped the Free Church build over 700 new places of worship by 1847. The established church took time to recover, but embarked on a rival programme of church building, increasing its number of parishes from 924 in 1843 to 1,437 by 1909. The intense competition between different denominations led to the creation of grand churches with tall steeples and ultimately resulted in an oversupply of churches, which would be a financial burden to future generations.
The intense competition for congregations also led to changes to make worship more attractive that were reflected in architecture. The Church of Scotland was among the first European Protestant churches to engage in liturgical innovation reflected in seating arrangements, abandoning box pews for open benches. From the middle of the nineteenth century some of its churches, like Greyfriars in Edinburgh, began installing organs and stained glass windows, reflecting an attempt to return to forms of worship largely excluded since the late seventeenth century. At Duns the church was rebuilt (opened 1888) in a plan used in the Middle Ages, with a separate chancel, communion table at the far end, and the pulpit under the chancel arch. The influence of the ecclesiological movement can be seen in churches built at Crathie (opened 1893), which had an apsidal chancel raised above the level of the nave, a stone pulpit and a brass lectern, and St. Cuthbert's, Edinburgh (rebuilt 1894), with a marble communion table in a chancel decorated with marble and mosaic.
A sub-set of the Medieval revival were Neo-Romanesque churches, often called "Norman" at the time, built in a style that incorporated Romanesque, Byzantine and Anglo-Saxon features within a low-massive framework. These were utilised by all the major denominations. Examples include the Church of Scotland buildings at Errol (1831–33); the Catholic St. Anthony's Chapel, Murthly (1845); McBridge Free Church, Rothsay (1845); and the Episcopalian St. Thomas, Rutland Place, Edinburgh (1842–43). Later nineteenth-century examples included the church at Strathbungo (1873), and St. Ninian's, Cathcart Road (1888), Glasgow, both designed by W. G. Rowan.
The Gothic style developed fully in the later nineteenth century. Important figures included Frederick Thomas Pilkington (1832–98), who adapted the Gothic style for the needs of the Free Church of Scotland, as at Barclay Viewforth Church, Edinburgh (1862–64). Robert Rowand Anderson (1834–1921), trained in the office of leading Gothic Architect George Gilbert Scott in London before returning to Edinburgh, where he worked on many small churches, including St James the Less in Leith, Christ Church, Falkirk (1862) and the Catholic Apostolic Church in Edinburgh (1876). He also supervised the renovation of Dunblane (1890–93) and Paisley Abbey (1898–1907). Alexander "Greek" Thomson (1817–75), working mainly in Glasgow, began in the Gothic style, but soon turned toward the ancient Greeks and Egyptians for inspiration, as can be seen in the temple and columns that were part of the Caledonia Road Church (1856). Scotland's most influential architect of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Charles Rennie MacKintosh, designed a number of churches, but only one, Queen's Cross Free Church, Glasgow (1898–99) was built. It avoided the characteristic steeple of Glasgow churches in favour of a wide tower, and has a simple, elegant, rectangular structure with a single aisle.
## Twentieth century
### Neo-Romanesque
In the first half of the twentieth century, there continued to be isolated examples of Gothic church building, including L. G. Thomson's Reid Memorial Church, Edinburgh (1929–33) and J. Taylor Thomson's St John Renfield Church, Glasgow (1927–31). The most common forms in this period were plain and massive Neo-Romanesque buildings. Protestant examples included H. O. Tarbolton's Bangour Village Church (1924–30) and L. G. Thomson's Fairmilehead Church (1937). Roman Catholic examples included Reginald Fairlie's Immaculate Conception Church, Fort William (1933–34), and Archibald Macpherson's St Matthew, Rosewell (completed 1926).
The reunification of the Church of Scotland in 1929 removed much of the need for new Presbyterian church-building, which was replaced by a tendency towards renovating nineteenth-century churches, toning-down ritualistic furnishings; replacing dark varnish by white or neutral colour schemes. The main tendency in church design in the 1930s was a move towards classicism. There were isolated large classical Protestant commissions, such as Bristo Baptist Church, Edinburgh (1933–35), but the major buildings in this form were in the Catholic Church where there was a movement towards worshipper-centred basilican plans, after the pontificate of Pius X (1903–14). This movement reached its peak in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council.
The leading figure in pursuing this style was Giacomo Antonio (Jack) Coia, who after the deaths of his partners, was the sole heir to the Glasgow-based practice of Gillespie, Kidd & Coia. From the later 1920s he pursued a brick style of Catholic architecture, pioneered by Macpherson in Edinburgh and combined with the classical tendencies of Fairlie's refacing of St Patrick's, Cowgate (1928–29). Coia's first church, St Anne's, Dennistoun (1931), utilised the engineering techniques of Beaux-Arts architecture, resulting in a broad, centralised space, with narrow arcades rather than aisles, with a monumental facade of red-brick. He used a more linear plan in subsequent designs, including St Patrick, Greenock (1934–35), St Columba, Maryhill (1937), and St Columbkille, Rutherglen (1934–40). The early Christian and Byzantine character of the most striking of these, St Patrick's, was enhanced by carvings by Archibald Dawson. Coia's use of selective details was probably indebted to Mackintosh. Later in the decade Coia took into partnership T. Warnett Kennedy. Kennedy's temporary, open-roofed Catholic chapel at the Empire Exhibition (1938) was fronted by a Mackintosh-like grid of metalwork, and with his St Peter in Chains Church, Ardrossan (1938), with austere walls and towers, showed the influence of the "abstract compositions" of contemporary Swedish architecture and pointed to the future influence of modernism.
### Modernism and Post-Modernism
After the Second World War, there was another period of rapid church building, as the creation of new towns and council house estates necessitated the rapid supply of new churches. The austerity, shortage of materials and need for rapid building, discouraged the development of innovative design. This was accompanied by the rejection by most architects of traditional forms in favour of "international modernism", characterised by simple outlines, uncluttered internal spaces, absence of colour, and flat roofs.
The Catholic Church, whose traditional membership was most affected by the changes in housing, was the first to react to this situation, creating 76 new parishes between 1845 and 1960 in the west of the country alone. The Baptist and Episcopalian churches followed close behind, particularly in the new towns. Within the Church of Scotland, the closeness of congregation and clergy was expressed in the domestic plainness of 1950s dual-use hall churches, as at Reiach's Kildrum Parish Church, Cumbernauld (completed 1962), a steel framed building, clad in timber and brick with a flat roof. Of 129 buildings erected by the Church of Scotland between 1948 and 1959, 108 were on this basic pattern.
The influence of more radical Expressionism and Modernism can be seen in buildings such as Basil Spence's Mortonhall Crematorium, Edinburgh (1964–67), with a series of irregular chapels, with smooth-faced blockwork and Wheeler & Sproson's Boghall Church, Bathgate (1965), influenced by Beaux-Arts architecture. The pioneering contribution from the Church of Scotland was St. Columbia's, Glenrothes (1960), which had seating for the congregation on three sides of a central platform, with the choir and elders on the fourth side behind the pulpit.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the most important steps towards an expressionist design were under taken by Gillespie, Kidd & Coia. This began with St Paul's Church in the new town of Glenrothes (1956–57). This was a wedge-shaped construction of white-painted common brick focused on a dramatic, jagged metal cross by the sculptor Benno Schotz. From about 1960, all Gillespie, Kidd & Coia's churches were designed in this Late Modernist style, as at St Bride's, East Kilbride (1963–64), which had a rectangular plan. From the mid-1960s, they adopted a centralised, non-rectangular plan, with seating ranged round the altar, reflecting liturgical change. Sacred Heart Church, Cumbernauld (1964), was rectangular, of load-bearing brick, dramatically lit through dark coloured windows. Our Lady of Good Counsel, Dennistoun (1965) had a splayed plan and slanted ceiling. St Benedict Drumchapel (1965–67) had a prow-like roof on curved, laminated timbers. These innovative designs inspired others to experiment, including J. McCarron's Our Lady of Sorrows, South Uist (1964–65). However, many of these designs proved too radical and were later demolished by the Catholic Church, citing structural or maintenance problems.
The end of this phase of church-building, as the production of new housing subsided in the 1970s, saw a return to conservatism in church design, which may have reflected a loss of confidence in the churches as attendances rapidly declined. M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie have identified a "post-Coia" style emerging in this period. The limited building, some replacing existing churches, tended to be by building companies using laminated timber beams, exposed brickwork and pyramidal roofs to produce utilitarian, if aesthetically unadventurous, constructions. From the late 1980s there were some original designs, including St Mary the Virgin, in Port Glasgow (1984) by Frank Burnet, Bell and Partners; St Anthony's Catholic church in Kirriemuir (1987), by James F. Stephen Architects; and the replacement church at St Joseph's Catholic Church, Faifley (1997) by Jacobsen and French. There was also the postmodern design of St John Ogilvie Catholic Church, Irvine (1982), and the nearby Girdle Toll parish church, converted from a farmhouse (1992).
|
30,646,437 |
Bixby's Back
| 1,104,220,993 | null |
[
"2011 American television episodes",
"Modern Family (season 2) episodes",
"Valentine's Day television episodes"
] |
"Bixby's Back" is the 14th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series, Modern Family and the 38th episode overall. It originally aired February 9, 2011 on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). The episode was written by Danny Zuker, and directed by Chris Koch.
In the episode, Claire and Phil decide to reprise their role-playing adventure from the previous Valentine's Day episode, "My Funky Valentine". Jay's elaborate Valentine's surprise for Gloria keeps getting held up. An admirer comes between Cameron and Mitchell.
"Bixby's Back" received generally mixed reviews from critics with many saying it was an inadequate sequel to "My Funky Valentine". Despite the mixed reviews, the episode was viewed by 13.16 million households, according to the Nielsen Media Research, and received a 5.1 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, tying the spot for highest-rated episode of the series at that time with "The Old Wagon" and "Halloween". It later became the most viewed scripted program of the week among 18- to 49-year-old adults.
## Plot
At the Dunphy house, Phil (Ty Burrell) and Claire (Julie Bowen) decide to have a small dinner for Valentine's Day in order to avoid the disastrous results of the events of last year. Since they only could get a very early dinner reservation, Claire realizes that all the couples are elderly so she decides to bring back their characters from last year, Clive Bixby and Julianna. Julianna has Clive ditch his wife and meet her at their hotel. At the bar, Claire gives Phil the key to her room. While watching Claire walk way, Phil takes the wrong room key belonging to an older woman who was arranging her purse. He enters the wrong room, sprinkles rose petals on the bed, undresses, and waits on the bed with a bottle of champagne. The older woman then walks in after coming back from the bar. Back at the house, Phil and Claire decide to just act like themselves.
Haley's (Sarah Hyland) boyfriend David blows her off to study for a big exam. Manny (Rico Rodriguez) expects to profit from Haley being free from both David and Dylan (Reid Ewing) and manages to convince Haley to send David a break-up email. She feels liberated for a brief moment but then her ex-boyfriend Dylan shows up with his band on a flatbed of a truck and he sings a love song to her. Haley rushes into Dylan's arms and thus Manny's hopes of wooing Haley are dashed.
Meanwhile, Cameron (Eric Stonestreet) suspects Mitchell's new assistant, Broderick (Jeremy Rowley), has a crush on Mitchell (Jesse Tyler Ferguson), which he denies but secretly affirms. His suspicion is soon proven wrong when Broderick hugs Cameron in an elevator revealing that he is the real object of his desire. While eating dinner together, Cameron reveals this to Mitchell, who still believes Broderick has a crush on him. To see which one is right, the two go to Broderick's house, but after getting a text from Broderick which says he is quitting, the two decide it would be best if they never knew which one of them Broderick liked.
Jay (Ed O'Neill) plans out a perfect Valentine's surprise for Gloria (Sofía Vergara). He hires a chef to prepare her a luxurious meal at their house, but must keep Gloria away while the chef is setting up. Jay takes Gloria to a great restaurant that she loves, with the intent to leave after pretending to find that his secretary had forgotten to make a reservation. Unfortunately his plan goes awry; at the restaurant there really is a reservation for two under the name Pritchett, so they have to stay much to Gloria's delight and Jay's flabbergasted anguish. Later, the reservation turns out to have been for Cameron and Mitchell, so the relieved and elated Jay and furious Gloria have to leave again.
Back at their house, the two have a fight and Gloria refuses to go inside. She is so angry she wants to get in her car and take a drive to cool down. Jay has no choice but to carry the screaming Gloria into the house for her surprise dinner. When the two finally go into the house, however, Jay is stunned to find the house empty. Gloria goes to the garage to take her car out for her drive with Jay following. As the garage door opens we see the romantic surprise dinner is, for some reason, taking place in the garage. Gloria reveals that she had figured out Jay's secret plan, moved it to the garage, and bought him a new motorcycle which sits beside the dinner table.
## Production
"Bixby's Back" was written by Danny Zuker, his sixth writing credit for the series. The episode was directed by Chris Koch, his third credit for the series. The episode is considered a sequel to the first season episode, "My Funky Valentine".
Many plots of the episode were revealed before the episode's airdate by TV Guide writers Adam Bryant and Natalie Abrams. It originally aired on February 9, 2011 on the American Broadcasting Company. "Bixby's Back" was filmed between January 5, and January 17, 2011.
The episode also featured the return of Reid Ewing's character, Dylan, after he broke up with Haley. Julie Bowen said in an interview with TV Guide at the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards that, "This year's Valentine's Day episode is pretty insane, It's different than last year's. Clive and Julianna are back, but Clive is in the more compromising position this time instead of Julianna."
## Reception
### Ratings
In its original American broadcast, "Bixby's Back" was viewed by an estimated 13.16 million viewers according to the Nielsen Media Research, and received a 5.1 rating/13% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 5.1% of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 13% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This episode of Modern Family saw an increase of 9 percent from the previous episode, "Caught in the Act". The episode became the highest-rated episode of the series, tying with "The Old Wagon" and "Halloween". The episode also ranked first in its timeslot and became the second highest-rated program on Wednesday after American Idol. "Bixby's Back" was the most-watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18–49, and the ninth most-watched show among all viewers.
### Reviews
"Bixby's Back" received mixed reviews from critics with many critics saying it didn't live up to its predecessor, "My Funky Valentine".
The A.V. Club writer John Teti gave the episode a mixed review calling it "fine". Teti wrote that he felt like the producers "was doing Valentine’s Day [episode] out of obligation" and that the writers did not have a "great idea" for this episode like "My Funky Valentine". He ultimately gave the episode a B−. Entertainment Weekly writer Lesley Savage gave the episode a more positive review saying the cast "proved why they truly deserved the award in tonight's Valentine's Day themed episode."
Rachael Maddux of New York magazine said the episode was a great sequel to "My Funky Valentine" calling it "a solid episode, start to finish".
Meredith Blake of the Los Angeles Times said the episode was below the show's usual quality writing that "it didn't quite have the usual zing". CNN writer Henry Hanks gave the episode a more positive review and praised Ty Burrell's performance calling him the "MVP of the week". He later went on to criticize Mitchell and Cameron's sub-plot calling it "another sub-par storyline".
Despite the mixed reviews, many praised Ty Burrell's performance. Teti praised both the writing and the acting in the bar scene writing that "There is a fantastic run of writing during Clive and Juliana’s rendezvous at the bar, as every smooth Clive Bixby utterance stumbles out of Phil’s mouth with just the right amount of awkwardness". Maddux called his performance "comedic mastery".
|
22,209,285 |
Chuck Versus Santa Claus
| 1,157,938,838 | null |
[
"2008 American television episodes",
"Chuck (season 2) episodes",
"Crossover television"
] |
"Chuck Versus Santa Claus" is the eleventh episode of the second season of Chuck, and the 24th overall episode of the series. The episode was directed by Robert Duncan McNeill and written by Scott Rosenbaum. It originally aired December 15, 2008.
The episode revolves around a hostage crisis and is largely presented as an homage to the film Die Hard, featuring Reginald VelJohnson reprising his role from the film as Sergeant Al Powell. On Christmas Eve, an amateur criminal on the run from the police crashes into the Buy More and takes Chuck Bartowski, Ellie Bartowski, Devon Woodcomb, and the Buy More employees hostage. In order to protect Chuck's cover and the safety of the other hostages, Sarah Walker and John Casey secretly go into the store to remove Chuck, but the mission quickly falls apart when Chuck refuses to leave his friends and family behind.
"Chuck Versus Santa Claus" received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics. According to the Nielsen ratings system, it drew 7.661 million viewers, making it the second most-watched episode of the season, after "Chuck Versus the Third Dimension".
## Plot
The morning before Christmas, a high-speed chase occurs near a Burbank, California shopping center, ultimately ending with the fugitive crashing his car through the Buy More front doors. Nathan "Needlenose Ned" Rhyerson (Jed Rees) exits the car and, desperate to buy presents for his children, takes Chuck Bartowski (Zachary Levi), Ellie Bartowski (Sarah Lancaster), Devon Woodcomb (Ryan McPartlin), and all the Buy More employees hostage. Ellie and Devon had gone to the store to buy last minute gifts. Ned communicates with the police via Chuck, and LAPD Lieutenant Frank Mauser (Michael Rooker) negotiates the release of Emmett Milbarge (Tony Hale) as a sign of good faith.
Meanwhile, Sarah Walker (Yvonne Strahovski) and John Casey (Adam Baldwin) watch news coverage of the situation and sneak into the store to rescue Chuck so that the media attention does not compromise his cover, only to be thwarted by Ned. Suddenly, Mauser exchanges himself for two hostages: Chuck's handlers Casey and Sarah.
When Mauser enters, Chuck flashes on his watch, identifying him as a Fulcrum agent. Mauser tells Chuck that he knows that Casey and Sarah are NSA and CIA, respectively, and that they are protecting an unknown asset. He reveals that Ned is a Fulcrum agent who caused the disturbance so Mauser could infiltrate the Buy More. At this point, it is revealed that Ned is far more competent than the hostages were led to believe, having intentionally shot Casey in the foot and separated Chuck from his handlers. Mauser threatens to kill Ellie if Chuck does not reveal where Bryce Larkin and the government database the Intersect are. Chuck reveals to Mauser that the Intersect has been uploaded to his brain.
As Mauser escorts him from the Buy More, Chuck urges Devon to disarm Ned. As Chuck is taken in an ambulance to a Fulcrum facility, Devon, Jeff Barnes (Scott Krinsky), Lester Patel (Vik Sahay), Big Mike (Mark Christopher Lawrence), and Morgan Grimes (Joshua Gomez) make a plan. Lester unsuccessfully tries to tackle Ned, but Morgan manages to distract Ned long for Big Mike and Devon to tackle him and end the hostage situation.
Meanwhile, Sarah and Casey learn that Ned is unmarried and had earlier called Mauser rather than his wife, as the hostages were led to believe. They follow the ambulance containing Chuck and Mauser and shoot its tires, sending the vehicle into a Christmas tree lot and allowing Chuck to escape. After a brief fight, Mauser surrenders, confident that Fulcrum will rescue him. To protect Chuck, Sarah executes Mauser. Unknown to Sarah, Chuck watches the entire confrontation in horror from afar. She lies to Chuck and tells him that Mauser has been arrested. At the Buy More, Ellie and Morgan's girlfriend Anna Wu (Julia Ling) praise Lester for his act of bravery. Morgan watches as Lester grabs Anna and kisses her, turning away before Anna pulls away from Lester in disgust. The episode closes with both Morgan and Chuck heartbroken, Morgan believing Anna to be unfaithful, and Chuck believing Sarah to be a murderer.
## Production
"Chuck Versus Santa Claus" was one of many episodes to be directed by producer Robert Duncan McNeill, and was written by producer Scott Rosenbaum. It originally aired in the United States on December 15, 2008, on NBC as the eleventh episode of Chuck'''s second season and the 24th episode overall.
The exterior shots of the store where most of the episode takes place are of a former Mervyn's store in the Fallbrook Mall in Canoga Park. Reginald VelJohnson guest stars, reprising his Die Hard role of Sergeant Al Powell, who is revealed to be Big Mike's cousin. Michael Rooker also guest stars as long-time hostage negotiator Frank Mauser and Jed Rees as Ned, the hostage taker. Tony Hale and Bonita Friedericy reprise their recurring roles of efficiency expert Emmett Milbarge and General Diane Beckman, respectively.
### Flashes
In this episode, the Intersect is activated once. When Mauser walks into the Buy More, Chuck "flashes" on his watch. This flash reveals that Mauser is a Fulcrum agent, and Chuck urges Devon to end the hostage situation.
## Cultural references
The episode is largely presented as an homage to and parody of Die Hard, which was also centered on terrorists instigating a hostage crisis on the day before Christmas. The episode also has music similar to Die Hard, including the song "Ode to Joy". Reginald VelJohnson reprises his role of LAPD officer Al Powell from Die Hard and Die Hard 2, where the character is indicated to be Big Mike's cousin. While Powell bought several Twinkies for his wife in Die Hard, in this episode he and Big Mike are shown eating Twinkies at the same time. Chuck later parodied Die Hard on a much larger scale in "Chuck Versus the Leftovers".
The episode contains a number of other references. Its title references Santa Claus. In addition to Die Hard, the episode has been described in part as "a light-hearted Dog Day Afternoon parody." Ned is believed to be named after Stephen Tobolowsky's character Ned Ryerson from Groundhog Day, and Mauser after Art Metrano's character from Police Academy 2: Their First Assignment and Police Academy 3: Back in Training. Chuck reveals that Christmas at the Bartowski household includes Twilight Zone marathons, while Sarah reveals that Christmas at the Burton household was spent in a Salvation Army scam.
## Critical response
According to the Nielsen ratings system, "Chuck Versus Santa Claus" drew 7.661 million viewers, making it the second most-watched episode of the season, after "Chuck Versus the Third Dimension".
The episode received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics. Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode a score of 9.5 out of 10, a series high alongside "Chuck Versus the Colonel", Season 3's "Chuck Versus the Beard" and "Chuck Versus the Subway", Season 4's "Chuck Versus the Cliffhanger", and Season 5's "Chuck Versus the Kept Man" and "Chuck Versus the Goodbye". Goldman described the episode as an "especially strong installment, which delivered on a lot of fronts." Goldman praised the scene depicting Sarah and Mauser's confrontation, writing, "The entire ambience of the scene was terrific – a rainy night at a Christmas tree lot, with Chuck secretly watching as Sarah shot the unarmed, surrendering Mauser in cold blood - to the tune of 'Silent Night', no less. Of course she did this because she loves Chuck and wants to protect him, but all Chuck knows is that he just saw Sarah in a very scary light, and it's a great new dynamic to their relationship." HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall wrote, "Chuck vs. Santa Claus" was moving along amusingly enough when it still seemed like Ned Rhyerson was just a hapless criminal with the bad luck to crash into a store built above a top-secret government intelligence facility, but the surprising left turn it took when Chuck flashed on Lt. Mauser took things to another level." Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club'' gave the episode an A−, writing "Santa Claus certainly delivered (character) goodies to everyone tonight. Morgan gets to be a hero, even if no one notices, taking down Ned with a fake snow machine. Jeff calls his mother–in prison–then finds the time to break up a mistletoe makeout session. Lester sneaks a smooch from Anna, and isn't even remotely fazed when it causes her to run for the hills. And Big Mike's embrace of cousin Big Al is a keeper."
|
8,436,300 |
New York State Route 418
| 1,172,005,370 |
State highway in Warren County, New York, US
|
[
"State highways in New York (state)",
"Transportation in Warren County, New York"
] |
New York State Route 418 (NY 418) is a 3.50-mile (5.63 km) state highway located entirely within the Adirondack Park in Warren County, New York, in the United States. The route begins just west of the hamlet of Thurman Station, where Athol Road changes designations from County Route 4 (CR 4) to NY 418. It heads eastward through the towns of Thurman and Warrensburg, following the Schroon River to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (US 9) in the hamlet of Warrensburg. All of NY 418 is part of the Dude Ranch Trail, a New York State Scenic Byway that runs through Warren County and Saratoga County.
The origins of NY 418 date back to the 19th century when Thurman Station and Warrensburg were first connected by way of a road. This highway was reconstructed by the state of New York during the early 1910s and added to the state highway system in 1915. It was designated as NY 418 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. The highway has remained mainly unchanged since, save for the replacement of its bridges over the Schroon and the Hudson Rivers in the 1930s and 1940s, respectively.
## Route description
NY 418 begins just southwest of Thurman Station, a hamlet within the town of Thurman, where Athol Road shifts from county maintenance (as CR 4) to state maintenance (as NY 418). It heads northeastward along the base of Sugarloaf Mountain, one of the Three Sisters Mountains, as it passes an area with very little development. The route continues along a northeasterly trek to Thurman Station, where it intersects with River Road in the center of the isolated community. At this point, the route turns southeastward and crosses the Upper Hudson River Railroad at-grade before passing over the Hudson River on the Thurman Station Bridge. NY 418 passes into the town of Warrensburg at the midpoint of the bridge.
On the opposite riverbank, the route turns eastward to follow the eastern bank of the Schroon River through an undeveloped portion of Warrensburg comprising little more than forests. The route winds along the bank of river to the hamlet of Warrensburg, where the route becomes River Street and heads past several blocks of houses. At Alden Avenue, the route curves to the northeast, mirroring the curvature of the river through Warrensburg. It continues along the waterway to the junction of Ridge and River Streets, where NY 418 turns north onto Richards Avenue and finally crosses the river on a truss bridge. The route meets Water Street (CR 9) on the opposite bank before continuing northward past several commercial properties to the center of Warrensburg, where NY 418 ends at an intersection with US 9 (Main Street).
## History
The origins of NY 418 date back to 1896, by which time a road had been constructed between Thurman Station and Warrensburg. In 1912, the state of New York solicited bids for a project to improve the road to state highway standards. On June 12, 1912, the contract for the project was awarded to the Joseph Walker Construction Company of Albany for \$35,776 (equivalent to \$ in 2023). About \$3,400 worth of upgrades were made to the highway before the contract was cancelled. The state resolicited bids for the project in February 1914 and let a \$35,231 (equivalent to \$ in 2023) contract for the project on February 20, 1914. The highway was rebuilt as a stone highway bound by asphalt. The upgraded highway was accepted into the state highway system on January 8, 1915.
The Thurman Station–Warrensburg state highway was designated as NY 418 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. NY 418's alignment has not been substantially altered since that time; however, parts of the route have been upgraded since 1930. In 1933, the original bridge that carried NY 418 over the Schroon River in Warrensburg was replaced with a new truss bridge 50.3 meters (165 ft) in length. The route's original bridge over the Hudson River near Thurman Station was replaced in 1941 with the Thurman Station Bridge, another truss bridge 133.5 meters (438 ft) long. The bridges were reconstructed by the New York State Department of Transportation in 2000 and 1995, respectively.
Parts of NY 418 run through a proposed tourism district known as the First Wilderness Heritage Corridor. The corridor, conceived by Warren County, is intended to revitalize the Hudson River corridor by turning it into a tourist destination. Areas currently being studied for future development include the primarily residential and agricultural areas around Thurman Station, the privately owned train station along NY 418 in this same area, and two vacant lots adjacent to the Hudson River on NY 418. At some point in time, the entire length of NY 418 was included as part of the Dude Ranch Trail, a New York State Scenic Byway that connects Lake George to the Hudson River.
## Major intersections
## See also
|
11,910,221 |
El Concierto
| 1,158,900,473 |
Live album by Luis Miguel
|
[
"1995 live albums",
"1995 video albums",
"Albums produced by Luis Miguel",
"Albums recorded at the Auditorio Nacional (Mexico)",
"Live video albums",
"Luis Miguel live albums",
"Luis Miguel video albums",
"Spanish-language live albums",
"Spanish-language video albums",
"Warner Music Latina live albums",
"Warner Music Latina video albums"
] |
El Concierto (English: The Concert) is the second live album by Mexican recording artist Luis Miguel, released on 17 October 1995 by WEA Latina. It was recorded from his performances at the National Auditorium in Mexico and at the José Amalfitani Stadium in 1994 during his Segundo Romance Tour. The album features live covers of José Alfredo Jiménez's songs ("Si Nos Dejan", "Amanecí en Tus Brazos", and "El Rey"), which were previously unreleased. The first two songs were released as singles, the former reaching number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and the latter peaking at number three on the same chart.
Upon its release, El Concierto received generally favorable reviews from critics, who praised its production, Miguel's vocals, and his renditions of Jiménez's rancheras. The album peaked at number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and both the album and video were certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. It topped the Argentine Albums Chart and the album was certified 4× platinum by CAPIF. The record also reached number two on the Chilean Albums Chart and achieved diamond status in the country and double platinum in Mexico, Platinum in Paraguay, and Uruguay. The album sold over two million copies within a year of its release. El Concierto won the Eres award for Album of the Year and received a nomination for Pop Album of the Year at the 1996 Lo Nuestro Awards.
## Background and release
In 1994 Miguel released his tenth studio album, Segundo Romance. It is follow-up to his 1991 album Romance where Miguel records a collection of classic boleros and Latin American standards. It sold over one million copies within two days of its release, and was certified platinum in the United States for shipping one million copies, making Miguel the first Latin artist with two platinum discs in the U.S. (the other is Romance). To further promote the album Miguel began his Segundo Romance Tour with 16 shows at the National Auditorium in Mexico City, which drew an audience of over 155,000. The singer performed throughout Mexico, the United States, Peru, and Argentina until 31 December 1994, when the tour concluded in Acapulco. His sixteen performances at the National Auditorium in Mexico City and two concerts at the Estadio Vélez in Buenos Aires were filmed for inclusion in a live album.
It was made available in four formats: a double live audio CD, cassette, Laserdisc, and video. The formats included the full performances of 28 songs from the concerts. The album was released on 17 October 1995. El Concierto includes three live renditions of José Alfredo Jiménez's songs: "Si Nos Dejan", "Amanecí en Tus Brazos", and "El Rey". During these performances, Miguel was accompanied by Mariachi 2000 led by Cutberto Pérez. "Si Nos Dejan" was released as a single for the album on 30 August 1995. The song reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart, becoming his twelfth number one song on the chart. "Amanecí en Tus Brazos" was released as the second single on December 1995 and peaked at number three on the Hot Latin Songs charts. The live version of "Hasta Que Me Olvides" was released as a promotional single in Spain.
To further promote the album, Miguel launched the El Concierto Tour which began on 15 September 1995 at the Circus Maximus Showroom in Las Vegas, Nevada and performed across several cities in the United States. The setlist consists of previously-recorded pop tracks and ballads, boleros from his Romance albums, and the mariachi songs from El Concierto. The tour concluded on 31 in Acapulco.
## Critical reception
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave El Concierto 4.5 out of 5 stars, praising the inclusion of the mariachi performances calling it a "good introduction to the singer, since it features his biggest hits and he gives a flashy, impassioned performance". John Lannert of Billboard magazine called the album a "predictable, albeit fan-pleasing, double CD live set" and referred to his mariachi performances as "classics done up mariachi style". Chito de la Torre wrote for La Prensa de San Antonio praised the album, stating that Miguel "stands among the few that are genuinely good both on disc and live" and complimented its "energetic feel and live audience reactions". Rene Carbrera of the Corpus Christi Caller-Times said the album's productions "essentially takes listeners through one of Miguel's dynamic performances" and praised the bolero performances as "superbly executed as pop ballads by Miguel." Regarding the mariachi songs, Cabrera stated "If there's anything that stands out about the Jimenez creations, it is that the tunes are as indestructible as the emotions described in them. Add to that quality the musicianship that Miguel brings to bear and you have some excellent music."The San Diego Union-Tribune editor Ernesto Portillo Jr. gave the album four out of four stars, complimenting Miguel's vocals, his pop tunes as "sizzling", and remarked that Miguel "shows his musical prowess with convincing mariachi-backed renditions of four ranchera classics written by the late Mexican singer-composer Jose Alfredo Jimenez".
At the 1996 Eres award ceremony, El Concierto won award for Album of the Year and Miguel was the Artist of the Year. In the same year, the record received a nomination for Pop Album of the Year at the 8th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards, but lost to Enrique Iglesias's self-titled album. "Si Nos Dejan" was also nominated Pop Song of the Year, again losing to Iglesias for his song "Si Tu Te Vas". Miguel won the award for Pop Male Artist of the Year.
## Commercial performance
In the United States, El Concierto debuted and peaked at number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart with the number one position being held by Selena's album Dreaming of You. It held this position for only two weeks before being replaced by Abriendo Puertas by Gloria Estefan. The record also peaked at number 45 on the Billboard 200 and number two on the Latin Pop Albums chart. Both the album and the video were certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); the former for shipping 500,000 and the latter for shipping 50,000 copies. In Argentina, El Concierto debuted at number one on the Argentine albums chart and the album was certified 4× platinum by CAPIF for sales of 240,000 copies while the video received a platinum certification for sales of 8,000 copies. The album reached number two on the Chilean albums and was certified platinum in the country. It also achieved platinum status in Mexico, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Elsewhere, it was certified gold in Bolivia and Spain, quintuple platinum in Venezuela, and triple platinum in Central America. El Concierto sold over two million copies within a year of its release.
## Track listing
## Personnel
Adapted from AllMusic.
### Performers
- Juan Manuel Arpero – conductor, trumpet
- Alejandro Carballo – trombone
- Armando Cedillo – trumpet
- Idelfonso Cedillo – cello
- Ignacio "Kiko" Cibrián – director, guitar, producer
- Daniel Cruz – viola
- Miguel Flores – guitar
- Pedro Garcia – violin
- Alfonso Gonzalez – violin
- Arturo González – violin
- Aarón Jiménez – violin
- Francisco Loyo – piano
- Victor Loyo – drums
- Ignacio Mariscal – cello
- Antonio Medrano – violin
- Martín Medrano – violin
- Luis Miguel – producer, lead vocals
- Jeff Nathanson – saxophone
- Arturo Perez – keyboards
- Cutberto Perez – director, trumpet
- Emilio Perez – violin
- Patricia Tanus – background vocals
### Technical
- Craig Brock – assistant engineer
- Bernie Grundman – mastering
- Paul McKenna – digital engineer
- Francisco Miranda – engineer
- Neal Preston – photography
- Carlos Somonte – photography
- Salvador Tercero – assistant engineer
- Sergio Toporek & Christian Vinay – concept, design, digital imaging
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
### Album
,
### Video
## See also
- 1995 in Latin music
- List of best-selling albums in Chile
- List of best-selling Latin albums
|
3,111,262 |
Smalleye hammerhead
| 1,169,410,942 |
Species of fish
|
[
"Fish described in 1822",
"Fish of Brazil",
"Fish of Uruguay",
"Fish of Venezuela",
"Marine fauna of South America",
"Sphyrna",
"Taxa named by Achille Valenciennes"
] |
The smalleye hammerhead (Sphyrna tudes), also called the golden hammerhead or curry shark, is a small species of hammerhead shark in the family Sphyrnidae. This species was historically common in the shallow coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean, from Venezuela to Uruguay. It favors muddy habitats with poor visibility, reflected by its relatively small eyes. Adult males and juveniles are schooling and generally found apart from the solitary adult females. Typically reaching 1.2–1.3 m (3.9–4.3 ft) in length, this shark has a unique, bright golden color on its head, sides, and fins, which was only scientifically documented in the 1980s. As in all hammerheads, its head is flattened and laterally expanded into a hammer-shaped structure called the cephalofoil, which in this species is wide and long with an arched front margin bearing central and lateral indentations.
The yellow-orange pigments of the smalleye hammerhead seem to have been acquired from the penaeid shrimp Xiphopenaeus kroyeri, the main food of juvenile sharks, and from sea catfish and their eggs, the main food of adults. The golden color may serve to conceal it from predators such as larger sharks. This species is viviparous, with the developing embryos sustained by a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac. Females bear litters of five to 19 pups every year following a gestation period of 10 months. Reproductive seasonality, litter size, and size at maturity vary between geographical regions. Because of its abundance, the smalleye hammerhead is an economically important bycatch of artisanal gillnet fisheries throughout its range, and is used as food. In recent years, overfishing has caused marked declines in its numbers off Trinidad, northern Brazil, and probably elsewhere. Coupled with the smalleye hammerhead's low reproductive rate, this led the International Union for Conservation of Nature to list the smalleye hammerhead as critically endangered in 2020.
## Taxonomy and phylogeny
Despite being one of the most easily recognizable sharks, the smalleye hammerhead has had a long history of taxonomic confusion that still remains to be fully resolved. Its scientific name originated in 1822, with French zoologist Achille Valenciennes' description of Zygaena tudes in the scientific journal Mémoires du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; the specific epithet tudes is Latin for "hammer". Valenciennes made reference to three specimens, one from Nice in France, one from Cayenne in French Guiana, and one from the Coromandel Coast of India. For over two centuries, though, taxonomists believed Valenciennes' account matched the great hammerhead, which thus became known as Zygaena (later Sphyrna ) tudes. The smalleye hammerhead was known by a different name, Sphyrna bigelowi, coined by Stewart Springer in a 1944 issue of Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences.
In 1950, Enrico Tortonese examined the Nice and Cayenne specimens of S. tudes (the Coromandel specimen having been lost in the interim), and concluded that they were not great hammerheads, but rather the same species as S. bigelowi. Carter Gilbert concurred in his 1967 revision of the hammerhead sharks, noting that while the lost Coromandel specimen was probably a great hammerhead, none of the existing material belonged to that species. Thus, Sphyrna tudes became the accepted name for the smalleye hammerhead, taking precedence over S. bigelowi because it was published earlier, and the great hammerhead received the next available name Sphyrna mokarran. Gilbert designated the Nice specimen as the lectotype that would define S. tudes, having priority over the Cayenne specimen (the paralectotype). This was meant to stabilize the name, but had the opposite effect.
In 1981, Jean Cadenat and Jacques Blache revisited the type specimens of S. tudes and found that the lectotype from Nice is likely not a smalleye hammerhead, but rather a fetal whitefin hammerhead (S. couardi, likely a synonym of the scalloped hammerhead, S. lewini). This would also explain the anomalous locality of the Nice specimen, as the smalleye hammerhead is not otherwise known outside of the Americas. By the rules of binomial nomenclature, Sphyra tudes should then become the valid name for the whitefin hammerhead, taking precedence over S. couardi, and the smalleye hammerhead would revert to being Sphyrna bigelowi. Taxonomists, though, have been reluctant to change the names again, preferring to keep the smalleye hammerhead as S. tudes. For this solution to have official status would require a decision by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), to reject the Nice specimen as the lectotype and designate the Cayenne specimen in its place. The relevant petition to the ICZN has not yet been put forth.
Until the first detailed study of the smalleye hammerhead was carried out in 1985–86 by José Castro of Clemson University for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, its distinctive golden coloration was unknown to science. The color fades after death, and the pigments leach into the preservative, resulting in the "yellowish cast" of museum specimens being regarded as an artifact of preservation. The names "yellow hammerhead" or "golden hammerhead" are used by fishermen in Trinidad for this shark, and the latter was promoted for wider usage by Castro. Another common name for this species is the curry shark. Phylogenetic analyses based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA have found that the hammerheads with the smallest cephalofoils are the most derived members of their lineage. The closest relative of the smalleye hammerhead appears to be the scoophead (S. media), and the two of them in turn form a clade with the sister species pair of the scalloped bonnethead (S. corona) and the bonnethead (S. tiburo).
## Description
One of the smaller members of its family, the smalleye hammerhead can reach a length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft), though 1.2–1.3 m (3.9–4.3 ft) is more typical, and a weight of 9 kg (20 lb). The body is streamlined and fairly slender. The mallet-shaped cephalofoil is wide and long, with a span measuring 28–32% of the body length; the leading margin forms a broad arch with indentations in the middle and on either side. The cephalofoils of newborns are longer, more arched, and less indented in front than those of adults. The eyes, placed at the ends of the cephalofoils, are proportionately smaller than in other hammerheads and equipped with nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). The nostrils are positioned just inside of the eyes, each with a well-developed groove running towards the center of the cephalofoil. The mouth is strongly curved, containing on either side 15–16 upper tooth rows and 15–17 lower tooth rows. The teeth have single narrow cusps with smooth or weakly serrated edges, that are angled in the upper jaw and upright in the lower jaw.
The first dorsal fin is tall and slightly falcate (sickle-shaped), originating behind the pectoral fin bases; its free rear tip lies over the origin of the pelvic fins. The second dorsal fin is smaller than the first, but still rather large, with a concave, trailing margin. The pelvic fins have nearly straight trailing margins. The anal fin is taller and longer than the second dorsal fin. The caudal fin has a well-developed lower lobe and a notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The dermal denticles are oval with five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth. The most distinctive trait of this species is its coloration; the back and dorsal fins are gray to yellowish gray, and the cephalofoil margins, flanks, underside, pectoral fins, pelvic fins, and anal fin are bright yellow to orange with a metallic or iridescent sheen. Newborn sharks are gray above, darkening on the first dorsal fin and upper caudal fin lobe, and whitish below. They gain a bright yellow cast on their undersides by a length of 45 cm (18 in), which turns to orange by a length of 50 cm (20 in). The golden color is brightest in sharks 55–70 cm (22–28 in) long, and tends to fade with the onset of sexual maturity.
## Distribution and habitat
The smalleye hammerhead is found along the eastern coast of South America from Uruguay to Venezuela, though it seldom occurs further west than the Orinoco Delta southeast of Trinidad. Reports of this species from off Panama, Mexico, and western Florida are unconfirmed; records from other parts of the world are most likely erroneous, resulting from its tangled taxonomic history. This species inhabits inshore murky waters 5–40 m (16–131 ft) deep, over muddy bottoms. Segregation occurs by sex and age; newborns and juveniles under 40 cm (16 in) long are found in the shallowest waters, moving deeper after a few months of life. Adult females are mostly found at depths of 9–18 m (30–59 ft), while larger juveniles and adult males are mostly found at depths of 27–36 m (89–118 ft). This species is tolerant of brackish water, and can be found over a salinity range of 20–34 ppt.
## Biology and ecology
Four other species of hammerhead sharks overlap in range with the smalleye hammerhead - the small-sized scoophead and bonnethead, and the large-sized scalloped hammerhead and great hammerhead. Little competition occurs between these species because of their differing habitats and dietary preferences. The smalleye hammerhead is the dominant hammerhead in shallow, muddy areas, where high turbidity limits the utility of vision (hence its smaller eyes). Adult males and juveniles of both sexes form schools of uniform body size; these schools do not appear to relate to reproduction or migration. Adult females are apparently solitary.
Young smalleye hammerheads under 67 cm (26 in) long feed predominantly on penaeid shrimp, mostly Xiphopenaeus kroyeri. Larger sharks feed mainly on bony fishes, especially ariid sea catfish and their eggs. The shrimp and the surface mucus layer and eggs of the catfish contain carotenoid pigments that appear to be the source of the sharks' golden color; whether the pigments in the catfish also ultimately come from the shrimp is uncertain. Another shark species in the region, the yellow smooth-hound (Mustelus higmani), also feeds on shrimp and has a yellowish color, albeit not nearly as bright. This species has also been known to consume swimming crabs, squid, grunts, and newborn scalloped hammerheads. The smalleye hammerhead may fall prey to larger sharks such as the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), while smaller individuals may also be taken by bony fishes. Its coloration may provide camouflage. A known parasite of this species is the hexabothriid monogenean Erpocotyle schmitti; it may also serve as a host to common copepod ectoparasites such as Echthrogaleus coleoptratus, Pandarus satyrus, and P. cranchii.
Like all hammerhead sharks, the smalleye hammerhead is viviparous: when the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk, the depleted yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment. Mature females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteri. Ovulation occurs at the same time as gestation, allowing females to bear young every year. The details of the smalleye hammerhead's life history vary across its range. Off Trinidad, reproduction occurs on a well-defined annual cycle with mating in August and September, and birthing in late May and June of the following year. The females carry between five and 12 pups for 10 months, and make use of food-rich, shallow coastal bays as nursery areas. The newborns measure around 30 cm (0.98 ft) long, and males and females attain sexual maturity at 80 cm (31 in) and 98 cm (39 in) long, respectively. By contrast, smalleye hammerheads off the northern Brazilian state of Maranhão are substantially larger, with males maturing at over 92 cm (36 in) long and females at over 101 cm (40 in) long. As the litter size increases with female size, Maranhão sharks have been recorded carrying up to 19 pups. The seasonality of breeding also differs, with pregnant females found from June to October and January to April, and males in apparent reproductive condition from May to November and in March.
## Human interactions
Timid and harmless to humans, the smalleye hammerhead is caught incidentally by inshore artisanal multispecies fisheries throughout its range, and marketed as food. It is the most or second-most important shark caught by such fisheries off Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Brazil. Because of its head shape, individuals of all ages are readily caught in gillnets; small numbers are also caught on line gear and in bottom trawls. The IUCN assessed this species as critically endangered in 2020, as it is subjected to intense fishing pressure, often without management, by techniques ranging from beach seine netting to trawling, and is unable to replenish this harvest. Smalleye hammerheads are also bycatch in commercial shrimp trawls, which are often run through the shark's shallow-water habitat. Anecdotal evidence suggests that smalleye hammerhead catches have declined significantly off Trinidad and northern Brazil, which are likely indicative of population trends in the rest of its range. The smalleye shark is federally protected in Brazil and Colombia.
|
219,959 |
Pruitt–Igoe
| 1,172,011,713 |
Demolished housing project in St. Louis, US
|
[
"1955 establishments in Missouri",
"1976 disestablishments in Missouri",
"African-American history in St. Louis",
"Buildings and structures demolished by controlled implosion",
"Buildings and structures demolished in 1972",
"Buildings and structures demolished in 1976",
"Demolished buildings and structures in St. Louis",
"History of St. Louis",
"Minoru Yamasaki buildings",
"Public housing in St. Louis",
"Residential buildings completed in 1955",
"Residential skyscrapers in St. Louis",
"Urban decay in the United States"
] |
The Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and William Igoe Apartments, known together as Pruitt–Igoe (/ˈpruɪt ˈaɪɡoʊ/), were joint urban housing projects first occupied in 1954 in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. At the time of opening, the complex, which consisted of 33 eleven-story high rises designed in the modernist architectural style by Minoru Yamasaki, was one of the largest public housing developments in the country. It was constructed with federal funds on the site of a former slum as part of the city's urban renewal program. It almost exclusively accommodated African Americans despite being legally integrated.
Although initially viewed as an improvement over the tenement housing it replaced, living conditions in Pruitt–Igoe began to deteriorate soon after completion, and by the mid 1960s it was plagued by poor maintenance and crime, particularly vandalism and juvenile delinquency. Numerous initiatives to reverse the decline failed, and by 1970 more than two-thirds of the complex was vacant. In 1972, several buildings were imploded by explosives in a widely televised event. All 33 buildings were vacated and demolished over the next four years.
In the aftermath of its demolition, Pruitt–Igoe became a symbol of the failings of the society-changing aspirations of modernist architecture, as the project's problems were widely attributed to architectural flaws that created a hostile and unsafe environment. Critic Charles Jencks described its demolition as "the day Modern architecture died". More recent appraisals have placed a greater emphasis on St. Louis's precipitously declining population and fiscal problems with the local housing authority. The Architectural Review states in a summary of the modern consensus that the project was "doomed from the outset". As of 2016, most of the Pruitt–Igoe site remains vacant and overgrown.
## Description
Pruitt–Igoe consisted of 33 eleven-story apartment buildings on a 57-acre (23 ha) site, on St. Louis's north side, bounded by Cass Avenue on the north, North Jefferson Avenue on the west, Carr Street on the south, and North 20th Street on the east. They were built of concrete and clad in brick. Each building was 170 feet in length, and most contained between 80 and 90 units, though some buildings had up to 150. The complex totaled 2,870 apartments (1,736 in Pruitt and 1,132 in Igoe) and housed more than 10,000 people at full occupancy.
The apartments were deliberately small, with undersized kitchen appliances, and few units were designed for larger families. "Skip-stop" elevators stopped only at the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth "anchor" floors in an attempt to lessen elevator congestion, forcing many residents to use the stairs. The same anchor floors were equipped with large south-facing communal corridors called "galleries", as well as laundry rooms and garbage chutes.
## History
### Background
During the 1940s, the city of St. Louis was overcrowded, with housing conditions in some areas being said to resemble "something out of a Charles Dickens novel". Its housing stock had deteriorated by the 1940s, and more than 85,000 families lived in 19th century tenements. An official survey from 1947 found that 33,000 homes had communal toilets. Middle-class, predominantly white, residents were leaving the city, and their former residences became occupied by low-income families. Black slums in the north and white slums in the south were expanding and threatening to engulf the city center. To save central properties from an imminent loss of value, city authorities settled on redevelopment of the inner ring around the central business district. Due to the state of decay, neighborhood gentrification never received serious consideration.
The first generation of St. Louis public housing was enabled by the Housing Act of 1937 and opened in 1942 as two identical but racially segregated low-rise developments: Carr Square in the northwest for African Americans, and Clinton Peabody in the southwest for whites. The projects, intended for the working poor rather than the truly destitute, were successful.
In 1947, St. Louis planners proposed to replace DeSoto-Carr, a run-down neighborhood with many black residents, with new two- and three-story residential blocks and a public park. The plan did not materialize; instead, Democratic mayor Joseph Darst, elected in 1949, and Republican state leaders favored clearing the slums and replacing them with high-rise, high-density public housing. They reasoned that the new projects would help the city through increased revenues, new parks, playgrounds and shopping space. Darst stated in 1951:
> We must rebuild, open up and clean up the hearts of our cities. The fact that slums were created with all the intrinsic evils was everybody's fault. Now it is everybody's responsibility to repair the damage.
In 1948, voters rejected the proposal for a municipal loan to finance the change, but soon the situation was changed with the Housing Act of 1949 and Missouri state laws that provided co-financing of public housing projects. The approach taken by Darst, urban renewal, was shared by President Harry S. Truman's administration and fellow mayors of other cities overwhelmed by industrial workers recruited during the war. Specifically, St. Louis Land Clearance and Redevelopment Authority was authorized to acquire and demolish the slums of the inner ring and then sell the land at reduced prices to private developers in the hopes of fostering middle-class development and luring families back from the suburbs. Another agency, the St. Louis Housing Authority, had to clear land to construct public housing for the former slum dwellers.
### Design and construction
By 1950, St. Louis had received a federal commitment under the Housing Act of 1949 to finance 5,800 public housing units. The first large public housing in St. Louis, Cochran Gardens, was completed in 1953. It contained 704 units in a mix of medium- and high-rise buildings. It was followed by three more projects: Pruitt–Igoe, Vaughn, and Darst–Webbe. Pruitt–Igoe was named for St. Louisans Wendell O. Pruitt, an African-American fighter pilot in World War II, and William L. Igoe, a former US Congressman. Originally, the city planned two partitions: Pruitt for black residents and Igoe for whites, as St. Louis public housing was segregated until 1955.
In 1950, the city picked Leinweber, Yamasaki & Hellmuth, an architectural firm based in St. Louis, to design the new public housing complex. The project was led by architect Minoru Yamasaki, then early in his career, and performed under supervision and constraints imposed by the federal authorities. His initial proposal, which included walk-up and mid-rise buildings as well as high-rises, was accepted by the St. Louis authorities, but exceeded the federal cost limits imposed by the Public Housing Administration; the agency intervened and imposed a uniform building height of 11 floors. Shortages of materials caused by the Korean War and tensions in the Congress further tightened federal controls. Overall density was set at a level of 50 units per acre, higher than in downtown slums. Although each row of buildings was supposed to be flanked by a "river of open space", landscaping was omitted from the final plan and few trees were planted.
Construction began in 1951. Pruitt accepted its first tenants in November 1954, Igoe in July 1955. When the two projects opened, they were one of the largest public housing developments in the country. Even under federal cost-cutting regulations, Pruitt–Igoe initially cost \$36 million, 60 percent above the national average for public housing. The influence of the steamfitters' union led to the installation of an expensive heating system, and overruns on the heating system caused a chain of arbitrary cost cuts in other vital parts of the building. Despite the poor build quality, material suppliers cited Pruitt–Igoe in their advertisements, capitalizing on the national exposure of the project.
### Early years
Pruitt–Igoe was initially seen as a breakthrough in urban renewal. One early resident described her 11th floor apartment as a "poor man's penthouse". Pruitt–Igoe was officially desegregated by a Supreme Court decision in 1954, and as many as 40 percent of the initial tenants were white, but by the mid 1960s it had become exclusively African American.
### Decline
By 1958, just four years after the opening of the project, deteriorating conditions were already evident. Elevator breakdowns and vandalism were cited as major problems—Yamasaki later lamented that he "never thought people were that destructive". Ventilation was poor, and the buildings lacked centralized air conditioning despite St. Louis's hot and humid summers. Meanwhile, the St. Louis Housing Authority was in the midst of a decades-long problem with inefficient and costly maintenance of its buildings, partly attributed to the power of labor unions. The stairwells and corridors attracted muggers, a situation exacerbated by the skip-stop elevators. Its location in "a sea of decaying and abandoned buildings" and limited access to shopping and recreation (ground-floor businesses had been eliminated from the design to save money) contributed to its problems. Despite its size, the complex had no public mailbox. The huge, 11-story buildings of the development were reportedly a magnet for criminals and vagrants from the surrounding low-rise slums; a 1959 audit reported that most of the vandalism was done by transients rather than residents, and a 1967 report similarly found that a "relatively large proportion" of crimes were committed by outsiders. Large criminal gangs were not common in the project.
The Recession of 1958 led to increased crime, vacancy, and rent delinquency in the development, which cut into the housing authority's revenue. In response, the authority reduced maintenance by 10 percent, and the reduction in maintenance coupled with a grand jury report that criticized crime levels in Pruitt–Igoe caused a significant drop in applications to the development. Increasing vacancy rates set off a feedback loop where the loss of revenue from rent forced the housing authority to curtail maintenance, further reducing the project's desirability. Occupancy at both Pruitt and Igoe peaked in the first years, at 95 and 86 percent, respectively. In the 1960s, Pruitt remained about 75 percent full and Igoe 65 percent. In 1969, those numbers fell to 57.1 percent and 48.9 percent; at one point the vacancy rate was higher than any other public housing complex in the country. The annual turn-over rate was 20 percent.
After 1960, the rental income from Pruitt–Igoe failed to cover the cost of operation, forcing the housing authority to tap into its reserves and causing cutbacks at other developments, which were themselves profitable. Attempts by local authorities to improve living conditions were handicapped by lack of resources, though numerous programs, including the hiring of private security, rent incentives to attract new tenants, and grants for academic studies, were tried. As the financial position of the authority worsened, it raised the minimum rent from \$20 a month in 1952, to \$32 in 1958, \$43 in 1962, and \$58 in 1968. The increases forced some families to devote as much as 75 percent of their income to rent. In addition to the rent increases, tenants were charged for basic services like replacing fuses and door locks. The rent increases were a major factor in a nine-month rent strike by tenants in 1969. The strike began on February 2 at other public housing projects in the city and spread to Pruitt–Igoe by April 1. It ended with a settlement under which the board of commissioners of the housing authority resigned and tenant organizations were granted more influence.
In 1965, the project received a federal grant to improve the physical condition of the buildings and establish social programs for residents, but the grant failed to reverse the decline. Between 1963 and 1966 it was the subject of a sociological study by Lee Rainwater. By the late 1960s, Pruitt–Igoe was described as resembling "a city under siege". In 1966, the Pruitt–Igoe Neighborhood Corporation commissioned a survey of the housing project that catalogued numerous issues with its maintenance, security, and management. Basic services like elevators and heating often failed, and maintenance sometimes took years to respond to tenant requests.
The withdrawal in 1967 of a private security force that patrolled the buildings led to a further escalation in crime and vandalism, which was partially attributed to the large number of juveniles in single-parent households; a census undertaken in September 1965 found that 69.2 percent of inhabitants were minors, and less than 30 percent of households with children had both parents present. Teenage pregnancy and juvenile delinquency were considered major problems by the residents. Families at Pruitt–Igoe were large: the average household had four minors, and the average woman would give birth to five or six children during her child-bearing years. Nearly half of births (and 73 percent of first-born children) were out of wedlock, though this statistic was no higher in Pruitt–Igoe than in nearby private housing.
In spite of the widespread issues, most inhabitants of Pruitt–Igoe continued to live ordinary lives, and, according to Rainwater and activist Joan Miller, "the vast majority... responded to their sick society in a healthy manner." 78 percent of residents reported that they were satisfied with their apartment, and 80 percent said that Pruitt–Igoe met their needs "a little better" or "much better" than their previous place of residence. The project contained isolated pockets of well-being throughout its worst years, and apartments clustered around small, two-family landings with tenants working to maintain and clear their common areas were often relatively successful.
### Demolition
In 1968, the federal Department of Housing began encouraging the remaining residents to leave Pruitt–Igoe. A 1970 report assessed the extent of the physical damage to the buildings as "nearly unbelievable" and far worse than in the other St. Louis projects. Many buildings had been practically ransacked, with broken windows and doors, walls stripped for wire and pipe, and garbage strewn about the site. Only 10 of the original 33 buildings were still occupied. In December 1971, state and federal authorities agreed to demolish two of the Pruitt–Igoe buildings with explosives. They hoped that a gradual reduction in population and building density could improve the situation; by this time, Pruitt–Igoe had consumed \$57 million, an investment which they felt could not be wholly abandoned. Authorities considered different possibilities for rehabilitating Pruitt–Igoe, including conversion to a low-rise neighborhood by collapsing the towers down to a few floors to reduce the density. After 1971, most tenants were consolidated into the Igoe section. Despite the impending demolition, more than \$1 million was spent on renovation in the 1970s, mainly funded by grants from the federal government.
After months of preparation, the first building was demolished with explosives on March 16, 1972. More buildings followed on April 21, June 9, and July 15. The federal Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) announced in August 1973 their decision to demolish the rest of the complex. A last-minute attempt to purchase and rehabilitate a few of the buildings by a neighborhood community development corporation was rejected by HUD. The last tenant moved out in May 1974, and the project was fully cleared by 1976. Demolition cost \$3.5 million. They were the first major housing projects in the United States to be demolished. Footage of the demolition was featured in the film Koyaanisqatsi.
### Site
Since Pruitt–Igoe's demolition, various plans have been put forth for the use of its site, including a golf course and a 50-story tower, but as of 2016 it remained largely vacant and overgrown with vegetation. In 2021, a developer submitted zoning applications for the construction of office buildings and a hotel on the site, and an urgent care center named after the former Homer G. Phillips Hospital was built in 2022, but restrictions related to the construction of a new headquarters for the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency on an adjacent lot were reportedly stalling the redevelopment of the site. In 2020, Ponce Health Sciences University announced its intention to construct an \$80 million facility on the site. When completed, the facility is planned to house the Ponce Health Sciences University School of Medicine in St. Louis.
## Legacy
According to architecture professor Mary C. Comerio, Pruitt–Igoe has "received more comment and written words than any other project of its kind in America", and architect William Ramroth describes it as "the most infamous public housing disaster in American history" and a "poster child" for the failures of public housing projects. Nonetheless, the initial reception of Pruitt–Igoe was positive, although contrary to popular belief the project never won any architectural awards. In 1951, before construction had finished, an Architectural Forum article lauded Yamasaki's original proposal, praising the layout as "vertical neighborhoods for poor people", and a biographer of Yamasaki retrospectively appraised it as "an amazingly ambitious effort to turn the embarrassment of tenement squalor in a great American city into something decent and good".
Although Yamasaki's design followed modernist conventions and was influenced by Le Corbusier's "ville radieuse" concept, many design decisions were imposed by federal authorities, including vetoing the original proposal of a mix of structures of different heights. Even before the completion of the project, Yamasaki was skeptical that high-rise buildings would be beneficial to tenants, stating that "The low building with low density is unquestionably more satisfactory than multi-story living." Nonetheless, he defended the high-rise design as a practical necessity for clearing slums.
Criticism of the project's architectural design began in the 1960s. The overall quality of construction was extremely poor: the buildings were described by housing researcher Eugene Meehan as "little more than steel and concrete rabbit warrens, poorly designed, badly equipped, inadequate in size, badly located, unventilated, and virtually impossible to maintain". The skip-stop elevators forced many residents to use the stairwells, where muggings were frequent. The galleries, which were unpainted, unfurnished, and dimly-lit, served as hang-outs for criminal gangs rather than communal spaces. The landscaping intended to make Pruitt–Igoe "towers in the park" was cut from the final plan, and the surrounding area subsequently turned to wasteland.
After the demolition of the first buildings in 1972, Pruitt–Igoe received wider attention and began to be perceived as a failure of modernist architecture as a whole. By the late 1970s, this view had coalesced into "architectural dogma", especially for the nascent movements of postmodern architecture and environment and behavior architecture. Postmodern architectural historian Charles Jencks called its destruction "the day Modern architecture died" and considered it a direct indictment of the society-changing aspirations of the International school of architecture and an example of modernists' intentions running contrary to real-world social development.
Pruitt–Igoe served as a case study for Oscar Newman's concept of defensible space, in which structures are laid out so that residents have control and responsibility over their surroundings. Newman criticized the large spaces shared by dozens of families as "anonymous public spaces [that] made it impossible for even neighboring residents to develop an accord about acceptable behavior", and attributed Pruitt–Igoe's social problems to its high-rise design and lack of defensible space, contrasting it unfavorably with the adjacent Carr Village, a low-rise area with a similar demographic makeup that remained fully occupied and largely trouble-free in the same period. Newman's analysis was one of the most influential in attributing the project's failure to "environmentally determined architecture".
Other critics argue that the Pruitt–Igoe's architecture has been overemphasized compared to political and social factors, a view prominently advanced by Katharine Bristol (at the time a doctoral student in architecture) in a 1991 article titled "The Pruitt–Igoe Myth". While acknowledging flaws in the project's design, Bristol cited the underfunding of public housing and consequent inability for the housing authority to properly maintain the buildings and the deleterious effects of poverty and racial discrimination on its residents as crucial factors in Pruitt–Igoe's decline. The steep fall in St. Louis's population exacerbated the project's vacancy problem—instead of growing from 850,000 in the 1940s to 1 million in 1970 as projected, the city lost 30 percent of its residents in that timespan due to suburbanization and white flight, as well as 11,000 manufacturing jobs in an overall shift from a blue collar to white collar economy. The Pruitt-Igoe Myth, a 2011 documentary film, largely followed Bristol's view.
In his book-length study of St. Louis public housing policy, Eugene Meehan assessed the root cause as "a set of policies programmed for failure", in particular the requirement of the Housing Act of 1949 that local housing authorities pay their expenses from rental income, which made them vulnerable to fiscal problems. The "mindless concentration on dollar costs" and "voracious and inefficient" local construction industry also contributed to the project's maintenance woes. Widespread voter opposition to public housing, both locally and nationally, created a "hostile climate" that limited financial assistance from the government; in turn, the eventual failure of the project contributed to the further unpopularity of public housing, both locally and nationally. According to The Architectural Review, the modern consensus is that the underfunded project was "doomed from the outset".
The failure and demolition of Pruitt–Igoe damaged Yamasaki's reputation as an architect, and he personally regretted designing the buildings.
## See also
- Panel house, in various former communist countries
- Regent Park, in Toronto, Canada
- St. James Town, in Toronto, Canada
- Ballymun Flats, in Dublin, Ireland
- Conjunto Urbano Nonoalco Tlatelolco, in Mexico City, Mexico
- Bijlmermeer, in Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Red Road Flats, in Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Roundshaw Estate, in Wallington, Sutton, United Kingdom
- Aylesbury Estate, in London, United Kingdom
- Robin Hood Gardens, in Poplar, London, United Kingdom
- Cabrini–Green, in Chicago, Illinois
- Robert Taylor Homes, in Chicago, Illinois
- Glenny Drive Apartments, in Buffalo, New York
- Father Panik Village, in Bridgeport, Connecticut
- Brewster-Douglass Housing Projects , in Detroit, Michigan
- Vele di Scampia, in Scampia, Napoli, Italy
- Million Programme, in Sweden
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2,119,174 |
Effects of climate change
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[
"Climate change and society",
"Effects of climate change",
"Health effects by subject",
"Holocene extinctions",
"Regional effects of climate change"
] |
Climate change affects the physical environment, ecosystems and human societies. Changes in the climate system include an overall warming trend, more extreme weather and rising sea levels. These in turn impact nature and wildlife, as well as human settlements and societies. The effects of human-caused climate change are broad and far-reaching. This is especially so if there is no significant climate action. Experts sometimes describe the projected and observed negative impacts of climate change as the climate crisis.
The changes in climate are not uniform across the Earth. In particular, most land areas have warmed faster than most ocean areas. The Arctic is warming faster than most other regions. There are many effects of climate change on oceans. These include an increase in ocean temperatures, a rise in sea level from ocean warming and ice sheet melting. They include increased ocean stratification. They also include changes to ocean currents including a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is acidifiying the ocean.
Recent warming has had a big effect on natural biological systems. It has degraded land by raising temperatures, drying soils and increasing wildfire risk. Species all over the world are migrating towards the poles to colder areas. On land, many species move to higher ground, whereas marine species seek colder water at greater depths. At 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming, around 10% of species on land would become critically endangered.
Food security and access to fresh water are at risk due to rising temperatures. Climate change has profound impacts on human health. These can be direct impacts via heat stress. They can be indirect changes via the spread of infectious diseases. Humans are vulnerable and exposed to climate change in different ways. This varies by economic sector and by country. Wealthy industrialised countries, which have emitted the most CO<sub>2</sub>, have more resources. So they are the least vulnerable to global warming. Climate change affects many economic sectors. They include agriculture, fisheries, forestry, energy, insurance, and tourism. Some groups may be particularly at risk from climate change, such as the poor, women, children and indigenous peoples. Climate change can lead to displacement and changes in migration flows.
## Changes in temperature
Global warming affects all parts of Earth's climate system. Global surface temperatures have risen by 1.1 °C (2.0 °F). Scientists say they will rise further in the future. The changes in climate are not uniform across the Earth. In particular, most land areas have warmed faster than most ocean areas. The Arctic is warming faster than most other regions. Night-time temperatures have increased faster than daytime temperatures. The impact on nature and people depends on how much more the Earth warms.
Scientists use several methods to predict the effects of human-caused climate change. One is to investigate past natural changes in climate. To assess changes in Earth's past climate scientists have studied tree rings, ice cores, corals, and ocean and lake sediments. These show that recent temperatures have surpassed anything in the last 2,000 years. By the end of the 21st century, temperatures may increase to a level last seen in the mid-Pliocene. This was around 3 million years ago. At that time, mean global temperatures were about 2–4 °C (3.6–7.2 °F) warmer than pre-industrial temperatures. The global mean sea level was up to 25 meters higher than it is today. The modern observed rise in temperature and concentrations has been rapid. even abrupt geophysical events in Earth's history do not approach current rates.How much the world warms depends on human greenhouse gas emissions and how sensitive the climate is to greenhouse gases. The more carbon dioxide () is emitted in the 21st century the hotter the world will be by 2100. For a doubling of greenhouse gas concentrations, the global mean temperature would rise by about 2.5–4 °C (4.5–7.2 °F). What would happen if emissions of stopped abruptly and there was no use of negative emission technologies? The Earth's climate would not start moving back to its pre-industrial state. Temperatures would stay at the same high level for several centuries. After about a thousand years, 20% to 30% of human-emitted would remain in the atmosphere. The ocean and land would not have taken them. This would commit the climate to a warmer state long after emissions have stopped.
With current mitigation policies the temperature will be about 2.7 °C (2.0–3.6 °C) above pre-industrial levels by 2100. It would rise to 2.4 °C (4.3 °F) if governments achieve all unconditional pledges and targets they have made. If all the countries that have set or are considering net-zero targets achieve them, the temperature will rise by around 1.8 °C (3.2 °F). There is a big gap between national plans and commitments and the actions that governments have taken around the world.
## Weather
The lower and middle atmosphere, where nearly all weather occurs, are heating due to the greenhouse effect. Evaporation and atmospheric moisture content increase as temperatures rise. Water vapour is a greenhouse gas, so this process is a self-reinforcing feedback.
The excess water vapour also gets caught up in storms. This makes them more intense, larger, and potentially longer-lasting. This in turn causes rain and snow events to become stronger and leads to increased risk of flooding. Extra drying worsens natural dry spells and droughts. This increases risk of heat waves and wildfires. Scientists have identified human activities as the cause of recent climate trends. They are now able to estimate the impact of climate change on extreme weather events. They call this process extreme event attribution. For instance such research can look at historical data for a region and conclude that a specific heat wave was more intense due to climate change.
### Heat waves and temperature extremes
Heatwaves over land have become more frequent and more intense in almost all world regions since the 1950s, due to climate change. Heat waves are more likely to occur simultaneously with droughts. Marine heatwaves are twice as likely as they were in 1980. Climate change will lead to more very hot days and fewer very cold days. There are fewer cold waves.
Experts can often attribute the intensity of individual heat waves to global warming. Some extreme events would have been nearly impossible without human influence on the climate system. A heatwave that would occur once every ten years before global warming started now occurs 2.8 times as often. Under further warming, heatwaves are set to become more frequent. An event that would occur every ten years would occur every other year if global warming reaches 2 °C (3.6 °F).
Heat stress is related to temperature. It also increases if humidity is higher. The wet-bulb temperature measures both temperature and humidity. Humans cannot adapt to a wet-bulb temperature above 35 °C (95 °F). This heat stress can kill people. If global warming is kept below 1.5 or 2 °C (2.7 or 3.6 °F), it will probably be possible to avoid this deadly heat and humidity in most of the tropics. But there may still be negative health impacts.
There is some evidence climate change is leading to a weakening of the polar vortex. This would make the jet stream more wavy. This would lead to outbursts of very cold winter weather across parts of Eurasia and North America and incursions of very warm air into the Arctic.
### Rain
Warming increases global average precipitation. Precipitation is when water vapour condenses out of clouds, such as rain and snow. Higher temperatures increase evaporation and surface drying. As the air warms it can hold more water. For every degree Celsius it can hold 7% more water vapour. Scientists have observed changes in the amount, intensity, frequency, and type of precipitation. Overall, climate change is causing longer hot dry spells, broken by more intense rainfall.
Climate change has increased contrasts in rainfall amounts between wet and dry seasons. Wet seasons are getting wetter and dry seasons are getting drier. In the northern high latitudes, warming has also caused an increase in the amount of snow and rain. In the Southern Hemisphere, the rain associated with the storm tracks has shifted south. Changes in monsoons vary a lot. More monsoon systems are becoming wetter than drier. In Asia summer monsoons are getting wetter. The West African monsoon is getting wetter over the central Sahel, and drier in the far western Sahel.
### Extreme storms
Storms become wetter under climate change. These include tropical cyclones and extratropical cyclones. Both the maximum and mean rainfall rates increase. This more extreme rainfall is also true for thunderstorms in some regions. Furthermore, tropical cyclones and storm tracks are moving towards the poles. This means some regions will see large changes in maximum wind speeds. Scientists expect there will be fewer tropical cyclones. But they expect their strength to increase. There has probably been an increase in the number of tropical cyclones that intensify rapidly.
## Impacts on land
### Floods
Due to an increase in heavy rainfall events, floods are likely to become more severe when they do occur. The interactions between rainfall and flooding are complex. There are some regions in which flooding is expected to become rarer. This depends on several factors. These include changes in rain and snowmelt, but also soil moisture. Climate change leaves soils drier in some areas, so they may absorb rainfall more quickly. This leads to less flooding. Dry soils can also become harder. In this case heavy rainfall runs off into rivers and lakes. This increases risks of flooding.
### Droughts
Climate change affects many factors associated with droughts. These include how much rain falls and how fast the rain evaporates again. Warming over land increases the severity and frequency of droughts around much of the world. In some tropical and subtropical regions of the world, there will probably be less rain due to global warming. This will make them more prone to drought. Droughts are set to worsen in many regions of the world. These include Central America, the Amazon and south-western South America. They also include West and Southern Africa. The Mediterranean and south-western Australia are also some of these regions.
Higher temperatures increase evaporation. This dries the soil and increases plant stress. Agriculture suffers as a result. This means even regions where overall rainfall is expected to remain relatively stable will experience these impacts. These regions include central and northern Europe. Without climate change mitigation, around one third of land areas are likely to experience moderate or more severe drought by 2100. Due to global warming droughts are more frequent and intense than in the past.
Several impacts make their impacts worse. These are increased water demand, population growth and urban expansion in many areas. Land restoration can help reduce the impact of droughts. One example of this is agroforestry.
### Wildfires
Climate change promotes the type of weather that makes wildfires more likely. In some areas, an increase of wildfires has been attributed directly to climate change. Evidence from Earth's past also shows more fire in warmer periods. Climate change increases evaporation. This can cause vegetation to dry out. When a fire starts in an area with very dry vegetation, it can spread rapidly. Higher temperatures can also lengthen the fire season. This is the time of year in which severe wildfires are most likely, particularly in regions where snow is disappearing.
Weather conditions are raising the risks of wildfires. But the total area burnt by wildfires has decreased. This is mostly because savanna has been converted to cropland, so there are fewer trees to burn. Prescribed burning isan indigenous practice in the US and Australia. It can reduce wildfire burning. The carbon released from wildfires can add to greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate models do not yet full reflect this feedback.
## Oceans
### Sea level rise
## Ice and snow
The cryosphere, the area of the Earth covered by snow or ice, is extremely sensitive to changes in global climate. There has been an extensive loss of snow on land since 1981. Some of the largest declines have been observed in the spring. During the 21st century, snow cover is projected to continue its retreat in almost all regions.
### Glaciers and ice sheets decline
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, there has been a widespread retreat of glaciers. Those glaciers that are not associated with the polar ice sheets lost around 8% of their mass between 1971 and 2019. In the Andes in South America and in the Himalayas in Asia, the retreat of glaciers could impact water supply. The melting of those glaciers could also cause landslides or glacial lake outburst floods.
The melting of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets will continue to contribute to sea level rise over long time-scales. The Greenland ice sheet loss is mainly driven by melt from the top. Antarctic ice loss is driven by warm ocean water melting the outlet glaciers.
Future melt of the West Antarctic ice sheet is potentially abrupt under a high emission scenario, as a consequence of a partial collapse. Part of the ice sheet is grounded on bedrock below sea level. This makes it possibly vulnerable to the self-enhancing process of marine ice sheet instability. Marine ice cliff instability could also contribute to a partial collapse. But there is limited evidence for its importance. A partial collapse of the ice sheet would lead to rapid sea level rise and a local decrease in ocean salinity. It would be irreversible for decades and possibly even millennia. The complete loss of the West Antarctic ice sheet would cause over 5 metres (16 ft) of sea level rise.
In contrast to the West Antarctic ice sheet, melt of the Greenland ice sheet is projected to take place more gradually over millennia. Sustained warming between 1 °C (1.8 °F) (low confidence) and 4 °C (7.2 °F) (medium confidence) would lead to a complete loss of the ice sheet. This would contribute 7 m (23 ft) to sea levels globally. The ice loss could become irreversible due to a further self-enhancing feedback. This is called the elevation-surface mass balance feedback. When ice melts on top of the ice sheet, the elevation drops. Air temperature is higher at lower altitudes, so this promotes further melting.
### Sea ice decline
Sea ice reflects 50% to 70% of the incoming solar radiation back into space. Only 6% of incoming solar energy is reflected by the ocean. As the climate warms, the area covered by snow or sea ice decreases. After sea ice melts, more energy is absorbed by the ocean, so it warms up. This ice-albedo feedback is a self-reinforcing feedback of climate change. Large-scale measurements of sea ice have only been possible since we have been using satellites.
Sea ice in the Arctic has declined in recent decades in area and volume due to climate change. It has been melting more in summer than it refreezes in winter. The decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty-first century. It has a rate of decline of 4.7% per decade. It has declined over 50% since the first satellite records. Ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) degrees of warming. They are set to occur at least once every decade with a warming level of 2 °C (3.6 °F). The Arctic will likely become ice-free at the end of some summers before 2050.
Sea ice extent in Antarctica varies a lot year by year. This makes it difficult to determine a trend, and record highs and record lows have been observed between 2013 and 2023. The general trend since 1979, the start of the satellite measurements, has been roughly flat. Between 2015 and 2023, there has been a decline in sea ice, but due to the high variability, this does not correspond to a significant trend.
### Permafrost thawing
Globally, permafrost warmed by about 0.3 °C between 2007 and 2016. The extent of permafrost has been falling for decades. More decline is expected in the future. Permafrost thaw makes the ground weaker and unstable. The thaw can seriously damage human infrastructure in permafrost areas such as railways, settlements and pipelines. Thawing soil can also release methane and from decomposing microbes. This can generate a strong feedback loop to global warming. Some scientists believe that carbon storage in permafrost globally is approximately 1600 gigatons. This is twice the atmospheric pool.
## Wildlife and nature
Recent warming has had a big effect on natural biological systems. Species worldwide are moving poleward to colder areas. On land, species may move to higher elevations. Marine species find colder water at greater depths. Climate change had the third biggest impact on nature out of various factors in the five decades up to 2020. Only change in land use and sea use and direct exploitation of organisms had a bigger impact.
The impacts of climate change on nature are likely to become bigger in the next few decades. The stresses caused by climate change, combine with other stresses on ecological systems such as land conversion, land degradation, harvesting, and pollution. They threaten substantial damage to unique ecosystems. They can even result in their complete loss and the extinction of species. This can disrupt key interactions between species within ecosystems. This is because species from one location do not leave the warming habitat at the same rate. The result is rapid changes in the way the ecosystem functions. Impacts include changes in regional rainfall patterns. Another is earlier leafing of trees and plants over many regions. Movements of species to higher latitudes and altitudes, changes in bird migrations, and shifting of the oceans' plankton and fish from cold- to warm-adapted communities are other impacts.
These changes of land and ocean ecosystems have direct effects on human well-being. For instance, ocean ecosystems help with coastal protection and provide food. Freshwater and land ecosystems can provide water for human consumption. Furthermore, these ecosystems can store carbon. This helps to stabilize the climate system.
### Ecosystems on land
Climate change is a major driver of biodiversity loss in different land types. These include cool conifer forests, savannas, mediterranean-climate systems, tropical forests, and the Arctic tundra. In other ecosystems, land-use change may be a stronger driver of biodiversity loss, at least in the near term. Beyond 2050, climate change may be the major cause of biodiversity loss globally. Climate change interacts with other pressures. These include habitat modification, pollution and invasive species. Through this interaction, climate change increases the risk of extinction for many terrestrial and freshwater species. At 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) of warming (around 2023) some ecosystems are threatened by mass die-offs of trees and from heatwaves. At 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming, around 10% of species on land would become critically endangered. This differs by group. For instance insects and salamanders are more vulnerable. Rainfall on the Amazon rainforest is recycled when it evaporates back into the atmosphere instead of running off away from the rainforest. This water is essential for sustaining the rainforest. Due to deforestation the rainforest is losing this ability. This effect is even worse because climate change brings more frequent droughts to the area. The higher frequency of droughts in the first two decades of the 21st century and other data signal that a tipping point from rainforest to savanna might be close. A 2019 study concluded that this ecosystem could begin a 50-year-long collapse to a savanna around 2021. After that it would become increasingly and disproportionally more difficult to prevent or reverse this shift.
### Marine ecosystems
Marine heatwaves are happening more often. They have widespread impacts on life in the oceans. These include mass dying events and coral bleaching. Harmful algae blooms have increased. This is in response to warming waters, loss of oxygen and eutrophication. Melting sea ice destroys habitat, including for algae that grows on its underside.
Ocean acidification can harm marine organisms in various ways. Shell-forming organisms like oysters are particularly vulnerable. Some phytoplankton and seagrass species may benefit. However, some of these are toxic to fish phytoplankton species. Their spread poses risks to fisheries and aquaculture. Fighting pollution can reduce the impact of acidification.
Warm-water coral reefs are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a habitat for thousands of species. They provide ecosystem services such as coastal protection and food. The resilience of reefs can be improved by curbing local pollution and overfishing. But 70–90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Coral reefs are framework organisms. They build physical structures that form habitats for other sea creatures. Other framework organisms are also at risk from climate change. Mangroves and seagrass are considered to be at moderate risk from lower levels of global warming.
## Tipping points and irreversible impacts
Feedbacks that reinforce themselves can make climate change worse. The climate system exhibits "threshold behaviour" or tipping points when these feedbacks lead parts of the Earth system into a new state. Examples are the runaway loss of ice sheets or the dieback of forests. Tipping behaviour is found in all parts of the climate system. These include ecosystems, ice sheets, and the circulation of the ocean and atmosphere. Tipping points are studied using data from Earth's distant past and by physical modelling. There is already moderate risk of global tipping points at 1 °C (1.8 °F) above pre-industrial temperatures. That becomes a high risk at 2.5 °C (4.5 °F). It is possible that some tipping points are close or have already been crossed. Examples are the West Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, the Amazon rainforest and warm-water coral reefs.
Tipping points are perhaps the most dangerous aspect of future climate change. They would to irreversible impacts on society. A collapse of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation would likely halve rainfall in India. It would probably lead to severe drops in temperature in Northern Europe. Many tipping points are interlinked. This means triggering one may lead to a cascade of effects. This could happen even well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming. A 2018 study states that 45% of environmental problems, including those caused by climate change, are interconnected. This makes the risk of a domino effect bigger.
Further impacts may be irreversible, at least over the timescale of many human generations. This includes warming of the deep ocean and acidification. These are set to continue even when global temperatures stop rising. In biological systems, the extinction of species would be an irreversible impact. In social systems, unique cultures may be lost. Climate change could make it more likely that endangered languages disappear.
## Health, food security and water security
Humans have a climate niche. This is a certain range of temperatures in which they flourish. Outside that niche, conditions are less favourable. This leads to negative effects on health, food security and more. This niche is a mean annual temperature above 29oC. As of May 2023, 60 million people lived outside this niche. With every additional 0.1 degree of warming, 140 million people will be pushed out of it.
### Health
### Food security
Climate change will affect agriculture and food production around the world. The reasons include the effects of elevated CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere. Higher temperatures and altered precipitation and transpiration regimes are also factors. Increased frequency of extreme events and modified weed, pest, and pathogen pressure are other factors. Droughts result in crop failures and the loss of pasture for livestock. Loss and poor growth of livestock cause milk yield and meat production to decrease. The rate of soil erosion is 10–20 times higher than the rate of soil accumulation in agricultural areas that use no-till farming. In areas with tilling it is 100 times higher. Climate change worsens this type of land degradation and desertification.
Climate change is projected to negatively affect all four pillars of food security. It will affect how much food is available. It will also affect how easy food is to access through prices, food quality, and how stable the food system is. Climate change is already affecting the productivity of wheat and other staples.
In many areas fisheries catches are already decreasing because of global warming and changes in biochemical cycles. In combination with overfishing, warming waters decrease the amount of fish in the ocean. Per degree of warming, ocean biomass is expected to decrease by about 5%. Tropical and subtropical oceans are most affected, while there may be more fish in polar waters.
### Water security
Water resources can be affected by climate change in various ways. The total amount of freshwater available can change, for instance due to dry spells or droughts. Heavy rainfall and flooding can have an impact on water quality. They can transport pollutants into water bodies through increased surface runoff. In coastal regions, more salt may find its way into water resources due to higher sea levels and more intense storms. Higher temperatures also directly degrade water quality. This is because warm water contains less oxygen. Changes in the water cycle threaten existing and future water infrastructure. It will be harder to plan investments for water infrastructure. This is because there are significant uncertainties about future variability of the water cycle.
Between 1.5 and 2.5 billion people live in areas with regular water security issues. If global warming reaches 4 °C (7.2 °F), water insecurity would affect about twice as many people. Water resources are likely to decrease in most dry subtropical regions and mid-latitudes. But they will increase in high latitudes. However, variable streamflow means even regions with increased water resources can experience additional short-term shortages. In the arid regions of India, China, the US and Africa dry spells and drought are already affecting water availability.
## Human settlement
Climate change is particularly likely to affect the Arctic, Africa, small islands, Asian megadeltas and the Middle East regions. Low-latitude, less-developed regions are most at risk of experiencing negative climate change impacts. The ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) are among the most vulnerable in the world to the negative effects of climate change. ASEAN's climate mitigation efforts are not in proportion to the climate change threats the region faces.
### Impacts from heat
Regions inhabited by a third of the human population could become as hot as the hottest parts of the Sahara within 50 years. This would happen if greenhouse gas emissions continue to grow rapdily without a change in patterns of population growth and without migration. The projected average temperature of above 29 °C (84 °F) for these regions would be outside the "human temperature niche". This is a range for climate that is biologically suitable for humans. It is based on historical data of mean annual temperatures. The most affected regions have little adaptive capacity.
Increased extreme heat exposure from climate change and the urban heat island effect threatens urban settlements. This is made worse by the loss of shade from urban trees that cannot withstand the heat stress.
In 2019, the Crowther Lab from ETH Zurich paired the climatic conditions of 520 major cities worldwide with the predicted climatic conditions of cities in 2050. It found that 22% of the major cities would have climatic conditions that do not exist in any city today. For instance, 2050 London would have a climate similar to 2019 Melbourne in Australia. Athens and Madrid would be like Fez in Morocco. Nairobi in Kenya would be like Maputo in Mozambique. The Indian city Pune would be like Bamako in Mali and Bamako would be like Niamey in Niger. Brasilia would be like Goiania, both in Brazil.
### Low-lying coastal regions
Low-lying cities and other settlements near the sea face multiple simultaneous risks from climate change. They face flooding risks from sea level rise. In addition they may face impacts from more severe storms, ocean acidification, and salt intrusion into the groundwater. Changes like continued development in exposed areas increase the risks that these regions face. Population density on the coasts is high. Estimates of the number of people at risk of coastal flooding from climate-driven sea level rise vary. Estimates range from 190 million to 300 million. It could even be 640 million in a worst-case scenario related to the instability of the Antarctic ice sheet. People are most affected in the densely-populated low-lying megadeltas of Asia and Africa.
Small island developing states are especially vulnerable. They are likely to experience more intense storm surges, salt water intrusion and coastal destruction. Low-lying small islands in the Pacific, Indian, and Caribbean regions even risk permanent inundation. This would displace their population. On the islands of Fiji, Tonga and western Samoa, migrants from outer islands inhabit low and unsafe areas along the coasts. The entire populations of small atoll nations such as Kiribati, Maldives, the Marshall Islands, and Tuvalu are at risk of being displaced. This could raise issues of statelessness. Several factors increase their vulnerability. These are small size, isolation from other land, low financial resources, and lack of protective infrastructure.
## Impacts on societies
Climate change has many impacts on society. It affects health, the availability of drinking water and food, inequality and economic growth. The effects of climate change are often interlinked. They can exacerbate each other as well as existing vulnerabilities. Some areas may become too hot for humans to live in. Climate-related changes or disasters may lead people in some areas to move to other parts of the country or to other countries.
Some scientists describe the effects of climate change, with continuing increases in greenhouse gas emissions, as a "climate emergency" or "climate crisis". Some researchers and activists describe them as an existential threat to civilization. Some define these threats under climate security. The consequences of climate change, and the failure to address it, can distract people from tackling its root causes. This leads to what some researchers have termed a "climate doom loop".
### Displacement and migration
Displacement is when people move within a country. Migration is when they move to another country. Some people use the terms interchangeably. Climate change affects displacement in several ways. More frequent and severe weather-related disasters may increase involuntary displacement. These destroy homes and habitats. Climate impacts such as desertification and rising sea levels gradually erode livelihoods. They force communities to abandon traditional homelands. Other forms of migration are adaptive and voluntary. They are based on individual or household decisions. On the other hand, some households may fall into poverty or get poorer due to climate change. This limits their ability to move to less affected areas.
Migration due to climate and weather is usually within countries. But it is long-distance. Slow-onset disasters such as droughts and heat are more likely to cause long-term migration than weather disasters like floods. Migration due to desertification and reduced soil fertility is typically from rural areas in developing countries to towns and cities.
According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, extreme weather events displaced approximately 30 million people in 2020. Violence and wars displaced approximately 10 million in the same year. There may have been a contribution of climate change to these conflicts. In 2018, the World Bank estimated that climate change will cause internal migration of between 31 and 143 million people by 2050. This would be as they escape crop failures, water scarcity, and sea level rise. The study covered only Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America.
### Conflict
Climate change can worsen conflicts over water and other resources. Climate change can also cause large population dislocations and migration. This can lead to increased tensions. Scientists have found that factors other than climate change were more important in affecting conflict over the last century. One such factor is inequality between groups. Another is low socio-economic development. In some cases, climate change can lead to more peaceful relationships between groups. This is because environmental problems need common policies.
Global warming has been described as a "threat multiplier". Conditions in certain places make it more likely that climate change will have an impact on conflict. These include ethnic exclusion, economies dependent on agriculture, insufficient infrastructure, poor local governance, and low levels of development. A spike in wheat prices following crop losses from a period of drought may have contributed to the onset of the "Arab Spring" protests and revolutions in 2010.
### Economic impacts
Economic forecasts of the impact of global warming vary considerably. The impacts are worse if there is insufficient adaptation. Economic modelling may underrate the impact of catastrophic climatic changes. When estimating losses, economists choose a discount rate. This determines how much one prefers to have goods or cash now compared to at a future date. Using a high discount rate may understate economic losses. This is because losses for future generations weigh less heavily.
Economic impacts are bigger the more the temperature rises. Scientists have compared impacts with warming of 1.5 oC (2.7 oF) and a level of 3.66 oC (6.59 oF). They use this higher figure to represent no efforts to stop emissions. They found that total damages at 1.5 oC were 90% less than at 3.66 oC. One study found that global GDP at the end of the century would be 3.5% less if warming is limited to 3 °C (5.4 °F). This study excludes the potential effect of tipping points. Another study found that excluding tipping points underestimates the global economic impact by a factor of two to eight. Another study found that a temperature rise of 2 °C (3.6 °F) by 2050 would reduce global GDP by 2.5%–7.5%. By 2100 in this scenario the temperature would rise by 4 °C (7.2 °F). This could reduce global GDP by 30% in the worst case.
Global losses reveal rapidly rising costs due to extreme weather events since the 1970s. Socio-economic factors have contributed to the observed trend of global losses. These factors include population growth and increased wealth. Regional climatic factors also play a role. These include changes in precipitation and flooding events. It is difficult to quantify the relative impact of socio-economic factors and climate change on the observed trend. The trend does suggest social systems are increasing vulnerable to climate change.
#### Economic inequality
Climate change has contributed to global economic inequality. Wealthy countries in colder regions have felt little overall economic impact from climate change or may have benefited. Poor hotter countries probably grew less than if there had been no global warming.
#### Highly affected sectors
Climate change has a bigger impact on economic sectors directly affected by weather than on other sectors. It heavily affects agriculture, fisheries and forestry. It also affects the tourism and energy sectors. Agriculture and forestry have suffered economic losses due to droughts and extreme heat. If global warming goes over 1.5 oC, there may be limits to how much tourism and outdoor work can adapt.
In the energy sector, thermal power plants depend on water to cool them. Climate change can increase the likelihood of drought and fresh water shortages. Higher operating temperatures make them less efficient. This reduces their output. Hydropower is affected by changes in the water cycle such as river flows. Diminished river flows can cause power shortages in areas that depend on hydroelectric power. Brazil relies on hydroelectricity. So it is particularly vulnerable. Rising temperatures, lower water flow, and changes in rainfall could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century. Climate change affects oil and natural gas infrastructure. This is also vlunerable to the increased risk of disasters such as storms, cyclones, flooding and rising sea levels.
Global warming affects the insurance and financial services sectors. Insurance is an important tool to manage risks. But it is often unavailable to poorer households. Due to climate change, premiums are going up for certain types of insurance, such as flood insurance. Poor adaptation to climate change further widens the gap between what people can afford and the costs of insurance, as risks increase. In 2019 Munich Re said climate change could make home insurance unaffordable for households at or below average incomes.
### Social impacts on vulnerable groups
Climate change does not affect people within communities in the same way. It can have a bigger impact on vulnerable groups such as women, the elderly, religious minorities and refugees than on others.
- People living in poverty: Climate change disproportionally affects poor people in low-income communities and developing countries around the world. Those in poverty have a higher chance of experiencing the ill-effects of climate change, due to their increased exposure and vulnerability. A 2020 World Bank paper estimated that between 32 million to 132 million additional people will be pushed into extreme poverty by 2030 due to climate change.
- Women: Climate change increases gender inequality. It reduces women's ability to be financially independent, and has an overall negative impact on the social and political rights of women. This is especially the case in economies that are heavily based on agriculture.
- Indigenous peoples: Indigenous communities tend to rely more on the environment for food and other necessities. This makes them more vulnerable to disturbances in ecosystems. Indigenous communities across the globe generally have bigger economic disadvantages than non-indigenous communities. This is due to the oppression they have experienced. These disadvantages include less access to education and jobs and higher rates of poverty. All this makes them more vulnerable to climate change.
- Children: The Lancet review on health and climate change lists children among the worst-affected by global warming. Children are 14–44 percent more likely to die from environmental factors.
### Possibility of societal collapse
Climate change has long been described as a severe risk to humans. Climate change as an existential threat has emerged as a key theme in the climate movement. People from Small island nations also use this theme. There has not been extensive research in this topic. Existential risks are threats that could cause the extinction of humanity or destroy the potential of intelligent life on Earth. Key risks of climate change do not fit that definition. However, some key climate risks do have an impact people's ability to survive. For instance, areas may become too hot to survive, or sea level rise may make it impossible to live at a specific location.
## See also
- Anthropocene
- Global catastrophic risk
- Politics of climate change
|
30,128,954 |
Nuno Mendes (footballer, born 1978)
| 1,164,479,184 |
Portuguese footballer (born 1978)
|
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"C.D. Santa Clara players",
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"F.C. Felgueiras players",
"F.C. Penafiel players",
"Footballers from Guimarães",
"G.D. Chaves players",
"Gondomar S.C. players",
"Liga Portugal 2 players",
"Ligue 1 players",
"Ligue 2 players",
"Living people",
"Men's association football defenders",
"Men's association football midfielders",
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"Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in France",
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"Primeira Liga players",
"RC Strasbourg Alsace players",
"S.C. Braga players",
"Segunda Divisão players",
"U.D. Leiria players",
"US Créteil-Lusitanos players",
"Vitória S.C. players"
] |
Nuno Alexandre Pereira Mendes (born 7 April 1978) is a Portuguese former professional footballer who could play in defence and midfield.
He began his career with Vitória Guimarães and made his first team debut during the 1996–97 Primeira Liga season. Mendes spent three seasons in Liga de Honra, playing for Aves, Felgueiras and Chaves respectively before moving to France to join Division 1 club Strasbourg in 2000. He returned to Portugal a year later to play for União Leiria, managed by José Mourinho, before spending a brief period with Braga in 2002. Mendes spent 18 months with Moreirense and then dropped down a division to play for Santa Clara in 2004.
A year later, Mendes played in England for Championship club Plymouth Argyle before returning to France with Créteil of Ligue 2. Having spent a brief spell with Penafiel in 2007, he returned to Aves, where he played for two seasons in Liga de Honra. He dropped down to the Portuguese third division in 2009 to play for Moreirense before spending a season with Trofense. Mendes retired in 2011 after a year with third division side Gondomar. He represented Portugal at under-21 level.
## Club career
Mendes was born in Guimarães. He joined his home town club, Vitória Guimarães, at an early age and progressed through their youth system. He made his first team debut in a 4–1 win against Chaves on 23 February 1997. He made 5 more appearances that season, including a 1–0 defeat to Marítimo on 2 May 1997, which was his last for Vitória. Mendes joined Liga de Honra side Aves on loan for the 1997–98 season. He scored four goals in 27 league appearances for the club as they finished 15th in the table. The following season, he joined Felgueiras on loan. They finished 5th in Liga de Honra and Mendes was a first team regular. He made 28 league appearances and scored two goals. Mendes had his contract with Vitória Guimarães terminated in June 1999, allowing him to sign a two-year deal with Chaves.
He made 27 league appearances in his only season with the club, scoring twice, as they finished 12th in Liga de Honra. He moved to France in June 2000 to play for Division 1 club Strasbourg. Having signed a four-year contract, he made his debut in a 1–1 draw at Lille on 29 November 2000. He found first team opportunities limited during the 2000–01 season, making six more league appearances as the club were relegated to Division 2. However, the season did end well for Mendes as he won his first trophy as a professional, the Coupe de France. He made two appearances in the competition, but did not play in the final where Strasbourg defeated Amiens on penalties.
Mendes returned to Portugal ahead of the 2001–02 season, joining Primeira Liga club União Leiria on a season-long loan. Reflecting on his time in France, he said "I never hid my desire to return to Portugal, but now I can not say anything more." He made his debut on 11 August 2001 in a 0–0 draw at Braga. Mendes played regularly under the management of José Mourinho prior to his departure to Porto, but fell out of favour under his replacement, Vítor Pontes. He made 16 league appearances for Leiria, helping the club finish 7th in the Primeira Liga, before returning to Strasbourg. Upon his departure, Mendes was critical of the club's president João Bartolomeu, who he believed created instability at the club. "The Union of Leiria is a complicated club at senior management level, especially the president, who sees things where they do not exist and it creates instability in the squad," said Mendes who "leaves great friends in Leiria".
In May 2002, he signed a two-year contract with Braga. He made his debut in a 3–2 defeat at Belenenses on 5 October 2002. In a season disrupted by injuries, Mendes only played in one more match for Braga, against his old club Vitória Guimarães. He had his contract cancelled in January 2003, which allowed him to join Moreirense. He made his debut on 3 February 2003 in a 1–1 draw at Benfica. He made two more appearances that season as the club finished 12th in the table. Having fractured his foot in July 2003, he was used sparingly during the 2003–04 season by manager Manuel Machado. He made four league appearances in an injury-plagued season, as the club finished 9th in the Primeira Liga. Mendes dropped down a division in June 2004 after signing a one-year contract with Santa Clara. "This project is attractive," he said. "The coach, Jose Morais, spoke to me and showed willingness in me to go to the Azores and that's important. I know that Santa Clara is going through some difficulties, but the Department intends to make a financial recovery in time and maybe next season bet on rising."
He made his debut on 29 August 2004 in a 3–1 defeat against Feirense and was sent off for two bookable offences. The club finished 15th in Liga de Honra in the 2004–05 season, with Mendes making 17 league appearances. He scored his first goal for the club in his final game, a 4–0 win against Naval on 22 May 2005. After his contract with Santa Clara expired, he joined English Championship club Plymouth Argyle on their pre-season tour of Sweden in July 2005. Having appeared in friendlies against Betsele and Umeå, he signed a permanent contract with the club. "I am delighted to have got him," said manager Bobby Williamson of his new signing. "It's a great opportunity that I could not miss," Mendes said in an interview with Portuguese newspaper Record. "It is valid for two seasons, with a few perks that are unheard of in Portugal. Essentially, the level of premiums for targets, as is normal in English football."
Mendes made his debut in a 1–0 defeat at Crystal Palace on 20 August 2005. He made two more appearances, including one in a 2–1 League Cup win against Peterborough United, before losing his place in the squad when Bobby Williamson was replaced by Tony Pulis as manager. He had a trial with Major League Soccer club New York Metrostars in January 2006 before his contract with Plymouth Argyle was cancelled by mutual consent. In June 2006, he returned to France where he signed a two-year contract with Créteil of Ligue 2. He made his debut on 28 July 2006 in a 0–0 draw with Guingamp. Mendes made six more appearances for the club, before being released from his contract in December 2006. A month later, he returned to Portugal where he signed a short-term contract with Liga de Honra club Penafiel. He made his debut in a 1–0 defeat at Rio Ave on 4 February 2007, and made 5 more appearances during the 2006–07 season as Penafiel finished 8th in the table. Having reached the end of his contract with the club, Mendes returned to Aves ahead of the new season.
He made his league debut on 18 August 2007 in a 2–1 defeat at home to Olhanense. Mendes scored his first goal in his second stint for Aves on 17 February 2008 in a 1–1 draw with Trofense, and he scored again one week later in a 2–1 defeat at Varzim. He finished the 2007–08 season with 23 league appearances and two goals, helping the club finish 8th in the Liga de Honra table. He made four more league appearances the following season, before being released from his contract in January 2009 due to a lack of first team opportunities. Mendes dropped down to the third division of Portuguese football later that month, for the first time in his career, to return to Moreirense. He made his debut on 25 January 2009 in a 1–0 win at Chaves, and scored his first goal a week later in a 2–2 draw with Tirsense. Mendes scored two goals in a 3–0 win against Ribeirão on 8 February 2009 and was sent off later in the game. He scored four goals in 12 appearances for the club, but Moreirense were unable to gain promotion back to Liga de Honra, finishing 2nd, three points behind Chaves.
In August 2009, Mendes joined Liga de Honra club Trofense on a one-year contract. He made his league debut on 19 September 2009 in a 3–0 defeat at Feirense. He made eight more league appearances, before being released from his contract in January 2010. He then returned to the Segunda Divisão with Gondomar and he made his debut on 31 January 2010 in a 2–0 win against Vieira. His first goal for the club came one week later in a 4–4 draw with Espinho. Mendes scored his second goal in a 2–1 win against Padroense. He made 12 league appearances in the 2009–10 season, scoring twice, as they finished 4th in the table. Having lost his place in the team during the 2010–11 season – making one league appearance – Mendes left Gondomar at the end of the campaign and subsequently retired from playing.
## International career
Mendes represented the Portugal national team at every youth level: under-16 to under-21. He earned four caps at under-21 level.
## Career statistics
Sources:
## Honours
- Coupe de France: 2000–01
|
21,917,116 |
Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)
| 1,173,333,341 |
2009 single by Lady Gaga
|
[
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"2008 songs",
"2009 singles",
"Cherrytree Records singles",
"Interscope Records singles",
"Lady Gaga songs",
"Music videos directed by Jonas Åkerlund",
"Number-one singles in Germany",
"Number-one singles in Scotland",
"Songs about fame",
"Songs about stalking",
"Songs about the media",
"Songs written by Lady Gaga",
"Songs written by Rob Fusari",
"Synth-pop ballads"
] |
"Paparazzi" is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her debut studio album, The Fame (2008). It was released as the album's fifth and final single by Interscope Records. Gaga wrote and produced the song with Rob Fusari. The song portrays Gaga's struggles in her quest for fame, as well as balancing success and love. Musically, it is an uptempo techno-pop and dance-pop ballad whose lyrics describe a stalker following somebody to grab attention and fame.
The single was released on May 29, 2009, through the music video. On July 6, 2009, it was released digitally in Ireland and the United Kingdom and four days later physically in Australia. "LoveGame" initially had been planned as the third single release in the UK, but when its lyrics and music video were deemed potentially controversial, it was decided that "Paparazzi" would be released instead. "Paparazzi" was critically acclaimed for its "fun-filled" and club-friendly nature. It was also commercially successful, reaching top-ten positions in the music charts of Australia, Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States and topping the charts in the Czech Republic, Germany and Scotland.
The accompanying music video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and portrays Gaga as a doomed starlet, hounded by photographers, who is almost killed by her boyfriend (played by Alexander Skarsgård). It shows her survival, comeback, revenge on her boyfriend, and experiences on the way to fame. The video won two MTV Video Music Awards in 2009 for Best Art Direction and Best Special Effects. Gaga performed the song at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards in a performance art piece symbolizing the negative effect of fame leading to death. Additional live performances of the song took place during many of her concert tours and residency shows.
## Background and release
Before she rose to fame, Lady Gaga met music producer Rob Fusari in March 2006 and began dating him in May. Gaga traveled daily to New Jersey to work on songs she had written and compose new material with Fusari. While working together, he compared some of her vocal harmonies to those of Freddie Mercury, lead singer of Queen. He also created the "Lady Gaga" moniker after the Queen song "Radio Ga Ga". Although the musical relationship between Fusari and Gaga was unsuccessful at first, the pair soon started writing more songs for Gaga. Towards the end of 2007, Gaga's management company introduced her to songwriter and producer RedOne, whom they also managed.
By 2008, Gaga relocated to Los Angeles to work extensively with her record label to complete her debut album, The Fame, and set up her own creative team called the Haus of Gaga. "Paparazzi" was one of the songs written by Gaga and Fusari who also produced the track. In a 2009 interview with Rolling Stone, Gaga recalled her relationship with a heavy metal drummer called Luke, who became an inspiration for most of the songs on The Fame, including "Paparazzi". The song became a symbol for Gaga to escape her own narcissism and desire for fame. She was infatuated with Luke, calling him "the love of her life", and ready to be his fan, to turn the camera around and photograph him.
To the Australian Daily Telegraph, Gaga explained that "Paparazzi" was about struggling to balance success and love. Further explanations said that the song was about trying to win the paparazzi and the media in one's favor. "It's a love song for the cameras, but it's also a love song about fame or love – can you have both, or can you only have one", she concluded. "Paparazzi" was the album's third single in Ireland, Italy, and the United Kingdom, the fourth in Canada and the United States and the fifth in Australia, France and New Zealand. Although released on July 6, 2009, in the United Kingdom and four days later in Australia, "LoveGame" initially had been planned as the third single release in the former but deeming its lyrics and music video potentially controversial, it was decided that "Paparazzi" would be released instead.
## Recording and composition
"Paparazzi" was recorded at 150 Studios in Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey. Along with the production and songwriting of the track, Gaga also did the background vocals and played piano and synthesizer. Calvin "Sci-Fidelty" Gaines did the programming and Fusari did the audio engineering and recording. Other personnel involved in creating the final version of the song included Robert Orton who did the audio mixing, and Gene Grimaldi who mastered the song at Oasis Mastering Studios, Burbank, California.
"Paparazzi" is a dance-pop and techno-pop song with an uptempo, sultry beat similar to Gaga's previous singles "Just Dance" and "Poker Face". According to the sheet music published by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, the song has a moderate electro-synth groove. It is composed in the key of C minor (A major in the chorus) with a tempo of 115 beats per minute. It is set in common time, and Gaga's vocal range spans from a low-note of G<sub>3</sub> to the high-note of E<sub>5</sub>. The verses follow in the chord progression of Cm–A–Cm and the chorus uses an A–E–Fm–D progression. The lyrics of "Paparazzi" deal with stalking and the trappings of fame. Gaga sings about her desire to get attention from the cameras: "I'm your biggest fan/I'll follow you until you love me/Papa, paparazzi."
## Critical reception
The song received acclaim from music critics, and has been considered one of the best songs in Gaga's discography years after its release. In 2011, Rolling Stone called it the second greatest Gaga song of all time, praising the song's theme and beat. Jill Menze of Billboard, while reviewing The Fame Ball Tour, complimented Gaga's vocals on the song by saying, "The fame-obsessed ballad 'Paparazzi' showed how adept she can be with her range." Alexis Petridis of The Guardian said that, "You may quickly tire of hearing the album's theme constantly reiterated, but the tune of 'Paparazzi' takes up residence in your brain and refuses to budge." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called the song clever and said that it "functions simultaneously as glorious pop trash and a wicked parody of it."
Priya Elan of The Times thought that "even the trio of songs that provides the core of the album's celebrity theme ('Paparazzi', 'Beautiful Dirty Rich', and the title track) don't ruminate on the addictive inanity of fame, choosing instead to observe passively." David Balls from Digital Spy praised Gaga's decision of releasing a mid-tempo track after two uptempos ("Just Dance" and "Poker Face") saying that "thanks to a typically catchy chorus and some smart, celebrity-themed lyrics, very nearly as thrilling in the finish. Backed with a hilariously self-indulgent video, it seems GaGa still has us firmly in her clutch and, ahem, squealing for more."
Evan Sawdey of PopMatters said that both "Paparazzi" and the earlier single "Poker Face" are comparable with the musical styles of first single "Just Dance" but added that "never once does it feel like Gaga is deliberately repeating herself; instead, her faults only come from covering territory that she's obviously not prepared for." Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post said that even though Gaga turns somewhat serious while disapprovingly singing "Paparazzi", the song comes across as flat and faceless as well as vapid. Erika Howard of the New Times Broward-Palm Beach called it the most telling track from the album.
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that "'Paparazzi' is a love letter from camera to subject but stops short of admitting that the affection runs both ways. Any notion that Lady Gaga is sketching an elaborate stunt is stopped cold at the lyric sheet, a perverse flaunting of simplicity that betrays no cynicism whatsoever." Pitchfork Media ranked "Paparazzi" number 83 on their list of 2009's 100 best tracks. NME ranked it at number 9 in their list of the best songs of 2009.
## Chart performance
In the United States, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 74 on the issue dated September 12, 2009, and reached a peak of number six, becoming her fourth consecutive top-ten single on the chart. With the song, Gaga joined Christina Aguilera, Beyoncé, and Fergie as the only women this decade to collect four Hot 100 top-tens from a debut album. It also reached the top of Billboard's Pop Songs chart, thus making Gaga the first artist in the 17-year history of Pop Songs chart to have her first four singles from a debut album reach the top of the chart. The song also topped the Hot Dance Club Songs chart. As of February 2018, it has sold 3.6 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen Soundscan. It became Gaga's fourth song to top the three-million mark, and was certified five-times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "Paparazzi" debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 92 and moved up to number 57 the following week becoming the week's greatest digital gainer. The song ultimately peaked at number three on the chart, in its 13th week.
"Paparazzi" debuted on the official Australian Singles Chart at number 73 on the issue dated June 1, 2009, and leaped to 27 the next week. The song ultimately peaked at number two, giving Gaga her fourth top five single in Australia. The song was certified two-times Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipment of 140,000 copies. In New Zealand, "Paparazzi" debuted at number 23 on the week ending June 22, 2009, and reached a peak of number five. The song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) after 14 weeks on the chart, for shipping over 7,500 copies.
In the UK, "Paparazzi" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 99 in February 2009 due to digital downloads after the release of The Fame. It reached number 13 for the issue dated June 21, 2009, after jumping from 43 to this position from the last week. The next week the song further climbed to number eight and ultimately peaked at number four. As of July 2022, the song has sold 942,000 copies in the UK with 39 million streams and is certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). "Paparazzi" debuted at number 38 on the Irish Singles Chart and peaked at number four. "Paparazzi" reached number one in Germany, making it her second chart-topper there. The song also debuted on the Dutch Top 40 at number 27 on the issue dated July 18, 2009. It peaked at number four on its sixth week on the chart. In Italy, the song debuted at number 19 and then climbed to number three, becoming Gaga's second top three there.
## Music video
### Background
The music video was directed by Swedish director, Jonas Åkerlund, who had previously directed music videos for artists like the Smashing Pumpkins, Madonna, Moby, Rammstein, and U2. His wife Bea Åkerlund was hired as Gaga's stylist for the video. It was filmed on April 13–14, 2009 at Villa de León in Malibu, California, and at Chateau d'Or in Bel Air, Los Angeles. Gaga told MTV News that she was satisfied with the finished version of the "Paparazzi" video, likening it to a short film. In an interview with The Canadian Press on May 26, 2009, Gaga cited her video as "the most amazing creative work that [she's] put together so far." She went on to describe the message of the video:
> It has a real, genuine, powerful message about fame-whoring and death and the demise of the celebrity, and what that does to young people. The video explores ideas about sort of hyperbolic situations that people will go to in order to be famous. Most specifically, pornography and murder. These are some of the major themes in the video.
Later, in her V magazine cover story, Gaga believed that Diana, Princess of Wales was referenced in the video, claiming she died because of being a martyr symbolic of fame. The video was supposed to premiere on June 4, 2009, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, on Channel 4. However, while touring in Australia, Gaga posted a message on her Twitter account on May 29, 2009, saying "Stop leaking my motherf\*\*king videos", which referred to the video being released without the singer's consent.
### Synopsis
The music video is seven minutes long. Swedish actor Alexander Skarsgård plays Gaga's boyfriend. The video features a murderous plot line involving a doomed starlet who is constantly followed by photographers. The video opens with a shot of a seaside mansion, where Gaga and her boyfriend are shown lying on a bed talking in Swedish. They move to the balcony and start making out; however, when hidden photographers start taking pictures of them, Gaga realizes that her boyfriend has set the paparazzi to photograph her and tries to stop him. Her struggles nevertheless remain futile even when she punches him, and in a final frantic attempt at defense, she smashes a nearby bottle of liquor into his face. The enraged boyfriend throws her over the balcony. Gaga lies on the ground in her own blood as the photographers continue to take pictures of her bloody body and tabloid headlines proclaim that her career is over. According to Rolling Stone, this scene pays homage to Alfred Hitchcock's film Vertigo (1958).
Later, Gaga is shown getting out of a limousine, being carried by male dancers to a wheelchair. It is during this scene that the song starts. As the dancers gyrate around her, she starts walking down the carpet with the help of a pair of crutches while wearing a metallic bustier and a matching helmet. The metallic outfit is a reference to the film Metropolis (1927). These scenes are interspersed with scenes of dead models lying around the mansion. Next Gaga is shown on a golden couch where she makes out with a trio of hair metal rockers during the line "Loving you is cherry pie". The trio, which consist of the triplets Calle "Kelii" Landeberg, Nisse "Izzy" Landeberg, and Pelle "Rock" Landeberg are known as Snake of Eden and they are from the reality television dating program Daisy of Love. According to MTV, this scene is a reference to the song "Cherry Pie" by American glam band Warrant. The video continues through the intermediate bridge with Gaga wearing a dress made up of film strips and a towering feathered Mohawk headdress.
In the next scene, Gaga and her eye-patch wearing boyfriend are reading magazines on a sofa in a tea room. Gaga wears a yellow jumpsuit with circular glasses and shoulder pads. The Guardian compared this look with that of Minnie Mouse. She finally takes her revenge on her boyfriend by discreetly poisoning his drink with white powder concealed in her ring. As he falls dead, Gaga calls 9-1-1 and declares that she just killed her boyfriend. The police arrive at the mansion and arrest Gaga who, wearing a tall ice cream cone corkscrew wig, walks to the police car as the paparazzi surround her once again. Images flash by, with newspapers proclaiming her innocence and that Gaga is back in the spotlight and has regained her fame. The video ends with Gaga posing for mug shots like a fashion model while wearing a tulip shaped metallic dress similar to the single cover.
### Reception
Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps compared the video with the 1992 music video for "November Rain" by Guns N' Roses. He described the scenes of the dead models as stomach-turning while complimenting the video for "brimming with cinematic style [so] that it's hard to take your eyes off it, though it will likely be labeled as a little self-indulgent." He also commented on the leaking of the video, saying that it "warranted more than just a simple leak; it deserved a red carpet." Anna Pickard from The Guardian complimented the video saying that "quite a lot of work has gone into it". However, she opined that the video was too long. Entertainment Weekly gave a positive review of the video, saying "it gives us even more of the next-level cuckoo we've come to expect from the girl born Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta." The paparazzi theme of the video was compared to Britney Spears' 2004 music video, "Everytime". MTV News called the video a "1940s romantic-epic-style video" that "proves once and for all that Gaga is a true original with a unique vision." The video was nominated for five VMAs at the 2009 awards in the categories of Best Direction, Best Editing, Best Special Effects, Best Cinematography and Best Art Direction. Along with four other nominations for "Poker Face", she and Beyoncé were tied for most nominations that year. The video won the award for Best Art Direction and Best Special Effects. The music video for Gaga's single "Telephone" is a continuation of the "Paparazzi" music video, and is a short film as well. The video picks up right where "Paparazzi" left off; starting with Gaga in prison.
## Live performances
Gaga performed "Paparazzi" live on the UK program, The Album Chart Show on February 14, 2009, as promotion for The Fame. The song was performed at Capital Radio 95.8 FM in an acoustic piano version on May 1, 2009. On June 26, 2009, Gaga performed the song at the Glastonbury Festival emerging from a silver case on stage. The song was a major part of Gaga's performance in her first headlining Fame Ball tour as the opening number of the setlist. The show started with a video intro called "The Heart" where Gaga played an alternate persona called Candy Warhol. She wore a silver and black short skirt like a tutu and shaped like peplum on both sides. She was surrounded by her dancers holding plates which were encrusted with crystals and completely hid them. The stage was surrounded by mechanical fog and heavy lighting was being emitted from the background.
"Paparazzi" was performed at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, which began with Gaga lying on the floor, on a set that was described as an ornate mansion. She stumbled across the stage and did choreographed dance moves, finally ending up playing a piano. The final chorus involved theatrical blood dripping from Gaga's ribcage as Gaga collapsed on the stage wailing in agony and one of the dancers gently lifted her. Gaga then hung lifeless with one hand rising above her dancers and blood smeared on her face with a golden halo being projected on the screen behind her. Gaga dedicated the performance to her fans. Ashley Laderer from Billboard opined that "this was the performance that really made Lady Gaga. It proved she was more than just a superficial pop star—she was an artist, and quite unlike one we'd ever seen before, a true force to be reckoned with." Morgan Evans of Harper's Bazaar thought that Gaga's VMA performance "introduced the world to the darker, edgier side she would soon become known for."
The song was performed by Gaga in a similar choreography at the thirty-fifth season of NBC's late night comedy show Saturday Night Live. It was also present on the set list of Gaga's Monster Ball Tour (2009–2011). On the original version of the show, she wore multiple donned braided extensions and was perched atop a railing. From each of her braids, a dancer was attached on the stage. A backdrop of stars were shown during the performance. During the revised Monster Ball shows, Gaga changed the concept and the performance of the song. She wore an emerald green dress by Thierry Mugler, and was attacked by a giant, mechanical Angler fish. Gaga then removed the dress to reveal a leotard of the same color and during the bridge she is lowered beneath the stage to acquire her pyro-technic bra. In the final chorus of the song Gaga returns and kills the monster with the sparks from the bra. The song was part of the setlist of Gaga's 2012–2013 tour, the Born This Way Ball. Gaga was notably absent from stage for the first two minutes of the song, and "Mother G.O.A.T.", a floating mechanical head performed it instead of her. Gaga then emerged on stage, and concluded the song while shooting the head, making it to cry blood.
During the ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour (2014), Gaga performed "Paparazzi" dressed up in a polka-dotted rubber outfit with tentacles growing out around her waist and her head. Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone described her look as "she had an inflatable rubber order of fried calamari growing out of her spine", while Adam Carlson from Billboard said that the outfit made Gaga look like a "dancing Ursula from The Little Mermaid ". The song was added to the setlist of the Joanne World Tour (2017–2018), where she was wearing a red leather bodysuit and tassel leather boots, and the performance ended with a choreographed attack on Gaga by her dancers.
"Paparazzi" was performed on Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano (2018–2022), the singer's Las Vegas residency, which consist of two different shows. On the Enigma shows, she performs "Paparazzi" in a floating orb-like cage that is elevated above the audience, while on the Jazz and Piano show, she performs it on the piano, with "the full orchestra kicking in with some apropos suspense-movie chase music". Talking about the latter, John Katsilometes of the Las Vegas Review-Journal argued that "a live version of that song in Vegas would be a hit single", saying that the "raging" performance "always jolts the crowd to a standing ovation".
## Track listing
UK / AUS CD single
1. "Paparazzi" (Album Version) – 3:28
2. "Paparazzi" (Filthy Dukes Remix) – 5:21
CAN / AUS / US / FRA remix EP
1. "Paparazzi" (Stuart Price Remix) – 3:19
2. "Paparazzi" (Moto Blanco Edit) – 4:05
3. "Paparazzi" (Filthy Dukes Club Mix) – 5:21
4. "Paparazzi" (James Carameta Tabloid Club Edit) – 4:27
UK / IRE remix EP
1. "Paparazzi" – 3:27
2. "Paparazzi" (Filthy Dukes Club Mix) – 5:21
3. "Paparazzi" (Moto Blanco Edit) – 4:05
4. "Paparazzi" (Stuart Price Remix) – 3:19
5. "Paparazzi" (Yuksek Remix) – 4:47
US iTunes Remix EP \#2
1. "Paparazzi" (Chew Fu Ghettohouse Radio Edit) – 3:39
2. "Paparazzi" (Yuksek Remix) – 4:47
3. "Paparazzi" (James Camareta Tabloid Club Edit) – 4:27
US 'The Remixes' CD single
1. "Paparazzi" (Demolition Crew Remix) – 3:55
2. "Paparazzi" (Moto Blanco Edit) – 4:05
3. "Paparazzi" (Stuart Price Remix) – 3:19
4. "Paparazzi" (Filthy Dukes Club Mix) – 5:21
5. "Paparazzi" (James Camareta Tabloid Club Edit) – 4:27
6. "Paparazzi" (Album Version) – 3:29
7. "Paparazzi" (Instrumental Version) – 3:29
FRA / GER remix EP / GER CD single
1. "Paparazzi" (Moto Blanco Edit) – 4:05
2. "Paparazzi" (Moto Blanco Bostic Dub) – 6:42
3. "Paparazzi" (Demolition Crew Remix) – 3:55
4. "Paparazzi" (Stuart Price Remix) – 3:19
5. "Paparazzi" (Filthy Dukes Club Mix) – 5:21
6. "Paparazzi" (Yuksek Remix) – 4:47
7. "Paparazzi" (James Camareta Tabloid Club Edit) – 4:27
8. "Paparazzi" (Radio Edit) – 3:28
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Fame.
- Lady Gaga – vocals, songwriting, co-production, piano, synthesizer
- Rob Fusari – songwriting, production
- Calvin "Sci-Fidelty" Gaines – programming
- Robert Orton – audio mixing
- Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering, Burbank, California
- Recorded at 150 Studios, Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Decade-end charts
## Certifications and sales
## Release history
## See also
- List of best-selling singles of the 2000s (Australia)
- List of Billboard Mainstream Top 40 number-one songs of 2009
- List of number-one songs of the 2000s (Czech Republic)
- List of number-one hits of 2009 (Germany)
- List of number-one dance singles of 2009 (U.S.)
- List of Billboard Hot 100 top-ten singles in 2009
|
31,549,312 |
Funeral (Glee)
| 1,171,423,882 | null |
[
"2011 American television episodes",
"Glee (season 2) episodes",
"Television episodes about funerals",
"Television episodes written by Ryan Murphy (filmmaker)"
] |
"Funeral" is the twenty-first episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee, and the forty-third overall. It first aired May 17, 2011 on Fox in the United States, and was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Bradley Buecker. The episode featured Jonathan Groff guest starring as Jesse St. James, who is brought in as a consultant to help the New Directions glee club prepare for the National Show Choir competition. Sue Sylvester's (Jane Lynch) sister Jean (Robin Trocki) dies unexpectedly, and the glee club helps Sue plan her funeral.
The episode received a wide range of reviews, from highly enthusiastic to harshly critical. The performances of the five songs covered were generally well-liked, though having four of them arranged as a series of auditions in the middle of the show met with disapproval. All five songs were released as singles, and three of them charted on the Billboard Hot 100.
Upon its initial airing, this episode was viewed by 8.97 million American viewers and garnered a 3.6/10 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down slightly from the previous episode, "Prom Queen". Lynch was nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on the show, and submitted this episode for judging.
## Plot
Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison), director of New Directions, the McKinley High School glee club, hires Jesse St. James (Jonathan Groff)—an alumnus of championship-winning rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline—as a consultant to help them develop a strategy to win the upcoming Nationals competition. Jesse convinces Will to use Vocal Adrenaline's methodology, which is to identify the club's best performer and center the entire performance on that person, and Will decides to hold auditions to determine who will be featured. Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera), Rachel Berry (Lea Michele), Mercedes Jones (Amber Riley) and Kurt Hummel (Chris Colfer) all audition, with Jesse and Will as judges. Jesse is highly critical of the performances by Santana, Kurt and Mercedes, while he praises his former girlfriend Rachel's performance. He tells Will that Rachel is the clear winner, which angers the other three. Ultimately, Will decides to ignore Jesse's advice and instead plans to do for Nationals what brought them victory at the Regionals competition: having the whole group sing original songs.
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) is deeply upset by the death of her sister, Jean (Robin Trocki). She lashes out by having the glee club's flight to Nationals in New York City rerouted so it has a layover in war-ravaged Tripoli and kicks Becky Jackson (Lauren Potter) off the Cheerios. Sue allows Finn Hudson (Cory Monteith) and Kurt to plan Jean's funeral and help her sort through Jean's personal belongings, and agrees to have the glee club to perform at the funeral, as she believes no one will attend otherwise. While going through Jean's belongings, Finn and Kurt discover that her favorite movie was Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, and arrange a funeral inspired by the film. At the funeral, an emotional Sue is unable to continue reading her eulogy after a few sentences, and Will reads the remainder for her. The glee club then sings "Pure Imagination", the theme song of the film. Touched by Will's support, Sue later tells him that he is a good friend and he has what Jean had and she does not: a pure heart. She says that she will no longer attempt to destroy the glee club, and announces that she is planning to run for the United States House of Representatives. For the first time, she wishes him good luck. Sue also apologizes to Becky, reinstates her as a member of the Cheerios, and tells her she will be captain of the squad in the fall. Sue asks for and receives a hug from Becky.
Finn realizes his true feelings for Rachel during the funeral, and breaks up with Quinn Fabray (Dianna Agron) afterward. He later thanks her for not quitting glee club because of their breakup; Quinn tells him that quitting would have ruined her "big plans" for New York, and refuses to tell him what they are. Finn sees Jesse and Rachel sharing a brief kiss on stage; after they leave, he brings a flower from behind his back. Will's ex-wife, Terri (Jessalyn Gilsig), who aided Sue's earlier plot to sabotage the glee club's flights, gives Will first-class plane tickets to New York for the entire club, revealing that they were a donation from an airline executive. She tells him she is moving to Miami to start over with her life and to pursue her retail management career, and they say goodbye.
## Production
The episode was written by series co-creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Bradley Buecker. Two months before it aired, Murphy confirmed at PaleyFest 2011 that there was a death planned before the end of the season, but that it would not be recurring character Dave Karofsky, despite rumors that his death would be paving the way for Kurt's return to McKinley High. Further details were eventually supplied by entertainment reporter Michael Ausiello, who reported on April 19, 2011 that a "beloved character" would be dying in the "season's penultimate episode", and one week later that the character was female. Morrison confirmed in late April that there would indeed be a death, and added: "The episode right before the finale is called 'Funeral'. We were actually at a funeral home yesterday, shooting all day. It was a very taxing day." The day the episode aired, Lynch revealed in an interview that Murphy had conferred with her before proceeding with the storyline: "He took me aside at a party and said 'I want your blessing on this before we move forward.' I said, 'It sounds like a really great storyline.' It’s the thing that will break Sue Sylvester’s heart and get to where she lives." Lynch was nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on the show, and submitted "Funeral" to be the episode by which she would be judged.
Groff returns for the second of three consecutive episodes as Jesse. Terri's colleague Howard Bamboo (Kent Avenido) also returns, and makes his only appearance of the second season after having featured in several episodes during the first. Other recurring guest stars in the episode include glee club members Mike Chang (Harry Shum, Jr.), Sam Evans (Chord Overstreet) and Lauren Zizes (Ashley Fink), cheerleader Becky Jackson (Lauren Potter), and in an uncredited appearance in a video shown during the funeral scene, Sue's sister Jean Sylvester (Robin Trocki). Additional guests include Becky's mother Donna Jackson (Kari Coleman), and Jim Metzler as the Reverend who presides at the funeral.
"Funeral" features cover versions of five songs: "Back to Black" by Amy Winehouse, sung by Rivera; "Some People" from Gypsy, performed by Colfer; "Try a Little Tenderness" by Otis Redding, sung by Riley; "My Man" in the Barbra Streisand version from the film of Funny Girl, performed by Michele; and "Pure Imagination" from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, sung by New Directions.
## Reception
### Ratings
"Funeral" was first broadcast on May 17, 2011 in the United States on Fox. It garnered a 3.6/10 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, and received 8.97 million American viewers during its initial airing, despite airing simultaneously with the NCIS season finale on CBS, The Biggest Loser on NBC, Dancing With the Stars Freestyle Special on ABC, and the One Tree Hill season finale on The CW. The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down slightly from those of the previous episode, "Prom Queen"—which was watched by 9.29 million American viewers and acquired a 3.7/11 rating/share in the 18–49 demographic upon first airing on television.
The episode's Canadian broadcast, also on May 17, 2011, drew 1.58 million viewers. It was the fourteenth most-watched show of the week, and ranked two places higher than the previous week's "Prom Queen", even though it drew 13% fewer viewers than the 1.82 million recorded for that episode. In Australia, the episode was watched by 1.07 million viewers on June 8, 2011, which made Glee the seventh most-watched show of the night and the twenty-first most-watched for the week. This was up slightly from "Prom Queen", which attracted 1.04 million viewers on June 1, 2011, and was the eighth most-watched program of the night and twenty-sixth of the week. In the UK, the episode debuted on June 7, 2011, and was watched by 2.19 million viewers (1.76 million on E4, and 427,000 on E4+1), which made it the most-watched show on E4 and E4+1 for the week, and the most-watched show on cable for the week. This was up slightly over "Prom Queen", which aired on May 23, 2011, and was watched by 2.11 million viewers, again the most-watched show on cable for the week.
### Critical response
"Funeral" was met with a wide range of reviews, from highly enthusiastic to harshly critical. Lisa Respers France of CNN said it was "one of the best episodes ever", and MTV's Aly Semigran called it "authentic" and "one of the very best" of the season if not the series as a whole. Robert Canning of IGN wrote that it was "a great episode that truly showcased the talents of Jane Lynch" and rated it 8.5 out of 10. Rolling Stone's Erica Futterman said that the episode "felt like a recycled version of things we've seen previously" and added that the show is "not as entertaining when it's simply a showcase". Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a "C" and characterized the funeral scene as "the highlight of an uneven episode". The Atlantic's Kevin Fallon wrote, "Killing off Sue's sister seemed cruel, but ultimately paid off—it's too bad the episode completely derailed afterward, dying its own rapid death in turn." Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times had little good to say, and singled out the writers for doing "such a crappy job" on the penultimate episode of the season.
Lynch as Sue received high praise for her acting. Canning wrote that she "stole the episode" and "perfectly portrayed a woman [whose] hard heart was trying terribly not to break, but not being able to stop it." BuddyTV's John Kubicek stated, "it's impossible for me to say that Lynch wasn't exceptional, because her slow breakdown and attempt to cover-up her emotions was well done and fit perfectly with the character." Respers France commented that "we got to see the range and complexity of Sue Sylvester", and Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly said that Lynch did an "outstanding job of delivering even the funniest quips with an underlying sense of sadness". Sue's characterization in the series was criticized by several reviewers, however. Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times stated that the "consistent inconsistency of Sue's character is wearing thin", and that "our sense of her fails to advance, wandering endlessly between pure evil and pure love for her sister." Futterman called the episode a "too-little-too late attempt at redemption for Sue's poor characterization this season." VanDerWerff wrote that the episode "feels very self-consciously like a way to just remove her character from the table for the season finale", that "it feels very self-consciously like an attempt by the show to address the fact that the character doesn't make any sense", and criticized the death of Jean: "killing her solely to right a wayward character arc is lazy writing, and no amount of actor commitment can wholly save it." Fallon described the funeral plot line as "pure, classic Glee: Egregiously random, emotionally manipulative, wholly unnecessary to plot development, and, in the end, deeply moving."
The secondary plot line, about the auditions for New Directions soloist at Nationals, was roundly criticized. Canning called it a "faux drama", though he added that Jesse was "a delight to despise", and VanDerWerff said it was "completely ridiculous to do this with Nationals coming up" in a week's time, and "constructed almost entirely" to make Jesse a "jerk". Houston Chronicle's Bobby Hankinson also hit on the lack of preparation for the upcoming competition and stated that it seemed "like a very bad idea" to be going without a setlist already decided on, much less with songs unwritten. He said the four audition numbers were "awkwardly paced", though he thought they were "fantastic"; Reiter said they "stood out like glinting gems in a somewhat muddy episode". Canning and VanDerWerff also criticized the block of four songs in the middle of the episode which, as VanDerWerff put it, "stops the show cold". James Poniewozik of Time was unhappy for another reason altogether: "Having four people stand up and sing solos into a microphone may be music; but it ain't a musical."
Poniewozik wrote of Will's Broadway plans that "his ambitions, and guilt over them, make a much more believable and compelling conflict than Matthew Morrison has had to convey for much of the season." VanDerWerff complimented Morrison on his portrayal of Will: "every time the show hands him anything to play that's something that makes vague sense, he does a good job with it." Other kudos for the actors were provided by Respers France, who highlighted the "further great acting" seen during "Finn and Quinn's moment in his truck", and E! Online's Jenna Mullins, who called the scene where Finn and Kurt help Sue with her sister's room "positively heartbreaking", and the trio of characters "magnificent". Although Canning stated that "Terri leaving lacked much punch", Poniewozik commented that it was "satisfying to see her realized as an adult for once".
### Musical commentary
While the placement of the four solos together in the middle of the episode was questioned, the songs themselves were met with approbation: VanDerWerff called all four "really good performances". Santana's rendition of "Back to Black" was declared "spot on" by Futterman, and Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal wrote that it was performed "with raspy sensitivity", and went "deep into the emotional truth of the song". Kubicek was less enthusiastic, and called it "pretty good, but nothing groundbreaking or special", and Semigran called it "decent". Benigno said that "Rivera's delivery gives this song its smoldering swagger" and gave it an "A−", and Poniewozik praised Rivera as "really impressive".
"Some People" received adequate to good reviews. Gonzalez missed Kurt's usual charisma and thought the performance "a bit lackluster", and Benigno called it "kind of a boring cover". It received their lowest grades of the show, "B" and "B−", respectively. Kubicek stated, "Kurt has a unique voice that sounds positively beautiful with the right melodic song, but this is a terrible song for his style", and Vanity Fair's Brett Berk added, after he gave it two out of five stars, that it was "not the best showcase of Kurt's talents". Futterman and Reiter referred approvingly to Kurt's "upper register", and both Reiter and Respers France said he "ripped it" on his song.
"Try a Little Tenderness" received a stream of bouquets from the critics. Kubicek raved that Mercedes "gave 100% of what she has to offer, which is pure greatness", and Respers France said she "stole the night" and was "amazing". Berk broke his own scale of one to five stars with six stars, and praised "the unstinting instrument that is Mercedes' voice". Gonzalez gave it an "A" and called it "pure perfection", but Benigno was more restrained with a "B+", and wrote "she hits a little too hard for my taste" and "the vocals ... threaten to engulf the song itself".
"My Man" was also lauded. Flandez called it "heartstopping", and Futterman summed up with, "she nails the Funny Girl closer, making it one of Rachel's top performances on the show". Berk called it "good singing" and gave it three stars out of five, and Gonzalez gave it an "A−". Benigno was more generous with an "A" grade, and said, "even by Lea Michele's standards, the vocals here are fan-fucking-tastic". Hankinson agreed: "Rachel truly nailed the most difficult song she's ever sung."
The one group number, "Pure Imagination", received reviews that touched on the song itself as much as the performance. Fallon called it "unsettling yet touching" and Poniewozik described it as "odd but perfect". Berk, on the other hand, characterized it as "pure dreck". Benigno felt that while the song was "really quite good", the "stupidity of the scene" it was in detracted from it, resulting in a grade of "B+", while Gonzalez, when she gave it an "A−", said she hadn't been a "huge fan of the cover" when she heard it before the show aired, but it grew on her in context. Futterman wrote, "The New Directions break into a restrained, tender take on "Pure Imagination" with lush harmonies on the chorus that's exactly right for the moment."
### Chart history
Only three of the five cover versions debuted on the Billboard Hot 100: "Pure Imagination" debuted at number fifty-nine, "Back to Black" at number eighty-two, and "My Man" at number ninety-four. "Pure Imagination" was the only song to make the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at number eighty-seven.
Of the five songs that were featured in the episode, three were featured on the eighth soundtrack album of the series, Glee: The Music, Volume 6: "Pure Imagination", "My Man", and "Try a Little Tenderness". The album was released on May 23, 2011, and debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200, selling 80,000 copies in its first week, which was the second-lowest opening sales figure for a Glee release next to the extended play Glee: The Music, The Rocky Horror Glee Show, and lower than the 86,000 sold by Glee: The Music Presents the Warblers in its first week the previous month. The album was also at number four on the Canadian Album charts.
|
28,291,069 |
Marietta-class monitor
| 1,046,586,148 |
United States Navy's Marietta-class monitors
|
[
"Marietta-class monitors",
"Ships built in Pittsburgh",
"Ships of the Union Navy"
] |
The Marietta-class monitors were a pair of ironclad river monitors laid down in the summer of 1862 for the United States Navy during the American Civil War. Construction was slow, partially for lack of labor, and the ships were not completed until December 1865, after the war was over. However the navy did not accept them until 1866 and immediately laid them up. They were sold in 1873 without ever having been commissioned.
## Design and description
The Marietta-class monitors were part of a large program of armored ships ordered after the Battle of Hampton Roads caused the navy to favor monitors over the previous casemate ironclads of the City class. They were built to gain control of the Mississippi River and its many tributaries.
The original plans for the Marietta-class ships resembled the river monitor USS Ozark in many ways. The gun turret was at the bow and they had a deckhouse aft. There were also twin smokestacks similar to the Mississippi River steamboat designs. The original plans also called for a forward, pyramidal pilothouse, similar to the one on USS Monitor, however it is believed that the pilothouse was moved to the top of the turret before construction was completed. The Marietta-class ships were 177 feet (53.9 m) long overall. They had a beam of 50 feet (15.2 m) and a draft of 5 feet (1.5 m). They displaced 479 long tons (487 t). The ships had four steam boilers powering two western steamboat-type engines that drove a single propeller. The Marietta-class ships had a maximum speed of 9 knots (17 km/h; 10 mph) and they carried a maximum of 150 long tons (150 t) of coal.
The ships' main armament consisted of two smoothbore, muzzle-loading 11-inch (279 mm) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret. Each gun weighed approximately 16,000 pounds (7,300 kg). They could fire a 136-pound (61.7 kg) shell up to a range of 3,650 yards (3,340 m) at an elevation of 15°. The turret and the pilothouse were protected by 6 inches (152 mm) of wrought iron armor while the deck and hull had 1.25 inches (32 mm) of armor.
## Construction
The contract for the two ships was awarded to Tomlinson and Hartupee Co. on 16 May 1862. Construction was at their yard in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Progress was slow, delayed by labor shortages and changes by the navy. The US government allocated \$188,000 each for the construction of Marietta and Sandusky, but the final cost rose to \$235,039 after charges for extra work.
## History
Marietta was laid down in 1862, launched on 4 January 1865 and completed 16 December 1865. "She was accepted by the Navy on 25 April 1866. She was never commissioned. Soon after her acceptance Marietta was laid up at Mound City, Illinois. Renamed Circe on 15 June 1869, the gunboat carried that name only until 10 August, when she was again named Marietta. Remaining at Mound City, Marietta was sold 12 April 1873 to David Campbell" for \$16,000.
Sandusky was launched in mid-January 1865; "she was not completed until 26 December 1865, and was accepted by the Navy on 25 April 1866. Never commissioned, she was renamed Minerva on 15 June 1869; but resumed the name Sandusky on 10 August 1869. The monitor was sold at Mound City, Illinois, on 17 April 1873 to David Campbell" for \$18,000.
|
12,207,303 |
Woodhull Freedom Foundation
| 1,168,964,816 |
Non-profit organization advocating for sexual freedom
|
[
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"Civil liberties in the United States",
"Human rights organizations based in the United States",
"Privacy organizations",
"Sexuality in the United States"
] |
The Woodhull Freedom Foundation, also known as Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance, is an American non-profit organization founded in 2003 that advocates for sexual freedom as a fundamental human right. The organization is based in Washington, D.C., United States. Named after an influential member of the American woman's suffrage movement, Victoria Woodhull, its focus includes analyzing groups and individuals that seek to perpetuate a culture of sexual repression.
Sexual Freedom Day, officially recognized in 2011 in Washington, DC, and held every September 23, celebrates the birthday of Victoria Woodhull. The Woodhull Freedom Foundation (WFF) has held the Sexual Freedom Summit annually since 2010. Organization members have included LGBT activist Jeffrey Montgomery, former chairwoman of the United States Commission on Civil Rights Mary Frances Berry, writer Eric Rofes, lawyer Lawrence G. Walters, and activist Dan Massey.
In the furtherance of activities relating to its goals, the organization has allied itself with groups including the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, the American Civil Liberties Union, the Gay and Lesbian Activists Alliance, the Tully Center for Free Speech at Syracuse University, National Coalition Against Censorship, the Heartland Institute, National Association of Scholars, American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression, Accuracy in Academia, and the American Council of Trustees and Alumni. An academic paper in the Journal of Homosexuality characterized the organization as one "that addresses both international and national sexual freedom issues as well as a host of other health and human rights issues."
## History
### Foundation: 2003
The organization was founded in 2003 with the name Woodhull Freedom Foundation. It began with a focus on global and domestic human rights, specifically looking at sexual freedom. It is named for Victoria Woodhull (1838–1927), the first woman to own a company on Wall Street and to run for President of the United States. Its focus includes examining the stakeholders that maintain a climate of sexual repression.
The organization releases an annual report in September on "Sexual Freedom Day" called the "State of Sexual Freedom", which describes goals towards increasing sexual freedom. Woodhull's public relations representative Jeffrey Montgomery told the Washington Blade that their goals intersected with human rights: "Woodhull is the organization at the intersection of all sexual freedom issues because of the common core value of fundamental human rights. ... Without sexual freedom all personal freedoms are at risk." Woodhull tracks laws and regulations pertaining to sexual activity in the United States.
### Early activities: 2004–2009
In 2004, Woodhull joined with the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in devoting resources towards analyzing old regulations used to harass LGBT people. The purpose of the study was to analyze existing regulations in the United States with regards to sexual activity, and simultaneously to foster ties between those against sexual repression and LGBT organizations. In 2005, Woodhull again coordinated with the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in order to organize an event known as "Red, White and Leather for Independence Day", in which over 30 leather bars in 17 cities took part. Writer Eric Rofes served on the board of Woodhull before passing away in 2006. In 2007, its Sexual Freedom Day was commemorated with a discussion group examining the idea of sexual freedom as a segment of human rights. Sexual Freedom Day took place in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as the first event of its kind on October 6, 2007 and included "a fund raiser featuring the Peek-a-Boo Revue and DJ Johanna Constantine and DJ Roots and Groove."
In July 2008, when the American Family Foundation called for a McDonald's boycott after the fast food restaurant said it would join the National Gay and Lesbian Chamber of Commerce, Woodhull's executive director announced a "buycott" asking those interested in supporting the restaurant to purchase additional meals. Woodhull joined with the American Civil Liberties Union and other groups in 2009 on an amici curiae brief before the U.S. Supreme Court in the case, Federal Communications Commission v. Fox Television Stations. On November 29, 2009, the Cleveland Leather Awareness Weekend (CLAW) organized a leather dance reception in San Diego, California, so as to raise money for charitable purposes to assist the activities of Woodhull.
### Recent work: 2010–present
The organization gave its 2010 Victoria Woodhull Sexual Freedom Award on September 23 of that year to Kushaba Moses Mworeko, an individual from Uganda who sought asylum in the United States due to his sexual orientation. Author Hardy Haberman was a board member of Woodhull in 2011. On November 17, 2011, Woodhull worked with the DC Trans Coalition, the Gay and Lesbian Activists Alliance, Gender Rights Maryland, Get Equal DC, Helping Individual Prostitutes Survive (HIPS), the Rainbow Response Coalition, and Transgender Health Empowerment to form a coalition sponsoring a "Transgender Day of Action" in Washington, D.C., that highlights examples of mistreatment of transgender people by law enforcement. The event served as a precursor to the Transgender Day of Remembrance which followed on November 20.
In January 2012, the organization joined with other groups including the Tully Center for Free Speech at Syracuse University, National Coalition Against Censorship, the Heartland Institute, National Association of Scholars, Alliance Defense Fund Center for Academic Freedom, Feminists for Free Expression, American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression, Accuracy in Academia, and the American Council of Trustees and Alumni to send a letter asking the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights to use the precedent of the 1999 Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education case to apply a definition of harassment for academic institutions (so as not to harm freedom of speech). In 2012, Buck Angel served on the organization's Board of Directors of the organization, and sexologist Megan Andelloux served as an advisory board member. Lawrence G. Walters was the general counsel for Woodhull in 2012.
On June 28, 2018, attorneys for Woodhull filed the first legal challenge to the unconstitutional SESTA/FOSTA legislation. According to Ricci Levy, President & CEO of Woodhull, "FOSTA chills sexual speech and harms sex workers. It makes it harder for people to take care of and protect themselves".
In August 2019, Woodhull's Sexual Freedom Summit celebrated its 10th Anniversary.
## Reception
An academic paper by Susan Wright in the Journal of Homosexuality about those who faced discrimination due to sadomasochism (SM) described Woodhull as an organization "that addresses both international and national sexual freedom issues as well as a host of other health and human rights issues." Wright noted Woodhull dedicates its focus towards changing regulations and existing laws.
## Vicki Sexual Freedom Awards
2022
- Shanna Katz Kattarri
- Al Vernacchio
2020
- Cyndee Clay
- Joan Price
2019
- Kate Kendell
- Nadine Smith
2018
- Caroline Bettinger-López
- Mia Mingus
2017
- Willie J. Parker, MD, MPH, MSc
- Loretta J. Ross
2016
- Megan Andelloux
- Kenyon Farrow
- Carol Leigh
- Dr.Scout
2015
- John D'Emilio
- Diego Miguel Sanchez
- Monica Raye Simpson
2014
- Carol Queen
- Cory Silverberg
- Pam Spaulding
2013
- Nobel Peace Prize nominee Mandy Carter
- Heather Corinna
- Matt Foreman
2012
- Amber Hollibaugh
- Jeffrey Montgomery
- Dr. Esther Perel
2011
- Ajamu Baraka
- First Amendment attorney Robert (Bob) Corn-Revere
- Carmen Vasquez
2010
- Deborah Taj
- Bina Aspen
- Martine Rothblatt
- Kushaba "Moses" Mworenko
- Susan Wright
## See also
- Freedom of speech
- Fundamental rights
- Human rights
- National Coalition for Sexual Freedom
- Nitke v. Gonzales
- Sexual Freedom League
- Sexual repression
- US Human Rights Network
|
12,631,052 |
Don Kent (wrestler)
| 1,169,619,247 |
American professional wrestler (1933-1993)
|
[
"1933 births",
"1993 deaths",
"20th-century American male actors",
"20th-century professional wrestlers",
"American male professional wrestlers",
"NWA Florida Global Tag Team Champions",
"NWA World Tag Team Champions (Detroit version)",
"Professional wrestlers from Indiana",
"Professional wrestlers from Michigan",
"Sportspeople from Battle Creek, Michigan",
"Stampede Wrestling alumni"
] |
Leo Joseph "Joe" Smith Jr. (June 24, 1933 – June 7, 1993) was an American professional wrestler who wrestled as Don Kent and also as The Black Dragon, Doug Kent, Joe Smith and Super Medico III during his 36 years in professional wrestling.
Don Kent is one half of The Fabulous Kangaroos alongside partners Al Costello, Bruno Bekkar or Johnny Heffernan. Despite being born in America, Kent was billed as Australian when he competed as a Kangaroo using the Kangaroos' "Ultra Australian" gimmick, complete with boomerangs, bush hats and "Waltzing Matilda" as their entrance music.
When Kent was not one half of the Kangaroos, he mainly worked as "Bulldog" Don Kent in NWA Mid-America and Big Time Wrestling in the singles and the tag team divisions until his retirement in 1986.
## Professional wrestling career
Kent attended St. Philip Catholic Central High School in Battle Creek, Michigan. He was recruited by the Boston Red Sox as a catcher right out of high school. Kent's father thought that Kent was too young to play professional baseball and insisted that he go to St. Benedict's College in Kansas. After graduating, Kent worked at a Veterans Administration Medical Center in his hometown of Battle Creek while being trained by Leapin’ Larry Chene for a professional wrestling career.
### Early career (1956–1967)
Kent made his professional wrestling debut in 1956 working under such names as "Don Kent", "Joe Smith" and "The Black Dragon", generally working as a heel (bad guy) in the Michigan area. In the first half of the 1960s Don Kent went to Arizona and worked in the local wrestling promotion, where he was booked as a sadistic heel. In Arizona, Kent worked a storyline that drew full houses at the Phoenix Madison Square Garden against local face (good guy) Tito Montez. The two faced off week after week in a variety of specialty matches such as a chain match, "Arizona death match" and falls count anywhere match. The angle ended with a steel cage match that saw Montez win after overcoming Kent's cheating ways. One week after the storyline ended, attendance dropped by half and Don Kent soon left the area.
### Fabulous Kangaroos (1967–1974)
In 1967, Al Costello reformed the tag team The Fabulous Kangaroos with Ray St. Clair who retired after six months with knee problems. A few months after St. Clair retired, Costello found Don Kent to don the bush hat. Kent, who was from Michigan, adopted the Ultra-Australian gimmick (but retained his American accent) and a second version of the Fabulous Kangaroos was formed. Costello and Kent teamed together on a regular basis from 1968 until 1974, approximately the same amount of time that Costello spent teaming with his original partner Roy Heffernan. The Kangaroos won their first tag team championship a few months after teaming up, during a tour of Japan for International Wrestling Enterprise. Over the years, they defended their title in promotions around the globe. In Canada, they were the first Eastern Sports Association International Tag Team Champions; in the World Wrestling Association, they held the WWA World Tag Team Championship twice. In addition to winning titles all over North America, they also made appearances for the World Wide Wrestling Federation (now known as World Wrestling Entertainment.
The Kangaroos frequented NWA Detroit, where they held the Detroit version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship for most of 1971. By the end of 1972, the Kangaroos began working for Nick Gulas’ NWA Mid-America. In Mid-America, they held the local version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship, the Mid-America version, on three occasions.
After a match in the Cincinnati Gardens in 1974, Costello's hip was damaged when an enraged fan threw a fire extinguisher from the balcony. Costello had hip replacement surgery later that year. The fan was arrested, served 15 days in jail, and was fined fifty dollars for damaging the fire extinguisher. With Costello unable to compete, the Fabulous Kangaroos split up. After the Kangaroos went their separate ways Don Kent returned to NWA Mid-America as a singles wrestler.
### Working alone (1974–1981)
When Costello retired, Kent remained with Mid-America where he developed into a main heel as the "Dog Collar" wearing, barking "Bulldog" Don Kent. Kent teamed with Chris Gallagher and won the NWA Mid-America Tag Team Championship on two occasions, beating the teams of Frank Monte and Nick DeCarlo as well as Steve Kovac and Ricky Gibson for the title. Kent teamed up with Count Drummer to win the Mid America Tag Team title once more, defeating Jackie Fargo and George Gulas on November 6, 1974, losing the title to Fargo and Gulas three weeks later. Kent won the NWA Mid-America Heavyweight Championship, the main title of the promotion, in October 1974 by defeating Tony Charles. Kent lost his first Mid-America title to Jackie Fargo and won it twice more in 1975, first from Fargo and then later from "Crazy" Luke Graham. Graham defeated Kent on May 7, 1975, to end his third and final reign with the title.
In late 1975, Kent moved closer to home and work for The Sheik’s "NWA Detroit" (also known as "Big Time Wrestling") using his "Bulldog" Don Kent persona. On November 1, 1975, Kent defeated Mark Lewin to win the Detroit version of the NWA United States Heavyweight Championship. Lewin regained the title in December. On October 16, 1976, Kent regained the title in a bloody brawl against Pampero Firpo and held on to it until January 8, 1977, when he lost it to Gino Hernandez. Kent developed into a long running enemy of the Sheik, who was the most popular man in the promotion, with the two clashing many times in wild and bloody brawls.
In 1977, having recovered from hip surgery, Al Costello teamed up with Kent as The Fabulous Kangaroos for a tour of Puerto Rico with the World Wrestling Council (WWC). In Puerto Rico, the Kangaroos were billed on arrival as the WWC World Tag Team Champions. The Kangaroos lost the title to Carlos Colón and Jose Rivera on March 12, 1977. The Kangaroos remained in WWC throughout 1977 and into 1978, never regaining the WWC World Tag Team Championship. After their tour in Puerto Rico ended, Don Kent returned to singles wrestling and Costello focused more on managing due to his bad hip.
In 1977 Kent returned to the Alabama area to work for NWA Mid-America once more. Kent defeated Lanny Poffo to win his fourth Mid-America Heavyweight title in December 1977 and lost it to Poffo's brother Randy Savage on January 3, 1978. In 1979, Kent wrestled in Puerto Rico as a singles wrestler, winning the WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship from Chief War Cloud on January 6, 1979, and holding it for over 6 months until he lost it to Hurricane Castillo on July 21, 1979. Shortly after losing the Caribbean title, Kent moved up a level and defeated Puerto Rican legend Carlos Colón on August 3, 1979, only to lose the title to Invader I three weeks later in Ponce, Puerto Rico.
In the early to mid 80s, Don Kent returned sporadically to Big Time Wrestling to wrestle the Sheik's nephew Sabu.
### Kangaroo return (1981–1983)
In 1981, Costello teamed Kent with Bruno Bekkar, who was best known for working in his native New Zealand and Australia, and work a tour as The Kangaroos for the WWC with Costello serving as their manager. Kent and Bekkar won the WWC North American Tag Team title from the team of Jack and Jerry Brisco on October 22, 1981. This version of the Kangaroos first lost to, then regained the titles from, Invader I and Super Gladiador before losing them for good on January 26, 1982, to Invader and Gladiador. After this tour of the Caribbean, Bruno Bekkar returned to Australia and New Zealand to work for the local promotions there.
Bekkar was replaced with "Johnny Heffernan" (Canadian Bob Della Serra), a storyline cousin of Roy Heffernan for what was the final Kangaroo version to compete. The team ended Terry and Dory Funk, Jr.’s year and a half long run with the WWC World Tag Team championship when they defeated them on May 1, 1982. The team held the gold for less than 2 months before losing the belts again. After ending their tour in Puerto Rico, Kent and Heffernan returned to mainland USA to work for Championship Wrestling from Florida, a promotion the Kangaroos had worked in 1962. In Florida, The Kangaroos won the NWA Florida Global Tag Team Championship four times. The final storyline involving the Fabulous Kangaroos saw Al Costello bring in J. J. Dillon to act as his short term replacement as he "took care of business". When Costello returned from his business trip, Dillon refused to give up the Kangaroos' contracts and was backed up by both Kent and Heffernan (in storyline terms). This storyline was designed to write Al Costello out of The Fabulous Kangaroos storyline and allow him to retire from wrestling altogether. Not long after Costello retired, Kent and Della Serra went their separate ways.
### Later career (1983–1992)
After The Kangaroos split up for the last time, Kent worked mainly in Michigan with tours of Puerto Rico. In Puerto Rico, Don Kent donned a mask and worked under the name "Super Médico III" alongside Super Médico I. Kent was brought in as a storyline replacement for the real Super Médico III, who was played by Jose Estrada, Jr. Médicos I & III won the WWC World Tag Team Championship on August 4, 1984, from King Tonga and Gran Apollo. When Super Médico III was unmasked in October and revealed to NOT be Jose Estrada Jr., the team was stripped of their titles because they used an illegal man to help defend the title. After being exposed as the fake "Medico III" Kent returned to the United States and worked primarily in the Indianapolis-based World Wrestling Association where he continued to wrestle until 1989 holding the tag team title on several occasions in a criminally underrated team with Dr Jerry Graham Jr when he went into semi-retirement. By 1988, Kent was back wrestling tours of Puerto Rico's WWC as a single. He would continue to wrestle sporadically over the years to follow, stepping into the ring as late as 1992 at the age of 59.
## Death
Don Kent died on June 14, 1993, after suffering from Leukemia for a long period of time.
## Championships and accomplishments
- Big Time Wrestling
- NWA United States Heavyweight Championship (Detroit version) (2 times)
- Central States Wrestling
- NWA Central States Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- Championship Wrestling from Florida
- NWA Florida Global Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Johnny Heffernan
- Eastern Sports Association
- ESA International Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Al Costello
- International Wrestling Enterprise
- Trans-World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Al Costello
- NWA Mid-America
- NWA Mid-America Heavyweight Championship (4 times)
- NWA Mid-America Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Chris Gallager (2) and Count Drummer (1)
- NWA World Tag Team Championship (Mid-America version) (3 times) – with Al Costello
- World Wrestling Association
- WWA World Tag Team Championship (5 times) – with Al Costello (2), Dr. Jerry Graham (2) and Chris Carter (1)
- World Wrestling Council
- WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- WWC Caribbean Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Bruno Bekkar
- WWC North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- WWC North American Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Johnny Heffernan (2) and Bruno Bekkar (1)
- WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
- WWC World Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Al Costello (2) and Super Médico I (1)
- Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame
- Class of 1996
|
494,681 |
That's So Raven
| 1,173,565,992 |
American television sitcom (2003–2007)
|
[
"2000s American black sitcoms",
"2000s American high school television series",
"2000s American supernatural television series",
"2000s American teen sitcoms",
"2003 American television series debuts",
"2007 American television series endings",
"ABC Kids (TV programming block)",
"American fantasy television series",
"Disney Channel original programming",
"English-language television shows",
"Fantasy comedy television series",
"Television series about families",
"Television series about teenagers",
"Television series by Brookwell McNamara Entertainment",
"Television series by Disney",
"Television shows about psychic powers",
"Television shows filmed in Los Angeles",
"Television shows set in San Francisco",
"That's So Raven"
] |
That's So Raven is an American television teen sitcom that was created by Michael Poryes and Susan Sherman, and aired on Disney Channel for four seasons between January 2003 and November 2007. The series centers on Raven Baxter (Raven-Symoné), a teenager with hidden psychic abilities. Episodes show Raven experiencing visions of future events; she must also deal with the social and personal issues of her youth. Raven often misinterprets the events she foresees, and intervenes to prevent a vision from coming true or to protect her friends and families. She uses her skills in fashion design to create elaborate disguises she wears during these schemes. Raven's secret is shared with her best friends Eddie Thomas (Orlando Brown) and Chelsea Daniels (Anneliese van der Pol), along with her brother Cory (Kyle Massey) and parents Tanya (T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh) and Victor (Rondell Sheridan). The series explores supernatural elements, family, friendship, and adolescence.
The Walt Disney Company created the series as its television network's first multi-camera sitcom after the success of its earlier single-camera comedy series such as Even Stevens and Lizzie McGuire, the former of which executive producers David Brookwell and Sean McNamara concurrently worked on. Their joint company Brookwell McNamara Entertainment produced That's So Raven, which premiered on January 17, 2003. The series concluded on November 10, 2007, after becoming the first program on the network to reach 100 episodes, and ended because the actors were aging beyond the show's target teenage demographic. All four seasons of the show have been distributed through digital download and on the streaming service Disney+.
That's So Raven enjoyed high viewership on broadcast television in the United States, and gave rise to the development of merchandise, soundtrack albums, and video game adaptations. Television critics praised Raven-Symoné for her physical comedy in what is considered her breakthrough role. The series received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Children's Program in 2005 and 2007. A spin-off entitled Cory in the House, which stars Massey and Sheridan, aired on Disney Channel for two seasons from 2007 to 2008. Raven-Symoné, van der Pol, Sheridan and Keymáh reprised their roles for the spin-off Raven's Home, which premiered in 2017.
## Premise
Raven Baxter is a high-school student who has a secret psychic ability that allows her to experience short visions of future events. Often, she finds herself misinterpreting the events she sees, resulting in trouble for herself, her friends and family. Raven keeps her supernatural ability a secret; only her close friends and family are aware of it. Raven attends school alongside her best friends Chelsea, who is described as "ditzy", and is an environmentalist and an artist; and Eddie, who is an aspiring rapper, is athletic and plays on the school basketball team. Raven lives with her younger brother Cory, an aspiring businessperson, and her parents Victor and Tanya. Victor initially works in a restaurant as a chef, and in the second season he opens his own restaurant called "The Chill Grill". Tanya halted her studies to raise her family but decided to continue studying law once her children were older; after the third season, she leaves the family to study in England. Raven is an aspiring fashion designer who frequently creates costumes to disguise her identity; she often implements schemes to rectify a situation or her own mistakes. In the fourth season, the show's format is slightly revised; Raven works as an intern for the famous fashion designer Donna Cabonna.
The series explores the fantasy of wanting a supernatural power children may experience. It shares similarities with series such as Sabrina the Teenage Witch and other fantasy television programs in which adolescents experience and learn to deal with miraculous abilities. Disney Channel president Rich Ross stated Raven's powers are not "dark" but rather a metaphorical representation of the unpredictability of future events. The series does not explore the origin or discovery of Raven's powers; however, her grandmother Vivian also has psychic powers. Raven often intervenes in situations to prevent a vision from coming true but she does not regularly try to control her ability or take advantage of it. Her visions often represent a self-fulfilling prophecy. Many of the program's stories take place in the high-school setting.
## Production
### Development
In the early 2000s, The Walt Disney Company's pay television network Disney Channel experienced success with single-camera comedy series Even Stevens and Lizzie McGuire, and others that were also aimed at a pre-adolescent audience. That's So Raven was intended to appeal to a family audience while having a female character in the comedy lead role. Michael Poryes and Susan Sherman created the series. Sherman first conceived the idea of a buddy comedy for a pre-adolescent audience, and she and Poryes decided to base it around the idea of being able to see the future, which they thought would interest young viewers. The creators pitched the concept to network executives under the working title The Future is On Me and later as Absolutely Psychic. Poryes said at her audition, Raven-Symoné read for the role of the lead character and for the comedic best-friend character Chelsea, and that she wanted to play Chelsea. Subsequently, a pilot episode in which she starred as the best friend rather than in the central role was filmed but after the test audience responded well to her and producers were impressed, the program was re-written with Raven-Symoné in the main role. Test audiences also responded favorably to the show's supernatural premise and its comedy. The series was also retitled That's So Raven. Poryes also served as an executive producer alongside David Brookwell and Sean McNamara, who concurrently produced Even Stevens for Disney Channel. Their joint company, Brookwell McNamara Entertainment produced the program in association with the network. That's So Raven became Disney Channel's first multi-camera sitcom. The series is centered on an African American family in a deliberate attempt to represent the diversity of the network's audience.
That's So Raven and Raven-Symoné's involvement as the titular character Raven were announced in a press release in November 2001. Twenty-one episodes were ordered for the first season, which began filming in Los Angeles, California, in the same month. The series was initially expected to premiere in early 2002 but the whole first season was filmed before it aired on television. The premiere broadcast of That's So Raven, which included the first four episodes of the series, occurred on Friday, January 17, 2003.
### Casting
The program and its primary cast were announced in November 2001; Raven-Symoné was revealed to be portraying the titular character Raven; she had previously worked as a child actor on the NBC sitcom The Cosby Show. Raven-Symoné was reported to be Disney's first African American female star, and the first African American woman to have her name in the title of a comedy series at the network. Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club called Raven-Symoné's role on the show her "most successful phase" and praised her physical comedy. Marsh cited her humor and commitment to comedy as a reason for her success. She is credited as "Raven" throughout the series.
The supporting cast was also first announced in November 2001. Orlando Brown portrays Raven's close friend Eddie and Anneliese van der Pol plays Chelsea, another of Raven's friends. Tricia Dixon was originally listed in the casting announcement before van der Pol joined the cast. Kyle Massey portrays Raven's younger brother, Cory. Rondell Sheridan portrays Raven's father, Victor.
T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh plays Raven's mother Tanya for the first three seasons; she left the show because she had initially expected to only work on three seasons and because she was required to provide full-time care for her ailing grandmother. Within the show's storyline, it is explained Tanya has traveled to England to pursue higher education.
Guest stars in the series include Jenifer Lewis as Raven's grandmother Vivian and Anne-Marie Johnson as famous fashion designer Donna Cabonna in the show's fourth season.
### Writing
Poryes believed it was important to write the scripts with honesty rather than talking down to the young audience. The writers endeavored to present meaningful stories to children, including lessons about friendship, but tried not make the messages too "preachy". The series was written to reflect life as a typical teenager while also incorporating comedy, particularly through its central focus on physical humor. Van der Pol said the actors typically were not permitted to deviate from their scripted lines; however, Ross stated Raven-Symoné would improvise "comic bits". Alston described the show's nature as "goofy" with a "kid-friendly" comedy style, but also noted its complex stories revolving around "ethical challenges". The episodes did not typically air in the order of their production due to the lack of serialization in their stories.
### Filming and conclusion
That's So Raven was recorded in front of a live studio audience in a set on a sound stage in Los Angeles. Filming of the first season began in November 2001. The series was filmed on two days each week and the child actors attended school on set. Prior to filming, the weekly schedule would also consist of script read-throughs, rewrites and rehearsals. A stunt coordinator was present for Raven-Symoné's slapstick and physical stunts.
The series was renewed for a second season in April 2003. Prior to the renewal, a musical episode of Even Stevens was aired in 2002; its success among the show's audience led network executives to ask Brookwell and McNamara to also produce a musical episode of That's So Raven. The musical episode of That's So Raven, entitled "The Road to Audition", was aired as part of the second season in July 2004. The success of the musical format on both Even Stevens and That's So Raven gave executives confidence in the appeal and interest of the musical genre, and inspired the development of the television film High School Musical.
While it was originally planned for a maximum of three seasons, in June 2005, That's So Raven was renewed for a fourth season, which would consist of 22 episodes and bring the program's total number of episodes to 100. The announcement marked the first time an original Disney Channel series would exceed three seasons and the first to reach 100 episodes for syndication. A film adaptation was also ordered to debut in 2007. Ross called That's So Raven the network's "most successful series". Production on the season was expected to begin in July and the episodes would be aired over the following two years. Raven-Symoné became a producer on the show's fourth season at the age of 19; her roles included having input toward casting, scripts and special effects; however, she rejected the offer to direct an episode. Brookwell and McNamara departed the series at the end of the third season when their company was replaced with Warren & Rinsler Productions. An episode of the series was aired as part of the network crossover special That's So Suite Life of Hannah Montana, which was aired in July 2006 as a crossover of The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and Hannah Montana.
Production of the series finished in January 2006, and by August, president of Disney Channels Worldwide Gary Marsh stated it was unlikely any further episodes would be produced. Due to the heavy focus on high-school stories in the series, the network decided to end the show once the characters were beginning to age beyond their teenage years.
## Episodes
## Reception
That's So Raven was reported to be the highest-rating original program in Disney Channel's history, a record previously held by Lizzie McGuire. The program's success led to two Primetime Emmy Awards nominations for Outstanding Children's Program, in 2005 and 2007. Alston said the success of That's So Raven led to Disney Channel changing its approach to original programming. He praised the chemistry between Raven-Symoné, Brown and van der Pol, which he attributed to their real-life friendships. Alston cited the episodes "A Goat's Tale" and "Out of Control" as the ones that best represent this dynamic. Raven-Symoné was widely recognized for her charisma and physical comedy in the series; Massey's "knack" for physical comedy was also praised.
Jack Seiley from DVDizzy.com said the series adheres to the format of the network's earlier sitcoms such as Lizzie McGuire but does so with lower quality; he called it their worst show. Aaron Wallace also called the show "weaker" than Lizzie McGuire in a similar DVD review. Seiley criticized the show's concept and the cast's "over-acting". According to Wallace, the structure of the episodes is repetitive and rigid.
### Awards and nominations
## Other media
### Merchandising
That's So Raven became a successful merchandising franchise during its run; the show's merchandise includes a series of novels, dolls, board games, lunch boxes, jewelry, a fragrance and a clothing range. A line of video games was also developed; two games were released on the Game Boy Advance and That's So Raven: Psychic on the Scene was released on the Nintendo DS on November 2, 2006. Soundtrack albums That's So Raven (2004) and That's So Raven Too! (2006) feature recordings by some of the cast and guest performers. By 2006, merchandise based on the series had grossed over \$400 million.
### Spin-offs and adaptations
In 2005, Disney ordered a film adaptation of That's So Raven alongside the program's fourth-season renewal, which was planned for a 2007 release. Van der Pol said in 2010 a script for the film had been written but that Raven-Symoné was too busy to be involved at the time of development. The plot would have depicted Raven starting a fashion line with Eddie and Chelsea in France. The film did not enter production.
The network ordered a spin-off series entitled Cory in the House starring Massey and Sheridan in May 2006; this was the first time Disney Channel had developed a spin-off of an original series. The series depicts Cory and Victor moving to Washington, D.C., to live in the White House, where Victor begins work as the personal chef of a fictional President of the United States. The series aired for two seasons from 2007 to 2008. Another spin-off, which is entitled Raven's Home, was first reported in October 2016; Raven-Symoné and van der Pol were both revealed to be reprising their roles as Raven and Chelsea, respectively. The series follows Raven as a divorced mother of children Booker, who has inherited Raven's psychic abilities, and Nia. Chelsea, also a divorced mother, moves in with Raven to raise her son Levi. Raven-Symoné is an executive producer on the series, which premiered on July 21, 2017. Sheridan is featured as a guest and returns as a regular character for the program's fifth season; Keymáh also guest-stars in the fifth-season finale. The sixth season premiered in April 2023. An Indian adaptation of the series entitled Palak Pe Jhalak premiered on Disney Channel in India in September 2015, and incorporates Indian culture and languages.
|
39,422,232 |
Great northern tilefish
| 1,152,290,422 |
Species of fish
|
[
"Fish described in 1879",
"Fish of the Eastern United States",
"Fish of the Western Atlantic",
"Lopholatilus",
"Taxa named by George Brown Goode",
"Taxa named by Tarleton Hoffman Bean"
] |
The great northern tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps) or golden tile, is the largest species in the family Malacanthidae (tilefishes). It grows to a length of between 38 and 44 inches (970 and 1,120 mm). The great northern tilefish is a slow-growing and long-lived species that has four stages of life. After hatching from eggs, the larvae are found in plankton. As they grow into juveniles, the individuals seek shelter until finding or making their own burrows. As adults, the tilefish continue to expand their burrows in the sediment throughout their lives. The diet of the larvae is unknown, but presumed to consist of zooplankton; juveniles and adults feed upon various benthic invertebrates, crustaceans, and fish. After reaching sexual maturity between 5 and 7 years of age, females lay eggs throughout the mating season for the male to fertilize, with each female laying an average of 2.3 million eggs.
The great northern tilefish fishery has been regulated to prevent overfishing. Regulations include catch limits and gear restrictions to prevent damage to the species' habitat and population. The result of these regulations has been a rebounding of the population, which led to an increase in the 2012 catch limit in the southern part of the Atlantic seaboard.
## Taxonomy and naming
The species was first discovered in 1879, when a cod trawler caught some by chance while working off of the coast of Massachusetts. The species was named Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps by George Brown Goode and Tarleton Hoffman Bean in 1896 in their seminal work Oceanic Ichthyology, A Treatise on the Deep-Sea and Pelagic Fishes of the World, from a sample collected 80 miles (130 km) southeast of Nomans Land, Massachusetts. The discovery of the fish was announced earlier in the journal Science (see "The Tile-Fish" in Science, Vol. 5. No. 101 (January 9, 1885), pages 29–30). Its genus is Lopholatilus, which is in the family Malacanthidae, commonly known as tilefish. The Malacanthidae are part of the Percoidea, a suborder of the order Perciformes. L. chamaeleonticeps gained its moniker "great northern tilefish" from its prodigious size and its discovery at relatively high latitudes for a member of the Malacanthidae. When used in cooking, the species is generally referred to as the "golden tile", for the large yellow spots across its blue-green back and lighter-yellow or pink sides. The species is distinguished from other members of its large family by a prominent crest on its head.
## Characteristics
The great northern tilefish is the largest species of the family Malacanthidae; male specimens can grow up to 112 cm (44 in) fork length (FL) and females to 100 cm (39 in) FL. During their first four years of life, they grow at a rate of typically after which their rate of growth slows down. They reach sexual maturity once they are between 50 and 70 cm (20 and 28 in) in length. Various studies have shown that the life expectancy of fish that survive into adulthood is in the range of 25 to 35 years.
The back of the fish is iridescent and blue-green in color, with many yellow and gold spots. The belly is white. The head color changes from a light blue to a pinkish mix during spawning season. Specimens have a tone of blue under their eyes. Their pectoral fins are a light tone of sepia, and the margin of the anal fin is a purplish-blue color.
Lengths at age suggest that males grow faster than females, but the observed ages showed that females live longer. The largest male specimen was 44.1 in (1,120 mm) long and about 20 years old, the largest female specimen was 39 years old and reached a total length of 40.2 in (1,020 mm). The oldest tilefish recorded to date was a 46-year-old female specimen that reached a length of 33.5 in (850 mm), while the oldest recorded male specimen was 41.3 in (1,050 mm) and 29 years.
## Behavior
The great northern tilefish has a unique burrowing behavior and habitat preference. In addition to their unique habitat choice, golden tilefish display sexually dimorphic growth with males growing to larger sizes and are behaviorally dominant over their female counterparts. The great northern tilefish is not a migratory fish; it stays in one local area that fits its needs all year round. Seasonal migration may occur with changes in the water temperatures around the Nantucket Shoals and Georges Bank during the winter or spring, but this theory has no definitive evidence. A competing theory suggests that tilefish may instead reduce their activity or hibernate within their burrows during times of cold temperatures.
The lifecycle of the great northern tilefish begins as an egg, which is nonadhesive and buoyant. Eggs that are artificially fertilized and kept in an environment between 71 and 76 °F (22 and 24 °C) hatch after 40 hours. The hatching larvae are around 0.1 in (2.5 mm) in length. The larvae are found in plankton from July to September in the Middle Atlantic Bight. The transitional phase between larvae and juveniles is unknown, but juveniles either find or excavate a burrow or place of shelter to inhabit. After they grow in size and become sexually active, the adults spawn throughout the mating season to propagate the species.
The tilefish's construction and expansion of burrows are the subject of ongoing research to better understand the behavior of the species. Whether the tilefish begins the construction a burrow or if it expands an existing one is unknown. The burrow is presumed to be lengthened and widened by the tilefish as it continues to grow and age. Tilefish typically are found in their own burrows, with sharing exhibited with male and female pairs. Tilefish tend to congregate in their habitat, with their burrows in relative proximity to each other; the species does not form schools. The grouping of tilefish can be as dense as 13,000 burrows per km<sup>2</sup> off the southern U.S. Atlantic coast, but 1,600 burrows per km<sup>2</sup> were reported in inhabited areas of the Gulf of Mexico and 2,500 burrows per km<sup>2</sup> near the Hudson Canyon. Tilefish burrows also provide a home for various species that live in the area, such as mollusks and other crustaceans.
### Predation
The predators of the tilefish are poorly understood. Juveniles can be preyed upon by dogfish or conger eels, which are prey for adult tilefish. Sharks have been presumed be predators of the tilefish, but no evidence is seen of free-swimming tilefish being attacked by dusky sharks or sandbar sharks. The one listed predator for the tilefish is the goosefish. The function of the tilefish's burrows was predator avoidance, but this has been disputed because chased tilefish try to outswim their predators rather than entering their burrows to seek shelter.
### Diet
The diet of tilefish larvae is unknown, but it is believed to be zooplankton. Juvenile and adults are omnivorous with a preference for small benthic invertebrates, with a staple being crabs and lobster. Great northern tilefish also consume bivalve molluscs, salps, squid, Atlantic dogfish, mackerel, hagfish, and herring. Human trash is also eaten, including potato peels and meat bones. They also eat other tilefish in a display of cannibalism.
### Reproduction
The fish spawn during the early spring to the late fall, from March to November. Peak spawning occurs during May to September in Mid-Atlantic Bight regions, differences in temperatures affect the breeding time. In U.S waters further south, the spawning season occurs from April to June. Males grow faster and reach larger sizes than females. Fishing pressure may cause males to spawn at smaller sizes, and at younger ages.
The spawning behavior of the species is unknown, but it is presumed to be polygamous with the female choosing the male. Pair bonding has been exhibited, which is assumed to be a behavior that serves to insure fertilization of the eggs during the season. It was estimated that females can spawn about every four days for a total of 34 times per season. Depending on the size, the average female may lay 195,000 – 8 million eggs during spawning season, with the average female laying 2.3 million eggs.
In response to the overfishing, the tilefish's age of sexual maturity has been dramatically affected. From 1978 to 1982, the median age of sexual maturity in males declined by 2.5 years from 7.1 to 4.6 years. This resulted in the males becoming sexually mature before females. In 2008, the median age of sexual maturity in males had risen to 5.9 years. Females of the species also exhibit low reproductive ability after becoming sexually mature, instead increasing with age and their sexual maturity has varied to a lesser extent than the male population across the years.
A small percentage of golden tilefish is known to be intersexual, having opposite nonfunctional sex tissues. Male tilefish specimens also inhibited a cavity that came from ovarian tissue and sperm sinuses. Tilefish of both genders in the Gulf of Mexico exhibited a higher rate of intersex characteristics than other populations.
## Distribution and habitat
The species is abundant in the United States territorial waters of the Atlantic Ocean extending north into Nantucket Shoals and Georges Bank and moving south along the East Coast of the United States and into the Gulf of Mexico along the continental shelf. Although great northern tilefish are reported to be most abundant between 300 and 480 feet (91 and 146 m) deep at 76 °F (24 °C), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration report differs, by stating that the species lives at the bottom of the ocean where they burrow into the sediment, between 250 and 1,500 feet (76 and 457 m) deep where the temperature ranges from 49 to 58 °F (9 to 14 °C).
The great northern tilefish is known to dig and occupy burrows along the outer continental shelf, and on the flanks of submarine canyons in malleable clay substrate. Due to their long life expectancy, slow growth, complex breeding system, and habitat specificity, they are vulnerable to overexploitation, and they are susceptible to mass mortality events due to cold-water intrusion and overfishing. Their abundance is strongly correlated with presence of silt-clay substrate, because the soft clay enables the fish to create the burrow itself by simply digging away the clay substrate. The minimum temperature threshold for golden tilefish is 9 °C (48 °F). Temperature observations and measurements are obtained by interpolated observations. Temperature plots indicate that 9 °C is the norm for the area around Florida and the Gulf of Mexico.
## Population and conservation status
Decline in age, size during sexual maturity in great northern tilefish population is occurring throughout the continental shelf. In the mid-Atlantic Bight, smaller sizes and younger ages at maturity were observed in 2008, compared to the survey data from the 1980s where recorded measurements showed a larger population. The recent estimates of age and size at maturity in the southern U.S. waters were smaller than those previously reported in the late 1980s. There were also very few juvenile tilefish seen in tilefish population surveys in the southern U.S. waters in both the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Declines in population could negatively affect other organisms in their surrounding environment due to the fact that without tilefish, the burrows underneath the continental shelf will disappear, therefore putting an end to the symbiotic relationship with other organisms that use the tunnels as shelter.
Fishing regulations include catch limits and gear restrictions to prevent damage to the species habitat and population. There are different gear restrictions for commercial and recreational fishers. In 2007, regulations were imposed to reduce the harvesting by one third, as a response to overfishing in the South Atlantic. The South Atlantic catch limit was later increased in October 2012 as a response to the increased population. The 2013 limits in the southern U.S. Atlantic waters for the species, measured in gutted weight, were 405,971 pounds for longline and 135,324 pounds for hook-and-line fishing. The current South Atlantic catch limits as of 2019 are 248,805 pounds for longline and 82,935 pounds for hook-and-line fishing.
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2000 Atlantic hurricane season
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Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean
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The 2000 Atlantic hurricane season was a fairly active hurricane season, but featured the latest first named storm in a hurricane season since 1992. The hurricane season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. It was slightly above average due to a La Niña weather pattern although most of the storms were weak. It was also the only Season to Include 2 storms in Ireland. The first cyclone, Tropical Depression One, developed in the southern Gulf of Mexico on June 7 and dissipated after an uneventful duration. However, it would be almost two months before the first named storm, Alberto, formed near Cape Verde; Alberto also dissipated with no effects on land. Several other tropical cyclones—Tropical Depression Two, Tropical Depression Four, Chris, Ernesto, Nadine, and an unnamed subtropical storm—did not impact land. Five additional storms—Tropical Depression Nine, Florence, Isaac, Joyce, and Leslie—minimally affected land areas.
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Keith, which caused extensive damage in Central America. After remaining nearly stationary offshore, Keith moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula and later made a second landfall in Mexico at hurricane intensity. It caused \$319 million (2000 USD) in damage and 40 fatalities, mostly in Belize. The precursor to Tropical Storm Leslie brought severe flooding to South Florida, which losses reaching \$950 million (2000 USD). Hurricane Gordon and Tropical Storm Helene both caused moderate damage in the Southeastern United States, mainly in Florida. Tropical Storm Beryl caused minor damage in Mexico and Hurricane Debby resulted in less than \$1 million (2000 USD) in damage in the Greater and Lesser Antilles. Hurricane Michael brought widespread effects to Atlantic Canada, though a specific damage toll is unknown.
## Seasonal forecasts
### Pre-season outlooks
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University (CSU), and separately by forecasters with the U.S. Government's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). According to CSU, the average season between 1950 and 2000 had 9.6 tropical storms, 5.9 hurricanes, and 2.3 major hurricanes (storms exceeding Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale). A normal season, as defined by NOAA, has 9 to 12 named storms, of which five to seven reach hurricane strength and one to three become major hurricanes.
Noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray on April 7 predicted eleven named storms, with eight reaching hurricane strength and three of the eight reaching Category 3 strength. The prediction issued on June 7 was similar, increasing the named storms to twelve, eight hurricanes, and four major hurricanes. On May 10, NOAA issued a season outlook, which gave the indication of an above-average season. According to NOAA, the global scale atmospheric circulation pattern which was taking place was conducive to an above-average hurricane season. However, La Niña was present it the Eastern Pacific, which was a factor in the activity in the season. NOAA issued a 75% chance of above average activity.
### Mid-season outlooks
After the season started on June 1, CSU issued a mid-season forecast on August 4, which predicted 11 named storms, 7 hurricanes, and 3 major hurricanes. Six days after the CSU prediction, NOAA also released a mid-season outlook, forecasting exactly the same amount of activity, 11 named storms, 7 hurricanes, and 3 major hurricanes. With a 75% chance of above-average activity, there was an elevated risk of landfalling hurricanes.
## Seasonal summary
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 2000. It was an above average season in which 19 tropical cyclones formed. Fifteen depressions attained tropical storm status, and eight of these attained hurricane status. Three hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes. The season was above average most likely because of an ongoing La Niña in the Pacific Ocean. Three hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 77 deaths and \$1.2 billion in damage (2000 USD). Hurricane Florence and Isaac and Tropical Storm Leslie also caused damage and fatalities, though none of the three made landfall. The last storm of the season, an unnamed subtropical storm, dissipated on October 29, over a month before the official end of hurricane season on November 30.
Tropical cyclogenesis first occurred in the month of June, with two tropical depressions developing in the Atlantic. However, no tropical cyclones developed in the month of July, the first phenomenon since 1993. In August, five tropical cyclones developed, most notably, Hurricane Alberto. September was more active, with seven named storms forming; that month featured Hurricane Keith, the strongest system of the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season. With seven named storms forming in September, this made it the most active September on record at the time. This record was surpassed two years later when eight storms formed in September. In addition, a quick succession of eight storms occurred in September, and lasted into early October. Six tropical cyclones existed in October and one additional subtropical storm developed in the last week of the month. Following an active October, no tropical cyclogenesis occurred in November, which is the final month of the season.
The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 119. ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots (39 mph, 63 km/h) or tropical storm strength. Subtropical cyclones, including the unnamed storm as well as the initial stages of Florence, Leslie, and Michael, are excluded from the total.
## Systems
### Tropical Depression One
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on May 23 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean. The system had entered into the Gulf of Mexico on June 6. Another tropical wave merged with the system on June 7 and developed into a low-pressure area in the Gulf of Mexico. Later that day, the National Hurricane Center began classifying the system as Tropical Depression One. Though the depression was predicted to intensify into a tropical storm, strong wind shear produced by an upper-anticyclone prevented significant strengthening.
The depression tracked slowly and erratically through the Gulf of Mexico. By late on June 8, a reconnaissance plane flight indicated that the depression had degenerated into a low-pressure area. The remnants of the depression produced gusty winds and light to moderate rainfall along the Gulf Coast of Mexico; some areas in the state of Tamaulipas reported precipitation amounts as high as 7.18 inches (182 mm). In addition, heavy precipitation was reported in south-central Texas.
### Tropical Depression Two
A tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa and quickly developed into Tropical Depression Two on June 23. Although it was well-organized, the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories on the depression until 1500 UTC on June 24, since it operationally appeared that a surface circulation did not exist until then. However, the depression was less organized after the National Hurricane Center began advisories. Having formed at 19.8°W, it was one of the easternmost developing tropical cyclones in the month of June, even further east than Tropical Storm Ana in 1979 and Tropical Depression Two in 2003. Though light wind shear and marginally warm sea surface temperatures were in the path of the depression, no significant intensification occurred as it tracked generally westward. The depression began encountering a stable air mass, and degenerated back into a tropical wave on June 25.
### Hurricane Alberto
A well-developed tropical wave was observed in satellite imagery over central Africa on July 30. The system tracked westward and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on August 3. Thereafter, the system rapidly organized, and developed into Tropical Depression Three at 1800 UTC that day. The depression moved west-northwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Alberto early on August 4. While briefly turning westward on August 6, Alberto reached hurricane status. It tracked west-northwestward, and by early the following day, the storm reached an initial peak with winds of 90 mph (145 km/h). Shortly thereafter, Alberto re-curved northwestward. Wind shear then increased, which caused Alberto to weaken to a tropical storm on August 9. However, it quickly re-strengthened, and early on August 10, Alberto was upgraded to a hurricane again. Due to a break in a subtropical ridge, Alberto gradually curved northward and north-northeastward between August 11 and 12. While turning northeastward, Alberto strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane, becoming the first major hurricane of the season. By 1200 UTC on August 12, Alberto attained its peak intensity with winds of 125 mph (201 km/h).
Increasing upper-level westerlies caused Alberto to weaken as it moved east-northeastward, with the cyclone losing most of its convection. Early on August 14, Alberto was downgraded to a tropical storm. A westerly trough that had been guiding Alberto outran the storm, and strong ridging developed to the north and west. As a result, Alberto turned southward on August 15, southwestward on August 16, and then to the west on August 17. While curving northwestward and then northward, Alberto began to re-strengthen, and was upgraded to a hurricane for the third occasion on August 18. Alberto reached a third peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) on August 20. After weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane, Alberto had completed a cyclonic loop, which it had started on August 13. Due to decreasing ocean temperatures, Alberto was again downgraded to a tropical storm on August 23 as it accelerated northeastward. Six hours later, Alberto transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while centered about 780 miles (1,260 km) south-southwest of Reykjavík, Iceland.
### Tropical Depression Four
An area of low pressure detached from a frontal zone on August 4 and moved southwestward. After developing a minimal amount of deep convection, an Air Force Reserve Command reconnaissance aircraft found a well-defined low-level circulation on August 8. The depression then moved westward without intensifying for two days. On August 10, the depression was about 80 miles (130 km) east of Cape Canaveral, Florida when it abruptly turned northeastward in advance of a deep-layer trough over the eastern United States. After minimal strengthening, the depression dissipated to the north of the Bahamas on August 11. While a tropical cyclone, a reconnaissance flight reported winds of 56 mph (90 km/h) at 1,500 feet (460 m). However, it was not upgraded to a tropical storm since the aforementioned wind speed did not represent the intensity of the depression.
### Tropical Storm Beryl
A tropical wave emerged from the coast of Africa with a closed circulation on August 3. The system split, with the northern portion developing into Hurricane Alberto, while the southern portion of the wave continued westward. Minimal deep convection persisted until the wave reached the Yucatán Peninsula on August 12. After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on the following day, satellite imagery and a reconnaissance aircraft flight indicated that the system developed into Tropical Depression Five at 1800 UTC. Early on August 13, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beryl. Despite predictions for Beryl to reach hurricane status, it remained disorganized and peaked as a 50 mph (80 km/h) tropical storm.
By 0700 UTC on August 15, Beryl made landfall about 35 miles (56 km) north of La Pesca, in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h). Beryl quickly weakened inland, and was downgraded to a tropical depression five hours after moving inland. Shortly thereafter, Beryl dissipated while centered near Monterrey. In Mexico, Beryl dropped light to moderate rainfall, especially in Tamaulipas, which peaked at 9.76 inches (248 mm). One person drowned due to flood waters in northeastern Mexico. Damage was light, totaling to \$27,000 (2000 USD). In southern Texas, Beryl brought light precipitation to some locations. Cloud cover and rainfall in the Brownsville area resulted in the coldest maximum temperature recorded for the city on the date of August 15.
### Tropical Storm Chris
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on August 12. Although large amounts of deep convection accompanied the system, it was displaced from the poorly defined center. Over the next few days, convection consolidated and by 1200 UTC on August 17, the system began as Tropical Depression Six, while centered about 690 miles (1,110 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. Outflow was initially limited due to light wind shear, though the depression was forecast to become a strong tropical storm by August 20. It was "highly surprising" to the National Hurricane Center that the depression did not immediately begin to intensify, despite warm sea surface temperatures and light wind shear. Because of a burst in deep convection, as well as satellite imagery estimating winds of 40 mph (65 km/h), the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Chris at 1200 UTC on August 18.
Upon becoming a tropical storm, Chris attained its peak intensity with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,008 mbar (29.8 inHg). Because wind shear was believed to be weak, further intensification seemed very likely. Unexpectedly, Chris weakened back to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC on August 18, after having been a tropical storm for only six hours. However, the National Hurricane Center operationally held Chris at tropical storm intensity until early on the following day. Convection was nearly non-existent early on August 19, though there were a few small bursts in convection. Later that day, a reconnaissance aircraft flight into the storm found no circulation, while a QuikSCAT pass indicated an open wave. As a result, Chris dissipated while east of the northernmost Leeward Islands at 1200 UTC on August 19.
### Hurricane Debby
A strong tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on August 16. No development occurred until August 19, when convection began consolidating around a well-defined low-level circulation. As a result, the system became Tropical Depression Seven at 1800 UTC on that same day, while located about 1,035 miles (1,666 km) east of the Windward Islands. Favorable conditions allowed the depression to become Tropical Storm Debby early on August 20 and further strengthening into a hurricane occurred 24 hours later. At 1200 UTC on August 21, sustained winds peaked at 85 mph (135 km/h). Debby made three landfalls on August 22, in Barbuda, Saint Barthélemy, and Virgin Gorda, before re-entering the Atlantic north of Puerto Rico. As Debby paralleled the north coast of Hispaniola late on August 23, it weakened to a tropical storm. Unexpectedly, the storm continued westward and weakened further, instead of approaching Florida and strengthening into a major hurricane. While south of eastern Cuba on August 24, Debby was downgraded to a tropical depression, six hours becoming completely dissipating.
Light rainfall and gusty winds caused minor damage in Barbuda, Saint Martin, and Trinidad and Tobago. Brief blackouts and damage reaching \$200,000 was reported in the United States Virgin Islands. Effects were most severe in Puerto Rico, where some areas experienced more than 12 inches (300 mm) of rainfall. Mudslides caused by flooding damaged roads, bridges, and houses. At 406 homes on the island were flooded, which five suffering at least moderate damage. In San Juan, slick roads caused several minor car accidents. One indirect fatality was attributed to the storm after a man fell off his roof while attempting to remove a satellite dish. Damage on the island of Puerto Rico reached \$501,000. According to the Civil Defense Force of Dominican Republic, severe flooding in the northern portions of that country caused the evacuation of more than 700 people. In Haiti, squalls tore tin roofs off of numerous shanty homes and subsequently flooded a few. Rainfall in Cuba brought relief to an eight-month-long drought in eastern Cuba.
### Tropical Storm Ernesto
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 28. While tracking west-northwestward, satellite imagery indicated a developing low-level circulation. After significant deep convection formed, the system was classified as Tropical Depression Eight at 1200 UTC on September 1. Because of potentially unfavorable wind shear, only slight intensification was forecast. The depression tracked west-northwestward under the influence of a subtropical ridge to its north. Because of satellite intensity estimates of sustained winds of 40 mph (64 km/h), increased deep convection, and improvements in outflow, the depression became Tropical Storm Ernesto at 0600 UTC on September 2. However, the NHC noted in its Tropical Cyclone Report on Ernesto that it may not have been a tropical cyclone at all, as QuikSCAT surface wind estimates indicated that there was no closed circulation, although the data was dismissed as inconclusive.
As it strengthened into a tropical storm, Ernesto attained its peak intensity with winds of 40 mph (64 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 1,008 mbar (29.8 inHg). Because of vertical shear, the low-level circulation did not become well-defined. Because convection was being sheared away from the center, the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of Ernesto weakening back to a tropical depression, though forecasts indicated otherwise. Later that day, no significant change in intensity was predicted, as persistent wind shear seemed to be weakening Ernesto, though the SHIPS and GFDL computer models called for significant strengthening. Although deep convection re-developed near the center early on September 3, no intensification occurred. At 1800 UTC on September 3, Ernesto weakened to a tropical depression. Six hours later, Ernesto dissipated to the east-northeast of the Leeward Islands.
### Tropical Depression Nine
A low-level trough and a cluster of convection associated with a tropical wave interacted in the Gulf of Mexico in early September 2000. A disorganized low-level center developed and, thus, the system was classified as Tropical Depression Nine while located 185 miles (298 km) south of Lake Charles, Louisiana on September 8. Due to proximity to land, the depression was unable to intensify into a tropical storm and attained a maximum wind speed of 35 mph (56 km/h). The depression weakened slightly before making landfall near Sabine Pass, Texas on September 9. Eight hours later, the depression dissipated while barely inland.
The depression brought light to moderate rainfall to Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Alabama, and Texas, though it was generally less than 3 inches (76 mm). A few areas in southern Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama reported precipitation in excess of 6 inches (150 mm); rainfall associated with the depression peaked at 6.70 inches (170 mm) in Buras-Triumph, Louisiana. However, the depression caused no damage or fatalities.
### Hurricane Florence
A cold front moved off the continent of North America in early September. The system spawned a low-pressure area that gradually developed into a subtropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 10, while located about 325 miles (523 km) west-southwest of Bermuda. It rapidly acquired tropical characteristics and became Tropical Depression Ten at 0600 UTC on September 11. Thereafter, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Florence at 1200 UTC on that day and reached hurricane status only six hours later. Drier mid-tropospheric air weakened Florence to a tropical storm, but re-strengthened into a hurricane later on September 12.
Due to a combination of north-northwesterly shear and lower sea surface temperatures, Florence again weakened on September 13 and was downgraded to a tropical storm. After moving erratically for almost five days, Florence accelerated east-northeastward in response to a short-wave trough on September 15. The storm soon began to re-intensify, becoming a hurricane early on September 16. Shortly thereafter, Florence curved northeastward. However, colder sea surface temperatures weakened it to a tropical storm September 17. Early on the following day, Florence was absorbed by an extratropical low near Newfoundland. Rip current along the East Coast of the United States drowned three people in North Carolina. Tropical storm force winds were reported in Bermuda, though no damage occurred.
### Hurricane Gordon
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 4 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean with minimal organization for four days. After slowly developing convection between September 8 and 14, an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft reported a closed circulation. As a result, the system was classified as Tropical Depression Eleven just offshore Quintana Roo. Shortly thereafter, the depression made landfall in Quintana Roo. On September 15, the system emerged into the Gulf of Mexico. Due to warm sea surface temperatures, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gordon on the following day and further to hurricane intensity on September 17 while tracking northeastward. However, vertical wind shear and dry air entrainment weakened Gordon to a tropical storm later that day. At 0300 UTC on September 18, Gordon made landfall near Cedar Key, Florida with winds of 65 mph (105 km/h). Gordon rapidly weakened inland and was only a tropical depression when it was absorbed by a frontal system over Georgia about 15 hours later.
While passing through the Lesser Antilles, the precursor tropical wave caused locally heavy rainfall and wind gusts between 29 and 35 mph (47 and 56 km/h). Shortly before developing into a tropical cyclone, flooding in mountainous areas of Guatemala caused 23 fatalities. In its early stages, Gordon produced locally heavy rainfall in Cuba and the Yucatán Peninsula. The storm produced abnormally high tides along the west coast of Florida, which caused widespread, but minor coastal flooding. At least 65 homes and businesses were flooded, while numerous coastal roads, including Bayshore Boulevard and the Courtney Campbell Causeway, were closed due to water inundation. One fatality occurred near Pensacola, after a surfer drowned in rough seas. Strong winds in the state caused damage to houses, businesses, power lines, and trees. Two tornadoes in Southwest Florida extensively damaged 2 condominiums and at least 24 houses. A third tornado along the east coast of Central Florida caused minimal damage to trees and roofs. Minor flooding occurred in some areas due to rainfall reaching 9.48 inches (241 mm) in Mayo. In North Carolina, flooding caused two indirect fatalities when a car lost control and crashed into a tractor trailer. In other states, light rainfall caused mostly minor effects. Overall, Gordon was responsible for \$10.8 million in damage.
### Tropical Storm Helene
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 10 and gradually developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on September 15, while located more than 600 miles (970 km) east of the Leeward Islands. It did not intensify and degenerated to a tropical wave on the following day. The remnants continued westward and crossed the Leeward Islands on September 17. Late on September 19, the remnants redeveloped into Tropical Depression Twelve near Grand Cayman. Around 1200 UTC on September 20, the depression crossed near the western tip of Cuba. Entering the Gulf of Mexico, the depression began strengthening, and became Tropical Storm Helene at early on September 21, while tracking northward. Later that day, Helene peaked with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h), though due to increasing wind shear, the storm soon began to weaken. At 1200 UTC on September 22, Helene made landfall near Fort Walton Beach, Florida with winds of 40 mph (64 km/h). Although the storm weakened slightly inland, it later began re-strengthening and became a tropical storm over North Carolina late on September 23. After re-emerging into the Atlantic Ocean, Helene re-intensified to near hurricane status, though the storm was absorbed by a cold front on September 26, while east-southeast of Newfoundland.
The remnant tropical wave produced strong winds and flooding in the Lesser Antilles. Effects were the worst in Puerto Rico, where flash flooding and mudslides destroyed one houses and damaged at least 100 others. In addition, a bridge was also destroyed and many other roads were impassable due to flooding. Impact in Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola is unknown. A combination of gusty winds, locally heavy rainfall, and a few tornadoes in the Florida Panhandle caused about 5,000 power outages, damaged more than 220 homes, and destroyed two houses and four mobile homes. Heavy rainfall caused the Sopchoppy River to exceed its banks, flooding nearby houses. Outside of Florida, effects were most severe in South Carolina, where rainfall in excess of 9 inches (230 mm) fell, and a tornado caused one fatality, six injuries, and damaged 12 houses. The other death in the state occurred when a car hydroplaned and crashed into a tree, which killed the driver. Throughout its path, Helene caused slightly more than \$16 million in damage.
### Hurricane Isaac
A well-defined tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 20. The cloud pattern quickly became better-defined, and developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen on September 21 while centered south of Cape Verde. The depression quickly intensified due to low wind shear and became Tropical Storm Isaac early on September 22 as it headed west-northwestward. Isaac continued to strengthen and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 23. After reaching a preliminary peak with winds of 120 mph (190 km/h), the structure of the storm became less organized, possibly due to slightly colder ocean temperatures and increased wind shear. By 1200 UTC on September 26, Isaac ceased weakening after winds dropped to 85 mph (137 km/h). The storm began to re-strengthen on September 27 after wind shear decreased.
On September 28, Isaac peaked as a low-end Category 4 hurricane with winds of 140 mph (225 km/h). Following its peak intensity, Isaac began to weaken immediately thereafter, while turning north-northwestward. Eventually, the storm turned northward before re-curving north-northeastward. Further weakening occurred after Isaac moved over decreasing sea surface temperatures and dropped down to Category 1 intensity by September 30, while accelerating northeastward. On October 1, Isaac was downgraded to a tropical storm shortly before transitioning into extratropical later that same day. The extratropical remnants affected the British Isles between October 3 and 4, before being absorbed into another extratropical storm to the north of Scotland on October 4. Minimal impact was reported from Isaac. One fatality occurred when a passenger drowned after his boat capsized due to large waves produced by Isaac offshore Long Island, New York.
### Hurricane Joyce
A poorly organized tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 22. Over the next three days, the system tracked westward and slowly began to develop a closed circulation. By September 25, the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories. Convection became further organized, and the depression continued to intensity. Twelve hours after becoming a cyclone, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Joyce early on September 26. Joyce continued to strengthen and became a hurricane by September 27. On the following day, a pinhole eye appeared, and shortly thereafter, Joyce peaked as a strong Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph (140 km/h) on September 28.
After peak intensity on September 28, wind shear and a possible intrusion of dry air caused Joyce to become disorganized and weaken. Late on September 29, Joyce was downgraded to a tropical storm while centered well east of the Lesser Antilles. Though it was always predicted to re-intensify, Joyce continued to weaken and became a tropical depression on October 1 while crossing through the southern Windward Islands. Early on the following day, Joyce unexpectedly degenerated back into an open tropical wave over the southeast Caribbean Sea. The remnants were monitored for regeneration, but never developed back into a tropical cyclone. Overall, impact from Joyce was minimal, limited to mainly rainfall and near-tropical storm force winds in Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados. The remnants of Joyce also caused similar effects on the ABC islands and Dominican Republic, which resulted in minor damage.
### Hurricane Keith
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on September 16. The system uneventfully crossed the Atlantic and Caribbean, before developing into Tropical Depression Fifteen while near Honduras on September 28. The depression gradually strengthened, and became Tropical Storm Keith on the following day. As the storm tracked westward, it continued to intensify and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 30. Shortly thereafter, Keith began to rapidly deepen and peaked as a 140 mph (230 km/h) Category 4 hurricane less than 24 hours later. Keith then began to meander erratically offshore of Belize, which significantly weakened the storm due to land interaction. By late on October 2, Keith made landfall in Ambergris Caye, Belize as a minimal hurricane. It quickly weakened to a tropical storm, before another landfall occurred near Belize City early on the following day. While moving inland over the Yucatán Peninsula, Keith weakened further, and was downgraded to a tropical depression before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on October 4. Once in the Gulf of Mexico, Keith began to re-strengthen and was upgraded to a tropical storm later that day, and a hurricane on the following day. By late on October 5, Keith made its third and final landfall near Tampico, Tamaulipas, Mexico as a moderately strong Category 1 hurricane. The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated as a tropical cyclone by 24 hours after landfall.
Keith brought heavy rainfall to several countries in Central America, which resulted in extensive flooding, especially in Belize and Mexico. In Guatemala, the storm flooded 10 towns, and caused one fatality. Similarly, one fatality also occurred in El Salvador, and at least 300 people were affected by flooding in that country. Thirteen communities in Nicaragua were completely isolated after Keith made roads impassable. Twelve deaths were reported in Nicaragua, all of which were flood-related. Five people were presumed dead in Honduras after an aircraft disappeared near Roatán; one other fatality occurred due to flooding. The storm brought torrential rainfall to Belize, with many areas reporting at least 10 inches (250 mm) of rain, while highest reported amount of precipitation was 32.67 inches (830 mm) in Belize City. In Belize, a village reported that only 12 houses remained, while elsewhere in the country, at least 60 homes were destroyed or damaged; several houses in Belize City suffered minor roof damage. At least 19 people were killed in Belize and damages totaled to \$280 million (2000 USD). Heavy rainfall also occurred in Mexico, especially in the states of Nuevo León and Tamaulipas. Flooding by Keith caused several mudslides and a few rivers reached historic levels. Throughout Mexico, at least 460 houses were damaged or destroyed and other losses in infrastructure occurred. In addition, one person drowned due to heavy rainfall. Damages incurred in associated with Keith in Mexico totaled approximately \$365.9 million (2000 MXN, \$38.7 million 2000 USD). Overall, Keith was responsible for 40 deaths and \$319 million (2000 USD) in damage.
### Tropical Storm Leslie
A tropical wave, which likely spawned Hurricane Isaac, entered the eastern Caribbean Sea on September 27. The system slowly organized while tracking westward and later moved to the north-northwest around Hurricane Keith. Eventually, the system moved northward into the Gulf of Mexico and the Straits of Florida. The system interacted with a frontal boundary while crossing Florida on October 3 and 4, which caused torrential rainfall. Satellite imagery indicated the development of a circulation near Orlando. Because of its structure, the system became a subtropical depression at 1200 UTC on October 4. About six hours later, the subtropical depression emerged into the Atlantic and low-level circulation gradually moved toward the deep convection while tracking eastward. By 1200 UTC on October 5, the subtropical depression was reclassified as Tropical Storm Leslie. While fully tropical, Leslie strengthened slightly and peaked with winds of 45 mph (72 km/h). However, it soon began interacting with a cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 7, while located northwest of Bermuda.
The system dropped heavy rainfall in Cuba, peaking at 8.25 inches (210 mm) in the Havana Province. While the precursor crossed Florida, it produced torrential rainfall across southern Florida, especially in the Miami metropolitan area. In Miami-Dade County alone, 1,005 houses were destroyed, 1,358 were severely damaged, and 3,443 had minor damage. Throughout the state, at least 93,000 homes were flooded. Electrical stations were also damaged by floods, leaving more than 27,000 people without power. Extensive agricultural damage occurred, with 40,000 acres (160 km<sup>2</sup>) of farmland inundated by water. Overall, the precursor system of Leslie resulted in about \$950 million (2000 USD) in damage, slightly more than half of that figure was agriculture related. Additionally, three fatalities occurred, two of which due to drowning, while the third was a man that fell while attempting to unclog a roof drain. The remnants of Leslie caused near tropical storm force winds and waves up to 16 feet (4.9 m) in Newfoundland, though damage in the region was minimal.
### Hurricane Michael
A low-pressure system developed after detaching from a cold front while between Florida and Bermuda. The low-pressure area slowly formed a circulation and began to deepen on October 14 as it drifted north-northeastward. By October 15, the system developed into a subtropical depression while centered about midway between Florida and Bermuda. Later that day, satellite classifications using the Hebert-Poteat technique indicated that the subtropical depression had strengthened into a subtropical storm, and it was upgraded at 0000 UTC on October 16. Due to SST's in excess of 82 °F (28 °C), the subtropical storm developed persistent convection near the low-level center and it slowly acquired tropical characteristics. By 0000 UTC on October 17, the subtropical storm was re-classified as Tropical Storm Michael. Three hours later, the National Hurricane Center began advisories on Michael, though initially it was erroneously classified as Tropical Depression Seventeen.
Although Michael was predicted to intensify only modestly, it rapidly strengthened, and became a hurricane later on October 17. Michael fluctuated slightly in intensity while tracking over an area of decreasing SST's. However, another brief period of rapid intensification occurred due to baroclinic effects, and Michael peaked as a minimal Category 2 hurricane. Shortly thereafter, Michael transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before making landfall near Harbour Breton, Newfoundland. Throughout Newfoundland, Michael and the remnant extratropical cyclone produced high winds, which tore off roofs, ripped off roof shingles, caused sporadic power outages, shattered windows, and uprooted trees in a few communities. Precipitation produced by the storm was light and peaked at 3.77 inches (96 mm) in North Mountain, Nova Scotia. Michael also produced rainfall in Maine and Bermuda. There were no damage figures available, though damage was considered to be relatively light.
### Tropical Storm Nadine
In mid-October, a strong upper-level trough and a tropical wave interacted while located in the central Atlantic. The system moved slowly westward and convection began increasing. By October 19, the system became stationary and developed a surface circulation. Later that day, Tropical Depression Eighteen developed about 690 miles (1,110 km) southeast of Bermuda. Initially, the depression lacked a well-defined center, though a broad circulation was evident. The depression tracked slowly northward and then northeastward around a subtropical ridge and ahead of a cold front. As wind shear decreased, convective activity became better organized on October 20. By 1200 UTC on that day, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Nadine. Although it was strengthening, QuikSCAT suggested that the low-level circulation was falling apart, as it appeared to be merging with the cold front.
At 0000 UTC on October 21, Nadine attained its peak intensity with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar (29.5 inHg). Around the time of peak intensity, a possible eye-like feature and an impressive outflow were observed on satellite imagery. As a result, the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility, but did not exclusively forecast Nadine to strengthen into a hurricane. However, shortly thereafter, wind shear increased and the storm resembled a frontal wave and appeared to possibly be interacting with the cold front. The cloud pattern then became ragged, while the low-level circulation moved toward the southern edge of the deep convection. By 0000 UTC on October 22, Nadine transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and merged with a frontal low about 18 hours later.
### Unnamed subtropical storm
On October 25, an extratropical low pressure system formed to the east of the Turks and Caicos Islands. It moved northwestward and gradually intensified, and by 1800 UTC the system transitioned into a subtropical storm. It turned to the north and later to the northeast. A burst of convection near the center allowed the storm to attain peak winds of 65 mph (105 km/h); due to its forward motion, it is possible the surface winds reached as high as 85 mph (137 km/h). An approaching cold front caused the storm to become extratropical on October 29, and later that day a larger extratropical storm absorbed the previously subtropical storm near Nova Scotia.
The Marine Prediction Center issued some marine gale and storm warnings offshore, while the National Weather Service issued gale warnings for coastal North Carolina. It was not designated as a subtropical cyclone operationally. The storm produced tropical storm force winds in portions of Atlantic Canada, although it was associated with the larger extratropical storm at the time. Several ships also recorded tropical storm force winds, one of which recorded peak winds of 53 mph (85 km/h).
## Storm names
The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2000. The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2006 season. This was the same list used in the 1994 season. The names Joyce, Leslie, Michael, and Nadine were used for the first time this year. The name Joyce replaced Joan after 1988, but was not used in 1994.
### Retirement
During the meeting in spring of 2001, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Keith from the list above due to its high impact and replaced with the name Kirk in the 2006 season.
## Season effects
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, intensities, areas affected, damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but are still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low, and all of the damage figures are in 2000 USD.
## See also
- 2000 Pacific hurricane season
- 2000 Pacific typhoon season
- 2000 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
- Australian region cyclone season: 1999–2000, 2000–01
- South Pacific cyclone season: 1999–2000, 2000–01
- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season: 1999–2000, 2000–01
- South Atlantic tropical cyclone
- Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone
|
34,665,595 |
Up All Night Tour
| 1,171,244,278 |
2011–2012 concert tour by One Direction
|
[
"2011 concert tours",
"2012 concert tours",
"One Direction concert tours"
] |
The Up All Night Tour was the first headlining concert tour by English-Irish boy band One Direction, in support of their debut studio album, Up All Night (2011). It began in December 2011 and was One Direction's first solo tour after being formed in the seventh series of The X Factor and being signed to Syco Records. The concert tour was announced in September 2011, with the initial dates for UK and Ireland being revealed. The tour eventually expanded to Oceania and North America, with the band playing 54 shows in total.
The setlist encompassed songs from One Direction's debut album and five covers. Critics commended One Direction's singing abilities and stage presence, and the production of the show. The tour was commercially successful, and a recording of the concert at the Bournemouth International Centre was made for Up All Night: The Live Tour, which was released on DVD in May 2012. The DVD was a commercial success, topping the charts in twenty-five countries, and made chart history in the US. By August 2012, the video album had sold in excess of one million copies worldwide.
## Background
After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010, One Direction were signed to Syco Music. The group and nine other contestants from the series participated in The X Factor Live Tour 2011 from February 2011 to April 2011. The tour saw the group performing for 500,000 people throughout the UK. While performing on The X Factor Live Tour 2011 in April 2011, the group revealed that they would be embarking on a solo tour "soon".
One Direction's debut headline UK concert tour, the Up All Night Tour, was officially announced on 27 September 2011. Set for December 2011 and January 2012, the tour would showcase their then-upcoming debut album, and would commence on 18 December 2011 in Watford, England and end on 26 January 2012 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. One Direction announced the solo tour shortly after releasing their first single, "What Makes You Beautiful". Shows in the UK and Ireland were instant sell-outs causing additional shows to be added. In February 2012, One Direction announced the Oceania leg, with tour dates scheduled for April 2012, visiting Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Auckland and Wellington. While promoting the tour, band member Liam Payne stated the group wanted this trek to be a "world tour". Once the first leg of the tour was complete, the band joined Big Time Rush as the opening act on the Better With U Tour.
During a break from concerts, One Direction promoted their album in the United States. Following an appearance on The Today Show, Up All Night was released in the US and One Direction became the first ever UK group to have their debut album bow atop the Billboard 200. This led to the group extending the tour into North America. On 21 March 2012, One Direction announced the North American leg of the tour. The North American leg would start on 24 May 2012 and comprise 26 shows. Shortly after, English singer-songwriter Olly Murs was confirmed to be the opening act for select dates on the tour.
## Reception
### Critical response
The concerts in England and Ireland received mixed feedback from critics. Kitty Empire of The Observer was not impressed with the show at Windsor Hall. Empire wrote, "It's easy to sneer at boy bands, but always worth considering their appeal. It goes without saying that One Direction are slick, and often bland. With the exception of their persuasive No 1 single, "What Makes You Beautiful", their songs aren't wildly distinctive". For the concert at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo in London, James Robertson of Daily Mirror gave the band a positive review. He states, "The room shook with hair raising, ear drum piercing and (if there had been windows) glass-shattering screams. Each took a turn walking forward to embrace the cries from the sold-out Hammersmith Apollo while singing the lame-named Na, Na, Na. It was impossible to tell which one of the five boys had the biggest ovation but the loudest cheer came when Niall played acoustic guitar as they sang solo around an artificial camp fire". The show was positively reviewed by Alexandra Ryan of Evening Herald for the concert at Dublin's The O<sub>2</sub>. She says, "They came, they saw, they conquered. Dreams came true for thousands of Irish female fans as their pop idols One Direction took to the stage at the O2. Swarms of screaming girls flocked to the sold-out venue last night as Zayn, Harry, Louis, Liam and Mullingar teen Niall Horan performed for 14,000 fans".
As the tour progressed to Oceania and North America, many critics remarked on the band's popularity and their singing abilities. For the Sydney concert at Hordern Pavilion, Mike Wass from Idolator felt One Direction's "surprisingly accomplished effort" of Kings of Leon's "Use Somebody" proved that they are "more than capable" of evolving their sound. Cameron Adams of Herald Sun wrote a positive review for the concert in Melbourne at the Hisense Arena. He assessed that One Direction represented a "cleverly cast pop band with plenty of personality unleashed at the perfect time and seizing their moment." He opined that the covers performed showcased "strong pop voices." Adams concluded as follows: "Who knows if they'll progress beyond the usual boy band lifespan. But for now they're making a lot of people very happy." Reviewing the concert in Fairfax at the Patriot Center, Chris Richards of The Washington Post wrote: "Over the course of umpteen songs, its members didn't work the stage so much as loiter on it. They looked comfortable. No silly choreography, just a few ensemble fist-pumps. No ridiculous costumes, just letterman jackets, cardigans and khakis. A no-nonsense backing band — guitar, bass, keyboards and drums — provided steady renditions of nearly all of the songs on the group's debut album, "Up All Night", as well as a few covers, including Kings of Leon's "Use Somebody" and Natalie Imbruglia's "Torn."
Lars Brandle of Billboard reviewed the concert at the BBEC Great Hall in Brisbane. Brandle predominantly noted the band's popularity: "To say 1D is the hottest boy-band on the scene, doesn't quite grasp the situation. "On fire" is closer to the mark." Brandle commended the show for being "all slick, clean fun". Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone highlighted the group's acoustic performances, which "showed off Horan's ability to play guitar, as well as One Direction's admirable live vocals". Futterman concluded that there "was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note, a pleasant realisation at a pop show". Jane Stevenson from Canoe.ca maintained that the show at the Molson Canadian Amphitheatre in Toronto had "none of that choreographed dance move nonsense", and complimented the "naturally, classy, low-key" production. Melody Lau of National Post reviewed the same concert. Lau opined, "It's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost-too-put-together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love-struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and, to a certain extent, entertain." Lau additionally noted One Direction's lack of original material to perform, "the group falls back on a handful of covers to fill in their set, including Kings of Leon's "Use Somebody", Gym Class Heroes' "Stereo Hearts" and, surprisingly, Natalie Imbruglia's "Torn". Not straying too far away from the originals, the mid-show medley definitely felt like the boys randomly belting out songs for the sake of filler but girls didn't mind."
### Commercial performance
When tickets for the shows in the UK and Ireland went on sale, concerts reportedly became sell-outs within minutes. It was reported nearly 10,000 tickets were sold in 10 minutes for the band's shows in Auckland and Wellington. The sellout success continued in Australia. There, the band's shows in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane sold out in three minutes. Shows in the United States also sold out within minutes.
## Recording
A recording of the Up All Night Tour was filmed during One Direction's 3 January 2012 show at the International Centre in Bournemouth. Documenting the whole concert with intersperses of backstage footage, a video album, Up All Night: The Live Tour, was released on DVD in May 2012. The video concert DVD topped the charts in twenty-five countries. In Australia, it debuted at number one on the ARIA DVD chart and was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 90,000 units in its first week of sale. In the United States, it debuted at number one on the Billboard DVD chart, selling 76,000 copies, surpassing sales of the Billboard 200 number one album, John Mayer's Born and Raised, which sold 65,000 copies. One Direction made US chart history as the feat marks the first time a music DVD outsold the Billboard 200 number one album. The opening sales also makes it the highest music DVD debut of 2012 and the second highest debut in the past five years behind Adele's Live at the Royal Albert Hall, which launched at number one in December 2011, with 96,000 copies. As of August 2012, the video album had sold in excess of 1 million copies worldwide. In the week ending 27 January 2013, Up All Night: The Live Tour claimed its 30th week on top the Top Music Videos Chart, which is longer than any other title since the chart originated in March 1995. It surpassed Ray Stevens' Comedy Video Classics, which logged 29 weeks on top in 1993–1994. The recording was ultimately certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 29 May 2013, indicating shipments of 500,000 copies.
## Opening acts
- Boyce Avenue (United Kingdom & Ireland)
- Camryn (North America, select dates)
- Justice Crew (Australia)
- Matt Lonsdale (United Kingdom & Ireland)
- Annah Mac (New Zealand)
- Manika (North America, select dates)
- Olly Murs (North America, select dates)
- Johnny Ruffo (Australia)
## Setlist
1. "Na Na Na"
2. "Stand Up"
3. "I Wish"
4. Medley: "I Gotta Feeling" / "Stereo Hearts" / "Valerie" / "Torn"
5. "Moments"
6. "Gotta Be You"
7. "More than This"
8. "Up All Night"
9. "Tell Me a Lie"
10. "Everything About You"
11. "Use Somebody"
12. "One Thing"
13. "Save You Tonight"
14. "What Makes You Beautiful"
Encore
1. <li value="15">
"I Want"
## Tour dates
## Cancelled shows
### Box office score data
## Credits and personnel
Credits taken and adapted from Official Tour Programme.
Band
- Niall Horan (vocals/guitar)
- Liam Payne (vocals)
- Harry Styles (vocals)
- Louis Tomlinson (vocals)
- Zayn Malik (vocals)
- Jon Shone (MD/keys)
- Sandy Beales (bass)
- Josh Devine (drums)
- Dan Richards (guitar)
Management
- Richard Griffiths
- Harry Magee
- Will Bloomfield
- Chloe Fyffe
Show
- Louise Doyle (show creative director)
- Paul Roberts (choreographer)
- Helene Horlyck (vocal coach)
- Andy Saunders (video director/production)
- Tom Bairstow (video production)
- Rob Derbyshire (video soundtracks)
- Matt English (show graphic designer)
- Rob Arbuckle (screen 3D visualisations)
- Caroline Watson (costume stylist)
- Lydia Taylor (costume assistant)
- Crystabel Riley (groomer)
- Louise Teasdale (groomer)
- Mike Clegg (production manager)
- Mil Rakic (stage manager)
- Paul Higgins (tour manager)
- Namia Miller (security)
- Preston Mahon (security)
- Jag Chagger (security)
- Karen Ringland (band chaperone)
- June Jones (tour accountant)
|
12,583,230 |
Maryland Route 743
| 1,121,497,960 |
Highway in Maryland
|
[
"Frostburg, Maryland",
"National Road",
"Roads in Allegany County, Maryland",
"State highways in Maryland",
"U.S. Route 40"
] |
Maryland Route 743 (MD 743) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. The state highway runs 1.00 mile (1.61 km) from MD 36 in Frostburg east to U.S. Route 40 Alternate (US 40 Alternate) in Eckhart Mines. MD 743 is the original alignment of US 40 through Eckhart Mines. The state highway was designated when US 40 bypassed Eckhart Mines around 1950.
## Route description
MD 743 begins at an intersection with MD 36 (New Georges Creek Road) in Frostburg just south of MD 36's southern intersection with US 40 Alternate. The state highway heads east into the unincorporated village of Eckhart Mines as a winding two-lane undivided road. After intersecting MD 638 (Parkersburg Road) at an acute angle, MD 743 reaches its eastern terminus at US 40 Alternate (National Pike).
## History
MD 743 is the original alignment of US 40 and, before that, the National Road through Eckhart Mines. The highway was one of the original state roads scheduled for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909. The state road was paved through the village in 1911. MD 743 was designated through Eckhart Mines shortly after the US 40 (now US 40 Alternate) bypass of the village was completed in 1950. MD 743 originally extended west to US 40, meeting the highway on a tangent in front of Beall High School at the city limit of Frostburg. The western end of the state highway was truncated when MD 36 was moved to its present alignment between Midland and Frostburg in 1972.
## Junction list
## See also
|
1,341,148 |
Rose Tyler
| 1,173,292,697 |
Fictional character in the TV series Doctor Who
|
[
"British female characters in television",
"Doctor Who companions",
"Fictional characters from the 21st century",
"Fictional people from London",
"Recurring characters in Doctor Who",
"Television characters introduced in 2005"
] |
Rose Tyler is a fictional character in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. She was created by series producer Russell T Davies and portrayed by Billie Piper. With the revival of Doctor Who in 2005, Rose was introduced as a new travelling companion of the series protagonist, the Doctor, in his ninth and tenth incarnations. The companion character, intended to act as an audience surrogate, was key in the first series to introduce new viewers to the mythos of Doctor Who, which had not aired regularly since 1989. Rose became the viewers' eyes into the new world of the series, from the companion's perspective. Piper received top billing alongside Christopher Eccleston and David Tennant for the duration of her time as a regular cast member. A regular for all of series one (2005) and series two (2006), Piper later returned for three episodes of the programme's fourth series (2008) and appeared in feature-length specials in both 2010 and 2013. In the latter, Piper played a sentient weapon known as 'The Moment', which utilises Rose's image.
In the series' narrative, Rose is introduced in the eponymous series one premiere as a teenage working class shop assistant from London, alongside her own supporting cast in the form of her mother Jackie Tyler (Camille Coduri) and her boyfriend Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke). Over the course of the first series, Rose's human actions and responses contrast with the Doctor's alien perspectives. Rose grows increasingly trusting of the Doctor and comes to realise she has fallen in love with him. He comes to value and depend on her and sacrifices his Ninth incarnation for her. Rose forms a similar bond with the new Doctor, but the two appear to be forever separated in the series two finale, although Rose's temporary return in the fourth series gives her relationship with the Doctor a resolution.
In promoting the series, both Piper and Eccleston stressed Rose's heroic characteristics whilst Davies highlighted her down-to-earth qualities and quintessential "British-ness". Critical reaction noted that the character was more developed, independent and equal to the Doctor than previous companions had been, whilst the character's overall role in the narrative of the first two series was praised. However, the reaction to the character's 2008 return was more mixed. Piper won numerous awards for her portrayal of Rose —including two National Television Awards —and since her initial role in the series, the character has ranked highly in numerous 'best companion' polls. After leaving as a series regular, Piper experienced success in other high-profile roles as an actress which has been partly attributed to her performances in Doctor Who.
## Appearances
### Television
Rose is introduced in the eponymous premiere episode, "Rose", of the 2005 series. She is saved from an Auton attack by the mysterious Time Lord the Doctor (Christopher Eccleston), and assists him in preventing an invasion of Earth. Subsequently, the Doctor invites Rose to be his travelling companion, taking her to the end of the world and tampering her mobile so she can remain in contact with her mother Jackie (Camille Coduri), and boyfriend Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) while time-travelling in "The End of the World". In their travels through time and space, Rose learns the importance of not tampering with history, when in "Father's Day", she attempts to save the life of her father Pete Tyler (Shaun Dingwall), who had died when she was a baby. Throughout their journeys, she and the Doctor are haunted by two mysterious recurring words: "Bad Wolf". Rose, the Doctor, and new companion Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) come to understand the meaning of this phrase in "Bad Wolf", when they encounter an unstoppable army of Daleks on the space station Satellite 5, which first appeared in "The Long Game". To return to the Doctor after he sends her home to Earth in series finale "The Parting of the Ways", Rose tears open the console of the Doctor's time machine, the TARDIS, and becomes suffused with the power of the time vortex. Returning, she uses her power over the infinity of time and space to spread the words "Bad Wolf" over its entirety, then saving the universe from the Dalek invasion. Rose resurrects Jack, who died from Dalek fire, and destroys the Dalek fleet before the Doctor drains the energy out of her to save her life from its harmful effects. Rose is horrified as the Doctor appears to die and regenerates into a new man (David Tennant), who proceeds to take the TARDIS and a terrified Rose to Earth, abandoning Jack on Satellite 5.
The new Doctor and Rose arrive on Earth on Christmas Day, where he passes out from the strain of regeneration in the midst of a Sycorax invasion in the 2005 Christmas special "The Christmas Invasion". Having woken up and saved Earth, the Doctor enjoys Christmas dinner with Rose before they travel to parts unknown. Over the second series (2006), Rose and the Doctor grow increasingly close to one another. After defeating a werewolf in "Tooth and Claw", they are knighted by Queen Victoria (Pauline Collins), who banishes them as potential threats to the Empire whilst setting up the Torchwood Institute, which aims to track alien activity on Earth, including the Doctor's. Their relationship proves a source of tension once Mickey joins the pair in their travels, at the suggestion of the Doctor's former companion Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen) in "School Reunion". Whilst stranded in a parallel universe in "Rise of the Cybermen", Rose meets a rich, entrepreneur version of her father Pete who never died. Mickey decides to stay behind on this world to battle Cybermen as he no longer wants to feel like a spare part at the end of "The Age of Steel". Alone with the Doctor again, Rose faces the Beast (Gabriel Woolf) in the two-part story "The Impossible Planet" and "The Satan Pit", who prophesies that Rose will soon die in battle. This day comes when, in "Army of Ghosts", the Torchwood Institute's director Yvonne Hartman (Tracy-Ann Oberman) unintentionally allows the Cybermen army and Dalek Cult of Skaro into Rose's reality, where they begin a war. In the series finale "Doomsday", when sealing the Cybermen and Daleks back into the void through which they came, Rose is transported to the parallel universe by Pete, to save her from also being pulled into the void. Rose becomes trapped in the parallel universe with Jackie and the alternate universe Pete as the walls between universes seal; she is later declared dead in her own universe. Months later, the Doctor is able to transmit Rose a goodbye message. She reveals she now works for that universe's Torchwood, and confesses her love for him. Before he can reply, their connection is lost.
In spin-off series Torchwood (2006–2011), the audience learns that Rose's act of resurrecting Jack cursed him with being unable to die. Her absence and the Doctor's pained estrangement from her proves a point of contention for the Doctor's series 3 (2007) companion Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman); when Martha protects the Doctor, living as a human without his memories, it is still Rose that he dreams of. When the Doctor is reunited with Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) in the show's fourth series (2008) during "Partners in Crime", Rose mysteriously begins to appear in the Doctor's life—first seen only by Donna, and later in silent video messages which the Doctor is oblivious to. In "Turn Left", when a "Time Beetle" creates an alternate universe in which Donna never meets the Doctor and the Doctor dies, Rose travels from her parallel world to this world, working alongside the organisation UNIT to send Donna back in time, and make Donna's younger self turn left at a junction and not right. Rose tells Donna to say two words to the Doctor; "Bad Wolf". The Doctor concludes this is a sign that the universe, and reality itself is under threat. Later, in the midst of Davros' (Julian Bleach) plot to obliterate existence, Rose unites with the Doctor and his companions Donna, Martha, Jack and Sarah Jane to make a stand against him and his army of Daleks. In the midst of the battle, a part-human Doctor is created and destroys the Daleks. The Doctor returns Rose to the parallel universe along with Jackie, and his part-human counterpart. Rose challenges the Doctor to say the words he did not say to her during their previous farewell. The Doctor does not answer, but his part-human counterpart whispers in her ear and Rose kisses him. The Doctor retreats, leaving Rose behind with his part-human counterpart. In the closing scenes of "The End of Time" (2010), just prior to his regeneration, the Doctor travels to Rose's housing estate in the first minutes of 2005. He speaks to her from the shadows, asking her what year it is. She tells him it is 1 January 2005. The Doctor promises her that she will have a really great year.
Piper returned for the show's 50th-anniversary episode "The Day of the Doctor" (2013) as the interface of a sentient weapon of mass destruction known as 'the Moment'. The War Doctor (John Hurt) intends to end the raging Time War by using the Moment to destroy both the Daleks and the Time Lords. Using Rose's image, chosen for her future significance to the Doctor, the Moment attempts to persuade him to seek an alternative course of action by showing him how the decision will affect his future.
### Literature
Rose is featured in the first twelve Doctor Who New Series Adventures novels, which expand on her characterisation. The first three of these novels—The Clockwise Man, The Monsters Inside and Winner Takes All—were published in May 2005 and feature solely the Ninth Doctor and Rose. The Monsters Inside depicts Rose's first visit to an alien planet, her travels previously having been confined to earth and orbiting space stations. Rose mentions this visit to the planet Justicia in the first series television episode "Boom Town" which aired 4 June 2005. The second batch of Ninth Doctor novels —comprising The Deviant Strain, Only Human and The Stealers of Dreams—were released in September 2005 and expand on the Doctor and Rose's travels with Jack Harkness. The novel Only Human mentions that Rose was engaged to a previous love interest before becoming involved with Mickey. The events of "Boom Town" are addressed in The Stealers of Dreams in which Jackie complains that Rose did not alert her to her recent visit to modern day Cardiff. The first three novels to feature Rose and the Tenth Doctor—The Stone Rose, The Feast of the Drowned and The Resurrection Casket—were released in April 2006 to coincide with the broadcast of the second television series. The Feast of the Drowned explores the context of Rose's shifting relationship with Jackie and Mickey in light of her frequent absences from earth. Her relationship with a school friend, Keisha, is also explored; Rose is irritated to find out she and Mickey have become involved in her absence. The last three New Series Adventures novels to feature Rose —The Nightmare of Black Island, The Art of Destruction and The Price of Paradise—were published in September 2006. In addition to the regular range of novels, Rose is featured in the first Doctor Who Quick Reads Initiative novella, I am a Dalek, in which she and the Doctor must deal with a human-Dalek hybrid.
The Doctor Who Annual 2006, published in August 2005, gives further biographical information on Rose in an article written by the programme's chief writer and executive producer Russell T Davies, including the middle name "Marion", and information about her mother, school life and ex-boyfriends. The character also appears in short stories featured in the Doctor Who annuals for 2006 and 2007, in addition to an issue of the series' sanctioned companion magazine, Doctor Who Magazine. She has additionally been featured in comic book sequences which feature in the annuals, Doctor Who Magazine, and children's magazines Doctor Who Adventures and Doctor Who – Battles in Time. In one Doctor Who Magazine comic strip, "The Green-Eyed Monster", Rose is possessed by a creature that feeds on jealousy. In order to arouse enough jealousy to defeat this creature, the Tenth Doctor feigns a romance with Rose's mother, and sets up Mickey with a group of actors who pose as beautiful Amazonian girlfriends. The character also appears in a panel of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eights second story, "No Future for You".
### Audio drama
Following the folding of AudioGO and Big Finish's acquisition of the new series license, Piper reprised her role as Rose in Doctor Who: The Tenth Doctor Adventures released in November 2017, with David Tennant reprising his role as the Tenth Doctor. The stories include Infamy of the Zaross, Sword of the Chevalier and Cold Vengeance. Piper returned again for Rose Tyler: The Dimension Cannon, a series featuring Rose as the main character travelling through parallel worlds in search of the Doctor.
## Development
### Casting
Lead writer and executive producer Russell T Davies chose the name Rose because he considered it a "good luck charm" after he used it for Lesley Sharp's character in Bob & Rose. His desire to make the show "essentially British" was another justification: he considered Rose to be "the most British name in the world" and feminine enough to subvert a recent trend of female companions having "boyish" names, such as Peri, Benny, Charley, and Ace. Davies also frequently uses the surname "Tyler" in his work —previous characters he created with the surname include Ruth Tyler in Revelations (1994), Vince Tyler in Queer as Folk (1999), and Johnny Tyler in The Second Coming (2003) —due to his affection for how the surname is spelled and pronounced. Davies also used the surname "Tyler" in his Doctor Who New Adventures book "Damaged Goods". The casting of Piper as Rose was announced on by the BBC on 24 May 2004. Head of Drama for BBC Wales Julie Gardner commented that the former pop star "fits the bill perfectly" as a "unique, dynamic partner for Christopher Eccleston". Whilst some fans —including a representative of the Doctor Who Appreciation Society —were enthusiastic about the announcement, others felt it was "publicity stunt" casting and questioned Piper's acting credentials. One of the factors that influenced Piper's acceptance of the role was that she was able to relate the character of Rose to her own experiences as a teenager.
The British media regularly released conflicting reports about how long Piper would be staying with the programme. In March 2006, it was suggested that she would continue on Doctor Who into its third series in 2007. However, the BBC announced on 15 June 2006 that Piper was to depart in the final episode of the second series, "Doomsday". Her decision to leave had been taken a year previously. Following "Doomsday", Piper as Rose was greenlit to be the star of the spin-off series Rose Tyler: Earth Defence, set in her parallel universe and to air as a bank holiday special, but Davies deemed the concept "a spin-off too far" after Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures. Piper's eventual return during series four was planned during filming of the second series; in January 2006, she made a pact promising to return to film several more episodes. Davies and Piper cited her commitment to other projects—specifically, her roles as Belle de Jour in Secret Diary of a Call Girl, the lead character in the BBC adaptations of Philip Pullman's Sally Lockhart quartet, and Fanny Price in the ITV adaptation of Mansfield Park—as explanations behind her departure appearing permanent. Davies' successor as executive producer, Steven Moffat praised the creation and casting of the character in advance of the series' 50th anniversary in 2013. He stated that the character of Rose helped secure the return of the show by allowing "an audience who would not naturally have watched Doctor Who" to become invested in the show. Moffat suggested that during the first two years of the revival Doctor Who "was Billie Piper’s show" and that this has given her an "iconic status" above other Doctor Who companions.
### Characterisation
Rose is used by Davies as an introduction to the show's mythos and fantasy elements. He later underlined similarities between Rose and Gwen Cooper —the lead for Torchwood — describing both as "the ordinary person who stumbles into something extraordinary and finds herself their equal." Like her successor Martha, Rose is from London; Brett Mills from the University of East Anglia makes the assumption that this is because characters from the capital of the country are "relatable to all British people" because they are seen as "neutral". Rose is introduced alongside a supporting cast in the form of her boyfriend Mickey and mother Jackie which James Chapman cites as "evidence of Davies' attempt to create a social context for the companion". Davies states that the inclusion of these two characters was part of his desire to "make her real" and to "give her a life". He later stated that in giving Rose a mother, a boyfriend and a "sad story with her father" the character has "her own mythology, to match the Doctor." Lindy A. Orthia observes that Rose, like the other companions in Davies's era of Doctor Who, is "drawn from a cosmopolitan vision" in her case because of her class background. Orthia contends that whilst working-class companions had featured previously in the show "none were unskilled workers nor chronically under- or unemployed like Rose, Jackie and Donna". Looking back at the two characters, Davies felt Jackie to be someone who is "holding Rose back" right from the first episode due to her suggestions her daughter be content with menial employment. Piper states that this causes Rose to resent her mum somewhat, although she loves her.
Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times felt Rose to resemble "the Bridget Jones type of Englishwoman, albeit a few pegs down the socioeconomic scale" waiting to be awakened "not by some Mark Darcy ... but by adventure incarnate." Piper stated that at the start of the series Rose is "looking for something to happen" and that once the Doctor arrives she becomes "ruthless" in her decision to "completely drop her life as she knows it." At a media preview of the series she characterised Rose as being "positive, ambitious and full of conviction and confidence." She felt additionally that Rose is "a good character to relate to or aspire to." In a 2013 retrospective on her time on Doctor Who Piper stated Rose's feminine characteristics contributed to her being a balanced representation of a female character. She felt that Rose as a character could be both "strong-willed and vulnerable" and ventured that her emotional response made her more interesting than "a female character endlessly striving towards perfection". Eccleston, who played the Ninth Doctor described the character as a "heroine" who "teaches [the Doctor] huge emotional lessons". In an episode of Doctor Who Confidential he expanded on this, describing her as "the Doctor's equal in every way" except for the fact she lacks his scientific knowledge. He felt that the relationship between the two characters was "love at first sight" although in a more mysterious fashion than a conventional love affair. Davies summarised the relationship between the two characters as "soul mates" who "understand and complement each other".
Lynette Porter, in her book Tarnished Heroes, Charming Villains and Modern Monsters: Science Fiction in Shades of Gray on 21st Century Television observed that Rose's role "humanizes the Doctor and makes him less alien, not only to other characters, but to the audience". In the first series finale, Rose takes on deadly energies to save the Doctor and planet Earth. Script editor Helen Raynor felt the episode gave Rose a chance to "again be the Doctor’s equal" and "to finally match him with a gesture that is so noble, and strong, and heroic, and clever". Davies describes Rose in the context of this scene, and the whole of the first series, as being "braver than brave and more loyal than anyone else in the universe". The Doctor repays her loyalty by sacrificing his ninth incarnation in turn to save her; Davies states unequivocally that "he gives his life for her". Elements of Rose's characterisation in the first series were originally different. Paul Abbott was scheduled to write an episode which would have revealed that Rose's entire life had been manipulated by the Doctor in order to mould her into an ideal companion. Davies wrote the episode "Boom Town" to replace it when Abbott realised he was too busy to work on the script.
### With the Tenth Doctor
In an interview with SFX producer Phil Collinson stated that after the Doctor regenerates the "initial dynamic changes because [Rose] has to learn to trust him again". Piper added that as the Doctor is incapacitated Rose consequently feels "unloved", "isolated" and "like she's lost her best friend". In the Doctor's absence Rose relies on her observations of him and tries to mimic his actions. Collinson felt it was important to resolve any mistrust between the pair by the end of the Christmas Special, as the public had responded well to Rose and the Doctor's friendship previously. Davies had scripted dialogue in "The Christmas Invasion" explaining the newly regenerated Doctor's estuary English accent by stating he had imprinted on Rose and adopted her way of speaking. However, due to time constraints this sequence was not filmed. Discussing how Rose had developed by the second series, Piper described her as having "come on in leaps and bounds" and stated she is now "a lot more proactive." She felt that there is a "different kind of energy" between Rose and the Tenth Doctor, whilst Tennant remarked that the audience would get to see the Doctor-companion relationship "developing and becoming something that it maybe hasn't before." Piper stated that with the Tenth Doctor, Rose is "more tetchy and more possessive" over him as "she feels like she's lost him once and doesn't want to lose him again". She cited Rose's "catfight" with former companion Sarah Jane Smith in "School Reunion" as evidence of this. Discussing the possibility of Rose and the Tenth Doctor becoming more romantically involved Piper stated "You want it to happen, but at the same time you don't want it to happen". Tennant likened the dynamic between the pair to that of Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) and Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) in The X-Files. Both Tennant and Piper agreed that the expectation of the relationship is more exciting than having it realised. To add to the tragedy of their separation, Davies scripted the series two story arc so that Rose and the Doctor would be indirectly responsible for their separation. "It's deliberate when that happens [the Doctor and Rose's arrogance]", said Davies, "and they do pay the price. In "Tooth and Claw", they set up the very thing — Torchwood — that separates them in the end. It's sort of their own fault." Though Davies left the Doctor's response to Rose's declaration of love in "Doomsday" unstated, Gardner felt strongly that the character reciprocated her feelings. On the commentary for the episode she stated that she would "confirm to the world" that he was going to "say it back."
Davies created the expectation of Rose's return in the fourth series by mentioning her in dialogue and featuring Piper in cameo appearances in "Partners in Crime", "The Poison Sky", and "Midnight". Speaking on how Rose's character had changed between her appearances, Davies described the fourth series Rose as "tougher, more independent, and [she] might, at times, seem a little harder". Piper stated she rewatched her earlier episodes to remember how the character spoke and acted as she felt she had "been playing posh birds" since she left the programme and by contrast "Rose is a bit of a chav". Rose is re-united with the Doctor near the climax of "The Stolen Earth". Director Graeme Harper insisted that the scene appear "mystical" because the characters' reunion was "the most magical moment" in the entire episode and Ernie Vincze, the Director of Photography for the show, compared the scene's feeling to the 1980s science-fiction film Blade Runner. Davies characterised the reunion between Rose and the Doctor as "the biggest romance [the viewer] has ever seen" and joked that seminal films such as Gone with the Wind should have ended with a Dalek shooting the male lead. He had difficulty splitting up the characters for a second time for the necessity of the plot. He felt that "Rose has to be stupid to fall in love with Doctor \#2" because "she's doing what the plot demands, not what she'd demand". At one stage he considered giving an explanation that Rose's dimension hopping and the Dalek's meddling with reality had contaminated her with "voidstuff" and that she would die if she stayed in her original universe. In the final episode it is enough for her to stay that the human Doctor needs her and is able to reciprocate her love. Porter felt that the climax of "Journey's End" indicated that "Rose's role as a sidekick has been completed" as she has a second Doctor to humanise, one who she can be equals with.
### Reprisals
Though Davies had intended the serial to end with the Tenth Doctor visiting his former companions, he struggled with how to include Rose. An initial idea was for Rose to appear with her part-human Doctor in the parallel universe, where both would sense the original Tenth Doctor regenerating. However, Davies felt this would raise too many questions about their lives in the parallel universe. Davies's successor as executive producer, Steven Moffat, felt that Davies ended Rose's story in the perfect way by choosing to take it back to the beginning of her acquaintance with the Doctor. Piper's return for Doctor Who's 50th anniversary episode was confirmed in March 2013. Moffat wished to include Piper in the episode because he felt that she symbolised the rebirth of Doctor Who. As he did not feel comfortable adding to Davies's story arc, he chose instead to re-introduce her Bad Wolf persona. During the episode Piper's character has dialogue solely with John Hurt's War Doctor, and is unseen by the other characters, including the Tenth Doctor. Reviewers noted similarities between the characterisation of Bad Wolf Rose and that of a plot device used by Charles Dickens in his 1843 novella A Christmas Carol. Ted B. Kissell, a journalist for The Atlantic likened the War Doctor to Ebenezer Scrooge and dubbed Rose the "Ghost of Doctors Yet to Come".
## Reception
After a preview of the first series, The Guardian's Owen Gibson described Rose as "newly empowered" and a "go-getting teen in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer mould." Ahead of the series premiere on Australian Network ABC The Sydney Morning Herald's Robin Oliver described Rose's role in the series as being "more the Doctor's equal than previous companions" and that this was "no mean achievement against Eccleston's acting skills." Seventh Doctor actor Sylvester McCoy opined that Piper was "wonderful in the role" and the relationship between her and the Doctor was "quite extraordinary". Porter suggests in her analysis of Rose that the romance between her and the Doctor widened the demographic appeal of the series. She claims that the love story "simmers enough below the surface that adults, especially women who find Time-Lords sexy, watched the series for Rose's interplay with the Doctor". In their book Who is the Doctor?, Graeme Burk and Robert Smith described the climactic kiss between the Ninth Doctor and Rose in "The Parting of the Ways" as being something "we all secretly wanted, even though it ultimately killed him". Peter Davison, who portrayed the Fifth Doctor, also felt that allowing the Doctor and his companion to have sexual tension ultimately allowed for more rounded characterization. He believed that Rose was the first example of the production team creating a well written companion.
Burk and Smith found the pairing of the Doctor and Rose to be unlikable in the episode "Tooth and Claw" because they were "acting like smug idiots". However they noted that "fortunately there are consequences: the season arc gets kicked off as a direct result of the Doctor and Rose being so irritating". Harry Venning of The Stage commented that the eventual parting scene between Rose and the Doctor in "Doomsday" was "beautifully written and movingly played," with "not a dry eye in the universe". Burk and Smith singled out Piper's performance in the episode for special praise stating she "is astonishing at capturing the reality of someone whose world suddenly, finally collapses." Remarking on Piper's departure, Dek Hogan of Digital Spy stated that "Billie Piper’s energy has undoubtedly been one of the reasons that this revival has been so successful and the difficult third series will be so much more so without her." Stephen Brook of The Guardian commented that "the departure of the much-loved Rose ... was brilliantly handled and completely unexpected."
Stephen James Walker, a writer of reference works on Doctor Who, gave an unfavourable review to Rose's return in "Turn Left" in his "unauthorised guide to Doctor Whos fourth series," Monsters Within. He thought that Billie Piper was "distinctly below par", citing her gaunt and malnourished appearance, new hairstyle, and slight lisp as reasons why her acting was not her finest. He criticised her role in the episode, stating it had been "far less well worked out" than Donna's. Ben Rawson-Jones of Digital Spy also noted a change in Piper's enunciation; he compared her accent to "[having] her mouth numbed with local anaesthetic". In Rawson-Jones' review of the series finale he notes that whilst having the Doctor and Rose 'cop off' would be divisive with the shows audience, "Davies wisely managed to please both parties" by pairing her off with a human Doctor instead. However, IGN's Travis Fickett reacted unfavourably towards Rose's return and her pairing with the part human Doctor. He thought that it undermined her "perfect send off" in "Doomsday" as she was on the sidelines for much of "Journey's End", and her ending up with the part human, part Time Lord Doctor "feels like an insult to the character". Io9's Charlie Jane Anders also reacted unfavorably to Rose returning and wrote "it was pretty clear that she was only there so she could get her pet faux-Doctor at the end."
Reviewers generally reacted positively to Piper's 2013 appearance in 50th anniversary episode "The Day of the Doctor". Ben Lawrence of The Daily Telegraph called her performance as the "Bad Wolf" Rose "transfixing". Neela Debnath of The Independent praised the chemistry between Hurt and Piper and compared Piper's performance to Suranne Jones' portrayal of the TARDIS in "The Doctor's Wife" describing it as "slightly eccentric", "oddball" and "off-the-wall". Daniel Martin of The Guardian praised Steven Moffat's decision not to extend Rose Tyler's story or re-unite her with the Tenth Doctor. He called Piper "a true and unending legend of Doctor Who" and stated that "her wise rendition of the Bad Wolf avatar made a passable stab at the stealing of the show".
Geoff Boucher of the Los Angeles Times named Rose the ninth best sidekick of all time, referring to her as "the saucy and smart character who was key to the success of the Russell T Davies relaunch of Doctor Who in 2005". She was named the best Doctor Who companion by Digital Spy in 2011, who opined that she worked best alongside the Ninth Doctor. In 2006 she was voted best companion by readers of Doctor Who Magazine. In an online poll in late 2010 conducted by the Radio Times, with over 3,000 participants, Rose was again voted the most popular companion. She retained this position in a 2013 poll conducted ahead of Doctor Who's 50th anniversary, which had over 21,000 respondents, with 25.09% of the vote. In a 2012 poll conducted by BBC America with over 200,000 participants, Rose was voted "The Greatest Woman of Doctor Who." Both The Daily Telegraph's Gavin Fuller and Daniel Martin of The Guardian rated her as the second-best female companion behind Sarah Jane Smith. In 2012 Will Salmon of SFX magazine listed Rose's original exit as the greatest companion departure in the history of Doctor Who as he felt it "impossible not to be moved by the sudden severance of their relationship". In 2014 Radio Times organized the most massive online (over 2 million respondents) poll which featured every companion since 1963, beating the main сompetitors Jack Harkness and River Song, Rose was crowned "Companion Champion".
At the 2005 National Television Awards, Billie Piper won the "Most Popular Actress" award for her role as Rose. In the BBC Online "Best of Drama" poll in 2005 Piper won the Best Actress category with 59.76% of the vote. She was also voted the Most Desirable Star with 26.47%. In January 2006 she was awarded the Breakthrough Award for Rising British Talent at The South Bank Show Awards. Piper again won the Most Popular Actress category at the 2006 National Television Awards for her work on the second series of Doctor Who. In September 2006, Piper was named Best Actress at the TV Quick and TV Choice Awards. Radio Times's Tom Cole discussed the importance of Doctor Who in boosting Piper's career in an article on how former Doctor Who actors can now expect more than "a life of signing autographs at provincial sci-fi conventions." He notes that Piper's portrayal of Rose "firmly cemented her credentials as an actress" and cited the variety of roles she had taken on since leaving the show as proof that "as far as post-Who careers go, they don't get much healthier than Billie's."
|
58,500,029 |
Soviet destroyer Moskva
| 1,151,499,272 |
Soviet Leningrad-class destroyer leaders
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[
"1934 ships",
"Leningrad-class destroyer leaders",
"Ships built at the Black Sea Shipyard",
"Ships sunk by mines",
"World War II destroyers of the Soviet Union",
"World War II shipwrecks in the Black Sea"
] |
Moskva (Russian: Москва́) was one of six Leningrad-class destroyer leaders built for the Soviet Navy during the 1930s, one of the three Project 1 variants. Completed in 1938 and assigned to the Black Sea Fleet, she participated in the Raid on Constanța on 26 June 1941, a few days after the beginning of the German invasion of the Soviet Union. After the ship had finished bombarding targets in the port, she was sunk by a mine.
## Design and description
Impressed by the French large destroyer (contre-torpilleur) designs such as the Vauquelin class of the early 1930s, the Soviets designed their own version. The Leningrads had an overall length of 127.5 meters (418 ft 4 in) and were 122 meters (400 ft 3 in) long at the waterline. The ships had a beam of 11.7 meters (38 ft 5 in), and a draft of 4.06 meters (13 ft 4 in) at deep load. Built in two batches, the first batch (Project 1) displaced 2,150 long tons (2,180 t) at standard load and 2,582 long tons (2,623 t) at deep load. Their crew numbered 250 officers and sailors in peacetime and 311 in wartime. The ships had three geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller, designed to produce 66,000 shaft horsepower (49,000 kW) using steam from three three-drum boilers which was intended to give them a maximum speed of 40 knots (74 km/h; 46 mph). The Leningrads carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 2,100 nautical miles (3,900 km; 2,400 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph).
As built, the Leningrad-class ships mounted five 130-millimeter (5.1 in) B-13 guns in two pairs of superfiring single mounts fore and aft of the superstructure and another mount between the bridge and the forward funnel. The guns were protected by gun shields. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 76.2-millimeter (3 in) 34-K AA guns in single mounts on the aft superstructure and a pair of 45-millimeter (1.8 in) 21-K AA guns mounted on either side of the bridge as well as a dozen 12.7-millimeter (0.50 in) M2 Browning machine guns in six twin mounts. They carried eight 533 mm (21.0 in) torpedo tubes in two rotating quadruple mounts; each tube was provided with a reload. The ships could also carry a maximum of either 68 or 115 mines and 52 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Arktur hydrophones for anti-submarine detection.
## Construction and career
Moskva, named after the capital of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was laid down on 29 October 1932 at Shipyard No. 198 (Marti South) in Nikolayev as yard number 224, and launched on 30 October 1934. She was towed to Shipyard No. 201 in Sevastopol for completion, and reached 43 knots (80 km/h; 49 mph) in sea trials during April 1938. Commissioned on 10 August of that year, she was assigned to the 3rd Division of the Light Forces Detachment of the Black Sea Fleet three days earlier. On 16 November she left for Istanbul to participate in the funeral of Turkish President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, arriving there a day later. While in Turkey, 40 officers and sailors traveled to Ankara to lay a wreath before the destroyer leader departed Istanbul on 25 November, returning to Sevastopol three days later after exercises in the Black Sea. Moskva transported Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs Şükrü Saracoğlu back to Istanbul between 19 and 20 October 1939, visiting the port with the destroyer Besposhchadny until 23 October.
She was included with the Light Forces Detachment in a squadron of ships intended to participate in engagements with enemy fleets formed by the Black Sea Fleet in May 1940, leading one of the two destroyer divisions of the Light Forces Detachment, which was capable of independent operations. Late that year, she participated in joint maneuvers with the Transcaucasian Military District in the eastern Black Sea. Kapitan-leytenant (Captain lieutenant) Alexander Tukhov took command of the ship in February 1941. In event of a Romanian attack on the Soviet Union, Moskva, as part of the Black Sea Fleet squadron, was to destroy or capture the Romanian fleet and cut communications, blockade the Romanian coast, support a potential amphibious landing and Soviet troops advancing along the Black Sea coast. To practice this plan, she participated in exercises with the Red Army's 9th Special Rifle Corps between 4 and 19 June, supporting a mock amphibious landing on the west coast of Crimea, near Tendra.
### Raid on Constanța
Following the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the squadron of the Black Sea Fleet was tasked with disrupting Axis supply lines by bombarding the Romanian port of Constanța and its oil tanks. The time of the bombardment was set for 05:00 on 26 June, to be preceded by a 30-minute airstrike by aircraft of the fleet beginning an hour earlier. For the raid, the heavy cruiser Voroshilov and Moskva were to cover the bombardment of the port by the latter's sister ship Kharkov and the destroyers Soobrazitelny and Smyshleny. To prevent Axis air attack, the ships began to depart Sevastopol at night, at 18:00 on 25 June. However, before exiting the bay, the ships were ordered back to port because the plan was changed by the People's Commissar for the Navy, Vitse-admiral (Vice Admiral) Nikolay Kuznetsov, who ordered that the two destroyer leaders conduct the bombardment, with the other ships in support. Moskva and Kharkov departed Sevastopol Bay at 20:10, initially heading towards Odessa as a deception measure and then turning towards their destination slightly more than an hour later, followed by the support group.
On the morning of 26 June, Moskva and Kharkov bombarded the port as scheduled, although the airstrike was not carried out. The former contributed 196 out of the 350 rounds fired between them at oil tanks and railway stations from a range of about 20 km (12 mi), blowing up an ammunition train and inflicting considerable damage. As they were preparing to depart after having fired for 10 minutes, they were engaged by German coastal artillery and the Romanian destroyers Regina Maria and Mărăști at ranges between 11,000 to 16,000 m (12,000 to 17,000 yd). Silhouetted against the dawn, the Axis fire soon bracketed Moskva and hit her mainmast. Shortly afterwards, she struck a mine, probably laid by the Romanians on 16–19 June, which broke the ship in half; prior to the raid, the ships conducting it were not given precise charts of minefield locations. Moskva sank quickly, but German Heinkel He 50 floatplanes and Romanian motor torpedo boats were able to rescue 69 survivors, including seven officers. Among those captured was Tukhov, who was reported by Soviet accounts to have later escaped and been killed while fighting as a partisan.
In 2011, the wreck of Moskva was discovered by Romanian divers at a depth of 40 meters (130 ft) 20 kilometers (12 mi) from Constanța.
|
56,294,776 |
2018 Rome ePrix
| 1,170,630,786 | null |
[
"2010s in Rome",
"2017–18 Formula E season",
"2018 in Italian motorsport",
"April 2018 sports events in Italy",
"Rome ePrix"
] |
The 2018 Rome ePrix (formally the 2018 CBMM Niobium Rome E-Prix Presented By Mercedes EQ) was a Formula E electric car race held at the Circuito Cittadino dell'EUR in the EUR residential and business district of the Italian capital of Rome on 14 April 2018 before a crowd of 45,000 people. It was the seventh round of the 2017–18 Formula E Championship and the inaugural running of the event. The 33-lap race was won by Virgin driver Sam Bird from a second position start. Lucas di Grassi finished second for Audi and Techeetah driver André Lotterer took third.
Felix Rosenqvist of Mahindra won the pole position by recording the fastest lap in qualifying and maintained the lead through the mandatory pit stops for the change into a second car until he hit a kerb on the 22nd lap and retired with a broken rear-left suspension. That allowed Bird into the lead but he was challenged by Jaguar's Mitch Evans, who had made a pit stop one lap later and had more electrical energy, with four laps left but he could not get ahead. Evans was then passed by di Grassi and Lotterer in the final laps as his energy depleted and Bird held off di Grassi to take his second victory of the season and the seventh of his career.
The result allowed Jean-Éric Vergne of Techeetah to retain his lead in the Drivers' Championship but his points advantage was reduced to 18 as Bird's victory put him ahead of Rosenqvist. e.Dams-Renault driver Sébastien Buemi maintained fourth and di Grassi's teammate Daniel Abt moved into fifth after coming fourth. Techeetah extended their advantage in the Teams' Championship to thirty-eight points over Virgin. Mahindra scored no points and fell to third with five races left in the season.
## Background
### Preview
Coming into the race from Punta del Este four weeks earlier, Techeetah driver Jean-Éric Vergne led the Drivers' Championship with 109 points and was 30 points ahead of Felix Rosenqvist of Mahindra in second. Virgin's Sam Bird was a further three points behind in third and Sébastien Buemi of e.Dams-Renault was fourth with a total of 52 points accrued. Jaguar driver Nelson Piquet Jr. was fifth with 45 points. Techeetah led the Teams' Championship with 127 points; Mahindra followed 27 points behind in second position. Virgin (93 points) and Jaguar (86) were third and fourth and e.Dams-Renault were fifth with 59 points. There were ten teams fielding two drivers each for a total of 20 participants for the event.
After the world governing body of motorsport, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), abolished the minimum pit stop time at the Santiago ePrix three races ago, Techeetah and Dragon were fined for modifying their seat felts and André Lotterer (Techeetah) clipped one of his mechanics in Mexico. These events prompted the FIA to hand all teams two cameras to aid the stewards in analysing footage after the race and were instructed to install them above the second car of their respective drivers and be positioned in an unobstructed area of the garage effective from the Rome ePrix. Jean Todt, the FIA president, reiterated his position that the responsibility of ensuring safe pit stops laid solely with teams and drivers and revealed that the decision to discard the minimum pit stop time was made following two years of research, "If you want to try and save time and to be unbuckled before you stop, [or] to buckle after you have started – you will be reported to the stewards to make some strong decisions. But if you follow the rules and the procedure, I feel that there is no problem of safety. I hope that every driver and every team will be responsible and we shouldn't have any problems."
### Preparations
Plans for a Formula E race around the streets of the Italian capital of Rome were discussed on 1 December 2012 by Todt, and series founder and CEO Alejandro Agag with Gianni Alemanno, the mayor. They agreed to hold a race in the city in the 2014–15 Championship. On 1 October 2013 however, these plans changed when the initial season calendar was released, dropping the Rome race with Hong Kong. A new administration had been elected in the intervening period of time and it decided against taking further action in restoring the ePrix to the calendar. But, the project was revitalised when in November 2016, Rome's councillor for sports Daniele Frongia told news agency Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata that the recently elected administration of Virginia Raggi was in the process of planning for major events slated for 2017 and 2018. Raggi maintained written correspondence with the FIA concerning the restoration of Rome to the Formula E calendar.
After a meeting of councillors at Rome City Hall, Agag met Raggi and a congregation of city officials in February 2017 to discuss a series of requests and evaluated a potential circuit. The group held another meeting a few weeks later for further negotiation. Two months later on 20 April, the proposal for a motor race on the streets of Rome was put forward to authorities from the local assembly who voted unanimously in favour to approve permits to allow racing in the city's EUR residential and business district for the next five years. The ePrix was added to the FIA's provisional 2017–18 calendar on 19 June, and was officially confirmed as part of the series by the FIA World Motor Sport Council three months later. It was the seventh of twelve scheduled single seater electric car rounds of the 2017–18 Championship and occurred at the Circuito Cittadino dell'EUR street circuit on 18 April 2018. Prior to the ePrix, Rome last hosted a street circuit race at the Baths of Caracalla in 1951. Organisers expected 30,000 people to attend the ePrix.
The layout of the 21-turn 2.86 km (1.78 mi) street circuit was unveiled to the public on 19 October 2017. It was the second longest track on the Formula E calendar after the Circuit International Automobile Moulay El Hassan in Marrakesh. The start line was positioned on the Via Cristoforo Colombo and the finish line was positioned near the Marconi Obelisk. The circuit negotiated past major city buildings such as the Rome Convection Center and the Palazzo dei Congressi. Construction of the track began on 3 April, eleven days before the ePrix, and was completed on 12 April. It was dismantled two days after the race. The circuit received a mixed response. Lucas di Grassi (Audi) disliked the chicane while Nick Heidfeld (Mahindra) believed the turn would be more challenging than it appeared. Nico Prost of e.Dams-Renault felt that turns four and five would provide a great amount of challenge and it reminded him of the Montreal Street Circuit. However, several drivers raised concerns over the position of the starting grid. Di Grassi argued it should have been placed after turn two while Heidfeld doubted that moving the start line would make any significant difference.
## Practice
Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second lasted half an hour. A half an hour untimed shakedown session was held on Friday afternoon to enable teams to check the reliability of their cars and electronic systems. Piquet incurred a suspended three place grid penalty for exceeding the maximum amount of permitted laps (six) during shakedown and a repeat transgression before the session ended would require him to serve it. In the first practice session, held in relatively cold weather, Piquet set the fastest time of 1 minute, 36.134 seconds lap, followed by Bird, Mitch Evans (Jaguar), Vergne, Buemi, Lotterer, Rosenqvist, Jérôme d'Ambrosio (Dragon), di Grassi and Alex Lynn (Virgin). During the session, several drivers were caught out by the track and some including Lotterer ventured onto its run-off areas as they learnt the limits of the track and finding a rhythm they liked. José María López (Dragon) glanced the turn five barrier and damaged his car's rear-right corner. Lynn ended the session five minutes prematurely with a slide at a 45-degree angle into the turn one barrier, deranging his front-left suspension. Rosenqvist led for most of the second session and recorded a 200 kW (270 hp) lap late on of 1 minute, 35.467 seconds. He was three-tenths of a second faster than the second-placed Bird. Di Grassi, López, Prost, Buemi, d'Ambrosio, Piquet, Tom Blomqvist (Andretti) and Evans were in third to tenth. With five minutes left, Lynn crashed for the second time when he lost control of the rear of his car approaching the turn sixteen/seventeen chicane because of an overspeed that sent him into an outside barrier sideways with the left hand side of his vehicle. Lynn was unhurt but the crash significantly damaged his car and ended the session early due to the limited amount of available time.
## Qualifying
Saturday's afternoon one hour qualifying session was divided into four groups of five cars. Each group was determined by a lottery system and was permitted six minutes of on-track activity. All drivers were limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest five overall competitors in all four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by the competitor's fastest times (Super Pole from first to fifth, and group qualifying from sixth to twentieth). The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships.
In the first group of five drivers, Blomqvist was the early pace setter and was followed by Maro Engel (Venturi) and Prost. Both Luca Filippi (NIO) and d'Ambrosio set one timed warm-up lap as the duo crossed the timing team after the first group ended due to a mistimed run that prevented them from recording a lap at maximum power. Rosenqvist immediately went the fastest of anyone in the track's first sector and topped group two. Buemi followed in second with Bird third and Vergne fourth. Piquet struggled with the tight track and was the second group's slowest driver. In the third group, Evans was the fastest competitor and put himself amongst the top five overall runners as he eliminated Vergne from super pole. Di Grassi was second-quickest with Oliver Turvey (NIO) third and Daniel Abt (Audi) fourth. The third group's slowest driver Edoardo Mortara (Venturi) made contact with a wall leaving the Obelisk chicane and broke his rear-left suspension and steering arm, causing him to fight for control of his car for the rest of his lap.
Before the final group commenced, a miscommunication caused López to be released from his garage at the wrong time and hit the sidepod of António Félix da Costa's Andretti car at low speed. López was consequently pushed into a wall because he could not steer away from Félix da Costa. Both cars sustained suspension damage and neither López nor Félix da Costa set a lap time as Formula E regulations obliged teams to nominate one of the driver's two cars for use in qualifying. Lotterer surprised all by setting the fastest overall group stage lap of 1 minute, 36.593 seconds by gaining four-tenths of a second in the circuit's final sector after two previous average sector times on its last lap. Heidfeld drove tidily on his lap to place second and Lynn was third. At the end of group qualifying, the lap times set by Lotterer, Rosenqvist, Buemi, Bird and Evans qualified them into super pole. Although Rosenqvist glanced a barrier with his right-rear wheel leaving the Obelisk chicane, he took his third pole position of the season and the sixth of his career with a time of 1 minute, 36.311 seconds. He was joined on the grid's front row by Bird who had the pole until Rosenqvist's lap. Evans, third, locked his tyres at turn nine, battled for control of his car over the bumps while braking for the turn 13 hairpin. Lotterer could not replicate his group qualifying performance due to a lack of tyre cooling and was fourth after losing four-tenths of a second in the first sector. Buemi appeared to win pole by going fastest early on but an error with the retardation of his regenerative system entering turn 13 put him deep after missing his braking point on the bumpy track and started fifth.
### Post-qualifying
Andretti were issued a €10,000 fine as the stewards deemed them to have released Félix da Costa's car "in an unsafe manner and [da Costa] then collided with car number six that was approaching in the fast lane.” Félix da Costa (penalised ten grid positions for the afternoon's race), López, Filippi and d'Ambrosio (also dropped two places on the grid for passing the chequered flag twice) were granted permission by the stewards to start the race. After the application of penalties, the rest of the order consisted of di Grassi, Turvey, Vergne, Abt, Heidfeld, Lynn, Blomqvist, Piquet, Engel, Prost, Mortara, Filippi, d'Ambrosio, López and Félix da Costa
### Qualifying classification
Notes:
- — Jérôme d'Ambrosio was demoted two places on the grid for passing the chequered flag twice while António Félix da Costa was penalised ten positions for causing a collision in the pit lane.
- — Luca Filippi, José María López and António Félix da Costa were granted dispensation to start the race.
## Race
The race began before a crowd of 45,000 people at 16;00 Central European Summer Time (UTC−02:00). The weather at the start was dry but cloudy with the air temperature between 25.05 to 26.25 °C (77.09 to 79.25 °F) and the track temperature ranged from 24 and 26 °C (75 and 79 °F). A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 100 kW (130 hp) of power to use in the driver's second car. The three drivers who were allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. On the grid, Rosenqvist spun his tyres and turned left to stop Bird from passing him. That allowed Evans to try and pass the pair on the inside, only to slide wide and return to third. Meanwhile, Turvey made a brisk start from seventh to pass di Grassi and Buemi on the outside for fifth. As the field approached the second turn, Lynn mounted the rear of Vergne's car, damaging both cars' bodywork with Lynn shown a black flag with an orange disc to dictate he enter the pit lane for repairs. Engel and Félix da Costa gained three places by the end of the first lap, while Blomqvist lost the same amount of positions over the same distance.
The gaps in the top ten stabilised as Rosenqvist began to build a small advantage over Bird. Further back, Félix da Costa continued to move up the order by getting ahead of Filippi and Mortara followed through. Yet, Mortara abandoned his attempt at steering back onto the racing line as López occupiee the space and the former was briefly sideways. López could not find any room to overtake him but untangled with Mortara before entering the hairpin. Buemi, di Grassi and Filippi were announced as the winners of the FanBoost vote on the fourth lap. Soon after, López almost completed a double overtake on Filippi and Prost which saw his axle interconnect as he moved past Filippi but reached the apex of the corner, allowing Prost to keep fourteenth for the time being. At the front, Rosenqvist had extended his lead over Bird to three seconds, which remained about the same until the former responded to set consecutive fastest laps and close the gap before the mandatory pit stops to change into a second car. Buemi pressured Turvey and got past him for fifth on lap 15. He then began drawing closer to the fourth-placed Lotterer and was right behind him within one lap. An overtaking attempt by Buemi on Lotterer resulted in minor contact but both sustained no damage.
Entering the pit stop window, Evans and Lotterer had seven per cent more electrical energy than the top two and fell back so they could remain on track for one extra lap while di Grassi and Vergne also conserved energy. As the pit stops drew nearer, localised yellow flags were necessitated for a four-car pileup at the turn 13 hairpin on lap 16. Heidfeld was close to Turvey; the two collided into the hairpin and the former hit a barrier. López on the inside pushed Turvey into Heidfeld. Then, Turvey's teammate Filippi attempted to pass Mortara and rammed into the rear of his car with Mortara following suit. All four drivers were able to continue. Meanwhile, Félix da Costa made the first pit stop of the race on the lap. Rosenqvist and Bird came in simultaneously with the former retaining the lead. After the pit stops, Buemi moved past Evans for third and di Grassi was close behind Lotterer in fifth as the full course yellow procedure was activated for Lynn who was stranded in the turn ten run-off area after a crash on lap 18. Then, Piquet became the second retiree after stopping his car with an unrectifiable seat belt problem.
Once racing resumed, Bird in second was still close behind Rosenqvist in the lead and Evans passed Buemi for third place. On lap 22 Bird took the lead as Rosenqvist drove over the turn 17 kerbs and broke his car's rear-left suspension assembly and drive shaft. It was initially attributed to an aggressive driving style but it was later traced to a loose bolt. Rosenqvist pulled up at the side of the track to retire. Race control activated the second full course yellow procedure to allow marshals to move Rosenqvist's car to a safe location. Meanwhile, di Grassi passed Lotterer, and soon after, used his FanBoost to overtake Buemi on the inside cresting a hill for third on lap 24. He began to gain on Evans, who in turn, was drawing nearer to Bird by having more electrical energy. As the battle for the lead commenced, Buemi defended from Lotterer, allowing Abt and Vergne to duel them. Although Lotterer was conscious over conserving electrical energy, he overtook Buemi at turn five on lap 26.
Abt lacked access to energy readouts due to a radio failure in his second car, but made a similar overtaking attempt on the outside of Buemi entering the hairpin on the lap. Vergne temporarily took sixth and fifth away from Abt and Buemi two laps later before going deep at the hairpin. Evans used his electrical energy advantage to challenge Bird into turn nine for the lead on lap 29 but Bird defended by steering right. Abt earned one point for setting the race's fastest lap of 1 minute and 37.910 seconds on lap 30, and passed Buemi at turn nine soon after. Vergne then overtook Buemi on the inside heading towards turn three. Evans used his extra electrical energy to close up to Bird and had neither slowed nor regenerated for energy conservation purposes, leaving him vulnerable to di Grassi and Lotterer. This enabled Bird to open up a small lead and di Grassi got by Evans for second place at turn nine with three laps left. Lotterer then tried to pass Evans driving towards turn nine. Evans held third as Lotterer was alongside him going into the Obelisk chicane but Evans kept the place by out-braking him.
With two laps left, López tagged the rear of Mortara's car, damaging the latter's rear wing and causing the former to retire with suspension damage. The full course yellow was not activated on the final lap because López stopped his car in a place where he would not obstruct anyone. This proved detrimental to Evans as he had five per cent of electrical energy left while Lotterer had two per cent more. Lotterer turned left to pass Evans at turn ten for third. Evans then slowed due to electrical energy depletion. Di Grassi's conservative strategy drew him nearer to Bird but was not close enough to affect an overtake and Bird earned his second victory of the season and the seventh of his career by 0.970 seconds. Lotterer was third and Abt fourth. Fifth-placed Vergne sprained his thumb at his pit stop which left him unable to attack the left-hand turns for fear of oversteering into a barrier. Buemi, d'Ambrosio, Engel, Evans, Mortara, Félix da Costa, Turvey, Filippi, Prost, Blomqvist, Heidfeld and López were the final classified finishers.
### Post-race
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Bird admitted that he may have not won the race had Rosenqvist retired with suspension damage and stated a driving error on his part allowed Evans and di Grassi to close up on him, "I knew they'd be hunting on the last lap but I tried to give myself the best scenario and held on." He stated he would take a race-by-race approach until New York City when he would read into the points standings, "I’ve just got to do the best job I can and then we’ll see when we get to New York where we were strong last year." Di Grassi called the race "extraordinary", and although he did not expect to draw close to Buemi at the start, he was delighted to finish second. He hoped to contend for the win in every race until the season ended. Third-place finisher Lotterer admitted that he was still learning Formula E and on how luck changes hands in the series, "I saved a bit too much energy and the performance was good, but I learned a lot again today and I'm happy to be on the podium... I'm getting it bit by bit."
Rosenqvist's retirement from the lead was his second in three races after a battery failure lost him the Mexico City ePrix. He described the race as a "perfect day in every sense" and vowed to return to contention, "We're all quite tired and I think the guys deserved a win today – that's going to be hard for everyone but we're going to come back." Evans said the second full course yellow stopped him from securing his second podium finish of the season and was aware his sole opportunity to pass Bird was missed, "It spiralled out of control very, very quick. I’ll take it on the chin. The guys did a great job, and I feel bad for the team. We could have easily got a podium. Maybe we were just a little bit impatient, but it's my first time racing for the win in this championship." Concerning the lap 16 four-car pileup at the hairpin, Turvey called it "unfortunate" and said he could not avoid it from occurring. Heidfeld argued since Turvey depleted electrical energy, possibly due to excess frontal brake bias, he was rendered unable to steer. Heidfeld said he would discuss the crash with Turvey.
Towards the end of the race, di Grassi was investigated by the stewards for the placement of his mechanics' hands at his mid-race car change pit stop. Di Grassi was later summoned to the stewards where footage of his pit stop was re-examined for clarification and Audi were cleared of any wrongdoing when they demonstrated their procedure was legal. Di Grassi subsequently called for technology to have a greater involvement to allow for consistent instructions and decisions could be enforced and lower the stewards' workload. e.Dams-Renault team principal Jean-Paul Driot explained Buemi had Bird's strategy but his battle with Turvey obliged him to attack too much. Driot believed an alternative strategy of one extra lap could have been adopted had Buemi began on the grid's front row. The unbuckling of Piquet's seat belt in his second car was one of several incidents involving the safety device and a similar issue affected Abt in Punta del Este. He revealed that his team decided to retire him because the problem took too long to rectify and they wanted to conserve equipment, "It's pretty clear, these cars are not made for quick pit stops and everyone is taking risks as there's no minimum time.”
The result kept Vergne the lead of the Drivers' Championship but his advantage was reduced to 18 points. Bird's victory moved him to second place and Rosenqvist's retirement demoted him to third. Buemi maintained fourth position while Abt took over fifth position by finishing sixth. In the Teams' Championship, Techeetah extended their advantage over Virgin (who gained second place from Mahindra) at the top to 34 points. Mahindra scored no points and dropped to third while Audi's strong result moved them from sixth to fourth. Jaguar scored two points courtesy of Evans but fell to fifth with five races left in the season.
### Race classification
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
Notes:
- — One point for fastest lap.
- — Three points for pole position.
## Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Teams' Championship standings
- Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
|
2,380,087 |
Evan Lorne
| 1,163,426,634 |
Fictional character from the Stargate universe
|
[
"Fictional United States Air Force personnel",
"Fictional artists",
"Fictional characters from San Francisco",
"Fictional majors",
"Stargate characters"
] |
Major Evan Lorne, USAF is a fictional character in the 2004 Canadian–American Sci-Fi Channel television series Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis, two military science fiction shows about military teams exploring the galaxy via a network of alien transportation devices. Played by Kavan Smith, Evan Lorne was first introduced as a recurring character in the seventh season of Stargate SG-1, holding the military rank of Major in the United States Air Force. He joins the Atlantis expedition after "The Siege" as one of the personnel on the Daedalus class battlecruiser.
Lorne was a recurring character in seasons seven and ten in Stargate SG-1 and seasons two through five in Stargate Atlantis. Smith was originally supposed to play another character in Stargate Atlantis, but the producers eventually decided to keep Lorne, since he was popular with the fans according to Smith himself. He appears in a total of 29 episodes.
## Character arc
Lorne first appears in Stargate SG-1 episode "Enemy Mine". Lorne reappears as a part of the new personnel sent after the Wraith siege by the Daedalus and serves as Atlantis' military second-in-command under Lieutenant Colonel John Sheppard. In "Runner", he assists Sheppard, Teyla Emmagan, and Rodney McKay in the search for Aiden Ford. Lorne possesses the ATA gene, but it has never been revealed whether his gene is natural or artificial. He is seen piloting a Puddle Jumper in several episodes including "Condemned" and "The Hive".
Lorne is one of the Atlantis Expedition members in "This Mortal Coil" that the Replicators take the form of, but they are all killed by Oberoth. In an alternate timeline shown in the episode "The Last Man", Lorne is a major general and appears to be in command of the Stargate Command (SGC). Lorne also appears as the team leader of the SG-1 unit in an alternate universe in the SG-1 season 10 episode "The Road Not Taken".
In "Doppelganger", Lorne threatens Sheppard while sleepwalking, believing him to be a Replicator. Lorne is stunned by Ronon Dex, and while being questioned by Dr. Kate Heightmeyer says that he "hadn't had a sleepwalking incident since he was ten." Lorne's mother, an art teacher, taught him how to paint on weekends when he was growing up, and Lorne rekindles this muse during his stay on Atlantis. In "Tabula Rasa", Lorne, while being semiamnesiac, takes a severe overdose of a delaying medicine that is supposed to hold back the illness. This causes him (and all of his team) to become paranoid, aggressive and confused and they resort to shooting with stunners everyone they see even if they are not affected by the sickness. Eventually, though, a picture of Sheppard convinced him to assist Ronon treat the sick. He later apologised to Sheppard. Originally from San Francisco, California, Lorne also has a sister who has two young boys. He loves ice cream.
## Conceptual history
The character was introduced in the Stargate SG-1 episode "Enemy Mine". Kavan Smith had formed a close relationship with director Peter DeLuise before being cast. When the development of the episode was finished, there were no plans of expanding Lorne's role in the franchise. Smith himself felt the part would not "necessarily" lead anywhere big. Sometime after shooting "Enemy Mine", the producers wanted to talk to Smith about the possibility of having him return to the spin off series, Stargate Atlantis. After the talk, Smith auditioned for a part, he won and received a different character. According to Smith, this character was more of a "military guy", but the producers eventually decided to give Smith back his old character, Lorne.
When talking about season two of Stargate Atlantis, staff writer, Martin Gero said Lorne had become the most notable recurring character of the series. In an interview with Smith, it was revealed that Lorne's first name was decided to be "Evan", later confirmed by executive producer, Joseph Mallozzi. While fans on the other hand, have given him the first name, Marcus (or, alternately, Nick), the producers or writers have not responded to this. In the episode "Spoils of War", a character was going to call him "Uncle Evan", this scene was cut off, because of time constraints.
At first, plot information about the episode, "Coup D'etat" was a bit scarce. Many fans speculated that they were going to kill Lorne off the show. Smith went and had a brief talk with the writing staff, responding to his worries that it was a part of a "cliffhanger". According to Smith, the only reason for making Lorne a recurring character was the positive feedback from fans. "Sunday" became the first episode to reveal information about Lorne's backstory. Smith described Lorne as "that sort of faithful, loyal guy that everybody kind of knows," and representing a "steady constant." On his own weblog, Joseph Mallozzi said that Lorne as a character would become more active during season 5.
## Reception
Cynthia from Sci Fi Universe commented that Kavan Smith played a character who had the "same name" as the character he originally portrayed in Stargate SG-1, but was "not really the same guy". Concluding her review saying she reacted positive towards the evolution of the character. When talking about science fiction fandom, Smith said that he was "shocked" about the fan response to his character, further stating that this could only be possible in a science fiction television series. In the interview, Smith said that his "character seems to be developing ... I feel like his career is sort of moving ahead." In an interview, Smith said he had evolved a strong fanbase, which started with his more obscure earlier work and has since followed him throughout his career. Because of the strong fan response, Smith has started to attend various Stargate conventions.
|
1,161,404 |
WKVB (FM)
| 1,164,742,721 |
Radio station in Westborough, Massachusetts
|
[
"1961 establishments in Massachusetts",
"Christian radio stations in Massachusetts",
"Educational Media Foundation radio stations",
"K-Love radio stations",
"Radio stations established in 1961",
"Radio stations in Worcester, Massachusetts",
"Westborough, Massachusetts"
] |
WKVB (107.3 FM) is a non-commercial radio station licensed to serve Westborough, Massachusetts, United States, carrying a contemporary Christian format known as "K-Love". Owned by the Educational Media Foundation (EMF), WKVB does not broadcast any local programming but functions as the network affiliate for K-Love in Greater Boston and Worcester; a second K-Love station in the area, WNKC (104.9 FM) in Gloucester, serves the North Shore. The station's transmitter is in Hudson, with a backup in Paxton. In addition to a standard analog transmission, WKVB broadcasts in HD Radio and is available online.
Historically, this station is perhaps best known as WAAF, which carried a commercial rock music format for nearly 50 years in various forms of the genre, with an active rock orientation between 1989 and 2020. The station also featured personalities including Bob Rivers, Liz Wilde and Greg Hill, and was the first high-profile radio home for Opie and Anthony in the mid-1990s. Sold by Entercom (now known as Audacy, Inc.) to the Educational Media Foundation on February 18, 2020, WAAF's former programming continues on digital subchannels of WEEI-FM and WWBX, as well as on the Audacy platform.
## History
### Early years
On October 5, 1960, the Federal Communications Commission awarded the Waterman Broadcasting Corporation, owner of WAAB (1440 AM), a construction permit to build a new FM radio station licensed to Worcester on 107.3 MHz, to transmit from Asnebumskit Hill in Paxton. WAAB-FM went on the air on June 15, 1961. In its early years, WAAB-FM simulcast the full service programming of its AM sister station; in 1967, it broke away from the simulcast and launched a stereo beautiful music format.
WAAB-AM-FM was sold to WAAB, Inc., in 1968 for \$675,000. WAAB, Inc., was owned by Ahmet Ertegun and his brother Nesuhi Ertegun, as well as record executive Jerry Wexler; all had just recently sold Atlantic Records to Warner Bros.-Seven Arts. The FM station took on new WAAF call letters on May 28, 1968; the call sign had been dropped the previous year by a station in Chicago.
In later years, WAAF ownership would erroneously claim a longer history than that of its own license, stretching back to experimental FM station W1XOJ in the late 1930s. W1XOJ—later given the normal call letters WGTR—was part of the first FM network, put together by the Yankee Network and its principal, John Shepard, who at the time also owned WAAB. While WAAB-FM/WAAF initially utilized the same transmission tower as this previous station, there is no connection, as the license for WGTR was deleted at the request of General Teleradio on July 24, 1953.
### Freeform era
WAAF ended its automated middle-of-the-road programming on March 16, 1970, and introduced a live progressive rock format, which emphasized folk and folk-rock during the day and harder rock at night. It ran as a freeform station known as "WAAF, The Rock of New England", where the air talent was given total control over what music to play. The station was sold in 1971 to Southern Massachusetts Broadcasters, owned by George Gray, in an \$800,000 acquisition.
On November 7, 1971, WAAF was in the middle of an all-Beatles weekend when its transmitting building was damaged by a homemade pipe bomb, knocking it off the air temporarily and causing \$4,000 in damage. A group demanding the end of capital punishment and "parole law" in Massachusetts claimed it had orchestrated the bombing. The station was forced to temporarily operate on a limited schedule from the transmitter site, as the blast put its studio-transmitter link out of service. Gray sold his Worcester stations to the Robert L. Williams Broadcasting Company of Massachusetts in 1976 for \$1.465 million; he had previously sold his other radio stations in New Bedford and Binghamton, New York, the year before. Robert L. Williams also owned WEZN radio in Bridgeport, Connecticut.
### Album rocker
By the mid-1970s, WAAF had settled in as an album-oriented rock outlet. The station was one of the first clients of the "Superstars" format, developed by consultants Lee Abrams and Kent Burkhart; WAAF would continue to use their services until January 1984. Promotional slogans of the period played off the call letters, including "The WAAF Air Force" and a giraffe mascot known as the "WAAF GirAAF".
WAAF had completed the first of several technical improvements to reach listeners in Boston in 1972 when it increased its effective radiated power to 16,500 watts; it had operated with less than 2,000 ever since signing on. However, it was not until 1978 when the Boston Globe heralded WAAF's entry into the Boston market and its "rock radio battle". In 1977, the station managed to outrate talk outlet WMEX. WAAF's third sale of the decade would come in 1978: the station, its AM counterpart WFTQ, and WEZN were sold to a group of employees, known as Park City Communications, for \$3.2 million. Park City sold all of its stations to Katz Broadcasting, a subsidiary of Katz Media Group, for \$16 million in November 1981.
WAAF encountered ratings success in the Worcester market to start the 1980s; despite newfound competition from WCOZ (94.5 FM) in Boston, the station attributed its success to extensive marketing, promotion, and contests. WAAF appeared in ratings surveys not only in Worcester and Boston but in Providence and Springfield; WAAF listening was even measured as far away as Peterborough, New Hampshire. Remaining a "Superstars" client, WAAF relied on Abrams' playlist input and received criticism for not taking chances to play other music genres; Abrams notably told WAAF's program director in 1980 that new wave "isn't the coming thing." Music heard on the station tended to lean toward a harder rock focus from artists like Led Zeppelin, Ted Nugent, Van Halen, and Pat Benatar.
It was during this time, in September 1981, that the Rolling Stones played a warmup show for a group of WAAF listeners at Sir Morgans Cove, a Worcester nightclub. WAAF connected with the band while they rehearsed at Long View Farm in North Brookfield and gave away all 300 tickets for the free show as a reward for locals respecting their privacy; demand exceeded 4,000 in what Radio & Records termed "an unprecedented radio concert promotion coup". All day, station staffers drove around Worcester in unmarked cars handing out tickets to locals who had station stickers or T-shirts. While WAAF refused to announce the name of the location, WBCN obtained the information from a Worcester police officer, causing a large crowd of 4,000 to form outside of the 300-seat venue; 10 people were arrested. WAAF promotion director Steve Stockman blamed WBCN for announcing the venue on-air, declaring his competitor's actions "reckless and irresponsible".
A few months later, Bob and Doug McKenzie (Rick Moranis and Dave Thomas) teamed up with WAAF for a contest to promote their The Great White North comedy album, where the winner received an afternoon trip for two to Tewksbury, while the runner-up won a weekend trip for two to the Lowell suburb. WAAF staffers came up with the contest idea after noticing a sign in Tewksbury that reminded them of toque knit hats referred to in the album. The station had also asked the town's fire chief to give the winner keys to the city; he declined, believing the initial offer to be a prank phone call.
Bob Rivers co-hosted morning drive on WAAF between 1982 and 1987 with Peter "Zip" Zipfel. Titled Bob and Zip, the program became known for parody and novelty songs produced by Rivers; the most memorable one being "Breakin' Up Is Hard on You" ("Breaking Up Is Hard to Do" by Neil Sedaka) regarding the Bell System divestiture, and charted at \#70 on the Billboard Hot 100. Rivers also performed "Just a Big Ego" ("Just a Gigolo" by David Lee Roth) which debuted as Roth announced his departure from Van Halen, and was included in The Rhino Brothers Present the World's Worst Records. Rivers and Zipfel attracted attention on the day of the 1984 United States presidential election by instructing their listeners who planned to vote for Ronald Reagan to simultaneously flush their toilets at 7:00 a.m., and listeners voting for Walter Mondale to flush their toilets at 7:30 a.m.; the station then contacted the various regional water authorities and based their exit poll off of the drops in water pressure. Rivers left WAAF to take over as morning-drive host at WIYY in Baltimore; Drew Lane replaced him and was later teamed up with Zipfel.
WAAF attempted another unusual promotion where the station was to have dropped 100,000 one-dollar bills from a helicopter onto downtown Lowell on November 26, 1988, at 1:07 p.m. This event was abruptly canceled at the last minute by Lowell city officials concerned about the safety of people who would have participated, while station management had intended for it to promote Lowell's revitalization.
### "Untamed Radio"
On March 10, 1989, NewCity Broadcasting traded WAAF and WFTQ to Zapis Communications in exchange for WEKS-FM (104.1) in Atlanta in what was a tax-free asset swap; each half of the transaction was valued at \$15 million. Zapis Communications was headed by Xenophon Zapis and his son Lee Zapis, who also owned WZAK in Cleveland. NewCity already owned WYAY (106.7 FM), and agreed to keep it in the Gainesville, Georgia, market as a condition of the asset swap.
When Zapis took over operations in the summer, John Sutherland took over as general manager, promotions director Ron Valeri was promoted to operations manager, Nance Grimes was promoted to acting program director (Grimes left that October, with Valeri assuming the programming role outright) and John Gorman—a Boston native best known for programming WMMS in Cleveland from 1973 to 1986—was hired as a consultant. As a sign of things to come, Aerosmith was in-studio to play their upcoming album Pump two weeks in advance of the album's release.
Owing in part to Gorman's consultancy, WAAF hired Ruby Cheeks for morning drive that October. Cheeks was formerly a part of WMMS's morning show and had also hosted evenings and afternoons, and had left the station in a contract dispute. WAAF's musical direction was shifted to what was called "Rock 40", featuring harder songs by core artists while increasing the amount of new and current music played. Gorman publicly called it a "fine-tuning" of the playlist instead of a format shift, while the move was also made to improve WAAF's ratings in Boston as opposed to Worcester. With the relaunch, the station was re-branded as "Untamed Radio", a slogan also used on WRQK-FM in Canton, Ohio, another station Gorman oversaw.
Greg Hill, who had joined the station's promotions department in 1986, was promoted to overnights in June, then named as Ruby Cheeks's co-host that November. While John Gorman's consultancy over WAAF eventually ended after he took over as program director for WMJI in Cleveland and subsequently returned to WMMS and WHK (1420 AM) in 1994, Gorman held high praise for Valeri's work as programmer for WAAF, telling Hitmakers magazine, "could you imagine what (Ron) would do with a full Boston Metro signal?"
Starting on January 9, 1991, WAAF's programming was simulcast over WFTQ due to what John Sutherland called "substantial losses" for the AM station's prior format; among the people dismissed was Steve LeVeille. This simulcast ended on September 8 when Zapis Communications entered into an agreement with the Boston Celtics, then the owners of WEEI (590 AM), to simulcast the newly converted sports radio outlet under the WVEI call sign.
### Alternative and "raunchy" lean
As the station continued to evolve under the "Untamed Radio" brand, Liz Wilde was hired initially for evenings in 1990, then promoted to afternoon drive in early 1992. Following Ruby Cheeks' departure from WAAF to return to Cleveland at WNCX, Greg Hill assumed sole hosting duties for what would be called The Hill-Man Morning Show. Both Wilde and Hill's on-air presentations, in addition to billboards and television commercials suggestively promoting the station, netted attention in the local press for what was deemed as "raunchy" content. General manager Bruce Mittman and program director Ron Valeri defended their content to the Boston Globe as appealing to the 18-34 male demographic, Mittman, in particular, praised Wilde for her creativity. Hill also defended his show by saying, "If something annoys you, turn the knob. Shut it off." Following Wilde's promotion to afternoons, Rebecca Pratt took over as evening host.
Much of the station's change to an aggressive presentation came with WAAF's further orientation to the Boston market, having opened a sales office in Newton in 1991. In the Arbitron ratings in that period, WAAF ranked number one in Worcester, number four in Springfield, in the top five stations in Manchester and in the top ten in Boston and Providence, all in the 18-34 male demo; management viewed WAAF as speaking to an audience rather than speaking to a geographical location. WAAF also championed local band Extreme upon the release of their album Pornograffitti and single "More Than Words", hosting a softball duel between the band and station staffers at Lampson Field in Billerica.
Every November, starting in 1993, WAAF held a popular annual charity event "Walk and Rock for Change", raising money for food banks in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. During this event, the DJs from the station walked across Massachusetts, asking for change from the people as they stopped in each town and airing interviews along the way. Starting in 2003, during this event, WAAF DJs played requested songs not normally heard on the station for a donation. For the first two weeks of December 1993, Greg Hill engaged in an elaborate stunt dressed up as a "Mystery Santa", handing out \$50 dollar bills to random people and even to Boston Mayor Thomas Menino, who declined the money offer. Hill's reveal took place in a news conference after several days of \$10,000 giveaways, including several hundred dollars to a homeless shelter, saying he was aiming to capture "the curiosity of the people."
Liz Wilde would leave WAAF for the evening slot on WLUP-FM (97.9) in Chicago in March 1995. It was her replacements in the afternoon time slot, however, that would garner the station ample amounts of attention and infamy.
### Opie and Anthony
In early 1995, Gregg "Opie" Hughes and Anthony Cumia were a newly established duo hosting a late-night program over WBAB in Babylon, New York. WAAF program director Ron Valeri tuned into WBAB while visiting family in Long Island and called Hughes to offer them a job. General manager Bruce Mittman later recounted he "almost drove off the road laughing" from listening to an aircheck assembled by Hughes, and after a competing offer from a Dallas station, Hughes and Cumia were hired by WAAF in afternoon drive in March 1995, officially replacing Liz Wilde. Shortly after the debut of Opie and Anthony, Valeri left the station and was replaced by Dave Douglas; Cumia ignored directives from Douglas and dropped most of the music from their program. Despite this, Douglas cited their show as part of a high-profile airstaff where every daypart could easily be a well-performing morning show on another station.
The duo had several publicity stunts throughout their tenure at WAAF, the most infamous one being "100 Grand" where after weeks of on-air promotions implying otherwise, the winning caller to a contest giveaway won a 100 Grand Bar instead of \$100,000. In May 1997, Hughes and Cumia started one of their most notorious promotions: "Whip 'em Out Wednesday", where women engaged in "flashing" to any oncoming drivers that had a "WOW" sticker on their car. The show was suspended for two weeks after a confidential memo from management was read aloud by the duo, while Bruce Mittman canceled the promotion after nine weeks when police contacted station management; Mittman denied the suspension was related. A compilation album of their material from WAAF, Demented World, was released in October 1997.
Hughes and Cumia further accelerated the rivalry between WAAF and WBCN, especially after Nik Carter replaced Mark Parenteau against their show on WBCN. Carter, who was African-American, was targeted not only by Hughes and Cumia, but by nighttime host "Rocko" for his ethnicity; a rant on Opie and Anthony on November 17, 1997, also contained what were construed as threats of physical violence towards Carter, labeled with the pejorative "Disco Boy" by the duo. Carter responded in kind by calling WAAF "the hate station in Worcester" and "We Are All Fonies", in addition to in-kind pejoratives against Hughes, Cumia and Rocko, both on-air and on the station's website. Hughes responded by telling the Boston Globe, "Eventually it's gonna come down to talent and, not to sound cocky, (Carter's) not in our league... (WBCN is) trying to create talk for their guy, a Howard Stern wannabe with no talent to back what he does."
WAAF would become the subject of unwanted national and international attention in April 1998 after an April Fools' Day prank by Hughes and Cumia claimed that Boston mayor Thomas Menino was killed in a car accident in Florida, accompanied by a Haitian prostitute. This included staged phone-in reports from two people claiming to be a policeman and news reporter, respectively. In reality, Menino was on a flight as the prank unfolded; when notified, he joked about "being back from the dead" but filed a complaint with the FCC over the hoax, saying WAAF "blatantly disregarded the personal and public turmoil they were causing my family and the city" after Hughes and Cumia jokingly offered on-air to allow themselves to be stockaded at Boston City Hall Plaza and pied by Menino. While the FCC took no action, the negative reaction caused American Radio Systems (which had purchased the station, along with its AM counterpart, for \$24.8 million on August 1, 1996) to fire the duo and suspend Mittman for one month and Douglas for a week. Mittman later claimed he had no advance knowledge of the prank, having taken the day off to celebrate his 20th wedding anniversary.
Both Hughes and Cumia signed a deal to host afternoons at WNEW-FM in New York City several weeks after the firing. As part of the deal, Hughes and Cumia frequently appeared on Nik Carter's afternoon program through phone-in appearances on co-owned WBCN, which later simulcast their WNEW-FM program beginning in August 2001.
### The Boston rock radio war
WAAF's rivalry with WBCN continued to escalate throughout the late 1990s. In February 1997, both stations engaged in a war of words over who had an advance copy of the Aerosmith album Nine Lives first; WAAF offered to play it over the phone to anyone who would call in, while during a listening party for the CD, WBCN announcer Mark Parenteau ripped WAAF as "juvenile" and "trailer park trash bottom feeders". WZLX, co-owned with WBCN, wound up playing the album first over the air and received a cease and desist order. That May, WAAF and WFNX management both accused WBCN and program director Oedipus of directing local bands away from functions hosted by either station. In a Radio & Records op-ed, WAAF program director Dave Douglas saw WBCN's booking of Primus—a band WAAF had played more than any other station in the Boston market—for a festival as insulting, along with a concert performed by Tonic not sponsored by any station but co-opted by WBCN.
The rivalry was justified. WBCN reported to industry trades as both an active rock and alternative hybrid at this period; WAAF shared as much as 59% of its audience with WBCN in the local ratings, while WBCN shared 32% of its audience with WAAF. The overlap between the two stations became so pronounced that a Boston Globe story in 2000 pointed out directly how much WAAF and WBCN "sounded alike", with nearly identical music playlists and equally provocative air personalities, in what industry analyst Tom Taylor called "the rock wars in Boston". The competitiveness was especially notable as WBCN had several distinct advantages over WAAF: a signal centered in Greater Boston, the local rights to The Howard Stern Show, and the flagship station designation for the New England Patriots Radio Network.
Another unseen factor took place on September 20, 1997, when WAAF owner American Radio Systems was purchased by WBCN owner Infinity Broadcasting Corporation's parent company, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, for \$1.6 billion. Due to both American Radio and Infinity having multiple station holdings in the Boston market, Entercom purchased WAAF and WWTM, along with WEEI (850 AM), WRKO, and WEGQ, from the combined entity for \$140 million on August 14, 1998. After the sale, WAAF moved its studios from Worcester to Boston at a combined facility with the other Entercom acquisitions; the city of license remained Worcester. Prior to the merger and divestiture, WAAF was briefly simulcast on the AM dial again, this time over WNFT (1150 AM) starting in June 1997, replacing a previous simulcast of WKLB (96.9 FM) as a placeholder until ARS could determine a new format for WNFT.
WAAF took credit for being the first radio station to play Godsmack in 1999, giving the band extensive airplay before landing a music deal. In fact, WAAF had booked the band as a warm-up act for a Days of the New concert in December 1997, where they reportedly "stole the show" in a Globe concert review. On June 13, 1999, the station also hosted an impromptu concert headlined by Limp Bizkit on a parking garage rooftop across the street from Fenway Park; the start time was moved up by an hour after WBCN announced the location on-air 15 minutes before WAAF did, and the performance only lasted for 25 minutes before police ordered it to end.
During the production of a WAAF compilation CD, an audio track by evening host Mistress Carrie that gave out a phone number to someone named "Mike" was inserted as an inside joke; the phone number given was the inside studio line to WBCN, forcing WBCN to change their hotline. Mistress Carrie, who has never publicly disclosed her surname, applied to be a producer for Opie and Anthony right before their dismissal in 1998, but was still hired full-time to the evening shift; her involvement at the station dated back to a college internship seven years earlier. Carrie eventually hosted both afternoon drive and middays.
### Signal adjustments
While it had been teased as early as 1999 when their studio was moved to downtown Boston, WAAF was finally able to commence testing at a new transmission site at the WUNI tower on Stiles Hill in Boylston between October 31 and November 22, 2005, on program test authority from the FCC; along with this relocation, WAAF's city of license designation was reassigned from Worcester to Westborough, Massachusetts. While the station's signal strength decreased in most parts of Connecticut and western Massachusetts, the move was an attempt to concentrate the signal into Greater Boston.
WAAF resumed broadcasting at the Paxton site to address alleged multipath issues, which were blamed on a faulty T1 line between their Brighton studios and the transmitter site. These issues were resolved by the spring and summer of 2006, when WAAF resumed operations at the Boylston site. The original program test authority lasted until May 26, 2011, when the FCC officially issued a license for the site.
### Simulcast with WKAF
Radio One announced the sale of Brockton-licensed WILD-FM (97.7) to Entercom for \$30 million on August 21, 2006, in what Radio One President Alfred C. Liggins called "a very good start to our asset disposition process." Entercom's purchase came after their purchase of 15 small-market stations from CBS Radio earlier in the day; those stations and WILD-FM totaled \$250 million. Entercom entered into a time brokerage agreement several hours after the announcement, and switched WILD-FM to a simulcast of WAAF, enabling full-market coverage of WAAF's programming in Downtown Boston and other parts of the metro area. After stunting with a computerized countdown sequence, the simulcast began at 5:30 p.m. the next day with AC/DC's "For Those About to Rock (We Salute You)". WILD-FM's call sign was changed to WKAF on August 30, 2006. The addition of WKAF was seen by industry analyst Scott Fybush as a way for WAAF to finally achieve signal parity with WBCN; Fybush considered the combination of WAAF's new Boylston signal and WKAF's signal as "the biggest FM coverage of any single Boston facility."
In 2007, the station was nominated for the Radio & Records magazine active rock station of the year in a top 25 market award; other nominees included WIYY in Baltimore, KBPI in Denver, WRIF in Detroit, WMMR in Philadelphia, and KISW in Seattle. WAAF became the longest-running rock radio station in the Boston market on August 12, 2009, after a complicated series of simultaneous format changes by CBS Radio, where WBCN's call sign changed to WBMX and format from rock to hot adult contemporary; WBMX's call sign changed to WBZ-FM and format from hot AC to sports radio as "The Sports Hub"; and WBCN's rock format was moved to the "new" WBZ-FM's second digital subchannel.
WKAF broke away from the WAAF simulcast on January 5, 2017, when Entercom debuted a separate urban adult contemporary format; a press release sent out by Entercom stated that WKAF "delivered little appreciable audience beyond (WAAF's) booming signal". With the switch, WAAF added simulcasts on the second digital subchannel of WKAF and the third digital subchannel of WEEI-FM. One month later, Entercom entered into an agreement to merge with CBS Radio via a Reverse Morris Trust. Entercom, the surviving entity, retained WAAF and divested WKAF (along with several other stations) to iHeartMedia, Inc.
### Departure of Greg Hill
The final Hill-man Morning Show aired on WAAF on July 19, 2019. Greg Hill and co-host Danielle Murr were transferred from WAAF to the morning-drive timeslot on WEEI-FM (and by extension, WVEI, due to it being a full-time affiliate of WEEI-FM's regional network) in the wake of Gerry Callahan's dismissal from WEEI-FM over declining ratings. Callahan's co-host, Mike Mutnansky, was reassigned to weeknights on WEEI-FM, while Hill's other co-host Lyndon Byers and producer Mike Hsu were moved to afternoon drive on WAAF. Byers abruptly quit on air in the middle of a show less than two months later. This left Hsu and Mistress Carrie as the lone remaining on air personalities on the station, along with The Mens Room in evenings, despite a "national search" for Hill's replacement announced by WAAF management when he left.
In November 2019, the station announced a 50th anniversary concert for early April 2020 headlined by Godsmack, a band WAAF had championed 20 years earlier. Intended as part of a year-long celebration, no other events were ever announced or scheduled.
### Sale to EMF
On February 18, 2020, Entercom announced that WAAF would be sold to the Educational Media Foundation for \$10.75 million. Under a network affiliation agreement signed on February 14, the station would join EMF's K-Love network on February 22. Entercom would still provide two hours of programming for the station on Sunday mornings, so as to satisfy U.S. Federal Communications Commission-mandated public affairs requirements. This agreement ended WAAF's 50-year run as a rock station; Entercom's press release regarding the sale stated that "WAAF"-branded rock programming would continue to air on the second HD Radio channels of WWBX and WEEI-FM (both channels had been simulcasting WAAF), as well as on Entercom's Radio.com platform. Despite the K-Love network affiliation agreement having been officially signed four days earlier, on a Friday, Mistress Carrie and Mike Hsu were not informed of the transaction until two hours before the press release was issued, in between both of their respective airshifts.
While still a Worcester-market station, the sale also effectively marked EMF's entry into the Boston market, which had previously received K-Love programming via a lease of Methuen-licensed WUBG (1570 AM), along with two FM translators in Boston's northern suburbs and reception in the southern end of the market of the network's station in Providence, Rhode Island, WLVO (95.5 FM). EMF vice president of signal development Joe Miller said that Boston was "one of the last major markets we haven't been able to get a major signal into until now."
The final day of WAAF's rock format consisted of a 14-hour farewell program co-hosted by program director Joe Calgaro, Mistress Carrie, and Mike Hsu. Among the in-studio guests was Aerosmith bass player Tom Hamilton, who personally reminisced about the first time he heard Dream On played anywhere on radio while driving in his car, listening to WAAF. Other guests on the program included Bob Rivers, Peter Zipfel, Greg Hill, Gregg "Opie" Hughes, Anthony Cumia, and Rebecca Pratt. Mistress Carrie would later say of the offer by Entercom to do such a long farewell program, "that is a gift that we were given that we will never be able to repay. It's like being awake and attending your own wake and funeral... that you are there to hear all the nice things people would say about you if you were dead, it was overwhelming."
During the final hour, all three hosts stated on-air that internal plans had been in place to "relaunch the station" on March 2. These plans were to have included re-hiring station veteran Mike Brangiforte as the new morning show host, canceling The Mens Room for a local night host, teaming up Hsu with Calgaro, and a revamped music playlist curated by Mistress Carrie. All of these purported plans were immediately aborted once the sale to EMF was announced, with the ensuing "WAAF"-branded rock programming operating without any air personalities. The last song played on WAAF prior to joining the K-Love network was "Black Sabbath", from Black Sabbath's self-titled debut album. The selection was intentional, as Mistress Carrie explained, "the album came out weeks before we signed on the air, and Ozzy released a new album (Ordinary Man) the day we signed off, and is the only artist to stay current for all 50 years of our history, and well... SATAN. If EMF was going to take our beloved signal, they were going to have to endure Satan first." Hsu also quipped, "I was hoping they (EMF) had to throw some holy water on the stick when (the clock) turned." Following the switchover, around 150 fans, former employees and staff members celebrated the station's legacy outside of the Brighton studios with an outdoor champagne toast in the parking lot.
Upon the takeover, Entercom "parked" the WAAF call sign on a station in Scranton, Pennsylvania; that station's previous WBZU calls were transferred to WAAF in a temporary move, effective February 26, 2020. The WBZU call letters had themselves been parked in Scranton 15 years earlier when another Entercom-owned station in Madison, Wisconsin, changed formats and call letters. Entercom then changed the station's call sign to WKVB on March 6; EMF had previously used the WKVB call sign on the K-Love station at Port Matilda, Pennsylvania. EMF's purchase of WKVB was completed on April 21, 2020.
Despite the sale, WAAF's planned "Big Gig" concert was still scheduled to be held on April 25, 2020; however, on March 27, Entercom announced that it would be postponed to April 24, 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
## Current programming
WKVB does not air local programming; all content is transmitted via satellite by the Educational Media Foundation's K-Love network based out of Rocklin, California. This excludes one hour of public affairs programming produced for the station by EMF on Sunday nights.
|
2,150,841 |
Lionel Messi
| 1,173,782,218 |
Argentine footballer (born 1987)
|
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] |
Lionel Andrés Messi (; born 24 June 1987), also known as Leo Messi, is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a forward for and captains both Major League Soccer club Inter Miami and the Argentina national team. Regarded as one of the greatest players of all time, Messi has won a record seven Ballon d'Or awards and a record six European Golden Shoes, and in 2020 he was named to the Ballon d'Or Dream Team. Until leaving the club in 2021, he had spent his entire professional career with Barcelona, where he won a club-record 34 trophies, including ten La Liga titles, seven Copa del Rey titles and the UEFA Champions League four times. With his country, he won the 2021 Copa América and the 2022 FIFA World Cup. A prolific goalscorer and creative playmaker, Messi holds the records for most goals in La Liga (474), most hat-tricks in La Liga (36) and the UEFA Champions League (eight), and most assists in La Liga (192) and the Copa América (17). He also has the most international goals by a South American male (103). Messi has scored over 800 senior career goals for club and country, and has the most goals by a player for a single club (672).
Messi relocated to Spain from Argentina aged 13 to join Barcelona, for whom he made his competitive debut aged 17 in October 2004. He established himself as an integral player for the club within the next three years, and in his first uninterrupted season in 2008–09 he helped Barcelona achieve the first treble in Spanish football; that year, aged 22, Messi won his first Ballon d'Or. Three successful seasons followed, with Messi winning four consecutive Ballons d'Or, making him the first player to win the award four times. During the 2011–12 season, he set the La Liga and European records for most goals scored in a single season, while establishing himself as Barcelona's all-time top scorer. The following two seasons, Messi finished second for the Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo (his perceived career rival), before regaining his best form during the 2014–15 campaign, becoming the all-time top scorer in La Liga and leading Barcelona to a historic second treble, after which he was awarded a fifth Ballon d'Or in 2015. Messi assumed captaincy of Barcelona in 2018, and won a record sixth Ballon d'Or in 2019. Out of contract, he signed for French club Paris Saint-Germain in August 2021, spending two seasons at the club and winning Ligue 1 twice. Messi joined American club Inter Miami in July 2023, winning the Leagues Cup in August of that year.
An Argentine international, Messi is the country's all-time leading goalscorer and also holds the national record for appearances. At youth level, he won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship, finishing the tournament with both the Golden Ball and Golden Shoe, and an Olympic gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics. His style of play as a diminutive, left-footed dribbler drew comparisons with his compatriot Diego Maradona, who described Messi as his successor. After his senior debut in August 2005, Messi became the youngest Argentine to play and score in a FIFA World Cup (2006), and reached the final of the 2007 Copa América, where he was named young player of the tournament. As the squad's captain from August 2011, he led Argentina to three consecutive finals: the 2014 FIFA World Cup, for which he won the Golden Ball, the 2015 Copa América, winning the Golden Ball, and the 2016 Copa América. After announcing his international retirement in 2016, he reversed his decision and led his country to qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a third-place finish at the 2019 Copa América, and victory in the 2021 Copa América, while winning the Golden Ball and Golden Boot for the latter. For this achievement, Messi received a record-extending seventh Ballon d'Or in 2021. In 2022, he led Argentina to win the 2022 FIFA World Cup, where he won a record second Golden Ball, scored seven goals including two in the final, and broke the record for most games played at the World Cup (26).
Messi has endorsed sportswear company Adidas since 2006. According to France Football, he was the world's highest-paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014, and was ranked the world's highest-paid athlete by Forbes in 2019 and 2022. Messi was among Time's 100 most influential people in the world in 2011, 2012 and 2023. In 2020 and 2023, he was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year, with Messi being the first team-sport athlete to win the award. In 2020, Messi became the second footballer and second team-sport athlete to surpass \$1 billion in career earnings.
## Early life
Messi was born on 24 June 1987 in Rosario, Santa Fe, the third of four children of Jorge Messi, a steel factory manager, and his wife Celia Cuccittini, who worked in a magnet manufacturing workshop. On his father's side, he is of Italian and Spanish descent, the great-grandson of immigrants from the north-central Adriatic Marche region of Italy, and on his mother's side, he has primarily Italian ancestry. Growing up in a tight-knit, football-loving family, "Leo" developed a passion for the sport from an early age, playing constantly with his older brothers, Rodrigo and Matías, and his cousins, Maximiliano and Emanuel Biancucchi, both of whom became professional footballers. At the age of four he joined local club Grandoli, where he was coached by his father, though his earliest influence as a player came from his maternal grandmother, Celia, who accompanied him to training and matches. He was greatly affected by her death, shortly before his eleventh birthday; since then, as a devout Roman Catholic, he has celebrated his goals by looking up and pointing to the sky in tribute to his grandmother.
A lifelong supporter of Newell's Old Boys, Messi joined the Rosario club when he was six years old. During the six years he played for Newell's, he scored almost 500 goals as a member of "The Machine of '87", the near-unbeatable youth side named for the year of their birth, and regularly entertained crowds by performing ball tricks during half-time of the first team's home games. However, his future as a professional player was threatened when, aged 10, he was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency. As his father's health insurance covered only two years of growth hormone treatment, which cost at least \$1,000 per month, Newell's agreed to contribute, but later reneged on their promise. He was scouted by Buenos Aires club River Plate, whose playmaker, Pablo Aimar, he idolised, but they declined to pay for his treatment. His goalscoring idol growing up was Ronaldo, with Messi calling him "the best forward I've ever seen".
As the Messi family had relatives in Catalonia, they sought to arrange a trial with Barcelona in September 2000. First team director Charly Rexach immediately wanted to sign him, but the board of directors hesitated; at the time it was highly unusual for European clubs to sign foreign players of such a young age. On 14 December, an ultimatum was issued for Barcelona to prove their commitment, and Rexach, with no other paper at hand, offered a contract on a paper napkin. In February 2001, the family relocated to Barcelona, where they moved into an apartment near the club's stadium, Camp Nou. During his first year in Spain, Messi rarely played with the Infantiles due to a transfer conflict with Newell's; as a foreigner, he could only be fielded in friendlies and the Catalan league. Without football, he struggled to integrate into the team; already reserved by nature, he was so quiet that his teammates initially believed he was mute. At home, he suffered from homesickness after his mother moved back to Rosario with his brothers and little sister, María Sol, while he stayed in Barcelona with his father.
After a year at Barcelona's youth academy, La Masia, Messi was finally enrolled in the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) in February 2002. Now playing in all competitions, he befriended his teammates, among whom were Cesc Fàbregas and Gerard Piqué. After completing his growth hormone treatment aged 14, Messi became an integral part of the "Baby Dream Team", Barcelona's greatest-ever youth side. During his first full season (2002–03), he was top scorer with 36 goals in 30 games for the Cadetes A, who won an unprecedented treble of the league and both the Spanish and Catalan cups. The Copa Catalunya final, a 4–1 victory over Espanyol, became known in club lore as the partido de la máscara, the final of the mask. A week after suffering a broken cheekbone during a league match, Messi was allowed to start the game on the condition that he wear a plastic protector; soon hindered by the mask, he took it off and scored two goals in 10 minutes before his substitution. At the close of the season, he received an offer to join Arsenal, his first from a foreign club, but while Fàbregas and Piqué soon left for England, he chose to remain in Barcelona.
## Club career
### Barcelona
#### 2003–2005: Rise to the first team
During the 2003–04 season, his fourth with Barcelona, Messi rapidly progressed through the club's ranks, debuting for four youth teams in a single campaign. After being named player of the tournament in four international pre-season competitions with the Juveniles B, he played only one official match with the team before being promoted to the Juveniles A, where he scored 18 goals in 11 league games. Messi was then one of several youth players called up to strengthen a depleted first team during the international break. French winger Ludovic Giuly explained how Messi caught the eye in a training session with Frank Rijkaard's first team: "He destroyed us all... They were kicking him all over the place to avoid being ridiculed by this kid, he just got up and kept on playing. He would dribble past four players and score a goal. Even the team's starting centre-backs were nervous. He was an alien."
At 16 years, four months, and 23 days old, Messi made his first team debut when he came on in the 75th minute during a friendly against José Mourinho's Porto on 16 November 2003. His performance, creating two chances and a shot on goal, impressed the technical staff, and he subsequently began training daily with the club's reserve side, Barcelona B, as well as weekly with the first team. After his first training session with the senior squad, Barça's new star player, Ronaldinho, told his teammates that he believed the 16-year-old would become an even better player than himself. Ronaldinho soon befriended Messi, whom he called "little brother", which greatly eased his transition into the first team.
To gain further match experience, Messi joined Barcelona C in addition to the Juveniles A, playing his first game for the third team on 29 November. He helped save them from the relegation zone of the Tercera División, scoring five goals in ten games, including a hat-trick in eight minutes during a Copa del Rey match while man-marked by Sevilla's Sergio Ramos. His progress was reflected in his first professional contract, signed on 4 February 2004, which lasted until 2012 and contained an initial buyout clause of €30 million. A month later, on 6 March, he made his debut for Barcelona B in the Segunda División B, and his buyout clause automatically increased to €80 million. He played five games with the B team that season but did not score. Physically he was weaker than his opponents, who were often much older and taller, and in training he worked on increasing his muscle mass and overall strength in order to be able to shake off defenders. Towards the end of the season, he returned to both youth teams, helping the Juveniles B win the league. He finished the campaign having scored for four of his five teams with a total of 36 goals in all official competitions.
During the 2004–05 season, Messi was a guaranteed starter for the B team, playing 17 games throughout the campaign and scoring on six occasions. Since his debut the previous November, he had not been called up to the first team again, but in October 2004, the senior players asked manager Frank Rijkaard to promote him. Since Ronaldinho already played on the left wing, Rijkaard moved Messi from his usual position onto the right flank (though initially against the player's wishes), allowing him to cut into the centre of the pitch and shoot with his dominant left foot. Messi made his league debut during the next match on 16 October, against Espanyol at Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys in Montjuïc, coming on in the 82nd minute. At 17 years, three months, and 22 days old, he was at the time the youngest player to represent Barcelona in an official competition. As a substitute player, he played 244 minutes in nine matches for the first team that season, including his debut in the UEFA Champions League against Shakhtar Donetsk. He scored his first senior goal on 1 May 2005, against Albacete, from an assist by Ronaldinho, becoming – at that time – the youngest-ever scorer for the club. Barcelona, in their second season under Rijkaard, won the league for the first time in six years.
#### 2005–2008: Becoming a starting eleven player
On 24 June, his 18th birthday, Messi signed his first contract as a senior team player. It made him a Barcelona player until 2010, two years less than his previous contract, but his buyout clause increased to €150 million. His breakthrough came two months later, on 24 August, during the Joan Gamper Trophy, Barcelona's pre-season competition. A starter for the first time, he gave a well-received performance against Fabio Capello's Juventus, receiving an ovation from the Camp Nou. Capello sought to take Messi to Juventus on loan, but Inter Milan offered to pay his €150 million buyout clause and triple his wages. According to then-president Joan Laporta, it was the only time the club faced a real risk of losing Messi, but he ultimately decided to stay. On 16 September, his contract was updated for the second time in three months and extended to 2014.
Due to issues regarding his legal status in the Royal Spanish Football Federation, Messi missed the start of La Liga, but on 26 September, he acquired Spanish citizenship and became eligible to play. Wearing the number 19 shirt, he gradually established himself as the first-choice right winger, forming an attacking trio with Ronaldinho and striker Samuel Eto'o. He was in the starting line-up in major matches like his first Clásico against rivals Real Madrid on 19 November, as well as Barcelona's away victory over Chelsea in the last 16 round of the Champions League, which came on back of an intense period of rivalry between the clubs leading a resentful Messi to state, "We would rather play Arsenal, Manchester United or anyone else than be on the pitch with Chelsea." After he had scored 8 goals in 25 games, including his first in the Champions League, in a 5–0 win over Panathinaikos on 2 November 2005, his season ended prematurely during the return leg against Chelsea on 7 March 2006, when he suffered a torn hamstring. Messi worked to regain fitness in time for the Champions League final, but on 17 May, the day of the final, he was eventually ruled out. He was so disappointed that he did not celebrate his team's victory over Arsenal in Paris, something he later came to regret.
While Barcelona began a gradual decline, the 19-year-old Messi established himself as one of the best players in the world during the 2006–07 campaign. Already an idol to the culés, the club's supporters, he scored 17 goals in 36 games across all competitions. However, he continued to be plagued by major injuries; a metatarsal fracture sustained on 12 November 2006 kept him out of action for three months. He recovered in time for the last 16 round of the Champions League against Liverpool, but was effectively marked out of the game; Barcelona, the reigning champions, were out of the competition. In the league, his goal contribution increased towards the end of the season; 11 of his 14 goals came from the last 13 games. On 10 March 2007, he scored his first hat-trick in a Clásico, the first player to do so in 12 years, equalising after each goal by Real Madrid to end the match in a 3–3 draw in injury time. His growing importance to the club was reflected in a new contract, signed that month, which greatly increased his wages.
Already frequently compared to compatriot Diego Maradona, Messi proved their similarity when he nearly replicated Maradona's two most famous goals in the span of seven weeks. During a Copa del Rey semi-final against Getafe on 18 April, he scored a goal remarkably similar to Maradona's second goal in the quarter-finals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup, known as the Goal of the Century. Messi collected the ball on the right side near the halfway line, ran 60 metres (66 yd), and beat five defenders before scoring with an angled finish, just as Maradona had done. A league match against Espanyol on 9 June saw him score by launching himself at the ball and guiding it past the goalkeeper with his hand in similar fashion to Maradona's Hand of God goal in the same World Cup match. As Messi continued his individual rise, Barcelona faltered; the team failed to reach the Copa del Rey final after Messi was rested during the second leg against Getafe and lost the league to Real Madrid on head-to-head results.
After Ronaldinho lost form, Messi became Barça's new star player at only 20 years old, receiving the nickname "Messiah" from the Spanish media. His efforts in 2007 also earned him award recognition; journalists voted him the third-best player of the year for the 2007 Ballon d'Or, behind Kaká and runner-up Cristiano Ronaldo, while international managers and national team captains voted him second for the FIFA World Player of the Year award, again behind Kaká. Although he managed to score 16 goals during the 2007–08 campaign, the second half of his season was again marred by injuries after he suffered a torn hamstring on 15 December. He returned to score twice in their away victory against Celtic in the last 16 round of the Champions League, becoming the competition's top scorer at that point with six goals, but reinjured himself during the return leg on 4 March 2008. Rijkaard had fielded him despite warning from the medical staff, leading captain Carles Puyol to criticise the Spanish media for pressuring Messi to play every match. Barcelona finished the season without trophies, eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Manchester United, and placed third in the league.
#### 2008–09: First treble
After two unsuccessful seasons, Barcelona were in need of an overhaul, leading to the departure of Rijkaard and Ronaldinho. Upon the latter's departure, Messi was given the number 10 shirt. He signed a new contract in July with an annual salary of €7.8 million, becoming the club's highest-paid player. Ahead of the new season, a major concern remained his frequent muscular injuries, which had left him side-lined for a total of eight months between 2006 and 2008. To combat the problem, the club implemented new training, nutrition, and lifestyle regimens, and assigned him a personal physiotherapist, who would travel with him during call-ups for the Argentina national team. As a result, Messi remained virtually injury-free during the next four years, allowing him to reach his full potential. Despite his injuries early in the year, his performances in 2008 saw him again voted runner-up for the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times behind Cristiano Ronaldo.
In his first uninterrupted campaign, the 2008–09 season, he scored 38 goals in 51 games, contributing alongside Eto'o and winger Thierry Henry to a total of 100 goals in all competitions, a record at the time for the club. During his first season under Barcelona's new manager, former captain Pep Guardiola, Messi played mainly on the right wing, like he had under Rijkaard, though this time as a false winger with the freedom to cut inside and roam the centre. During the Clásico on 2 May 2009, however, he played for the first time as a false nine, positioned as a centre-forward but dropping deep into midfield to link up with Xavi and Andrés Iniesta. He set up his side's first goal and scored twice to end the match in an emphatic 6–2 victory, the team's greatest-ever score at Real Madrid's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Returning to the wing, he played his first final since breaking into the first team on 13 May, scoring once and assisting a second goal as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 4–1 to win the Copa del Rey. With 23 league goals from Messi that season, Barcelona became La Liga champions three days later and achieved its fifth double.
As the season's Champions League top scorer with nine goals, the youngest in the tournament's history, Messi scored two goals and assisted two more to ensure a 4–0 quarter-final victory over Bayern Munich. He returned as a false nine during the final on 27 May in Rome against Manchester United. Barcelona were crowned champions of Europe by winning the match 2–0, the second goal coming from a Messi header over goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar. Barcelona thus achieved the first treble in the history of Spanish football. This success was reflected in a new contract, signed on 18 September, which committed Messi to the club through 2016 with a new buyout clause of €250 million, while his salary increased to €12 million.
#### 2009–10: First Ballon d'Or
His team's prosperity continued into the second half of 2009, as Barcelona became the first club to achieve the sextuple, winning six top-tier trophies in a single year. After victories in the Supercopa de España and UEFA Super Cup in August, Barcelona won the FIFA Club World Cup against Estudiantes de La Plata on 19 December, with Messi scoring the winning 2–1 goal with his chest. At 22 years old, Messi won the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times by the biggest voting margin in each trophy's history.
The new year, however, started on a less positive note for Barcelona, as they were knocked out of the Copa del Rey by Sevilla in the Round of 16. Unsatisfied with his position on the right wing – with the club's summer acquisition Zlatan Ibrahimović occupying the central forward role – Messi resumed playing as a false nine in early 2010, beginning with a Champions League last 16-round match against VfB Stuttgart. After a first-leg draw, Barcelona won the second leg 4–0 with two goals and an assist from Messi. At that point, he effectively became the tactical focal point of Guardiola's team, and his goalscoring rate increased. Messi scored a total of 47 goals in all competitions that season, equaling Ronaldo's club record from the 1996–97 campaign. He scored all of his side's four goals in the Champions League quarter-final against Arsenal on 6 April while becoming Barcelona's all-time top scorer in the competition. Although Barcelona were eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Inter Milan, Messi finished the season as top scorer (with 8 goals) for the second consecutive year. As the league's top scorer with 34 goals (again tying Ronaldo's record), he helped Barcelona win a second consecutive La Liga trophy with only a single defeat and earned his first European Golden Shoe.
#### 2010–2011: Fifth La Liga title and third Champions League
Messi secured Barcelona's first trophy of the 2010–11 campaign, the Supercopa de España, by scoring a hat-trick in his side's second-leg 4–0 victory over Sevilla, after a first-leg defeat. Assuming a playmaking role, he was again instrumental in a Clásico on 29 November 2010, the first with José Mourinho in charge of Real Madrid, as Barcelona defeated their rivals 5–0. Messi helped the team achieve 16 consecutive league victories, a record in Spanish football, concluding with another hat-trick against Atlético Madrid on 5 February 2011. His club performances in 2010 earned him the inaugural FIFA Ballon d'Or, an amalgamation of the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, though his win was met with some criticism due to his lack of success with Argentina at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Under the award's old format, he would have placed just outside the top three, owing his win to the votes from the international coaches and captains.
Towards the end of the season, Barcelona played four Clásicos in the span of 18 days. A league match on 16 April ended in a draw after a penalty from Messi. After Barcelona lost the Copa del Rey final four days later, Messi scored both goals in his side's 2–0 win in the first leg of the Champions League semi-finals in Madrid, the second of which – a slaloming dribble past three Real players – was acclaimed as one of the best ever in the competition. Although he did not score, he was again important in the second-leg draw that sent Barcelona through to the Champions League final, where they faced Manchester United in a repeat of the final two years earlier. As the competition's top scorer for the third consecutive year, with 12 goals, Messi gave a man-of-the-match performance at Wembley on 28 May, scoring the match-winning goal of Barça's 3–1 victory. Barcelona won a third consecutive La Liga title. In addition to his 31 goals, Messi was also the league's top assist provider with 18. He finished the season with 53 goals in all competitions, becoming Barcelona's all-time single-season top scorer and the first player in Spanish football to reach the 50-goal benchmark.
As Messi developed into a combination of a number 8 (a creator), a 9 (scorer), and a 10 (assistant), he scored an unprecedented 73 goals and provided 29 assists in all club competitions during the 2011–12 season, producing a hat-trick or more on 10 occasions. He began the campaign by helping Barcelona win both the Spanish and European Super Cups; in the Supercopa de España, he scored three times to achieve a 5–4 aggregate victory over Real Madrid, overtaking Raúl as the competition's all-time top scorer with eight goals. At the close of the year, on 18 December, he scored twice in the FIFA Club World Cup final, a 4–0 victory over Santos, earning the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament, as he had done two years previously. For his efforts in 2011, he again received the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming only the fourth player in history to win the Ballon d'Or three times, after Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten. Additionally, he won the inaugural UEFA Best Player in Europe Award, a revival of the old-style Ballon d'Or. By then, Messi was already widely considered one of the best footballers in history, alongside players like Diego Maradona and Pelé.
#### 2012: A record-breaking year
As Messi maintained his goalscoring form into the second half of the season, the year 2012 saw him break several longstanding records. On 7 March, two weeks after scoring four goals in a league fixture against Valencia, he scored five times in a Champions League last 16-round match against Bayer Leverkusen, an unprecedented achievement in the history of the competition. In addition to being the joint top assist provider with five assists, this feat made him top scorer with 14 goals, tying José Altafini's record from the 1962–63 season, as well as becoming only the second player after Gerd Müller to be top scorer in four campaigns. Two weeks later, on 20 March, Messi became the top goalscorer in Barcelona's history at 24 years old, overtaking the 57-year record of César Rodríguez's 232 goals with a hat-trick against Granada.
Despite Messi's individual form, Barcelona's four-year cycle of success under Guardiola – one of the greatest eras in the club's history – drew to an end. Although Barcelona won the Copa del Rey against Athletic Bilbao on 25 May, its 14th title of that period, the team lost the league to Real Madrid and was eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Chelsea, with Messi sending a crucial second-leg penalty kick against the crossbar. In Barça's last home league match on 5 May, against Espanyol, Messi scored all four goals before approaching the bench to embrace Guardiola, who had announced his resignation as manager. He finished the season as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for a second time, with 50 goals, a La Liga record, while his 73 goals in all competitions surpassed Gerd Müller's 67 goals in the 1972–73 Bundesliga season, making him the single-season top scorer in the history of European club football.
Under manager Tito Vilanova, who had first coached him aged 14 at La Masia, Messi helped the club achieve its best-ever start to a La Liga season during the second half of 2012, amassing 55 points by the competition's midway point, a record in Spanish football. A double scored on 9 December against Real Betis saw Messi break two longstanding records: he surpassed César Rodríguez's record of 190 league goals, becoming Barcelona's all-time top scorer in La Liga, and Gerd Müller's record of most goals scored in a calendar year, overtaking his 85 goals scored in 1972 for Bayern Munich and West Germany. Messi sent Müller a number 10 Barcelona shirt, signed "with respect and admiration", after breaking his 40-year record. At the close of the year, Messi had scored a record 91 goals in all competitions for Barcelona and Argentina. Although FIFA did not acknowledge the achievement, citing verifiability issues, he received the Guinness World Records title for most goals scored in a calendar year. As the odds-on favourite, Messi again won the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming the only player in history to win the Ballon d'Or four times.
#### 2013–2014: Messidependencia
Barcelona had virtually secured their La Liga title by the start of 2013, eventually equalling Real Madrid's 100-point record of the previous season. However, their performances deteriorated in the second half of the 2012–13 campaign, concurrently with Vilanova's absence due to ill health. After losing successive Clásicos, including the Copa del Rey semi-finals, they were nearly eliminated in the first knockout round of the Champions League by AC Milan, but a revival of form in the second leg led to a 4–0 comeback, with two goals and an assist from Messi. Now in his ninth senior season with Barcelona, Messi signed a new contract on 7 February, committing himself to the club through 2018, while his fixed wage rose to €13 million. He wore the captain's armband for the first time a month later, on 17 March, in a league match against Rayo Vallecano; by then, he had become the team's tactical focal point to a degree that was arguably rivalled only by former Barcelona players Josep Samitier, László Kubala and Johan Cruyff. Since his evolution into a false nine three years earlier, his input into the team's attack had increased; from 24% in their treble-winning campaign, his goal contribution rose to more than 40% that season.
After four largely injury-free seasons, the muscular injuries that had previously plagued Messi reoccurred. After he suffered a hamstring strain on 2 April, during the first quarter-final against Paris Saint-Germain (PSG), his appearances became sporadic. In the second leg against PSG, with an underperforming Barcelona down a goal, Messi came off the bench in the second half and within nine minutes helped create their game-tying goal, which allowed them to progress to the semi-finals. Still unfit, he proved ineffective during the first leg against Bayern Munich and was unable to play at all during the second, as Barcelona were defeated 7–0 on aggregate by the eventual champions. These matches gave credence to the notion of Messidependencia, Barcelona's perceived tactical and psychological dependence on their star player.
Messi continued to struggle with injury throughout 2013, eventually parting ways with his long-time personal physiotherapist. Further damage to his hamstring sustained on 12 May ended his goalscoring streak of 21 consecutive league games, a worldwide record; he had netted 33 goals during his run, including a four-goal display against Osasuna, while becoming the first player to score consecutively against all 19 opposition teams in La Liga. With 60 goals in all competitions, including 46 goals in La Liga, he finished the campaign as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for the second consecutive year, becoming the first player in history to win the European Golden Shoe three times. Following an irregular start to the new season under manager Gerardo Martino, formerly of his boyhood club Newell's Old Boys, Messi suffered his fifth injury of 2013 when he tore his hamstring on 10 November, leaving him sidelined for two months. Despite his injuries, he was voted runner-up for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, relinquishing the award after a four-year monopoly to Cristiano Ronaldo.
During the second half of the 2013–14 season, doubts persisted over Messi's form, leading to a perception among the culés that he was reserving himself for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Statistically, his contribution of goals, shots, and passes had dropped significantly compared to previous seasons. He still managed to break two longstanding records in a span of seven days: a hat-trick on 16 March against Osasuna saw him overtake Paulino Alcántara's 369 goals to become Barcelona's top goalscorer in all competitions including friendlies, while another hat-trick against Real Madrid on 23 March made him the all-time top scorer in El Clásico, ahead of the 18 goals scored by former Real Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano. Messi finished the campaign with his worst output in five seasons, though he still managed to score 41 goals in all competitions. For the first time in five years, Barcelona ended the season without a major trophy; they were defeated in the Copa del Rey final by Real Madrid and lost the league in the last game to Atlético Madrid, causing Messi to be booed by sections of fans at the Camp Nou. After prolonged speculation over his future with the club, Messi signed a new contract on 19 May 2014, only a year after his last contractual update; his salary increased to €20 million, or €36 million before taxes, the highest wage in the sport. It was reported that Vilanova played a key role in convincing Messi to stay amid strong interest from José Mourinho's Chelsea.
#### 2014–15: Second treble
Under new manager and former captain Luis Enrique, Messi experienced a largely injury-free start to the 2014–15 season, allowing him to break three more longstanding records towards the end of the year. A hat-trick scored against Sevilla on 22 November made him the all-time top scorer in La Liga, as he surpassed the 59-year record of 251 league goals held by Telmo Zarra. A third hat-trick, scored against city rivals Espanyol on 7 December, allowed him to surpass César Rodríguez as the all-time top scorer in the Derbi barceloní with 12 goals. Messi again placed second in the FIFA Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, largely owing to his second-place achievement with Argentina at the World Cup.
At the start of 2015, Barcelona were perceived to be headed for another disappointing end to the season, with renewed speculation in the media that Messi was leaving the club. A turning point came on 11 January during a 3–1 victory over Atlético Madrid, the first time Barça's attacking trident of Messi, Luis Suárez and Neymar, dubbed "MSN", each scored in a match, marking the beginning of a highly successful run. After five years of playing in the centre of the pitch, Messi had returned to his old position on the right wing late the previous year, by his own suggestion according to Suárez, their striker. From there, he regained his best form, while Suárez and Neymar ended the team's attacking dependency on their star player. With 58 goals from Messi, the trio scored a total of 122 goals in all competitions that season, a record in Spanish football.
Towards the end of the campaign, Messi scored in a 1–0 away win over Atlético Madrid on 17 May, securing the La Liga title. Among his 43 league goals that season was a hat-trick scored in 11 minutes against Rayo Vallecano on 8 March, the fastest of his senior career; it was his 32nd hat-trick overall for Barcelona, allowing him to overtake Telmo Zarra with the most hat-tricks in Spanish football. As the season's top assist provider with 18 he surpassed Luís Figo with the most assists in La Liga; he made his record 106th assist in a fixture against Levante on 15 February, in which he also scored a hat-trick. Messi scored twice as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 3–1 in the Copa del Rey final on 30 May, achieving the sixth double in their history. His opening goal was hailed as one of the greatest in his career; he collected the ball near the halfway line and beat four opposing players, before feinting the goalkeeper to score in a tight space by the near post.
In the Champions League, Messi scored twice and set up another in their 3–0 semi-final victory over Bayern Munich, now under the stewardship of Guardiola. His second goal, which came only three minutes after his first, saw him chip the ball over goalkeeper Manuel Neuer after his dribble past Jérôme Boateng had made the defender drop to the ground; it went viral, becoming the year's most tweeted about sporting moment, and was named the best goal of the season by UEFA. Despite a second-leg loss, Barcelona progressed to the final on 6 June in Berlin, where they defeated Juventus 3–1 to win their second treble, becoming the first team in history to do so. Although Messi did not score, he participated in each of his side's goals, particularly the second as he forced a parried save from goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon from which Suárez scored the match-winning goal on the rebound. In addition to being the top assist provider with six assists, Messi finished the competition as the joint top scorer with ten goals, which earned him the distinction of being the first player ever to achieve the top scoring mark in five Champions League seasons. For his efforts during the season, he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe award for a second time.
#### 2015–16: Domestic success
Messi opened the 2015–16 season by scoring twice from free kicks in Barcelona's 5–4 victory (after extra time) over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. On 16 September, he became the youngest player to make 100 appearances in the UEFA Champions League in a 1–1 away draw to Roma. After a knee injury, he returned to the pitch on 21 November, making a substitute appearance in Barcelona's 4–0 away win over rivals Real Madrid in El Clásico. Messi capped off the year by winning the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup final on 20 December, collecting his fifth club trophy of 2015 as Barcelona defeated River Plate 3–0 in Yokohama. On 30 December, Messi scored on his 500th appearance for Barcelona, in a 4–0 home win over Real Betis.
On 11 January 2016, Messi won the FIFA Ballon d'Or for a record fifth time in his career. On 3 February, he scored a hat-trick in Barcelona's 7–0 win against Valencia in the first leg of the Copa del Rey semi-final at the Camp Nou. In a 6–1 home win against Celta Vigo in the league, Messi assisted Suárez from a penalty kick. Some saw it as "a touch of genius", while others criticised it as being disrespectful to the opponent. The Celta players never complained and their coach defended the penalty, stating, "Barca's forwards are very respectful." The penalty routine has been compared to that of Barça icon Johan Cruyff in 1982, who was battling lung cancer, leading many fans to indicate that the penalty was a tribute to him. Cruyff himself was "very happy" with the play, insisting "it was legal and entertaining".
On 17 February, Messi reached his 300th league goal in a 3–1 away win against Sporting de Gijón. A few days later, he scored both goals in Barcelona's 2–0 win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium, in the first leg of the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League round of 16, with the second goal being Barcelona's 10,000th in official competitions. On 17 April, Messi ended a five-match scoring drought with his 500th senior career goal for club and country in Barcelona's 2–1 home loss to Valencia. Messi finished the 2015–16 season by setting up both goals in Barcelona's 2–0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey final, at the Vicente Calderón Stadium, on 22 May 2016, as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season. In total, Messi scored 41 goals as Barcelona's attacking trio managed a Spanish record of 131 goals throughout the season, breaking the record they had set the previous season.
#### 2016–17: Fourth Golden Boot
Messi opened the 2016–17 season by lifting the 2016 Supercopa de España as Barcelona's captain in the absence of the injured Andrés Iniesta; he set-up Munir's goal in a 2–0 away win over Sevilla in the first leg on 14 August, and subsequently scored in a 3–0 win in the return leg on 17 August. Three days later, he scored two goals as Barcelona won 6–2 against Real Betis in the opening game of the 2016–17 La Liga season. On 13 September, Messi scored his first hat-trick of the season in the opening game of the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League campaign against Celtic in a 7–0 victory; this was also Messi's sixth hat-trick in the Champions League, the most by any player. A week later, Messi sustained a groin injury in a 1–1 draw against Atlético Madrid and was ruled out with injury for three weeks. He marked his return with a goal, scoring three minutes after coming off the bench in a 4–0 home win over Deportivo de La Coruña, on 16 October. Three days after this, he netted his thirty-seventh club hat-trick as Barcelona defeated Manchester City 4–0. On 1 November, Messi scored his 54th Champions League group stage goal in Barcelona's 3–1 away loss to Manchester City, surpassing the previous record of 53 goals held by Raúl.
Messi finished the year with 51 goals, making him Europe's top scorer, one ahead of Zlatan Ibrahimović. After placing second in the 2016 Ballon d'Or, on 9 January 2017 Messi also finished in second place – behind Cristiano Ronaldo once again – in the 2016 Best FIFA Men's Player Award. On 11 January, Messi scored from a free-kick in Barcelona's 3–1 victory against Athletic Bilbao in the second leg of the round of 16 of the Copa del Rey, which enabled Barcelona to advance to the quarter-finals of the competition; with his 26th goal from a free-kick for Barcelona in all competitions, he equalled the club's all-time record, which had previously been set by Ronald Koeman. In his next league match, on 14 January, Messi scored in a 5–0 win against Las Palmas; with this goal, he equalled Raúl's record for the most teams scored against in La Liga (35).
On 4 February 2017, Messi scored his 27th free-kick for Barcelona in a 3–0 home win over Athletic Bilbao in the league, overtaking Koeman as the club's all-time top-scorer from free-kicks. On 23 April, Messi scored twice in a 3–2 away win over Real Madrid. His game-winning goal in stoppage time was his 500th for Barcelona. His memorable celebration saw him taking off his Barcelona shirt and holding it up to incensed Real Madrid fans – with his name and number facing the crowd. On 27 May, Messi scored a goal and set up another for Paco Alcácer in the 2017 Copa del Rey final, helping Barcelona to a 3–1 victory over Alavés, and was named Man of the Match. In total, Messi finished the 2016–17 season with 54 goals, while his 37 goals in La Liga saw him claim both the Pichichi and European Golden Boot Awards for the fourth time in his career.
#### 2017–18: Domestic double and a record fifth Golden Boot
Messi opened the 2017–18 season by converting a penalty in Barcelona's 1–3 first leg home defeat to Real Madrid in Supercopa de España. Thereby, Messi also extended his El Clásico goalscoring record with the goal being his 24th official and 25th overall. On 9 September, Messi scored his first hat-trick of the 2017–18 league campaign, against Espanyol in Derbi barceloní, thus helping to secure a 5–0 home victory for Blaugrana over local rivals. Messi netted twice against Gianluigi Buffon, on 12 September, as Barça defeated the last season's Italian champions Juventus 3–0 at home in the UEFA Champions League. On 19 September, Messi found the net four times in a 6–1 trashing of Eibar at the Camp Nou in La Liga. Three weeks later, on 1 October, Messi surpassed his former teammate Carles Puyol to become the third highest appearance maker in the club's history, as he helped Barça defeat Las Palmas 3–0 by assisting Sergio Busquets' opener and later adding two himself in his 594th official game for the club; the league game was played behind closed doors at the Camp Nou due to violence in Catalonia relating to an ongoing independence referendum.
On 18 October, in his 122nd European club appearance, Messi scored his 97th UEFA Champions League goal, and his 100th in all UEFA club competitions, in a 3–1 home victory over Olympiacos. Messi became only the second player after Cristiano Ronaldo to reach this century milestone, but accomplished it in 21 fewer appearances than the Portuguese counterpart. On 4 November, he made his 600th appearance for Barcelona in a 2–1 home win over Sevilla in La Liga. Following the reception of his fourth Golden Boot, Messi signed a new deal with Barcelona on 25 November, keeping him with the club through the 2020–21 season. His buyout clause was set at €700 million. On 7 January 2018, Messi made his 400th La Liga appearance with Barcelona in a 3–0 home win over Levante, marking the occasion with his 144th league assist and 365th league goal for the club, the latter of which saw him equal Gerd Müller's record for the most league goals scored for the same club in one of Europe's top five divisions. A week later, he broke the record, scoring his 366th La Liga goal from a free kick in a 4–2 away win against Real Sociedad.
On 4 March, he scored his 600th senior career goal from a free kick in a 1–0 home win over Atlético Madrid, in La Liga. On 14 March, Messi scored his 99th and 100th Champions League goals in a 3–0 home win over Chelsea, becoming only the second player after Cristiano Ronaldo to reach this landmark, in fewer appearances, at a younger age and having taken fewer shots than his Portuguese counterpart. His opening goal, which came after only two minutes and eight seconds, was also the fastest of his career, as Barcelona advanced to the quarter-finals of the competition for the eleventh consecutive season. On 7 April, he scored a hat-trick in a 3–1 win over Leganés including his sixth goal scored from a free-kick for the season, matching the record set by former teammate Ronaldinho. He once again finished the season as the top scorer in La Liga, with 34 goals, which also saw him win his fifth Golden Shoe award. On 21 April, Messi scored Barcelona's second goal – his 40th of the season – in a 5–0 win over Sevilla in the 2018 Copa del Rey final, later also setting up Suárez's second goal; this was Barcelona's fourth consecutive title and their 30th overall. On 29 April, Messi scored a hat-trick in a 4–2 away win over Deportivo de La Coruña, which saw Barcelona claim their 25th league title. On 9 May, Messi scored as Barcelona defeated Villarreal 5–1 to set the longest unbeaten streak (43 games) in La Liga history.
#### 2018–19: Captaincy, 10th La Liga title, and a record sixth Golden Boot
With the departure of former captain Andrés Iniesta in May 2018, Messi was named the team's new captain for the following season. On 12 August, he lifted his first title as Barcelona's captain, the Supercopa de España, following a 2–1 victory over Sevilla. On 19 August, Messi scored twice in helping Barcelona defeat Alavés 3–0 in their first La Liga match of the season, with his first goal, a free kick that he rolled under the jumping Alavés wall, making history in being Barcelona's 6000th goal in La Liga. On 18 September, Messi scored a hat-trick in a 4–0 home win over PSV Eindhoven in Barcelona's opening Champions League group stage match of the season, setting a new record for most hat-tricks in the competition, with eight. On 20 October, Messi scored in a 4–2 home win over Sevilla, but was later forced off in the 26th minute after falling awkwardly and injuring his right arm; tests later confirmed that he had fractured his radial bone, ruling him out for approximately three weeks. On 8 December, Messi scored two free kicks – his ninth and tenth goals from set pieces during the calendar year – in a 4–0 away win over Derbi barceloní rivals Espanyol in La Liga; this was the first time ever that he had managed such a feat in the league. His first goal was also his 10th league goal of the season, making him the first player ever to reach double figures in La Liga for 13 consecutive seasons.
On 13 January 2019, Messi scored his 400th La Liga goal in his 435th league appearance in a 3–0 home win over Eibar, becoming the first player ever to manage this tally in just one of Europe's top five leagues. On 2 February, Messi scored twice in a 2–2 draw against Valencia, with his first goal coming from the penalty spot, his 50th La Liga penalty goal; as such, he became only the third player in La Liga history after Cristiano Ronaldo and Hugo Sánchez to score 50 penalties in the competition. Later that month, the club admitted they had begun preparations for Messi's future retirement. On 23 February, Messi scored the 50th hat-trick of his career and also provided an assist for Suárez, as he helped Barcelona come from behind to achieve a 4–2 away victory over Sevilla in La Liga; the goal was also his 650th career goal for club and country at senior level. On 16 April, Messi scored twice in a 3–0 home victory over Manchester United in the second leg of the Champions League quarter-finals to give Barcelona a 4–0 aggregate win, which saw Barcelona progress to the semi-finals of the competition for the first time since 2015; these were also his first goals in the Champions League quarter-finals since 2013.
On 27 April, Messi came off the bench and scored the only goal in a 1–0 home win over Levante, which allowed Barcelona to clinch the league title; this was his 450th La Liga appearance, and his first league title as Barcelona's captain. On 1 May, Messi scored twice in a 3–0 home win over Liverpool in the first leg of the Champions League semi-finals; his second goal of the match, a 35-yard free kick, was the 600th senior club goal of his career, all of which had been scored with Barcelona. In the return leg six days later at Anfield, Barcelona suffered a 4–0 away defeat, which saw Liverpool advance to the final 4–3 on aggregate. On 19 May, in Barcelona's final La Liga match of the season, Messi scored twice in a 2–2 away draw against Eibar (his 49th and 50th goals of the season in all competitions), which saw him capture his sixth Pichichi Trophy as the league's top scorer, with 36 goals in 34 appearances; with six titles, he equalled Zarra as the player with the most top-scorer awards in La Liga. He also captured his sixth Golden Shoe award, and a record third consecutive award since the 2016–17 season. On 25 May, Messi scored his final goal of the season in a 2–1 defeat to Valencia in the 2019 Copa del Rey final.
#### 2019–20: Record sixth Ballon d'Or
On 5 August 2019, it was announced that Messi would miss Barcelona's US tour after sustaining a right calf injury. On 19 August, Messi's chipped goal from the edge of the box against Real Betis was nominated for the 2019 FIFA Puskás Award. Later that month, he suffered another setback following the return of his calf injury, which ruled him out of the opening game of the season; as a result, he was sidelined indefinitely, and was only expected to return to action with Barcelona after the September international break. On 2 September, Messi was shortlisted as one of the three finalists for both the 2019 FIFA Puskás Award and the 2019 Best FIFA Men's Player Award, with Messi winning the latter on 23 September.
Messi made his first appearance of the season on 17 September, and on 6 October he scored his first goal of the season with a free kick in a 4–0 home win over Sevilla; this was his 420th goal in La Liga, which saw him break Cristiano Ronaldo's record of 419 goals scored in Europe's top five leagues. On 23 October, Messi scored his first Champions League goal of the season in a 2–1 away win over Slavia Prague, becoming the first player to score in 15 consecutive Champions League seasons (excluding qualifying rounds). He also equalled Raúl and Cristiano Ronaldo's shared record of the most sides scored against in the competition (33). On 29 October, Messi scored in a 5–1 home win over Real Valladolid in La Liga; his first goal – a set piece from 35 yards – was the 50th free-kick of his career. His goals (608) also saw him overtake Cristiano Ronaldo's senior goal tally (606) at club level. On 9 November, Messi scored three goals (including two free kicks) in a 4–1 home win against Celta Vigo. This was his 34th hat-trick in La Liga, equalling Cristiano Ronaldo's Spanish top-flight record. On 27 November, in what was his 700th appearance for Barcelona, Messi scored one goal and assisted two more in a 3–1 home win over Borussia Dortmund in the UEFA Champions League. Dortmund were the 34th team he had scored against in the competition, breaking the previous record of 33 held by Cristiano Ronaldo and Raúl. On 2 December, Messi was awarded a record-breaking sixth Ballon d'Or. On 8 December, Messi scored his record-breaking 35th hat-trick in La Liga with three goals in Barcelona's 5–2 home win over Mallorca.
On 22 February 2020, Messi scored four goals in a 5–0 home win over Eibar in La Liga. On 14 June, he scored in a 4–0 away win against Mallorca, becoming the first player ever in La Liga to score 20 goals or more in 12 consecutive seasons. On 30 June, he scored a panenka in a 2–2 home draw against Atlético Madrid in La Liga, to reach his 700th goal in his senior career for Barcelona and Argentina. On 11 July, Messi provided his 20th assist of the league season for Arturo Vidal in a 1–0 away win over Real Valladolid, equalling Xavi's record of 20 assists in a single La Liga season from 2008 to 2009; with 22 goals, he also became only the second player ever, after Thierry Henry in the 2002–03 FA Premier League season with Arsenal (24 goals and 20 assists), to record at least 20 goals and 20 assists in a single league season in one of Europe's top-five leagues. Following his brace in a 5–0 away win against Alavés in the final match of the season on 20 May, Messi finished the season as both the top scorer and top assist provider in La Liga, with 25 goals and 21 assists respectively, which saw him win his record seventh Pichichi trophy, overtaking Zarra; however, Barcelona missed out on the league title to Real Madrid. On 9 August, in the Champions League round of 16 second leg versus Napoli at the Camp Nou, Messi scored the second goal and earned a penalty which led to a third goal and led his side to a 3–1 home victory and qualified 4–2 on aggregate for the quarter-finals against Bayern Munich. On 15 August, Messi suffered his worst defeat as a player as Bayern Munich beat Barcelona 8–2 in a one-off tie in Lisbon, leading to another disappointing exit from the Champions League.
#### August 2020: Desire to leave Barcelona
Following growing dissatisfaction with the direction of Barcelona on and off the field, Barcelona announced that Messi sent the club "a document expressing his desire to leave" on 25 August 2020. The announcement garnered a significant media response, including from current and former teammates (who supported Messi's statement) and Catalan president Quim Torra. On 26 August, Barcelona's sporting director Ramon Planes iterated the club's desire to "build a team around the most important player in the world" and affirmed Messi will only be able to leave should a buyer pay his €700 million buyout clause; a reported early termination option available in Messi's contract (which would have allowed him to leave the club for free) could only be exercised if he had communicated his decision to Barcelona by 31 May 2020, although the player's representatives argued the deadline should be set to 31 August, due to the adjourned 2019–20 season. On 30 August, La Liga issued a statement stating Messi's contract and buyout clause were still active.
On 4 September, Jorge Messi, Lionel's father and agent, released a statement in response to La Liga claiming the release clause "is not valid when the termination of the contract is by the player's unilateral decision from the end of the 2019–20 season", as stated in Messi's contract with Barcelona; moments later, La Liga issued a response reiterating their statement published on 30 August. Later that evening, Messi announced in an interview with Goal that he would continue at Barcelona for the final year of his contract. In the interview, Messi claimed to have informed Barcelona of his desire to leave multiple times, and club president Josep Maria Bartomeu said Messi could decide at the end of every season if he wanted to stay or leave, only for Bartomeu to refer to the release clause. This left Messi with two options: to stay or go to court against the club, with the player saying "I would never go to court against the club of my life".
#### 2020–21: Final season at Barcelona
On 27 September, Messi began the 2020–21 season by scoring a penalty in a 4–0 home win against Villarreal in La Liga. Two days prior to the opening game, he again criticised the club, this time for the manner of Luis Suárez's departure, stating, "at this stage nothing surprises me any more". On 20 October, Messi scored a penalty in a 5–1 home victory against Ferencváros in the Champions League, becoming the first player in history to score in sixteen consecutive Champions League seasons. On 25 November, Messi was nominated for the 2020 Best FIFA Men's Player award, and was later shortlisted as one of the final three candidates. On 29 November, Messi scored his side's fourth goal in their 4–0 victory over Osasuna. After scoring, he unveiled a shirt of his former side Newell's Old Boys, in tribute to Argentine compatriot Diego Maradona, who had died four days earlier, and raised both hands to the screen showing Maradona's face in the stadium. The shirt was a number 10 replica of the same one Maradona had worn during his stint with the club in 1993. On 17 December, Messi finished third in The Best FIFA Men's Player award behind Robert Lewandowski and Cristiano Ronaldo, and was included in the FIFA FIFPro World XI for the fourteenth consecutive year.
On 23 December, Messi scored his 644th goal for Barcelona against Real Valladolid in La Liga, surpassing Pelé with Santos as the player with the most goals scored for a single club. In order to celebrate his achievement, Budweiser sent personalised bottles of beer to every goalkeeper whom Messi has scored against. On 17 January 2021, Messi was sent off for the first time in his club career for violent conduct (swinging an arm at the head of Asier Villalibre, missed initially by the referee but reviewed via VAR) in the final minutes of Barcelona's 2–3 extra time defeat to Athletic Bilbao in the 2020–21 Supercopa de España Final. On 10 March, Messi scored from 35 yards out and later had a penalty saved in a 1–1 draw against Paris Saint-Germain at the Parc des Princes in the second leg of the Champions League round of 16 as Barcelona were eliminated at this stage for the first time in 14 years by an aggregate score of 2–5 after having lost 1–4 at home on 16 February, with Messi scoring Barcelona's only goal in that game. On 15 March, Messi scored two goals in a 4–1 win against Huesca, and became the first player in history to score at least 20 goals in 13 consecutive seasons in the top five European leagues. On 21 March, he surpassed Xavi's record to reach a club record of 768 appearances, in which he also scored a brace in a 6–1 away win against Real Sociedad.
On 17 April, Messi scored twice as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 4–0 in the 2021 Copa del Rey final. With his second goal, he broke Gerd Müller's record of 30 plus goals in 12 consecutive club seasons, setting a new record of 13. With his 35th trophy with Barcelona, Messi also overtook former Manchester United winger Ryan Giggs as the most decorated footballer for a single club. On 16 May, Messi scored his 30th league goal of the campaign in a 1–2 home defeat against Celta Vigo, which later turned out to be his final goal and match in a Barcelona shirt. The top goalscorer in La Liga, Messi received the Pichichi trophy for a record eighth time in his career. It was also his record fifth consecutive win in La Liga, surpassing Alfredo Di Stéfano and Hugo Sánchez who both had four for Real Madrid.
On 1 July, Messi became a free agent after his contract expired, with negotiations on a new deal complicated due to financial issues at Barcelona. On 5 August, Barcelona announced that Messi would not be staying at the club, even though both parties reached an agreement and were due to sign a contract that day. The club cited financial and structural obstacles posed by La Liga regulations as a reason for Messi's departure. Club president Joan Laporta also blamed the previous board for Messi's exit by saying "the basis of everything is the calamitous and disastrous situation left by the previous board", he added by saying "the expected debt is much higher and we had some sports contracts in place that meant we had no margin on salary". Three days later, in a tearful press conference held at the Camp Nou, Messi confirmed that he would be leaving Barcelona.
### Paris Saint-Germain
#### 2021–22: First season adjustments
On 10 August, Messi joined French club Paris Saint-Germain (PSG). He signed a two-year deal until June 2023 with an option for an extra year. Messi chose 30 as his squad number, the same he wore as a teenager when he made his senior debut for Barcelona.
Messi made his debut for the club on 29 August, coming on as a substitute in the second half of a 2–0 away win over Reims in Ligue 1. He made his first start and Champions League debut for the club in a 1–1 away draw against Club Brugge on 15 September. Four days later, Messi made his home debut for PSG in a 2–1 win over Lyon. On 28 September, he scored his first goal for the club, a strike from the edge of the 18-yard box in a 2–0 Champions League group stage win over former manager Pep Guardiola's Manchester City. On 21 November, Messi scored his first Ligue 1 goal in a 3–1 home victory over Nantes. Later that month, he provided a hat-trick of assists for the fifth time in his career as PSG beat Saint-Étienne 3–1 away from home. Having scored 40 goals at club and international level for the calendar year and helped Argentina win the 2021 Copa América, Messi received a record seventh Ballon d'Or on 29 November.
On 2 January 2022, PSG announced that Messi had tested positive for COVID-19, missing two league games and a cup game as a result. He made his return against on 23 January in the league against Reims where he came on as a substitute in the second half and assisted PSG's third goal in a 4–0 home victory. On 13 March, following their Champions League elimination against Real Madrid in the round of 16, Messi and his team-mate Neymar were booed by some of the PSG fans at the Parc des Princes in the league match against Bordeaux. Then-PSG manager Mauricio Pochettino defended Messi by saying "To judge Messi in this way is unfair," adding "It was a year of learning, and not just on a professional level coming to Paris Saint-Germain, in a new league and with new teammates, but also on a family level." On 23 April, he helped PSG clinch their 10th Ligue 1 title after scoring from a strike outside the 18-yard box in a 1–1 draw against Lens at home. Messi finished his debut season with 11 goals and 14 assists across all competitions. He failed to reach double figure league goals for the first time since 2005–06, ending the campaign with six.
#### 2022–23: Return to form and departure
After adjusting to his new surroundings and settling in Paris, under new coach Christophe Galtier, Messi returned to his preferred free attacking role; being placed in his favoured position as the playmaker behind two strikers, in an attacking trident with Neymar and Kylian Mbappé, quickly regaining his form from his previous season by starting off the new season on 31 July by scoring PSG's first goal in a 4–0 victory over Nantes in the Trophée des Champions, winning his second trophy with PSG.
Due to his form in the previous season, Messi was not nominated for the Ballon d'Or award for the first time since 2005. On 21 August, Messi provided a long-range assist for Mbappé, clocked at eight seconds, for Ligue 1's second-fastest goal ever scored, before also scoring a goal in 7–1 away win over Lille. The following matches, after registering six goal contributions, including one goal and five assists, Messi was named Ligue 1's Player of the Month in September. On 5 October, he scored in a 1–1 draw away to Benfica in the Champions League, becoming the only player in the competition's history to score against 40 different Champions League opponents. On 25 October, he scored twice in a 7–2 Champions League win at home to Maccabi Haifa, setting the record for the most goals scored from outside the 18-yard box than any other player in the competition, with 23 goals. Four days later, Messi scored and provided an assist as PSG won 4–3 against Troyes to remain top of the Ligue 1 table. The goal was his seventh of the league season and his twelfth overall, surpassing his total output of the prior season in just 18 matches.
On 26 February 2023, PSG defeated Marseille 3–0 in Le Classique, with Messi scoring his 700th senior career club goal as well as assisting two goals for Mbappé. On 11 March, PSG defeated Brest 2–1, with Messi setting up a last-minute winner for Mbappé, registering his 300th career assist. On 8 April, he scored and provided an assist in a 2–0 away win over Nice in Ligue 1, which saw him overtake Cristiano Ronaldo as the all-time highest goalscorer in European club football with 702 goals; during the match, he also achieved 1,000 career direct goal contributions at club level. On 2 May, Messi was suspended for two weeks and fined after taking an unauthorised trip to Saudi Arabia with his family as part of a promotional commercial agreement. His visit to Saudi Arabia meant he did not show up to training the previous day following a 3–1 defeat to Lorient. The next day, on 3 May, it was reported that Messi would leave PSG at the end of the season, following the expiry of his contract. Afterwards, several PSG supporters demanded his exit from the club, viewing his absence as evidence of a team not fighting for the shirt, within a context of perceived disconnect between themselves and the club's identity. Two days later, Messi apologised to the club and his teammates for the trip, stating he thought he had a free day after the match [against Lorient], and already had the trip planned, which he had canceled previously. On 28 May, Messi scored in a 1–1 draw against Strasbourg helping PSG clinch their 11th Ligue 1 title and his second in a row; in the process Messi became the player with the most goals in the history of Europe's top five leagues, with 496 goals.
On 1 June, Galtier confirmed that PSG's home game against Clermont on 3 June would be Messi's last for the club, with the club confirming his departure two days later; the match ended in 3–2 defeat. He ended the season with the highest number of assists in the league with 16 and was also included in the UNFP's Ligue 1 Team of the Season alongside teammates Achraf Hakimi, Nuno Mendes and Mbappé.
### Inter Miami
Following confirmation of his departure from PSG, Messi was linked with a return to former club Barcelona, as well as with a big-money move to Saudi Professional League club Al-Hilal, but his eventual decision to sign for Major League Soccer club Inter Miami was communicated to Barcelona president Joan Laporta by 5 June 2023. Barcelona were unable to sign him due to financial constraints.
On 7 June, Inter Miami posted a video on their social media hinting at the club's impending signing of Messi. On the same day, Messi confirmed his intention to join Miami in a joint interview with Mundo Deportivo and Sport, in which he said that they "haven't closed it 100 percent"; MLS also stated that the deal had not been finalised. He explained that even though La Liga had accepted everything and was fine for him to return to Barcelona, there were many things left to be done such as lowering salaries and selling players, and he did not want to go through it again or be responsible for it. He confirmed that other European clubs approached him, but that Barcelona was the only European team he wanted to play for.
On 15 July 2023, Inter Miami announced the signing of Messi on a two-and-a-half year contract. He was formally introduced to fans at a live-streamed event, dubbed "La PresentaSÍon", at DRV PNK Stadium the following day alongside fellow signee and former Barcelona teammate Sergio Busquets.
#### 2023: Leagues Cup victory
Messi made his debut for the club on 21 July in a Leagues Cup match against Cruz Azul, scoring with a free-kick in stoppage time for a 2–1 victory. After scoring nine goals in his first six games for Miami, Messi opened the scoring in the 2023 Leagues Cup final against Nashville SC on 19 August before Nashville equalised in the second half. The game ended in a penalty shoot-out which Miami won, 10–9, with Messi scoring the first, giving the club their first ever trophy.
Messi made his MLS debut on 26 August, coming on as a substitute in the 60th minute, scoring a late goal in a 2–0 away win against New York Red Bulls, which put an end to Inter's eleven-match league winless streak. Messi's first goal in the regular season earned him Goal of the Matchday with 89.7% of the vote.
## International career
### 2004–2005: Success at youth level
As a dual Argentine-Spanish national, Messi was eligible to play for the national team of both countries. Selectors for Spain's Under-17 squad began pursuing him in 2003 after Barcelona's director of football, Carles Rexach, alerted the Royal Spanish Football Federation to their young player. Messi declined the offer, having aspired to represent La Albiceleste since childhood. To further prevent Spain from taking him, the Argentine Football Association organised two under-20 friendlies in June 2004, against Paraguay and Uruguay, with the purpose of finalising his status as an Argentina player in FIFA. Five days after his 17th birthday, on 29 June, he made his debut for his country against Paraguay, scoring once and providing two assists in their 8–0 victory. He was subsequently included in the squad for the South American Youth Championship, held in Colombia in February 2005. As he lacked the stamina of his teammates, the result of his former growth hormone deficiency, he was used as a substitute in six of the nine games. After being named man of the match against Venezuela, he scored the winning 2–1 goal in the crucial last match against Brazil, thereby securing their third-place qualification for the FIFA World Youth Championship.
Aware of his physical limitations, Messi employed a personal trainer to increase his muscle mass, returning to the squad in an improved condition in time for the World Youth Championship, hosted by the Netherlands in June. After he was left out of the starting line-up in their first match against the United States, a 1–0 defeat, the squad's senior players asked manager Francisco Ferraro to let Messi start, as they considered him their best player. After helping the team defeat Egypt and Germany to progress past the group stage, Messi proved decisive in the knockout phase as he scored their equaliser against Colombia, provided a goal and an assist against title favourites Spain, and scored their opening goal against reigning champions Brazil. Ahead of the final, he was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. He scored two penalties in their 2–1 victory over Nigeria, clinching Argentina's fifth championship and finishing the tournament as top scorer with 6 goals. His performances drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to the title in 1979.
### 2005–2006: Senior and World Cup debuts
In recognition of his achievements with the under-20 side, senior manager José Pékerman gave Messi his first call-up for a friendly against Hungary on 17 August 2005. Aged 18, Messi made his senior debut for Argentina in the Ferenc Puskás Stadium when he came on in the 63rd minute, only to be sent off after two minutes for a perceived foul against Vilmos Vanczák, who had grabbed his shirt; Messi had struck the defender with his arm while trying to shake him off, which the referee interpreted as an intentional elbowing, a contentious decision. Messi was reportedly found weeping in the dressing room after his sending-off. He returned to the team on 3 September in their World Cup qualifier defeat to Paraguay, which he had declared his "re-debut" ahead of the match. Messi started his first game in the next qualifying match against Peru, in which he was able to win a crucial penalty that secured their victory. After the match, Pékerman described him as "a jewel". He subsequently made regular appearances for the team ahead of Argentina's participation in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, scoring his first goal in a friendly against Croatia on 1 March 2006. A hamstring injury sustained a week later jeopardised his presence in the World Cup, but he was nevertheless selected for Pékerman's squad and regained fitness in time for the start of the tournament.
During the World Cup in Germany, Messi witnessed their opening match victory against the Ivory Coast from the substitutes' bench. In the next match, against Serbia and Montenegro, he became the youngest player to represent Argentina at a FIFA World Cup when he came on as a substitute in the 74th minute. He assisted their fourth strike within minutes and scored the final goal in their 6–0 victory, making him the youngest scorer in the tournament and the sixth-youngest goalscorer in the history of the World Cup. As their progression to the knockout phase was secured, several starters were rested during the last group match. Messi consequently started the game against the Netherlands, a 0–0 draw, as they won their group on goal differential. In the round of 16 match against Mexico, played on his 19th birthday, Messi came on in the 84th minute, with the score tied at 1–1. He appeared to score a goal, but it was contentiously ruled offside, with the team needing a late goal in extra time to proceed. He did not play in the quarter-final against Germany, during which Argentina were eliminated 4–2 in a penalty shootout. Back home, Pékerman's decision to leave him on the bench against Germany led to widespread criticism from those who believed Messi could have changed the outcome of the match in Argentina's favour.
### 2007–2008: Copa América final and Olympic gold
As Messi evolved into one of the best players in the world, he secured a place in Alfio Basile's starting line-up, as part of a team considered favourites to win the 2007 Copa América, held in Venezuela. He set up the game-winning goal of their 4–1 victory over the United States in the opening match, before winning a penalty that led to the game-tying first strike of their 4–2 win in the next match against Colombia. At the quarter-final stage, where the group winners faced Peru, he scored the second goal of a 4–0 victory that saw them through to the semi-final, during which he chipped the ball over Mexico's goalkeeper to ensure another 3–0 win. In a surprise defeat, Argentina lost the final 3–0 to a Brazil squad that lacked several of the nation's best players. Their unexpected loss was followed by much criticism in Argentina, though Messi was mostly exempt due to his young age and secondary status to star player Juan Román Riquelme. He was named the best young player of the tournament by CONMEBOL.
Ahead of the 2008 Summer Olympics, Barcelona legally barred Messi from representing Argentina at the tournament as it coincided with their Champions League qualifying matches. After interference from newly appointed Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola, who had won the tournament in 1992, Messi was permitted to join Sergio Batista's under-23 squad in Beijing. During the first match, he scored the opening goal in their 2–1 victory over the Ivory Coast. Following a 1–0 win in the next group match against Australia, ensuring their quarter-final qualification, Messi was rested during the game against Serbia, while his side won the match to finish first in their group. Against the Netherlands, he again scored the first goal and assisted a second strike to help his team to a 2–1 win in extra time. After a 3–0 semi-final victory over Brazil, Messi assisted the only goal in the final as Argentina defeated Nigeria to claim Olympic gold medals. Along with Riquelme, Messi was singled out by FIFA as the stand-out player from the tournament's best team.
### 2008–2011: Collective decline
From late 2008, the national team experienced a three-year period marked by poor performances. Under manager Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to World Cup victory as a player, the team struggled to qualify for the 2010 World Cup, securing their place in the tournament only after defeating Uruguay 1–0 in their last qualifying match. Maradona was criticised for his strategic decisions, which included playing Messi out of his usual position. In eight qualifying matches under Maradona's stewardship, Messi scored only one goal, netting the opening goal in the first such match, a 4–0 victory over Venezuela. During that game, played on 28 March 2009, he wore Argentina's number 10 shirt for the first time, following the international retirement of Riquelme. Overall, Messi scored four goals in 18 appearances during the qualifying process. Ahead of the tournament, Maradona visited Messi in Barcelona to request his tactical input; Messi then outlined a 4–3–1–2 formation with himself playing behind the two strikers, a playmaking position known as the enganche in Argentine football, which had been his preferred position since childhood.
Despite their poor qualifying campaign, Argentina were considered title contenders at the World Cup in South Africa. At the start of the tournament, the new formation proved effective; Messi managed at least four attempts on goal during their opening match but was repeatedly denied by Nigeria's goalkeeper, resulting in a 1–0 win. During the next match, against South Korea, he excelled in his playmaking role, participating in all four goals of his side's 4–1 victory. As their place in the knockout phase was guaranteed, most of the starters were rested during the last group match, but Messi reportedly refused to be benched. He wore the captain's armband for the first time in their 2–0 win against Greece; as the focal point of their play, he helped create their second goal to see Argentina finish as group winners.
Argentina were eliminated in the quarter-final against Germany, at the same stage of the tournament and by the same opponent as four years earlier. Their 4–0 loss was their worst margin of defeat at a World Cup since 1974. FIFA subsequently identified Messi as one of the tournament's 10 best players, citing his "outstanding" pace and creativity and "spectacular and efficient" dribbling, shooting and passing. Back home, however, Messi was the subject of harsher judgement. As the perceived best player in the world, he had been expected to lead an average team to the title, as Maradona arguably did in 1986, but he had failed to replicate his performances at Barcelona with the national team, leading to the accusation that he cared less about his country than his club.
Maradona was replaced by Sergio Batista, who had orchestrated Argentina's Olympic victory. Batista publicly stated that he intended to build the team around Messi, employing him as a false nine within a 4–3–3 system, as used to much success by Barcelona. Although Messi scored a record 53 goals during the 2010–11 club season, he had not scored for Argentina in an official match since March 2009. Despite the tactical change, his goal drought continued during the 2011 Copa América, hosted by Argentina. Their first two matches, against Bolivia and Colombia, ended in draws. Media and fans noted that he did not combine well with striker Carlos Tevez, who enjoyed greater popularity among the Argentine public; Messi was consequently booed by his own team's supporters for the first time in his career. During the crucial next match, with Tevez on the bench, he gave a well-received performance, assisting two goals in their 3–0 victory over Costa Rica. After the quarter-final against Uruguay ended in a 1–1 draw following extra time, with Messi having assisted their equaliser, Argentina were eliminated 4–5 in the penalty shootout by the eventual champions.
### 2011–2013: Assuming the captaincy
After Argentina's unsuccessful performance in the Copa América, Batista was replaced by Alejandro Sabella. Upon his appointment in August 2011, Sabella awarded the 24-year-old Messi the captaincy of the squad, in accord with then-captain Javier Mascherano. Reserved by nature, Messi went on to lead his squad by example as their best player, while Mascherano continued to fulfil the role of the team's on-field leader and motivator. In a further redesign of the team, Sabella dismissed Tevez and brought in players with whom Messi had won the World Youth Championship and Olympic Games. Now playing in a free role in an improving team, Messi ended his goal drought by scoring during their first World Cup qualifying match against Chile on 7 October, his first official goal for Argentina in two-and-a-half years.
Under Sabella, Messi's goalscoring rate drastically increased; where he had scored only 17 goals in 61 matches under his previous managers, he scored 25 times in 32 appearances during the following three years. He netted a total of 12 goals in 9 games for Argentina in 2012, equalling the record held by Gabriel Batistuta for the most goals scored in a calendar year for their country. His first international hat-trick came in a friendly against Switzerland on 29 February 2012, followed by two more hat-tricks over the next year-and-a-half in friendlies against Brazil and Guatemala. Messi then helped the team secure their place in the 2014 World Cup with a 5–2 victory over Paraguay on 10 September 2013 when he scored twice from penalty kicks, taking his international tally to 37 goals to become Argentina's second-highest goalscorer behind Batistuta. Overall, he had scored a total of 10 goals in 14 matches during the qualifying campaign. Concurrently with his bettered performances, his relationship with his compatriots improved, as he gradually began to be perceived more favourably in Argentina.
### 2014–2015: World Cup and Copa América finals
Ahead of the World Cup in Brazil, doubts persisted over Messi's form, as he finished an unsuccessful and injury-plagued season with Barcelona. At the start of the tournament, however, he gave strong performances, being elected man of the match in their first four matches. In his first World Cup match as captain, he led them to a 2–1 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina; he helped create Sead Kolašinac's own goal and scored their second strike after a dribble past three players, his first World Cup goal since his debut in the tournament eight years earlier. During the second match against Iran, he scored an injury-time goal from 25 yards out to end the game in a 1–0 win, securing their qualification for the knockout phase. He scored twice in the last group match, a 3–2 victory over Nigeria, his second goal coming from a free kick, as they finished first in their group. Messi assisted a late goal in extra time to ensure a 1–0 win against Switzerland in the round of 16, and played in the 1–0 quarter-final win against Belgium as Argentina progressed to the semi-final of the World Cup for the first time since 1990. Following a 0–0 draw in extra time, they eliminated the Netherlands 4–2 in a penalty shootout to reach the final, with Messi scoring his team's first penalty.
Billed as Messi versus Germany, the world's best player against the best team, the final was a repeat of the 1990 final featuring Diego Maradona. Within the first half-hour, Messi had started the play that led to a goal, but it was ruled offside. He missed several opportunities to open the scoring throughout the match, in particular at the start of the second half when his breakaway effort went wide of the far post. Substitute Mario Götze finally scored in the 113th minute, followed in the last minute of extra time by a free kick that Messi sent over the net, as Germany won the match 1–0 to claim the World Cup. At the conclusion of the final, Messi was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. In addition to being the joint third-highest goalscorer, with four goals and an assist, he created the most chances, completed the most dribbling runs, made the most deliveries into the penalty area and produced the most throughballs in the competition. However, his selection drew criticism due to his lack of goals in the knockout round; FIFA President Sepp Blatter expressed his surprise, while Maradona suggested that Messi had undeservedly been chosen for marketing purposes.
Another final appearance, the third of Messi's senior international career, followed in the 2015 Copa América, held in Chile. Under the stewardship of former Barcelona manager Gerardo Martino, Argentina entered the tournament as title contenders due to their second-place achievement at the World Cup. During the opening match against Paraguay, they were ahead two goals by half-time but lost their lead to end the match in a 2–2 draw; Messi had scored from a penalty kick, netting his only goal in the tournament. Following a 1–0 win against defending champions Uruguay, Messi earned his 100th cap for his country in the final group match, a 1–0 win over Jamaica, becoming only the fifth Argentine to achieve this milestone. In his 100 appearances, he had scored a total of 46 goals for Argentina, 22 of which came in official competitive matches.
As Messi evolved from the team's symbolic captain into a genuine leader, he led Argentina to the knockout stage as group winners. In the quarter-final, they created numerous chances, including a rebound header by Messi, but were repeatedly denied by Colombia's goalkeeper, and ultimately ended the match scoreless, leading to a 5–4 penalty shootout in their favour, with Messi netting his team's first spot kick. At the semi-final stage, Messi excelled as a playmaker as he provided three assists and helped create three more goals in his side's 6–1 victory over Paraguay, receiving applause from the initially hostile crowd. Argentina started the final as the odds-on title favourites, but were defeated by Chile 4–1 in a penalty shootout after a 0–0 extra-time draw. Faced with aggression from opposing players, including taking a boot to the midriff, Messi played below his standards, though he was the only Argentine to successfully convert his penalty. At the close of the tournament, he was reportedly selected to receive the Most Valuable Player award but rejected the honour. As Argentina continued a trophy drought that began in 1993, the World Cup and Copa América defeats again brought intense criticism for Messi from Argentine media and fans.
### 2016–2017: Third Copa América final, first retirement, and return
Messi's place in Argentina's Copa América Centenario squad was initially put in jeopardy when he sustained a back injury in a 1–0 friendly win over Honduras in a pre-Copa América warm-up match on 27 May 2016. It was later reported that he had suffered a deep bruise in his lumbar region. He was later left on the bench in Argentina's 2–1 opening win over defending champions Chile on 6 June due to concerns regarding his fitness. Although Messi was declared match-fit for his nation's second group match against Panama on 10 June, Martino left him on the bench once again; he replaced Augusto Fernández in the 61st minute and subsequently scored a hat-trick in 19 minutes, also starting the play which led to Sergio Agüero's goal, as the match ended in a 5–0 victory, sealing Argentina's place in the quarter-finals of the competition; he was elected man of the match for his performance.
On 18 June, in the quarter-final of the Copa América against Venezuela, Messi produced another man of the match performance, assisting two goals and scoring another in a 4–1 victory, which enabled him to equal Gabriel Batistuta's national record of 54 goals in official international matches. This record was broken three days later when Messi scored a free kick in a 4–0 semi-final win against hosts the United States; he also assisted two goals during the match as Argentina sealed a place in the final of the competition for a second consecutive year, and was named man of the match once again.
During a repeat of the previous year's final on 26 June, Argentina once again lost to Chile on penalties after a 0–0 deadlock, resulting in Messi's third consecutive defeat in a major tournament final with Argentina, and his fourth overall. After the match, Messi, who had missed his penalty in the shootout, announced his retirement from international football. He stated, "I tried my hardest. The team has ended for me, a decision made." Chile coach Juan Antonio Pizzi said after the match, "My generation can't compare him to Maradona that's for my generation, because of what Maradona did for Argentine football. But I think the best player ever played today here in the United States." Messi finished the tournament as the second highest scorer, behind Eduardo Vargas, with five goals, and was the highest assist provider with four assists, also winning more Man of the Match awards than any other player in the tournament (3); he was named to the team of the tournament for his performances, but missed out on the Golden Ball Award for best player, which went to Alexis Sánchez.
Following his announcement, a campaign began in Argentina for Messi to change his mind about retiring. He was greeted by fans with signs like "Don't go, Leo" when the team landed in Buenos Aires. President of Argentina Mauricio Macri urged Messi not to quit, stating, "We are lucky, it is one of life's pleasures, it is a gift from God to have the best player in the world in a footballing country like ours... Lionel Messi is the greatest thing we have in Argentina and we must take care of him." Mayor of Buenos Aires Horacio Rodríguez Larreta unveiled a statue of Messi in the capital to convince him to reconsider retirement. The campaign also continued in the streets and avenues of the Argentine capital, with about 50,000 supporters going to the Obelisco de Buenos Aires on 2 July, using the same slogan.
Just a week after Messi announced his international retirement, Argentine newspaper La Nación reported that he was reconsidering playing for Argentina at the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers in September. On 12 August, it was confirmed that Messi had reversed his decision to retire from international football, and he was included in the squad for the national team's upcoming 2018 World Cup qualifiers. On 1 September, in his first game back, he scored in a 1–0 home win over Uruguay in a 2018 World Cup qualifier.
On 28 March 2017, Messi was suspended for four international games for insulting an assistant referee in a game against Chile on 23 March 2017. He was also fined CHF 10,000. On 5 May, Messi's four match ban as well as his 10,000 CHF fine was lifted by FIFA after Argentina Football Association appealed against his suspension, which meant he could now play Argentina's remaining World Cup Qualifiers. Argentina's place in the 2018 World Cup was in jeopardy going into their final qualifying match as they were sixth in their group, outside the five possible CONMEBOL World Cup qualifying spots, meaning they risked failing to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1970. On 10 October, Messi led his country to World Cup qualification in scoring a hat-trick as Argentina came from behind to defeat Ecuador 3–1 away; Argentina had not defeated Ecuador in Quito since 2001. Messi's three goals saw him become the joint all-time leading scorer in CONMEBOL World Cup qualifiers with 21 goals, alongside Uruguay's Luis Suárez, overtaking the previous record which was held by compatriot Hernán Crespo.
### 2018: World Cup
Following on from their poor qualification campaign, expectations were not high going into the 2018 World Cup, with the team, without an injured Messi, losing 6–1 to Spain in March 2018. Prior to Argentina's opener, there was speculation in the media over whether this would be Messi's final World Cup. In the team's opening group match against Iceland on 16 June, Messi missed a potential match-winning penalty in an eventual 1–1 draw. In Argentina's second game on 21 June, the team lost 3–0 to Croatia in a huge upset. Post-match the Argentina coach Jorge Sampaoli spoke of the lack of quality in the team surrounding Messi, saying "we quite simply couldn't pass to him to help him generate the situations he is used to. We worked to give him the ball but the opponent also worked hard to prevent him from getting the ball. We lost that battle". Croatia captain and midfielder Luka Modrić also stated post match, "Messi is an incredible player but he can't do everything alone."
In Argentina's final group match against Nigeria at the Krestovsky Stadium, Saint Petersburg on 26 June, Messi scored the opening goal in an eventual 2–1 victory, becoming the third Argentine after Diego Maradona and Gabriel Batistuta to score in three different World Cups; he also became the first player to score in the World Cup in his teens, twenties, and his thirties. A goal of the tournament contender, Messi received a long pass from midfield and controlled the ball on the run with two touches before striking it across goal into the net with his weaker right foot. He was awarded Man of the Match. Argentina progressed to the second round as group runners-up behind Croatia. In the round of 16 match against eventual champions France on 30 June, Messi set up Gabriel Mercado's and Sergio Agüero's goals in a 3–4 defeat, which saw Argentina eliminated from the World Cup. With his two assists in his team's second round fixture, Messi became the first player to provide an assist in the last four World Cups, and also became the first player to provide two assists in a match for Argentina since Maradona had managed the same feat against South Korea in 1986.
Following the tournament, Messi stated that he would not participate in Argentina's friendlies against Guatemala and Colombia in September, and commented that it would be unlikely that he would represent his nation for the remainder of the calendar year. Messi's absence from the national team and his continued failure to win a title with Argentina prompted speculation in the media that Messi might retire from international football once again. In March 2019, however, he was called up to the Argentina squad once again for the team's friendlies against Venezuela and Morocco later that month. A conversation with Lionel Scaloni and his idol Pablo Aimar made Messi reconsider his decision to retire. He made his international return on 22 March, in a 3–1 friendly defeat to Venezuela, in Madrid.
### 2019–2020: Copa América third-place and suspension
On 21 May, Messi was included in Scaloni's final 23-man squad for the 2019 Copa América. In Argentina's second group match on 19 June, Messi scored the equalising goal from the penalty spot in a 1–1 draw against Paraguay. After coming under criticism in the media over his performance following Argentina's 2–0 quarter-final victory over Venezuela on 28 June, Messi commented that it had not been his best Copa América, while also criticising the poor quality of the pitches. Following Argentina's 2–0 semi-final defeat to hosts Brazil on 2 July, Messi was critical of the refereeing, and alleged the competition was "set up" for Brazil to win.
In the third-place match against Chile on 6 July, Messi set-up Agüero's opening goal from a free kick in an eventual 2–1 win, to help Argentina win the bronze medal; however, he was sent off along with Gary Medel in the 37th minute of play, after being involved in an altercation with the Chilean defender. Following the match, Messi refused to collect his medal, and implied in a post-match interview that his comments following the semi-final led to his sending off. Messi later issued an apology for his comments, but was fined \$1,500 and was handed a one-match ban by CONMEBOL, which ruled him out of Argentina's next World Cup qualifier. On 2 August, Messi was banned for three months from international football and was fined \$50,000 by CONMEBOL for his comments against the referee's decisions; this ban meant he would miss Argentina's friendly matches against Chile, Mexico and Germany in September and October. On 15 November, Messi played in the 2019 Superclásico de las Américas versus Brazil, scoring the winning goal by a rebound of his saved penalty. On 8 October 2020, Messi scored a penalty in a 1–0 victory against Ecuador, giving Argentina a winning start to their 2022 World Cup qualifying campaign.
### 2021–2022: Copa América and World Cup triumphs
On 14 June 2021, Messi scored from a free kick in a 1–1 draw against Chile in Argentina's opening group match of the 2021 Copa América in Brazil. On 21 June, Messi played in his 147th match as he equalled Javier Mascherano's record for most appearances for Argentina in a 1–0 win over Paraguay in their third game of the tournament. A week later, he broke the record when he featured in a 4–1 win against Bolivia in his team's final group match, assisting Papu Gómez's opening goal and later scoring two. On 3 July, Messi assisted twice and scored from a free-kick in a 3–0 win over Ecuador in the quarter-finals of the competition. On 6 July, in a 1–1 draw in the semi-finals against Colombia, Messi made his 150th appearance for his country and registered his fifth assist of the tournament, a cut-back for Lautaro Martínez, matching his record of nine goal contributions in a single tournament from five years earlier; he later scored his spot kick in Argentina's eventual 3–2 penalty shoot-out victory to progress to his fifth international final. On 10 July, Argentina defeated hosts and defending champions Brazil 1–0 in the final, giving Messi his first major international title and Argentina's first since 1993, as well as his nation's joint record 15th Copa América overall. Messi was directly involved in nine out of the 12 goals scored by Argentina, scoring four and assisting five; he was named the player of the tournament for his performances, an honour he shared with Neymar. He also finished as top scorer with four goals tied with Colombia's Luis Díaz, with the Golden Boot awarded to Messi as he had more assists.
On 9 September, Messi scored a hat-trick in a 3–0 home win over Bolivia in a 2022 World Cup qualifier which also moved him above Pelé as South America's top male international scorer with 79 goals. In the 2022 Finalissima, the third edition of the CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions, at Wembley on 2 June 2022, Messi assisted twice in a 3–0 victory against Italy and was named player of the match, securing his second trophy for Argentina at the senior level. Messi then followed this on 6 June with all five Argentina goals in a 5–0 victory in a friendly win over Estonia, overtaking Ferenc Puskás among the all-time international men's top scorers.
At the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, Messi scored a penalty in Argentina's opening game, a 2–1 defeat to Saudi Arabia, before scoring with a low 20-yard strike in their next match against Mexico in which Argentina won 2–0, also recording an assist on Enzo Fernández's goal. In the last 16 game against Australia, Messi scored the opening goal in Argentina's 2–1 win in what was his 1,000th senior career appearance, and became the most-capped male South American (CONMEBOL member) footballer of all time, surpassing the previous record set by Ecuador's Iván Hurtado, as well as surpassing and equalling several other FIFA World Cup and national team records. In the quarter-final against the Netherlands, Messi assisted Argentina's first goal for Nahuel Molina with a reverse pass and then scored a penalty as the game finished 2–2 after extra time. Argentina won 4–3 in the penalty shootout, with Messi scoring the first penalty. In the semi-final against Croatia, Messi made a record-equalling 25th World Cup finals appearance, drawing level with Germany's Lothar Matthäus, and scored the opening goal with a penalty before he assisted Argentina's third goal scored by Julián Álvarez in a 3–0 win; with his 11th World Cup goal, Messi overtook Batistuta to become Argentina's all-time top-scorer at the World Cup. Argentina advanced to the final against France, with Messi stating that it would be his final World Cup appearance.
In the 2022 FIFA World Cup final on 18 December, Messi made his record 26th World Cup match appearance at Lusail Stadium. He scored Argentina's opening goal with a penalty, becoming in the process the first player since the last-16 round was introduced in 1986 to score a goal in every round of a single World Cup edition. After Argentina's eventual two-goal lead was erased by France forward Kylian Mbappé, who scored twice inside two minutes, Messi would score again in extra-time to restore Argentina's lead, before Mbappé again drew France level. Tied 3–3 after extra-time, the match went to a penalty shoot-out. Messi scored Argentina's first goal in the shoot-out, with Argentina eventually winning 4–2, ending the nation's 36-year wait for the trophy. Messi received the Golden Ball for player of the tournament, becoming the first player to win it twice. He finished second in the Golden Boot race with seven goals in seven games, one behind Mbappé. With his appearance and two goals in the final, Messi overtook Matthaüs as the player with most appearances at the World Cup (26), and Pelé as the player with most direct goal contributions at the World Cup (21 – 13 goals and 8 assists). The championship game was widely acclaimed as one of the best of all time, with media coverage heavily framing it as a duel between Messi and Mbappé. Following the game, Messi confirmed that he had no plans to retire from the national team, saying "I want to continue playing as a champion".
### 2023–present: 100 international goals
In March 2023, Messi made his return to Argentina as a world champion with two appearances in friendlies in his home country. He scored his 99th international goal with a free-kick in Argentina's 2–0 win over Panama; this also marked his 800th senior career goal for club and country. In the following match against Curaçao, Messi scored a hat-trick, his ninth for Argentina, and recorded an assist in a 7–0 win. The first of his three goals saw him reach 100 international goals, making Messi the third player in history to reach the milestone.
## Player profile
### Style of play
Due to his short stature, Messi has a lower centre of gravity than taller players, which gives him greater agility, allowing him to change direction more quickly and evade opposing tackles; this has led the Spanish media to dub him La Pulga Atómica ("The Atomic Flea"). Despite being physically unimposing, he possesses significant upper-body strength, which, combined with his low centre of gravity and resulting balance, aids him in withstanding physical challenges from opponents; he has consequently been noted for his lack of diving in a sport rife with playacting. His short, strong legs allow him to excel in short bursts of acceleration while his quick feet enable him to retain control of the ball when dribbling at speed. His former Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola once stated, "Messi is the only player that runs faster with the ball than he does without it." Although he has improved his ability with his weaker foot since his mid-20s, Messi is predominantly a left-footed player; with the outside of his left foot, he usually begins dribbling runs, while he uses the inside of his foot to finish and provide passes and assists.
A prolific goalscorer, Messi is known for his finishing, positioning, quick reactions, and ability to make attacking runs to beat the defensive line. He also functions in a playmaking role, courtesy of his vision and range of passing. He has often been described as a magician; a conjurer, creating goals and opportunities where seemingly none exist. Moreover, he is an accurate free kick and penalty kick taker. As of August 2023, Messi ranks 6th all time in goals scored from direct free kicks with 64, the most among active players. He also has a penchant for scoring from chips.
Messi's pace and technical ability enable him to undertake individual dribbling runs towards goal, in particular during counterattacks, usually starting from the halfway line or the right side of the pitch. Widely considered to be the best dribbler in the world, and one of the greatest dribblers of all time, with regard to this ability, his former Argentina manager Diego Maradona has said of him, "The ball stays glued to his foot; I've seen great players in my career, but I've never seen anyone with Messi's ball control." Beyond his individual qualities, he is also a well-rounded, hard-working team player, known for his creative combinations, in particular with former Barcelona midfielders Xavi and Andrés Iniesta.
Tactically, Messi plays in a free attacking role; a versatile player, he is capable of attacking on either wing or through the centre of the pitch. His favoured position in childhood was the playmaker behind two strikers, known as the enganche in Argentine football, but he began his career in Spain as a left-winger or left-sided forward. Upon his first-team debut, he was moved onto the right wing by manager Frank Rijkaard; from this position, he could more easily cut through the defence into the middle of the pitch and curl shots on goal with his left foot, rather than predominantly cross balls for teammates. Under Guardiola and subsequent managers, he most often played in a false nine role; positioned as a centre-forward or lone striker, he would roam the centre, often moving deep into midfield and drawing defenders with him, in order to create and exploit spaces for passes, other teammates' attacking runs off the ball, Messi's own dribbling runs, or combinations with Xavi and Iniesta. Under the stewardship of Luis Enrique, Messi initially returned to playing in the right-sided position that characterised much of his early career in the manager's 4–3–3 formation, while he was increasingly deployed in a deeper, free playmaking role in later seasons. Under manager Ernesto Valverde, Messi played in a variety of roles. While he occasionally continued to be deployed in a deeper role, from which he could make runs from behind into the box, or even on the right wing or as a false nine, he was also used in a more offensive, central role in a 4–2–3–1, or as a second striker in a 4–4–2 formation, where he was once again given the licence to drop deep, link-up with midfielders, orchestrate his team's attacking plays, and create chances for his attacking partner Suárez.
As his career advanced, and his tendency to dribble diminished slightly with age, Messi began to dictate play in deeper areas of the pitch and developed into one of the best passers and playmakers in football history. His work-rate off the ball and defensive responsibilities also decreased as his career progressed; by covering less ground on the pitch, and instead conserving his energy for short bursts of speed, he was able to improve his efficiency, movement, and positional play, and was also able to avoid muscular injuries, despite often playing a large number of matches throughout a particular season on a consistent basis. Indeed, while he was injury-prone in his early career, he was later able to improve his injury record by running less off the ball, and by adopting a stricter diet, training regime, and sleep schedule. With the Argentina national team, Messi has similarly played anywhere along the frontline; under various managers, he has been employed on the right wing, as a false nine, as an out-and-out striker, in a supporting role alongside another forward, or in a deeper, free creative role as a classic number 10 playmaker or attacking midfielder behind the strikers.
### Reception and comparisons to Diego Maradona
A prodigious talent as a teenager, Messi established himself among the world's best players before age 20. Diego Maradona considered the 18-year-old Messi the best player in the world alongside Ronaldinho, while the Brazilian himself, shortly after winning the Ballon d'Or, commented, "I'm not even the best at Barça", in reference to his protégé. Four years later, after Messi had won his first Ballon d'Or by a record margin, the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was one of the greatest players in history. An early proponent was his then-manager Pep Guardiola, who, as early as August 2009, declared Messi to be the best player he had ever seen. In the following years, this opinion gained greater acceptance among pundits, managers, former and current players, and by the end of Barça's second treble-winning season, the view of Messi as one of the greatest footballers of all time had become the apparent view among many fans and pundits in continental Europe. He initially received several dismissals by critics, based on the fact that he had not won an international trophy at senior level with Argentina, until he won his first at the 2021 Copa América.
Throughout his career, Messi has been compared with his late compatriot Diego Maradona, due to their similar playing styles as diminutive, left-footed dribblers. Initially, he was merely one of many young Argentine players, including his boyhood idol Pablo Aimar, to receive the "New Maradona" moniker, but as his career progressed, Messi proved his similarity beyond all previous contenders, establishing himself as the greatest player Argentina had produced since Maradona. Jorge Valdano, who won the 1986 World Cup alongside Maradona, said in October 2013, "Messi is Maradona every day. For the last five years, Messi has been the Maradona of the World Cup in Mexico." César Menotti, who as manager orchestrated their 1978 World Cup victory, echoed this sentiment when he opined that Messi plays "at the level of the best Maradona". Other notable Argentines in the sport, such as Osvaldo Ardiles, Javier Zanetti, and Diego Simeone, have expressed their belief that Messi has overtaken Maradona as the best player in history.
In Argentine society, prior to 2019, Messi was generally held in lesser esteem than Maradona, a consequence of not only his perceived uneven performances with the national team, but also of differences in class, personality, and background. Messi is in some ways the antithesis of his predecessor: where Maradona was an extroverted, controversial character who rose to greatness from the slums, Messi is reserved and unassuming, an unremarkable man outside of football. An enduring mark against him is the fact that, through no fault of his own, he never proved himself in the Argentine Primera División as an upcoming player, achieving stardom overseas from a young age, while his lack of outward passion for the Albiceleste shirt (until 2019 he did not sing the national anthem and is disinclined to emotional displays) have in the past led to the false perception that he felt Catalan rather than truly Argentine. Football journalist Tim Vickery states the view among Argentines is that Messi "was always seen as more Catalan than one of them". Despite having lived in Spain since age 13, Messi rejected the option of representing Spain internationally. He has said: "Argentina is my country, my family, my way of expressing myself. I would change all my records to make the people in my country happy." Moreover, several pundits and footballing figures, including Maradona, questioned Messi's leadership with Argentina at times, despite his playing ability. Vickery states the perception of Messi among Argentines changed in 2019, with Messi making a conscious effort to become "more one of the group, more Argentine", with Vickery adding that following the World Cup victory in 2022 Messi would now be held in the same esteem by his compatriots as Maradona.
### Comparisons with Cristiano Ronaldo
Among his contemporary peers, Messi is most often compared and contrasted with Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo, as part of an ongoing rivalry that has been compared to past sports rivalries like the Muhammad Ali–Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Roger Federer–Rafael Nadal rivalry in tennis, and the Prost–Senna rivalry from Formula One motor racing.
Although Messi has at times denied any rivalry, they are widely believed to push one another in their aim to be the best player in the world. Since 2008, Messi has won seven Ballons d'Or to Ronaldo's five, six FIFA World's Best Player awards to Ronaldo's five, and six European Golden Shoes to Ronaldo's four. Pundits and fans regularly argue the individual merits of both players. Beyond their playing styles, the debate also revolves around their differing physiques – Ronaldo is with a muscular build – and contrasting public personalities with Ronaldo's self-confidence and theatrics a foil to Messi's humility. From 2009–10 to 2017–18, Messi faced Ronaldo at least twice every season in El Clásico, which ranks among the world's most viewed annual sports events. Off the pitch, Ronaldo is his direct competitor in terms of salary, sponsorships, and social media fanbase.
After Messi led Argentina to victory in the 2022 FIFA World Cup, a number of football critics, commentators, and players have opined that Messi has settled the debate between the two players.
## In popular culture
According to France Football, Messi was the world's highest-paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014; he was the first player to exceed the €40 million benchmark, with earnings of €41 million in 2013, and the €50–€60 million points, with income of €65 million in 2014. Messi was second on Forbes list of the world's highest-paid athletes (after Cristiano Ronaldo) with income of \$81.4 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015–16. In 2018 he was the first player to exceed the €100m benchmark for a calendar year, with earnings of €126m (\$154m) in combined income from salaries, bonuses and endorsements. Forbes ranked him the world's highest-paid athlete in 2019. From 2008, he was Barcelona's highest-paid player, receiving a salary that increased incrementally from €7.8 million to €13 million over the next five years. Signing a new Barcelona contract in 2017, he earned \$667,000 per week in wages, and Barcelona also paid him \$59.6 million as a signing on bonus. His buyout clause was set at \$835 million (€700 million). In 2020, Messi became the second footballer, as well as the second athlete in a team sport, after Cristiano Ronaldo, to surpass \$1 billion in earnings during their careers.
In addition to his salary and bonuses, much of his income derives from endorsements; SportsPro has consequently cited him as one of the world's most marketable athletes every year since their research began in 2010. His main sponsor since 2006 is the sportswear company Adidas. As Barcelona's leading youth prospect, he had been signed with Nike since age 14, but transferred to Adidas after they successfully challenged their rival's claim to his image rights in court. Over time, Messi established himself as their leading brand endorser; from 2008, he had a long-running signature collection of Adidas F50 boots, and in 2015, he became the first footballer to receive his own sub-brand of Adidas boots, the Adidas Messi. Since 2017, he has worn the latest version of the Adidas Nemeziz. In 2015, a Barcelona jersey with Messi's name and number was the best-selling replica jersey worldwide. At the 2022 World Cup, Adidas were sold out of Messi's Argentina No.10 jersey worldwide.
As a commercial entity, Messi's marketing brand has been based exclusively on his talents and achievements as a player, in contrast to arguably more glamorous players like Cristiano Ronaldo and David Beckham. At the start of his career, he thus mainly held sponsorship contracts with companies that employ sports-oriented marketing, such as Adidas, Pepsi, and Konami. From 2010 onwards, concurrently with his increased achievements as a player, his marketing appeal widened, leading to long-term endorsement deals with luxury brands Dolce & Gabbana and Audemars Piguet. Messi is also a global brand ambassador for Gillette, Turkish Airlines, Ooredoo, and Tata Motors, among other companies. Additionally, Messi was the face of Konami's video game series Pro Evolution Soccer, appearing on the covers of PES 2009, PES 2010, PES 2011 and PES 2020. He subsequently signed with rival company EA Sports to become the face of their series FIFA and has since appeared on four consecutive covers from FIFA 13 to FIFA 16.
Messi's global popularity and influence are well documented. He was among the Time 100, an annual list of the world's most influential people as published by Time, in 2011, 2012 and 2023. His fanbase on the social media website Facebook is among the largest of all public figures: within seven hours of its launch in April 2011, Messi's Facebook page had nearly seven million followers, and by July 2023 he had over 114 million followers, the second highest for a sportsperson after Cristiano Ronaldo. He also has over 450 million Instagram followers, the second highest for an individual and sportsperson after Cristiano Ronaldo. His World Cup celebration post from 18 December 2022 is the most liked post on Instagram with over 70 million likes. According to a 2014 survey by sports research firm Repucom in 15 international markets, Messi was familiar to 87% of respondents around the world, of whom 78% perceived him favourably, making him the second-most recognised player globally, behind Ronaldo, and the most likable of all contemporary players. On Messi's economic impact on the city in which he plays, Terry Gibson called him a "tourist attraction".
Other events have illustrated Messi's presence in popular culture. Madame Tussauds unveiled their first wax sculpture of Messi at Wembley Stadium in 2012. A gold replica of his left foot, weighing 25 kg (55 lb) and valued at \$5.25 million, went on sale in Japan in March 2013 to raise funds for victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In 2013, a Turkish Airlines advertisement starring Messi, in which he engages in a selfie competition with then-Los Angeles Lakers star Kobe Bryant, was the most-watched ad on YouTube in the year of its release, receiving 137 million views, and was subsequently voted the best advertisement of the 2005–15 decade to commemorate YouTube's founding. World Press Photo selected "The Final Game", a photograph of Messi facing the World Cup trophy after Argentina's final defeat to Germany, as the best sports image of 2014. Messi, a documentary about his life by filmmaker Álex de la Iglesia, premiered at the Venice Film Festival in August 2014.
In June 2021, Messi signed a five-year deal to become an ambassador for the Hard Rock Cafe brand. He stated, "sports and music are an integral part of my life. It is an honor to be the first athlete to partner with a brand who has a history of teaming with music legends." In May 2022, Messi was unveiled as Saudi Arabia's tourism ambassador. Due to Saudi Arabia's poor human rights record, Messi was condemned for taking on the role which was viewed as an attempt of Saudi sportswashing. In April 2023, Messi was featured in the 200 year old Thrissur Pooram festival in Kerala, India. During Thrissur Pooram, which is one of the largest festivals in Asia, umbrellas carrying the illuminated cut outs of Messi holding the World Cup trophy were displayed on the top of caparisoned elephants during the Kudamattam ceremony.
## Personal life
### Family and relationships
Since 2008, Messi has been in a relationship with Antonela Roccuzzo, a fellow native of Rosario. He has known Roccuzzo since he was five years old, as she is the cousin of his childhood best friend, Lucas Scaglia, who is also a football player. After keeping their relationship private for a year, Messi first confirmed their romance in an interview in January 2009, before going public a month later during a carnival in Sitges after the Barcelona–Espanyol derby.
Messi and Roccuzzo have three sons. To celebrate his partner's first pregnancy, Messi placed the ball under his shirt after scoring in Argentina's 4–0 win against Ecuador on 2 June 2012, before confirming the pregnancy in an interview two weeks later. Thiago was born in Barcelona on 2 November 2012. In April 2015, Messi confirmed that they were expecting another child. On 30 June 2017, he married Roccuzzo at a luxury hotel named Hotel City Center in Rosario. In October 2017, his wife announced they were expecting their third child. Messi and his family are Catholic Christians.
Messi enjoys a close relationship with his immediate family members, particularly his mother, Celia, whose face he has tattooed on his left shoulder. His professional affairs are largely run as a family business: his father, Jorge, has been his agent since he was 14, and his oldest brother, Rodrigo, handles his daily schedule and publicity. His mother and other brother, Matías, manage his charitable organization, the Leo Messi Foundation, and take care of personal and professional matters in Rosario.
Since leaving for Spain aged 13, Messi has maintained close ties to his hometown of Rosario, even preserving his distinct Rosarino accent. He has kept ownership of his family's old house, although it has long stood empty; he maintains a penthouse apartment in an exclusive residential building for his mother, as well as a family compound just outside the city. Once when he was in training with the national team in Buenos Aires, he made a three-hour trip by car to Rosario immediately after practice to have dinner with his family, spent the night with them, and returned to Buenos Aires the next day in time for practice. Messi keeps in daily contact via phone and text with a small group of confidants in Rosario, most of whom were fellow members of "The Machine of '87" at Newell's Old Boys. While at Barcelona he lived in Castelldefels, a village near Barcelona. He was on bad terms with the club after his transfer to Barcelona, but by 2012 their public feud had ended, with Newell's embracing their ties with Messi, even issuing a club membership card to his newborn son. Messi has long planned to return to Rosario to end his playing career at Newell's. Messi holds triple citizenship, as he is a citizen of Argentina, Italy, and Spain. His favourite meals include asado (traditional South American barbecue), milanesa and pasta, and he prefers his mate unsweetened.
### Philanthropy
Throughout his career, Messi has been involved in charitable efforts aimed at vulnerable children, a commitment that stems in part from the medical difficulties he faced in his own childhood. Since 2004, he has contributed his time and finances to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), an organisation with which Barcelona also have a strong association. Messi has served as a UNICEF goodwill ambassador since his appointment in March 2010, completing his first field mission for the organisation four months later as he travelled to Haiti to bring public awareness to the plight of the country's children in the wake of the recent earthquake. He has since participated in UNICEF campaigns targeting HIV prevention, education, and the social inclusion of disabled children. To celebrate his son's first birthday, in November 2013, Messi and Thiago were part of a publicity campaign to raise awareness of mortality rates among disadvantaged children.
In addition to his work with UNICEF, Messi founded his own charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, which supports access to health care, education, and sport for children. It was established in 2007 following a visit Messi paid to a hospital for terminally ill children in Boston, an experience that resonated with him to the point that he decided to reinvest part of his earnings into society. Through his foundation, Messi has awarded research grants, financed medical training, and invested in the development of medical centres and projects in Argentina, Spain, and elsewhere in the world. In addition to his own fundraising activities, such as his global "Messi and Friends" football matches, his foundation receives financial support from various companies to which he has assigned his name in endorsement agreements, with Adidas as their main sponsor.
Messi has also invested in youth football in Argentina: he financially supports Sarmiento, a football club based in the Rosario neighbourhood where he was born, committing in 2013 to the refurbishment of their facilities and the installation of all-weather pitches, and funds the management of several youth players at Newell's Old Boys and rival club Rosario Central, as well as at River Plate and Boca Juniors in Buenos Aires. At Newell's Old Boys, his boyhood club, he funded the 2012 construction of a new gymnasium and a dormitory inside the club's stadium for their youth academy. His former youth coach at Newell's, Ernesto Vecchio, is employed by the Leo Messi Foundation as a talent scout for young players. On 7 June 2016, Messi won a libel case against La Razón newspaper and was awarded €65,000 in damages, which he donated to the charity Médecins Sans Frontières. Messi made a donation worth €1 million (\$1.1 million) to fight the spread of coronavirus. This was split between Clinic Barcelona hospital in Barcelona, Spain and his native Argentina. In addition to this, Messi along with his fellow FC Barcelona teammates announced he will be taking a 70% cut in salaries during the 2020 coronavirus emergency, and contribute further to the club to provide fully to salaries of all the clubs employees.
In November 2016, with the Argentine Football Association being run by a FIFA committee for emergency due to an economic crisis, it was reported that three of the national team's security staff told Messi that they had not received their salaries for six months. He stepped in and paid the salaries of the three members. In February 2021, Messi donated to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya his Adidas shoes which he wore when he scored his 644th goal for Barcelona and broke Pelé's record for most goals scored for a single club; the shoes were later auctioned off in April by the museum for charity to help children with cancer and were sold for £125,000.
In advance of the 2021 Copa América in Uruguay, Messi donated three signed shirts to the Chinese pharmaceutical firm Sinovac Biotech—whose directors spoke of their admiration for Messi—in order to secure 50,000 doses of Sinovac's COVID-19 vaccine, CoronaVac, in the hope of vaccinating all of South America's football players. A deal brokered by Uruguay's president Luis Lacalle Pou, the plan to prioritise football players caused some controversy given widespread vaccine scarcity in the region, with the Mayor of Canelones Yamandú Orsi remarking that "Just as the president manifested cooperation with CONMEBOL to vaccinate for the Copa América, he could just as well have the same consideration for Canelones".
### Tax fraud
Messi's financial affairs came under investigation in 2013 for suspected tax evasion. Offshore companies in tax havens Uruguay and Belize were used to evade €4.1 million in taxes related to sponsorship earnings between 2007 and 2009. An unrelated shell company in Panama set up in 2012 was subsequently identified as belonging to the Messis in the Panama Papers data leak. Messi, who pleaded ignorance of the alleged scheme, voluntarily paid arrears of €5.1 million in August 2013. On 6 July 2016, Messi and his father were both found guilty of tax fraud and were handed suspended 21-month prison sentences and respectively ordered to pay €1.7 million and €1.4 million in fines. Facing the judge, he said, "I just played football. I signed the contracts because I trusted my dad and the lawyers and we had decided that they would take charge of those things."
## Career statistics
### Club
### International
## Honours
Barcelona
- La Liga: 2004–05, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2012–13, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2018–19
- Copa del Rey: 2008–09, 2011–12, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2020–21
- Supercopa de España: 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016, 2018
- UEFA Champions League: 2005–06, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2014–15
- UEFA Super Cup: 2009, 2011, 2015
- FIFA Club World Cup: 2009, 2011, 2015
Paris Saint-Germain
- Ligue 1: 2021–22, 2022–23
- Trophée des Champions: 2022
Inter Miami
- Leagues Cup: 2023
Argentina U20
- FIFA World Youth Championship: 2005
Argentina U23
- Summer Olympics: 2008
Argentina
- FIFA World Cup: 2022
- Copa América: 2021
- CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions: 2022
Individual
- Ballon d'Or/FIFA Ballon d'Or: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015, 2019, 2021
- FIFA World Player of the Year: 2009
- The Best FIFA Men's Player: 2019, 2022
- European Golden Shoe: 2009–10, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19
- FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 2014, 2022
- FIFA World Cup Silver Boot: 2022
- FIFA Club World Cup Golden Ball: 2009, 2011
- FIFA U-20 World Cup Golden Ball: 2005
- FIFA U-20 World Cup Golden Boot: 2005
- UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award: 2008–09, 2010–11, 2014–15
- UEFA Champions League top scorer: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2014–15, 2018–19
- Copa América Best Player: 2015, 2021
- Copa América Top Goalscorer: 2021
- La Liga Best Player: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2014–15
- Pichichi Trophy: 2009−10, 2011–12, 2012−13, 2016–17, 2017−18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21
- Laureus World Sportsman of the Year: 2020, 2023
- Argentine Footballer of the Year: 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
## See also
- European Cup and UEFA Champions League records and statistics
- La Liga records and statistics
- List of FC Barcelona players
- List of FC Barcelona records and statistics
- List of FIFA World Cup winning players
- List of largest sports contracts
- List of men's footballers with 50 or more international goals
- List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps
- List of men's footballers with 500 or more goals
- List of men's footballers with the most official appearances
- List of most-followed Instagram accounts
- List of most-liked Instagram posts
- List of top international men's football goalscorers by country
- List of players who have appeared in multiple FIFA World Cups
- List of association football rivalries
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2,926,778 |
State Shinto
| 1,170,516,092 |
Imperial Japan's use of the Shinto religion
|
[
"Conservatism in Japan",
"Empire of Japan",
"History of Shinto",
"Japanese nationalism",
"Shinto",
"Shinto in Japan",
"Shōwa Statism",
"State Shinto"
] |
State Shintō (国家神道 or 國家神道, Kokka Shintō) was Imperial Japan's ideological use of the Japanese folk religion and traditions of Shinto. The state exercised control of shrine finances and training regimes for priests to strongly encourage Shinto practices that emphasized the Emperor as a divine being.
The State Shinto ideology emerged at the start of the Meiji era, after government officials defined freedom of religion within the Meiji Constitution. Imperial scholars believed Shinto reflected the historical fact of the Emperor's divine origins rather than a religious belief, and argued that it should enjoy a privileged relationship with the Japanese state. The government argued that Shinto was a non-religious moral tradition and patriotic practice, to give the impression that they supported religious freedom. Though early Meiji-era attempts to unite Shinto and the state failed, this non-religious concept of ideological Shinto was incorporated into state bureaucracy. Shrines were defined as patriotic, not religious, institutions, which served state purposes such as honoring the war dead; this is known as Secular Shrine Theory.
The state also integrated local shrines into political functions, occasionally spurring local opposition and resentment. With fewer shrines financed by the state, nearly 80,000 closed or merged with neighbors. Many shrines and shrine organizations began to independently embrace these state directives, regardless of funding. By 1940, Shinto priests risked persecution for performing traditionally "religious" Shinto ceremonies. Imperial Japan did not draw a distinction between ideological Shinto and traditional Shinto.
US military leaders introduced the term "State Shinto" to differentiate the state's ideology from traditional Shinto practices in the 1945 Shinto Directive. That decree established Shinto as a religion, and banned further ideological uses of Shinto by the state. Controversy continues to surround the use of Shinto symbols in state functions.
## Origins of the term
Shinto is a blend of indigenous Japanese folk practices, beliefs, court manners, and spirit-worship which dates back to at least 600 CE. These beliefs were unified as "Shinto" during the Meiji era (1868–1912), though the Chronicles of Japan (日本書紀, Nihon Shoki) first referenced the term in the eighth century. Shinto has no fixed doctrines or founder, but draws instead from creation myths described in books such as the Kojiki.
The December 15, 1945 "Shinto Directive" of the United States General Headquarters introduced the "State Shinto" distinction when it began governing Japan after the Second World War. The Shinto Directive (officially the "Abolition of Governmental Sponsorship, Support, Perpetuation, Control and Dissemination of State Shinto") defined State Shinto as "that branch of Shinto (Kokka Shinto or Jinja Shinto) which, by official acts of the Japanese government, has been differentiated from the religion of Sect Shinto (Shuha Shinto or Kyoha Shinto) and has been classified a non-religious national cult."
The "State Shinto" term was thus used to categorize and abolish Imperial Japanese practices that relied on Shinto to support nationalistic ideology. By declining to ban Shinto practices outright, Japan's post-war constitution was able to preserve full freedom of religion.
## Definitions
The definition of State Shinto requires distinction from the term "Shinto," which was one aspect of a set of nationalist symbols integrated into the State Shinto ideology. Though some scholars, such as Woodard and Holtom, and the Shinto Directive itself, use the terms "Shrine Shinto" and "State Shinto" interchangeably, most contemporary scholars use the term "Shrine Shinto" to refer to the majority of Shinto shrines which were outside of State Shinto influence, leaving "State Shinto" to refer to shrines and practices deliberately intended to reflect state ideology.
### Interpretations
Most generally, State Shinto refers to any use of Shinto practices incorporated into the national ideology during the Meiji period starting in 1868. It is often described as any state-supported, Shinto-inspired ideology or practice intended to inspire national integration, unity, and loyalty. State Shinto is also understood to refer to the state rituals and ideology of Emperor-worship, which was not a traditional emphasis of Shinto — of the 124 Japanese emperors, only 20 have dedicated shrines.
"State Shinto" was not an official designation for any practice or belief in Imperial Japan during this period. Instead, it was developed at the end of the war to describe the mixture of state support for non-religious shrine activities and immersive ideological support for the Kokutai ("National Body/Structure") policy in education, including the training of all shrine priests. This permitted a form of traditional religious Shinto to reflect a State Shinto position without the direct control of the state. The extent to which Emperor worship was supported by the population is unclear, though scholars such as Ashizu Uzuhiko, Sakamoto Koremaru, and Nitta Hitoshi argue that the government's funding and control of shrines was never adequate enough to justify a claim to the existence of a State Shinto. The extent of popular support for the actions categorized as "State Shinto" is the subject of debate.
Some contemporary Shinto authorities reject the concept of State Shinto, and seek to restore elements of the practice, such as naming time periods after the Emperor. This view often sees "State Shinto" purely as an invention of the United States' "Shinto Directive."
## Shinto as political ideology
"Religious" practice, in its Western sense, was unknown in Japan prior to the Meiji restoration. "Religion" was understood to encompass a series of beliefs about faith and the afterlife, but also closely associated with Western power. The Meiji restoration had re-established the Emperor, a "religious" figure, as the head of the Japanese state.
Religious freedom was initially a response to demands of Western governments. Japan had allowed Christian missionaries under pressure from Western governments, but viewed Christianity as a foreign threat. The state was challenged to establish a suprareligious interpretation of Shinto that incorporated, and promoted, the Emperor's divine lineage. By establishing Shinto as a unique form of "suprareligious" cultural practice, it would be exempted from Meiji laws protecting freedom of religion.
The "State Shinto" ideology presented Shinto as something beyond religion, "a unity of government and teaching ... not a religion." Rather than a religious practice, Shinto was understood as a form of education, which "consists of the traditions of the imperial house, beginning in the age of gods and continuing through history."
Scholars, such as Sakamoto Koremaru, argue that the "State Shinto" system existed only between 1900 and 1945, corresponding to the state's creation of the Bureau of Shrines. That bureau distinguished Shinto from religions managed by the Bureau of Shrines and Temples, which became the Bureau of Religions. Separated through this state bureaucracy, Shinto was distinguished from Buddhist temples and Christian churches, which were formulated as religious. This marked the start of the state's official designation of Shinto shrines as "suprareligious" or "non-religious".
State Shinto was thus not recognized as a "state religion" during the Meiji era. Instead, State Shinto is considered an appropriation of traditional Shinto through state financial support for ideologically aligned shrines.
State Shinto combined political activism and religious thought to take actions thought by its adherents to bring the country together during and after the nadir of Japanese feudalism.
## Implementation of Shinto ideology
The Empire of Japan endeavored, through education initiatives and specific financial support for new shrines, to frame Shinto practice as a patriotic moral tradition. From the early Meiji era, the divine origin of the Emperor was the official position of the state, and taught in classrooms not as myth, but as historical fact. Shinto priests were hired to teach in public schools, and cultivated this teaching, alongside reverence for the Emperor and compulsory class trips to shrines. State Shinto practitioners also emphasized the ritual aspect as a traditional civic practice that did not explicitly call on faith to participate.
By balancing a "suprareligious" understanding of Shinto as the source of divinity for both Japan and the Emperor, the state was able to compel participation in rituals from Japanese subjects while claiming to respect their freedom of religion. The state was thus able to enshrine its place in civic society in ways religions could not. This included teaching its ideological strand of Shinto in public schools, including ceremonial recitations to the Emperor and rites involving the Emperor's portrait.
In 1926, the government organized the and then the , which further established the suprareligious "Shintogaku" ideology.
To protect this non-religious distinction, practices which did not align with state functions were increasingly prohibited. This included preaching at shrines and conducting funerals. The use of the symbolic torii gate was restricted to government-supported shrines. As religious rituals without state functions were restricted, practitioners were driven underground and frequently arrested. Alternative Shinto movements, such as Omotokyo, were hampered by the imprisonment of its priests in 1921. The status of separation of so-called "State Shinto" shrines changed in 1931; from that point, shrines were pressured to focus on the divinity of the Emperor Hirohito or shrine priests could face persecution.
Some intellectuals at the time, such as Yanagita Kunio, were critics of Imperial Japan's argument at the time that Shinto was not religious. In 1936, the Catholic Church's Propaganda Fide agreed with the state definition, and announced that visits to shrines had "only a purely civil value".
## State control of shrines
Though the government's ideological interest in Shinto is well-known, there is debate over how much control the government had over local shrines and for how long. Shrine finances were not purely state-supported. Shinto priests, even when state-supported, had tended to avoid preaching on ideological matters until the establishment of the Institute of Divinities in 1940.
In 1906, the government issued a policy to limit its financial support to one shrine per village. This state supported shrines that followed its specific guidelines for funding, and encouraged unfunded shrines to become partners with the larger shrines. As a result of this initiative to consolidate Shinto beliefs into state-approved practices, Japan's 200,000 shrines had been reduced to 120,000 by 1914, consolidating control to shrines favorable to the state interpretation of Shinto.
In 1910, graduates of state-run Shinto schools, such as Kokugakuin University and Kougakkan University, were implicitly allowed to become public school teachers. A greater number of better-trained priests with educations at state-supported schools, combined with a rising patriotic fervor, is believed by some to have seeded an environment in which grassroots Emperor worship was possible, even without financial support for local shrines.
In 1913, official rules for Shrine priests — Kankokuheisha ika jinja shinshoku hömu kisoku (官国幣社以下神社神 職奉務規則) — specifically called upon "a duty to observe festivals conforming to the rituals of the state." Some shrines did adopt State Shinto practice independent of financial support from the government. Several Shrine Associations advocated for support of "State Shinto" directives independently, including the Shrine Administration Organization, the Shrine Priest Collaboration Organization, and the Shrine Priest Training Organization.
In 1940, the state created the Institute of Divinities, which expanded control over state shrines and expanded the state's role. Up to that point, individual priests had been limited in their political roles, delegated to certain rituals and shrine upkeep, and rarely encouraged Emperor worship, or other aspects of state ideology, independently. No shrine priest, or member of the Institute of Divinities, had previously sought public office, which some scholars, such as Sakamoto, suggest is evidence of the state's use of Shinto to its own ends, rather than the Shinto priest's attempt to achieve political power.
## Ideological origins
Scholar Katsurajima Nobuhiro suggests the "suprareligious" frame on State Shinto practices drew upon the state's previous failures to consolidate religious Shinto for state purposes.
Kokugaku ("National Learning") was an early attempt to develop ideological interpretations of Shinto, many of which would later form the basis of "State Shinto" ideology. Kokugaku was an Edo-period educational philosophy which sought a "pure" form of Japanese Shinto, stripped of foreign influences — particularly Buddhism.
In the Meiji era, scholar Hirata Atsutane advocated for a return to "National Learning" as a way to eliminate the influence of Buddhism and distill a nativist form of Shinto. From 1868 to 1884, the disciples of Atsutane, along with other priests and scholars, lead a "Great Promulgation Campaign" advocating a fusion of nationalism and Shinto through worship of the Emperor. There had been no tradition of absolute obedience to the Emperor in Shinto since the early state-formation period, prior to the introduction of Buddhism. This initiative failed to attract public support, and intellectuals dismissed the idea. Author Fukuzawa Yukichi dismissed the campaign at the time as an "insignificant movement."
Despite its failure, Atsutane's nativist interpretation of Shinto would encourage a later scholar, Ōkuni Takamasa [ja]. Takamasa advocated control and standardization of Shinto practice through the "Department of Divinity." These activists urged leaders to consolidate diverse, localized Shinto practices into a standardized national practice, which they argued would unify Japan in support of the Emperor.
The state responded by passing the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order (神仏判然令, Shinbutsu Hanzenrei) in 1868 and pursuing a policy of Haibutsu kishaku to remove Buddhist influence and re-establishing direct imperial control of the Department of Divinity ("jingikan") in 1869. This government bureaucracy encouraged the segregation of Kami spirits from Buddhist ones, and emphasized the divine lineage of the Emperor from the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu. This action sought to reverse what had been a blending of Buddhist and Shinto practices in Japan. That department was unsuccessful, and demoted to the Ministry of Divinities. In 1872, policy for shrines and other religions was taken over by the Ministry of Religion. The Ministry intended to standardize rituals across shrines, and saw some small success, but fell short of its original intent.
### National Teaching
In calling for the return of the Department of Divinities in 1874, a group of Shinto priests issued a collective statement calling Shinto a "National Teaching." That statement advocated for understanding Shinto as distinct from religions. Shinto, they argued, was a preservation of the traditions of the Imperial house and therefore represented the purest form of Japanese state rites. These scholars wrote,
> National Teaching is teaching the codes of national government to the people without error. Japan is called the divine land because it is ruled by the heavenly deities' descendants, who consolidate the work of the deities. The Way of such consolidation and rule by divine descendants is called Shinto.
Signatories of the statement included Shinto leaders, practitioners and scholars such as Tanaka Yoritsune, chief priest of Ise shrine; Motoori Toyokai, head of Kanda shrine; and Hirayama Seisai, head of a major tutelary shrine in Tokyo. Nonetheless, this concept of Shinto as a "National Learning" failed to take hold in most popular conceptions of Shinto.
### Great Promulgation Campaign
The Bureau of Shinto Affairs attempted to standardize the training of priests in 1875. This created a division between state actors and local priests, who disagreed over the content of that standardized training. This debate concerned which kami, or spirits, to include in rituals— particularly, whether state kami should be included. This debate marked the rise of the Ise sect, which was open to a stronger state presence in Shinto, and the Izumo sect, which was not. The Izumo sect advocated for recognition of the god Ōkuninushi as an equal to Amaterasu, which had theological consequences for emperor-worship. This debate, the "enshrinement debate", posed a serious ideological threat to the Meiji era government.
A result of the enshrinement debate was that the Ministry of the Interior concentrated on distinctions of "religion" and "doctrine", stating that "Shinto rituals (shinsai) are performed by the state whereas religious doctrines (kyōhō) are to be followed by individuals and families." Through this logic, Shinto rituals were a civic responsibility which all Japanese subjects were expected to participate in, whereas "religious" Shinto was a matter of personal faith and subject to freedom of religion. This debate marked an early failure in crafting of a unified national Shinto practice, and led to a sharp decline in both state grants to Shinto shrines and to the appointment of Shinto priests to government positions. This was the beginning of Secular Shrine Theory which explained the obligations unrelated to belief, and segretation Sect Shinto or groups based on beliefs.. The Ministry of Home Affairs took responsibility for shrines in 1877, and began to separate Shinto religious practices from indoctrination. In 1887, the Ministry stopped financial support for most shrines, aside from select Imperial shrines tied to state functions.
### Yasukuni Shrine
In 1869 Yasukuni Shrine was first built under the name Tōkyō Shōkonsha (東京招魂社, "shrine to summon the souls").
It was originally not used often. For example in the 1874 Japanese invasion of Taiwan in which only 12 people were enshrined in Yasukuni Shrine.
However following the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion, the Emperor had 6,959 souls of war dead enshrined at Tōkyō Shōkonsha. In 1879, the shrine was renamed Yasukuni Jinja. The name Yasukuni, quoted from the phrase「吾以靖國也 in the classical-era Chinese text Zuo Zhuan (Scroll 6, 23rd Year of Duke Xi), literally means "Pacifying the Nation" and was chosen by the Meiji Emperor.
Around this time, the state began to assign shrines with meanings rooted in patriotic nationalism; including a network of shrines dedicated to soldiers killed in battle. These assignments had no connection to the history of these local shrines, which led to resentment.
In contemporary times, the shrine has become a controversial symbol for Japanese nationalists. While many citizens of various political persuasions visit the site to honor relatives killed in battle, whose kami (spirits) are said to be enshrined there, so too are the kami of several class-A war criminals. These criminals were enshrined in a secret ceremony in 1978, which has raised the ire of Japanese pacifists and the international community.
No Emperor has visited the shrine since, and visits by prime ministers and government officials to the shrine have been the subject of lawsuits and media controversy.
## In acquired and occupied territories
As the Japanese extended their territorial holdings, shrines were constructed with the purpose of hosting Japanese kami in occupied lands. This practice began with Naminoue Shrine in Okinawa in 1890. Major shrines built across Asia included Karafuto Shrine in Sakhalin in 1910 and Chosen Shrine, Korea, in 1919; these shrines were designated just under Ise Shrine in national importance. Other shrines included Shonan Shrine in Singapore, San'a Shrine in Hainan Island (China), Japanese Shrine in Kolonia, Federated States of Micronesia, Akatsuki Shrine in Saigon, and the Hokoku Shrine and Ching Nan Shrine in Java.
The Japanese built almost 400 shrines in occupied Korea, and worship was mandatory for Koreans. A statement from the head of the Home Office in Korea wrote about the shrines in a directive: "...they have an existence totally distinct from religion, and worship at the shrines is an act of patriotism and loyalty, the basic moral virtues of our nation."
By 1937, more than 500,000 Jingu Taima shrines had been set up across households in Taiwan. Out of the 68 approved places of worship, 38 were constructed between 1937 and 1943. Schools and organizations were ordered to worship there.
In Manchuria, The Japanese conducted scholarly research on the local folk religion and built 366 Shrines, although without trying to impose Shinto on the native populations as it was the case in Korea and Taiwan, as the Manchurian State was conceived as a spiritually autonomous nation. while in the rest of the Chinese territory occupied by the Japanese, it is estimated that there are at least 51 shrines.
In The South Seas Mandate, The Japanese built 27 shrines and in occupied Indonesia, 11 shrines. however, it is unknown which was the case in territories and puppet states such as Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Malaya and occupied North Borneo. in the case of The Philippines though, the territory was conceived de facto as a Secular state.
## Post-war
On 1 January 1946, Emperor Shōwa issued a statement, sometimes referred to as the Humanity Declaration, in which he quoted the Five Charter Oath of Emperor Meiji, announced that he was not an Akitsumikami (a divinity in human form) and that Japan was not built on myths. The U.S. General Headquarters quickly defined and banned practices it identified as "State Shinto", but because the U.S. saw freedom of religion as a crucial aspect of post-war Japan it did not place a full ban on Japanese religious ceremonies involving the Emperor. General Douglas MacArthur and the State Department sought to maintain the authority of the Emperor to avoid "lasting resentment" among the Japanese people during the occupation and reconstruction of Japan.
The Shinto Directive stated it was established to "free the Japanese people from direct or indirect compulsion to believe or profess to believe in a religion or cult officially designated by the state" and "prevent a recurrence of the perversion of Shinto theory and beliefs into militaristic and ultranationalistic propaganda".
Today, while the Imperial House continues to perform Shinto rituals as "private ceremonies", participation and belief are no longer obligatory for Japanese citizens, nor funded by the state.
Other aspects of the government's "suprareligious" enforcement of Shinto practices, such as school trips to Shinto shrines, were forbidden. Many innovations of Meiji-era Shinto are present in contemporary Shinto, such as a belief among priests that Shinto is a non-religious cultural practice that encourages national unity.
### Controversies
Controversy has emerged during the funerals and weddings of members of the Japanese Imperial Family (Imperial House of Japan), as they present a merging of Shinto and state functions. The Japanese treasury does not pay for these events, which preserves the distinction between state and shrine functions.
The Association of Shinto Shrines is politically active in encouraging support for the Emperor, including campaigns such as distributing amulets from Ise Shrine. Ise Shrine was one of the most important shrines in State Shinto, symbolizing Amaterasu's presence and connection to the Emperor. In contrast, the Meiji-era Yasukuni Shrine is frequently the target of State Shinto controversies, mostly owing to its enshrinement of Japanese war criminals.
Conservative politicians and nationalist interest groups continue to advocate for returning the Emperor to a central political and religious position, which they believe will restore a national sense of unity.
## See also
- Kokutai
- Emperor of Japan
- Positive Christianity
- Shinto sects and schools
- Yasukuni Shrine controversy
- Statism in Shōwa Japan
- Nippon Kaigi
- Secular Shrine Theory
- State religion
- Religion in politics
|
60,504,010 |
Tyrese Haliburton
| 1,173,766,133 |
American Basketball player (born 2000)
|
[
"2000 births",
"2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup players",
"21st-century African-American sportspeople",
"21st-century American people",
"African-American basketball players",
"American men's basketball players",
"Basketball players from Wisconsin",
"Indiana Pacers players",
"Iowa State Cyclones men's basketball players",
"Living people",
"National Basketball Association All-Stars",
"Point guards",
"Sacramento Kings draft picks",
"Sacramento Kings players",
"Shooting guards",
"Sportspeople from Oshkosh, Wisconsin",
"United States men's national basketball team players"
] |
Tyrese John Haliburton (/ˈhælɪbɜːrtən/ ; born February 29, 2000) is an American professional basketball player for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Iowa State Cyclones and was drafted by the Sacramento Kings in the 2020 NBA draft. Listed at 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m) and 185 pounds (84 kg), he plays the point guard and shooting guard positions. In 2022, Haliburton was acquired by the Indiana Pacers as part of a trade package for Domantas Sabonis. In 2023, he was named to his first All-Star Game as an East reserve.
Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Haliburton was a consensus three-star recruit from Oshkosh North High School, whom he led to a state championship in his senior season. As a freshman with Iowa State, he set the program's single-game assists record. He had breakout success as a sophomore and was named to the second team All-Big 12 Conference despite suffering a season-ending wrist injury.
In 2019, Haliburton led the United States to a gold medal and earned all-tournament team honors at the FIBA Under-19 World Cup in Heraklion, Greece.
## High school career
Haliburton played basketball for Oshkosh North High School in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. As a sophomore, he was named to the All-Fox Valley Association (FVA) second team and defensive team. In his junior season, Haliburton averaged 18 points, six assists, and five rebounds per game, earning FVA Player of the Year and Wisconsin Basketball Coaches Association (WBCA) Division I All-State accolades with his team falling just short of the State Tournament.
As a senior, he averaged 22.9 points, 6.2 assists, 5.1 rebounds, 3.5 steals and 1.7 blocks per game, leading Oshkosh North to a 26–1 record. On February 18, 2018, he scored a career-high 42 points in a win over Kaukauna High School and West Virginia recruit Jordan Mccabe. Haliburton scored 31 points, including 24 in the second half, and shot 18–of–18 from the free throw line in a Wisconsin Interscholastic Athletic Association Division I state championship victory over Brookfield East High School, his program's first state title. He was named Oshkosh Northwestern All-Area Player of the Year, Wisconsin Gatorade Player of the Year, and FVA co-Player of the Year. Haliburton was selected to the WBCA Division I All-State team and the USA Today All-USA Wisconsin first team.
### Recruiting
Considered a three-star recruit by major recruiting services, he committed to playing college basketball for Iowa State on September 18, 2017.
## College career
On November 6, 2018, Haliburton made his college debut for Iowa State, posting 12 points, four rebounds, and four assists in a 79–53 win over Alabama State. He scored a season-high 16 points in an 82–55 victory against Omaha on November 26. On December 9, Haliburton recorded 15 points and 17 assists, with one turnover, in a 101–65 win over Southern. His 17 assists were the most by an Iowa State player in any game, surpassing the previous record set by Eric Heft in 1974. Through 35 appearances in his freshman season, Haliburton averaged 6.8 points, 3.6 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He was the only NCAA Division I true freshman, other than Zion Williamson, to accumulate at least 50 steals and 30 blocks. Haliburton had an assist-to-turnover ratio of 4.5, which led the Big 12 Conference and ranked second in Division I.
Haliburton was named Big 12 Player of the Week on November 11, 2019, during his sophomore season, after averaging 13.5 points and 13.0 assists in wins over Mississippi Valley State and Oregon State. On November 27, he scored a season-high 25 points, to go with nine rebounds and five assists, in an 83–76 loss to Michigan at the Battle 4 Atlantis. On January 4, 2020, Haliburton recorded 22 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists in an overtime loss to TCU, the first triple-double by an Iowa State player since Monté Morris in 2016. He was subsequently named Big 12 Player of the Week for the second time. After fracturing his left wrist on February 8 during a game against Kansas State, Haliburton was ruled out for the rest of the season. He averaged 15.2 points, 5.9 rebounds, 6.5 assists and 2.5 steals per game as a sophomore. Haliburton was named to the second team All-Big 12. After the season, he announced that he would enter the 2020 NBA draft and forgo his remaining college basketball eligibility.
## Professional career
### Sacramento Kings (2020–2022)
#### 2020–21 season: All–Rookie honors
Haliburton was selected with the 12th pick by the Sacramento Kings in the first round of the 2020 NBA draft. On November 27, 2020, the Kings officially announced they had signed Haliburton. On December 23, 2020, Haliburton made his NBA debut, coming off the bench in a 124–122 overtime win over the Denver Nuggets with 12 points, four assists, two rebounds and a block. On April 14, 2021, Haliburton recorded a career–high 6 steals in a 123–111 loss to the Washington Wizards.
On May 2, 2021, Haliburton suffered a left knee injury against the Dallas Mavericks. Although an MRI later revealed no ligament damage, it was announced Haliburton would miss the last seven games of the 2020–21 season for the Kings as precaution. After the season, Haliburton finished third in Rookie of the Year voting and was named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team.
#### 2021–22 season: Mid–season trade
On January 29, 2022, Haliburton scored his Kings career-high 38 points along with seven assists, three rebounds, and two steals in a 103–101 loss against the Philadelphia 76ers. On February 5, Haliburton posted his Kings career-high 17 assists, along with 13 points, six rebounds, and two steals in a 113–103 win over the Oklahoma City Thunder.
### Indiana Pacers (2022–present)
On February 8, 2022, Haliburton, Buddy Hield, and Tristan Thompson were traded to the Pacers in exchange for Domantas Sabonis, Justin Holiday, Jeremy Lamb, and a 2023 second-round pick. On February 11, Haliburton made his Pacers debut in a 120–113 loss to the Cleveland Cavaliers, logging 23 points in addition to 6 assists, 3 rebounds, and 3 steals. On February 13, in his second game with the Pacers, Haliburton posted 22 points and 16 assists in a loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. On February 16, Haliburton recorded 21 points and 14 assists in his first win with the Pacers, defeating the Washington Wizards 113–108.
Haliburton participated in the NBA's 2022 Rising Stars Challenge alongside teammate Chris Duarte. Haliburton and Desmond Bane were the winners of the 2022 Clorox Clutch Challenge, an event for the 75th season at the 2022 NBA–All Star Weekend. On March 23, in the first game against his former team, Haliburton recorded 13 points, 15 assists, and 3 steals in a one–point loss to the Sacramento Kings. On April 1, Haliburton scored 30 points in 25 minutes on an efficient 10–11 shooting from the field, 6–6 from three, and 4–4 from the free–throw line, in a loss to the Boston Celtics. The next game, on April 3, Haliburton tallied a near triple–double with 19 points, 17 assists, 9 rebounds, and 0 turnovers against the Detroit Pistons, recording the most assists in a game by a Pacer since T.J. McConnell in the 2020–21 season.
#### 2022–23 season: First All–Star selection
On October 19, 2022, in the season–opener, Haliburton scored 26 points and dished out 7 assists in a loss to the Washington Wizards. On November 21, Haliburton was selected Eastern Conference Player of the Week, leading the Pacers to a 3–0 record while averaging 21 points, 11 assists, and 4 rebounds. On November 29, Haliburton became the first player in NBA history to record 40+ assists and 0 turnovers in a 3–game stretch, averaging 20 points, 13.3 assists, 6 rebounds, and 2.3 steals per game. On December 10, Haliburton recorded 35 points on 12–15 shooting from the field and 7–8 from three, along with 9 assists and 3 steals in a 136–133 loss against the Brooklyn Nets. On December 21, in a 117–112 win against the Boston Celtics, Haliburton tallied 33 points, 8 assists, on 12–24 shooting from the field and 6–13 from three. Two days later, on December 23, Haliburton made a game–winning three–pointer and finished with a career-high 43 points on a Pacers franchise-record 10 three-pointers made along with seven assists in a 121–118 win over the Miami Heat.
On January 12, 2023, Haliburton missed two weeks due to elbow and knee injuries, with the team going 1–9 in his absence. In his return on February 2, against the Los Angeles Lakers, Haliburton tallied 26 points, 12 assists, and 2 steals. On February 13, Haliburton scored 30 points on 12–24 shooting, along with 12 assists and 3 steals in a loss against the Utah Jazz. Haliburton was named to his first ever NBA All–Star Game in 2023 as a reserve guard for the Eastern Conference, recording 18 points, 3 assists, and a rebound. Haliburton and teammate Buddy Hield were selected to participate in the 2023 NBA Three-Point Contest, where they both lost in the finals to Damian Lillard. On February 28, Haliburton scored 32 points on 9–18 shooting, along with 7 rebounds and 6 assists in a 124–122 win over the Dallas Mavericks. On March 5, Haliburton made his second game–winning three–pointer of the season in a 125–122 win against the Chicago Bulls, finishing with 29 points on 11–17 field–goals, 6–9 from three, along with 11 assists. The next day, on March 6, against the Philadelphia 76ers, Haliburton posted his 30th double–double of the season with 40 points and 16 assists, becoming the first player in Pacers franchise history to record 30+ points and 15+ assists in a single game. The next game, on March 9, Haliburton scored 29 points while dishing out a career–high 19 assists in a 134–125 overtime win over the Houston Rockets. Haliburton became the 15th player in NBA history to average 20+ points and 10+ assists for an entire season, while becoming the first to do so on 40%+ three–point shooting.
#### 2023–24 season: Max contract extension
On July 1, 2023, Haliburton agreed to a max contract extension with the Pacers worth up to \$260 million over five years. The same day, it was announced that Haliburton would represent the United States Men's National Team at the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup.
## National team career
Haliburton played for the United States at the 2019 FIBA Under-19 World Cup in Heraklion, Greece. On June 30, he scored a team-high 21 points, shooting 8–of–9 from the field, in a 102–84 group stage win over Lithuania. Haliburton averaged 7.9 points and a tournament-leading 6.9 assists per game while shooting 69 percent from the field. He led the United States to a gold medal and was named to the all-tournament team.
## Career statistics
### NBA
\|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2020–21 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Sacramento \| 58 \|\| 20 \|\| 30.1 \|\| .472 \|\| .409 \|\| .857 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 5.3 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .5 \|\| 13.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"rowspan=2\|2021–22 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Sacramento \| 51 \|\| 51 \|\| 34.5 \|\| .457 \|\| .413 \|\| .837 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 7.4 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .7 \|\| 14.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Indiana \| 26 \|\| 26 \|\| 36.1 \|\| .502 \|\| .416 \|\| .849 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 9.6 \|\| 1.8 \|\| .6 \|\| 17.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2022–23 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Indiana \| 56 \|\| 56 \|\| 33.6 \|\| .490 \|\| .400 \|\| .871 \|\| 3.7 \|\| 10.4 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .4 \|\| 20.7 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 191 \|\| 153 \|\| 33.1 \|\| .479 \|\| .408 \|\| .857 \|\| 3.6 \|\| 8.0 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .5 \|\| 16.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\| All-Star \| 1 \|\| 0 \|\| 14.0 \|\| .778 \|\| .667 \|\| – \|\| 1.0 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .0 \|\| .0 \|\| 18.0
### College
\|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2018–19 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Iowa State \| 35 \|\| 34 \|\| 33.2 \|\| .515 \|\| .434 \|\| .692 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 3.6 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .9 \|\| 6.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2019–20 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Iowa State \| 22 \|\| 22 \|\| 36.7 \|\| .504 \|\| .419 \|\| .822 \|\| 5.9 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 2.5 \|\| .7 \|\| 15.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 57 \|\| 56 \|\| 34.6 \|\| .509 \|\| .426 \|\| .775 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .8 \|\| 10.1
## Personal life
Haliburton's father, John, is a referee, but not in the NBA. Haliburton is a cousin of former basketball player Eddie Jones, who had a 14-year NBA career and was a three-time NBA All-Star. He is also the cousin of current Orlando Magic player Jalen Suggs. Due to his birthday being on a leap day, he has only had 5 birthdays despite being 23 years old.
|
64,565,539 |
Mengdu
| 1,165,086,013 |
Set of ritual devices, such as knives, a bell and divination implements
|
[
"Bells (percussion)",
"Ceremonial knives",
"Divination",
"Korean shamanism",
"Religious objects"
] |
The mengdu (Jeju and Korean: 멩두, romanized: mengdu), also called the three mengdu (삼멩두, sam-mengdu) and the three mengdu of the sun and moon (일월삼멩두, irwol sam-mengdu), are a set of three kinds of brass ritual devices—a pair of knives, a bell, and divination implements—which are the symbols of shamanic priesthood in the Korean shamanism of southern Jeju Island. Although similar ritual devices are found in mainland Korea, the religious reverence accorded to the mengdu is unique to Jeju.
The origin myth of the mengdu is found in the Chogong bon-puri, a major shamanic narrative in Jeju religion. According to this narrative, the original mengdu were possessed by the eponymous Mengdu triplets, the three deities who were the first to practice shamanic ritual on earth. The stylistic features of mengdu refer back to important events in the miraculous conception and lives of these gods. The implements play a critical role in ritual; both the knives and the divination implements are used to divine the will of the gods, and the bell is used to invite them into the ritual ground.
Every set of mengdu is believed to incarnate the spirits both of the heroes of the Chogong bon-puri, and of the historical human shamans who previously owned the particular set. These spirits are called the "mengdu ancestors", and are thought to intervene during rituals to help the current holder accurately ascertain the will of the gods. The mengdu are conventionally passed down from one generation to another, with the previous holder becoming the newest mengdu ancestor. The implements and the ancestors that embody them are the objects of regular worship and also feature prominently in the initiation rituals of Jeju shamanism.
Traditional Jeju religion is nowadays in decline, and there is currently a glut of mengdu sets within the traditional priesthood. At the same time, many ritual practitioners who are not trained and initiated in the traditional manner are now making their own mengdu.
## Origin myth
The mengdu are closely associated with the Chogong bon-puri, a shamanic narrative whose recitation forms the tenth ritual of the Great Gut, the most sacred sequence of rituals in Jeju shamanism. The Chogong bon-puri is the origin myth of Jeju shamanic religion as a whole, to the point that shamans honor the myth as the "root of the gods" and respond that "it was done that way in the Chogong bon-puri" when asked about the origin of a certain ritual. It is therefore to be expected that objects as important as the mengdu should be explained by it. As with most works of oral literature, multiple versions of the narrative exist. The summary given below is based on the version recited by the high-ranking shaman An Sa-in (1912–1990) with a focus on the details relevant to the mengdu.
Jimjin'guk and Imjeong'guk, a rich couple, are nearing fifty but still have no children. A Buddhist priest visits from the Hwanggeum Temple and tells them to make offerings in his temple for a hundred days. They do so, and a girl is miraculously born. They name her Noga-danpung-agissi. When the girl is fifteen, both of her parents leave temporarily. They imprison her behind two doors with seventy-eight and forty-eight locks each and tell the family servant to feed her through a hole, so that she cannot leave the house while they are absent.
The Buddhist priest of the Hwanggeum Temple learns of the great beauty of Noga-danpung-agissi and visits the house to ask for alms. When the girl points out that she cannot leave the house, the priest takes out a bell and rings it three times, which breaks every lock. When she comes out wearing a veil of chastity, he strokes her head three times and leaves. Noga-danpung-agissi then becomes pregnant. When her parents return, they decide to kill her to restore the family's honor. When the family servant insists that she be killed instead, the parents relent and decide to expel both instead. Her father gives Noga-danpung-agissi a golden fan as she leaves.
The two decide to go to the Hwanggeum Temple, encountering various obstacles and crossing many strange bridges on the way. The servant explains the etymology of the bridges, connecting each name to the process of Noga-danpung-agissi's expulsion from the family. They eventually reach the temple and meet the priest, who banishes her to the land of the goddess of childbirth. Alone there, she gives birth to triplets who tear out of her two armpits and her breasts. Having bathed them in a brass tub, she names the three boys Sin-mengdu, Bon-mengdu, and Sara-salchuk Sam-mengdu.
The family lives an impoverished life. At the age of eight, the three brothers become manservants of three thousand evil-minded Confucian scholars who are preparing for the civil service examinations. Seven years later, the Confucian scholars go to Seoul to pass the examinations and take the triplets with them. The scholars leave the triplets stranded atop a pear tree on the way, but they are rescued by a local nobleman who is forewarned by a dream of dragons ensnared on the tree. They reach Seoul and are the only people to pass the examinations. Outraged, the scholars imprison Noga-danpung-agissi in the "palace of Indra of the three thousand heavens". This is generally understood as a metaphor for the scholars killing her, with other versions explicitly mentioning a murder.
The triplets visit their father, who makes them abandon their old lives and become shamans in order to save their mother. He asks his sons what they saw first when they came to the temple, and they respond that they saw heaven, earth, and the gate. The priest accordingly gives them the first cheonmun, or divination discs, with the Chinese characters 天 "heaven", 地 "earth", and 門 "gate" inscribed. The triplets hold the first shamanic rituals as their father has ordered them to do, aided by Neosameneo-doryeong, the young god of shamanic music. The rituals successfully resurrect their mother. The triplets then summon a master smith from the East Sea to forge the first mengdu implements. In some versions, this smith's mengdu are unsound, and the triplets' father summons a celestial smith named Jeon'gyeongnok to forge good-quality mengdu. In any case, the triplets store them in a palace where their mother and Neosameneo-doryeong will keep watch over them. They then ascend into the afterlife to become divine judges of the dead, wielding the sacred shamanic knives that they will use to bring justice to the scholars.
Some time later, the daughter of a state councillor falls seriously ill every ten years: at the age of seven, seventeen, twenty-seven and so forth. At the age of seventy-seven, she realizes that she is sick with sinbyeong, a disease sent down by the gods and cured only by initiation into shamanism. However, there are no ritual devices that she can use. She goes to the palace where the ritual implements are kept and prays to the triplets, who give her the sacred objects necessary for the shamanic initiation rite. The councilor's daughter is the first truly human shaman, and her receiving the ritual objects represents the first generational transfer of shamanic knowledge.
## Physical description and ritual use
Jeju shamans refer to three types of ritual instruments made of brass—knives, a bell, and divination implements—as the mengdu, referring back to the recurrent element in the triplets' names.
### Knives
Jeju shamans carry a pair of sacred knives, fashioned after the knives that the triplets take when they ascend to heaven to punish the Confucian scholars. Shamans refer to the knives as sin-kal seonsaeng Siwang daebeonji, literally "godly knife the master, daebeonji of the Siwang". The Siwang are the divine judges of the dead that the triplets become, but the meaning of daebeonji is unclear. The knives are among the most important ritual items of Jeju shamanism, and folklorist Kim Heonsun notes that "Jeju shamans' faith in the knives is nearly absolute."
The knife has two major parts: the brass knife itself, consisting of a blade (11–13 cm long, 1.5–2 cm wide) and a handle (9–10 cm long); and the "skirt" (chima) of the knife, consisting of strands (55–60 cm long) cut from usually eight but sometimes twelve pages of Korean paper, which are connected to the end of the handle by a string with three knots. Every part of the knife is interpreted by reference to the Chogong bon-puri myth, although shamans disagree on the details of the interpretations. The blade is shaped with one flat and one rounded side, representing the flat back and rounded belly of the pregnant Noga-danpung-agissi. Serpentine patterns are often etched on the blade, but what these symbolize are disputed by shamans, ranging from the dragons that the nobleman sees in his dream to a snake that the triplets encounter while serving the scholars. The part of the blade which tapers to meet the handle is called the "bridge of caution" (josim-dari) and stands for the difficult roads by which the girl and her servant cautiously make their way to the Hwanggeum Temple. The spiral marks on the handle symbolize the fingermarks that Noga-danpung-agissi leaves on her wrists after wringing them, either out of despair at her imprisonment or out of panic once she realizes she is pregnant. The hole in the handle represents the hole by which the imprisoned girl is fed, and the three knots on the string tied to it are the triplets themselves. The skirt is either Noga-danpung-agissi's skirt, or the veil that she wears while meeting the priest. There are sometimes six strands of string beneath the paper skirt. These stand for the Mengdu triplets and Neosame-neodoryeong, who in some versions appear as triplets and not a single god.
There is rarely a reason to replace the brass blade and handle, but the paper skirt requires regular replacement. In the case of eight-page skirts, five pages' worth of paper is replaced at the beginning of every new ritual. The strands remaining from the previous ceremony are called the underskirt (sok-chima), and the new strands are called the outer skirt (geot-chima). Strands may be replaced in the middle of a ceremony as well if they have become too ragged. Discarded strands are ritually burned by an apprentice shaman.
#### Ritual uses
The most important function of the knives is to divine the will of the gods. The shaman regularly throws the knives onto the ground during rituals, and the gods are believed to communicate through their relative position. There are six possible positions that the knives can take; these are referred to as "bridges". In the Chogong bon-puri narrative, Noga-danpung-agissi crosses physical bridges with the same names.
The two most inauspicious configurations are jakdo-dari, the straw-cutter's bridge, and kal-seon-dari, the bridge of the raised swords. In both, the rounded side of the blade falls outward. Jakdo-dari is when the knives are crossed, and kal-seon-dari is when they do not. The former symbolizes Noga-danpung-agissi's parents' initial decision to kill her with a straw-cutting machine, and is believed to presage unpreventable misfortune. The latter represents her parents' decision to stab her with swords instead, and means that misfortune is impending but may be forestalled with the correct rituals for the gods.
The rounded sides facing each other is termed ae-san-dari, the forlorn bridge. It symbolizes Noga-danpung-agissi facing her parents as they see each other for the final time, and signifies a sad event in the future. When the rounded sides face away, the resulting configuration is deung-jin-dari, the bridge of turned backs, showing the daughter and her parents turning their backs to each other. It portends a departure or discord. When either position appears when the shaman is inviting the gods into the human world, it means that the gods are unwilling to descend. When they appear when the shaman is sending the gods back to their abode, they are taken as an auspicious sign meaning that the gods are willing to leave.
Oen-jabu-dari, the position in which both rounded sides face left, is a positive sign that the gods were originally not planning to grant blessings, but have decided otherwise due to sympathy for the worshippers upon attending the ritual. It is the symbol of Noga-danpung-agissi's father giving his daughter a golden fan. The final position of nadan-jabu-dari, in which both rounded sides face right, is highly propitious. However, both configurations are considered unwelcome when the shaman is sending the gods back, as it suggests that the gods are unwilling to leave.
Shamans also employ knives for a number of other ritual purposes, including in ceremonial dances, to expel demons of pestilence in healing rituals, to cut out parts of sacrificial offerings for the gods, and while physically reenacting shamanic narratives.
### Bell
The sacred brass bell stands for the bell that the priest uses to open the locks on Noga-danpung-agissi's doors. It is referred to as yoryeong seonsaeng heunggeul-jeodae, "bell the master that is shaken". Like the knives, it has two major parts. The bell proper is 5–6 cm high and 6–7 cm wide at the mouth, with a clapper inside. The "skirt" consists of five to seven rolls (55–65 cm long) of multicolored cloth—often red, green, and blue—which the shaman holds while ringing the bell.
The bell is rung when opening the gates of the gods' abode and inviting the gods to the ritual ground, reflecting its role in the myth as an opener of locks. The shaman also rings their bell while dancing, during the malmi (prayer recitation) for certain rituals, and while chanting certain shamanic narratives, including the Menggam bon-puri and any ancestral bon-puri. It is sometimes hung on the keun-dae, the bamboo pole by which the gods are believed to descend into the human world.
### Divination implements
The divination implements consist of five objects made of brass: a pair of sangjan cups, a pair of cheonmun discs, and the sandae vessel. Some versions of the Chogong bon-puri state that the sangjan and cheonmun used by the triplets were wood, not brass, but that they fashioned brass models of the originals so that they could be used by future shamans.
The sangjan (Sino-Korean 算盞 "divination cup") is an unadorned brass cup, 4–5 cm wide at the mouth and 1–2 cm tall. It represents the brass tub in which Noga-danpung-agissi bathed the triplets as newborns, and therefore symbolizes the maternal and feminine element.
The cheonmun (Sino-Korean 天文 "heavenly cash" or 天門 "heavenly gate") is a brass disc resembling a cash coin, 5–6 cm wide with a hole in the middle, though some cheonmun lack holes. The hole is thought to represent the moon, while the disc as a whole stands for the sun. The Chogong bon-puri explicitly mentions that the cheonmun are made for the triplets by their father, and they thus represent the paternal and masculine element. A sequence of between two and four Chinese characters are inscribed on one side around the hole, while the other side is smooth. Known sequences include:
- 天 地 門 cheon ji mun "heaven earth gate"
- 天 門 cheon mun "heaven gate"
- 天 大 門 cheon dae mun "heaven great gate"
- 日 月 il wol "sun moon"
- 天 門 日 月 cheon mun il wol "heaven gate sun moon"
- 天 地 日 月 cheon ji il wol "heaven earth sun moon"
The characters suggest that a shaman is one who knows the principles of the cosmos, as represented by heaven and earth or the sun and the moon, and uses this knowledge to help humans, as represented by the gates of their houses.
The sandae (Sino-Korean 算臺 "divination platform") is a large and rather flat brass vessel, 10–12 cm wide at the mouth and 1.5–3 cm tall, in which the two cups and two discs are placed.
#### Divinatory uses
Although the divination implements have a number of functions—including serving as props during the reenactment of shamanic narratives—their primary purpose is similar to the knives in that they seek to divine the will of the gods.
The most general divination method involves the shaman raising and overturning the sandae, then examining whether how many of the sangjan are upside-down and how many of the cheonmun face up on their inscribed side. There are accordingly nine possibilities. The general principles of divination concern openness and closedness. An upright cup and a disc with the inscribed side up mean that the gateways between the gods and humanity are open. These are usually favorable signs that the gods are willing to descend and that the future will be favorable for the worshippers. But these become dangerous omens at the end of a ritual or in healing ceremonies. The gates being open, the gods are unwilling to leave even after the ritual is done, and the gods of pestilence will not be depart from the patient. Conversely, an upside-down cup and a disc with the smooth side up are considered closed. The gods are unwilling to descend, the worshippers will face misfortune, and both the gods and the spirits of pestilence are willing to leave the human world. The detailed divination outcomes are given below.
Many other divination methods involve either the sangjan, the cheonmun, or both. In one ritual, the shaman shakes the cups and discs in a sieve instead of the sandae, and then throws it into his wife's skirt. In another ritual held for divers, the shaman crawls across the sandbar with the sangjan and cheonmun inside his mouth, reenacting the Dragon King, the god of the sea, who has pearls in his mouth. Once the shaman has reached the worshippers, they spit out the implements onto the earth and divine the gods' will depending on how they fall. For this ritual alone, the resulting configurations are named after dragons. The worst configuration is the White Dragon, when all four implements are closed.
## As sacred objects
### Nature of mengdu
The three mengdu are both the symbols and the qualifications of a Jeju shaman. Because they constitute "the most basic and essential” tools of shamanic ritual, a novice shaman cannot attract his own clientele of worshippers but must always be bound as an apprentice to a senior shaman until he can acquire mengdu of his own. Jeju shamans have three fundamental tasks: communion with the gods, healing of the sick, and divination of the future. Jeon Ju-hee suggests that each mengdu corresponds to a task, with the bell that opens the gods' doors standing for communion and the knives that vanquish pestilence symbolizing healing.
Yet the mengdu are not mere ritual tools. Every set of mengdu is believed to embody the spirits of the Mengdu triplets and other figures from the Chogong bon-puri, the spirits of major historical Jeju shamans, and the spirits of shamans who had once used either the same mengdu set or the original set which the current mengdu are based on. Every mengdu set is thus associated with a number of "mengdu ancestors" (mengdu josang), including both universal figures manifested in every Jeju mengdu and shamans only incarnated in the actual implements that they used. Every time that a set is inherited by the next generation of shamans, the previous holder becomes enshrined as the newest mengdu ancestor. The number of specific figures whose spirits occupy the mengdu can become quite large. The high-ranking shaman Yi Jung-chun knew of twenty-four past holders of his implements, including both kin and non-kin.
The mengdu ancestors actively intervene during the rituals to help the current holder accurately ascertain the will of the gods. When Jeju shamans throw their knives or overturn their sandae and look at the resulting configurations, they describe a spontaneous feeling inside their head which allows them to make the correct interpretation of the patterns. This feeling necessitates a deep understanding of the distinctive features of one's mengdu and their associated ancestors, as well as direct aid from the ancestors themselves, which is beseeched for during the ritual.
> When a shaman is holding a ritual, there's a something that flashes inside your head. You need to be a shaman to have this feeling... And whether a shaman is competent or not, whether they have sudeok [ritual authority] or not, all depends on whether they can make sound judgments about this [feeling]... When a shaman divines with the mengdu, the gods called the mengdu ancestors that we carry with us judge correctly for us. We can cure the illnesses of the sick and people judge that we have sudeok if they set out the right road for us.
Mengdu with numerous ancestors, or those associated with particularly high-ranking shamans, possess greater spiritual authority and are treated with greater deference by shamans and worshippers alike. By contrast, newly fabricated mengdu not based on any preexisting set have no specific ancestors of their own, and are thought to be prone to inaccurate divination results.
By emphasizing the shared mythical origin of the Chogong bon-puri but also commemorating real historical individuals, the recitation of mengdu genealogies and worship of mengdu ancestors create a sense of solidarity and community among the shamans of Jeju Island. Despite differences in rank and ability, all shamans are bound together by being symbolic descendants of the same mengdu ancestors. This may have contributed to the low degree of regional variation in Jeju shamanism.
### Transfer and acquisition
The mengdu are divided into five types, depending on how they are transferred and acquired across generations.
The most common and most ideal type is "inherited mengdu" (mullin mengdu), passed down by one shaman to another. Inheritance is ideally to a younger family member, with gender being irrelevant. Adopted children are also considered valid heirs. The family of a shaman is under no obligation to inherit their mengdu. But the gods may select certain family members to be shamans by sending them sinbyeong: a series of symptoms that range from hallucination and insanity to a fervent desire to participate in shamanic ritual, and which can be cured only by being inheriting or forging mengdu and being initiated into shamanism. Inheritance is accompanied by a supplementary gift, sometimes in the form of land or property and in other cases in the form of cash payments. Some of the older shaman's clientele of worshippers is also inherited together with the mengdu. Nowadays, inheritance may also be to a worthy disciple, close friend, or even to an unconnected shaman, as direct inheritance is considered preferable to the other means of transfer. However, this is a recent phenomenon due to the ongoing decline in the number of people who want to be traditionally ordained priests, which means that there are often no family members who are willing to take on the mengdu.
When there is no clear inheritor, the mengdu are usually buried next to the final holder's grave. These are called "earth-by-the-grave mengdu" (jejeol mengdu). Although no longer in active use, the genealogy and associated ancestors of these mengdu are still remembered, awaiting a new holder. Often, a shaman who desires to have their personal mengdu actively dig them out. In other cases, the final holder may appear in a dream to tell a descendant to dig out their mengdu, or a novice shaman may be led to the grave by divinely inspired intuition (sin'gi).
Alternately, a shaman without an inheritor may deposit their mengdu above ground, accompanied by rice and cash. Some mengdu are placed on the roadside; others in the hills or riverbanks, under a rock, or underwater. When these are rediscovered, they are referred to as "picked-up mengdu" (bonggeun mengdu). The rediscovery of a mengdu generally leads to sinbyeong for the discoverer, which may be fatal unless they are initiated as shamans in due time. As the previous holder usually cannot be determined, the new genealogy of the implements begins with the place of their discovery. Heirless shamans sometimes choose to donate their mengdu to local Buddhist temples. The Buddhist clergy of Jeju are sympathetic to shamanism, and a novice shaman could eventually take them from the temple and put them to use again.
Some mengdu are called "village shrine mengdu" (bonhyang mengdu) because they are associated with a specific village community. Unlike with other mengdu, the lay members of the community are deeply invested in the fate of the village shrine mengdu. In one historical instance, a thief killed the village shaman and stole her mengdu, only for the entire village to rally to retrieve the sacred objects and to punish the criminal. In another case, the village shaman passed away without a clear successor, so that her daughter, who had previously lived a laywoman's life as a diver, was obliged to become a shaman to take care of the mengdu and officiate the village rites.
Other mengdu are newly forged, and are termed "self-made mengdu" (jajak mengdu). The brass for the self-made mengdu is traditionally gathered by asking the lay worshippers for donations of brass vessels and cutlery. Once the necessary metal has been pooled, the shaman visits the forge on an auspicious day. An initial ritual is held for the gods of the forge, including Jeon'gyeongnok, the celestial smith who forges the original mengdu in many Chogong bon-puri versions. Once the implements have been forged, they are washed in scented water and wine and dressed with the skirts. A ritual is held to summon the spirits of the ancestors into the new implements. The shaman then holds the first rituals with the mengdu, seeking to ascertain if the mengdu ancestors will hold them in favorable regard.
The self-made mengdu are divided into two types: implements which are based on an original set, and entirely new implements. The former are identical to the originals from a ritual perspective, to the point of embodying the same specific ancestors. The latter is not preferred by shamans, although it is sometimes inevitable, as when someone is initiated without any close friends or relatives who are already shamans. Some shamans make their own mengdu because they are too proud to worship the ancestors of other families.
### Storage and maintenance
The mengdu are traditionally placed on a shelf or in a chest in the rice granary of the shaman's household. As shamans now generally live in Western-style houses without rice granaries, they now tend to store their mengdu in cupboards, cabinets, or closets. In modern households where the sacred tools are all stored in one large cabinet, the mengdu are placed in the uppermost compartment, together with candles, incense and incense burners, rice bowls, threads of cloth, fruits, a supplementary tool used in divination called barang, and any sacred objects that a shaman might personally possess.
The shelf, cupboard or other location where the sacred objects are placed is called dangju. It stands as the symbol of the palace in which the triplets place their ritual implements, and which is guarded by Noga-danpung-agissi and Neosame-neodoryeong. It is adorned by paper representations of the gods, including the yuk-gobi, works of paper and bamboo which represent each of the Mengdu and the Neosameneo-doryeong triplets. The yuk-gobi are hung under the representations of the childbirth goddess, as it was in her land that the triplets could be born.
The mengdu sometimes break or shatter, especially because they are regularly thrown, and must be reforged. Often, inheritance leads to one shaman possessing multiple mengdu, all of whose ancestors must be served. Shamans distinguish between their multiple mengdu sets, using some sets for particular rituals and another set for others. A large number of mengdu is considered inadvisable both in practical terms, as the ancestors of all sets must be maintained, and religiously, as the ancestors of each set might become jealous of each other and lead to discord in the shaman's family as well. Multiple sets may be melted and reforged. In one case, a shaman who had seven sets melted six of them and reforged them into only one, in order to relieve the burden on her family who would succeed her. Another shaman had two sets, one inherited from her great-aunt and another made by her husband. She melted and reforged them into two new sets, both copies of her great aunt's set, in order to prevent conflict between the ancestors of each set.
### Associated rituals
#### Sin-gut
The mengdu feature prominently in the Sin-gut, an extended sequence of rituals which are held three times in a shaman's life and initiate them into a higher hierarchy of the shamanic priesthood. The first Sin-gut serves as an initiation ritual into shamanism itself. In one of the most important parts of this ceremony, the novice kneels before the altar of the gods while a senior shaman feeds him morsels of the sacrificial offerings, calling them a gift from the Mengdu triplets. Once this is done, the senior shaman presses the sangjan and the cheonmun on the shoulders of the kneeling novice, saying that the triplet gods are stamping their seal on him. They then use the divination implements to ascertain whether the novice will be a capable shaman. Having received the triplets' blessing, the novice is given the mengdu, the sacred drums, and the ritual robes, and is formally initiated.
The mengdu are at the center of the Gobun-mengdu ("hidden mengdu"), another important component of the Sin-gut held some time after the initiation. The Gobun-mengdu takes the form of ritual theater. The newly initiated shaman takes a nap, muttering that nobody would dare steal his ritual implements. Meanwhile, the senior shamans hide the implements under the altar for the gods of death. The apprentice shamans then wake up the initiate, saying that there is a ritual to attend to. Finding everything gone, they vainly attempt to make fake mengdu. Segyeong, the goddess of earth and agriculture, eventually informs them that the triplets have confiscated the shaman's mengdu to punish them for their misdeeds. The shaman repents, and Segyeong convinces Noga-danpung-agissi to tell her sons to send the objects back. Although now omitted, the initiate traditionally had to answer a series of riddles about shamanic mythology and ritual in order to retrieve their belongings. For instance, senior shamans would arrange their mengdu in a certain configuration and tell the initiate to interpret it in mythological terms. Ultimately, the mengdu and other implements are returned to the initiate in the order of the bell, the divination implements, and the knives.
Once the mengdu have been retrieved, the sangjan and cheonmun of the initiate and senior shamans are pooled together. After a ritual dance to a very fast beat, the implements are thrown and the will of the gods divined. The divination is repeated until the results are propitious for the initiate.
#### Gongsi-puri
The Gongsi-puri, in which the shaman offers sacrifices to the mengdu ancestors, is a component rite of all shamanic ceremonies. In this ceremony, the shaman recounts the story of their own life, from their early life and education to their initiation and training as a novice shaman to their life in the present day. Once this is done, the shaman recites the known genealogy of the mengdu and the means by which they came in possession of it, naming the mengdu ancestors, other important shamans in Jeju history, figures associated with the sacred drums, and even novices and apprentices who failed to become shamans of their own. Sacrifices are offered to each of these individuals with the following invocation, a chicken having been sacrificed in the prior ritual:
> "May you receive the cup—a cup and a cup—with anju of chicken and egg and with clear gamju and with fragrant soju and with fragrant cheongju."
The Gongsi-puri provides an opportunity for the shaman to look back on his life and to commemorate and thank his family and teachers who nurtured and taught him in life and allow him to successfully carry out rituals in death, as well as reminding the shaman of the interpersonal relationships that form the community of Jeju shamans.
#### Dangju-je
The shaman worships their mengdu every day by offering libations and burning candles and incense in the dangju. Every year, the shaman also holds the Dangju-je, a series of three ceremonies specifically dedicated to the mengdu ancestors. These are held on the eighth, eighteenth, and twenty-eighth days of the ninth lunisolar month, roughly October, corresponding to the birthdays of the Mengdu triplets in the Chogong bon-puri. As they involve the creation and elimination of the dangju as a sacred space, the first and last Dangju-je of a shaman's life have special names: Dangju-mueum ("adorning the dangju") and Dangju-jium ("erasing the dangju"). The Dangju-jium may be held after death by another shaman. When a living shaman holds it, it signifies that they are passing down their mengdu to their chosen heir and retiring from ritual practice.
The Dangju-je on the eighth and eighteenth have always been minor affairs that involve only a personal prayer. The final Dangju-je was traditionally an important occasion that many villagers would attend to receive auguries and medical treatment from the shaman, who would dress in ceremonial robes for the occasion. Nowadays, virtually all shamans hold a brief private ritual of under an hour on the twenty-eighth as well, while dressed in ordinary clothes.
## Recorded and modern history
Jeju shamans believe that some mengdu sets have been in continuous use for at least five hundred years. But as Korean shamanism is a folk religion historically disparaged by the literate Korean elite, there are only occasional sources to Jeju shamanism from before the twentieth century, centering on the Neo-Confucian notion "that the shamanic beliefs of Jeju were very false and that these 'obscene rites' were causing severe damage."
In the 1630s, a mainlander exiled to Jeju wrote that the island's shamans "throw cups and moon blocks to speak of fortune and misfortune." This is a clear reference to sangjan and cheonmun. In 1704, the magistrate of Jeju wrote that he had "burnt every spirit robe and every spirit metal of the mobs of shamans", where "spirit metal" must refer to the brass mengdu. In the late eighteenth century, a local nobleman included the earliest known use of the word mengdu in a description of how his parents had hired a shaman when he had been very ill as a child:
> At the night of the Rat [00:00—02:00] they glared fiercely with their eyes and raised their voices. When expelling the spirits [of sickness] they stabbed at my limbs and body in a disorderly manner with a mengdu [明刀 myeongdo "bright sword"] so that the hair on my head and my body all stood on end.
The first, albeit brief, scholarly mention of the mengdu was in the 1932 publication Shamans of Korea, written by the Japanese ethnologist Murayama Chijun with the support of the Japanese colonial government. It was only in the 1960s that proper academic study of Jeju shamanism began, but few scholars have focused on the mengdu and other material culture of the religion.
The Jeju religion was coming under severe pressure at the same time that academic research on it was starting. The military junta of Park Chung Hee initiated the Misin tapa undong, a major government program to undermine shamanism, which resulted in the confiscation of many sets of mengdu by the police. 121 new Buddhist temples were built between 1960 and 1990. Due to the already extensive syncretism between Buddhism and shamanism, many worshippers of shamans found it easy to switch to the more socially prestigious Buddhist faith. Urbanization and industrialization also undermined the village base of the religion. As less and fewer people want to be traditionally initiated shamans, the traditionally hereditary nature of mengdu inheritance has broken down. There is currently a glut of mengdu sets to the point that shamans are donating them to museums.
At the same time, others are making new mengdu. South Korean shamanism is currently undergoing a major restructuring in which Seoul shamanism, which is very popular in modern Korean society, is undermining or eliminating local shamanic traditions. In Jeju as well, large numbers of mainland shamans are entering the island, although they are not initiated into the Jeju priesthood and are usually incapable of holding rituals in the Jeju style. The mainlanders are joined by laymen from Jeju who decide to practice shamanic ritual without bothering to undergo the difficult training and initiation processes. Many of these new kinds of ritual practitioners independently make their own mengdu and worship them on special altars of the type seen in Seoul and other northern forms of Korean shamanism. They thus legitimize their nontraditional religious practice by appropriating the symbols of traditional shamanism.
## Outside Jeju
Mengdu worship is distinctive to Jeju Island. Korean shamanism is traditionally divided into two major categories. The god-descended shamans of the north (including Seoul) experience sinbyeong when a deity decides to reside in their body. After initiation, this resident deity becomes the source of their shamanic power. These shamans are possessed by other gods and spirits during rituals and convey their will in a trance state. The hereditary shamans of the south do not undergo sinbyeong or trance possession and cannot convey the will of the gods. By externalizing the resident deity in the form of the mengdu, Jeju shamanism displays traits of both. Like the northern shamans, Jeju shamans have the ability to perceive the will of the gods. But unlike in the north, the will of the gods is conveyed not through the shaman's actual body via trance possession, but through the mengdu: sacred objects that are physically separate from the human.
As for the objects themselves, sacred shamanic knives with a close physical resemblance to Jeju knives are common in mainland shamanic traditions. They are generally used to cleanse ritual impurity and expel malevolent spirits rather than divination, although mainland traditions of knife-throwing divination do exist, such as in northern Hwanghae Province where crossed outward blades are in fact considered highly auspicious. Bells that resemble Jeju ones do not exist in mainland Korea, but other sorts of bells do. Ritual bells are a variant of the widespread Korean shamanic tradition of sacred rattles. The cheonmun may be connected to the divinatory use of cash coins in mainland Korea, but no divination cups are known from the mainland, suggesting that the sangjan may have an indigenous origin in Jeju or reflect influence from some non-Korean culture.
Some of the rituals associated with the mengdu have correspondences in mainland Korea. In Hwanghae, the initiate shaman goes about asking lay worshippers for donations of metal to make his sacred rattle, mirror, and other implements, just as Jeju shamans do when making jajak mengdu. During the Hwanghae initiation ritual, senior shamans conceal the newly forged implements and the initiate cannot retrieve them without answering a series of riddles about ritual procedure; the parallels with the Gobun-mengdu are evident. In Seoul, many shamans are struck with sinbyeong after accidentally discovering the three sacred implements: the knife, the rattle, and the fan. The Seoul initiation ritual also involves senior shamans concealing the implements, and the initiate must correctly divine the location where they are hidden in order to join the priesthood.
Potential links with the bronze swords and rattles of Bronze Age Korea, the three unspecified objects from heaven that feature in the myth of Dan'gun, and the sacred sword, mirror, and jewel of the Imperial Regalia of Japan have also been suggested.
## See also
- Pusaka in Indonesia
- Sacred bundles in the Americas
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2018 24 Hours of Le Mans
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86th 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance race
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[
"2018 in French motorsport",
"2018 in motorsport",
"2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship season",
"24 Hours of Le Mans races",
"June 2018 sports events in France"
] |
The 86th 24 Hours of Le Mans (French: 86<sup>e</sup> 24 Heures du Mans) was an 24-hour automobile endurance race for Le Mans Prototype and Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance cars entered by teams of three drivers each held from 16 to 17 June 2018 at the Circuit de la Sarthe, close to Le Mans, France. It was the 86th running of the event, as organised by the automotive group, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO), since . The race was the second round of the 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship, with 36 of the race's 60 entries contesting the series. Approximately 256,900 people attended the race. A test day was held two weeks prior to the race on 3 June.
A Toyota TS050 Hybrid car shared by Sébastien Buemi, Kazuki Nakajima and Fernando Alonso began from pole position after Nakajima recorded the fastest lap time in the third qualifying session. It and the sister Toyota of Mike Conway, Kamui Kobayashi and José María López exchanged the lead for most of the first half of the race until Buemi took a one-minute stop-and-go penalty for speeding in a slow zone that was enforced for an accident during the night. Alonso and Nakajima retook the lead from their teammates in the 16th hour and maintained it for the rest of the race to win. It was Alonso, Buemi and Nakajima's first Le Mans win and Toyota's first in its 20th try. The sister Toyota of Conway, Kobayashi and López finished two laps behind in second, and a Rebellion R13 vehicle driven by Thomas Laurent, Gustavo Menezes and Mathias Beche completed the podium in third.
The Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) class was led for 360 consecutive laps by the G-Drive Racing Oreca 07 car of Roman Rusinov, Andrea Pizzitola and Jean-Éric Vergne and was the first team to finish the race. It was later disqualified for running an illegal refuelling component and G-Drive lost an appeal. The class victory was taken by the Signatech Alpine team of Nicolas Lapierre, Pierre Thiriet and André Negrão. A Graff-SO24 team of Vincent Capillaire, Jonathan Hirschi and Tristan Gommendy was second and a United Autosports Ligier JS P217 car driven by Hugo de Sadeleer, Will Owen and Juan Pablo Montoya finished third. On its 70th anniversary Porsche won both of the Le Mans Grand Touring Professional (LMGTE) categories with Michael Christensen, Kévin Estre and Laurens Vanthoor's No. 92 car ahead of the No. 91 911 RSR car of Richard Lietz, Gianmaria Bruni and Frédéric Makowiecki in Le Mans Grand Touring Professional (LMGTE Pro) and Dempsey-Proton's trio of Matt Campbell, Christian Ried and Julien Andlauer winning in Le Mans Grand Touring Amateur (LMGTE Am).
The result increased Alonso, Buemi and Nakajima's lead in the LMP Drivers' Championship to 20 points over their teammates Conway, Kobayashi and López. Beche, Laurent and Menezes retained third place and Lapierre, Thiriet and Negrão's victory in LMP2 moved them to fourth. In the GTE Drivers' Championship Christensen and Estre took the lead from Billy Johnson, Stefan Mücke and Olivier Pla. Toyota further extended their lead over Rebellion Racing in the LMP1 Teams' Championship to 27 points as Porsche went further ahead of Ford in the GTE Manufacturers' Championship with six races remaining in the season.
## Background
The dates for the 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans were confirmed at a meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council in its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland on 19 June 2017. It was the 86th edition of the event, and the second of eight automobile endurance races of the 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship (WEC).
Before the race Toyota drivers Fernando Alonso, Sébastien Buemi and Kazuki Nakajima led the LMP Drivers' Championship with 26 points, eight ahead of their teammates Mike Conway, Kamui Kobayashi and José María López and a further three in front of Mathias Beche, Thomas Laurent and Gustavo Menezes of the Rebellion team. The ByKolles trio of Tom Dillmann, Dominik Kraihamer and Oliver Webb were fourth with 12 points and SMP Racing's Mikhail Aleshin and Vitaly Petrov were fifth with 10 points. In the GTE Drivers' Championship Billy Johnson, Stefan Mücke and Olivier Pla of Ford Chip Ganassi Racing led with 25 points, ahead of the Porsche duo of Michael Christensen and Kévin Estre in second and AF Corse's Davide Rigon and Sam Bird third. Toyota (26 points) led the LMP1 Teams' Championship by 11 points over Rebellion in second. The ByKolles team was a further three points behind in third as Porsche led Ford by four points in the GTE Manufacturers' Championship.
## Circuit changes
After the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans, modifications were made to the Porsche Curves section of the Circuit de la Sarthe to increase safety. Barriers on the inside of the final right-hand corner were dismantled and relocated further away from the circuit, allowing for the construction of paved run-off area and escape roads. This same alteration had been done on the barriers outside the corner in 2017. This modification re-profiled the corner slightly, shortening the lap distance by 3 m (9.8 ft). The ACO also constructed a new starting line gantry 145 m (476 ft) further up the main straight to increase the capacity for cars at the start of the race. The finish line and all timing beacons remained at the previous starting line at the exit of the Ford Chicane.
## Entries
### Automatic entries
Automatic entry invitations were earned by teams that won their class in the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans. Invitations were also sent to teams who had won championships in the European Le Mans Series (ELMS), Asian Le Mans Series (ALMS), and the Michelin GT3 Le Mans Cup. The second-place finisher in the ELMS Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance (LMGTE) championship earned an automatic invitation as well. Finally, the ACO choose two participants from the IMSA SportsCar Championship (IMSA) to be automatic entries regardless of their performance or category. As invitations were granted to teams, they were allowed to change their cars from the previous year to the next but not their category. The LMGTE class invitations from the European and ALMS were allowed to choose between the Pro and Am categories. European Le Mans Prototype 3 (LMP3) champion was required to field an entry in Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) while the ALMS LMP3 champion could choose between LMP2 or LMGTE Amateur (LMGTE Am). The Michelin Le Mans Cup LMP3 champion did not receive an automatic entry and the Grand Touring 3 (GT3) champion was limited to the LMGTE Am category.
The ACO announced its initial list of automatic entries on 5 February 2018. The Porsche LMP Team did not continue in the WEC after the 2017 season while the FIST-Team AAI squad opted to concentrate on their GT3 entries. The JDC-Miller Motorsports team, which was invited via driver Misha Goikhberg winning the Jim Trueman Award as "the top sportsman" in the Daytona Prototype International (DPi) category of the 2017 IMSA, told ACO officials on 9 February that it would forgo its automatic invitation due to financial trouble concerning its entry.
### Entry list
In conjunction with the announcement of entries for the 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship and the 2018 European Le Mans Series, the ACO announced the full 60 car entry list, plus nine reserves during a press conference at the Rétromobile Show in Paris on 9 February. In addition to the 36 guaranteed entries from the WEC, 13 came from the ELMS, seven from IMSA, three from the ALMS and a single one-off entry only competing at Le Mans. The field was split evenly with 30 cars in each of the combined LMP and LMGTE categories.
### Garage 56
The ACO intended to continue the Garage 56 concept, started in 2012. Garage 56 allows a 56th entry to test new technologies at the race. Panoz and Green4U Technologies announced during the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans weekend they intended to enter its Green4U Panoz Racing GT-EV car in the 2018 race. The all-wheel drive car intended to utilise two electric motors on each of its axles with a swappable battery lasting between 90 and 110 mi (140 and 180 km) within a tandem style LMP body. On 8 February, the ACO confirmed the Garage 56 concept would not be continued for 2018 due to a lack of feasible options.
### Reserves
Nine reserves were initially nominated by the ACO, limited to the LMP2 (six cars) and LMGTE Am (three cars) categories. ARC Bratislava announced the termination of its ELMS LMP2 programme on 11 February after its Ligier JS P217 car was placed eighth in the reserves list and leaving the team unlikely to be promoted to the race entry. Six days later, IDEC Sport withdrew its reserve JS P217 entry so that the team could concentrate on improving the performance of its entered No. 28 car. By the test day, two reserves remained on the list after five of the seven entries withdrew: KCMG's Dallara P217 entry and a Racing Engineering Oreca 07 car.
## Pre-race balance of performance changes
The FIA Endurance Committee altered the equivalence of technology in the LMP classes and the balance of performance in the LMGTE categories to try and create parity within them. All non-hybrid LMP vehicles had their fuel flow of petrol per hour reduced from 110 kilograms per hour (243 lb/h) to 108 kilograms per hour (238 lb/h). The Toyota TS050 Hybrid cars had no performance alterations.
For the LMGTE categories the Aston Martin Vantage GTE vehicles received an extra 5 kg (11 lb) of weight and a minor reduction in turbocharger boost pressure as The BMW M8 GTE had 13 kg (29 lb) of weight added and a reduction of power to lower their performances. The Porsche 911 RSR received a reduction in performance with a 0.6 mm (0.024 in) smaller air restrictor on the intake of its engine, the Ferrari 488 GTE vehicles had an extra 11 kg (24 lb) of weight added to it and the Ford GT was made 12 kg (26 lb) heavier and an increase in turbocharger boost pressure. In the LMGTE Am class the Aston Martin and Porsche vehicles had their top speeds lowered with a smaller air restrictor and the Ferrari had its turbocharger boost pressure reduced.
## Testing
A test day was held on 3 June and required all race entrants to participate in eight hours of track time divided into two sessions. Toyota led the morning session with a 3 minutes, 21.468 seconds lap from Alonso's No. 8 TS050 car. The fastest non-hybrid car was Laurent in the No. 3 Rebellion R13 vehicle, ahead of Conway's Toyota, the sister Rebellion team of Bruno Senna, and the No. 17 SMP BR Engineering BR1 car driven by Stéphane Sarrazin. Oreca vehicles led the LMP2 category with seven cars at the top of the timing charts, with the No. 26 G-Drive entry driven by the team's reserve driver Alexandre Imperatori seven-tenths of a second ahead of the No. 48 IDEC Sport car of Paul-Loup Chatin. Ford took the first four positions in the LMGTE Pro class, the No. 67 car of Andy Priaulx leading Mücke's No. 66 entry with a 3 minutes, 53.008 seconds lap. Late in the session, the No. 95 Aston Martin of Marco Sørensen and Harrison Newey's No. 35 SMP Dallara vehicle made contact in traffic between Mulsanne and Indianapolis corners, causing Sørensen to crash heavily against a barrier beside the circuit and prematurely end the session with 51 minutes to go. Sørensen was unhurt; he was transported to the circuit's medical centre for a precautionary check before being released and Aston Martin switched to a spare chassis. The Clearwater Racing Ferrari car was fastest in the LMGTE Am category with a lap of 3 minutes, 58.967 seconds from driver Keita Sawa.
The second test session started half an hour earlier than scheduled to give teams more time on the circuit. Toyota again led from the start with a lap from Kobayashi in the No. 7, followed by Alonso's 3 minutes, 19.066 seconds time to top the session. Beche improved the No. 3 Rebellion's lap to duplicate its first session result in second place. The second Rebellion car of André Lotterer set a lap late on to go fourth, ahead of Vitaly Petrov's No. 11 SMP car. Nathanaël Berthon improved the fastest lap in LMP2, moving the DragonSpeed team ahead of Chatin and G-Drive's Jean-Éric Vergne and Matthieu Vaxivière. Patrick Pilet in the No. 93 Porsche and Gianmaria Bruni's No. 91 car passed Priaulx's No. 66 and Olivier Pla's No. 67 Ford cars in LMGTE Pro. Another Porsche in LMGTE Am, driven by Julien Andlauer for the Dempsey-Proton team, overtook Sawa's fastest time from the morning session to be ahead of Giancarlo Fisichella's Spirit of Race Ferrari. Two safety car periods were required after separate crashes by Alessandro Pier Guidi's No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari at Tetre Rouge corner and António Félix da Costa's No. 82 BMW in the Porsche Curves.
### Post-testing balance of performance changes
Following testing the ACO altered the balance of performance for a second time in the LMGTE Pro and Am categories. The Aston Martin Vantage GTE received an increase in performance with its turbocharger boost pressure raised and a 4 L (0.88 imp gal; 1.1 US gal) increase in maximum fuel volume. BMW and Ford had their car's performance raised with a minor increase in turbocharger boost ratio; the Ford's fuel allocation was lowered to 2 L (0.44 imp gal; 0.53 US gal). The Chevrolet Corvette C7.R, BMW and Ford vehicles received weight increases. Porsche had no performance changes. In LMGTE Am the Aston Martin Vantage was given an increase of 2 L (0.44 imp gal; 0.53 US gal). Porsche and Ferrari had no performance alterations.
## Practice
A single four-hour free practice session on 13 June was available to the teams before the three qualifying sessions. Rain forecast for 14 June prompted several teams to set laps at full racing speed in anticipation of the first qualifying session determining the race's starting order. Toyota led from the start once again, with Kobayashi going fastest in the final 20 minutes at 3 minutes, 18.718 seconds, half a second faster than Buemi in second. Laurent and Ben Hanley of the DragonSpeed team were third and fourth and Jenson Button for the SMP squad completed the top five. Oreca cars took the first five positions in the LMP2 category with a lap of 3 minutes, 26.529 seconds from Vergne, followed by Chatin, Loïc Duval of the TDS Racing team, Berthon and Tristan Gommendy for the Graff squad.
The No. 37 Jackie Chan car of Nabil Jeffri sustained right-front corner damage in a crash at Indianapolis corner mid-way through the session and the car did not return to the circuit. Porsches led the first three positions in LMGTE Pro with a lap of 3 minutes, 50.819 seconds from Laurens Vanthoor's No. 92 RSR leading the class until his teammate Pilet overtook him with 20 minutes to go. Pla was the fastest non-Porsche in fourth and Miguel Molina's No. 71 AF Corse Ferrari was fifth. Matteo Cairoli helped Porsche to be fastest in LMGTE Am, ahead of Ben Barker's Gulf car and Fisichella. Pilet had an accident at the exit to the first Mulsanne Chicane, damaging the No. 93 car against a tyre wall and scattering debris on the circuit. A local slow zone was required after Michael Wainwright beached the No. 86 Gulf Porsche in a gravel trap at the Dunlop Curve.
## Qualifying
The first of three qualifying sessions to set the race's starting order with the quickest lap times set by each team's fastest driver began late Wednesday night under dry conditions, as Toyota again led the time sheets early on with a lap from López, followed by Nakajima's 3 minutes, 17.270 seconds time after eight minutes to go fastest. Neither improved their lap times over the rest of the session, giving the No. 8 car provisional pole position. The fastest non-hybrid car was Sarrazin's SMP entry in third, following the Rebellion cars of Senna and Menezes. The fastest LMP2 lap was a 3 minutes, 24.956 seconds time from Chatin and early category pace setter Duval was second. Vergne, DragonSpeed's Pastor Maldonado and Nicolas Lapierre of the Signatech Alpine team were third to fifth in class. Porsche took the first two positions in the LMGTE Pro class with a lap of 3 minutes, 47.504 seconds from Bruni to reset the category lap record at his first attempt. Bruni lost control of the rear of the No. 92 car into the Dunlop Curves and spun through 180 degrees into a gravel trap soon after. Christensen in second was a tenth of a second faster than the Ford cars of Pla and Mücke. The fastest Ferrari was fifth after a lap by Per Guidi. Cairoli led the LMGTE Am class with a 3 minutes, 50.669 seconds lap, followed by his Dempsey-Proton teammate Matt Campbell and Barker.
Thursday's first qualifying session was stopped three times for crashes. Sven Müller caused rear damage to the No. 94 Porsche against a tyre wall at Indianapolis corner. Priaulx spun at the entry to Tetre Rouge corner with his left-rear wheel on the grass and damaged his car's rear in a collision with a tyre barrier. He was able to restart the car but the damage to the barriers caused a red flag. This was followed by the right-rear suspension on Lapierre's car failing on a kerb and sending him into a gravel trap. He continued to the pit lane and the session was stopped for nine minutes to allow track marshals to clear gravel strewn on the circuit. The session ended with 38 minutes to go after Giorgio Sernagiotto crashed the No. 47 Cetilar Vilorba Corse Dallara car against a tyre barrier opposite the first Mulsanne chicane after a front-left puncture. Sernagiotto was unhurt and was transported to the medical centre for a mandatory check-up. Alonso led the session with a lap of 3 minutes and 18.021 seconds; he did not improve on co-driver Nakajima's lap from the first session. The two LMP1 entries to improve their lap times was the CEFC TRSM Ginetta G60-LT-P1 cars of Alex Brundle and Charlie Robertson. The IDEC team maintained its advantage in LMP2 as Porsche continued to lead in LMGTE Pro and Am. Fisichella's Spirit of Race Ferrari overtook the Gulf squad for third in LMGTE Am.
With the multiple stoppages in qualifying, the third session was expanded by half an hour in order to give teams more time on the circuit. Early in the session Nakajima reset the fastest time to a 3 minutes, 15.377 seconds without slower traffic impeding him. He took Toyota's fourth pole position at Le Mans and Alonso's, Buemi's and Nakajima's first. The No. 7 Toyota team could not improve the car's fastest lap and began from second. The Rebellion team were third and fifth with Senna ahead of Laurent after officials invalidated the latter's fastest time for failing to stop at a red light instructing him to enter the scrutineering bay. Sarrazin's SMP car separated the duo in fourth. In LMP2, Duval took the category pole position from Chatin until his fastest time was deleted for missing a red light to enter the scrutineering bay. Berthon took second and Vergne was third. Porsche secured pole position in both of the LMGTE classes with Bruni securing it in Pro and Cairoli in Am courtesy of their laps from the first session. Per Guidi led the session to move the No. 51 Ferrari to fourth in LMGTE Pro as Barker improved the Gulf team's lap to be six-tenths of a second behind the Dempsey-Proton squad. A slow zone procedure was used after Matt Griffin beached the Clearwater Ferrari in a gravel trap at Indianapolis corner and track marshals extricated it.
### Post-qualifying
Following qualifying, the ACO altered the balance of performance in the LMGTE categories for the third time. 10 kg (22 lb) of ballast was removed from the BMW M8 and the Aston Martin Vantage while the Corvette C7.R car was made 5 kg (11 lb) lighter. The Porsche 911 car had its weight increased by 10 kg (22 lb) and the Ford GT vehicles were lightened by 8 kg (18 lb). The Ferrari 488 received an 1 L (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 US gal) increase in fuel capacity. In LMGTE Am, Aston Martin received a 10 kg (22 lb) decrease of weight and Porsche had 10 kg (22 lb) added to their cars. Ferrari had no performance changes. The world governing body of motor racing, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), restricted all LMGTE Pro cars to a maximum of 14 laps per stint.
### Qualifying results
Pole position winners in each class are indicated in bold. The fastest time set by each entry is denoted in gray.
Notes
## Warm-up
A 45-minute warm-up session was held on Saturday morning and took place in dry and sunny weather. Kobayashi set the fastest lap of 3 minutes, 18.687 seconds in Toyota's No. 7 car, ahead of his teammate Buemi in second. Hanley's DragonSpeed BR1 was third and the fastest non-hybrid LMP1 car. The No. 17 SMP car and the No. 1 Rebellion vehicle were fourth and fifth. The fastest LMP2 lap was recorded by Ricky Taylor in Jackie Chan's No. 34 Ligier car at 3 minutes, 29.466 seconds to demote Vergne from the lead of the class. Lapierre was second for the Signatech Alpine team. Scott Dixon, driving the No. 69 Ford GT car, was the quickest driver in LMGTE Pro with Jeroen Bleekemolen in Keating Motorsport's Ferrari fastest in LMGTE Am.
## Race
### Start and first hours
The conditions on the grid were dry and sunny before the race; the air temperature was between 15 and 22 °C (59 and 72 °F) and the track temperature ranged from 14 to 31 °C (57 to 88 °F). Approximately 256,900 people attended the event. The French tricolour was waved at 15:00 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00), by multiple Grand Slam tennis champion Rafael Nadal to start the race, led by starting pole sitter Buemi. At the start of the parade lap, a misfiring engine and a subsequent spin on cold tyres at the Dunlop Curve dropped Tom Dillmann's No. 4 ByKolles car to the rear of the field. A mounting failure detached the front bodywork on Lotterer's No. 1 Rebellion vehicle and removed downforce from the car entering the Dunlop Curve. It struck the rear of Hanley's DragonSpeed BR1 car. Both cars dropped down the race order. Conway passed Buemi to lead the first four laps until Buemi passed him on the fifth lap. Rain fell during this period though it was not heavy enough to affect the race. Laurent passed Sarrazin's No. 17 BR1 car for third on the Mulsanne Straight before Sarrazin returned to third place by slipstreaming past Laurent into Mulsanne corner. The first hour ended with Vergne passing Duval for the lead of LMP2 and Chatin fell to third. The Porsches of Bruni and Estre duelled for first place in LMGTE Pro as Barker overtook Carioli for the top of LMGTE Am.
Buemi relinquished the lead to his teammate Conway after the No. 8 Toyota made an unscheduled pit stop to have its rear crash structure replaced and the car rejoined the race in second position. Berthon ceded fourth place in LMP2 after a front-right wheel detached on the approach to Arnage corner and lost three laps as a new wheel hub assembly was installed onto the car. 1 hour and 40 minutes in, Wainwright's No. 86 Gulf Porsche lost control under braking and crashed into an Armco steel barrier on the outside at Indianapolis turn with its left-hand corner, requiring a slow zone between Mulsanne and Arnage corners to recover the car and to repair the barrier. Conway used the slow zone and a routine pit stop from his teammate Buemi to return to the lead on lap 32. As the second hour ended, Sébastien Bourdais's No. 68 Ford, which moved to second place in LMGTE Pro after a pit stop sequence, was passed by Frédéric Makowiecki's No. 92 Porsche entering the Mulsanne corner and the No. 77 Dempsey-Proton led in LMGTE Am. He continued to advance through the order and overtook his Porsche teammate Vanthoor for the lead of LMGTE Pro with the two cars running nose-to-tail. During a pit stop to relieve Buemi, television footage appeared to show Alonso reversing in the pit lane to pass a LMGTE vehicle parked ahead of him. Footage released later confirmed Alonso had not reversed but was moved back by mechanics, preventing the car from being disqualified.
In the fourth hour, Alonso overtook his teammate López in the Porsche Curves to retake the lead in the No. 8 Toyota. Bourdais used a battle between the Porsche duo of Vanthoor and Makowiecki on the Mulsanne Straight to take the lead of LMGTE Pro. Not long after the left-rear tyre on Gabriel Aubry's No. 38 Jackie Chan Oreca failed on the Mulsanne Straight, littering the track with debris and removing the car's front-left fender. Aubry retained control of the vehicle to allow him to return to the pit lane and the incident required the deployment of the safety cars to slow the race. The safety cars were withdrawn after 15 minutes and racing resumed. The safety cars had separated the LMGTE Pro field, the No. 92 Porsche led by more than a minute from the sister No. 91 due to Richard Lietz being required to remain in the pit lane. Although López made an unscheduled pit stop to replace a left-rear puncture, he took the lead from his teammate Alonso and led by 4 seconds. Antonio Giovinazzi in the No. 52 AF Corse Ferrari overtook Dixon on the outside for second in LMGTE Pro. Soon after Dominik Kraihamer was lapping slower LMGTE cars in the Porsche Curves when the rear of the No. 4 ByKolles car and the front of the No. 80 Ebimotors Porsche made contact. Kraihamer's rear wing was removed sending him into a collision against a concrete wall at Corvette corner. Kraihamer was unhurt; the crash caused the deployment of the safety cars for half an hour as marshals repaired the barrier and cleared the track of debris.
### Early evening to night
As the safety car period ended the Toyota cars of López and Alonso scythed their way through heavy traffic. Toyota then invoked team orders on López to return the lead to Alonso entering Arnage turn one lap later. The safety cars had divided the field in LMGTE Pro, leaving Nicky Catsburg's No. 81 BMW in second place and the two class Porsches of Earl Bamber and Lietz in third and fourth. Juan Pablo Montoya, driving the No. 23 United Autosports car, crashed into a tyre barrier at Indianapolis corner and activated a local slow zone. Marshals extricated the car from the gravel and Montoya continued. Pierre Thiriet was caught out by the exit of the slow zone. He lost control of the rear of the Signatech car at Mulsanne turn and fell to fourth in LMP2. In the seventh hour, Pilet and Bruni overtook Martin Tomczyk's BMW car for second and third in LMGTE Pro as Romain Dumas' No. 94 vehicle slowed in the Porsche Curves and retired with a front-right suspension bracket failure. Not long after Paul Dalla Lana was en route to the pit lane when he lost control of the No. 98 Aston Martin and crashed against a tyre barrier at the entrance to the Porsche Curves. The damage to the car caused its retirement and required a local slow zone. Vergne used the slow zone to increase his lead over the LMP2 field to almost two minutes and Kobayashi closed to within less than a second of Nakajima.
As night fell, Kobayashi passed Buemi to return to the lead of the race. The No. 91 Porsche of Makowiecki was elevated to second in LMGTE Pro ahead of the No. 93 of Nick Tandy after a routine sequence of pit stops. Matevos Isaakyan had an anxious moment with a rear suspension failure on the No. 17 SMP car at the entrance to the Porsche Curves. The car speared backwards into a tyre barrier to the outside of the track and sustained damage. Isaakyan could not get the car moving and contacted his team for advice on how it could be made mobile. Marshals pushed the car behind a barrier and repairs were made to its rear. Isaakyan retired after an engine bay fire. The retirement of the SMP vehicle elevated the Rebellion cars of Laurent and the recovering Lotterer to third and fourth and Vergne's LMP2-leading G-Drive car to fifth overall. Porsche's control on the first three positions in LMGTE Pro was broken after Tandy's No. 93 car was forced into the garage with an electrical problem. Early in the tenth hour, the No. 8 Toyota of Buemi incurred a one-minute stop-and-go penalty for speeding in a slow zone, dropping the car two minutes, ten seconds behind Conway's No. 7 car. Philipp Eng's No. 81 BMW relinquished its hold on third place in LMGTE Pro due to a broken damper losing him 11 minutes in the garage.
As the race approached its midway point, Alonso lowered the deficit to the race-leading No. 7 Toyota to 1 minute and 16 seconds and Roman Rusinov's G-Drive car led by one lap over Lapierre in LMP2. Christensen in the No. 92 Porsche was 1 minute, 53 seconds ahead of his teammate Bruni in LMGTE Pro and Andlauer's No. 77 Dempsey-Proton held sway over Bleekemolen's Keating Ferrari in LMGTE Am. During the 13th hour, Menezes drove the No. 3 Rebellion car to the garage for a nine-minute repair to its underfloor. He ceded third place to Jani's No. 1 car. José Gutiérrez crashed the No. 40 G-Drive car at the exit to the Porsche Curves and ricocheted onto the circuit facing oncoming traffic. Gutiérrez was unhurt; the damage to the car caused its retirement and a local slow zone was enforced. The slow zone increased López's lead over Alonso to two minutes. Soon after Jani came to the pit lane to repair his car's underbody and emerged after a nine-minute pit stop in fourth place, behind his teammate Menezes. Fisichella brought the Spirit of Race Ferrari into third in LMGTE Am drivers and drew closer to Bleekemolen in second.
### Morning to early afternoon
In the early morning Kobayashi led his teammate Nakajima by around ten to twelve seconds. Nakajima eliminated the time deficit to retake the lead from Kobayashi at the Mulsanne corner and a series of fast lap times put Buemi ahead by more than half a minute. BMW lost one of their two LMGTE Pro entries when Alexander Sims slid on oil laid on the track in the Porsche Curves and damaged the rear of the No. 82 car in a collision against a barrier. At the conclusion of the 16th hour, Cairoli was in fifth in LMGTE Am when he lost control of the No. 88 Dempsey-Proton Porsche car due to a suspension failure and crashed into a tyre barrier at the Ford Chicane. The car was retired due to the heavy damage sustained to it and a slow zone was enforced in the area. Both of the Toyota cars were observed speeding in the area and incurred separate one-minute stop-and-go penalties; their multi-lap lead over the Rebellion team kept them in first and second positions. Further down the order, the No. 10 DragonSpeed BR1 had an accident when Hanley lost control of the car in the Porsche Curves and retired. Fifth place in the LMGTE Pro became a battle between the No. 63 Corvette of Mike Rockenfeller and Dixon's No. 69 Ford with the two exchanging position before Dixon claimed it.
Several LMGTE cars took the opportunity to change brake discs at this point in the morning to ensure that cars would finish the race, including the leading car in LMGTE Pro, the No. 92 Porsche. Antonio García drove the No. 63 Corvette car past Ryan Briscoe's No. 69 Ford and gradually drew closer to the No. 68 Ford. Traffic loosened a drain cover built into a kerb at the outside of the Tertre Rouge corner and its metal casting was launched onto a verge. It required the deployment of the safety cars to allow workers to refit the grill and make it safe to drive over. As the safety cars were recalled after half an hour, Alonso fell behind Conway until he overtook him for the lead in slower traffic on the Mulsanne Straight. The LMGTE Pro field closed up with Bruni's No. 92 Porsche car and Müller's No. 68 car close by for second place in class. Not long after Paul di Resta lost control of the No. 23 United Autosports Ligier in the Porsche Curves and the car's front-left corner struck an unprotected concrete barrier. The car slid onto the grass and stopped. Di Resta vacated the car unhurt and was transported to the medical centre for a precautionary check-up as the car was retired. The accident required the intervention of a fourth safety car period. When racing resumed the Dempsey-Proton team's lead in LMGTE Am was lowered to less than half a minute and Makowiecki fell behind Bourdais and Priaulx to fourth place in LMGTE Pro. The No. 39 Graff vehicle of Vincent Capillaire overtook François Perrodo's TDS car for fourth in LMP2.
The No. 23 Panis Barthez Ligier car of Will Stevens, which had held second place in the LMP2 category, entered the pit lane to undergo repairs to its clutch and promoted the Signatech Alpine team to the position. López lost control of the No. 7 Toyota at the exit to the Dunlop Curve and lost 16 seconds to the race-leader Alonso. The IDEC car forfeited second place in LMP2 to Capillaire due to a cracked gearbox casing forcing its retirement, as Makowiecki and Bourdais exchanged second in LMGTE Pro; Makowiecki avoided punishment from the stewards for defensive driving preventing Bourdais from overtaking him. Ben Keating, whose No. 85 Keating Ferrari was second in LMGTE Am, lost control of the rear of the car under braking and was beached in a gravel trap at Mulsanne corner. The car relinquished its hold on second place to the Spirit of Race team and fell one lap behind the class leading No. 77 Dempsey-Proton car. Kobayashi, in second and within 80 minutes of the finish, missed the entry to the pit lane and Toyota required him to slow to 80 km/h (50 mph) by engaging the full course yellow flag limiter to conserve fuel. The No. 7 car lost one lap to the No. 8 entry; it incurred two ten-second stop-and-go penalties for exceeding the number of laps permitted for a single stint by a LMP1 hybrid car and fuel allowance.
### Finish
Unhindered in the final hours of the race, Nakajima achieved victory for the No. 8 Toyota team, which completed 388 laps and was two laps ahead of Kobayashi's No. 7 Toyota. Rebellion, unable to match the pace of the Toyota cars, finished third and fourth with the No. 3 R13 ahead of the No. 1 car. It was Alonso, Buemi and Nakajima's first Le Mans victory, and Toyota's first on its 20th try. Toyota became the first Japanese manufacturer to win at Le Mans since Mazda in and Alonso completed a second leg of the Triple Crown of Motorsport (the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Indianapolis 500 and the Monaco Grand Prix). The G-Drive team led the final 360 laps with the No. 26 Oreca to be the first car to finish the race in LMP2, provisionally earning the team and its drivers Andrea Pizzitola, Rusinov and Vergne their first class victories. Signatech Alpine were the highest-placed full-season WEC team in second and the Graff Racing squad completed the class podium. On its 70th anniversary Porsche took its first win in the LMGTE Pro category since with the No. 92 car ahead of the No. 91 entry, and the German marque won in LMGTE Am with the No. 77 Dempsey-Proton car winning by 1 minute, 39 seconds over the No. 54 Spirit of Race Ferrari. There were 25 lead changes amongst two cars during the race. The No. 7 Toyota's 205 laps led was the most of any car with the race-winning No. 8 leading 13 times for a total of 183 laps.
## Post-race
The top three teams in each of the four classes appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Alonso said he was worried about his car having a mechanical issue preventing him from winning the race, "Right now I'm maybe still in a little bit [of] shock because we were so focused on the race and so stressed at the end watching the television. I'm not used to watching my car racing, I'm normally in it." Nakajima said he believed Toyota was calmer than in previous years, "To win this race has been a dream of Toyota's since 1985, and there are so many guys still here that have been involved in the project so long, I'm so proud to be here to represent them." Buemi said the one-minute stop-and-go penalty he took made his team uncertain whether they would win, "All the preparation that goes behind that day, all of us, all six drivers, we've been driving for many days, in the nights, and finally when you win it, it's something really big."
After all of the non-hybrid cars were unable to challenge the Toyota team, Jani called the race "a procession" and said the Rebellion R13 car lost more than ten seconds per lap to the TS050 Hybrid, "Our spread between our quickest lap and our average is huge, their spread is a lot smaller because they can be flexible with how they overtake cars in a straight line." Lotterer reiterated his teammate's view and said he believed the FIA and the ACO would address the issue, "We didn't stand a chance. Let's face it, it was one of the boring editions of the Le Mans 24 Hours. I have to admit that it was difficult to get the most out of every lap. How do you stay motivated?" Oliver Webb agreed with Lotterer and said he felt the following 6 Hours of Silverstone would suit the car's high-downforce configuration. Frank-Steffen Walliser, the head of Porsche Motorsport, said he felt comments from Bourdais over a perceived view that Makowiecki had inadequate driving standards during a battle for second in LMGTE Pro were invalid, "Firstly, this is not a pony farm; secondly, in my view, it was hard but fair at all times. The scenes when Fred himself was pushed into the grass were not shown on TV. Apart from that – what do you expect when two Frenchmen fight for second place in the biggest French race? Is that supposed to be peace, joy, pancakes? I don't think so!"
During post-race scrutineering, the technical delegates discovered that the LMP2-winning No. 26 G-Drive and the No. 28 TDS cars had modified refuelling rigs in their fuel system assemblies extending to the dead man valve and inside the cone of the fuel restrictor to lessen the time spent in the pit lane, causing the stewards to disqualify the cars. Both teams filed an appeal to the penalties with the FIA International Court of Appeal. The tribunal met on 18 September and delayed giving a verdict because the judges on the panel wanted extra time to review the appeal and informed the team's lawyers of this. On 2 October, the tribunal heard the G-Drive and TDS team's appeal. G-Drive argued the modified component was a "commendable technical innovation" with no specific regulation about modifications between the fuel flow restr IPictor and the dead man's valve established. The court upheld the stewards' decision by deeming the introduction of an additional component protruding the fuel flow restrictor a regulation transgression. The Signatech Alpine team took the win in LMP2, the No. 39 Graff car was second and the No. 32 United Autosports vehicle completed the class podium in third.
The result increased Alonso, Buemi and Nakajima's lead in the LMP Drivers' Championship to 20 points over their teammates Conway, Kobayashi and López in second. Beche, Laurent and Menezes remained in third place. Lapierre, André Negrão and Thiriet's victory in LMP2 moved them from seventh to fourth and Jani, Lotterer and Senna were fifth. Christensen and Estre took the lead of the GTE Drivers Championship from Johnson, Mücke and Pla. Bruni and Lietz were in third position. Toyota increased their lead over the Rebellion squad in the LMP1 Teams' Championship to 27 points. The ByKolles and SMP Racing teams retained third and fourth. Porsche moved further away from Ford by 44 points in the GTE Manufacturers' Championship and Ferrari maintained third place with six races remaining in the season.
## Race results
The minimum number of laps for classification (70 per cent of the overall winning car's race distance) was 272 laps. Class winners are in bold.
Notes
## Championship standings after the race
- Note: Only the top five positions are included for Drivers' Championship standings.
- Note: Only the top five positions are included for the Drivers' Championship standings.
|
4,007,747 |
KFYI
| 1,170,052,176 |
Radio station in Phoenix, Arizona
|
[
"1922 establishments in Arizona",
"IHeartMedia radio stations",
"News and talk radio stations in the United States",
"Radio stations established in 1922",
"Radio stations in Phoenix, Arizona"
] |
KFYI (550 AM) – branded News/Talk 550 KFYI – is a commercial news/talk radio station licensed to serve Phoenix, Arizona. Owned by iHeartMedia, KFYI serves the Phoenix metropolitan area as the market affiliate for Fox News Radio, The Clay Travis and Buck Sexton Show, The Sean Hannity Show, the Glenn Beck Radio Program and Coast to Coast AM.
Established as KFCB in 1922 by Earl A. Nielsen after a year of experimental broadcasting, this station adopted the KOY call sign in 1929. Sold to interests controlled by the Prairie Farmer/WLS in 1936, KOY was the Phoenix outlet for CBS radio in the 1930s and 1940s as well as an early home for Steve Allen and Jack Williams, the latter a part of the station from 1929 until his election to Arizona governor in 1966.
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, KOY featured a popular adult contemporary format headlined by Bill Heywood, but declining ratings resulted in a 1988 flip to satellite-fed adult standards. As a result of mass consolidation, KOY's call letters and standards format were moved in 1999 to , with assuming the KGME call sign and sports format. Since 2000, this station has featured the KFYI calls and talk format—which had previously originated on —after a second intellectual property swap.
Studios for KFYI are located near 48th and Van Buren streets, near Sky Harbor Airport, and the transmitter is located on South 36th Street near East Vineyard Road in Phoenix. In addition to a standard analog transmission, KFYI is simulcast over the second HD subchannel of KYOT (95.5 FM) and streams online via iHeartRadio.
## History
### Early years
KFYI was first licensed as a broadcasting station, with the call sign KFCB, on September 6, 1922. However, the station's history includes earlier broadcasting experimentation by the station's founder, Earl A. Nielsen, and the station has claimed a 1921 start date on several occasions.
From 1912 to 1927, radio communication in the United States was regulated by the Department of Commerce, and originally there were no formal requirements for stations, most of which operated under Amateur and Experimental licenses, making broadcasts intended for the general public. In order to provide a common standard, the department issued a regulation effective December 1, 1921 requiring that broadcasting stations would now have to hold a Limited Commercial license that authorized operation on two designated broadcasting wavelengths: 360 meters (833 kHz) for "entertainment", and 485 meters (619 kHz) for "market and weather reports". The first two Phoenix broadcasting station authorizations were issued to Smith Hughes & Company for KDYW on May 15, 1922, and McArthur Brothers Mercantile Company for KFAD (now KTAR) on June 21, 1922, both for 360 meters.
### KFCB
In 1921, Earl A. Nielsen, a native of Kansas City, Missouri, received a license for an amateur station, with the call sign 6BBH, located at 115 South 21st Avenue in Phoenix. The Nielsen Radio Supply Company was incorporated in 1922 to purchase and distribute radios in Phoenix. The Department of Commerce's December 1, 1921, broadcasting regulations barred amateur stations from making broadcasts intended for the general public. Despite this, it was reported that on May 23, 1922, the Nielsen company, operating on the standard amateur radio wavelength of 200 meters (1500 kHz), had conducted what were described as the "first broadcasting tests in the Salt River Valley".
On September 6, 1922, the Nielsen Radio Supply Company was granted a broadcasting license with the call letters KFCB, for operation on 360 meters. This call sign was issued randomly from an alphabetical roster of available call letters. Because at this time only the single entertainment broadcasting wavelength of 360 meters was available, stations in a given region were encouraged to devise time-sharing agreements. In April 1923, KFCB's time slots were 7 to 8 p.m. on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. KDYW shut down in early 1924, leaving KFAD and KFCB as the only stations in the state capital. There were several frequency changes in the early years. KFCB was deleted in mid-1923 but quickly relicensed on 1280 kHz, which was changed to 1080 kHz later in the year. In 1924, KFCB was moved to 1260 kHz, which was followed by a reassignment to 1230 kHz on June 1, 1927, with 125 watts.
In the fall of 1927, Nielsen opened new studios at Pierce Street and Central Avenue; the \$70,000 (\$ in dollars) building also housed the company's sporting goods division and contained a basement with eight bowling lanes. On November 11, 1928, KFCB was initially assigned to a "local" frequency, 1310 kHz, as part of the Federal Radio Commission's implementation of General Order 40, a national radio reallocation. This was soon changed to a "regional" frequency, 1390 kHz.
### KOY
On February 8, 1929, KFCB changed its call sign to KOY; the new call sign began to be used on March 16, when the station was rebuilt and began broadcasting with 500 watts. This power level was increased again to 1,000 watts during daylight hours in 1933.
#### Salt River Valley Broadcasting Company ownership
In 1936, Nielsen—whose radio and sporting goods businesses both suffered during the Great Depression—sold KOY to the newly formed Salt River Broadcasting Company, owned by WLS radio in Chicago and the Prairie Farmer and headed by Burridge Butler. (Nielsen later moved to Hawaii, where he managed Hilo station KHBC and served as a territorial legislator; he died in 1966.) At the time, KOY was a station in need of major repair: the station's antenna had fallen, hanging over Central Avenue, and the station had "gone broke twice and was floundering". Major changes followed, including a new transmitter and new facilities just outside the city limits in the 800 block of North Central Avenue. On March 1, 1937, KOY joined CBS, marking its second time with that network after a five-month stint in 1932, and several days later, it began using a new transmitter site at 12th Street and Camelback Road. In September 1937, KOY established the Arizona Network with Tucson's KGAR (which became KTUC) and KSUN in Bisbee. Burridge Butler's ownership strongly emphasized community involvement and service, in some cases copying successful WLS features as the Christmas Neighbors Club and its country music-oriented Dinnerbell program. A donation from Butler established the first two Boys Clubs in Phoenix, and a settlement of his estate led to the creation of a third, named in Butler's honor.
In 1938, KOY applied to move from 1390 to 550 kHz, which was approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on March 13, 1940, over the objections of KOAC in Corvallis, Oregon; the station made the move on April 7. A further power increase to 5,000 watts was initially granted in December 1941, but World War II postponed KOY's plans to make the change until 1948. Burridge Butler did not live to see the frequency change carried out; he died in April 1948, with ownership of KOY given to three company executives, per his will; one of these was program director John R. "Jack" Williams. Williams had already been a KOY veteran by this time, having been interviewed by founder Nielsen and hired on the same day in 1929, when Williams was a 20-year-old college student; he was appointed program director when the Butler ownership took over in 1936. Among Williams's hires was Steve Allen, who began his broadcasting career at KOY in 1942 before moving to Los Angeles. In a 1992 book, Allen called his years at KOY "pleasant ones and extremely educational".
KOY lost its CBS affiliation on January 1, 1950, to KOOL (960 AM), which went on the air in 1947; Gene Autry was one of the principal owners of KOOL, and his deep ties to CBS and Columbia Records helped seal the deal. In exchange, KOY picked up the Mutual–Don Lee hookup previously held by KOOL.
In 1952, KOY filed for a television station on channel 10; in competition with a similar bid from KOOL, and wanting to spare years of comparative hearings, the two parties agreed to a time-sharing proposal. On October 24, 1953, KOY-TV and KOOL-TV signed on, sharing time and studio and transmitter facilities on channel 10. After five months, KOY sold its interest to KOOL, which took over full operation of the venture; two months later, KOY-TV was no more.
Jack Williams's popularity on the air was also evident. In addition to his duties as program director and announcer, he forged close political ties with others. From 1945 to 1948, he read the State of the State address for governor Sidney Preston Osborn, who suffered from multiple sclerosis, and in 1952, he was appointed to fill a term on the Phoenix City Council. His KOY career was considered the springboard to his political career, which included terms as Mayor of Phoenix and Governor of Arizona. Even while mayor, he continued to host his program on KOY and only stepped aside from his duties at the station in 1965, when he prepared his first gubernatorial campaign.
#### The 1960s, 70s and 80s
In 1964, the sale of KOY to a Pennsylvania real estate firm, Cote Realty, was announced; the deal never went through because of excessive signal overlap with KTUC in Tucson, which Cote already owned. In 1967, KOY was instead sold to the Southern Broadcasting Company of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, for \$2 million. Southern filed to move the transmitter to its present site at the end of 1967 and sold the Camelback land to the Coulter car dealership group. Gary Edens became KOY's general manager in 1970 and helped bring Williams back to a part-time role at the station, hosting a taped version of his previous Yours Sincerely program, which would not discuss state government issues. In 1973, Southern bought KRFM (95.5 FM), a beautiful music station; however, the two would operate from separate premises until August 1984.
Also in 1973, KOY brought in a host who would have a long run on the station. A format change at KTAR had cost Bill Heywood, that station's morning man, his job. He moved to Las Vegas, but Edens wanted him for his station, which happened to have an opening in morning drive. Edens flew to Las Vegas and went to Heywood's house in a successful bid to lure him back to Phoenix. Heywood grew to be one of the market's most popular radio hosts, being honored in 1975 as "Grand International Air Personality", the top individual honor of the International Radio Programming Forum, and pulled as much as 13 percent of the morning audience. The station supplemented its middle-of-the road format, which evolved into adult contemporary, with Heywood and sports. In 1983 and 1984, KOY was the broadcast home of the Arizona Wranglers of the United States Football League, though it lost money carrying the nascent team's games.
Southern Broadcasting merged with Harte-Hanks in 1978. Three years later, Edens was appointed president of the company's broadcast division, which was renamed Harte-Hanks Radio and relocated its corporate headquarters from Winston-Salem to Phoenix. When Harte-Hanks went private in a leveraged buyout in 1984, the company sought to shed its radio properties, and Edens purchased all nine of its stations—including KOY and the sister FM (then called KQYT)—for \$40 million, forming Edens Broadcasting.
#### Decline and standards format
On July 1, 1986, Edens Broadcasting ended KQYT's long-running beautiful music format and launched KOY-FM, which simulcast the AM station's talk-heavy adult contemporary during the day and aired music at night while the AM station continued with talk shows. However, even with the FM added in an attempt to capture music listeners who had moved away from AM, ratings were falling, and Heywood's popularity diminished. KOY-FM split off as an adult top 40 station under the "Y-95" moniker in July 1987, with AM and FM only sharing Bill Heywood's morning show. The next month, Heywood departed, citing the incompatibility of the Y-95 format and his program; he then was hired by KTAR in January 1988.
In a cost-cutting move, in November 1988, Edens fired 12 employees and dropped KOY's music-and-talk format for the satellite-delivered AM Only format of adult standards music; Edens felt that what would have been the natural evolution of KOY, to a talk format competing with KTAR and KFYI (910 AM), would have taken too long, and that the move would allow the company to focus on KOY-FM. Gary Edens later cited that moment as the death of the "legendary KOY". Sundance Broadcasting acquired the Edens Phoenix stations in 1993, creating a four-station cluster with KOY, 95.5 (which was relaunched as "rhythm and rock" KYOT), KZON (101.5 FM), and KISO (1230 AM). Radio deregulation in 1996 brought more acquisitions in short order: Sundance sold its Phoenix cluster and five other stations in Milwaukee and Boise to Colfax Communications for \$95 million, and before that deal had even closed, Colfax sold those four and KOOL-FM to Chancellor Media, plus seven stations in other cities, for \$365 million.
### KGME
In 1999, Chancellor sold KGME (1360 AM), a sports talk station, to Salem Communications. Its programming and call sign then moved to the 550 frequency, with KOY and its nostalgia format replacing classic country KISO at 1230 AM. Chancellor then merged with Capstar Communications later in the year and changed its name to AMFM, Inc.
### KFYI
Later that year, Clear Channel Communications, predecessor to iHeartMedia, merged with AMFM. Clear Channel opted to sell four of AMFM's FM stations in Phoenix and retain all of its local AMs, including KGME at 550 and KFYI at 910. When the deal closed in September 2000, Clear Channel immediately moved to swap KFYI and KGME, moving the talk station to 550 and sports to 910. In conjunction with the swap, KFYI debuted a morning show hosted by former KTVK anchor Heidi Fogelsong and Jim Sharpe. In 2001, Heywood returned to the 550 frequency from KTAR, replacing Sharpe; the morning show was ended in 2003 and Heywood released due to "lack of ratings performance".
Former Congressman J. D. Hayworth hosted a weekday show in the late 2000s on KFYI. He resigned from KFYI in 2010 to pursue an unsuccessful run for the U.S. Senate against Senator John McCain.
On March 8, 2006, KFYI made news when fill-in host Brian James suggested that the United States National Guard and Border Patrol should shoot to kill people illegally crossing the U.S.-Mexican border. He also said on the air that he would be "happy to sit there with my high-powered rifle and my night scope" and kill people as they cross the border. Those remarks prompted Arizona Attorney General Terry Goddard and U.S. Attorney Paul Charlton to complain to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), calling the remarks "irresponsible and dangerous".
## Programming
KFYI's weekday lineup begins with a local interview and information show hosted by James T. Harris, "The Conservative Circus"; Harris began hosting afternoons at KFYI in 2018 and moved to mornings in 2020. In afternoon drive time, Mike Russell and Rob Hunter host Russell & Hunter. The rest of the weekday schedule consists of nationally syndicated conservative talk shows, many supplied by co-owned Premiere Networks, including The Clay Travis and Buck Sexton Show, Sean Hannity, Glenn Beck, and Coast to Coast AM with George Noory. Weekend programs include a variety of specialty shows on topics including money, health, gardening, real estate, the outdoors, and beer, plus weekend syndicated shows from Bill Handel, Ben Ferguson, and Bill Cunningham.
Because Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, syndicated programs air on a one-hour recorded delay from mid-March to early November, so they can be heard in the same time slots on KFYI year-round. This practice has been utilized by KFYI since the mid-1990s (when it was at 910).
|
16,892 |
Kid Icarus
| 1,171,102,869 | null |
[
"1986 video games",
"Famicom Disk System games",
"Game Boy Advance games",
"Kid Icarus",
"Nintendo 3DS eShop games",
"Nintendo Entertainment System games",
"Nintendo Research & Development 1 games",
"Nintendo Switch Online games",
"Side-scrolling platform games",
"Single-player video games",
"Video games about shapeshifting",
"Video games designed by Yoshio Sakamoto",
"Video games directed by Satoru Okada",
"Video games produced by Gunpei Yokoi",
"Video games scored by Hirokazu Tanaka",
"Virtual Console games for Wii",
"Virtual Console games for Wii U"
] |
Kid Icarus is a platform video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Family Computer Disk System in Japan and the Nintendo Entertainment System in Europe and North America. It was released in Japan in December 1986, in Europe in February 1987, and in North America in July.
The plot of Kid Icarus revolves around protagonist Pit's quest for three sacred treasures, which he must equip to rescue the Greek-inspired fantasy world Angel Land and its ruler, the goddess Palutena. The player controls Pit through platform areas while fighting monsters and collecting items. The objective is to reach the end of the levels, and to find and defeat boss monsters that guard the three treasures. The game was developed by Nintendo's Research and Development 1 division with assistance with an external company (later identified to be Tose), which helped with testing. It was designed by Toru Osawa and Yoshio Sakamoto, directed by Satoru Okada, and produced by Gunpei Yokoi.
Kid Icarus had a mixed critical reception but became a cult classic. Reviewers praised its music and its mixture of gameplay elements from different genres, but criticized its graphics and high difficulty level. It was included in several lists of the best games compiled by IGN and Nintendo Power.
It was later re-released for the Game Boy Advance in Japan in 2004. It was released on the Wii's Virtual Console in 2007 and the Wii U's Virtual Console in 2013. A 3D Classics remake was released in Japan in 2011 and in North America, Europe, and Australia in 2012. In 2016, Kid Icarus was included on the North American and PAL region releases of the NES Classic Edition. It was released on Nintendo Switch Online in 2019.
A sequel, Kid Icarus: Of Myths and Monsters, was released for the Game Boy in 1991. A third entry in the series, Kid Icarus: Uprising, was released for Nintendo 3DS in March 2012, after Pit's inclusion as a playable character in the 2008 game Super Smash Bros. Brawl.
## Gameplay
Kid Icarus is a side-scrolling platformer with role-playing elements. The player controls the protagonist Pit through two-dimensional levels, which contain monsters, obstacles and items. Pit's primary weapon is a bow with an unlimited supply of arrows that can be upgraded with three collectable power items: the guard crystal shields Pit from enemies, the flaming arrows hit multiple targets, and the holy bow increases the range of the arrows. These upgrades will work only if Pit's health is high enough. The game keeps track of the player's score, and increases Pit's health bar at the end of a level if enough points were collected.
Throughout the stages, the player may enter doors to access seven different types of chambers. Stores and black markets offer items in exchange for hearts, which are left behind by defeated monsters. Treasure chambers contain items, enemy nests give the player an opportunity to earn extra hearts, and hot springs restore Pit's health. In the god's chamber, the strength of Pit's bow and arrow may be increased depending on several factors, such as the number of enemies defeated and the amount of damage taken in battle. In the training chamber, Pit will be awarded with one of the three power items if he passes a test of endurance.
The game world is divided into three stages: the Underworld, the Overworld (Earth) and the Skyworld. Each stage encompasses three unidirectional area levels and a fortress. The areas of the Underworld and Skyworld stages have Pit climb to the top, while those of the surface world are side-scrolling levels. The fortresses at the end of the stages are labyrinths with non-scrolling rooms, in which the player must find and defeat a gatekeeper boss. Within a fortress, Pit may buy a check sheet, pencil, and torch to guide him through the labyrinth. A single-use item, the hammer, can destroy stone statues, which frees a flying soldier called a Centurion that will aid the player in boss battles. For each of the bosses destroyed, Pit receives one of three sacred treasures that are needed to access the fourth and final stage, the sky temple. This last portion abandons the platforming elements of the previous levels, and resembles a scrolling shooter.
## Plot
The game is set in Angel Land, which is a fantasy world with a Greek mythology theme. Before the events of the game, Earth was ruled by Palutena (Goddess of Light) and Medusa (Goddess of Darkness). Palutena bestowed the people with light to make them happy. Medusa hated the humans, dried up their crop, and turned them to stone. Enraged by this, Palutena transformed Medusa into a monster and banished her to the Underworld. Out of revenge, Medusa conspired with the monsters of the Underworld to take over Palutena's residence the Palace in the Sky. She launched a surprise attack, and stole the three sacred treasures — the Mirror Shield, the Light Arrows and the Wings of Pegasus — which deprived Palutena's army of its power. After her soldiers had been turned to stone by Medusa, Palutena was defeated in battle and imprisoned deep inside the Palace in the Sky.
With her last power, she sent a bow and arrow to the young angel Pit. He escapes from his prison in the Underworld and sets out to save Palutena and Angel Land. Throughout the course of the story, Pit retrieves the three sacred treasures from the fortress gatekeepers at their respective fortresses in the Underworld, the Overworld, and the Skyworld. Afterward, he equips himself with the treasures and storms the sky temple where he defeats Medusa and rescues Palutena. The game has five different endings; depending on the player's performance, Palutena may present Pit with headgear or transform him into a full-grown angel. In the Japanese version, the best ending from the English version does not exist, and instead another bad ending is present.
## Development
The game was designed at Nintendo's Research and Development 1 (R&D1) division, and the programming was handled by the external company Intelligent Systems. It was developed for the Family Computer Disk System (FDS) because its floppy disk, called Disk Card, has three times the storage capacity of the Family Computer's cartridges of the time. Combined with the possibility to store the players' progress, the Disk Card format enabled the developers to create a longer game with a more extensive game world. Kid Icarus was the debut of Toru Osawa (credited as Inusawa) as a video game designer, and he was the only staff member working on the game at the beginning of the project. Originally he wanted to make an action game with role-playing elements, and wrote a story rooted in Greek mythology, which he had always been fond of. He drew the pixel art, and wrote the technical specifications, which were the basis for the playable prototype that was programmed by Intelligent Systems. After Nintendo's action-adventure Metroid had been finished, more staff members were allotted to the development of Kid Icarus.
The game was directed by Satoru Okada (credited as S. Okada), and produced by the general manager of the R&D1 division, Gunpei Yokoi (credited as G. Yokoi). Hirokazu Tanaka (credited as Hip Tanaka) composed the music. Yoshio Sakamoto (credited as Shikao.S) joined the team upon return from his vacation after the completion of Metroid. He streamlined the development process, and made many decisions that affected the design of Kid Icarus. Several out-of-place elements were included in the game, such as credit cards, a wizard turning player character Pit into an eggplant, and a large, moving nose that was meant to resemble composer Tanaka. Sakamoto attributed this unrestrained humor to the former personnel of the R&D1 division, which he referred to as "strange". Osawa said that he had originally tried to make Kid Icarus completely serious, but opted for a more humorous approach after objections from the team.
To meet the projected release date of December 19, 1986, the staff members worked overtime and often stayed in the office at night. They used torn cardboard boxes as beds, and covered themselves in curtains to resist the low temperatures of the unheated development building. Eventually, Kid Icarus was finished and entered production a mere three days before the release date. Several ideas for additional stages had to be dropped because of these scheduling conflicts.
## Release
In February and July 1987, respectively, a cartridge-based version was published for the NES in Europe and North America. For this release, the graphics of the ending were updated, and staff credits were added. Unlike the Japanese version, which saves the player's progress on the Disk Card, the cartridge version uses a password system to restore progress, an almost unprecedented feature.
In August 2004, Kid Icarus was re-released in the Famicom Mini Disk System Selection for the Game Boy Advance. It was released on the Wii's Virtual Console on January 23, 2007, in Japan, on February 12 in North America, and on February 23 in Europe and Australia; it was released on the Wii U's Virtual Console on August 14, 2013, in Japan, on July 11 in Europe and Australia, and on July 25 in North America. Passwords from the NES version do not work in the Virtual Console version due to the checksum algorithm being changed. In 2016, the game was included on the North American and PAL region releases of the NES Classic Edition. In 2019, it was released on Nintendo Switch Online.
### 3D Classics
A 3D Classics remake of Kid Icarus was published for the Nintendo 3DS handheld console. The remake features stereoscopic 3D along with updated graphics including backgrounds. It uses the save system instead of passwords. It has the Family Computer Disk System's extra sound channel for music and sound effects.
It became available on the Nintendo eShop on January 18, 2012, in Japan, on February 2 in Europe, on April 12 in Australia, and on April 19 in North America. It was available early for free via download code to users who registered two selected 3DS games with Nintendo in Japan, Europe, and Australia. In Japan, it was available to users who registered any two Nintendo 3DS games on Club Nintendo between October 1, 2011, and January 15, 2012, and became available for download starting on December 19, 2011; in Europe, it was available to users who registered any two of a selection of Nintendo 3DS games on Club Nintendo between November 1, 2011, and January 31, 2012, with the first batch of emails with codes being sent out on January 5, 2012; in Australia, it was available to users who registered any two of a selection of Nintendo 3DS games on Club Nintendo between November 1, 2011, and March 31, 2012, with the first batch of emails with codes being sent out in January 2012. In North America, download codes for the 3D Classics version were given to customers who pre-ordered Kid Icarus: Uprising at select retailers when they picked up the game, which was released on March 23, 2012, allowing them to obtain the game early.
## Reception
By late 2003, 1.76 million copies of Kid Icarus had been sold worldwide, with a cult following. It received mixed reviews from critics over the years. In October 1992, a staff writer of the UK publication Nintendo Magazine System said that it was "pretty good fun", but did not "compare too well" to other platform games, due in part to its "rather dated" graphics. Retro Gamer magazine's Stuart Hunt called it an "unsung hero of the NES" that "looks and sounds pretty". He described the music as "sublime", and the enemy characters as "brilliantly drawn". Although he considered the blend of gameplay elements from different genres a success, he said that it suffered from "frustrating" design flaws, such as its high difficulty level. Jeremy Parish of 1Up.com disagreed with the game's status as an "unfairly forgotten masterpiece" among its substantial Internet following. He found it to be "underwhelming", "buggy", and "pretty annoying", because of "shrill music, loose controls, and some weird design decisions". He said that the game was "[not] terrible, or even bad – just a little lacking". He recommended players to buy the Virtual Console version, if only because it allowed them to experience Kid Icarus "with a fresh perspective".
GameSpot's Frank Provo reviewed the Virtual Console version. He noted that the gameplay was "[not] the most unique blueprint for a video game", but that it had been "fairly fresh back in 1987". He considered the difficulty "excessive", and found certain areas to be designed to frustrate players. He said that the presentation had not aged well. Though favoring the Grecian scenery, he criticized the graphics for the small, bicolored, and barely animated sprites, the black backgrounds, and the absence of multiple scrolling layers. He said the music was "nicely composed", but the sound effects were "all taps and thuds". He was dissatisfied with the emulation, because the Virtual Console release preserves the slowdown problems of the NES, and removed its cheat codes. He warned potential buyers that they might appreciate Kid Icarus for its "straightforward gameplay and challenging level layouts", but might "find nothing special in the gameplay and recoil in horror at the unflinching difficulty". Lucas M. Thomas of IGN noted that the game design was "odd" and "not Nintendo's most focused". He said it had "[not] aged in as timeless a manner as many other first-party Nintendo games from the NES era", and described it as "one of those games that made a lot more sense back in the '80s, accompanied by a tips and tricks strategy sheet". He complimented the theme music, which he considered heroic and memorable. In his review of the Virtual Console release, Thomas criticized the removal of cheat codes as "nonsensical". He found it to be "not an issue worthy of a prolonged rant", but said that "[Nintendo has] willfully edited its product, and damaged its nostalgic value in the process".
Kid Icarus is IGN's 20th of the top 100 NES games and 84th of the top 100 games of all time. It is 34th on Electronic Gaming Monthly's 1997 "100 Best Games of All Time", which said it "was one of the first big NES games to show that the system went way beyond offering the single-screen arcade-style experience". In 2001 Game Informer ranked it the 83rd best game ever made. They claimed that despite its high level of difficulty and frustration, it was fun enough to be worth playing. The game was inducted into GameSpy's "Hall of Fame", and was voted 54th place in Nintendo Power's top 200 Nintendo games. Nintendo Power also listed it as the 20th best NES video game, and praised it for its "unique vertically scrolling stages, fun platforming, and infectious 8-bit tunes", but with "unmerciful difficulty". Official Nintendo Magazine placed the game 67th on a list of greatest Nintendo games.
## Legacy
### Sequels
A Game Boy sequel to Kid Icarus, titled Kid Icarus: Of Myths and Monsters, was released in North America in November 1991, and in Europe on May 21, 1992. It was developed by Nintendo and Tose, and largely adopts the gameplay mechanics of its predecessor. Of Myths and Monsters remained the last installment in the series for over 20 years.
In 2008, rumors of a 3D Kid Icarus game for the Wii alleged it was developed by the German American studio Factor 5. However, the game was said to be in production without the approval of Nintendo, and Factor 5 canceled multiple projects following the closure of its American branch in early 2009. In a 2010 interview, Yoshio Sakamoto was asked about a Kid Icarus game for the Wii, to which he replied that he was not aware of any plans to revive the franchise. A new series entry for the Nintendo 3DS, Kid Icarus: Uprising, was eventually revealed at the E3 2010 trade show and released in 2012. The game is a third-person shooter, and was developed by Project Sora, the company of Super Smash Bros. designer Masahiro Sakurai.
### Other appearances
Pit is a recurring character named "Kid Icarus" in the American animated television series Captain N: The Game Master, and made cameo appearances in Nintendo games such as Tetris, F-1 Race, and the Super Smash Bros. series.
In May 2011, independent developer Flip Industries released Super Kid Icarus, an unofficial Flash game with a SNES style.
In The Super Mario Bros. Movie, Mario is seen playing Kid Icarus in his room shortly after an argument with his family.
|
20,991,003 |
Via Negativa (The X-Files)
| 1,167,596,331 | null |
[
"2000 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about nightmares",
"Television episodes set in Pittsburgh",
"Television episodes set in Virginia",
"Television episodes written by Frank Spotnitz",
"The X-Files (season 8) episodes"
] |
"Via Negativa" is the seventh episode of the eighth season and the 168th episode of the science fiction television series The X-Files. The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on December 17, 2000, on Fox and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom. It was written by executive producer Frank Spotnitz and directed by Tony Wharmby. It is a Monster-of-the-Week episode, unconnected to the series' wider mythology. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7.3 and was viewed by 12.37 million viewers. It was generally well received by television critics, with many positively commenting on the "eerie" atmosphere of the dream sequences; one critic referred to it as a "superb X-Files episode."
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) and her new partner John Doggett (Robert Patrick)—following the alien abduction of her former partner, Fox Mulder (David Duchovny)—who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. In this episode, Scully takes time off to deal with the early stages of her pregnancy, and Doggett and Walter Skinner attempt to avert the mysterious murder spree of a religious cult leader who kills his victims in their sleep. Eventually, the cult leader's essence of evil possesses Doggett, who is urged to murder Scully while he sleeps.
Spotnitz was inspired to write the episode after being intrigued by the mental image of a tube of toothpaste that, when opened, oozed blood. Because Gillian Anderson was not available for most of filming, the recurring characters of Walter Skinner and The Lone Gunmen were brought in. The episode's title, "Via Negativa"—which means "Negative Way" in Latin—is a theology that attempts to describe God by characterizing what God is not.
## Plot
In Pittsburgh, two FBI agents, Angus Stedman (Lawrence LeJohn) and James Leeds (Kevin McClatchy), are observing a house when Leeds falls asleep. When he awakes, he discovers that the front door of the house is open. The two agents investigate and stumble upon a room filled with dead bodies. Suddenly, a man wielding an axe and possessing a third eye murders both agents with a blow to the head.
The following day, Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) calls John Doggett (Robert Patrick) to inform him about the case and says she will not be joining him, due to personal matters. Doggett visits the crime scene, where he meets up with his boss, Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi). Skinner tells him about the cult and how the victims died. Leeds' body is found in his car, but his partner, Stedman, is missing, along with cult leader Anthony Tipet (Keith Szarabajka): the man with the third eye. The FBI later finds Stedman at his locked-up condo with a fatal blow to the head. Meanwhile, Tipet is searching for a pharmacist and stumbles into a phone booth to call an unnamed person. When a tramp asks him for change, Tipet attacks the tramp, trapping him in the pavement and axing his forehead.
At the FBI, Skinner briefs Alvin Kersh (James Pickens, Jr.), and other agents about the case. He tells them that Tipet used the hallucinogenic plant Tabernanthe iboga as an aid to bringing himself closer to God using a combination of Christian and Eastern religious practices called the via negativa, (Latin for 'negative way' - a term used traditionally to describe a certain system of religious thought and practice). Tracing Tipet's earlier call leads Doggett and Skinner to Andre Bormanis (Grant Heslov), a drug dealer. Bormanis is arrested, and put in a cell at the local police department. At the jail, Doggett has a vision of him holding Scully's severed head in his hands. After waking, Doggett realizes his vision was a bad dream. Meanwhile, in his cell, Bormanis has fallen asleep, and is dreaming of being attacked by rats. Doggett and the other officers find Bormanis' gnawed-up body.
Doggett returns to the X-Files office, where, to his surprise, he meets The Lone Gunmen. They tell him about the history of the third eye. While coming to the same conclusion, they are convinced that Tipet is projecting himself into people's dreams and killing them there. Returning to the warehouse where they found Bormanis, Skinner and Doggett meet Tipet, who is trying to take his own life by pushing his head through a table saw. They rush him to the hospital, where Doggett by surprise finds Scully's name on the register. With Tipet in a coma, Kersh decides to pull the plug on the case, saying they've found the main suspect. But Doggett and Skinner are not satisfied, saying there are no explanations for the various murders and events surrounding the case.
The next day, Doggett wakes up and discovers that he now has a third eye in the middle of his forehead. Suddenly, it vanishes. At the FBI building, he talks to Skinner, hoping for reassurance. He expresses his fear that, despite Tipet being in a coma, Tipet may still be able to enter into his dreams. Skinner, however, dismisses his concerns and sends him home. While leaving, Doggett has a hallucination of Tipet, ordering him to kill Scully. Suddenly, Doggett finds himself in front of Scully. Rather than kill his partner, he turns the axe upon himself. Doggett is immediately awakened from his dark reverie and finds himself in his bedroom, with Scully standing over his bed. He begins to thank her for saving his life, but she informs him that Tipet died due to his coma.
## Production
Frank Spotnitz was inspired to write "Via Negativa" after a rafting trip in which a "friend of a friend" mentioned a disturbing visual: a tube of toothpaste that, when opened, oozed human blood. The idea inspired Spotnitz to work it into an episode, but due to its strangeness, he was unable to think of any real-world scenarios in which this would happens. Consequently, he began to look into "dreams and nightmares." He eventually came up with the idea of a cult trying to reach a higher plane of existence, but instead stumbling into a "lower place, a darker plane." Spotnitz later explained: "What if the higher plane is a darker plane, what if we think we're reaching up but we're reaching down." The episode's title, "Via Negativa," means "Negative Way" in Latin. This type of theology, more commonly referred to as apophatic theology, attempts to describe God by expanding upon what God is not.
Gillian Anderson's character Dana Scully would not be available, since the writing staff had decided before the episode was written that she would spend most of her time in the hospital. Spotnitz saw this as an opportunity to further evolve Doggett's character. In order to fill Anderson's void, two recurring groups of characters were brought in: Walter Skinner and The Lone Gunmen. Spotnitz noted that, "we were eager to get Skinner out from behind the desk, and we were always looking for opportunities to get him out of that office and get him into the field." Mitch Pileggi, who portrayed Walter Skinner, was pleased with the final product. He later complimented the work of Robert Patrick, who played Doggett, saying, "It was a big hole when Mulder was gone, but I thought that Robert came in and did a wonderful job. He brought a really good energy to the set, and it was a lot of fun getting to know and work with him." Spotnitz was eager to use The Lone Gunmen in the episode, since this the episode would mark their first scene together with Doggett. Robert Patrick called the episode his "favorite episode," because the writers created a "vulnerable" moment for his character.
The character of Andre Bormanis was named after one of Spotnitz's childhood friends, who went on to become one of the science consultants for both Star Trek: Voyager and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. In preparing the character's death scene, Tony Wharmby, the episode's director, spent a whole day shooting inserts of rats. In total, the film crew used 500 rats. Initially, Wharmby had an issue getting a shot where the rats congregate in the middle of a room. In order to fix this, animal trainers continuously released more rats until the middle part of the room was finally covered. The crew later spent many hours "painting out rat droppings in that shot."
## Reception
### Ratings
"Via Negativa" premiered on December 17, 2000, on American television on Fox. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7.3, meaning that it was seen by 7.3% of the nation's estimated households. The episode was watched by 7.36 million households and 12.37 million viewers. Fox promoted the episode with the tagline "They say if you die in a dream ... you will never wake up."
### Reviews
"Via Negativa" received mostly positive reviews from critics. Michael Roffman of Time named it the "best post-Mulder" episode, stating that "episodes like this proved there were just enough thrills to get by without Spooky". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an "A−" and noted that the episode had an "undeniable power that took me almost entirely off-guard". Although cautioning that "Via Negativa" is not "some kind of lost classic" and that the story itself was not "all that impressive", he praised the atmosphere of the episode, describing it as "heavy, doom-laden, and frequently bizarre". In fact, he argued that it largely "makes up for any shortcomings in the script". Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode five stars out of five and called it "one of the best standalone X-Files in years."
George Avaros and Michael Liedtke from the Contra Costa Times were overall positive towards the episode, saying it had all the features which created a "superb X-Files episode". They further stated that it had an "eerie, almost surreal quality sprinkled with pithy dialogue, comic relief and cryptic insights into key characters that left us wondering what sort of trouble might be around the bend". Avaros and Liedtke also reacted positively to the numerous references to Fox Mulder. Finally, they compared the episode to the work of David Lynch in his series, Twin Peaks. Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two-and-a-half stars out of four. She noted that, "'Via Negativa' is short on plot but makes up for it by being long on atmosphere and mood, conjuring up a number of disgusting, eerie images".
|
4,451,970 |
Tessarakonteres
| 1,167,104,247 |
Egyptian catamaran galley
|
[
"3rd century BC in Egypt",
"Ancient Egyptian ships",
"Buildings and structures completed in the 3rd century BC",
"Ptolemy IV Philopator",
"Ships of the Hellenistic period"
] |
Tessarakonteres (Greek: τεσσαρακοντήρης, "forty-rowed"), or simply "forty", was a very large catamaran galley reportedly built in the Hellenistic period by Ptolemy IV Philopator of Egypt. It was described by a number of ancient sources, including a lost work by Callixenus of Rhodes and surviving texts by Athenaeus and Plutarch. According to these descriptions, supported by modern research by Lionel Casson, the enormous size of the vessel made it impractical and it was built only as a prestige vessel, rather than an effective warship. The name "forty" refers not to the number of oars, but to the number of rowers on each column of oars that propelled it, and at the size described it would have been the largest ship constructed in antiquity, and probably the largest human-powered vessel ever built.
## Configuration of the oars
The trireme, a three-ranked galley with one man per oar, was the main Hellenistic warship up to and into the 4th century BC. At that time, a requirement for heavier ships led to the development of "polyremes" meaning "many oars", applied to "fours" (tetre- in Greek, quadri- in Latin) or more and "fives" (penta- in Greek, quinque- in Latin) and later up to "tens", the largest that seems to have been used in battle. Larger polyremes were built, with Ptolemy II Philadelphus eventually building a "twenty" and a "thirty", and Ptolemy IV Philopator building the "forty".
The maximum practical number of oar ranks a ship could have logistically was three (Greek and Latin tri-). Beyond three, the number in the type name did not refer to the number of ranks of oars any more (as for biremes and triremes, respectively two and three ranks of oars with one rower per oar), but to the number of rowers per vertical section, with several men on each oar. Indeed, just because a ship was designated with a larger type number did not mean it necessarily had or operated all three possible ranks: the quadrireme may have been a simple evolution of a standard trireme, but with two rowers on the top oar; it may also have been a bireme with two men on each oar; or it may just have had a single rank with four men on each single oar. Classes of ship could differ in their configuration between regions and over time, but in no case did a "four" ship have four horizontal ranks of oars.
From galleys used in the 16th to 18th centuries AD, it is known that the maximum number of men that can operate a single oar efficiently is eight. Further, Casson writes that the oars were the proper length for no more than eight rowers.
Mention by Callixenus of the "forty's" thranite (the uppermost rowing level of a trireme) oars leads Casson to determine that the "forty" had three ranks. He points to the practical limit of eight rowers to an oar, giving a maximum size class of "twenty-four", as well as to the need for a vastly larger deck than one ship could provide in order to accommodate the reported numbers of marines. Combined with Callixenus description of the ship having two heads and two sterns, Casson suggests that the "forty" must have been a catamaran made up of two three-ranked "twenties" joined together by a deck. Each column or section of the ship would be composed of twenty rowers; perhaps eight rowers on each section's top rank, seven in the middle, and five on the bottom rank.
## Specifications
As a catamaran of two "twentys" with 4,000 oarsmen, there would be 2,000 per hull and therefore 1,000 per side. The 130 m length would allow ample room for the 50 vertical sections of three oars each, with each vertical section accommodating 20 rowers (hence the designation "twenty"). Thus there would be 150 oars per side. Casson has suggested that it was possible that the two internal sides were not equipped with oars and that the rowers there acted as reserve crew for those on the outer side, so the "forty" would have had either 300 or 600 oars.
### Details
Source:
- Length: 280 cubits, 420 ft (130 m)
- Beam: 38 cubits, 57 ft (17 m) (per catamaran hull if Casson is correct)
- Height from waterline to tip of stern: 53 cubits, 79.5 ft (24.2 m)
- Height from waterline to tip of prow: 48 cubits, 72 ft (22 m)
- Length of steering oars (4): 30 cubits, 45 ft (14 m)
- Longest rowing oars: 38 cubits, 57 ft (17 m)
- Oarsmen: 4,000
- Officers, ratings, deckhands: 400
- Marines: 2,850
### Use
It had seven naval rams, with one primary, and the deck would have provided a stable platform for catapults that were often mounted on supergalleys. However, the "forty" was likely just a showpiece; Plutarch describes the ship as for exhibition only.
### Launch
In order to launch the huge ship the engineers devised a – then novel – dry dock construction:
> But after that a Phoenician devised a new method of launching it (the Tessarakonteres), having dug a trench under it, equal to the ship itself in length, which he dug close to the harbour. And in the trench he built props of solid stone five cubits deep, and across them he laid beams crosswise, running the whole width of the trench, at four cubits' distance from one another; and then making a channel from the sea he filled all the space which he had excavated with water, out of which he easily brought the ship by the aid of whatever men happened to be at hand; then closing the entrance which had been originally made, he drained the water off again by means of engines (organois); and when this had been done the vessel rested securely on the before-mentioned cross-beams.
It has been calculated that the dock might have needed around 750,000 gallons of water to lift up the vessel.
## Controversy
Even in the 19th century, the fabulous description of the vessel has been questioned. Given the technical problem that the vessel face in a ship of such size, the vessel would not have existed at all, or the description given was an exaggeration. Frank Boott Goodrich (1858) pointed out several problems of the vessel:
- The vessel was originally stated to be forty tiers (of rowers). The vessel would need oars of some 70 feet (21.34 m) in length for the topmost tier, this is unlikely to be made during the era.
- Since the number of oars and oarsmen is stated to be 4000, they would have been hard to manage, since each man need to manage an oar of huge size.
- The size of the complement is fantastical too, 2850 combatant and 4000 rowers, a total of 6850 men.
- The vessel was said to have "double prows", if this is interpreted as catamaran, the force and pressure of water would separate them due to the great resistance exerted by the huge size of the vessel.
- The huge size of the vessel would prove to be very hard to maneuver, a U-turn would need about 1 hour in a large radius.
## See also
- Chinese treasure ship, believed by some to be ceremonial thanks to its impractical size
- Leontophoros, another Hellenistic ship with disputed length
- Jong, a type of large Javanese ship, some are noted to be larger than the largest Portuguese ships
- List of longest wooden ships
|
62,727,586 |
Leitmeritz concentration camp
| 1,100,376,336 |
Concentration camp
|
[
"Auto Union",
"Litoměřice",
"Nazi concentration camps in Czechoslovakia",
"Subcamps of Flossenbürg"
] |
Leitmeritz was the largest subcamp of the Flossenbürg concentration camp, operated by Nazi Germany in Leitmeritz, Reichsgau Sudetenland (now Litoměřice, Czech Republic). Established on 24 March 1944 as part of an effort to disperse and increase war production, its prisoners were forced to work in the caverns Richard I and II, producing Maybach HL230 tank engines for Auto Union (now Audi) and preparing the second site for intended production of tungsten and molybdenum wire and sheet metal by Osram. Of the 18,000 prisoners who passed through the camp, about 4,500 died due to disease, malnutrition, and accidents caused by the disregard for safety by the SS staff who administered the camp. In the last weeks of the war, the camp became a hub for death marches. The camp operated until 8 May 1945, when it was dissolved by the German surrender.
## Establishment
During the last year of the war, the concentration camp prisoner population reached its peak. The SS deployed hundreds of thousands of prisoners on war-related forced labor projects, including some of the most important to the war effort. In the meantime, many war factories had been bombed by the Allies, leading to the decision to disperse production. In 1943, the Auto Union factory in Chemnitz-Siegmar was ordered to be turned over to the production of Maybach HL230 tank engines, much in demand due to attrition on the Eastern Front. By late 1943, Hermann Göring (head of the Four Year Plan for war production, which involved mass forced labor) was planning to disperse the Maybach production from the Chemnitz plant to an underground factory under Radobýl Mountain just west of the town of Leitmeritz (now Litoměřice in the Czech Republic). Although there was an existing quarry, the facility had to be expanded in order to accommodate planned spaces for production and assembly several kilometers long. The site was located in Reichsgau Sudetenland, a territory of Czechoslovakia that had been annexed to Germany in 1938 following the Munich Agreement.
The largest subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp, Leitmeritz was one of the largest of the subcamps in the Sudetenland, whose remote location was favored for armaments production because it was not easily accessible to Allied bombers. Official names for the camp included "SS Kommando B 5", "Außenkommando Leitmeritz" and "Arbeitslager Leitmeritz". The camp was located west of downtown Leitmeritz, 5 kilometres (3 mi) distant from Theresienstadt Ghetto in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, a transit ghetto for Jews.
The camp was established by a transport of 500 men from Dachau concentration camp, who arrived at nearby Theresienstadt Small Fortress on 24 or 25 March 1944. Due to the lack of accommodation at the work site, they stayed at the Small Fortress (temporarily a Flossenbürg subcamp) until June. The Small Fortress was 7 kilometres (4 mi) away from the Leitmeritz camp site. From 27 March, they went each day to work in Leitmeritz. By early April, there were also 740 civilian workers, mostly skilled, and 100 prisoners were sent back to Dachau.
## Slave labor
In May 1944, the authority SS-Führungsstab (SS Leadership Staff) B 5, under the authority of SS magnate Hans Kammler, was created to oversee the forced labor projects at Leitmeritz. The companies involved, Auto Union and Osram, worked closely with both the SS-Führungsstab B 5 and the Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production. The SS shell company, Mineral-Öl – Baugesellschaft m.b.H., set up to subcontract construction tasks, hired many enterprises from Germany, the Sudetenland and the Protectorate for various roles involving the camp. There was continual conflict between the SS and the companies because the goal of terrorizing and killing prisoners by extermination through labor was incompatible with the aim of securing the highest production possible. Whether they were working on the camp or underground, prisoners were not given appropriate equipment and even the most basic safety precautions were not followed. Many prisoners died in accidents due to these deliberately murderous working conditions. Almost every day, the tunnels suffered collapses; 60 prisoners died in just one such incident in May 1944.
### Richard I
The estimated cost of establishing Maybach production at Leitmeritz was 10 to 20 million Reichsmarks, equivalent to US\$2.5–5 million at the time or \$– million in dollars. In early April 1944, the SS' goal was to begin production of the engines by July, which would have required 3,500 prisoners. However, the SS withdrew from the project—possibly because it was unwilling to accept the responsibility for a risky project—and it was taken over by Amt des Generalbevollmächtigten für Regelung der Bauwirtschaft (GB-Bau, "Office of General Representative for Regulation of the Construction Industry"), part of the Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production. On 30 April, Hitler ordered that the dispersal to Leitmeritz be expedited because the Maybach plant in Friedrichshafen had been bombed by the Royal Air Force on the night of 27–28 April. From early May, the SS took over the project again.
On 11 September 1944, the Auto Union plant in Chemnitz-Siegmar was bombed. Between 25 September and 30 October, the two most important production lines of components—cylinder heads and crankcases—were transferred to the underground factory at Leitmeritz, comprising 180 machines in total. From 3 November, entire Maybach HL230 engines were manufactured in Leitmeritz; the first was completed on 14 November. The production lines were manned by selected skilled prisoners whose detachment was known as Elsabe AG. The lack of air circulation in the underground factory exacerbated the illness and exhaustion of many inmates and rusted the production machines, causing many of the completed products to fail quality control. In February, the command made efforts to improve the conditions for Elsabe prisoners in order to reduce death rates. The prisoners were housed separately in a warehouse with washrooms and given increased rations of food, while they did not have to participate in as many roll calls. Production at Richard I continued until 5 May 1945.
### Richard II
On 15 May 1944, the Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production decided to use Leitmeritz to expand the production of tungsten and molybdenum wire and sheet metal produced by Osram's Berlin factory. For this, 15,000 square metres (160,000 sq ft) of underground floor space was required as well as 300 civilian workers and 600 prisoners. The Hamburg company Robert Kieserling was contracted to construct this space. The cover name of Osram operating in Leitmeritz was Kalkspat K.G., which was responsible for machinery, power, access roads, and accommodation for civilian workers. Production was scheduled to begin by the end of 1944, but none ever took place because Osram executives recognized the hopelessness of the war situation.
## Command
This first commandant, SS-Hauptscharführer Schreiber, arrived with a contingent of 10 SS men who accompanied the transport. Schreiber was replaced by SS-Hauptscharführer Erich von Berg within a few months. The third commandant, SS-Obersturmführer Völkner, tried to improve conditions for prisoners but was replaced in November by SS-Hauptsturmführer Heiling, who had the most brutal reputation of the SS leaders. From February 1945, SS-Untersturmführer Benno Brückner was the commandant. The Schutzhaftlagerführer of the camp had the greatest control over camp conditions. All three of them—SS-Hauptscharführer Willi Czibulka in 1944, Kurt Panicke through March 1945 and SS-Oberscharführer Karl Opitz—had a reputation for arbitrary cruelty. Supervising prisoners in their barracks was the responsibility of the block leaders, while the Labor Operations Department (commanded by SS-Unterscharführer Tilling and later SS-Unterscharführer Piasek) oversaw labor deployment. The Political Department was headed originally by SS-Rottenführer Willi Bacher and later by SS-Rottenführer Hans Rührmeyer. SS-Unterscharführer Hans Kohn initially commanded the supply department. In 1945, Kohn was put in charge of the prisoners' kitchen and SS-Oberscharführer Günter Schmidt and SS-Scharführer Eduard Schwarz succeeded him.
There was a separate command for SS-Führungsstab B 5, headed first by SS-Obersturmführer Werner Meyer, and from November 1944 SS-Sturmbannführer Alfons Kraft. Initially, the camp was guarded by thirty Luftwaffe guards, who reported to the Fighter Staff command in Nordhausen. The first commander of the guard was Emanuel Fritz, a former prosecutor from Vienna, who was replaced by Hauptmann Jelinek in mid-1944 and SS-Oberscharführer Edmund Johann in November. As the camp expanded, the number of Luftwaffe guards increased to as many as 300, who had been seconded from Vienna, Leipzig and Buchenwald. Guards who shot a prisoner were rewarded with leave and a commendation.
## Prisoners
By August 1944, there were more than 2,800 prisoners, which increased further to 5,000 by November. In April 1945, the population peaked at 9,000, nearly as many as were held in the Flossenbürg main camp. An estimated 18,000 people passed through the camp. The plurality of prisoners came from Flossenbürg (3,649); large numbers also came from Gross-Rosen (3,253), Auschwitz II-Birkenau (1,995), and Dachau (1,441). In March and April 1945, 2,000 people were deported to Leitmeritz from various Flossenbürg subcamps and 800 from subcamps of Buchenwald due to the advance of Allied armies. Leitmeritz began as a male camp, but from February to April 1945, 770 women also were imprisoned at the site, to work for Osram. An unusually high number of the prisoners, about 3,600 or 4,000, were Jews, most of whom were from Poland and the first of whom arrived on 9 August 1944. By country of origin, the largest groups were Poles (almost 9,000), Soviet citizens (3,500), Germans (950), Hungarians (850), French (800), Yugoslavs (more than 600) and Czechs (more than 500).
## Conditions
The camp itself was located in a former Czechoslovak Army base. The SS guards and administrators as well as civilian laborers lived in the original soldiers' quarters, while prisoners were warehoused in the former stables, indoor riding arena, and storage depot, which were surrounded by a double barbed-wire fence and seven watchtowers. During mid-1944, the prisoners renovated the buildings in order to house more prisoners. A kitchen was set up in June 1944 and the infirmary was built around September. Additional barracks were built during the winter of 1944–1945 to accommodate increases in the prisoner population. By April 1945, seven additional barracks had been built for prisoners while an additional two were planned. The capacity was 4,300 men—which had already been exceeded—and 1,000 women in the separate women's camp.
Despite the continual increase in the number of prisoners, not enough accommodation was built, resulting in serious overcrowding and major problems with hygiene. Rations of food were completely inadequate. The rate of infectious disease, especially tuberculosis, was very high; at the end of 1944 many prisoners were x-rayed, showing that nearly half had the disease. By February 1945, a third of prisoners were incapacitated by disease, preventing sufficient prisoners from being mustered for slave labor. As a result, the companies constantly had to train new prisoners. Initially the prisoners were grouped in quarters based on the transport they arrived in; later they were organized by work group but not nationality as was typical elsewhere.
Prisoners called it the "death factory"; about 4,500 prisoners died at the camp. According to records, 150 people died through November 1944 and after that the mortality rate climbed, with 706 deaths in December, 934 in January 1945, and 862 in February. The increase in the death rate coincided with the arrival of Jewish prisoners. The Warsaw Uprising detainees were specifically targeted by the kapos and SS guards; a third did not survive. Victims were first cremated at the Theresienstadt crematorium [cs] at the Small Fortress. Due to the large number of deaths, another crematorium was built at Leitmeritz in April. The remains of 66 others, who had been buried in seven mass graves, were exhumed in 1946; another 723 bodies were found in a 40-metre (130 ft) long anti-tank ditch. After the war, these victims were reburied in the cemetery at Theresienstadt Small Fortress [cs]. Before the evacuation of the camp, 3,869 prisoners, primarily those unable to work, were sent to other camps, including 1,657 to Flossenbürg and its subcamps and 1,200 (suffering from typhus and dysentery) to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. Their fate is not known.
## Dissolution
In the last week of the war, Leitmeritz was a hub for many death marches. Thousands of prisoners arrived at the camp, where there was no space for them. Some prisoners had to sleep outside while others, during the last few days of the war, slept in the tunnels. Prisoners were bundled into almost 100 transports and deported south into Bohemia. The number of deaths during the evacuation is unknown. About 1,222 prisoners, mostly Jewish men—some from Leitmeritz itself, others who had arrived after death marches from elsewhere—ended up in Theresienstadt Ghetto. However, some of them may have been sent there after liberation. Ninety-eight died in Theresienstadt.
After Flossenbürg main camp was liberated by the United States Army on 23 April 1945, Leitmeritz continued to operate, administering nearby concentration camps such as Lobositz. On the afternoon of 5 May, Panicke summoned the prisoners to announce that the war was over and they would be released. Between 6 and 8 May, many prisoners received certificates for their release. The camp was officially dissolved by the German Instrument of Surrender on 8 May. On 9–10 May, 5th Guards Army of the Red Army arrived at the site, finding 1,200 sick prisoners who had been left behind. The Czechoslovak militia guarded the site until 16 May, when it was taken over by the Red Army. Parts of the Soviet and Czech medical missions to Theresienstadt were diverted to Leitmeritz. The last prisoners were repatriated in July 1945.
## Aftermath
The Elsabe production lines were dismantled and shipped to the Soviet Union as war reparations, while the barracks were returned to use by the Czechoslovak Army, and used until 2003. The crematorium is the only part of the former camp open to the public. Nearby, a memorial to the victims of the camp designed by the Czech artist Jiří Sozanský [cs], was unveiled in 1992. The memorial and the surviving archives of the former camp are administered by the Terezín Memorial [cs]. Leitmeritz is known as "one of the most infamous and best researched Flossenbürg subcamps"; the Terezín Memorial has sponsored research into the camp's history. In 2014, Audi (the successor to Auto Union) released a report by Audi historian Martin Kukowski and Chemnitz University of Technology academic Rudolf Boch [de] that it had commissioned into its activity during the Nazi era. According to the report, the company bore "moral responsibility" for the 4,500 deaths that occurred at Leitmeritz.
In 1946, former Schutzhaftlagerführer Karl Opitz was convicted of responsibility for the execution of thirty prisoners and sentenced to life in prison by a Czechoslovak court. In 1974, former guard Henryk Matuszkowiak was convicted and sentenced to death in Poland for committing fourteen murders at Leitmeritz. In 2001, Julius Viel [de; fr] was convicted by a German court of murdering seven Jewish prisoners in an anti-tank trench in the spring of 1945, despite having claimed to be in Vienna when the murders were committed. The information which led to his conviction was given by a Hungarian-born former SS man, Adalbert Lallier. More than 360 witnesses were interviewed by the prosecutors.
|
23,105,495 |
Royal Mail Case
| 1,161,293,445 |
1931 English criminal trial
|
[
"1931 crimes in the United Kingdom",
"1931 in British law",
"1931 in England",
"1931 in case law",
"Accounting scandals",
"Auditing in the United Kingdom",
"English criminal case law"
] |
The Royal Mail Case or R v Kylsant & Otrs was a noted English criminal case in 1931. The director of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, Lord Kylsant, had falsified a trading prospectus with the aid of the company accountant to make it look as if the company was profitable and to entice potential investors. Following an independent audit instigated by HM Treasury, Kylsant and Harold John Morland, the company auditor, were arrested and charged with falsifying both the trading prospectus and company records and accounts. Although they were acquitted of falsifying records and accounts, Kylsant was found guilty of falsifying the trading prospectus and sentenced to twelve months in prison. The company was then liquidated, and reconstituted as The Royal Mail Lines Ltd with the backing of the British government.
As well as its immediate impact, the case instigated massive changes in the way companies were audited. In 1947, the Companies Act was passed, criminalizing the failure to disclose the use of secret reserve accounts. The case highlighted flaws in the way company accounts were reviewed, and "probably had a greater impact on the quality of published data than all the Companies Acts passed up to that date". The case "fell like an atomic bomb and profoundly disturbed both the industrial and the accountancy worlds", and has also been linked to reduced public trust of big businesses. The case is also seen as the reason for the demise of accounting with the aid of secret reserves.
## Background
The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company was a British shipping company founded in London in 1839 by James MacQueen. It became the largest shipping group in the world when it took over the White Star Line in 1927. Lord Kylsant had been chairman of the company since 1902. He had expanded the company rapidly: aside from the White Star Line, he bought the Pacific Steam Navigation Company in 1910 for £1.5 million, the Union-Castle Line in 1912, and assumed control of the Harland and Wolff shipyards in 1924.
The company had prospered during the First World War as the government paid to requisition its ships as military supply vessels and troop transports. The company had saved the profits, predicting that it would need them to cover income tax and excess profits tax. After these taxes had been paid there was approximately £1 million left, which they again saved, hoping to use this to cover any financial difficulties that might arise. The reserves were again boosted with government money paid under the Trade Facilities Act 1921, but between 1921 and 1925 the profits of the company rapidly dropped and, beginning from 1926, the directors supplemented the company income by taking money from the reserves.
In 1929 the company asked HM Treasury for an extension of the period in which government loans to the company could be paid. The Treasury first demanded an audit of the company accounts, and sent Sir William McClintock to write a report on the financial state of the company. McClintock's report revealed that the company had not earned any trading profits since 1925, but was still paying dividends by taking money from the reserves. The company had reported £439,000 profits for 1926, but had drawn £750,000 out of the reserves and falsified accounts to make it appear that the money came from trading. In 1927 the company made a trading loss of £507,000, but money was again drawn from the reserves to make it appear that the company had made a profit of £478,000. As a result of this, and a report that in 1928 the company had issued a fraudulent prospectus inviting customers to buy shares in the company and saying that it had earned an average £500,000 a year in the last decade, arrest warrants were issued for Lord Kylsant and John Moreland, the company auditor. At the time the ruse was discovered the company had a trading deficit of £300,000 a year, the reserves were completely exhausted, and the company owed £10 million.
## Trial
The trial began at the Old Bailey on 20 July 1931 before Mr Justice Wright, with Sir William Jowitt, D. N. Pritt and Eustace Fulton for the prosecution, Sir John Simon, J. E. Singleton and Wilfred Lewis for Lord Kylsant and Sir Patrick Hastings, Stuart Bevan, James Tucker and C. J. Conway for John Moreland. The indictment contained three counts. On count one, Kylsant was charged with issuing a document, namely the annual report for 1926 with intent to deceive the shareholders about the true state of the company, Morland was charged with aiding and abetting this offence. Count two was an identical count relating to the annual report for 1927 against both defendants and on count three Kylsant alone was charged with issuing a document—the debenture stock prospectus of 1928 with intent to induce people to advance property to the company. All counts were contrary to section 84 of the Larceny Act 1861. Both defendants pleaded not guilty to all counts.
The main defence on the use of secret reserve accounting came with the help of Lord Plender. Plender was one of the most important and reliable accountants in Britain, and under cross-examination stated that it was routine for firms "of the very highest repute" to use secret reserves in calculating profit without declaring it. Patrick Hastings said that "if my client ... was guilty of a criminal offence, there is not a single accountant in the City of London or in the world who is not in the same position." Both Kylsant and Moreland were acquitted of counts one and two, but Kylsant was found guilty on count three and was sentenced to 12 months in prison.
Kylsant appealed his conviction on count three and was bailed pending the appeal. The appeal was heard in November 1931 where the Court of Appeal upheld the conviction, ruling that although the statements within the prospectus were all true, the document as a whole was false because of what it concealed, omitted or implied.
## Aftermath
Following Kylsant's conviction the company was liquidated, and reconstituted as The Royal Mail Lines Ltd with the backing of the British government. The case led to several changes in the way companies were audited. Because many accountants shared Plender's view that secret reserve accounting was a regular and respectable practice, and because the pair had not been found guilty of publishing false information as a result of this, the professional response was disjointed and half-hearted. There were major changes, however: although the practice of secret reserve accounting remained acceptable, companies disclosed their use of this in their audit reports. The Companies Act 1947 made it clear that failing to disclose the use of this process was unacceptable, and undermined the "true and fair view" companies were required to give in their financial statements.
A second major change was in the approach accountants took to their job. Previously the attitude was that accountants were only required to do their legal duty, but after the Royal Mail Case accountants were more and more expected to use their ethical and moral judgement in making decisions. Contemporaries said that the case "probably had a greater impact on the quality of published data than all the Companies Acts passed up to that date". The case "fell like an atomic bomb and profoundly disturbed both the industrial and the accountancy worlds", and has been linked to reduced public trust of big businesses.
Following his release in 1932, Kylsant stayed mainly out of the public eye despite a brief return in 1933.
## Influence on contract law
The case also affected misrepresentation in the English law of contract. A misrepresentation is an untrue statement of fact that induces a contract, and a victim may rescind and perhaps be awarded damages. In the Kylsant case, the court held that the prospectus, though "strictly true", was fraudulently intended to give a misleading impression and was thereby an "untrue statement", allowing investors to sue. Kylsant's statement was deemed fraudulent on the basis of the "3-part test in Derry v Peek " which held that a person who (i) intentionally told lies, or (ii) was reckless with the truth, or (iii) did not believe in what he was saying, was liable in fraudulent misrepresentation.
In the later case of Doyle v Olby, Lord Denning MR declared that a person making a fraudulent misrepresentation was liable in damages for "all direct consequences", whether the loss was foreseeable or not; whereas the general rule for the award of damages in contract is that the loss caused by the breach must be foreseeable either to the parties or to the "reasonable man", as in Hadley v Baxendale.
|
2,966,352 |
Sami Salo
| 1,167,975,617 |
Finnish ice hockey player
|
[
"1974 births",
"Detroit Vipers players",
"Finnish expatriate ice hockey players in Canada",
"Finnish expatriate ice hockey players in Sweden",
"Finnish expatriate ice hockey players in the United States",
"Finnish ice hockey defencemen",
"Frölunda HC players",
"HC TPS players",
"Ice hockey people from Turku",
"Ice hockey players at the 2002 Winter Olympics",
"Ice hockey players at the 2006 Winter Olympics",
"Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics",
"Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics",
"Jokerit players",
"Living people",
"Manitoba Moose players",
"Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics",
"Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics",
"Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics",
"Olympic bronze medalists for Finland",
"Olympic ice hockey players for Finland",
"Olympic medalists in ice hockey",
"Olympic silver medalists for Finland",
"Ottawa Senators draft picks",
"Ottawa Senators players",
"Tampa Bay Lightning players",
"Vancouver Canucks players"
] |
Sami Sakari Salo (born 2 September 1974) is a Finnish former professional ice hockey defenceman of the National Hockey League (NHL). He began his professional career with TPS of the SM-liiga before being selected by the Ottawa Senators with their last pick in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft.
He joined the Senators in 1998–99 and was selected to the NHL All-Rookie Team. In the 2002 off-season, he was traded to the Vancouver Canucks with whom he recorded three 30-point campaigns. Prior to the 2012–13 NHL season he signed with the Lightning as a free agent. Due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Salo played overseas with Frölunda HC of the Swedish Elite League and helped the club capture the Le Mat Trophy as league champions. Internationally, Salo has competed for Finland, appearing in two World Championships, three Winter Olympics and one World Cup. He won silver medals at the 2001 World Championships and the 2006 Winter Olympics, as well as a bronze medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics.
Throughout his career, Salo became infamous for being injury-prone, having suffered over 40 career injuries. Despite his injuries, he was known as a two-way defenceman with a powerful slapshot.
## Playing career
### TPS and Jokerit
After developing his skills with the junior club of his hometown, Turku, Finland, Salo turned professional with TPS of the SM-Liiga in 1994–95. He appeared in seven games, recording a goal and two assists in his first season in the SM-Liiga. The following campaign, he recorded a Finnish career-high 14 assists and 21 points over 47 games. In the off-season, Salo was selected by the Ottawa Senators with their last selection in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft, 239th overall in the ninth round. He remained in Finland for two more seasons upon being drafted. He improved from seven goals to nine in 1996–97. The following season, he transferred from TPS to Jokerit. In his lone season with the Helsinki-based team, he tallied three goals and eight points over 35 games.
### Ottawa Senators
Following a four-year career in Finland, Salo signed with the Senators in July 1998. He played in the first 3 games of the 1998/99 season before he was assigned to the Detroit Vipers, Ottawa's International Hockey League (IHL) affiliate, due to his first NHL injury and was recalled on 18 November 1998. Twenty-seven games into his rookie campaign, he scored his first NHL goal against Boston Bruins goaltender Byron Dafoe, a game-winner, in a 3–1 win on 21 January 1999. Completing the 1998–99 season with seven goals and 19 points, he was named to the NHL All-Rookie Team. The following season, Salo notched a hat trick in a 6–4 win against the Pittsburgh Penguins on 30 March 1999. His campaign was shortened, however, to 37 games due to injury and he was limited to 14 points. In 2000, he missed two games as he suffered from a snakebite.
Salo continued to be sidelined in 2000–01 with various ailments, including shoulder, foot and knee injuries, as well as the flu. In March 2001, he was also cross-checked in the face by Rick Tocchet of the Philadelphia Flyers, suffering broken teeth and a mild concussion. He finished his third NHL season with 18 points in 31 games.
Before the 2001–02 season began, Salo injured his groin in an exhibition game against the Toronto Maple Leafs in September. In addition to missing the first three games of the season, he was later sidelined for a total of 13 more contests due to separate cases of the flu, a broken finger and back spasms. He recorded 18 points in 66 games. In the proceeding off-season, Salo underwent shoulder surgery. Becoming a free agent, he accepted an \$880,000 qualifying offer from the Senators on 31 July 2002. Nearly two months later, he was traded to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for forward Peter Schaefer on 21 September.
### Vancouver Canucks
Salo established himself as a top-four defenceman with the Canucks, ranking fourth among team blueliners in average ice time per game during his first season with Vancouver. He also appeared in a career-high 79 games while recording nine goals and 30 points. The Canucks re-signed him in the off-season to a two-year, \$3.2 million contract. The following campaign, he recorded seven goals and 26 points in 74 games.
Due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Salo went overseas to play for Frölunda HC in the Swedish Elite League. He notched six goals and 14 points in 41 games, helping Frölunda to the league's best regular season record. The club went on to capture the Le Mat Trophy as playoff champions, defeating Färjestads BK four games to one in the finals. Salo assisted on the overtime goal by Niklas Andersson in game five to win the championship. Salo completed the playoffs with a goal and seven points in 14 post-season contests.
As NHL play was set to resume the following season, Salo signed another two-year contract with the Canucks at \$1.5 million per season. He was limited to 59 games in the subsequent 2005–06 season, suffering a shoulder injury with the Finnish national team during the 2006 Winter Olympics, colliding with a teammate during a line change. He recorded 10 goals and 33 points with the Canucks, second among team defencemen in scoring. His 23 assists were also a career high.
In 2006–07, Salo sprained his knee in a game against the Minnesota Wild on 2 November 2006. Soon after returning, he sustained nerve damage in his shoulder from a hit against the Edmonton Oilers in December. Towards the end of the season, he suffered a groin injury, sidelining him for five games in March and April. Although he cumulatively missed 15 games, Salo still managed to have a career year, recording personal bests with 14 goals, 23 assists and 37 points. He tied for 10th among league defencemen in goals and ranked first in game-winning goals with six. Late in the season, he avoided his pending unrestricted free agency by re-signing with the Canucks to a four-year, \$14 million contract extension on 29 March 2007. The Canucks entered the 2007 playoffs as the third seed. After eliminating the Dallas Stars in the first round, Vancouver was defeated by the Anaheim Ducks in five games. Salo missed the first two games of the second round due to the flu. He notched an assist over 10 post-season games.
With an accumulation of injuries over the years, Salo spent the 2007 off-season recovering from chronic groin, back and shoulder problems. Salo was immediately sidelined once more before the start of the 2007–08 season, fracturing his wrist during an intra-squad game in training camp. Shortly after returning, he was hit in the face by a clearing attempt from teammate Alexander Edler during a game against the Nashville Predators on 2 November 2007. The impact from the puck broke his nose and he missed 19 games. In 63 games, Salo recorded 25 points, his lowest output since his 2001–02 season with the Senators. Despite this, he still led all Canucks defencemen in scoring, as all the team's blueliners also suffered injuries over the season.
The 2008–09 season began with more time off in November due to separate leg and shoulder injuries. After returning, he was hit into the boards by Edmonton Oilers captain Ethan Moreau on 17 December 2008, and suffered a broken rib. He missed 15 games before returning on 20 January 2009. Limited to 60 games, he managed five goals and 25 points in the regular season. In the ensuing playoffs, Salo scored seven points in seven games, including game-winning goals in both game ones of the first and second rounds against the St. Louis Blues and Chicago Blackhawks, respectively. Salo injured himself in game two of the second round, tearing his gluteus medius muscle while taking a slapshot in which he scored. He played through the injury the following game before missing the next two matches. Following his return, the Canucks were eliminated in the sixth game by the Blackhawks. Salo had three goals and seven points in seven games.
Early in the 2009–10 season, Salo suffered a medial collateral ligament (MCL) sprain to his right knee during a game against the Dallas Stars on 11 October 2009. Sidelined for seven games, he returned by the end of the month. Salo missed additional games during the season to various injuries, ending the campaign with nine goals and 28 points in 68 games. Towards the second half of the season, Salo took on a more defensive role, replacing Willie Mitchell, who was sidelined with a concussion, as the team's primary shutdown defenceman.
In game five of the second round of the 2010 playoffs, Salo was hit in the groin by a slapshot from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Duncan Keith. Needing to be helped off the ice, he was taken to hospital with what was falsely believed to be a ruptured testicle. He played through an undisclosed injury the following game, as the Canucks were eliminated by the Blackhawks by a 5–1 score. He completed the playoffs with a goal and six points in 12 post-season games.
Playing floorball in the off-season, Salo tore his achilles tendon on 22 July 2010. After undergoing surgery, he was sidelined for the first four months of the 2010–11 season. The injury was so severe that Salo later admitted thinking his career was over during his rehabilitation. Before returning to the Canucks lineup, he was sent to the team's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Manitoba Moose, for a conditioning assignment. Making his AHL debut on 4 February 2011, he scored two goals for the Moose in a 3–2 win against the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins. Salo played two more games for the Moose, going pointless in both, before being called up by the Canucks on 11 February. Salo appeared in 27 games in 2010–11, recording three goals and four assists. During the first and second rounds of the 2011 playoffs, Salo missed four games with a leg injury. The Canucks eliminated the Blackhawks and Nashville Predators in the first two rounds to qualify for the Western Conference Finals against the San Jose Sharks. During Game 4 of the series, Salo set a Canucks playoff record for fastest back-to-back goals, scoring 16 seconds apart on a pair of 5-on-3 powerplays. The feat also tied Larry Murphy's NHL record for fastest two power play goals in the playoffs since 1957. Combined with Ryan Kesler's goal a minute and thirty-nine seconds previously, the trio of goals were also the fastest scored in Canucks playoff history at a minute and fifty-five seconds. Vancouver went on to win the game 4–2, while winning the series 4–1. Advancing to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, the Canucks were defeated in seven games by the Boston Bruins. During the off-season, Salo re-signed with the Canucks to a one-year, \$2 million deal on 1 July 2011, prior to becoming an unrestricted free agent.
In the first half of the 2011–12 season, Salo suffered a minor groin injury that sidelined him on two separate occasions, costing him three games and one game, respectively. In January 2012, the Canucks and Bruins played against each other for the first time since the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals. During the contest, Salo sustained a concussion after a clipping hit from opposing forward Brad Marchand. Salo left the game immediately, while Marchand received a five-minute major and game misconduct; he was later additionally suspended for five games following a hearing with the league.
### Tampa Bay Lightning
On 1 July 2012, Salo signed a two-year, \$7.5 million contract worth \$3.75 million per year with the Tampa Bay Lightning as a free agent. When speaking of the signing, general manager Steve Yzerman announced he expected Salo to combine with Eric Brewer to "give our defense some nice veteran leadership for our younger players." He officially announced his retirement from professional hockey on 13 August 2015.
## International play
Salo made his international debut with the Finnish national team at the 2001 World Championships in Germany. He recorded an international career-high nine points in nine games, second among tournament defencemen to Finnish teammate Petteri Nummelin. Finland advanced to the gold medal game, where they lost 3–2 to the Czech Republic, earning silver.
On 13 December 2001, Salo was selected to the Finnish national team for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, along with Senators teammate Jani Hurme. He appeared in four games without registering a point as Finland was defeated by the gold medal-winning Canadians in the quarterfinal by a 2–1 score.
In Salo's next World Championships appearance in 2004, he recorded three assists in seven games. Finland failed to medal, losing their quarterfinal to Canada. Salo assisted on the go-ahead goal in the third period before Canada tied up the score and won 5–4 in overtime. Several months later, at the 2004 World Cup, Salo helped Finland to the final, notching three assists in seven games. For his third straight national team appearance, however, Finland was eliminated by Canada, losing the championship game 3–2.
He made his second Olympics appearance at the 2006 Games in Turin. He recorded four points in six games before suffering a tournament-ending shoulder injury in a collision with teammate Ville Peltonen during a line change in front of the team bench. The injury kept him from playing in the semifinal and gold medal game, where Finland won the silver medal in a 3–2 loss to Sweden. Despite missing two games, Salo ranked second among team defencemen, behind Kimmo Timonen, with a goal and four points in six games. Four years later, Salo competed once again for Finland at the 2010 Winter Olympics in his NHL hometown Vancouver. He recorded two points in six games, while leading all Finnish players in ice time. He scored his lone goal during the bronze-medal game, opening the score against Slovakia in a 5–3 win.
In 2014, Salo competed in his fourth and last Olympic tournament at the 2014 Winter Olympics. Finland won the bronze medal and Salo recorded 1 point in 6 games. In the bronze-medal game, Salo became the last player to play without a visor at the Olympics.
## Playing style
Salo is known as a two-way defenceman, capable of being matched up against an opposing team's top players, while also contributing offensively. His offensive game is characterized by his powerful slapshot. He has won numerous hardest shot titles with the Canucks in the team's SuperSkills competitions, clocking one shot at 102.7 miles per hour (163.5 km/h) in 2012. As a result, he is used frequently on the powerplay, being set up by teammates for shots from the point. A well-rounded defenceman, Salo also earns time on the penalty kill.
## Personal life
Salo has a wife, Johanna, and three children. From youngest to oldest, they are Peppi, Oliver and Julia. Salo has spent time coaching Oliver, his only son, on his hockey team.
Growing up in Turku, Finland, Salo had aspirations of playing with the Finnish national team, rather than the NHL. He idolized Jari Kurri and was more familiar with other Finnish players, such as Esa Peltonen and Heikki Riihiranta, than he was with any NHL stars.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
### International
## Awards
## Transactions
- 22 June 1996 - Drafted by Ottawa Senators in the 9th round, 239th overall, in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft.
- 31 July 2002 - Signed a one-year, \$880,000 qualifying offer from the Ottawa Senators.
- 21 September 2002 - Traded to the Vancouver Canucks for Peter Schaefer.
- 17 July 2003 - Re-signed to a two-year, \$3.2 million contract with the Vancouver Canucks.
- 15 September 2004 – Signed to a one-year contract with Frölunda HC.
- 14 August 2005 - Re-signed to a two-year contract with the Vancouver Canucks.
- 29 March 2007 - Signed to a four-year, \$14-million contract extension with the Vancouver Canucks.
- 1 July 2011 - Re-signed with the Canucks to a one-year, \$2 million contract.
- 1 July 2012 - Signed to a 2-year, \$7.5 million contract with the Tampa Bay Lightning.
|
15,769,568 |
Japanese aircraft carrier Kaiyō
| 1,149,113,008 |
Escort carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy
|
[
"1938 ships",
"Aircraft carriers sunk by aircraft",
"Escort carriers of the Imperial Japanese Navy",
"Merchant ships of Japan",
"Ships built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries",
"Ships sunk by US aircraft",
"World War II escort carriers of Japan",
"World War II merchant ships of Japan"
] |
Kaiyō (海鷹, meaning Sea Hawk) was an escort carrier operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War II. The ship was originally built as the ocean liner Argentina Maru. She was purchased by the IJN on 9 December 1942, converted into an escort carrier, and renamed Kaiyō. The ship was primarily used as an aircraft transport, escort carrier and training ship during the war. She was badly damaged by repeated air attacks in July 1945 and was scrapped in 1946–48.
## Description
The ship was ordered as the fast luxury passenger liner Argentina Maru by Osaka Shosen Kaisha (OSK) in 1938. In exchange for a subsidy of her building costs by the Navy Ministry, she was designed to be converted to an aircraft carrier.
Argentina Maru was completed in 1939 and rated at 12,755 gross register tons (GRT). After being rebuilt, the ship had a length of 155 meters (508 ft 6 in) overall. She had a beam of 21.9 meters (71 ft 10 in) and a draft of 8.04 meters (26 ft 5 in). She displaced 13,600 tonnes (13,400 long tons) at standard load. As part of her conversion, her original diesel engines, which had given her a top speed of 21.5 knots (39.8 km/h; 24.7 mph), were replaced by a pair of destroyer-type geared steam turbine sets with a total of 52,000 shaft horsepower (39,000 kW), each driving one propeller. Steam was provided by four water-tube boilers and Kaiyō now had a maximum speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). She carried enough fuel oil to give her a radius of 7,000 nautical miles (13,000 km; 8,100 mi). Her crew numbered 829 officers and men.
The ship's flight deck was 21.9 meters (72 ft) wide and Kaiyō had a single hangar, served by two aircraft elevators, mounted on the centerline. She was not built with an island and could operate 24 aircraft. The ship's primary armament consisted of eight 40-caliber 12.7 cm Type 89 anti-aircraft (AA) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull. They fired 23.45-kilogram (51.7 lb) projectiles at a rate between 8 and 14 rounds per minute at a muzzle velocity of 700–725 m/s (2,300–2,380 ft/s); at 45°, this provided a maximum range of 14,800 meters (16,200 yd), and a maximum ceiling of 9,400 meters (30,800 ft). Kaiyō was also initially equipped with eight triple 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns, also in sponsons along the sides of the hull. They fired .25-kilogram (0.55 lb) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 900 m/s (3,000 ft/s); at 50°, this provided a maximum range of 7,500 meters (8,202 yd), and an effective ceiling of 5,500 meters (18,000 ft). The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute due to the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines. In early July 1944, 20 single 25 mm guns were added as were eight depth charges. Some sources say that a number of 28-round AA rocket launchers were added in late 1944. Each 12-centimeter (4.7 in) rocket weighed 22.5 kilograms (50 lb) and had a maximum velocity of 200 m/s (660 ft/s). Their maximum range was 4,800 meters (5,200 yd). Early warning was provided by a Type 2, Mark 2, Model 1 air search radar that was installed on the side of the flight deck in November 1943.
## Service history
Argentina Maru was initially used for troop transport after the beginning of the Pacific War in December 1941. The ship began conversion at Nagasaki on 10 December 1942, the day after she was purchased. After the conversion was completed on 23 November 1943, she was renamed Kaiyō. Her initial duties were to transport aircraft to Japanese overseas bases. Her first such task was to ferry aircraft for the 23rd Air Flotilla to Singapore via Manila in January 1944 as part of Convoy HI-33. On her return journey, the ship transported aircraft of the 551st Air Group to Truk. On 10 February, en route to Truk from Palau, the submarine Permit made a night attack on Kaiyō, but the torpedoes missed. Kaiyō was briefly refitted between 23 February and 2 March and was assigned to the 1st Surface Escort Division on 17 March. She escorted Convoy HI-57 to Singapore via Taiwan and Indochina in April. She escorted Convoy HI-58 on the return voyage; one of her aircraft spotted the submarine Robalo on the surface behind the convoy. The submarine was damaged by the escorts, but escaped.
In late May, Kaiyō formed part of the escort for Convoy HI-65, together with the escort carrier Shinyo, bound for Singapore. One of the escorts was torpedoed en route and two of the merchantmen collided while trying to dodge the other torpedoes. The rest of the convoy arrived at Singapore on 12 June. Kaiyō was assigned to fast Convoy HI-66 for the return voyage and reached Japan on 26 June. She was briefly docked at Kure Naval Arsenal in early July to have more 25 mm AA guns fitted. Together with the escort carrier Taiyō, Kaiyō was loaded with aircraft bound for the Philippines to be delivered in Convoy HI-69. They departed on 13 July and arrived a week later. The convoy left Manila four days later and reached Japan on 1 August. The ship's machinery broke down as she was preparing to join another convoy on 4 August and she was transferred to Sasebo.
On 25 October, Kaiyō ferried a dozen transport aircraft to Keelung, Taiwan, and arrived at Kure on 2 November. The ship was assigned to escort Convoy HI-83 to Singapore via Taiwan and Hainan Island on 25 November and arrived on 13 December. En route, she was assigned to the First Escort Fleet on 10 December. While returning to Japan with Convoy HI-84 later that month, Kaiyō was attacked and missed by the submarine Dace on 31 December. After arriving at Moji on 13 January 1945, the ship was transferred to Kure and assigned to pilot training in the Inland Sea.
On 19 March 1945, while moored at Kure, Kaiyō was attacked by an American carrier aircraft from Task Force 58. She was hit in the port engine room by a bomb that started fires and caused some flooding. The ship started to list and was moved into shallow water near Etajima Island lest she sink. On 20 April she was assigned to serve as a target ship for kamikaze crews. Kaiyō resumed her pilot training duties a month later and hit a mine on 18 July with only minor damage.
Six days later, she was attacked as part of a renewed aerial campaign against remaining Japanese warships, and hits were attributed to Fleet Air Arm aircraft from the British Pacific Fleet. While attempting to avoid the attack, she also struck a mine. The ship was towed overnight to Beppu Bay and deliberately grounded the following morning to prevent her from sinking. The ship was attacked again on 28 July by American carrier aircraft that knocked out the ship's power and stopped her pumps. Kaiyō was also hit by 18 rockets and a total of 20 crewmen were killed by the attacks. The damage caused her to ground again with a list to port. The next day she was attacked again by B-25J Mitchell medium bombers of the Fifth Air Force as well as by aircraft from the carrier Ticonderoga. The amount of damage inflicted by these attacks, if any, is unknown, but they did cause Captain Shuichi Osuga to abandon attempts to repair the ship. He ordered that the boilers be flooded with sea water and the machinery coated in oil to better preserve it. Some crewmen were left aboard to man the AA guns.
Low-level air strikes by Okinawa-based B-25J Mitchells of the United States Army Air Forces 38th Bomb Group on 9 August further damaged the carrier, despite extensive use of camouflage netting and foliage. The following day, the ship's list increased and she was ordered abandoned. Kaiyō was struck from the Navy List on 20 November and scrapped in place from 1 September 1946 and 30 January 1948 by Nissan Salvage.
|
3,617,071 |
1934 Central America hurricane
| 1,170,503,583 |
Category 2 Atlantic hurricane in 1934
|
[
"1930s Atlantic hurricane seasons",
"1934 in Central America",
"1934 in Mexico",
"1934 meteorology",
"1934 natural disasters in the United States",
"Atlantic hurricanes in Mexico",
"Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Belize",
"Hurricanes in Guatemala",
"Hurricanes in Honduras",
"Hurricanes in Louisiana",
"June 1934 events",
"Natural history of Central America"
] |
The 1934 Central America hurricane (called the El Salvador hurricane by meteorologist Ivan Ray Tannehill) was a deadly tropical cyclone during the 1934 Atlantic hurricane season which caused at least 506 fatalities in Central America. Its peak strength, attained while in the Gulf of Mexico, was equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the modern Saffir–Simpson scale. The storm's path was erratic, beginning in the Gulf of Honduras on June 4 shortly before making its first landfall in British Honduras as a tropical storm. It then took a looping course through Guatemala before reemerging into the Gulf of Honduras on June 8. The storm struck the northeastern Yucatán Peninsula as a hurricane on June 9, crossing into the western Gulf of Mexico where its course made another loop. An accelerated northward course followed, leading to the hurricane's landfall along the Louisiana coast on June 16. It weakened over land and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on June 18, accelerating northeast towards the Canadian Maritimes thereafter.
The storm's slow track over Central America between June 5–8 led to copious rainfall and triggered deadly floods; El Salvador and Honduras suffered most among Central American countries. Rainfall totals exceeded 25 in (640 mm) in some areas. Fourteen rivers in El Salvador rose above their banks. Entire villages in El Salvador were destroyed by the floods, with damage extensive in the country's interior and along its Pacific coast. Communications with El Salvador were downed for 36 hours. Extensive damage to crops and infrastructure occurred in and around San Salvador, where at least 2,000 people may have perished; property damage totaled \$2 million (1934 USD) in the city. The hurricane was especially deadly in Honduras, primarily west and north of Tegucigalpa. In Ocotepeque, torrential rainfall caused a landslide that formed a natural dam, allowing floodwater to accumulate behind it. The dam failed on June 7, and the resulting debris flow downstream destroyed most of Ocotepeque and killed an estimated 468 people. The Yucatán Peninsula's sparse population mitigated significant damage when the hurricane struck Quintana Roo on June 9, though crops were impacted between Progreso and Payo Obispo.
Much of the shores of the Gulf of Mexico were affected by the hurricane due to its erratic path. High winds and coastal floods stemming from swells generated by the storm reached Tamaulipas and Brazos Island along the western extents of Gulf of Mexico, while a stationary front tapped into moisture from the storm to produce heavy rainfall across southern Georgia and Florida. The worst of the hurricane's impacts associated with its landfall in Louisiana were caused by the storm's rainbands that raked across Louisiana and Mississippi ahead of the hurricane's center. Six people were killed in Louisiana and four were killed in Mississippi. Approximately 3,000–7,000 homes were damaged in Louisiana. The storm continued to produce high winds and flooding rainfall as it tracked northeast across the Mid-Atlantic states and into Canada, causing power outages and property damage.
## Meteorological history
The circumstances leading to the storm's formation in the western Caribbean Sea were unclear, marked only by inclement weather in the Gulf of Honduras. An area of low pressure developed in the area and organized into a tropical depression by 12:00 UTC on June 4, strengthening into a tropical storm six hours later. The following day, the cyclone made landfall near Belize City in the British Honduras with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (80 km/h). Over the next two days, the storm took a looping path primarily through Guatemala. Although interaction with land initially weakened the cyclone, the storm's winds quickly increased when it passed near Guatemala's Pacific coast. It re-entered the Gulf of Honduras on a northward path early on June 8 and strengthened into a hurricane by June 9. Concurrently, it curved towards the west, leading to a landfall along the Yucatán Peninsula on June 9 with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h).
The next day, the system moved into the Gulf of Mexico as a tropical storm on a northwestward heading. Two days later, the storm executed another loop, restrengthening into a hurricane before taking a northward course. Observations from ships in the vicinity of the hurricane were suggestive of an intensifying system. On June 14, the storm attained winds of 100 mph (160 km/h), ranking it as a Category 2 hurricane intensity on the modern Saffir–Simpson scale. It held this intensity for two days and made landfall along the coast of Louisiana near Jeanerette at 19:00 UTC on June 16. Upon landfall, the storm's barometric pressure was 966 mbar (hPa; 28.53 inHg). The hurricane weakened and accelerated towards the northeast after moving ashore, though the swampy terrain of coastal Louisiana curtailed the weakening process. The storm's winds decreased below hurricane strength on June 17 and fell further to tropical depression strength on June 18 as the system tracked across Mississippi and Tennessee. Its entanglement with an approaching cold front on June 18 signaled the storm's transition into an extratropical cyclone. The storm continued towards the northeastern United States and the Canadian Maritimes, tracking across Nova Scotia and the northern shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence before it was last documented on June 21 over Labrador.
## Impact
### Central America and Southeastern Mexico
Between June 5–8, the center of the storm slowly tracked across British Honduras, southeastern Mexico, and Guatemala, with estimated peak sustained winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) along this path. These peak winds were measured in San Salvador, El Salvador. Lesser winds of 34 mph (55 km/h) were recorded in Belize City, British Honduras, where the storm initially made landfall. The slow-moving tropical cyclone produced torrential rainfall, resulting in widespread flooding that killed several thousand people. Estimates of the death toll in Central America vary; a list of the deadliest Atlantic tropical cyclones compiled by meteorologists Edward Rappaport and Jose Fernandez-Partagás in 1996 indicates that the hurricane may have caused over 3,000 fatalities, with a low-end estimate of 506. Between 1,000 and 3,000 casualties occurred across Honduras according to the U.S. Weather Bureau's report in the Monthly Weather Review. Relief workers in Honduras suggested approximately 2,000 fatalities occurred, while reporting by the Associated Press estimated at least 2,000 deaths near San Salvador with at least 2,500 deaths across Central America. Rainfall totals exceeded 25 in (640 mm) in some locations, increased by the effects of the mountains of the Trifinio region. In El Salvador, the storm contributed to the country's wettest year on record; this record stood until 2005. Rivers and lakes rose 45–60 ft (14–18 m) from the excessive rains. Banana and timber regions were heavily impacted by the storm.
The worst effects were felt in El Salvador and Honduras, with lesser impacts occurring in Guatemala. The heaviest damage in El Salvador occurred in the departments of Cabañas, Cuscatlán, La Paz, San Miguel, San Vicente, and Usulután. Fourteen rivers throughout the country overflowed their banks, with floods along the Lempa proving to be particularly devastating in northwestern El Salvador. Entire villages in El Salvador were destroyed, including those along the Pacific coast of El Salvador from La Libertad to La Unión. On a single estate along the coast, 100,000 head of cattle perished. All Pacific ports were flooded; few buildings withstood the storm in Acajutla, whose port was rendered inoperable. Verapaz was wrecked by floods rushing down the slopes of a nearby volcano. Power lines were brought down by the storm, with communications company All America Cables reporting an inability to connect with the country for 36 hours. A report from San Salvador described "considerable damage" arising from flooding. Property damage totaled \$2 million (1934 USD) and initial reports tallied 500 people rendered homeless near the city. Large buildings in the city were damaged and homes were washed away in the residential districts of Ilopango and Soyapango. The 30-foot (9 m) rise of Lake Ilopango destroyed buildings along its banks. Similarly, flooding along the banks of Lake Güija and the Coatepeque Caldera washed away settlements along their shores. A partially-completed stadium intended for the Central American and Caribbean Games in December 1934 was flooded, forcing to event to be delayed to March 1935. Substantial damage was also wrought to crops around San Salvador. Long segments of the international railroad of Central America were washed out, requiring three months of repairs; one train on its tracks derailed. Bridges were torn apart by the flooding, with washouts and landslides reported on railways and highways. Washouts occurred on nearly all roads throughout the country.
On June 8, martial law was declared in El Salvador, with an early curfew enforced in San Salvador. Electricity was restored in the city between June 9–10 while potable water was made available twice daily. Churches and other public buildings served as havens for those displaced by the storm in San Salvador. The government of El Salvador seized all gasoline in San Salvador to ensure adequate supplies for emergency transport. A decree from the president enacted price controls on food and suspended import duties on cereal for three months. Hundreds of men were pressed into service by the presidents to repair highways. The American Red Cross contributed \$10,000 towards relief for victims of the hurricane in the country.
Rains from the hurricane affected Honduras for nine days. The storm disrupted transportation service in Honduras, completely isolating Tegucigalpa. Low-lying areas of the capital city were flooded as the Río Grande quickly rose due to heavy rainfall. The storm destroyed homes in San Juancito. Banana-growing regions along the Atlantic coast were also heavily impacted; plantations near Santiago were inundated in floodwaters, and large plantations owned by the United Fruit Company were destroyed. Rail service to these areas was suspended due to the flooding. The worst impacts in Honduras occurred in districts west and north of Tegucigalpa. On June 4, 25.2 in (64 cm) of rain fell in Ocotepeque, Honduras, triggering a landslide in a mountain valley above the city. The landslide acted as a natural dam along the southern slope of Cerro El Pital . Rainfall accumulated in a lake formed behind this temporary obstruction as the storm meandered over Central America. On June 7, the barrier burst, producing a debris flow that killed an estimated 468 people, representing over 10 percent of Ocotepeque's population. The town was largely destroyed, with all buildings succumbing to the flood except for the town church. Despite the magnitude of the disaster, contemporary reports were scarce due to the city's remote location and lack of communications. The destruction caused the city to be relocated 2.5 mi (4 km) north, where it was named Nueva Ocotepeque; the former city was later resettled slightly outside the floodplain of the Río Marchala and renamed as Antigua Ocotepeque.
> The scene that meets the eyes of the survivors is most grievous. Everywhere are groups of persons, hungry, almost naked, seeking among the corpses still floating some loved one they will not see again. The church remains standing; all else is ruin, misery, mud...
The Lempa and Ulúa rivers rose significantly due to the rainfall, with the latter rising 45 ft (14 m). Residents of Pimienta fled to a hill to avoid advancing floodwaters only to be drowned there as the Ulúa River continued to rise. Hundreds of cattle also drowned in Pimienta. More than 125 buildings were destroyed in the city with property losses estimated at \$500,000. At Villanueva, floods were 6–15 ft (1.8–4.6 m) deep. Honduran president Tiburcio Carías Andino appealed to American officials in Panama for tents due to the displacement of Ocotepeque residents. A total of 65 tents were delivered by 11 bombers to Tegucigalpa on June 16. Serum for combating disease in storm-stricken Honduras and El Salvador was prepared and sent to San Salvador for distribution. The American Red Cross allocated \$1,000 towards relief for those affected by the hurricane in Honduras. Six people were killed in the Mexican state of Chiapas following a plane crash, possibly due to strong winds from the storm. After completing its loop over Central America and reemerging into the Caribbean Sea, the storm made landfall as a Category 1 hurricane on Quintana Roo on June 9, producing hurricane-force winds inland over the Yucatán Peninsula. Due to the region's sparse population, there were no reports of significant damage. The storm damaged crops between Progreso and Payo Obispo. Ships were sunk in the harbor at Progreso.
### Northern Mexico and Northern America
Along the U.S. Gulf Coast ahead of the storm, a semi-stationary weather front across southern Georgia and northern Florida drew moist air from the hurricane, causing heavy rains over central and northern Florida; the maximum rainfall total in the state was 20.9 in (530 mm) as recorded in St. Leo. The storm's trajectory on June 11 suggested a possible track towards the Mexican coast between Tampico and the Mexico–United States border. Swells ahead of the storm flooded roads in low-lying areas of Brazos Island and cut off the beach at Playa Miramar. Buildings were boarded up in the Rio Grande Valley in preparation for the hurricane. In Tampico, hospitals, police, and the Red Cross prepared for the storm. Bus fleets were readied for potential evacuations. High winds ultimately reached the coast of Tamaulipas on June 13 with little impact.
Northeast storm warnings were issued for the U.S. Gulf Coast between Pensacola, Florida, and Morgan City, Louisiana, on June 15. Hurricane warnings were later issued on June 16 for the Louisiana coast between Grand Isle and Vermilion Bay. These warnings were disseminated via radiophone, telegraph, and telephone. A cutter from the United States Coast Guard was sent to alert ships of the storm's approach at Mobile Bay. The hurricane moved ashore Louisiana at Category 2 intensity on June 16, passing over Jeanerette, west of Morgan City. Along the coast, shrimp-drying platforms and oil derricks incurred \$105,000 in damage. However, the hurricane's small size reduced the resulting storm surge, leading to maximum storm tide heights of 2–3 ft (0.61–0.91 m) between Grand Isle and Vermilion Bay. The storm's most destructive effects were associated with squalls that swept across Louisiana and Mississippi in advance of the storm's landfall. These localized storms felled trees throughout New Orleans. Winds in Morgan City reached 68 mph (109 km/h) as the hurricane made landfall. There, homes lost their roofs and chimneys. A rainfall maximum of 9.6 in (240 mm) was recorded in Lafayette. Six people were killed in Louisiana and the property damage toll reached \$2.605 million. The American Red Cross estimated that 75–150 homes were destroyed and that another 3,000–7,000 were damaged. An additional \$1.5 million damage toll was inflicted upon crops, including corn and cotton. Corn and cotton crops recovered soon after the hurricane's passage.
Squalls associated with the hurricane killed four people and injuring many others in Mississippi. Gusty winds destroyed and unroofed homes in Natchez. The storms produced heavy rainfall across western parts of the state, elevating the Pearl River above flood stage by 1–3.5 ft (0.30–1.07 m) between Monticello and Jackson. Mississippi crops sustained \$3 million in losses. In Tennessee's Red River Valley, crops and roads sustained \$250,000 in damage from excessive rainfall. Cedar Hill, Tennessee, recorded 10 in (250 mm) of rain in 14 hours; this was the heaviest June rain event in state history. A 50 yd (46 m)-wide tornado struck a rural area north of Joelton, Tennessee on June 17, damaging a few farm buildings. The tropical storm proceeded to produce strong winds and rainfall over New England and the Mid-Atlantic states. A 50 mph (80 km/h)-wind was measured in Atlantic City, New Jersey, as the storm emerged into the Atlantic. The extratropical remnants of the hurricane passed over the Canadian Maritimes with sustained winds of up to 40 mph (65 km/h). The storm caused power outages between Sorel and Montreal, Quebec. Poles were toppled along the Canadian National Railway between the two cities. A fire caused by the storm destroyed three barns near Verchères; eight other barns were destroyed throughout Quebec. The storm also caused flooding in Ontario, inundating some of the main streets in Toronto.
## See also
- List of Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes
- Hurricane Fifi-Orlene (1974) – A Category 2 crossover hurricane that triggered landslides that killed thousands of people in Honduras
- Hurricane Mitch (1998) – A Category 5 hurricane that caused catastrophic flooding and loss of life in Honduras and Nicaragua
- Hurricanes Eta and Iota (2020) – Two Category 4 hurricanes that caused catastrophic damage in Nicaragua and Honduras just two weeks apart
|
36,244,166 |
Joseph Lonardo
| 1,162,938,269 |
Boss of the Cleveland Mafia (1884–1927)
|
[
"1884 births",
"1920s in Cleveland",
"1927 deaths",
"1927 murders in the United States",
"Burials in Calvary Cemetery (Cleveland)",
"Cleveland crime family",
"Deaths by firearm in Ohio",
"Italian emigrants to the United States",
"Murdered American gangsters of Sicilian descent",
"People from Siculiana",
"People murdered in Ohio",
"Prohibition-era gangsters"
] |
Joseph Lonardo (; October 20, 1884 – October 13, 1927), also known as "Big Joe", was a Sicilian emigrant to the United States who became the first crime boss of the Cleveland crime family, which he structured from a competing number of organized crime gangs. When national Prohibition began in 1920, Lonardo became a dealer in corn sugar, an essential ingredient in the manufacture of corn whiskey. Lonardo became a "sugar baron" by driving other legitimate corn sugar merchants out of business, encouraging home distillation, and using intimidation, murder, and theft to eliminate or drive his criminal competitors out of business.
Lonardo transformed his gang, the Mayfield Road Mob, into a powerful organized crime family. He had the support of the D'Aquila crime family of New York City, and engaged in widespread bribery of local judges, police, and politicians. His criminal organization's reliance on low-quality corn whiskey led to a drop in revenues when consumers began favoring better quality, illegally imported liquor. He began demanding unquestioning loyalty while taking little risk, alienating many bootleggers, home distillers, and organized crime figures.
Lonardo's control of the Cleveland mafia was usurped in 1927 by underboss Salvatore "Black Sam" Todaro and the Porrello brothers while Lonardo was out of the country. When Lonardo returned to Cleveland, he attempted to regain control of the Cleveland mafia. His bodyguards were arrested as suspects in the Yorkell and Brownstein murders, leaving Lonardo unprotected. On October 13, 1927, he was murdered in a Porrello barber shop, likely on the orders of "Black Sam" Todaro. His death sparked Cleveland's Corn Sugar War.
## Early life
Lonardo was born October 20, 1884, in Licata, Sicily, to Angelo and Antonia (née Verdi) Lonardo. He had three brothers, Dominic, Frank, and John, and a sister. Angelo Porrello operated a sulfur mine near Licata, and the four Lonardo sons worked alongside Porrello's seven sons in the mine.
Lonardo emigrated from Italy to the United States, entering the country on February 4, 1901. He settled in New York City's Little Italy neighborhood, and his three brothers and his sister emigrated to the United States soon thereafter.
Lonardo moved to Cleveland, Ohio, in 1905, living on La Grange Avenue in the Hough neighborhood, then at 923 Orange Avenue by 1916, and then a few years later to E. 38th Street in the Central neighborhood. He became a naturalized citizen on August 14, 1914. Lonardo worked in various commission houses at first, then sold fruit for a living, and later opened a confectionery. By the early 1920s, his brothers Frank and John and family friend Salvatore "Black Sam" Todaro were working in the business. Many members of the Porrello family had also emigrated to the U.S. and settled in Cleveland. Among these was Joseph Porrello, who found work in Lonardo's confectionery business. By at least 1924, Lonardo had also partnered with Todaro in opening a grocery store.
## Criminal career
Lonardo and his brothers were originally legitimate businessmen, but they soon branched out into extortion and robbery. Lonardo's criminal career began soon after he arrived in Cleveland. He was convicted of aggravated assault in 1906 for stabbing a man, and imprisoned for 22 months in the Ohio State Reformatory. Shortly after his release, he was arrested for (but not charged with) robbery. He was accused of robbery in 1909 but not indicted. He shot and killed a man during an argument in 1916, but a grand jury declined to indict him. Police suspected he was involved in a number of robberies and by 1924 believed he had also committed two murders, but he was never arrested for any of these alleged crimes.
About 1913, a loosely organized Italian American gang known as the Mayfield Road Mob formed in Cleveland's Little Italy neighborhood. The protection racket was the core business of the Mayfield Road Mob at first. Lonardo's criminal activities were limited to small-time crimes, but once Prohibition began, he and his brothers began taking over the Mayfield Road Mob and organizing it, turning it into the dominant criminal organization in Cleveland.
### Rise during early Prohibition
Prohibition began in Ohio on May 27, 1919, and nationally throughout the United States on January 16, 1920. Once stockpiles of alcohol were consumed, the brewing of beer and distillation of liquor at home increased exponentially in the first few years of Prohibition. By 1920, Lonardo was so well-regarded nationally by other organized crime families that Buffalo underboss Angelo Palmeri asked Lonardo to be godfather to his daughter.
The start of Prohibition also saw the formation of the Cleveland Syndicate. Formed by Moe Dalitz, Maurice Kleinman, Louis Rothkopf, and Sam Tucker, the Cleveland Syndicate was a group of Jewish mobsters based in Cleveland and Akron who engaged in bootlegging, gambling, and smuggling luxury goods, among other things. The Cleveland Syndicate preferred to give a cut of its profits to mobsters in other criminal organizations, who then did the actual work of bootlegging or running the gambling operations. The Cleveland Syndicate dominated bootlegging in Cleveland during the early days of Prohibition, but swiftly partnered with the Mayfield Road Mob—which did most (but not all) of the bootlegging for the Syndicate. The Mayfield Road Mob's bootlegging operation moved large amounts of high-quality liquor from Canada into northeast Ohio and northwest Pennsylvania, generating substantial profits for those involved.
Beginning in 1924, Lonardo began a campaign of intimidation and murder to win control of the majority of bootlegging in northeast Ohio. The barriers to entry into the illegal liquor industry were low, which meant that Lonardo could reduce, but not entirely eliminate, the competition. Lonardo relied on several associates in his effort, including Salvatore "Black Sam" Todaro, his top lieutenant; Frank Milano, one of the top leaders in the Mayfield Road Mob; and gangsters John Angersola, Charles Colletti, Lawrence Lupo, and Charles Russo. Salvatore "Sam" Tilocco and Porrello also became part of the Lonardo crime family, and Porrello rose to a position of some prominence in the organization.
### Sugar baron years: 1925–26
In 1925, with pre-Prohibition stockpiles of alcohol exhausted, corn whiskey—which had been manufactured on a small scale—became the illegal liquor of choice in northeast Ohio. Corn sugar was key to the manufacture of corn whiskey. Corn whiskey was usually made with cornmeal or unground corn mixed with rye as the mash. Corn sugar could not only be substituted for grain as the mash ingredient but also permitted faster production of the final liquor. Control of the corn sugar industry as well as the distribution of illegal liquor was critical to anyone seeking to dominate the illegal liquor industry.
Lonardo essentially established a cottage industry in the production of illegal corn whiskey. He and his brothers used their profits from previous criminal activities to invest heavily in corn sugar manufacturing, a completely legal enterprise. They purchased a warehouse located at Woodland Avenue and E. 9th Street. Todaro ran the warehouse, oversaw the bookkeeping, and assisted home brewers in obtaining and setting up stills. Frank Lonardo oversaw the collection of the corn whiskey and its distribution to buyers. Lonardo sold corn sugar sold to home distillers, who in turn sold their corn whiskey to the Mayfield Road Mob. The mob, in turn, sold the alcohol at high prices to local speakeasies. Lonardo offered his corn sugar customers easy credit, which encouraged expansion in home distilling and drove most legitimate corn sugar merchants out of business. The cottage industry system dispersed distillation operations so that no single raid by law enforcement could seriously interrupt production. The cottage industry system also created few opportunities for law enforcement aggrandizement. The vast majority of home distillers used by Lonardo were immigrants, and few law enforcement officers wanted the media to depict them breaking into the homes of poor immigrants. By 1925, law enforcement recognized that home distilling had become so widespread it was now an industrial concern.
The corn sugar industry generated immense wealth for the Lonardos. Lonardo's personal profits from the industry were estimated at \$5,000 (\$ in dollars) a week. He became Cleveland's first "corn sugar baron", and this in turn allowed him to become boss of the Mayfield Road Mob within just a few years. Lonardo then began to use intimidation and murder to force other corn sugar dealers and purchasers of home-distilled liquor out of business. Tactics included hijacking other people's liquor shipments, stealing liquor from warehouses rented by other gangs, or tipping off the police about where liquor was stored or how it was being moved. The Mayfield Road Mob killed so many small-time corn sugar merchants, distillers, and bootleggers that police claimed hit men were charging a flat fee of \$25 (\$ in dollars) per murder. Lonardo used the same tactics to discourage home distillers from selling liquor directly to speakeasies, and to encourage retailers to sell liquor at the highest possible price. When his better corn sugar customers ran into trouble with the law, Lonardo often donated money for attorneys and bail. As law enforcement improved, the Mayfield Road Mob strengthened its organization and promoted gangsters with stronger personalities and more talent to leadership positions within the mob. Lonardo and his organization also began the widespread bribery of judges, police, and politicians.
The Mayfield Road Mob's influence was not limited to Cleveland. In Akron, a large industrial city 40 miles (64 km) to the south, Frank Bellini and Michael Corcelli controlled the imported illegal liquor and home distilling operations (but not corn sugar sales). The Akron mob owed its allegiance to Lonardo.
### Boss of the Cleveland crime family
The political economist Dennis M.P. McCarthy suggests that the Cleveland mafia went through three stages: An initial stage, where rival gangs and families contended with one another for power; a second stage, when these gangs sometimes cooperated and sometimes competed; and a third stage, where a powerful boss dominated all the gangs and families and the mafia acted more like a unitary organization. The Mayfield Road Mob under Lonardo, he concludes, is typical of the initial stage. The distinctiveness of the Mayfield Road Mob as a crime family is supported by mafioso Nicola Gentile, who called the group predominio dei licatesi (dominance of those from Licata).
Lonardo and the Mayfield Road Mob had become so dominant in Cleveland that other mafia families began to take interest in what was happening in the city. Prohibition also encouraged the much more powerful New York City mafia organizations to seek alliances with crime families in other cities to ensure reliable and large supplies of illegal liquor. Among the many friends Lonardo made while living briefly in New York City were several who later became important mafioso, including Nicola "Uncle Cola" Gentile (a powerful mafia figure who played a major role in peacekeeping among crime families and helped create The Commission in 1931) and Salvatore "Toto" D'Aquila. D'Aquila, who was rapidly expanding his influence in New York City and was heavily involved in bootlegging, began supporting Lonardo in his efforts to establish himself as the sole boss in Cleveland. According to Gentile, Lonardo "worshipped" D'Aquila "like a god" and was one of D'Aquila's most avid supporters even though D'Aquila tended to murder any of his associates who grew too rich and powerful.
Through his domination of the corn sugar and corn whiskey industries and with the support of the D'Aquila crime family, Todaro, and the Porrello brothers, Lonardo became the first known boss of the Cleveland crime family. Lonardo was generally regarded as an effective boss. He overcame resistance to his criminal activities by maintaining good relationships with people in Little Italy (the area most affected by his bootlegging), helping to resolve their disputes and donating money to those in need. He was also aware of the precarious position he held. He had several bodyguards, including Charles Colletti and Lawrence Lupo, and he was rarely seen in public without at least one of them by his side.
Lonardo encountered new problems as boss of the Cleveland crime family. Over time, he came to expect that his word would be obeyed without question and without the need to use force. Many of his competitors, as well as some of his subordinates, felt he was becoming arrogant. Problems with bootlegging also cropped up. The corn whiskey cottage industry system did not emphasize quality, and by the mid-1920s many consumers preferred to purchase high-quality liquor illegally imported from Canada. This hurt the market for corn whiskey, reducing criminal profits. Improvements in law enforcement also made many restive with Lonardo's rule. Lonardo demanded a percentage of the profits from the sale of corn whiskey, but appeared to take little risk. As more and more home distillers were jailed, the number of people willing to brew corn whiskey fell (further reducing income). Some distillers attempted to deceive the mob, selling liquor on the side; many of these individuals were murdered. Some sellers of corn whiskey lied about the amount of whiskey they were selling or the amount of profits they were making, depriving Lonardo and the Mayfield Road Mob of revenue. Many of these people were also killed. More and more distillers and distributors of corn whiskey were joining a new Italian American gang run by the Porrellos that had formed near the intersection of Woodland Avenue and E. 55th Street.
## Death
### Changes in support
In New York City in the early 1920s, Giuseppe "Joe the Boss" Masseria was contending with D'Aquila for control of organized crime. Masseria began backing challenges to D'Aquila-supported crime families across the country, most notably in Cleveland. Much of Masseria's extended family lived in Cleveland and his brother was involved in the Mayfield Road Mob, so his interest in the city is not surprising.
In 1924, Porrello and his six brothers pooled their money and began selling corn sugar as well. By 1926, they had purchased several homes and warehouses at the intersection of Woodland Avenue and E. 110th Street, and become wealthy selling corn sugar to distillers. The Porrellos were the only significant corn sugar suppliers other than Lonardo, who had intimidated or eliminated nearly all other competitors. Lonardo tolerated their operation only because the Porrellos were lifelong friends. Todaro, too, was unhappy with Lonardo's rule. Despite largely managing the Lonardo corn sugar business, he had gained little wealth.
After secretly visiting Sicily in April 1926, Lonardo left openly for Sicily in April 1927 for five months to visit his mother. The relationship between Lonardo and the Porrellos worsened while he was away. Law enforcement officials had identified a Porrello-owned barber shop at 10902 Woodland Avenue as a front for the sale of large orders of corn whiskey and, following a sting in early 1927, Raymond Porrello was arrested. He was convicted of various violations of liquor laws and for threatening a law enforcement officer and sentenced to jail. Joseph Porrello allegedly tried to bribe officials to win Raymond's release, and failed. He then asked Lonardo for help. Lonardo agreed to use his political influence, although Porrello had to pay him \$5,000 (\$ in dollars). Lonardo either took no action or failed to win Raymond Porrello's release before he left.
John Lonardo served as caretaker of Joseph's businesses while Joseph was in Sicily. John had little temperament for business and lacked good judgment, and a leadership vacuum emerged in the Mayfield Road Mob. As soon as Joseph Lonardo left for Sicily, the Porrellos began offering home distillers corn sugar at \$2.19 per pound (\$4.8/kg) (\$ in dollars), much less than the \$3.50 per pound (\$7.7/kg) (\$ in dollars) Lonardo charged. Lonardo's influence with local politicians and police evaporated, and law enforcement raids on home brewers loyal to the Lonardos increased significantly. A Porrello subordinate, Mike Chiapetta, began swiftly building a home brewing network loyal to the Porrellos. Just a few weeks after Lonardo's departure, the Porrellos had taken control of more than half of Lonardo's corn sugar and corn whiskey business.
Lonardo returned to Cleveland in August 1927, and worked hard to put his business back in order. He correctly surmised that Todaro had conspired with the Porrellos to undermine his business, and ejected him from the Mayfield Road Mob. Lonardo then ordered Lawrence Lupo to kill Todaro, ostensibly for abusing a Jew who worked for the mafia. Nicola Gentile says that Joseph Biondo and Paolino Palmieri members of the Buffalo crime family, tried to convince Lonardo to rescind the death sentence, but he refused. Gentile finally told Lonardo that if Todaro was murdered without good reason, Gentile would leave Cleveland and never return. The seriousness of Gentile's announcement impressed Lonardo, who rescinded the assassination order the next day. Historian Rick Porrello says Todaro was lucky not to have been killed.
Todaro allied with the Porrellos, where he became suddenly wealthy. Lonardo was allegedly enraged that Todaro refused to acknowledge that he owed his station in life to Lonardo—not the Porrellos. Lonardo, however, was not eager to start a gang war. He met several times with the Porrellos to discuss what was happening, allegedly seeking a merger of the two gangs and their bootleg operations.
### Yorkell and Brownstein murders
In September 1927, Ernest J. Yorkell (about 30 years old) and Jack Brownstein (about 25 years old) came to Cleveland. Yorkell had once been a sideshow strongman, nicknamed "Young Hercules." Brownstein had been a small-time robber and thief specializing in jewelry. Almost nothing was known about how the two met and/or where they had operated, except that they had engaged in blackmail in Buffalo, New York, before moving to Cleveland.
After their arrival in Cleveland, Yorkell and Brownstein spent time in local gambling dens, speakeasies, and other places where criminal activity took place. They paid attention to local gossip, learned who the wealthy criminals were, and then attempted to blackmail these gangsters. They allegedly never asked for much money, and never blackmailed a victim twice. On October 7, 1927, Yorkell and Brownstein told witnesses that they intended to hit up a very wealthy local crime boss for \$5,000 (\$ in dollars). They did not mention the name of their intended victim, but local newspapers and historians widely believe that they wanted to blackmail Lonardo.
Yorkell and Brownstein's bullet-riddled bodies were found in the early hours of October 8, 1927, at the intersection of East Blvd. (now Martin Luther King Jr. Drive) and North Park Blvd. in Cleveland Heights, less than 0.5 miles (0.80 km) from Lonardo's home and within view of the homes of a number of millionaires. Lonardo was widely believed to have ordered their deaths. Lonardo bodyguards Lawrence Lupo and Charles Colletti were arrested for suspicion in involvement in the Yorkell-Brownstein murders (although both were released in late October).
### Death at the Porrello barber shop
Masseria encouraged Todaro to murder Lonardo and take over the Cleveland crime family in order to embarrass Salvatore D'Aquila. Todaro likely ordered the murder of Lonardo, and most likely arranged the meeting at which Lonardo was killed.
Lonardo suspected that his life was in danger. After his return from Sicily, he never entertained at home and rarely ventured out at night. His bodyguards Lupo and Colletti were constantly with him during the day as he conducted his business, but Lonardo was deprived of their services after their arrest in the Yorkell-Brownstein murders.
In the early evening of October 13, 1927, someone telephoned Lonardo and asked him to come to the barber shop owned by Ottavio Porrello at 10902 Woodland Avenue. The caller was never identified, although it appears to have been someone Lonardo trusted. Joseph and John Lonardo arrived at the barber shop without any bodyguards (which was highly unusual) about 8:15 PM and proceeded into the back room, which was used for playing cards. A few minutes later, two men entered the card room from the barber shop. The two men then opened fire. Angelo Porrello, who was in the card room, claims he did not know who the men were and survived only by hiding under the card table. Joseph Lonardo was killed instantly. Two bullets entered his skull near his left eye, three bullets entered his left shoulder and upper left arm, and two bullets entered his right side. John Lonardo was shot in the left leg and stomach. The two gunmen fled out the front door of the barber shop and onto Woodland Avenue. John Lonardo followed them. One of the gunmen stopped in front of Anthony Caruso's butcher shop at 10906 Woodland. When John Lonardo reached him, the gunman hit Lonardo between the eyes with the butt of his pistol. John Lonardo fell unconscious, and bled to death on the sidewalk. Police found Joseph Lonardo's will on his body, which led them to suspect that Lonardo knew he was being targeted for death.
Joseph and John Lonardo were buried on October 18, 1927. A wake was held at John Lonardo's home at 3269 Warrington Road in Shaker Heights. Several hundred mourners, many from out of town, attended the wake. A procession of about 500 cars followed the hearse to St. Anthony's Catholic Church on E. 13th Street and Carnegie Avenue. John and Joseph Lonardo were both buried in silver caskets at Calvary Cemetery in Cleveland.
### Aftermath
Lonardo's death ignited what the press called the "Corn Sugar War", a series of power-grabs and retaliatory blood feuds that left another Lonardo and seven Porrellos dead before it ended. Police in 1927 believed Lonardo's death was only one in a series of five murders recently committed in the city. The name of the conflict is a misnomer, since the struggle for control over Cleveland's corn sugar industry had ended (not begun) with Lonardo's death.
Lawrence Lupo attempted to gain control over Mayfield Road Mob and the Lonardo corn sugar and corn whiskey empire after Lonardo's death but was murdered on May 31, 1928. Salvatore "Black Sam" Todaro is widely believed to have taken over Lonardo's criminal enterprises, becoming the second boss of the Cleveland crime family.
Todaro was murdered in front of Ottavio Porrello's barber shop on June 11, 1929, by Angelo Lonardo (Joseph Lonardo's son) and Dominic Sospirato (Joseph Lonardo's nephew). Joseph Porrello then took over as boss of the Cleveland crime family.
## Personal life
Lonardo was nicknamed "Big Joe" because at 6 feet 2 inches (1.88 m) in height and 300 pounds (140 kg) in weight he was taller and heavier than almost all his peers. For much of his adult life, Lonardo suffered from an unidentified disease in his right eye. At one point in the mid-1920s, he traveled to Boston, Massachusetts, to have surgery on the eye, recuperating afterward at a Massachusetts beach resort. The surgery proved ineffective in the long run, and by the end of his life Lonardo was blind in his right eye.
Once he achieved wealth, Lonardo became well known for being a flashy dresser. He wore expensive tailored suits, closed the cuffs with diamond-studded cufflinks, used a diamond-encrusted tie pin, and wore several diamond rings.
About 1925, Lonardo commissioned local architect J. L. Cameron to design a home for him in Cleveland's Buckeye–Shaker neighborhood. The home, located at 13700 Larchmere Blvd., cost \$70,000 to \$75,000 (\$ to \$ in dollars).
### Wives, children, and mistresses
Lonardo's common-law wife was Concetta Paragone. She was born in Licata about 1888. Sources differ as to how they became a couple. Some sources say Concetta accompanied Joseph to the United States in 1901. Concetta herself later claimed that she and Lonardo had lived together as man and wife since 1902 (although they never had a civil or religious ceremony). Other sources say that Concetta married a fellow Licatan (either in Sicily or in the United States), and she had three children by him. They were living in Cleveland when Concetta left him in 1906 for Lonardo. All sources agree that the Lonardos had five children: Angelo (b. 1911), Antoinette (b. circa 1914), Frank (b. circa 1917), Dominic (b. circa 1921), and Helen (also known as Ella; b. circa 1922). Angelo "Big Ange" Lonardo was later underboss of the Cleveland crime family from 1976 to 1983. Joseph and Concetta Lonardo separated about 1925, and Concetta died on January 24, 1943, in East Cleveland.
On September 8, 1925, Lonardo married 29-year-old Fannie (or Fanny) Lanzone in Sandusky, Ohio. They immediately began living together. Fannie had been widowed only 19 days earlier: Her husband, Angelo Lanzone, attacked her and her 15-year-old daughter, Angelina, with a hatchet. They survived the attack only when Fannie's mother, Frances Damanta, shot and killed Angelo. Fannie claimed that she married Lonardo only after he threatened to kill her if she did not. Their relationship apparently did not last; by the fall of 1927, Fannie was living in St. Louis, Missouri.
Constantina Bullone (also known as Concettina Bulone) was Lonardo's mistress. Lonardo met her while in Sicily in 1926 and began an affair with the married woman. He convinced her to come to the United States with him, and she agreed. She lived in Cleveland in a lavishly furnished apartment Lonardo rented on her behalf. She was 24 years old in November 1927 when U.S. officials deported her back to Italy.
### Wealth
Lonardo deeded most of his property to his heirs several months before his death. The worth of the remainder of Lonardo's estate was assessed at about \$2 million (\$ in dollars) by the probate court. Concetta Lonardo was named administrator of the estate, and Lonardo's will distributed most of his remaining wealth and property to her and his five children.
Fannie Lanzone Lonardo sued to overturn the will, claiming that her 1925 civil marriage to Lonardo legally superseded Lonardo's common-law marriage to Concetta. The lawsuit tied up much of the estate, leaving Concetta Lonardo somewhat impoverished. By June 1929, her car had been legally repossessed, and her personal finances were so tight that she had to appeal to Salvatore Todaro for monetary assistance. By March 1930, the probate court had resolved the lawsuit in Concetta Lonardo's favor, although Fannie Lonardo appealed the court's decision. Joseph Metzel was appointed a guardian of the estate while the appeal was heard, and former Cleveland police detective Phil Mooney was appointed a guardian for Lonardo's minor-aged children. The value of the estate dwindled to just \$149,000 (\$ in dollars) by spring 1930, largely due to legal fees incurred by Concetta Lonardo as she defended herself against murder charges in the death of Salvatore Todaro and by Angelo Lonardo as he fought a concealed weapons charge. Fannie Lonardo's suit was finally dismissed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit in 1932.
|
1,065,264 |
Plaza Hotel
| 1,172,915,006 |
Hotel in Manhattan, New York
|
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"Fifth Avenue",
"Historic Hotels of America",
"Hotel buildings completed in 1907",
"Hotel buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan",
"Hotels established in 1907",
"Midtown Manhattan",
"National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan",
"New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan",
"New York City interior landmarks",
"New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County",
"Residential buildings in Manhattan",
"Residential condominiums in New York City",
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The Plaza Hotel (also known as The Plaza) is a luxury hotel and condominium apartment building in Midtown Manhattan in New York City. It is located on the western side of Grand Army Plaza, after which it is named, just west of Fifth Avenue, and is between 58th Street and Central Park South ( 59th Street), at the southeastern corner of Central Park. Its primary address is 768 Fifth Avenue, though the residential entrance is One Central Park South.
The 21-story, French Renaissance-inspired château style building was designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh. The facade is made of marble at the base, with white brick covering the upper stories, and is topped by a mansard roof. The ground floor contains the two primary lobbies, as well as a corridor connecting the large ground-floor restaurant spaces, including the Oak Room, the Oak Bar, the Edwardian Room, the Palm Court, and the Terrace Room. The upper stories contain the ballroom and a variety of residential condominiums, condo-hotel suites, and short-term hotel suites. At its peak, the Plaza Hotel had over 800 rooms. Following a renovation in 2008, the building has 282 hotel rooms and 181 condos.
A predecessor hotel of the same name was built from 1883 to 1890. The original hotel was replaced by the current structure from 1905 to 1907; Warren and Wetmore designed an expansion to the Plaza Hotel that was added from 1919 to 1921, and several major renovations were conducted through the rest of the 20th century. The Plaza Operating Company, which erected the current building, operated the hotel until 1943. Subsequently, it was sold to several owners during the remainder of the 20th century, including Conrad Hilton, A.M. Sonnabend, Westin Hotels & Resorts, Donald Trump, and a partnership of City Developments Limited and Al-Waleed bin Talal. The Plaza Hotel was renovated again after El Ad Properties purchased it in 2005, and the hotel was subsequently sold to Sahara India Pariwar in 2012 and then to Katara Hospitality in 2018. The hotel has been managed by Fairmont Hotels and Resorts since 2005.
Since its inception, the Plaza Hotel has become an icon of New York City, with numerous wealthy and famous guests. The restaurant spaces and ballrooms have hosted events such as balls, benefits, weddings, and press conferences. The hotel's design, as well as its location near Central Park, has generally received acclaim. In addition, the Plaza Hotel has appeared in numerous books and films. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the hotel's exterior and some of its interior spaces as city landmarks, and the building is also a National Historic Landmark. The hotel is also a member of Historic Hotels of America.
## Site
The Plaza Hotel is at 768 Fifth Avenue and One Central Park South in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It faces Central Park South (59th Street) and the Pond and Hallett Nature Sanctuary in Central Park to the north; Grand Army Plaza to the east; and 58th Street to the south. Fifth Avenue itself is across Grand Army Plaza from the hotel. The hotel's site covers 53,772 square feet (4,995.6 m<sup>2</sup>). It measures 285 feet (87 m) along 58th Street and 275 feet (84 m) along Central Park South, with a depth of 200.83 feet (61.21 m) between the two streets. As completed in 1907, it measured 145 feet (44 m) along 58th Street and 250 feet (76 m) along Central Park South, with an "L" running the entire 200-foot depth of the lot along Grand Army Plaza.
The hotel is near the General Motors Building to the east; the Park Lane Hotel to the west; and the Solow Building, Paris Theater, and Bergdorf Goodman Building to the south. The hotel's main entrance faces the Pulitzer Fountain in the southern portion of Grand Army Plaza. An entrance to the Fifth Avenue–59th Street station of the New York City Subway's is within the base of the hotel at Central Park South.
Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South was relatively undeveloped throughout the late 19th century, when brownstone rowhouses were built on the avenue. By the early 1900s, that section of Fifth Avenue was becoming commercialized. The first decade of the 20th century saw the construction of hotels, stores, and clubs such as the St. Regis New York, the University Club of New York, and the Gotham Hotel. The corner of Fifth Avenue, Central Park South, and 59th Street was developed with the Plaza, Savoy, and New Netherland hotels during the 1890s; the Savoy would be replaced in 1927 by the Savoy-Plaza Hotel, which itself would be demolished in 1964. All three hotels contributed to Fifth Avenue's importance as an upscale area.
## Architecture
The Plaza Hotel, a French Renaissance-inspired château-style building, contains 21 stories and is 251.92 ft (76.79 m) tall. The hotel's floors are numbered according to European usage, where floor 1, corresponding to the second story, is directly above the ground floor. The building was designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh in 1907, with a later addition, by Warren and Wetmore, being built from 1919 to 1922. The interiors of the main public spaces were primarily designed by Hardenbergh, Warren and Wetmore, and Schultze & Weaver. The other interior spaces were by Annabelle Selldorf and date largely to a renovation in 2008. Numerous contractors were involved in the construction of the hotel, including the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company and brick contractor Pfotenhauer & Nesbit.
### Facade
The detail of the facade is concentrated on its two primary elevations, which face north toward Central Park and east toward Fifth Avenue. The facade's articulation consists of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column, namely a base, shaft, and crown. The northern and eastern elevations are also split vertically into three portions, with the center portion being recessed. The northeastern and southeastern corners of the hotel contain rounded corners, which resemble turrets. There are numerous loggias, balustrades, columns, pilasters, balconies, and arches repeated across various parts of the facade. The 1921 annex contains a design that is largely similar to Hardenbergh's 1907 design.
#### Base
The first and second stories of the facade, respectively corresponding to the ground floor and floor 1 of the interior, are clad with rusticated blocks of marble. The third story, corresponding to floor 2 of the interior, contains a smooth marble surface. The hotel had two guest entrances in the 1907 design: the main entrance on Central Park South and a private entrance for long-term residents on 58th Street. The main entrance, in the center of the Central Park South facade, contains a porch above the three center bays, and large doorways. Since the hotel's 2008 renovation, the Central Park South entrance has served as the entrance to the building's condominiums.
The Grand Army Plaza side originally contained a terrace called the Champagne Porch. There were three minor entrances, including one to the porch. The Champagne Porch was replaced by a large central entry in 1921. The entrance there consists of six Tuscan-style columns, supporting a balcony on the second story, immediately above ground level. The second and third stories at the center of the Grand Army Plaza facade contains paired Corinthian-style pilasters supporting an entablature.
#### Upper stories
The fourth through fifteenth stories, respectively corresponding to interior floors 3 through 14, are clad with white brick and typically contain rectangular windows. These stories contain terracotta veneers that harmonize with the marble facade below it and the mansard roof above. At the center of the Central Park South facade, the five center bays at the twelfth and thirteenth stories (floors 11 and 12) contain an arcade composed of arches with paired pilasters. On the Grand Army Plaza side, there are horizontal band courses above the thirteenth story. The 58th Street facade is a scaled-down version of the two primary elevations on Central Park South and Grand Army Plaza. A marble balcony runs above the thirteenth story on all sides.
The top floors are within a green-tile mansard roof with copper trim. The Grand Army Plaza side contains a gable, while the 58th Street and Central Park South sides have dormer windows on the sixteenth through nineteenth stories, corresponding to interior floors 15 through 18. The turrets on the northeastern and southeastern corners are topped by domed roofs. The twentieth story (floor 19) is the top story of the mansard roof; above it is a twenty-first-story penthouse, labeled as floor 20.
### Mechanical features
The hotel originally contained three sets of pneumatic tube mail systems: one for guest mail, another for guests to order food from the kitchen, and a third for the hotel's various operating departments. The hotel also originally had 10 passenger elevators, 13 dumbwaiters, and three sidewalk elevators. These elevators included four at the Central Park South lobby, three at the 58th Street lobby, and two near Central Park South, for long-term residents. The hotel's water storage tanks had a capacity of 75,000 U.S. gallons (280,000 L), and the hotel could filter 1,500,000 U.S. gallons (5,700,000 L) of water from the New York City water supply system each day.
The mechanical plant in the subbasement originally contained nine 3,500 horsepower (2,600 kW) boilers; a coal plant with a capacity of 750 short tons (670 long tons; 680 t); fourteen ventilating fans; and an electric generating plant with a capacity of 1,100 kilowatts (1,500 hp). Also in the subbasement was a refrigerating plant that could make 15 short tons (13 long tons; 14 t) of ice every 24 hours, as well as a switchboard made of Tennessee marble, which controlled the hotel's power and lighting.
### Interior
The hotel has a steel frame superstructure with hollow tile floors, as well as wired-glass enclosures around all stairways and elevators. Originally, five marble staircases led from the ground floor to all of the other floors. As constructed, the stories above the ground floor surrounded a large courtyard, which was covered over with office space in a 1940s renovation. Hardenbergh, in designing the Central Park South foyer, had believed the lobby to be the most important space in the hotel, as did Warren and Wetmore when they designed the Fifth Avenue lobby. Furthermore, Warren and Wetmore had thought restaurants to be the second most significant space in a hotel, in designing the Terrace Room.
There were originally laundry rooms in the basement and on floor 18. When the hotel opened in 1907, the basement also contained a grill room, kitchen, various refrigeration rooms, and amenities such as a Turkish bath and a barber shop. Originally concealed within the mansard roof were the housekeepers' quarters and maids' dormitories; the eighteenth floor had carpentry, ironing, and tailors' departments. The spaces on floor 18 had become offices by the late 20th century.
#### Hallways and lobbies
In Hardenbergh's original design, a main corridor connects the primary spaces on the ground floor. The corridor, which still exists, connects the lobbies on 58th Street, Grand Army Plaza, and Central Park South. The layout of the ground-floor hallways dates largely from the 1921 expansion by Warren and Wetmore. The corridor wraps around the south, east, and north sides of the Palm Court, which is in the center of the ground floor. Various smaller corridors lead off the main corridor. All of the halls have floors decorated with mosaics, coffered ceilings made of plaster, and marble columns and pilasters with bronze capitals.
The Central Park South entrance foyer served as the original main lobby, and is in the shape of a "U", with an overhanging mezzanine. It contains veined Italian-marble finishes, gold-colored trimmings, a mosaic floor, a plaster coffered ceiling, and columns similar to those in the main corridor. There is a bank of four elevators, with decorative bronze doors, directly in front of the entrance. A crystal chandelier hangs from the ceiling. The entrance doorways contain bronze frames with lunettes. The original design had the branch offices of major brokerage houses adjoining the foyer, including in the modern-day Oak Bar.
During Warren and Wetmore's expansion, the Grand Army Plaza lobby, also called the Fifth Avenue lobby, was created as the hotel's new main lobby, which occupied the former Plaza Restaurant's space. The lobby contains a "U"-shaped mezzanine running above the northern, eastern, and southern walls, with three entrance vestibules below the eastern section of the mezzanine. The Fifth Avenue lobby was decorated with bas-reliefs; and it preserved some of the original decorations from the Plaza Restaurant, including paneled pilasters and a beamed ceiling. Other features, including the mosaic floor and a crystal chandelier, were added by Warren and Wetmore.
The 58th Street entrance has three elevators and adjoins what was formerly a women's reception room. West of this lobby is a staircase leading up to a mezzanine-level corridor, which has marble floors and ashlar walls and abuts the Terrace Room's balcony to the north and a foyer to the south. The mezzanine-level foyer has marble floors, a painted coffered ceiling supported by two square columns, and a bank of two elevators to the ballroom on floor 1. A marble staircase, with a marble and wooden balustrade, leads from the mezzanine foyer to the ballroom level.
The layout of the upper floors was based on the layout of the ground-floor hallways, because all the stairways and elevators were placed in the same position on upper floors. On floor 2 and all subsequent stories, a centrally located C-shaped corridor runs around the north, east, and south sides of the building and connects every room.
#### Ground-floor restaurants
The Oak Room, on the western part of the ground floor, was built in 1907 as the bar room. It is west of the Central Park South foyer, separated from the foyer by a corridor. Compared to other spaces in the hotel, it retains more details from the original design. The Oak Room was designed in a German Renaissance style, originally by L. Alavoine and Company. It features oak walls and floors, a coved ceiling, frescoes of Bavarian castles, faux wine casks carved into the woodwork, and a grape-laden brass chandelier. The eastern wall contains a gridded glass double door leading to the main hallway, while the northern wall contains two openings to the Oak Bar.
The Oak Bar is just north of the Oak Room, at the northwest corner of the ground floor. It is designed in Tudor Revival style with a plaster ceiling, strapwork, and floral and foliage motifs. The bar room contains walnut woodwork with French furnishings. It also has three murals by Everett Shinn, which were added in a 1945 renovation and show the neighborhood as it would have appeared in 1907. Prior to the renovation, the Oak Bar served as a brokerage office.
The Edwardian Room, previously known as the Men's Grill or Fifth Avenue Cafe, is at the northeast corner of the ground floor and measures 50 by 65 feet (15 m × 20 m). It was originally designed by William Baumgarten & Company and McNulty Brothers, but it has been redecorated multiple times. It contains dark Flemish-oak paneling, 12 feet (3.7 m) high, with finishes and doorway surrounds made of Caen stone. The floor is inlaid with mosaic tiles. The beamed ceiling is inlaid with mirrors, giving the impression of highly decorated trusses. The room is lit by large windows and eight large bronze chandeliers. The room's original color scheme was a relatively toned-down palette of green, dark brown, and gray hues. When first built, there was a musicians' balcony overlooking the room. The room also had an entrance at Grand Army Plaza, which was closed with the creation of the Fifth Avenue lobby. The space housed the Green Tulip and Plaza Suite restaurants in the late 20th century; by the 2000s, it was known as One CPS.
The Palm Court, previously known as the tea room, is in the center of the ground floor. It contains a design inspired by the Palm Court at the Carlton Hotel in London. It has walls made of Caen stone. As in the main corridor, the Palm Court contains mosaic floors, as well as marble pilasters and columns, topped by bronze capitals. The Palm Court initially had a stained glass ceiling, which was removed in a 1940s renovation; it was restored in the mid-2000s. There were also mirrors on the western wall, against which are four caryatids carved by Pottier & Stymus, which frame the wall mirrors and represent the seasons. The Palm Court was renovated in 2014; its modern design includes four palm trees as well as a central marble-and-brass bar. East of the Palm Court, separated from it by the main corridor, were once the Plaza Restaurant and the Champagne Porch. The Palm Court and Plaza Restaurant, which shared nearly identical designs, originally formed a "vast dining hall". Removable glass panes along the main corridor abutted both spaces.
The Terrace Room, west of the Palm Court, is part of Warren and Wetmore's 1921 design. The room was so named because it contains three terraces that increase in height from east to west and divide the room into three sections, which are separated by balustrades and connected by small staircases. The space contains Renaissance-style motifs on the pilasters, ceilings, and wall arches, as well as three chandeliers and rusticated-marble walls. John B. Smeraldi was commissioned to paint the Terrace Room's ornamentation. The room is surrounded by a balcony, with a painted coffer ceiling possibly commissioned by Smeraldi, as well as marble pilasters and floors. A balcony runs slightly above the room on its southern wall. Immediately south of the balcony is the Terrace Room's corridor and foyer.
The southeastern corner of the ground floor originally contained the 58th Street Restaurant, which was exclusively for the hotel's long-term residents. In 1934, it was replaced by a nightclub called the Persian Room, which had red and Persian-blue upholstery by Joseph Urban, five wall murals by Lillian Gaertner Palmedo, and a 27 ft (8.2 m) bar. The room operated until 1978.
#### Ballroom
The original double-height ballroom from Hardenbergh's plan was on the north side of the second story, or floor 1 according to the Plaza Hotel's floor numbering system. The old ballroom, with a capacity of 500 to 600 people, was served by its own elevator and staircase, and contained a movable stage. The old ballroom was overlooked on three sides by balconies, and contained a white-and-cream color scheme similar to the current ballroom. It was served by its own entrance on 58th Street. By the 1970s, the old ballroom was replaced by offices.
The current ballroom on floor 1 is at the center of that story. It was initially designed by Warren and Wetmore, and had a capacity of 800 people for dinners and 1,000 people for dances. The room contained a coved ceiling designed by Smeraldi, with crosses, hexagons, and octagons, as well as six chandeliers. The ballroom had a stage on its western wall, within a rectangular opening. A balcony ran across the three other walls and was supported by pilasters with bronze capitals.
In 1929, Warren and Wetmore's ballroom was reconstructed according to a neoclassical design by Schultze & Weaver. The room has a white-and-cream color scheme with gold ornamentation, evocative of the original ballroom's design. The stage remains on the western wall, but is within a rounded opening. The redesign added audience boxes, with decorative metal railings, on the north and east walls. The ballroom contains a coved ceiling with roundels, lunettes, bas reliefs, and two chandeliers. South of the ballroom proper is a corridor running west to east. The corridor has a decorative barrel-vaulted paneled ceiling and had a balcony that was removed during the 1929 redesign. On the southernmost section of floor 1 is the ballroom foyer and the stair hall, two formerly separate rooms that were combined in 1965 to form a neoclassical marble-clad space. The stair hall contains the stairs leading from the mezzanine foyer.
#### Condominiums and suites
The Plaza Hotel's condominiums and suites start on the third story, labeled as floor 2. As originally built, they contained three primary types of suites: those with one bedroom and one bathroom; those with two bedrooms and two bathrooms; and those with a parlor and varying numbers of bedrooms and bathrooms. The walls were originally painted in rose, yellow, cream, and gray hues. For decorative effect, the rooms contained wooden wainscoting and furniture, while the plaster ceilings supported crystal chandeliers. A guest or resident could request multiple suites, since there were smaller private hallways adjacent to the main hallway on each floor. There were also staff rooms at the corners of the main corridor on each floor. Dumbwaiters led from the staff rooms to the basement kitchen, allowing guests to order meals and eat them in-suite.
Following its 2008 renovation, the building contains 181 privately owned condominiums, which are marketed as the Plaza Residences or One Central Park South. The condominiums are on the north and east sides of the building and have a variety of layouts, from studio apartments to three-story penthouse units. The condos' interiors include parquet floors and stone counters, and largely reflect the original design of these rooms. There are also 282 hotel units on the southern side of the building. Of these, 152 condo-hotel units occupy the eleventh through twenty-first stories, respectively labeled as floors 10 through 20. The condo-hotel units serve as residences for investors or staff for up to four months a year, and are used as short-term hotel units for the remaining time. In addition, there are 130 rooms exclusively for short-term stays on the fourth through tenth stories, respectively labeled as floors 3 through 9. The hotel portion of the building retains a butler on each floor, reminiscent of the hotel's original ambience.
Hardenbergh's design included the State Apartment on the northern side of floor 1. This apartment was one of the most lavish suites in the entire hotel; it had a drawing room, antechambers, dining rooms, bedrooms and bathrooms, and food storage. Also on floor 1 were private banquet, reception, and card rooms. The apartment was turned into a private dining area and restored in 1974. Similarly ornate suites were located along the Central Park South side on eleven of the upper floors. The twenty-first story (labeled as floor 20) was created as part of the 2008 renovation, and is part of a four-bedroom penthouse, the largest condominium in the building.
In the early- and mid-20th century, several designers, such as Elsie de Wolfe and Cecil Beaton, were hired to design special suites for the hotel, which has also offered suites or experiences that are themed to notable books or films set there. During 2013, a 900-square-foot (84 m<sup>2</sup>) suite on the 18th floor of the hotel was furnished with various decorations from the movie The Great Gatsby. The furnished room was based on the novel of the same name by F. Scott Fitzgerald, which had several scenes set at the hotel (see ). During 2017 and 2018, the Plaza Hotel sold vacation packages with memorabilia, photo opportunities, an in-suite ice cream sundae, and visits to New York City tourist attractions based on the film Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, which is partially set in the hotel. Another room in the hotel was redecorated in 2022 to promote the TV series The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel.
## History
The land lots making up the site of the present-day Plaza Hotel were first parceled and sold by the government of New York City in 1853, and acquired by John Anderson from 1870 to 1881. Prior to the Plaza Hotel's development, the site was occupied either by the New York Skating Club, or was vacant. When John Anderson died in 1881, his will stipulated that his land would pass to his son, John Charles Anderson. The first development on the site was proposed in 1882, when Ernest Flagg was enlisted to design a 12-story apartment building for a syndicate led by his father, Jared. However, the Flagg apartment development was not built, likely due to a lack of funding.
### First hotel
John Duncan Phyfe and James Campbell acquired the site in 1883. Phyfe and Campbell announced plans for a nine-story apartment building at the site in October of that year, to be designed by Carl Pfeiffer; and construction on the apartment block began that same year. The builders borrowed over \$800,000 from the New York Life Insurance Company, and obtained a second mortgage from John Charles Anderson for a total investment of \$2 million. By 1887, after taking three loans from New York Life, Phyfe and Campbell found that they did not have enough funds to complete the apartment block. The extent to which the apartment building was completed before the builders' bankruptcy is unclear.
In February 1888, brothers Eugene M. and Frank Earle entered into a contract to lease the hotel from Phyfe and Campbell and to furnish it. New York Life concurrently foreclosed on the apartment building and that September bought it at public auction for \$925,000. Shortly afterward, New York Life decided to remodel the interiors completely, hiring architects McKim, Mead & White to complete the hotel. New York Life leased the hotel to Frederick A. Hammond in 1889, and the Hammond brothers became the operators of the hotel for the next fifteen years.
The first Plaza Hotel finally opened on October 1, 1890, at a cost of \$3 million. The original hotel stood eight stories tall and had 400 rooms. The interiors featured extensive mahogany and carved-wood furnishings; lion motifs, representing the hotel's coat of arms; and a 30-foot-tall (9.1 m) dining room with stained glass windows and gold and white decorations. Moses King, in his 1893 Handbook of New York City, characterized the hotel as "one of the most attractive public houses in the wide world". Despite being described as fashionable, it was not profitable. The New York Times reported in 1891 that the hotel netted \$72,000 in rental income, against the \$1.8 million that New York Life had spent to complete the hotel, including loans to Phyfe and Campbell.
### Redeveloped hotel in the early 20th century
The first Plaza Hotel had been relatively remote when it was completed, but by the first decade of the 20th century was part of a rapidly growing commercial district on Fifth Avenue. Furthermore, several upscale hotels in Manhattan were also being rebuilt during that time. In May 1902, a syndicate purchased the Plaza and three adjacent lots on Central Park South for \$3 million. The sale was the largest-ever cash-only purchase for a Manhattan property at the time. The purchasers were headed by Harry S. Black—who headed the George A. Fuller Company, one of the syndicate's members—as well as German financier Bernhard Beinecke. Shortly after the purchase, Black and Beinecke formed the Plaza Realty Company to redevelop the hotel. In mid-1905, Black also formed the United States Realty and Construction Company, a trust whose subsidiaries included the Fuller Company and the Plaza Realty Company. To acquire sufficient funding for the redevelopment, Black and Beinecke approached barbed-wire entrepreneur John Warne Gates, who agreed to fund the project on the condition that Frederic Sterry be named the managing director of the hotel.
#### Construction
Henry J. Hardenbergh was hired as architect in 1905, initially being commissioned to expand the existing hotel by five stories. Hardenbergh had already gained some renown for designing other upscale hotels, such as the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, twenty-five blocks south, during the 1890s. Beinecke, Black, and Gates subsequently discovered that the foundation of the existing hotel could not support the additional stories, so they decided to rebuild it completely. The George A. Fuller Company was contracted to construct the new hotel. Hardenbergh designed the new hotel building while the owners waited for the existing lease to expire. His design took advantage of the fact that the site faced Grand Army Plaza and could thus be seen from many angles.
The first Plaza Hotel was closed on June 11, 1905, and demolition commenced immediately upon the expiration of the lease there. The existing hotel's furnishings were auctioned immediately. The site was cleared within two months of the start of demolition. Hardenbergh filed plans for the hotel with the New York City Department of Buildings that September. By the next month, contractors were clearing the old hotel's foundation. The new hotel was to use 10,000 short tons (8,900 long tons; 9,100 t) of steel, and a group of 100 workers and seven derricks erected two stories of steelwork every six days. The Fuller Company decided to hire both union and non-union ironworkers for the hotel's construction, a decision that angered the union workers. Patrolmen were hired to protect the non-union workers, and one patrolmen was killed during a dispute with union workers. By October 1906, the facade of the new hotel was under construction.
Hardenbergh and Sterry directed several firms to furnish the interior spaces. Sterry recalled that all of the interior features were custom-designed for the hotel, such as 1,650 crystal chandeliers and the largest-ever order of gold-rimmed cutlery. Much of the furniture was manufactured by the Pooley Company of Philadelphia; where the Pooley Company could not manufacture the furnishings, the Plaza's developers chartered ships to import material from Europe. Sterry himself was dispatched to Europe to purchase these materials. The developers anticipated that the hotel would cost \$8.5 million to construct, including the furnishings. However, additional expenditures pushed the final construction cost to \$12.5 million. To pay for the construction costs, the developers received a \$5 million loan in mid-1906, followed by another \$4.5 million loan in 1907.
#### Opening and expansion
The new 800-room Plaza Hotel was opened on October 1, 1907, twenty-seven months after work had commenced. The opening was attended by people such as businessman Diamond Jim Brady; actresses Lillian Russell, Billie Burke, Maxine Elliott, and Fritzi Scheff; producers David Belasco and Oscar Hammerstein I; actor John Drew Jr.; and author Mark Twain. Though the opening coincided with the Panic of 1907, the hotel suffered minimal losses. The new hotel more than doubled the capacity of the first structure, and it was intended as a largely residential hotel at opening, although the terms for "hotel" and "apartment" were largely synonymous at the time. Estimates held that ninety percent of the units were for long-term residents. The owners charged short-term guests \$2.50 nightly. In addition to the apartments, there were 500 bathrooms, ten elevators, a myriad of marble staircases, and two floors of public rooms. Gates, one of the original investors, was among the residents of the new Plaza; when he died in 1911, his funeral was held at the hotel.
Most of the public rooms were not originally given formal names. Although Hardenbergh had predicted that gender-segregated spaces were going out of fashion, there was a women's reception room near 58th Street; and the bar room and men's grill (respectively the present Oak and Edwardian Rooms) were exclusively used by men. In practice, the men's grill acted as a social club where discussing business was socially inappropriate, while the bar was a space to talk business. Sometime between 1912 and the start of Prohibition in the United States in 1920, the brokerage office near the entrance, now the Oak Bar, was turned into an extension of the bar room. The Champagne Porch along Grand Army Plaza was the most exclusive area of the hotel, with meals costing between \$50 and \$500. The basement's grill room hosted ice-skating in the summer, as well as a "dog check room" where residents' dogs could be fed luxuriously. In its first decade, the Plaza employed a staff of over 1,500.
From the start, the Plaza Operating Company was already preparing for the possibility of expansion, and acquired the lots between 5 and 19 West 58th Street in the first two decades of the 20th century. This land acquisition commenced before the second hotel had even opened. By 1915, the Plaza Operating Company had acquired four lots on West 58th Street and one on Central Park South, and it received an exemption from the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which set height restrictions for new buildings on the 58th Street side of the lots. The company filed plans for a 19-story annex along 58th Street in August 1919, to be designed by Warren and Wetmore. The final lots, at 15 and 17 West 58th Street, were acquired in 1920 after the plans had been filed. The George A. Fuller Company was again hired as the builder. To fund the construction of the annex, the Plaza Operating Company took out mortgage loans worth \$2.275 million.
The Champagne Porch was only frequented by the extremely wealthy; and in 1921, after the start of Prohibition, Sterry decided to remove the room altogether. An enlarged entrance took its place. The work also included building a new restaurant called the Terrace Room, as well as a ballroom and 350 additional suites. Warren and Wetmore designed the expanded interior with more subtle contrasts in the decor, compared to Hardenbergh's design. The annex opened October 14, 1921, with an event in the ballroom, but was not officially completed until April 1922. With the advent of Prohibition, the bar room was also closed, and the gender segregation rule was relaxed. The space occupied by the present-day Oak Bar became the offices of brokerage EF Hutton. The Plaza had become the city's most valuable hotel by 1923, and contributed to the parent U.S. Realty Company being highly profitable and paying increasingly high dividends during the 1920s.
#### Great Depression
For unknown reasons, Warren and Wetmore's ballroom was reconstructed from June to September 1929, based on neoclassical designs by Schultze & Weaver. Shortly afterward, U.S. Realty's stock price collapsed in the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, which commenced the Great Depression in the United States. Plaza Hotel co-owner Harry Black killed himself the following year, and his partner Bernhard Beinecke died two years later. The rebuilt Plaza's first manager, Fred Sterry, died in 1933. The early 1930s were also financially difficult for the Plaza Hotel, as only half of the suites were occupied by 1932. To reduce operating costs for the hotel's restaurants, the grill room in the basement was converted into a closet, while the Rose Room became an automobile showroom. The furnishings of the hotel fell into disrepair; and during some months management was unable to pay staff.
By the mid-1930s, the old tea room was officially known as the Palm Court, having been frequently referred to as the "Palm Room" during the previous decade. The back room was reopened as the Oak Room restaurant in 1934, although it was still referred to as the "back room" by its frequent visitors, which included bankers and brokers. The same year, the Fifth Avenue lobby received display windows and a doorway on the southern wall; and the southeastern corner of the ground floor was remodeled into the Persian Room.
### Mid-20th century
#### Hilton operation
U.S. Realty continued to lose money through the 1930s, and started selling off its properties, including the Plaza Hotel. In October 1943, Atlas Corporation, collaborating with hotelier Conrad Hilton, bought the Plaza Hotel for \$7.4 million. At the time, the Plaza was 61 percent occupied, and many public areas were closed due to supply shortages caused by World War II. Hilton subsequently spent \$6 million refurbishing the hotel. During mid-1944, the lobby on Fifth Avenue was renovated and its mezzanine was enclosed. The Palm Court skylight, having fallen into disrepair, was removed for the installation of air conditioning equipment. A mezzanine was also built above the hotel's former courtyard, and the room itself became the Court Lounge. The brokerage office at the ground level's northwestern corner was turned into the Oak Bar, which opened in January 1945; and EF Hutton was relegated to the Fifth Avenue lobby's mezzanine. The contractor for the renovations may have been Frederick P. Platt & Brother, which was the Plaza Hotel's primary contractor in the 1940s.
The Plaza Hotel Corporation, the hotel's operator, was merged with the Hilton Hotels Corporation in 1946. The following year, the Plaza Rendez-Vous opened within the old grill room space. By the early 1950s, women were allowed inside the Oak Room and Bar during evenings and in the summer. The Oak Room and Bar was still a men-only space before 3 p.m., while the stock exchanges were open.
Hilton sold the hotel in 1953 to Boston industrialist A.M. "Sonny" Sonnabend for \$15 million, and immediately leased it back for 2.5 years. Sonnabend became president of national restaurant chain Childs Company in 1955, and Childs purchased the Plaza that November for \$6.2 million in stock. The same year, the ground-floor Plaza Restaurant was renamed the Edwardian Room. James S. Graham Jr. simultaneously renovated the State Apartment, and air conditioning was installed in each guest room. Childs became the Hotel Corporation of America (HCA) in 1956, and Hilton's lease was renewed indefinitely that year. HCA sold the Plaza to Lawrence Wien in November 1958 for \$21 million and immediately leased it back for 25 years. The transaction included curtailing Hilton's lease to April 1960, at which time HCA assumed the operating lease.
#### Sonnabend operation
The Plaza Hotel experienced financial difficulties during the early 1960s; but under Sonnabend's management, the Plaza's financial outlook improved by 1964. The facade of the hotel was cleaned in late 1960, the first time that the exterior had been fully cleaned since its construction. This was followed, in 1962, by extensive exterior and interior renovations, which resulted in the redecoration of many of the suites and public rooms. Four of the hotel's hydraulic elevators were replaced with electric elevators in 1964, including the three elevators in the 58th Street lobby. A second phase of renovations was announced the same year, which entailed enlarging some public rooms and replacing the ground-floor barber shop with a Trader Vic's bar. The ballroom's foyer and stair hall were combined during this renovation, which was completed by 1965, having cost \$9 million.
Upon Sonny Sonnabend's death in 1964, his son Roger took over the hotel. Further changes to the hotel's ownership occurred the next year, when Sol Goldman and Alexander DiLorenzo's firm, Wellington Associates, bought an option to obtain a half-interest in the underlying land from Hilton. Gender restrictions at the Oak Room were removed in 1969, after the National Organization for Women held a sit-in to protest the men-only policy during middays. HCA, by then renamed Sonesta Hotels, announced another round of renovations in 1971. This included the redecoration of the Grand Ballroom, as well as the replacement of the Edwardian Room with a restaurant called the Green Tulip, whose pink, lime, and brown design by Sally Dryden received a largely negative reception from the public. The ballroom was also renovated at this time.
The renovations coincided with a decline in Sonesta's and the Plaza's finances, with the hotel recording negative net income in 1971. Sonesta repurchased the Plaza Hotel from Wien in 1972. Shortly afterward, Sonesta looked to sell its interest in the hotel to Harry Helmsley, and Wellington attempted to take over Sonesta by buying its shares. Both the sale and the attempted Sonesta takeover were unsuccessful; and Wellington made an offer for Sonesta's share of the hotel in April 1974, which Sonesta refused.
### Late 20th century
#### Westin ownership
In November 1974, Western International Hotels announced its intention to buy the Plaza Hotel from Sonesta for \$25 million. The same year, the Edwardian Room was largely restored according to designs by Charles Winslow, and was rebranded as the Plaza Suite. Following Western International's acquisition of the Plaza, it renovated the interior spaces, cleaned the exterior, and restored much of the hotel according to the original designs, at a total cost of \$200 million. The four hydraulic elevators serving the Central Park South lobby, among the last of their type in the city, were replaced with electric elevators in 1976. Westin also bought the Shinn murals that year for \$1 million; they had not been part of the original sale. The Rambusch Company was hired to restore the Oak Room and Bar. The next year, a 204-seat theater called Cinema 3 opened in the basement. The Persian Room was closed in 1978, and a clothing boutique opened in its place. Westin had planned to restore the Palm Court's skylight, but this did not happen.
By the late 1970s, the Plaza Hotel was again making a net profit. Western International changed its name to Westin Hotels in 1981; the hotel was renamed soon after, becoming The Westin Plaza. However, Westin started to lose money in the late 1980s. By 1987, Westin's parent company Allegis Corporation announced its intent to sell the Plaza, generating interest from at least 150 investors. The Plaza, along with the rest of the Westin chain, was transferred to the Aoki Corporation and Robert M. Bass in January 1988. Shortly afterward, Philip Pilevsky and Arthur G. Cohen expressed their intent to buy the Plaza and turn it into a hotel-cooperative.
#### Trump ownership
In March 1988, real estate developer Donald Trump bought the Plaza for \$407 million he borrowed from banks. After gaining title to the hotel in July, Trump put his wife Ivana in charge of renovating and managing the hotel. The Trumps subsequently announced a major renovation program, which entailed restoring the lobby and some of the other interior elements. The work also involved gilding many surfaces, replacing carpets, and reupholstering furniture. Trump also decided to shut down the Trader Vic's in the basement in 1989, saying it had become "tacky". The hotel made a modest profit for about two years after Trump's purchase, largely from increased occupancy, suite rates, and banquet bookings.
Trump had borrowed extensively to purchase the Plaza, but the hotel's operating income was several million dollars below the breakeven point. As a result, the hotel's debt ultimately grew to \$600 million. By 1991, Trump was making plans to pay off the hotel's debt by selling off the vast majority of its units as condominiums. Trump estimated that the conversion would net \$750 million, almost twice the purchase price. Trump also considered converting the offices under the mansard roof to penthouse condos, according to designs by Lee Harris Pomeroy. The conversion plan failed because it would have been unprofitable, due to a then-recent drop-off in prices in the city's real estate market. In March 1992, as a last resort, Trump approached the Plaza's creditors, a group of seventy banks led by Citibank, who agreed to take a 49% stake in the hotel in exchange for forgiveness of \$250 million in debt and an interest-rate reduction. The agreement was submitted as a prepackaged bankruptcy in November 1992 and approved the next month.
#### Kwek and Al-Waleed ownership
By 1994, Trump was looking to sell the Plaza before Citibank and other creditors could find a buyer, which would have wiped out his investment. One of his executives identified Hong Kong–based Sun Hung Kai Properties as a potential buyer. The deal fell through after the family of Sun Hung Kai executive Walter Kwok got trapped behind a jammed door while touring the Plaza Hotel. Trump, attempting to maintain appearances, threatened to sue the New York Post that December for reporting that the Sultan of Brunei, Hassanal Bolkiah, had made an offer for the hotel. Meanwhile, the creditors had also identified Singaporean developer Kwek Leng Beng as a likely buyer. Kwek's company, Singaporean chain City Developments Limited (CDL), offered to take over the creditors' ownership stake. Saudi prince Al-Waleed bin Talal was also interested in buying the Plaza; and by March 1995, Al-Waleed and CDL had raised \$325 million for a controlling stake. Trump unsuccessfully petitioned Kwek to partner with him instead of Al-Waleed.
Trump sold the controlling stake to Kwek and Al-Waleed in April 1995. As part of the transaction, the hotel's debt was reduced to \$25 million. Kwek and Al-Waleed each bought a 42 percent stake, and Citibank received the other 16 percent stake, a move intended to prevent Trump from intervening in the sale. The partnership also agreed that, if the mansard penthouses were ever created, some of the profits would be shared with Trump. In 1997, Hong Kong developer Great Eagle Holdings agreed to buy half of Al-Waleed's stake in the Plaza Hotel. DiLorenzo International renovated the ballroom in the mid-1990s, and Adam Tihany refurbished the Edwardian Room prior to 2001. The Plaza was highly profitable in the late 1990s, with operating income of almost \$46 million at the end of that decade.
### 21st century
#### El Ad ownership
The September 11 attacks in 2001 resulted in a downturn in the New York City tourism industry. Correspondingly, the Plaza's operating profits decreased greatly, leaving Kwek and Al-Waleed unable to refurbish the Plaza as they had previously planned to do. In 2004, they sold the Plaza Hotel for \$675 million to El Ad Properties, run by developer Yitzhak Tshuva. El Ad wished to add residential and commercial units, but initially faced pushback from hotel unions and preservationists, who opposed El Ad's plan to remove most of the hotel rooms and convert the restaurant spaces to stores. After over sixty hours of discussions between El Ad and the hotel unions, they came to an agreement on April 14, 2005, under which El Ad would convert fewer units to apartments, while preserving more of the hotel suites.
The Plaza Hotel temporarily closed for a \$450 million renovation on April 30, 2005, two weeks after the agreement had been brokered. Fairmont Hotels and Resorts took over operation of the hotel portion during late 2005. The Plaza's furnishings were auctioned on-site and at a Christie's auction in 2006. During the renovation, most of the short-term hotel rooms were converted into residential units, and the Palm Court's stained glass ceiling was restored. In addition, floors 18 and 19 were extended toward the interior courtyard, while a small floor 20 was created above the existing roof.
The hotel reopened on March 1, 2008. Though the real-estate market in general had slowed down due to the financial crisis of 2007–2008, apartments at the Plaza Hotel were being sold for millions of dollars, disproportionately impacting average apartment prices in Manhattan. The hotel unveiled its retail collection, an underground mall featuring luxury brands, in November 2008. Two years later, the Plaza Food Hall opened in the underground mall, anchored by the Todd English Food Hall in collaboration with chef Todd English. By early 2010, El Ad was struggling to find tenants for the mall, and several residents had lost money selling their apartments. The Oak Room restaurant closed in July 2011, two years after the renovation was completed.
#### Sahara India ownership
In mid-2012, Sahara India Pariwar agreed to buy a 75 percent controlling stake for \$570 million from El Ad Properties. The deal closed that December. However, even at the time of the sale, Sahara was experiencing legal issues and was selling off other properties that it owned. The development of the nearby Billionaires' Row, an area with several residential skyscrapers marketed for the ultra-wealthy, also negatively affected sales at the Plaza. The Plaza's net income decreased from \$3.67 million, in 2012, to negative \$1.2 million, in 2014, a figure that declined even further, to negative \$10 million, by 2017. Two years after buying the Plaza, Sahara's Subrata Roy announced that he was looking for a buyer for his company's \$4 billion majority stake. The Sultan of Brunei made an unsuccessful bid of \$680 million. In August 2017, after he was unable to secure a buyer, Roy hired a broker to sell the hotel, prompting inquiries from about 50 potential buyers.
Simultaneously, former co-owner Al-Waleed, whose Kingdom Holding Company now owned a minor stake in the hotel, partnered with Ashkenazy Acquisition Corporation. Kingdom and Ashkenazy's partnership included a right of first refusal, which allowed the companies to match any third-party offer for the hotel. In May 2018, the Sahara Group announced it had finalized a deal with businessmen Shahal M. Khan and Kamran Hakim to buy a majority share of the hotel for \$600 million. However, Ashkenazy and Kingdom exercised their right of first refusal, and sued Sahara for trying to sell the hotel to a third party. Ashkenazy and Kingdom received an extension to close their purchase of the Plaza, but instead opted to sell their stake to Qatari state-owned hotelier Katara Hospitality, which the companies felt was better positioned to close the sale.
#### Katara Hospitality ownership
In July 2018, Katara Hospitality acquired full ownership of the Plaza Hotel after buying Sahara's and Askenazy and Kingdom's stakes. Under Katara's ownership, the condominium units garnered high asking prices: for instance, a four-bedroom unit was listed for \$45 million in early 2020. Around the same time, the Plaza's condominium board sought to make repairs to the facade. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, and a corresponding downturn in tourism globally, the Plaza's hotel rooms were temporarily closed in March 2020 for an indefinite period, and several hundred employees were laid off. The Plaza Hotel officially reopened in May 2021; public spaces such as the Palm Court were rearranged to allow for social distancing.
## Residents and guests
### Residents
When the Plaza Hotel opened in 1907, the first guest to sign its register was Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt. The hotel also housed other wealthy residents, such as George Jay Gould, as well as Oliver Harriman Jr. and his wife Grace Carley Harriman. John Gates, the hotel's co-developer, had a 16-room apartment on floor 3. Harry Frank Guggenheim lived in the hotel's State Apartment, while Russian princess Vilma Lwoff-Parlaghy, a prominent portrait painter in the early 20th century, lived in a suite on floor 3 with her lion. The hotel's appeal to the wealthy came from the fact that, in the early 20th century, apartments at the Plaza were generally cheaper than in more upscale apartment buildings, and that it faced Central Park, which at the time was well patronized by the wealthy.
Later in the 20th century, the Plaza Hotel served as home to "wealthy widows", such as performer Kay Thompson, who wrote the Eloise children's book series about a young girl who lived at the hotel. During the Great Depression, the "wealthy widows" were considered "a tourist attraction in their own right", with their rents keeping the hotel solvent. The hotel's other residents included playwright Ferenc Molnár.
After many units were converted to condominium units in 2008, the Plaza Hotel became even more coveted by the wealthy. However, only about a third of these buyers were full-time residents, with the remainder using their Plaza condominiums as pieds-a-terre. The residents included executives such as New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft, JetBlue CEO David Barger, Bear Stearns CEO James Cayne, Viacom CEO Thomas E. Dooley, Sony Music Entertainment CEO Doug Morris, and Idols franchise producer Simon Fuller. Other notable residents included developer Christian Candy and fashion designer Tommy Hilfiger.
### Guests
The guest rooms have also housed notable personalities, such as opera singer Enrico Caruso, as well as novelists F. Scott Fitzgerald and Zelda Fitzgerald. Frank Lloyd Wright often stayed at the Plaza when he was designing the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum on Fifth Avenue, considering the hotel to be his home. Art dealer Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen, who helped assemble the Frick Collection at the nearby Frick House, lived at the Plaza and held important auctions in the ballroom. In addition, the Beatles stayed at the Plaza Hotel during their first visit to the United States in February 1964.
## Social scene
The Plaza Hotel became associated with celebrities and the wealthy upon its opening, surpassing the original Waldorf Astoria in that respect. The Palm Court (then the tea room), with its mostly female guest list, was particularly frequented. Weeks after the hotel's 1907 opening, actress Mrs Patrick Campbell attempted to smoke there, and the resulting controversy boosted the Plaza's stature. In January 1908, crowds flocked to see heiress Gladys Vanderbilt and her fiancé, Hungarian count László Széchenyi, have tea, while Theodora Shonts arrived with her fiancé Emmanuel d'Albert de Luynes, the Duke of Chaulnes. That year, the New York World dubbed the hotel the "Home-for-the-Incurably Opulent". By 1909, the Palm Court was consistently exceeding its 350-person capacity.
During the 1920s, the basement's grill room was a popular meeting place for young adults born during the Lost Generation. The Oak Room was frequented by actor George M. Cohan, and a commemorative plaque for Cohan was installed in the room in the 1940s after his death. The Persian Room was popular with the "cafe society", being frequented by socialites and fashion trendsetters. Eddy Duchin and Hildegarde were among the Persian Room's early performers, and it later attracted others, such as Eartha Kitt, Peggy Lee, and Liza Minnelli. By the 1970s, the Persian Room hosted performances by pop singers such as Robert Goulet and Dusty Springfield.
The hotel has also been popular among world leaders, particularly presidents of the United States. The first of these was Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th U.S. president, who moved his Republican Party's events to the Plaza Hotel from the Fifth Avenue Hotel after the closure of the latter in 1908. Theodore Roosevelt's distant cousin, president Franklin D. Roosevelt, had his birthday luncheon in the Palm Court in 1935. Other U.S. presidents who frequented the hotel's guestrooms or restaurants have included William Howard Taft, Harry S. Truman, and Richard Nixon, as well as onetime owner Donald Trump. For other world leaders, the Plaza Hotel kept a set of national flags, so that an appropriate one could be displayed whenever a foreign head of state visited. Chiang Ching-kuo, at the time the Vice Premier of the Republic of China, was shot by Taiwanese student Peter Huang in an attempted assassination at the hotel on April 24, 1970.
The Plaza Hotel has hosted diplomatic events, as in September 1985, when the finance ministers of several countries signed the Plaza Accord, by which the U.S. dollar was depreciated in relation to other currencies.
### Receptions
The Terrace Room has frequently been used for press conferences, luncheons, and receptions. For instance, it hosted a 1956 press conference where Laurence Olivier and Marilyn Monroe talked about their upcoming film The Prince and the Showgirl. At a press conference in the Terrace Room in 1968, Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor discussed their film Dr. Faustus. During the Beatles' 1964 stay at the hotel, visitors were allowed to take pictures with the Beatles in the Terrace Room.
### Benefits and weddings
Upon the Grand Ballroom's opening in 1921, it immediately became popular as a venue for debutante balls, including those in honor of Joan Whitney Payson and Cathleen Vanderbilt. The rebuilt ballroom hosted social benefits, such as a dinner honoring physicist Marie Curie in 1929, and a meeting of the Girls Service League in 1935 that was attended by U.S. first lady Eleanor Roosevelt. Following World War II, the Grand Ballroom again became a popular venue for debutante balls and benefits, including a disabled veterans' benefit called the December Ball, as well as an event benefiting the Kennedy Child Care Study Center in 1959. Writer Truman Capote hosted the "Black and White Ball" there in 1966, in honor of publisher Katharine Graham. Another popular venue for benefits was the Terrace Court, which hosted events such as the Mid-Winter Ball in 1949.
The Grand Ballroom and Terrace Room have also been used for weddings and wedding receptions. For example, the Terrace Room held the reception for figure skater Sonja Henie's 1949 wedding to Winthrop Gardiner Jr. Peter Lawford and Patricia Kennedy Lawford's wedding reception was hosted in the ballroom in 1954, as was David Eisenhower and Julie Nixon Eisenhower's reception in 1968. The ballroom also hosted Donald Trump and Marla Maples's 1993 wedding. In 2000, actors Michael Douglas and Catherine Zeta-Jones married at the Plaza.
## Status as an icon
The Plaza Hotel has become an icon of New York City. Paul Goldberger, writing for The New York Times in 1982, stated that the Plaza had become an important part of the city's architectural history, similar to the Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library Main Branch. As another historian said, "Every tourist I've ever met, every [tour] group I've ever had, they all know the Plaza Hotel". The National Trust for Historic Preservation recognized the Plaza Hotel as a Historic Hotel of America.
### Critical reception
Upon the present building's opening, the design of the hotel, particularly the interiors, received mostly positive criticism. The New York Times characterized the exterior as "a fitting introduction to the interior", praising the interior for its relative modesty compared to other hotels. However, H. W. Frohne wrote that Hardenbergh had "fail[ed] to make the public rooms entertaining". Critics for two architectural magazines also praised the carved woodwork in the Oak Room and the greenery that originally adorned the Palm Court. For the latter, the Times praised the "gardenlike" effect of the Palm Court, enhanced by its glass ceiling. Frank Lloyd Wright wrote that Hardenbergh's exterior design for the Plaza Hotel was an early skyscraper with "a human sense", in contrast to later skyscrapers, which Wright described as "monstrous thing[s]".
In the 1967 book The Plaza, Its Life and Times, Eve Brown wrote that "The Plaza has managed always to be in tune with the times, its dignity unruffled, its good taste unimpaired". Ada Louise Huxtable wrote for The New York Times in 1971 that the Plaza Hotel was the city's "most celebrated symbol of cosmopolitan and turn-of-the-century splendor", speaking negatively only of the short-lived Green Tulip restaurant. Judith Gura described the interior spaces as "merg[ing] seamlessly into a harmonious ensemble", despite each space having a distinct character. Curtis Gathje, the Plaza Hotel's official historian and a 25-year veteran of the hotel, stated in 2007, "The Plaza is the epitome of civilized New York."
The site, facing Central Park, was seen as particularly prominent. As early as 1892, Moses King called it "a location of unsurpassed beauty". The rebuilt Plaza was described in a 1907 Architectural Record article as having a site that was "the most unobstructed and charming which could have been selected for a large metropolitan hotel", despite being smaller than that of competitors, such as the Waldorf Astoria. According to Goldberger, the Plaza Hotel's location along both Grand Army Plaza and Central Park made it particularly imposing, with two primary facades. The 2010 edition of the AIA Guide to New York City emphasized the park views, characterizing the third- through fifth-floor suites along Central Park South as having "one of the most exciting views of New York".
### Landmark designations
The demolition of the nearby Savoy-Plaza in 1964, and its replacement with the General Motors Building, resulted in a preservation movement to save the Plaza Hotel and nearby structures. This prompted the New York City Planning Commission to rezone a three-block area around Grand Army Plaza, including the Plaza Hotel, in 1968. The Plaza Hotel's exterior was designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1969. The hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, and it was made a National Historic Landmark in 1986.
A large part of the main public space in the interior—including the lobbies, ballroom, and restaurant spaces—was made a New York City designated landmark in 2005. The interior-landmark designation was partially motivated by opposition to El Ad's original plans to renovate the hotel during 2004. The restaurant spaces, preserved under the interior-landmark designation, would have been converted into retail space. The Edwardian Room was not originally part of the landmark designation, but it was ultimately protected along with the other rooms.
### In media
The Plaza Hotel has been used as a setting for several works of literature throughout its history. Most notably, it served as the setting for the Eloise series of books, the success of which led the hotel's owners during the 1960s to hang the character's portrait in the lobby. The Plaza was also featured in F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby.
The hotel is also one of the most popular filming locations in New York City. Films shot or set in the hotel include North by Northwest (1959), Barefoot in the Park (1967), Funny Girl (1968), Plaza Suite (1971), The Way We Were (1973), and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992). Other films that show the Plaza include Arthur (1981), Crocodile Dundee (1986), Scent of a Woman (1992), Sleepless in Seattle (1993), and It Could Happen to You (1994).
The Plaza has also refused or set unusual conditions for some productions wanting to film there. For example, when the Plaza's managers refused to allow the producers of Big Business (1988) to film there, the film's producers created their own version of the Plaza Hotel on a sound stage. When Home Alone 2 was being filmed, producer Chris Columbus said that Donald Trump requested a cameo in the film, in exchange for allowing the film crew to shoot scenes in the lobby. The lobby scene involved the star sliding across the floor, so the carpeting was removed, thus revealing some old tilework with the Plaza logo that had been concealed for several decades. The management decided not to replace the carpet.
## See also
- List of hotels in New York City
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
|
330,873 |
Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy
| 1,167,118,258 |
2003 video game
|
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"Commercial video games with freely available source code",
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"Id Tech games",
"LucasArts games",
"MacOS games",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Multiplayer online games",
"Nintendo Switch games",
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"PlayStation 4 games",
"Raven Software games",
"Star Wars: Jedi Knight",
"Vicarious Visions games",
"Video game sequels",
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Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy is a first- and third-person shooter video game developed by Raven Software and published by LucasArts for Microsoft Windows, OS X and Xbox in 2003. Vicarious Visions was responsible for the development of the Xbox version. The game is a sequel to 2002's Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast and the fourth and final installment in the Star Wars: Jedi Knight series. The single-player story, set in the fictional Star Wars expanded universe two years after Jedi Outcast, follows Jaden Korr, a new student at Luke Skywalker's Jedi Academy under the tutelage of the previous games' protagonist, Kyle Katarn. As Jaden, players are tasked with investigating a Dark Jedi cult called the Disciples of Ragnos, while slowly learning the ways of the Force and committing themselves to either the light side or the dark side.
Jedi Academy uses the same game engine as Jedi Outcast, the id Tech 3, but features several technical improvements. Like Jedi Outcast, the game combines shooter elements with hack and slash combat, allowing players to wield blasters, lightsabers and a variety of Force powers. The lightsaber combat has been slightly improved and both the player and enemies can now wield standard, double-bladed or dual lightsabers. In addition to customizing their lightsaber and Force powers, players can also modify Jaden's appearance, choosing their species, gender and clothing. Jedi Academy also features a multiplayer mode that allows players to compete in several different game modes online or over a local area network.
Jedi Academy received largely positive reviews upon release. In September 2009, the game was re-released onto Steam and Direct2Drive alongside the rest of the Jedi Knight series. A Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 port was announced in September 2019 and published by Aspyr in March 2020.
## Gameplay
As a first and third-person shooter set in the Star Wars expanded universe, Jedi Academy puts the player into combat wielding a variety of firearms from that universe, as well as lightsabers and Force powers. The player can choose perspective for every weapon except for the lightsaber, which must be wielded in a third person view. The shooter aspects of the game are standard, including a variety of projectile and energy weapons and explosives. Players have a health meter and a shield meter, which are replenished separately.
In both single-player and multiplayer, the player character is a Force-user, who has access to a variety of Force powers in addition to their lightsaber(s). Powers include Push, Pull, Jump, Heal, Lightning and other abilities from the Star Wars universe. Force powers are categorized into core, Light Side and Dark Side, and each Force power has three ranks, with the power increasing in effectiveness with each rank. In both single-player and multiplayer, players choose how to rank up their powers, adding a layer of customization. During gameplay, the player has a "force meter" which is depleted when powers are used and recharges when no powers are in use.
Jedi Academy places a heavy emphasis on lightsaber combat. The player can create a custom lightsaber by selecting a hilt and one of five blade colors. After the first few missions, the player is allowed to choose a new lightsaber fighting style ("fast" or "strong") and can switch between that style and the original "medium" style at any time. Later in the game, the player can choose to learn the third fighting style, or wield one saber in each hand, or wield a "saber staff" similar to the double ended lightsaber Darth Maul used in The Phantom Menace which also adds a kicking ability unavailable with any other lightsaber. The different sabers and fighting styles each have unique strengths, weaknesses and special moves. If using dual sabers, the player can switch off the second saber and use the "Fast"-style single-saber stance, or if using a saber staff, the player can switch one of the blades off and use it as a single-bladed saber in the "Medium"-style stance.
### Single-player
The player initially chooses the character's species and gender, and begins the game with a single lightsaber. Most of the game is divided into three batches of five missions each. Out of each batch, the player may skip one mission and do the other four in any order, or may do all five in any order. These batches of missions are preceded by a mandatory training course and connected by mandatory missions: Acts 1 and 2 are connected by missions set on Hoth while Acts 2 and 3 are connected by missions set in Bast castle on the planet V'jun. At the end of the Hoth missions, the player may choose a new single-bladed lightsaber fighting style, and at the end of the V'jun/Bast missions, the player is allowed access to dual-wielding or to a saber staff. At the beginning of each optional mission, the player can choose one of their Force skills to upgrade. This will increase the impact of that Force power, thus making the character more powerful as the game progresses. This also encourages players to skip as few missions as possible. The game also introduces player-controllable vehicles and a single vehicle-based level. After the last batch of optional missions, there is a final string of missions which are mandatory, but which give the player a choice to turn to the Dark Side or not, and which feature important differences depending on which choice the player makes.
### Multiplayer
In multiplayer mode, one can play online or via a local area network (LAN) with other players, as well as computer-controlled bots. The player can create their avatar using a series of options, similar to the character creation in single-player. Alternatively the player can choose to play as one of almost all of the characters from Jedi Outcast and Jedi Academy. Before a match begins, the server specifies the Force ranking to be used; this controls how many points the players have to invest in different Force powers. Players can then customize their powers for the match. The server can also disable normal weapons to create a lightsaber-only game. There are different multiplayer modes such as "Capture the flag", "Power Duel" and "Siege". Depending on the mode, players can play on their own or as part of a team. In comparison with the single-player gameplay, multiplayer requires a high level of skill and can have a steep learning curve, as stated by many. There are six multiplayer modes in total, but the most popular and most willingly modified is the "Free For All".
Since 2011 the online community has started to slowly decline. As of May 2019, there were around 250 active players, with less than a third online at one time. A number of multiplayer modifications have been released, some of the most popular being Movie Battles II, JA+ and Lugormod.
## Plot
Jedi Academy is set in 14 ABY, a decade after Return of the Jedi and two years after Jedi Outcast. Players take on the role of Jaden Korr (voiced by Philip Tanzini if male and Jennifer Hale if female), a talented Jedi Padawan who, after building their own lightsaber, travels to the Jedi Academy on Yavin IV to learn the ways of the Force. En route to the Academy, Jaden befriends fellow student Rosh Penin (Jason Marsden), but the students' shuttle is suddenly shot down by an unknown enemy. Jaden and Rosh make their way to the Academy, where the former witnesses a woman using a staff to drain energy from the Temple; Jaden subsequently gets knocked out. Jaden is woken by Luke Skywalker (Bob Bergen) and Kyle Katarn (Jeff Bennett), who welcome them to the Academy. Jaden and Rosh are assigned to study under Kyle, but during their first training session, Rosh's over-competitiveness endangers Jaden. After the Jedi students complete their initial training, they are assigned various peace-keeping missions across the galaxy. During this time, Rosh becomes jealous of Jaden and begins to believe Kyle is trying to hold him back.
After several successful missions, Luke calls the students back to the Academy to tell them he has identified the Dark Jedi who attacked the Temple as members of a Sith cult called the Disciples of Ragnos. A member of the cult, the Twi'lek Alora (Grey DeLisle), infiltrated the Academy during the attack and stole Luke's journal, containing the locations of numerous places strong with the Force. Believing the cult is looking to drain their Force energy, Luke sends the students to investigate each location. Jaden travels to Hoth, where they find Imperial presence at the Rebel Alliance's abandoned Echo Base and encounter Alora, who flees after a brief duel. Returning to the Academy, Jaden reports their findings, but is saddened to learn Rosh never returned from his mission to Byss.
After Jaden completes more missions and has several run-ins with the Disciples, they and Kyle travel to Darth Vader's abandoned fortress on Vjun—one of the few places strong with the Force supposedly unvisited by the Disciples—and find it crawling with stormtroopers and Dark Jedi. The pair fight them, but are eventually separated. Jaden encounters Rosh, who has fallen to the dark side and joined the Disciples to avoid being killed after they had captured him. Jaden defeats Rosh as Kyle arrives, but both are incapacitated by Tavion Axmis (Kath Soucie), the Disciples' leader and Rosh's new master. Tavion uses the Scepter of Ragnos, which can absorb and release Force energy, to trap Jaden and Kyle under debris, but the pair manage to escape, though the former's lightsaber is destroyed in the process. At the Academy, Jaden and Kyle inform Luke of their findings, and the former is honored for their actions by being promoted to the rank of Jedi Knight.
After building a new lightsaber, Jaden begins dismantling the Disciples' operations as they complete more missions, while Luke discovers that Tavion plans to use the stolen Force energy to resurrect the ancient Sith Lord Marka Ragnos (Peter Lurie), who is buried on Korriban. While the Jedi prepare to go there, Kyle convinces Jaden to accompany him to a mining facility on Taspir III, from where Rosh has sent a distress signal. The pair split up and Jaden eventually finds Rosh, who claims he wants to redeem himself, but Jaden's feelings of betrayal quickly manifest into anger. Alora tries to goad them into killing Rosh and joining the Disciples, while Kyle senses Jaden's anger and tries to telepathically dissuade them. If the player chooses the light side, Jaden forgives Rosh, but an enraged Alora attacks them and cuts off the latter's arm. If the player chooses the dark side, Jaden kills Rosh, but refuses to join the Disciples, instead seeking the Scepter's power for themselves. Either way, Jaden kills Alora and leaves for Korriban.
Jaden fights their way to Ragnos' tomb, where they confront Tavion and defeat her. If Jaden is light-sided, they spare Tavion, who completes the resurrection process, causing Ragnos' spirit to possess her. Jaden destroys the Scepter and defeats Ragnos, who leaves Tavion's lifeless body and returns to his tomb. At the Academy, Jaden reunites with Rosh, who has been outfitted with a prosthetic arm, and is honored by Luke, Kyle and the other Jedi. If Jaden is dark-sided, they kill Tavion and claim the Scepter as Kyle arrives to confront them, but Jaden defeats him and buries him under debris. They later take command of Tavion's Star Destroyer, while Kyle is rescued by Luke and vows to hunt Jaden down, though Luke assures him that there is still good in their fallen apprentice.
## History
### Development
After Jedi Outcast was completed, LucasArts immediately approached Raven Software to develop a sequel. Production began and Raven was given a one-year development cycle. Like Jedi Outcast, Jedi Academy uses a heavily modified Quake III: Team Arena game engine, and the development team was made up of people who worked on Jedi Outcast, as well as Star Trek: Voyager – Elite Force.
An early decision made during development was whether or not to have Kyle Katarn as the playable character. This was due to the character already being a powerful Jedi Knight, and, as such, starting off with the Force skills would affect the gameplay. To resolve this issue, Raven chose to make the playable character a student in the Jedi Academy. By using a completely new character, the developers were able to insert features that allowed the player to customize the character, including race and gender, as well as the lightsaber color, hilt and type. The Kyle Katarn character was then made an instructor in the academy so as to remain integral to the plot, to ensure Jedi Academy built upon the existing Jedi Knight series storyline. Raven extended the customization further as the game progresses by allowing the player to choose specific Force powers to train upon completion of missions. This was done with the intention of giving freedom to choose the way and style the game is played.
Another decision made early on was to include locations and aspects from the Star Wars movies. The designers wanted to use locations such as Tatooine and Hoth, as well as the Rancor creature. To develop the map for Hoth, the designers obtained as much source material from The Empire Strikes Back as possible so to create an authentic reproduction. Level Designer Justin Negrete says that Hoth was one of the most challenging areas to design. The general level design process started by planning out the level on paper. These ideas were then "fleshed out" to get the size and flow of the level. Once this had been done, features of the Quake III engine were used to add more detail such as lighting effects. The final stage of level design was adding aspects that improved the gameplay and fun of the level.
The mission based format of Jedi Academy was used by Raven to reduce the linearity of the game, allowing the players to progress through levels mostly in the order they desire. The reduction in linearity was also achieved by requiring 80% of levels to be completed before the plot can move on. Raven provided modding tools with Jedi Academy, but the company specified that such tools are unsupported by customer support, so to avoid receiving calls on the subject. Brett Tosti, a producer for LucasArts, stated that the customization of the player that is provided by the game out of the box will mean that people are less likely to need to create their own "skins". Additional textures and skins nevertheless became popular leading Mike Gummelt, who designed the lightsaber combat system in Outcast and Academy, to declare "the community really owns the game now". The community's continued interest has led some more recent reviews to conclude that Jedi Academy has a lightsaber engine superior to those developed before or since.
### Release
The game was published and distributed within North America by LucasArts. Activision took control of publishing and distributing the game in all other territories worldwide. The game was released for Microsoft Windows and OS X (published by Aspyr) on September 17, 2003, and for Xbox (developed by Vicarious Visions) in November 2003, and received positive reviews.
In September 2009, the game was re-released with the other Star Wars: Jedi Knight games (Star Wars: Dark Forces, Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II, Star Wars Jedi Knight: Mysteries of the Sith and Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast) through the digital distributor Steam and Direct2Drive.
The original Xbox version of Jedi Academy was one of the six Star Wars titles made available on Xbox One via backward compatibility in April 2018. On January 29, 2019, Major Nelson announced that Jedi Academy will be available as part of Xbox's Games with Gold program from February 16 to February 28.
On September 19, 2019, it was announced that Jedi Academy would be rereleased on PlayStation 4 and the Nintendo Switch in "early" 2020, to follow the rerelease of Jedi Outcast for the same platforms in December 2019. On March 26, 2020, Jedi Academy was released on PlayStation 4 and the Nintendo Switch with updated controls for modern hardware and a fully functional multiplayer component directly mirroring the original's.
### Source-code release
Following Disney's decision to close LucasArts on April 3, 2013, the developers at Raven Software released the source code for the game on SourceForge under GNU GPL-2.0-only. A few days after release, the source code disappeared from SourceForge without explanation. SourceForge later explained to media outlet Kotaku that Raven Software had requested its removal. Kotaku speculated this was due to the presence of licensed code, such as for the Bink Video format from Rad Game Tools, that was not intended to be made public. Based on the source release from Raven, Jedi Academy is maintained by the JACoders group as OpenJK.
## Critical reception
Both the PC and Xbox versions of the game were well received. The PC version holds an aggregate score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 34 reviews, and 80% on GameRankings based on 51 reviews. The Xbox version holds aggregate scores of 76 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 30 reviews, and 75% on GameRankings based on 45 reviews.
### PC
Positive reviews praised the fact that, unlike in Dark Forces II and Jedi Outcast, players could use a lightsaber from the beginning. Game Over Online scored the game 92% and commented that "You start instantly with your lightsaber, rather than wading through six painfully bland FPS levels to get your lightsaber as you did in Jedi Outcast". Critics lauded the lightsaber interface and player customization options. Ernie Halal of Gaming Age gave the game an A−, writing, "You choose not only the gender and race of your character, but also which powers and fighting styles to develop [...] Third person adventure games rarely offer that much customization."
Critics noted that, despite its age, the Quake III engine was used well. PC Gamer UK, which scored the game 70 out of 100, wrote "the engine, which although hardly groundbreaking any more, perfectly evokes the glow of the lightsaber and the grimy, metallic backgrounds of the films." Some critics did, however, note that the engine was starting to look dated.
The multiplayer, in particular the objective-based Siege mode, was well received. The music, sound effects and voice acting also received acclaim, although some critics found it odd that all aliens spoke English.
The story and level design received mixed reactions. Some critics commended the levels as varied (both in terms of length and content). GameZone scored the game 9 out of 10, writing "Some are a fast blast that can be beat in ten or so minutes. Others [...] can take as long as hours [...] The change of pace is very refreshing." The story was described as "great" by GameZone and as "strong" by Gaming Age. IGN's Steve Butts, however, disliked the plot, feeling that "Jedi Outcast was more satisfying in terms of involvement with the story. Jedi Academy dishes out more action sooner but fails to put it in as solid a context as the previous game."
Game Over Online was critical of the mission structure, writing "This kind of free-form mission assignment [...] only serves to weaken the plotline. It also leads to a disjointedness to the missions [...] it seems more like roaming than any actual story advancement." GameSpot's Craig Beers, however, praised the mission structure; "Jedi Academy does an excellent job of balancing its missions." IGN also defended the system; "It's nice that the game offers a series of fairly short, relatively unconnected missions at the start. It's a great way to get your feet wet and ease you in to the environments and the saber fighting before the challenge level ramps up."
The AI was criticized by PC Gamer UK as "laughable"; "Every encounter you have is filled with people too stupid to realise that running away or taking some sort of cover would be the best option. [Jedi Academy] requires little to no skill to play through." This opinion was echoed by GameSpot: "Stormtroopers usually just stand there shooting away at you [...] Dark Jedi rush at you, even after watching four of their brethren plummet to a horrible death. Occasionally, you'll see an enemy accidentally commit suicide by falling off a cliff or falling into lava, enemies will not even dive for cover or try and throw it back if you throw an uncooked thermal detonator at them."
Despite his criticism of the AI, GameSpot's Craig Beers scored the game 8.4 out of 10, writing "It manages to take all the fun parts from its predecessor and greatly expands them to create an engaging, new action game in its own right." IGN's Steve Butts scored the game 8.8 out of 10, giving it an "Editor's Choice Award" and writing "If you like Star Wars and think flipping around chopping up Stormtroopers and flinging Dark Jedi off of conveniently placed precipices is fun, then this game is definitely for you." Eurogamer's Kristan Reed was less impressed, scoring the game 7 out of 10, writing "The harsh reality is, for all the plentiful additions, there's much work to be done before LucasArts can boast it has created the ultimate Star Wars FPS. Sure, it's the best one yet, but with some often laughable AI and creaking tech underpinning it, the flaws are there for all to see."
### Xbox
Kevin Gifford of 1Up.com scored the Xbox version a B−. He lauded the addition of Xbox Live support and the ability to use a lightsaber from the opening, two of biggest criticisms of Jedi Outcast. However, he called the graphics "worryingly out of date by current Xbox standards", saying that when playing in first-person mode "the game looks more like a two-year-old PC shooter than a modern Star Wars game." He concluded that "The Xbox Live games make Jedi Academy worth at least a rental to online players, but otherwise, this game's worth it to Star Wars fans only." Eurogamer's Kristan Reed was also somewhat unimpressed, scoring the game 6 out of 10 and criticizing the controls; "In common with the PC version, you still find yourself going into battle and fumbling furiously through cyclical menus while numerous baddies are busy blasting seven shades out of you." She was also critical of the AI and the graphics, concluding that "It's good to see Live make the package this time around, but we're disappointed that after all these years LucasArts is still scratching around abusing the Star Wars brand in this way. There are some good ideas here that haven't been realised, and we're once again left waiting for the definitive Star Wars FPS to appear."
IGN were more impressed, scoring the game 8 out of 10. Although they were critical of the graphics and frame rate and found the game to be inferior to Jedi Outcast, reviewer Steve Butts concluded, "For the 15 or so hours that it lasted, I enjoyed Jedi Academy." GameSpot's Craig Beers scored the game 8.1 out of 10. He praised the mapping of the PC version's controls to the Xbox Controller and the implementation of Xbox Live, but like IGN, he was critical of the frame rates. He concluded that "The game may not look great, but it translates well to the Xbox--for those who would prefer to play it on a console. It even caters to those who aren't familiar with the Star Wars universe and just want pure action. In general, Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy is highly recommendable." GameZone's Nick Valentino scored the game 8.2 out of 10 and was especially impressed with the use of Xbox live; "the biggest draw--and the one that has me playing this one very often--is the fact that the multiplayer modes can also be played online using the Xbox Live service. That's right, you read it correctly. You can duel against other Xbox gamers out there using any of the seven multiplayer modes and even talk trash using your Xbox Communicator. Here's your chance to see if you're truly good with the lightsaber."
## See also
- List of formerly proprietary software
- List of open source games
|
1,473,817 |
Obscene Publications Act 1959
| 1,153,948,541 | null |
[
"Censorship in the United Kingdom",
"Obscenity law",
"United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1959",
"United Kingdom pornography law"
] |
The Obscene Publications Act 1959 (7 & 8 Eliz. 2. c. 66) is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom Parliament that significantly reformed the law related to obscenity in England and Wales. Prior to the passage of the Act, the law on publishing obscene materials was governed by the common law case of R v Hicklin, which had no exceptions for artistic merit or the public good. During the 1950s, the Society of Authors formed a committee to recommend reform of the existing law, submitting a draft bill to the Home Office in February 1955. After several failed attempts to push a bill through Parliament, a committee finally succeeded in creating a viable bill, which was introduced to Parliament by Roy Jenkins and given the Royal Assent on 29 July 1959, coming into force on 29 August 1959 as the Obscene Publications Act 1959. With the committee consisting of both censors and reformers, the actual reform of the law was limited, with several extensions to police powers included in the final version.
The Act created a new offence for publishing obscene material, repealing the common law offence of obscene libel which was previously used, and also allows Justices of the Peace to issue warrants allowing the police to seize such materials. At the same time it creates two defences; firstly, the defence of innocent dissemination, and secondly the defence of public good. The Act has been used in several high-profile cases, such as the trials of Penguin Books for publishing Lady Chatterley's Lover and Oz for the Schoolkids OZ issue.
## Background and passage
Obscene publications were, historically, something for the canon law; the first prosecution in a court of common law was not until 1727. Prior to the passing of the 1959 Act, the publication of obscene materials within England and Wales was governed by the common law and the Obscene Publications Act 1857. The common law, as established in R v Hicklin [1868] 3 QB 360, set the test of "obscenity" as "whether the tendency of the letter published is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influence and into whose hands the publication might fall", while the 1857 Act allowed any stipendiary magistrate or any two Justices of the Peace to issue a warrant authorising the police to search for, seize, and destroy any obscene publications. It was generally accepted that the existing law was heavily flawed, for several reasons. Firstly, the so-called "Hicklin test" from R v Hicklin was both unduly narrow and unyielding; it did not, for example, take into account the intentions of the defendant. Secondly, the test meant that individual sections of a published work could be analysed and the entire work declared obscene, even if the rest of the work was fairly mild. Thirdly, there was no defence based on the public good, and no opportunity to submit evidence showing the artistic merits of the work, and fourthly, works could be destroyed without the author or publisher even being informed and given an opportunity to speak.
During the 1950s, efforts started to attempt reform of the law. Following the prosecution of several notable publishers, the Society of Authors formed a committee (with Norman St John-Stevas as legal advisor) to recommend reform of the existing law, submitting their proposals and a draft bill to the Home Office in February 1955. Instead of the wholesale reform the Society hoped for, the government instead chose limited reform through the Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act 1955 dealing with horror comics, which kept the Hicklin test but required that the work as a whole be examined. The Society and sympathetic Members of Parliament then attempted to introduce a Private Member's Bill, but this was quashed by the ensuing general election. Another Private Member's Bill was successfully introduced in March 1957 and sent to a committee. Composed of a mix of censors and reformers, the committee's recommendations were mixed, consisting of both conservative (further powers of search and seizure for the police) and liberal (the use of expert evidence attesting to the work's artistic merit) proposals.
The committee's proposals were published in March 1958, and a new bill was introduced under the Ten Minute Rule, failing to gain the requisite support. After A. P. Herbert stood for Parliament on a platform of obscenity reform, the Home Office had a change of heart and introduced a new bill through Roy Jenkins in 1959, a compromise between the aims of the campaigners and the goals of the Home Office. It was introduced to the House of Lords by Lord Birkett, received the Royal Assent on 29 July 1959, and came into force on 29 August 1959 as the Obscene Publications Act 1959.
## Act
The Act is relatively short, divided into 5 sections, the fifth covering the extent of the Act and its commencement date. Section 1 covers the test to determine if something is obscene; an article is taken to be obscene if the entire article "is, if taken as a whole, such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely, having regard to all relevant circumstances, to read, see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it". The test is based on "persons"; DPP v Whyte [1972] AC 849 established that it was not sufficient for an individual to be depraved or corrupted, it must be that a significant number of people likely to read it would become corrupt. "Article" is defined within Section 1 as anything containing material that is read or looked at, any sound recordings and any film or other picture record. A publisher, as used in the Act, is also defined in Section 1; "publisher" is taken to mean anyone who "distributes, circulates, sells, lets on hire, gives, or lends it, or who offers it for sale or for letting on hire", or "in the case of an article containing or embodying matter to be looked at or a record, shows, plays or projects it". The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 amended this section to include the transmission of the article electronically.
Section 2 covers the actual prohibition of publishing "obscene material". Section 2(1) creates a new offence, "publishing an obscene article", which replaces the common law misdemeanour of "obscene libel" which was previously the crime. Somebody can be found guilty of this regardless of if it was done for profit or not. Where the article is a film, the consent of the Director of Public Prosecutions is required before a prosecution can commence. Section 2(4) states that, where an article is obscene, no other common law charges should be brought, and it should instead be dealt with through the 1959 Act, intended to limit prosecutions to those crimes found in this Act. Section 2(5) creates a defence of "innocent dissemination"; if the publisher can prove that they did not anticipate any obscenity problems, and did not examine the article in question for such issues, they cannot be convicted.
Powers of search and seizure are covered by Section 3, which also repealed the Obscene Publications Act 1857. This section allows a Justice of the Peace, if satisfied that there are reasonable grounds to believe obscene publications are kept on certain premises for profit, to issue a warrant for that location. This warrant allows a police officer to enter the premises, search them and remove any suspect publications; if such publications are found, the officer can also take records relating to the businesses trade. The articles must then be brought before a magistrate and either forfeited by the owners or returned. The owner, author or publisher of the articles, or the person from whom they were seized, may appear before the magistrate to argue why they should not be forfeited.
Section 4 creates the defence of public good, which applies both to prosecutions for publication of obscene materials and to the forfeiture proceedings described in Section 3. This allows for a valid defence if the defendant can show that the publication of the materials was justifiable as for the "public good", which is defined as "in the interests of science, literature, art or learning, or of other objects of general concern". Experts and their testimony are admissible for determining the value of such publications. This section was initially treated very strictly by trial judges, but this attitude was reversed after the 1976 trial of the book Inside Linda Lovelace, where the jury found the publishers not guilty despite the judge saying that "if this isn't obscene, members of the jury, you may think that nothing is obscene". Three years later the Williams Committee recommended that restrictions on written pornography be lifted, and these restrictions have been largely abandoned.
## Notable prosecutions under the Act
### Lady Chatterley's Lover trial
The first noted prosecution under the Obscene Publications Act was of Penguin Books in R v Penguin Books Ltd. [1960] for publishing Lady Chatterley's Lover. The book, which contained the use of the words "fuck" and "cunt" multiple times, along with sexual scenes, was banned completely in England and Wales until the conclusion of the trial; by the mid-1980s, it was on the school syllabus. Penguin Books relied on Section 4's "public good" defence, with academics and literary critics such as E. M. Forster and Helen Gardner testifying at the trial that the book was one of literary merit. The trial at the Old Bailey eventually ended with a not guilty verdict, allowing the book to be openly published and sold in England and Wales for the first time since it was published in 1928. This trial and its verdict is seen as heralding "a new wave of sexual 'morality' for which the 1960s is now famous". Graham Lord wrote that the case "was the first trumpet call of the permissive society, the moment many believe that British morality, manners and family life began seriously to deteriorate".
### Stass Paraskos trial
In 1966 an exhibition at Leeds College of Art of paintings by the Cyprus-born British artist Stass Paraskos, entitled Lovers and Romances, was prosecuted by the City of Leeds police and the Director of Public Prosecutions under the Vagrancy Acts of 1828 and 1837, and the Obscene Publications Act 1959. When the exhibition opened it was allegedly visited by a local school group, the leader of which objected to an image depicting a woman masturbating a man. The exhibition was raided by the police and closed down. Despite luminaries of the art world speaking in Paraskos's defence, including Herbert Read and Norbert Lynton, and a message of support from Britain's Home Secretary Roy Jenkins, Paraskos lost the trial and was fined twenty-five pounds. The case was later cited in the report of a working party convened in 1968, under the chairmanship of John Montgomerie, by the Arts Council of Great Britain, to review the obscenity laws in England and Wales. In this report it was suggested the artist should not have been prosecuted in this case, even if the works of art were deemed obscene, as he was not the publisher as defined by the Obscene Publications Act.
### Schoolkids Oz trial
In 1971 the editors of Oz were tried for publishing obscene materials, specifically the Schoolkids Oz issue. Oz was an underground magazine with a circulation of 40,000 which aimed to challenge the "older generation's outdated beliefs and standards of behaviour and morality". For its 28th issue, 20 teenagers were invited to contribute and edit it. The published version was 48 pages long, with the front consisting of a sheet from the French erotic book Desseins Erotiques, which depicted four naked women licking each other and performing sex acts. Inside were articles about homosexuality, lesbianism, sadism and a cartoon strip which showed Rupert Bear "ravaging" a "gipsy granny". John Mortimer acted for the defence, and after the longest obscenity trial in English legal history the defendants were convicted. After a three-day hearing in the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, this conviction was overturned; the Court of Appeal recognised 14 errors of law and a large number of errors of fact in the trial judge's summing up to the jury.
### Later cases
Later cases have included:
- 1976: the Inside Linda Lovelace obscenity trial (found not guilty)
- 1991: David Britton's Lord Horror prosecution (not prosecuted - banned under the act, but later overturned)
- 2009: R v Walker where Darryn Walker was found not guilty under the Obscene Publications Act for posting a story entitled "Girls (Scream) Aloud", a fictional written account on an internet erotic story site describing the kidnap, rape and murder of pop group Girls Aloud.
- 2010: Gavin Smith who was charged after discussing his fantasies about spanking children. After the Crown Prosecution Service appealed the judge's original ruling that there was no case to answer, he was subsequently convicted in 2012.
- 2011: The British Board of Film Classification refused to classify an uncut version of Tom Six's The Human Centipede 2 (Full Sequence), considering it "potentially obscene".
- 2012: R v Peacock where a man was unsuccessfully prosecuted for selling DVDs featuring BDSM, fisting and urolagnia.
## Impact and assessment
The Act was found deficient in a variety of ways. Firstly, the test meant that "sting" operations where the police purchased "obscene" materials were not considered sufficient evidence of publication, since the police were not considered easy to "corrupt" due to their regular exposure to the materials. It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase, as those who actively sought out such material were deemed unlikely to be corrupted by it. Secondly, the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication, since it was merely an invitation to buy, not an actual purchase. Thirdly, the courts held in Straker v DPP [1963] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to publish them, regardless of their obscene nature. As a result, the Act was amended by the Obscene Publications Act 1964, which created the offence of "possessing obscene articles for publication or sale" and also extended "obscene materials" to cover photographic negatives. Another criticism levelled at both Acts was that they failed to define "obscene" properly, relying on the old common law definition and giving no help to the judge or jury as to how to apply it properly. Some anti-pornography feminists are of the opinion that the Act fails to adequately censor content as a result of this lack of clarity. The National Campaign for the Repeal of the Obscene Publications Acts (NCROPA) was set up in 1976 by the actor David Webb; it operated until the late 1990s.
### 21st century
By the early 21st century it had become evident that there was a disparity between what was deemed to be offensive under the Act and what would be regarded as offensive by a significant proportion of the general public. This may have been due to the age of the law or an indication that the UK had become a diverse and multicultural society. In 1996 there were 562 cases brought, in which 324 individuals were convicted. Even with this small number of trials, a third of convictions resulted in prison sentences, and only a small number of cases went to jury trials. The number of prosecutions fell from 309 in 1994, 131 in 1999, 39 in 2003 to 35 in 2005. This decline may have been partly due to the changing behaviour of jurors, who had become less likely to consider material as depraving and corrupting, and who were reluctant to convict defendants for the private use of material amongst consenting adults. Another reason for the decline may have been the range of alternative legislation which had become available for use in place of the Act. Suggestions given by the Crown Prosecution Service included:
- Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 ("extreme pornography")
- Protection of Children Act 1978
- Video Recordings Act 1984 and 2010
- Indecent Displays (Control) Act 1981
- Customs Consolidation Act 1876, Amendment Act 1887 (Importation of Indecent and Obscene Material)
- Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act 1955.
Nevertheless the Act continued to have a significant impact in English law for many years, with its precedents serving to provide a definition of obscenity that were used in other legal contexts. For instance, anything deemed likely to contravene the Act was prohibited from videos awarded an R18 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification, and the Audiovisual Media Services Regulations 2014 extended these restrictions to online video on demand. A list of the categories of material most commonly prosecuted under the Act was published by the Crown Prosecution Service.
However, following a public consultation, the Crown Prosecution Service published guidelines in 2019 indicating that pornography depicting consenting adults engaged in legal acts would no longer be prosecuted under the Act, provided no serious harm was caused and the likely audience was over the age of 18. The guidelines also clarified that material that is purposefully obscene can be justified as in the public good if it is "in the interests of science, literature, art or learning".
## See also
- Obscenity
- Obscene Publications Act 1964
- Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008
- Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982
- Pornography in the United Kingdom
|
9,923,932 |
Ontario Highway 18
| 1,120,228,215 |
Former Ontario provincial highway
|
[
"County roads in Essex County, Ontario",
"Former Ontario provincial highways",
"Leamington, Ontario"
] |
King's Highway 18, commonly referred to as Highway 18, was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario, located entirely within Essex County. Since 1998, the majority of the former route has been known as Essex County Road 20. The route travelled at the southernmost point in Canada, along or near the shoreline of the Detroit River and Lake Erie between Windsor and Leamington, with Highway 3 as the terminus at both ends. The former route provides access to the communities of LaSalle, Amherstburg, Malden Centre, Harrow, Kingsville and Union.
The original alignment of Highway 18 followed a completely different routing for the first 18 months of its existence than it would for the following 50 years. As it was first designated in 1930, Highway 18 provided a shortcut between Windsor and Tilbury. By early 1932, this route was renumbered as Highway 2, and a new highway between Windsor and Leamington via Amherstburg designated as Highway 18. Expansion of the highway to four lanes between Windsor and Amherstburg was first proposed in the mid-1960s, but not undertaken until the mid-1980s. In the mid-1990s, the route was determined to no longer be of provincial significance and was transferred—or downloaded—to the municipalities and township that it lay within. On April 1, 1997, Highway 18 was downloaded through LaSalle, as well between Union and Leamington; it was temporarily rerouted to end at Highway 3 in Ruthven. On January 1, 1998, the entire route was transferred to Essex County.
## Route description
Highway 18 was an 76.0-kilometre (47.2 mi) route that travelled along or near the shoreline of the Detroit River and Lake Erie between Windsor and Leamington in Southwestern Ontario. In addition to its provincial designation, it also carried the Heritage Highway designation for its entire length, the African-Canadian Heritage Tour from Windsor south to Essex County Road 10 (Middle Side Road), and the Great Sauk Trail between Windsor and Amherstburg. Today it is mostly known as Essex County Road 20; it is four-lanes from Windsor to Amherstburg, and generally two lanes for the remainder of its routing.
As it existed prior to 1997, Highway 18 was maintained by the Ministry of Transportation (MTO) outside of the city of Windsor; the city was responsible for the portion within its boundaries, which the route encounters at Morton Drive. In addition, portions of the route through Amherstburg, Harrow, Kingsville and Leamington were maintained under Connecting Link agreements. It began at Huron Church Road in Windsor and followed the E.C. Row Expressway west. The expressway ended as it curved south at Ojibway Parkway, with Highway 18 taking on that name thereafter. Ojibway Parkway, a divided four lane limited-access road, ends at the Windsor city limits at Morton Drive. The former route follows Front Road into the town of LaSalle, where it shifts west and crosses Turkey Creek. Front Road travels near the shoreline of the Detroit River through LaSalle, with riverfront properties lining the western side of the road. Across the river are the southern suburbs of Detroit, Michigan.
South of LaSalle, the former route of Highway 18 enters the city of Amherstburg at Essex County Road 3 (Malden Road). It makes several sweeping curves and crosses the mouth of the River Canard, which is the southernmost river in Canada. After passing through the centre of Amherstburg, where Highway 18 was maintained under a Connecting Link agreement between Brunner Avenue and Lowes Side Road, the route follows the shores of the Detroit River once more before curving east inland. It crosses Big Creek twice, with Knapps Island lying in the middle, before encountering the village of Malden Centre. Essex County Road 50, which formed Highway 18A until 1978, loops south from Malden Centre to Colchester before meeting Highway 18 again on the west side of Kingsville.
Now several kilometres inland from Lake Erie, the former route of Highway 18 travels through farmland, making a brief jog south before returning to a straight eastward route into the municipality of Essex and the community of Harrow. Within Harrow, the former route is named King Street, and was maintained under a Connecting Link agreement between Roseborough Road and Herdman Street. Continuing east, it passes Cedar Creek Conservation Area and crosses Cedar Creek at Essex County Road 23 (Arner Townline), which serves as the boundary between Essex and Kingsville. Entering the urban boundary of Kingsville, it meets the eastern terminus of Essex County Road 50 (Heritage Road). Highway 18 was maintained under a Connecting Link agreement in Kingsville between Fox Lane and the Chrysler Canada Greenway, a rail trail along a former branch of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway.
East of Kingsville, the former route of Highway 18 travels parallel to and north of Lake Erie, providing access to lakeside properties. Several greenhouses are located nearby, a small percentage of the over 815 hectares (2,000 acres) of land occupied by them in the Leamington area. At the hamlet of Union, Highway 18 turned north to end at Highway 3 in Ruthven. However, this routing was only in place between April and December 1997. Prior to then, it entered Leamington at Albuna Townline, travelling along Seacliff Drive West to Erie Street, where it turned north. The highway ended at the intersection of Talbot Street (Highway 3) and Erie Street in downtown Leamington, from which Highway 77 continued north to Comber. The portion of the route from Forest Avenue and Seacliff Drive to Talbot Street was maintained under a Connecting Link agreement.
## History
### Windsor–Tilbury
The original alignment of Highway 18 followed a completely different routing for the first 18 months of its existence than it would for the following 50 years. As it was first designated in 1930, Highway 18 provided a shortcut between Windsor and Tilbury. In anticipation of the opening of the Ambassador Bridge, as well as the nearby Detroit–Windsor tunnel, Windsor and the surrounding townships sought road improvements between Windsor and Maidstone to alleviate traffic along Talbot Road and bypass or separate several level crossings of the Michigan Central Railway (MCR) beginning in early 1929. The province chose to designate a new right-of-way adjacent to and north of the MCR in July of that year, and spent the next several months constructing the cut-off (now known as Provincial Road) from Howard Avenue to north of Maidstone. By 1930, Highway 2 had been rerouted to begin at the ferry docks in downtown Windsor, following Ouellette Avenue to Tecumseh Road, then east to and south along Howard Avenue; the short segment near Maidstone became Highway 2A.
Meanwhile, the province set out to build a third highway into Windsor. Essex County had designated County Road 19 along Cabana Road (now Division Road) and Baseline Road to Tilbury on April 19, 1928, and soon thereafter the DPHO promised to take it over as a new provincial highway. Highway 18 was officially designated on June 11, 1930 along the route. Several changes were made to the provincial highway system in Essex County in February 1932. Since the route of Highway 18 was shorter than the route of Highway 2 between Windsor and Tilbury, the newly renamed Department of Highways (DHO) renumbered Highway 18 as Highway 2, while the old route of Highway 2 became Highway 2A. At the same time, the Highway 18 designation was applied along a new provincial highway between Windsor and Leamington.
### Windsor–Leamington
On November 17, 1931, Minister of Highways Leopold Macaulay announced that the province would take over the Front Road and Essex County Road 2 between Windsor and Leamington following calls by towns in southern Essex County. This took place one month later on December 16. Within Windsor, the new highway began at the intersection of Ouellette Avenue and Riverside Drive. From there it travelled west along Riverside Drive, Sandwich Street, and what is now the Ojibway Parkway. Several sections of the new highway were paved when the province took them over. The Front Road was paved between Windsor and Amherstburg by 1924, King Street in Harrow was paved between 1910 and 1912, and Seacliff Drive between Kingsville and Leamington was paved in 1925. The remainder of the route between Amherstburg and Kingsville, outside of Harrow, was unimproved.
Along with the new Highway 18 designation, which was applied in February 1932, the DHO undertook reconstruction of the unimproved portions of the route as a depression-relief project. As part of this work, several jogs were straightened and a new bridge constructed over Big Creek, bypassing the old route between Amherstburg and Malden Centre along what is now Meloche Road and Creek Road. Two sweeping curves were also built between Malden Centre and Harrow, and all unpaved sections were graded and gravel surfaced. Reconstruction of Highway 18 was completed and the route fully opened to traffic by September 30, 1932. Paving of the gravel sections of Highway 18 began in 1934. By the end of the year, the route had been paved between Amherstburg and Malden Centre, as well as between Harrow and Kingsville. The final gap of gravel between Malden Centre and Harrow was paved in 1936, and a new 76 m (250 ft) wooden bridge built over the River Canard along the right-of-way of the Sandwich, Windsor and Amherstburg Electric Railway.
The route of Highway 18 through Amherstburg originally followed Sandwich Street, Richmond Street and Dalhousie Street. Narrow streets and sharp turns resulted in frequent accidents, especially at the S-curve south of Park Street. Although this problem was recognised shortly after the highway was established, work to remedy it did not begin until 1958, when construction began on the Amherstburg diversion. On July 25, 1958, the DHO assumed the route of the future diversion, which was completed and opened to traffic on July 28, 1959; the former route via Richmond Street and Dalhousie Street was subsequently renumbered as Highway 18B.
### Expansions and downloading
When Highway 18 was established, the entire route was two lanes wide. Twinning of what is today known as the Ojibway Parkway took place in the late 1930s and was one of the earliest examples of a divided highway in Ontario. The divided portion began at Sandwich Street and ended at an intersection on the north side of the Turkey Creek bridge. This section of Highway 18 was known as Main Street or the Seven Mile Road until it was renamed as the Ojibway Parkway at the beginning of 1973. The remainder of the route between Amherstburg and the Turkey Creek bridge was gradually widened over the course of 25 years. Beginning in June 1965, following several years of deferrals, the two lane Turkey Creek bridge was widened as part of work to expand Front Road to four lanes as far south as Gary Avenue. The new four lane bridge was opened officially on September 17, 1966. That year, the Southwestern Ontario Highway Planning Study was released, which recommended numerous changes to the highway network in Essex County. Among them was four-laning Highway 18 between Amherstburg and Windsor.
On September 15 1970, the River Canard bridge experienced a structural failure and was taken out of service. It was replaced by a temporary bailey bridge that opened in January 1971. Planning for a replacement bridge to accommodate the widening of Highway 18 to four lanes had been underway since the early 1960s. Amherstburg council requested the new bridge have a 4.6 m (15 ft) clearance, compared with the 1 m (3 ft) clearance of the old bridge. The DHO refused, insisting a 3 m (10 ft) clearance would be adequate. In August 1972, after two years of discussions, the higher clearance was approved. Work on the new bridge and 1.9 km (1.2 mi) of approaches began in May 1973. It was opened to traffic in February 1974, and the bailey bridge subsequently disassembled. As part of the work, Highway 18 was widened to four lanes from 0.7 km (0.43 mi) south of the bridge to 1.1 km (0.68 mi) north of it.
Planning to remove the dangerous two lane Brunner Mond bridge in Amherstburg, the site of numerous accidents, was underway by the 1970s. The bridge crossed a Penn Central Railroad track midway between Texas Road and Brunner Avenue, and formed a major hurdle in the proposal to four lane Highway 18 between Amherstburg and LaSalle. On March 1, 1976, Minister of Transportation James Snow officially announced that the rebuilt highway would be four lanes wide. Work on the crossing began on July 11, 1977 and was completed by the end of the year.
Meanwhile in Windsor, construction of the E.C. Row Expressway was underway. Built to provide a ring road around Windsor, the expressway was opened as a two lane road between Ojibway Parkway and Huron Church Road on June 9, 1983. Starting with the 1982 Ontario Road Map, Highway 18 is shown as following the still-unopened E.C. Row Expressway to Huron Church Road. Construction to widen the west end of the E.C. Row Expressway to four lanes began in October 1989 and was completed in September, 1990.
Widening of 4.7 km (2.9 mi) of Highway 18 between Amherstburg and the River Canard bridge began on July 23, 1985, at a ground-breaking ceremony attended by Minister of Transportation Ed Fulton. Fulton personally intervened to ensure that the oft-deferred project be built. Construction to widen 8 km (5.0 mi) of the route from north of the River Canard bridge to south of the Turkey Creek bridge in LaSalle began in the spring of 1987.
As part of a series of budget cuts initiated by premier Mike Harris under his Common Sense Revolution platform in 1995, numerous highways deemed to no longer be of significance to the provincial network were decommissioned and responsibility for the routes transferred to a lower level of government, a process referred to as downloading. Highway 18 was downloaded east of Essex County Road 45 (Union Avenue, former Highway 107), a distance of 6.1 km (3.8 mi), on April 1, 1997. The 7.8 km (4.8 mi) portion of the route through LaSalle was transferred to that town on the same day. Essex County Road 45 (Union Avenue) was assumed in order to establish a logical eastern terminus for the route at Highway 3 in Ruthven. On January 1, 1998, the remainder of Highway 18 was downloaded and transferred to Essex County. Since 1998, the former route of Highway 18 has been known as Essex County Road 20.
## Suffixed routes
### Highway 18A
Highway 18A was a 31.1-kilometre-long (19.3 mi) route that began and ended at Highway 18, travelling along the Lake Erie shoreline and through Colchester. It was the southernmost highway to ever exist in Canada, as the only one to travel south of the 42nd parallel. Highway 18A was assumed as a provincial highway on April 13, 1938. It was transferred to Essex County on January 1, 1978, and has since been known as Essex County Road 50.
### Highway 18B (Ruthven)
Highway 18B was a short stub serving to connect Highway 18 with Highway 3 west of Leamington. It was assumed by the DHO on August 25, 1937. While initially gravel-surfaced, the highway was paved in 1944. Highway 18B was renumbered as Highway 107 in 1952. Highway 18 would briefly follow this route between April 1997 and January 1998.
### Highway 18B (Amherstburg)
A second Highway 18B existed through downtown Amherstburg in the 1960s, following the original route of Highway 18 along Richmond Street and Dalhousie Street.
## Major intersections
## See also
- Ontario Highway 98
- List of numbered roads in Essex County
|
50,961,929 |
Hamidou Maiga
| 1,053,499,773 |
Malian photographer (born 1932)
|
[
"1932 births",
"21st-century Burkinabé people",
"21st-century Malian people",
"Burkinabé photographers",
"Living people",
"Malian photographers",
"People from Bobo-Dioulasso",
"Portrait photographers"
] |
Hamidou Maiga (born 1932) is a Malian studio photographer among the region's pioneers in the craft during the postcolonial period. His work was largely unknown in the West prior to his discovery and display in the early 2010s. Maiga's early outdoor portraits from the Niger River region in the late 1950s reflect Mali's period of societal transition from colony to sovereignty. He has exhibited in solo shows in London and Lima, Peru.
## Early life and career
Maiga was born in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, in 1932. He trained as a mason in Timbuktu, but entered photography in the early 1950s via photojournalism and his first medium format camera. After completing his apprenticeship, Maiga bought a set of photo lab equipment from a Ghanaian colleague. He opened his first studio in N'Gouma—a Malian Mopti region village—in 1958, and set out traveling along the Niger River looking for work, meeting interesting people, and practicing his photography fundamentals with the painted backdrops he transported. In this two-year period, he developed a style of outdoor studio portraits. His subjects had never before been photographed and some had never before seen a camera. Back in Timbuktu, he opened a studio where he photographed figures across politics, sports, and the arts. Maiga chose the costume, props, and painted backdrops for each portrait. His subjects would pose in the style of pop culture idols, flaunt amenities like cigarettes and radios, and dress in an eclectic style of blended Western and African sensibilities. His work captured Mali's societal transition from a French colony to a sovereign nation. He opened a studio in Bamako in 1973.
Maiga was among the Malian pioneers in post-colonial studio photography between the 1950s and 1970s. Maiga is acknowledged as a major figure in Malian portrait photography. Maiga's work was largely unknown to Western audiences before art dealer Jack Bell discovered Maiga's negatives in the early 2010s—while Maiga was in his 80s—and brought the work to a wider audience. Bell hosted Maiga's first solo exhibition, Talking Timbuktu, and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London acquired some of Maiga's work.
In 2016, Maiga's work was exhibited in the New York 1:54 fair and in a solo exhibition at the Peruvian Museo Mario Testino as part of its series on masters of photography. The museum placed Maiga in the tradition of itinerant photographers such as Martín Chambi and the Vargas brothers.
Maiga resides in Bamako.
## Selected solo exhibitions
- La ruta del Níger: de Mopti a Tombuctú, Museo Mario Testino, Lima, Peru, 2016
- Talking Timbuktu, Jack Bell Gallery, London, 2011
|
5,127,346 |
Ulla Winblad
| 1,171,198,334 |
Fictional character created by Carl Michael Bellman
|
[
"Carl Michael Bellman",
"Female characters in literature",
"Fictional Swedish people",
"Fictional characters based on real people",
"Fictional courtesans",
"Literary characters introduced in 1790"
] |
Ulla Winblad is a semi-fictional character in many of Carl Michael Bellman's musical works. She is at once an idealised rococo goddess and a tavern prostitute, and a key figure in Bellman's songs of Fredman's Epistles. The juxtaposition of elegant and low life is humorous, while allowing Bellman to convey a range of emotions. Ulla Winblad has been called "one of the really great female figures in Swedish literature". The character was partly inspired by Maria Kristina Kiellström (1744–1798).
## Context
Carl Michael Bellman is a central figure in the Swedish ballad tradition and a powerful influence in Swedish music, known for his 1790 Fredman's Epistles and his 1791 Fredman's Songs. A solo entertainer, he played the cittern, accompanying himself as he performed his songs at the royal court.
The epistles, written and performed in different styles, from drinking songs and laments to pastorales, paint a complex picture of the life of the city of Stockholm during the 18th century. A frequent theme is the demimonde, with Fredman's cheerfully drunk Order of Bacchus, a loose company of ragged men who favour strong drink and prostitutes. At the same time as depicting this realist side of life, Bellman creates a rococo picture, full of classical allusion, following the French post-Baroque poets. The women, including the beautiful Ulla Winblad, are "nymphs", while Neptune's festive troop of followers and sea-creatures sport in Stockholm's waters. The juxtaposition of elegant and low life is humorous, sometimes burlesque, but always graceful and sympathetic. The songs are "most ingeniously" set to their music, which is nearly always borrowed and skilfully adapted.
## Origins
Ulla Winblad features repeatedly in Fredman's Epistles. Some of her appearances are in songs about taverns in and around Stockholm; others are in pastorales, set in leafy places near the city, or on boats crossing its waterways and lakes. Alongside her is a cast of contemporary Stockholmers, accompanied by figures from classical and Norse mythology.
## After Bellman
Ulla Winblad remains a popular character in Sweden and other countries, where Bellman's songs continue to be performed, both directly and adapted into theatre productions. In 1908, she was played by Constance Byström [sv] in Ernst Didring's play Två konungar ("Two Kings", about Bellman and Gustav the third) at the Swedish Theatre, Helsinki. In 1953 Carl Zuckmayer put on his play Ulla Winblad in Germany, to popular acclaim.
## Ulla and the real Maria Kristina Kiellström
The fictional Ulla Winblad and the real Maria Kristina Kiellström have frequently been confused, but were not at all the same. Burman comments that she was not "on the slide" but a quite ordinary woman, "not a prostitute, not a bride of Bacchus and not a goddess of love either. Just as little was she a Vestal Virgin." Kiellström, born in 1744 in a poor family, did borrow her stepmother's surname, Winblad (the name means vine-leaf). About 1763, she found a job in a silk factory. At the age of about twenty Kiellström became notorious for being made pregnant by a Swedish nobleman, Count Wilhelm Schildt. The child died; he abandoned her. Further notoriety came in 1767: while she was without regular employment, she was accused of wearing a red silk cape, a banned luxury item; but unlike Ulla, she was acquitted. By 1770, Kiellström had moved out of the town centre; she and another girl, whose name was Ulla, were both officially recorded as being suspected by their landlord of "loose living".
Bellman met Kiellström in about 1769. Soon afterwards, he sang of Ulla Winblad for the first time in Fredman's Epistle number 25, Blåsen nu alla, subtitled Which is an attempt at a pastoral in Bacchanalian taste, written on Ulla Winblad's crossing to Djurgården. It begins with rococo "angels, dolphins, zephyrs and the whole might of Paphos" (compare Boucher's Birth of Venus) and musical flourishes on the horn ("Corno") and ends with Ulla as "my nymph" and the sentiment "May love come into our lives".
Bellman worked up the silk cape incident into the rococo Epistle 28, I går såg jag ditt barn, min Fröja, where Fredman sees a "goddess", elegantly dressed, with illegally flounced and frilled petticoats.
Kiellström married a customs officer, Eric Nordström, in 1772: Bellman found him his job. The couple lived very close to Bellman, and Norström too appears in the Epistles; a "quarrelsome violent man" and a drinker, he died in a police cell. Kiellström, still attractive, remarried at the age of 42; her second husband, 11 years younger than her, complained that she was "generally and in printed songs known for passionate living."
## The mythic Ulla
Edvard Matz, author of a book about Carl Michael Bellman's women, calls Ulla "one of the really great female figures in Swedish literature". Bellman's English biographer, Paul Britten Austin, summarizes Ulla's dual nature, both romanticised and sexual: "Ulla is at once a nymph of the taverns and a goddess of a rococo universe of graceful and hot imaginings". Fredman's Epistles are distinctive in combining realism - drink, poverty, gambling, prostitution, old age - with elegant mythological rococo flourishes, enabling Bellman to achieve both comic and elegiac effects. Britten Austin cites the Swedish critic Nils Afzelius [sv]: "Several of the most personal poems are staged with a heavy overlay of classical mythology ... It is as if a curtain with a whole rococo world of gods and goddesses on rosy clouds ... were suddenly raised, revealing a tavern-interior with shaky chairs, spilled and shattered glasses, staggering clients and sluttish barmaids [N. Afzelius).]" Ulla Winblad is, as Carina Burman writes, the only female character in Fredman's Epistles to have her own surname. The others may have a first name, like Lotta or Jeanna, or may simply be known by the tavern where they work, like Mutter på Tuppen ("Mother at the Cockerel [Tavern]").
The sluttiest of the barmaids, though as Britten Austin writes "on the rosiest mythological clouds", is of course Ulla. In Epistle 36 Vår Ulla låg i sängen och sov, (Our Ulla lay in bed and slept), Bellman in full rococo style describes Ulla asleep in a tavern bedroom - while the owner peeps through the keyhole and three excited drunks wait outside. As she wakes, three rococo cupids assist her with make-up, perfume, and her hair. Then she runs into the bar, revives herself with a glass of brandy, and leaves with the blindest of the waiting fellows, "leaving the inmates of the tavern, shaken, to contemplate Ulla's glass where she has left it, empty and broken on the bar."
The Ulla Winblad depicted in Fredman's Epistles is at once romanticised and clearly sexual. Epistle 71, in Britten Austin's words "the apogee, perhaps, of all that is typically bellmansk" evokes the Swedish countryside at Djurgården in summertime, as Bellman imagines riding out of town and finding Ulla at her window. The song is called a Pastorale, and titled "To Ulla at her window, Fiskartorpet, lunchtime, one summer's day". It begins
Ulla, min Ulla, säj, får jag dig bjuda
rödaste smultron i mjölk och vin,...
Ulla, my Ulla, say may I offer you
reddest strawberries in milk and wine...
The scholar of Swedish literature Lars Lönnroth writes that the song is a serenade, originally a profession of love set to the strings of a guitar outside the beloved's window of an evening. In Bellman's hands, the setting is shifted to midday in a Swedish summer. Fredman can, Lönnroth writes, be supposed to have spent the night with Ulla after an evening of celebration; now he sits on his horse outside her window and sings to her. In the first half of each verse, in the major key, he speaks straight to Ulla, offering his love in the form of delicious food and drink; in the second half, the refrain, in the minor key, he encourages her more softly to admire nature all around, and she replies with a meditative word or two: "Heavenly!"; "Oh yes!". There is, furthermore, a definite erotic charge, increasing in each of the three verses. In the first verse, the house's doors are suggestively blown open by the wind, while in the last verse, the neighing, stamping, galloping horse appears as a sexual metaphor alongside Fredman's expressed passion.
## See also
- Österlånggatan
- Ulla von Höpken
|
15,552,596 |
Sampson Hosking
| 1,139,598,210 |
Australian rules footballer
|
[
"1888 births",
"1974 deaths",
"Australian people of Cornish descent",
"Australian racehorse trainers",
"Australian rules footballers from Adelaide",
"Magarey Medal winners",
"Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL) coaches",
"Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL) players",
"Port Adelaide Football Club players (all competitions)",
"South Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees",
"West Torrens Football Club coaches"
] |
Sampson Hosking (4 January 1888 – 20 October 1974) was an Australian rules footballer who played for the Port Adelaide Football Club in the South Australian Football League (SAFL). He was twice a recipient of the Magarey Medal, an individual award given in recognition of being the best and fairest player in the SAFL. After his playing career Hosking was also an accomplished football coach successfully leading Port Adelaide and the West Torrens Football Club to a combined six premierships. In 1929 he was described in the Register as "one of the most prominent figures in the game during the past 20 years. Combining exceptional pace with a football brain of rare fertility".
## Early life
Hosking was born on 4 January 1888 in Glanville, South Australia. He was the son of Cornish immigrant James Hosking and Port Adelaide local Jane Hampton McKenzie. Hosking grew up in close proximity to the Port River, living in Exmouth Street, Glanville.
For his education Hosking went to the Le Fevre Peninsula School. Around the age of twelve Hosking started working at the Glanville Pipe Works, alongside other family members, where he remained employed for 52 years.
When Hosking was very young he dislocated his left elbow, leading his father James, out of an abundance of caution, to rule that his son should never play football. To circumvent his father's ruling and ire, when Hosking played junior football with the Marist Brothers, and later the Semaphore Centrals, he did so under a false name. The pseudonym that Hosking used during these early years was H. Sampson. During his time at Semaphore Centrals his teammates often joked "who is this H. Sampson anyway?" and that "he is picked but never turns up!". Hosking was part of the Semaphore Centrals team that lost the Adelaide and Suburban Football Association Grand Final to the Norwood Seconds in 1906. Whilst at Semaphore Centrals Hosking purchased a short-brimmed hat, similar to that worn by an Adelaide comedian at the time known as Harry Shine, and was subsequently given the nickname "Shine" by his friends.
Around this time Hosking was working alongside Tom Leahy who was already a league footballer and was trying to convince his younger co-worker to join him at his then club, West Adelaide. Hosking did not tell his father about his football exploits until he was formally invited to play with Port Adelaide in 1907. His father's caution was not unfounded as Hosking suffered shoulder injuries throughout his entire football career. Whenever he played football Hosking preferred to wear a long-sleeved guernsey to hide his permanently taped left shoulder from opponents.
## Playing career
Hosking made his senior debut for Port Adelaide in a win over Sturt on Unley Oval on 4 May 1907. A couple weeks later during a game Lewis Corston, Port Adelaide's captain, physically kicked Hosking telling him to work harder and threatened him with being dropped from the side if he did not "get into the game a bit more". This confrontation proved a lasting one in the memory of Hosking, who years later, recalled it as formative. In his first season of league football Hosking played in the 1907 SAFL Grand Final against Port Adelaide's traditional rival Norwood. That match was attended by a then-record crowd for football in South Australia with 25,000 spectators present at Adelaide Oval to witness Norwood win by 28 points. Hosking was given a gold medal by Port Adelaide in recognition of being the "most improved junior" for his club in 1907.
Hosking was named as one of Port Adelaide's best players in a 1908 post-season game against Essendon on Adelaide Oval of which the visitors won by one goal.
The third game of Port Adelaide's 1909 SAFL season against Norwood was severely effected by rain and wind with only one goal scored, by Hosking, for the whole match, a goal which Roy Hill described as a "fluke". On 19 July 1909 whilst at work Hosking was badly injured when a ladle of hot metal spilled on his legs and feet. He was severely burned. The injury prevented Hosking joining Port Adelaide's mid-season trip to Melbourne. Hosking had recovered enough by the time the club returned from Victoria to take his place back in the side when they faced Sturt on 21 August. Port Adelaide qualified for the 1909 SAFL Grand Final and by this stage Hosking had largely recovered from his work injury and was playing relatively well, kicking a goal during the match, but it was not enough, with West Adelaide winning the premiership decider by 18 points.
As a result of Lewis Corston retiring at the end of 1909, Hosking was given his role as Port Adelaide's centre for the 1910 SAFA season. It was be during this season that Hosking won his first Magarey Medal, and his first South Australian league premiership as a player when Port Adelaide defeated Sturt (who were playing in their first championship match) by 19 points in the 1910 SAFL Grand Final. Hosking took part in an eventful post season with Port Adelaide in 1910 during which his club defeated Collingwood for the 1910 Championship of Australia title, and Western Australian Football League (WAFL) premiers East Fremantle in an exhibition match. Hosking and Port Adelaide also defeated a combination of some of the WAFL's best players in another match that year.
In 1911 Hosking was selected to represent South Australia for the first time. This coincided with the national championship carnival being held in Adelaide that year. The 1911 South Australian team proved to be the strongest the state had ever fielded to that point. In the carnival South Australia won all four of its matches against New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia and Victoria.
In June 1912 Hosking was elected captain of the club by his teammates at Port Adelaide after Clifford Cocks stepped down from the role. Port Adelaide went undefeated during the minor round that year, but stumbled at the final hurdle losing the 1912 SAFL Grand Final to West Adelaide by 14 points.
At the start of the 1913 SAFL season Hosking vacated the Port Adelaide captaincy. During July Port Adelaide played a combination of players from the WAFL with Hosking's side winning by 39 points. During the match Hosking went head-to-head with William "Nipper" Truscott with the Fremantle Herald observing that "Shine Hosking's work in the centre quite eclipsed our own Nipper". The season proved to be more successful for Port Adelaide beginning with an undefeated run halfway through the minor round all the way to the end of the 1913 SAFL Grand Final where the club beat North Adelaide by 14 points to claim the club's 7th premiership. In the post season Port Adelaide successfully challenged 1913 VFL premiers Fitzroy for the title of Champions of Australia.
Port Adelaide repeated its successes of 1913 and improved on them. Hosking played his 100th SAFL game in the 1914 SAFL Grand Final where Port Adelaide held North Adelaide to a single goal. Again, Port Adelaide successfully challenged the VFL premiers, this time Carlton, for the title of 1914 Champions of Australia. Additionally, in conjunction with Eight Hours Day a match between Port Adelaide and South Australia was held on Jubilee Oval with Hosking's team toppling a start side featuring some of the state's best players such as Dave Lowe, Bill Mayman, Tom Leahy, Jack Tredrea, Frank Golding and Frank Barry.
At the end of the 1915 SAFL season, Hosking tied with Frank Barry and Charlie Perry for the Magarey Medal. At the time a count back was used to determine a single winner with the award being presented to Frank Barry at the time. However, in 1998 the SANFL issued retrospective Magarey Medals in the 10 instances where there was a tie. As a result, Hosking is one of only three players to win multiple Magarey Medals for Port Adelaide with the others being Bob Quinn and Russell Ebert.
During World War I the SAFL ceased scheduling football matches which led to some club officials, particularly those at Port Adelaide, to form the South Australian Patriotic Football League (SAPFL) which ran an independent competition in 1916, 1917 and 1918. Hosking played a majority of games in all three of the SAPFL seasons. After playing a dominant game in Port Adelaide's 1916 SAPFL Grand Final victory, the South Australian Register noted that Hosking was "entitled to be recognised as the best player of the season in the association". These games were never recognised by the SAFL.
Despite having retired from playing after 1921, he played two matches in 1927, and in 1936 he became the oldest SANFL player when, at the age of 48 years and 154 days whilst Port Adelaide coach, he named himself on the bench in his side against West Torrens.
### Playing style
Hosking was a fast aggressive centreman. During his career he also played as a rover, wingman and forward. Hosking often elected to knock on the ball when he found himself in congestion. In regards to when he trained Hosking said that "I always put my whole heart and soul into my work. Running up to the ball I would run my hardest, and when I picked it up there would always be an imaginary opponent in front of me. They used to say at the Port:—'Look at that lunatic out there, dodging and twisting past nothing!".
He was noted for being the fastest player in Port Adelaide's team and one of the fastest in the SAFL. When he was unavailable to play the lack of pace in the Port Adelaide side was said to be noticeable. In 1908 at a Semaphore Athletics Carnival that was held to celebrate King Edward's birthday Hosking won three events, those being 130 yards (118.87 m), 220 yards (201.17 m) and 440 yards (402.34 m). In 1910 and 1912 Hosking won races at the Adelaide St Patrick's Day running events. Just a few days before he turned 37 he entered a 400m event at the Patawalonga winning his heats and coming second in the final.
Hosking was also considered to possess remarkable judgement as a footballer. When describing Hosking in writing for the Register, Steve McKee stated that "Shine Hosking stands out as one of the most prominent figures in the game during the past 20 years. Combining exceptional pace with a football brain of rare fertility...he was successively a star winger and centre". Bob McLean described Hosking in his book 100 Years with the Magpies as possessing "brilliance as a ball handler, his lightening speed and all-round skill...A centreline player, he played mainly in the centre or on the wing. He held his own against all-comers, not only in South Australia, but in the many Interstate and Carnival matches in which he participated."
Hosking relished being booed by fans of opposition clubs interpreting the verbals "as a compliment. It reminded me of the villain in the play". Despite winning two Magarey Medals, of which a criterion of eligibility is fairness, Hosking described himself as having a "reputation of being one of the dirtiest players who ever stripped."
## Coaching career
In 1921 Hosking became Port Adelaide's captain in charge of training during his final full season as a player. Hosking was originally elected as captain of Port Adelaide on 9 March 1921 at the club's annual general meeting. However, on 7 May 1921 the captaincy was given to Harold Oliver, with Hosking being given the vice captaincy. This was after Oliver committed to travel to and from his farm in Berri for matches for the whole 1921 SAFL season. On 13 May 1921 a Daily Herald article described Hosking as "a most useful coach to his team, always giving juniors and new players encouragement". That year Port Adelaide beat Norwood by 8 points in the 1921 SAFL Grand Final. In the 1921 Port Adelaide Football Club Annual Report, Hosking is listed as one of only three players to attend all 44 of the club's training sessions that season (the other two being Clem Maywald and Kenneth Slade).
On 18 May 1922 the Daily Herald broke the news that Hosking had been poached away from Port Adelaide to be the new coach of West Adelaide on the recommendations of the latter club's captain Vic Peters. At the time the news of Hosking's "defection" caused a stir amongst football followers in Port Adelaide. In Hosking's first season at the helm of West Adelaide he guided that club to the 1922 SAFL Grand Final where they faced a Norwood side coached by Tom Leahy in front of 31,000 spectators at Adelaide Oval. Despite West Adelaide proving competitive in the contest wayward kicking let them down losing to Norwood 9.7 (61) to 2.1 (28). In October Hosking took his West Adelaide side to Perth to play WAFL premiers East Perth on Leederville Oval. In that match East Perth beat West Adelaide by 24 points.
During the 1924 season there were reports that the West Adelaide players were not putting in full effort at training, cutting their training sessions short along with failing to follow the instructions of their coach. By the end of 1924 Hosking had become frustrated with the level of commitment displayed by his West Adelaide players, voicing his disappointment in The News. He did not continue as West Adelaide's coach in 1925.
In 1926 the South Adelaide Football Club appointed Hosking as coach. It proved to be a difficult year for Hosking who immediately had to deal with the retirement of South Adelaide legend Dan Moriarty along with the defection of Charles Daly who was poached by Norwood. Hosking was left with only Bill Oliver, Alf Ryan and Bill Jackson as the experienced league players in his squad, subsequently forcing Hosking to give league debuts a large number of juniors in order to field a full team for South Adelaide. The club's best result for the season under Hosking was a draw against West Torrens on Adelaide Oval.
Hosking returned to his junior club Semaphore Central as coach at the start of 1927. Halfway through the 1927 SAFL season Hosking was appointed to take over from Peter Bampton as Port Adelaide's coach. His first training session as coach for Port Adelaide that year occurred on 2 August. The following season Hosking guided the club to victory in the 1928 SANFL Grand Final, Port Adelaide's first premiership since his departure at the end of 1921. During that year he also coached Port Adelaide's reserves side and Semaphore Centrals on Alberton Oval. In 1929 Drozena Eden, a local of Mauritian descent, was invited after partaking in Port Adelaide's pre-season to remain with club's senior team. At the start of 1930 Fred Ward, a club official, stated that "the success of Port Adelaide during the last two years was due almost entirely to the coaching of Hosking".
During the 1932 pre-season Port Adelaide elected to appoint a playing coach rather than a stand-alone coach resulting in Hosking being replaced by Sydney Ween. This decision may have been made on financial grounds with a long running internal debate, led by R. Lowe, within the club's administration regarding whether the cost associated with a paid coach, as opposed to just using the captain, was justifiable. Fred Ward held the opposing view considering a non-playing coach preferable. Hosking's absence from coaching only lasted a few months as he seize an opportunity to take over the role as West Torrens coach from D.R. Manning on 5 July 1932. An improved style of play by the West Torrens under Hosking was noted within a month of him becoming coach.
In Hosking's first full year as coach of West Torrens he successfully guided that club to the 1933 SANFL Grand Final where they beat Norwood by 23 points. After the Grand Final Magarey Medallist Jim Handby was full of praise when it came to Hosking's coaching writing in the Adelaide Advertiser that "this blending of skill, vigor and football intelligence has placed Torrens in its present very satisfactory position. Torrens's football brains have probably been developed by the shrewd attention paid to the players' education in this regard by 'Shine' Hosking, the coach. There is not much that 'Shine' does not know in this phase of football, and a further tribute is due to him for the superbly-trained condition of the Torrens players."
In 1934 Hosking was simultaneously made the coach of both West Torrens junior and league teams meaning he was required at Thebarton Oval four nights a week. During that season Hosking and West Torrens travelled to Tasmania to play a match against a composite TANFL side.
In 1935 Edward Foote took over from Hosking as league coach of West Torrens. During that year Hosking took part in a charity match as a player between old time players and current SAJC jockeys in Glenelg.
On 1 January 1936 it was revealed by The News that West Torrens had secured Len Ashby as its coach for the upcoming season thereby creating a void at Alberton leading to speculation that Hosking might return to Port Adelaide for a third time. Vic Johnson was also considered for the Port Adelaide coaching job in 1936 but his contract with South Adelaide made this impossible. The speculation proved correct with Hosking returning to Port Adelaide as coach in 1936 where he immediately had to deal with the retirement of club captain Bob Johnson. That year he succeeded in coaching Port Adelaide to a narrow three-point win over Sturt in the 1936 SANFL Grand Final.
For the 1937 SANFL season one of Hosking's first tasks was to find a player to play the role of full forward James Prideaux who retired at the end of the previous season having kicked 86 goals. Hosking claimed consecutive premierships as coach for the first time when Port Adelaide defeated South Adelaide by 24 points in the 1937 SANFL Grand Final. In that match Hosking directed his players to spread the goal-kicking amongst the team resulting in eight individual goal kickers.
Hosking stood down as Port Adelaide coach at the end of 1938 to allow Bob Quinn to become that club's captain-coach for the 1939 SANFL Season.
In 1939 Hosking returned to West Torrens as head coach. That year Hosking took West Torrens to the 1939 SANFL Grand Final where they lost to Port Adelaide by 47 points.
At the start of the 1940 SANFL season Hosking voiced his optimism praising the players he had at his disposal. Round seven of that season saw West Torrens dramatically topple Port Adelaide at Alberton Oval. Unfortunately for both Hosking and West Torrens he was forced to step down from the role mid-year due to his own health problems. This was announced just after West Torrens had played Sturt on 8 June. At the time Hosking stepped aside from his West Torrens duties they were just inside the SANFL top four. Mal Drury took over as West Torrens coach for the remainder of the season. West Torrens ended up finishing the 1940 SANFL season second last winning just one game under coach Mal Drury that year.
During World War II the SANFL administrators reduced the number of sides in its competition from eight to four with clubs temporarily merging with their nearest neighbour. In Port Adelaide's case it merged with West Torrens with Hosking being chosen to coach the side. Early in the year Hosking's freshly assembled Port–Torrens side beat a team representing the Air Force by 11 points on Alberton Oval featuring Frank Curcio (Fitzroy), Vin Doherty (Collingwood), Law (Western Australia), Jack Brittain (North Adelaide), Mervyn Waite (Glenelg) and Norm Hillard (Fitzroy). The Port–Torrens combination under Hosking won the 1942 SANFL Grand Final beating the West Adelaide–Glenelg team by 11 points. After the Grand Final Port–Torrens played a combined side made up of the remaining SANFL players, referred to as "The Rest", on Adelaide Oval on 26 September 1942. Under Hosking the Port–Torrens side defeated "The Rest" by two points.
The following year Hosking successfully returned Port–Torrens to the final match of the season, the 1943 SANFL Grand Final, where they faced a Norwood–North combination, ultimately falling short by 21 points. This was Hosking's last game as an SANFL league coach as he announced his retirement at the start of 1944, handing over his Port–Torrens responsibilities to Mal Drury.
### Coaching style
As a coach Hosking was a strong proponent of players being able to kick the ball with both feet. Hosking had a preference for fast players.
Hosking advocated for training with the same intensity as when playing an actual game. Hosking believed that at training players should concentrate on overcoming their weaknesses.
Hosking invested time into players that other coaches typically considered lost causes, such as Bill Martin, with whom Sampson ran up and down the length of Adelaide Oval whilst practicing passing the ball between one another.
Hosking had a refrain that suggested players and coaches should "study the game and the moves of your opponents as a chess player would". Once a week when he was coaching Hosking gave his players blackboard lectures on their previous week's play. Hosking provided predetermined moves for his players during these blackboard lectures.
Hosking strongly advocated for his players to not smoke. At half-time of a pre-season match in 1928 Hosking reprimanded some of his player who used the break to start smoking.
Hosking was also an advocate for the SANFL to proactively engage with schools in South Australia to help develop young players. Hosking coached local school teams on Alberton Oval before senior training commenced at 6pm.
For Port Adelaide's 150th anniversary twelve full pages of Hosking's coaching notes were made available in the Port Adelaide Archives Collection produced in 2020. After reading these notes Malcolm Blight stated that "95 per cent of Shine's notes still apply to today's game. A few minor things do not. But Shine could teach today's coaches a few things." In 2020 John Cahill made a comment about Hosking, along with Reginald Schumann, on Twitter saying that "Shine Hosking & Reg Schumann talented, skillful, tough players. Had the pleasure of sharing many conversations with. They spoke with conviction & great insight. More importantly just good men."
## Horse racing
Hosking enjoyed training horses, such as his 1939 Murray Bridge Steeplechase and 1940 Von Doussa Oakbank winner Prestonia. He shared this hobby with Kenneth Hosking, one of his sons. Kenneth was a jockey and wore black and white silks as a nod to his father's football career with Port Adelaide. On 18 October 1943 Hosking was granted an owner-trainer licence by the SAJC. In September 1944 one of Hosking's horses named Vitalise won a race at Morphettville Racecourse.
## Personal life
Hosking married Lillie Ann Thompson on 31 August 1907. Hosking was a member of the Alberton Bowling Club. He died on 20 October 1974 at the age of 86. In the 1974 Port Adelaide Annual Report and Balance Sheet an obituary recognised Sampson Hosking noting that he had died "after a long illness".
## Honours
In 1970 Hosking, along with other veteran players from before World War I, was honoured with a motorcade around Alberton Oval to celebrate the Port Adelaide Football Club's 100th anniversary.
Hosking was one of the 113 inaugural inductees into the South Australian Football Hall of Fame in 2002. In 2020 the Adelaide Advertiser compiled a list of "Port Adelaide's 150 Greatest Players" and placed Hosking at 5th. Hosking was awarded life membership of the Port Adelaide Football Club in 1919. Hosking was awarded life membership of the Semaphore Central Football Club in 1936.
## See also
### Grand Finals
1. 1907 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
2. 1909 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
3. 1910 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
4. 1911 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
5. 1912 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
6. 1913 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
7. 1914 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
8. 1915 SAFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
9. 1916 SAPFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
10. 1917 SAPFL Grand Final (player, Port Adelaide)
11. 1921 SAFL Grand Final (player + coach, Port Adelaide)
12. 1922 SAFL Grand Final (coach, West Adelaide)
13. 1928 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port Adelaide)
14. 1929 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port Adelaide)
15. 1930 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port Adelaide)
16. 1933 SANFL Grand Final (coach, West Torrens)
17. 1936 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port Adelaide)
18. 1937 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port Adelaide)
19. 1938 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port Adelaide)
20. 1939 SANFL Grand Final (coach, West Torrens)
21. 1942 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port–Torrens)
22. 1943 SANFL Grand Final (coach, Port–Torrens)
### Interstate games
- 1911 Adelaide Carnival (player, South Australia)
- 1921 Perth Carnival (player, South Australia)
### Other games
- 1910 Championship of Australia (player, Port Adelaide)
- 1913 Championship of Australia (player, Port Adelaide)
- 1914 Championship of Australia (player, Port Adelaide)
- 1914 Port Adelaide v South Australia (player, Port Adelaide)
|
5,441,293 |
Bionicle Heroes
| 1,171,948,328 |
2006 video game
|
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"J2ME games",
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"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Nintendo DS games",
"PlayStation 2 games",
"Third-person shooters",
"Traveller's Tales games",
"Universomo games",
"Video games developed in Finland",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games developed in the United States",
"Video games with alternative versions",
"Wii games",
"Windows games",
"Xbox 360 games"
] |
Bionicle Heroes is a 2006 video game published by Eidos Interactive and TT Games Publishing and based on Lego's Bionicle line of constructible action figures. The game was released in November 2006 on PlayStation 2, Xbox 360, GameCube, Microsoft Windows, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo DS; a Nintendo Wii version was later released in April 2007. The home console and PC versions were developed by Traveller's Tales, while Amaze Entertainment developed the handheld versions. A version of the game for mobile phones, developed by Universomo, was also released. The home console and PC versions of the game are third-person shooters, while the Game Boy Advance version is a run 'n' gun shoot 'em up and the Nintendo DS version is a first-person shooter. The story of Bionicle Heroes, where the player seeks to liberate the island of Voya Nui and its inhabitants from the villainous Piraka, is not canon to the official Bionicle story.
Development for Bionicle Heroes began in 2005. Initially, the home console version was set to be a first-person shooter, but concerns over the game's potential Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) rating led it to be shifted to a third-person perspective. The Nintendo DS version marked the first first-person shooter released on the platform since Metroid Prime Hunters earlier that year. The home console version received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the humour but found the gameplay to be simplistic and repetitive. The Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS versions received more favorable reviews, being compared favorably to the Contra series and Metroid Prime Hunters, respectively.
## Gameplay
### Home console
The home console version of Bionicle Heroes is a single-player third-person shooter. The game is split up into six different elementally-themed worlds as well as a central hub world where the player can purchase upgrades and bonus content. After defeating a Piraka at the end of a world, they move to the Piraka Playground in the hub world. The player can use their collected Lego pieces to purchase comical cutscenes of the villains engaging in "tomfoolery". Three bonus levels are also unlockable, functioning as score challenges where the goal is to defeat as many enemies as possible. The game features 100 collectibles to collect, and each level also contains silver and gold canisters that unlock new items in the hub world's trophy cave. Completed levels can be revisited in a free play mode, where the player can find additional items and collectibles.
On most versions of the game, the player controls the playable Toa character using a controller. On the Nintendo Wii version of the game, control of the camera is instead accomplished through the Wii Remote's IR sensor. The player begins each level with a single mask, with additional ones scattered throughout the level. These masks provide the player with a variety of weapons and abilities, ranging from sniper rifles to shotguns. The active mask can be togged between by the player at any point. If a player's health is reduced to zero, they lose the mask they were wearing. The player can interact with the environment, performing actions similar to how the Force operates in the Lego Star Wars games.
Defeating enemies scatters them into Lego pieces, which can be collected and used in the hub world. Additionally, collecting them adds to the in-game Hero Mode gauge, which activates when completely filled. While in Hero Mode, the player becomes invincible to any damage. This lasts until the player reaches a set point in the level that requires the player use up their Hero Mode charge to activate objects used to progress throughout the level. Hero Mode is also used in boss battles, with the player targeting smaller enemies to build up the gauge to activate a powerful attack against the boss. The game uses an auto-targeting feature that automatically locks on to enemies. This feature only works at certain distances, and will not activate if the player is too close or too far away from an enemy.
### Nintendo DS
The Nintendo DS version of Bionicle Heroes is a first-person shooter. Like other DS first-person shooters, the game can be controlled entirely with buttons or with a mix of button and touchscreen controls, with the directional pad being used to walk and the touchscreen being used to aim. Defeating enemies results in them crumbling into bricks. These bricks can be used to fill the player's Hero Mode charge meter. When filled, the player's gains temporary invincibility and a boost to the power of weapons. The game features two modes: a single-player campaign and an offline multiplayer mode.
The single-player mode's world is divided into six different areas, with a Piraka boss battle at the end of each world. From the beginning, the player has access to the Zamor Launcher, a weak weapon with unlimited ammunition. Each world features three masks. The first one gives the player a new weapon, and the second and third masks provides an upgrade to the weapon. In addition to weaponry, each mask also offers a unique ability like higher jumping, immunity to lava, or the ability to break boulders. Runes are scattered throughout the worlds, which grant access to cheats.
The multiplayer mode can only be accessed with other consoles that also have a copy of Bionicle Heroes. The multiplayer deathmatch mode pits players against each other in an arena, similar to the ones used in boss battles in the single-player mode. The arenas have multiple tiers, and masks are scattered throughout the arena. Collecting them grants temporary access to a weapon.
### Game Boy Advance
The Game Boy Advance version of Bionicle Heroes is a run 'n' gun shoot 'em up game. The player, controlling a Toa, can move in eight directions as well as strafe. Two types of gunfire can be selected from. Pressing the A button fires a weaker, rapid-fire blast, while pressing the B button results in more concentrated attacks. The exact attack assigned to the B button is determined by which mask the player is wearing and varies from "tight, focused laser beams to slow, exploding mortar rounds".
There are six different types of masks available in the game, and these masks are scattered throughout each level. The game features 19 levels, and previously cleared levels are unlocked in a free play mode where weapons can be switched between at will. Each level features collectible runes, which can be traded in for cheats and unlock able mini-games. Replaying levels is necessary to unlock everything available in the game. After completing each region, the player battles one of the six Piraka.
### Mobile phone
The mobile phone version of Bionicle Heroes is a top-down, 2D action-adventure game. The player can find masks throughout the levels, granting them the powers of the Toa. The masks possess the powers of the four classical elements, granting the player unique abilities. Occasionally, combinations of the four elements will be needed to advance in the game.
## Plot
### Background
Bionicle Heroes is set on the fictional island of Voya Nui. The story of the game is not canon to the official Bionicle story. Rather than focusing on adhering to the Bionicle story, TT Games decided to "ensure that there were as many characters from the Bionicle universe in the game as possible". As a result, creatures like Vahki, Visorak, Bohrok that are not native to the island in the official story appear in the game as enemies, and villains from previous stories appear as bosses. The story of the game is progressed through cutscenes, which appear before levels.
### Synopsis
The story of Bionicle Heroes follows a Matoran who has appeared on the island of Voya Nui. Balta, a villager on the island, informs him that the six Piraka have taken control of the island and transformed its inhabitants into monsters. Balta gives the Matoran a mask and tasks the new Toa with defeating the Piraka and saving the island. As the game progresses, the player defeats all six Piraka. A seventh Piraka, Vezon, is revealed to control the Mask of Life. After defeating him, the Toa regains the mask and restores peace to the island.
The Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS versions have a different story from the home console version. In these games, the Toa Inika have been defeated by the Piraka and stripped of their masks. A Matoran is transformed into a new Toa and sets out to defeat the Piraka, return the masks to the Toa Inika, and restore peace to the island.
## Development and release
The development of Bionicle Heroes began in late 2005. The decision was made early on to not follow the official Bionicle story, as ignoring it would allow more flexibility in game development and enemy variety. According to director Jon Burton, the home console version of the game was initially planned to be a first-person shooter. This stage of development lasted into February 2006. At the time, almost all first-person shooter games received "M" ratings from the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), and preliminary submissions to the ESRB resulted in ratings that Lego found to be unacceptable despite the lack of blood, gore, or other characteristics typical of "M"-rated games. In order to bring Bionicle Heroes down to an acceptable "E" or "E10+" rating, the decision was made to covert the game into a third-person shooter. The Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS versions of the game were developed by parallel teams at Amaze Entertainment. The DS version marked the first first-person shooter game released on the platform since Metroid Prime Hunters earlier the same year. A version of the game was also developed for mobile phones by Universomo.
Bionicle Heroes was officially announced in May 2006, with a showcase set for E3 2006. The E3 demo showcased the basic gameplay of the console version of the game, with the fundamental mechanics well in place. Erik Brudvig of IGN noted that it was expected the game would be aimed at kids, but he was surprised by it being a "quite sophisticated action-adventure game that looks to contain a complete experience". Alex Navarro of GameSpot noted similarities to the Lego Star Wars games in terms of visual presentation and charm. The game's Wii port was announced in January 2007. Bionicle Heroes was released on all platforms on November 14, 2006, with the exception of the Wii version, which came out on April 24, 2007. In Europe, the game was released on November 24, 2006 for all platforms except for the DS version, which released on January 12, 2007, and the Wii version, which released on May 25, 2007.
## Reception
According to review aggregator Metacritic, the home console version of Bionicle Heroes received "mixed to average" reviews from critics. The Xbox 360 version of the game received an average score of 59/100. While the game's humour and visual presentation received praise, critics felt the gameplay was too repetitive and simplistic. Critics regarded the Wii version as an inferior port, lambasting its poor implementation of motion controls.
Chris Shepperd of Nintendo Power praised the game's visuals, but felt that "pretty much everything else about the game has issues" and that the worst problem was that it didn't feel like a Lego game. VideoGamer.com reviewer Tom Orry argued the game had no appeal outside of Bionicle fans, who might be willing to tolerate the "merely competent action game gameplay". GameSpot was sharply critical of the gameplay, deeming it a "truly mind-numbing, unsatisfying experience", although the site did offer praise for the game's humour. Kristan Reed of Eurogamer praised the humour and accessibility to younger gamers, but felt Bionicle Heroes was too easy and too similar on the whole to Lego Star Wars; he recommended it only to fans of Lego Star Wars and younger gamers. Nate Ahearn of TeamXbox said that "While the game can’t really stand on its own, when compared to the rest of the childrens’ [sic] games on the Xbox 360... Bionicle Heroes fares pretty well" and said it was a "worthy addition to a game library that is probably totally devoid of titles for the little ones of the house". IGN reviewer Mark Bozon called it "one heck of a licensed game", offering praise to the level design, visuals, and strong appeal to younger gamers.
The Nintendo DS version of Bionicle Heroes received more favorable reviews than the home console version. On Metacritic, it has an average score of 72/100, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Critics compared the game favorably to Metroid Prime Hunters but reserved some criticism for the control scheme, noting it to be not quite as good as that game. The game's local multiplayer mode received praise, but the lack of an online mode was seen as disappointing. Lucas Thomas of IGN called it "a satisfying shooter experience that fans of the genre shouldn't ignore". Thomas said it is "worthy of a place in every Samus Aran fan's library" and praised its graphics, enemy design, and offline multiplayer functionality. In his review, Frank Provo of GameSpot said that, with exception of its lack of online multiplayer, Bionicle Heroes "delivers everything else that you could want in a first-person shooter". Provo dubbed it a "top-flight FPS", offering praise for both its single-player and multiplayer modes. Pocket Gamer reviewer Mark Walbank praised the game's progression system as "beautifully structured". He called the game "highly competent" but not truly great and reserved criticism for the controls and enemy variety.
The Game Boy Advance version of Bionicle Heroes received positive reviews. Critics noted its impressive number of on-screen enemies and explosions, graphics, and its fast-paced gameplay, comparing it favorably to the Contra series. Its soundtrack also received praise, especially in comparison to other Game Boy Advance games. The gameplay was generally noted as being fun, although its repetition received some criticism. Lucas Thomas of IGN praised is as a "high octane experience like you'd never expect from a game based on plastic building blocks" and "an impressive title in both graphical presentation and sound design". Frank Provo of GameSpot said the game "rekindles loving memories of such classics as Ikari Warriors or the top-down levels in Contra III". However, Provo felt it bore only a "tenuous and mostly cosmetic" tie to Bionicle, which might disappoint some fans expecting a more faithful adaption. Max Zeschitz of Planet Gameboy gave the game a score of 80%, praising the visuals, soundtrack, and gameplay; he was more critical of the length, but still recommended the game to even those who aren't Bionicle fans.
Jon Mundy of Pocket Gamer criticized the mobile phone version of the game, calling it "dull and unimaginative".
|
921,570 |
Amy Poehler
| 1,172,021,683 |
American actress, comedian, writer, producer, and director (born 1971)
|
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"Upright Citizens Brigade Theater performers",
"Writers Guild of America Award winners",
"Writers from Newton, Massachusetts"
] |
Amy Poehler (/ˈpoʊlər/; born September 16, 1971) is an American actress, comedian, writer, producer, and director. Poehler was a cast member on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live from 2001 to 2008. From 2004 until her departure, she served as co-anchor of the show's news parody segment, Weekend Update. Poehler left SNL halfway through her eighth season in 2008 to star as Leslie Knope in the NBC sitcom Parks and Recreation, which she produced and starred in from 2009 to 2015.
After studying improv at Chicago's Second City and ImprovOlympic in the early 1990s, Poehler co-founded the improvisational-comedy troupe Upright Citizens Brigade. The group moved to New York City in 1996, where their act became a half-hour sketch-comedy series on Comedy Central in 1998. Along with other members of the comedy group, Poehler is a founder of the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre.
Outside of SNL and Parks and Recreation, Poehler is an executive producer on the television series Welcome to Sweden, Broad City, Difficult People, Duncanville, Three Busy Debras, and Russian Doll. Poehler frequently collaborated with Tina Fey on SNL and later acted with her in the feature films Mean Girls, Baby Mama, Sisters, and Wine Country. Fey and Poehler hosted the Golden Globe Awards four times in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2021. Poehler also provided voice acting roles for the animated films Shrek the Third, Horton Hears a Who!, Monsters vs. Aliens, Hoodwinked Too! Hood vs. Evil, Free Birds, and Inside Out.
In 2015, Poehler received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to television. She won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Musical or Comedy Series in 2014 and a Critics' Choice Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series in 2012. She and Fey won the 2016 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for co-hosting SNL.
## Early life, family and education
Poehler was born in Newton, Massachusetts to school teachers Eileen and William Poehler. Poehler credits her father with encouraging her to break social protocols and take risks. She has one younger brother, Greg, who is also a producer and actor. Poehler's ancestry is Irish, along with German, Portuguese, and English; her Irish roots originate from County Sligo and County Cork. Her great-grandmother immigrated from Nova Scotia, Canada to Boston in the late 1800s. She was raised as a Catholic.
Poehler grew up in nearby Burlington, Massachusetts, which she describes as a blue-collar town. Her favorite performers and influences included sketch comedians Carol Burnett, Gilda Radner, and Catherine O'Hara. When she was 10 years old, Poehler played Dorothy Gale in her school's production of L. Frank Baum's The Wizard of Oz. The experience inspired Poehler's love of performing. Poehler continued acting in school plays at Burlington High School. She also participated in other activities during her time in high school including student council, soccer, and softball.
After graduating from high school in 1989, she enrolled at Boston College. During college, Poehler became a member of the improv comedy troupe My Mother's Fleabag. She graduated from Boston College with a bachelor's degree in media and communications in 1993.
## Career
### Improv and Upright Citizens Brigade
Poehler's time studying improv in college inspired her to pursue comedy professionally. After graduating from college, she moved to Chicago, where she took her first improv class, taught by Charna Halpern at ImprovOlympic. Early on, Poehler worked as a waitress and at other jobs to earn money. Through ImprovOlympic, Poehler learned from Del Close and she was introduced to friend and frequent collaborator Tina Fey. Poehler and Fey joined a Second City touring company at the same time, and Poehler went on to join one of Second City's main companies where Fey was her eventual replacement.
The Upright Citizens Brigade (UCB) formed as a sketch and improv group in Chicago in 1991. Early members included Horatio Sanz, Adam McKay, Ian Roberts, Neil Flynn, and Matt Besser, although the membership was not static. McKay left the fledgling group in 1995 and Poehler became his replacement. In 1996, a core group of four UCB members, Poehler, Besser, Roberts, and Matt Walsh, moved to New York City. The "UCB Four" began performing shows at small venues around the city which evolved into four regular live shows after a few months. To earn money outside of the shows, UCB taught improv classes. Poehler also started making appearances on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, often playing her recurring role as Andy Richter's younger sister, Stacy.
In 1998, Comedy Central debuted UCB's eponymous half-hour sketch-comedy series. During the show's second season, the group founded an improv theater/training center in New York City on West 22nd Street, occupying the space of a former strip club. The UCB Theatre held shows seven nights a week, in addition to offering classes in sketch-comedy writing and improv. In the summer of 2000, Comedy Central canceled the Upright Citizens Brigade program after its third season, although the UCB Theatre continued to operate. Poehler, Besser, Roberts, and Walsh are considered the founders of UCB and have been credited with popularizing long-form improv in New York. By 2011, UCB had two theaters in New York and a theater in Los Angeles with 8,000 students taking classes per year.
### Saturday Night Live
#### Cast member
Poehler joined the cast of Saturday Night Live (SNL) at the start of the 2001–2002 season after Tina Fey had tried to recruit her for SNL for years. Poehler made her debut in the first episode produced after the 9/11 attacks. She was promoted from featured player to full cast member in her first season on the show, making her the second cast member, and first woman, to earn this distinction. Poehler's recurring characters included hyperactive 10-year old Kaitlyn, one-legged reality show contestant Amber, and Bronx Beat talk show co-host Betty Caruso. In addition to her original characters, Poehler performed a number of impressions, including Hillary Clinton, Dakota Fanning, Avril Lavigne, Michael Jackson, Kim Jong-Il, Nancy Grace, Kelly Ripa, Katie Couric, Sharon Stone, Sharon Osbourne, Julia Roberts, Britney Spears, Madonna, Paula Abdul, Dolly Parton, Dennis Kucinich, Ann Coulter, Pamela Anderson, Christian Siriano, Rosie Perez, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Martha Stewart, Anna Nicole Smith, Paula Zahn, Norah O'Donnell, and Farrah Fawcett.
Beginning with the 2004–2005 season, she co-anchored Weekend Update with Tina Fey, replacing Jimmy Fallon. Fey and Poehler became the first female co-anchors of the longtime SNL staple. Poehler, Rudolph, and Fey were among the show's biggest stars that season and contributed to a shift in the show to featuring more female driven sketches. When Fey left after the 2005–2006 season to devote time to the sitcom she created, 30 Rock, Seth Meyers joined Poehler at the Weekend-Update anchor desk. In 2008, Poehler was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, the first year SNL cast members were eligible for the category.
The SNL premiere of the 2008–2009 season opened with Fey and Poehler as Sarah Palin and Hillary Clinton, respectively discussing sexism in political campaigning. The sketch, which Poehler co-wrote with Meyers, became the biggest viral video of the year. Days after the season premiere, NBC announced Poehler, pregnant with her first child, would not return after her upcoming maternity leave. On the October 25 episode, Meyers announced during Weekend Update that Poehler was in labor. At the end of Weekend Update, special guest Maya Rudolph and cast member Kenan Thompson sang a custom rendition of "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" for Poehler. Poehler had been rehearsing for that week's show until the day before the birth.
After giving birth, Poehler appeared during a pre-taped "SNL Presidential Bash '08" prime time special on November 3. Despite the prior announcement that Poehler would not return after her maternity leave, she came back for two more live episodes. During the December 13 Weekend Update Poehler announced that it was her last show. Saturday Night Live aired a special, "The Best of Amy Poehler", in April 2009. For the 2008–2009 season finale, Poehler returned to co-host Weekend Update and joined host Will Ferrell's version of the Billy Joel song "Goodnight Saigon".
Off camera, Poehler was a prolific writer. She often collaborated with writer Emily Spivey. Meyers described Poehler as "the most generous laugher" during sketch read-throughs. Poehler would also take it upon herself to welcome guest hosts during rehearsals and try to make them feel comfortable during their stint on SNL.
#### Guest appearances
Although she had already left SNL, Poehler joined Meyers in September 2009 for two episodes of Saturday Night Live Weekend Update Thursday, which aired in prime time and led directly into Parks and Recreation. She returned to SNL along with other past female cast members for a special Mother's Day episode on May 8, 2010, hosted by Betty White. Poehler returned again to host the 2010–2011 season premiere with musical guest Katy Perry. She participated in another SNL prime time special, The Women of SNL in November of that year. Poehler also returned sporadically for appearances on Weekend Update with Meyers, as well as in sketches when Jimmy Fallon (2011) and Maya Rudolph (2012) hosted.
In 2015, during the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special, she returned to anchor Weekend Update, this time with Tina Fey and Jane Curtin.
### Parks and Recreation
Following the success of The Office, NBC ordered a new series from producers Greg Daniels and Michael Schur. In July 2008, Variety reported that Poehler was in final negotiations to star in the still untitled series from Daniels and Schur. Poehler and Schur were friends from their time together at SNL, where Schur worked as a writer. Signing Poehler, who was pregnant with her first child, meant the new series would have to forgo a promised post-Super Bowl debut and cut its first season short, but Daniels and Schur chose to push back the series for Poehler. On July 21, 2008, NBC announced Poehler's new series, Parks and Recreation, saying the project would not be a direct spin-off of The Office, as previously speculated.
Parks and Recreation premiered on NBC on April 9, 2009, at 8:30 pm between two episodes of The Office. An ensemble cast including Aziz Ansari, Rashida Jones, Chris Pratt, Aubrey Plaza, Paul Schneider, and Nick Offerman joined Poehler. Poehler played deputy director of the Parks Department Leslie Knope in the fictional city of Pawnee, Indiana. After the first season had received a mixed reception, the show's second season received more positive reviews. One key change between seasons one and two was to distinguish the character of Leslie from Michael Scott, the central character of The Office. Parks decidedly down-played Leslie's ditziness from the first season and emphasized her intelligence, work ethic and earnest nature instead. A second-season episode, "Galentine's Day", included a new holiday Leslie created celebrating female friendship on February 13. Galentine's Day has since transcended the show with real-life celebrations.
Adam Scott and Rob Lowe joined the show at the end of the second season, with Scott playing Leslie's eventual husband, Ben Wyatt. At the end of filming the second season, Poehler was once again pregnant. The show began producing the first six episodes of season three without a break to accommodate her pregnancy. Poehler was nominated again for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy in 2011. That same year, the show won a Peabody Award for "developing a hilarious venue to explore the good side of American democracy in an age when that side is so rarely on display.", the show was a success with critics, but its future was still uncertain. Two episodes were written that could serve as series finales if it was cancelled, including the mid-season episode where Leslie and Ben get married. The show was ultimately renewed for a sixth season in May 2013. Poehler was nominated for an Emmy Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy in 2013 for her work in season five. Season six included the show's 100th episode, "Second ", co-written by Poehler and Schur. In 2014, she won the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Television Series – Comedy at the 71st Golden Globe Awards, which she co-hosted with Tina Fey. In the middle of season six, Poehler and Schur decided that it felt like the right time to plan the end of the show. They met with representatives from NBC, who agreed. The show was renewed for a final thirteen-episode season. Poehler and Schur co-wrote the final episode of the series, "One Last Ride", which aired on February 24, 2015.
By season 5, in addition to starring on Parks and Recreation, Poehler was also a producer. Behind the scenes, Poehler started a tradition of inviting the show cast and crew to a group dinner the last night of any location shoot. Poehler would start impromptu dance parties in the makeup trailer on set. Poehler wrote several episodes throughout the series, starting with the season two episode "Telethon". Other episodes she penned include "The Fight" (season three), "The Debate" (season four), "Second Chunce" (season six) and the finale "One Last Ride". Producer Dan Goor praised Poehler's writing as "exceptionally good" and theorized, "[i]f Amy Poehler submitted a blind script to any staff, she would be hired." Poehler's writing of "The Debate" was recognized with nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series and the Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Episodic Comedy. In addition to writing "The Debate", Poehler also directed the episode. Additionally, she directed the episodes "Article Two" (season five) and "Gryzzlbox" (season seven).
### Golden Globe Awards
Poehler and Fey co-hosted the Golden Globe Awards ceremony for the first time in 2013. The program was watched by 20 million viewers, a 17 percent increase over the previous year. The pair co-hosted again in 2014 as part of a three-year contract. Gilbert Cruz, of the Vulture website, wrote: "They killed it last year with their opening monologue and they did so again this year." The 2014 show garnered its highest ratings in ten years.
Before the 2015 Golden Globes, Poehler confirmed it would likely be the last time she and Fey hosted. Rolling Stone magazine wrote afterward that the pair "left no superstar unscathed during their riotous opening monologue" in which they "casually roasted the assembled masses". At the 2020 Television Critics Association winter press tour, NBC announced Poehler and Fey would host the Golden Globes again in 2021. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, Poehler and Fey hosted the Golden Globes from separate locations with Poehler in Los Angeles and Fey in New York City.
### Making It
In March 2017, NBC ordered to series a Poehler-produced crafting series, then-titled The Handmade Project. The show, retitled Making It, debuted on NBC in July 2018 with Poehler and her Parks and Recreation co-star Nick Offerman as co-hosts. The debut episode tied for the highest-rated premiere of summer 2018 and earned Poehler and Offerman a Primetime Emmy Nomination for Outstanding Host for a Reality or Competition Program. The show returned for a second season which aired in December 2019. NBC has picked up Making It for a third season.
### Film
In 1999, Poehler had a small role in the movie Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo. The following year, she was cast in the film Wet Hot American Summer. Wet Hot American Summer was the first film from David Wain, who cast Poehler based on her work with Upright Citizen's Brigade. The film, which cost only \$1.8 million to make, was not a success initially when it was released in 2001. It gained a following after its release on DVD. Poehler also appeared in the 2004 movie Mean Girls, written by Tina Fey. Fey wrote the role of self-described "cool mom" with Poehler in mind; however, Fey and director Mark Waters had to push for Poehler's casting. The studio had been wary of casting too many SNL cast members and were concerned that Poehler was too young to play the mother of Rachel McAdams, who is only seven years younger than her. Poehler filmed the role in Toronto during the week while filming SNL. The movie grossed \$129 million at the box office worldwide and saw its popularity continue to rise after its release on DVD.
In 2008, she starred in Baby Mama, which reunited her with Tina Fey. Poehler plays trashy Angie Ostrowiski, who is hired by Fey's Kate to be her child's surrogate mother. The film opened on April 25, 2008, and was the number one movie at the box office in its opening weekend. The film went on to gross over \$60 million at the U.S. box office. Poehler and Fey also co-starred in the movie Sisters (2015). Other film credits include: Envy (2004), Southland Tales (2006), Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny (2006), Blades of Glory (2007), Mr. Woodcock (2007), Hamlet 2 (2008), Spring Breakdown (2009), A.C.O.D. (2013), and They Came Together (2014), and The House (2017).
Poehler has also voiced several characters in animated films. Her voice-over credits include: Shrek the Third (2007), Horton Hears a Who! (2008), Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel (2009), Monsters vs. Aliens (2009), Hoodwinked Too!: Hood vs. Evil (2011), and Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chip-Wrecked (2011), The Secret World of Arrietty (2012), Free Birds, and Inside Out (2015). In Pixar's Inside Out, Poehler provides the voice for the main character, Joy, an emotion living inside an 11-year-old girl. Poehler also received a screen credit for writing some of Joy's dialogue. The film has a 98% fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes and went on to gross \$857 million worldwide. Poehler will reprise her role as Joy in the upcoming Inside Out sequel, set to release in June 14, 2024.
### Director
Poehler made her film directorial debut with Wine Country, which premiered on Netflix on May 10, 2019. She also stars in the film, along with Maya Rudolph, Rachel Dratch, Ana Gasteyer, Paula Pell and Emily Spivey. The screenplay is loosely based on a real trip the actresses took together to Napa Valley. Poehler directed the film adaptation of the 2017 novel Moxie by Jennifer Mathieu, also for Netflix, which was released on March 3, 2021.
In 2022, Poehler directed Lucy and Desi, a documentary film about the lives and relationship of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz. The film premiered on January 21, 2022, at the Sundance Film Festival and was released worldwide on Amazon Prime Video on March 4, 2022. The film includes home audio recordings of Ball and Arnaz that had not before been made public as well as interviews with their two children, Lucie Arnaz Luckinbill and Desi Arnaz Jr., Lucy's brother Fred Ball, Carol Burnett, Bette Midler and Norman Lear, among others. The film was well received, with a 94% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Poehler was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Documentary/Nonfiction Program. The film was nominated for a total of six Emmy Awards, winning two.
### Producer
In 2001, Poehler set up her own production company, Paper Kite Productions, which is part of Universal Television. As of 2019, the production company's staff is all female. To describe her success as a producer, The Hollywood Reporter called Poehler "a powerful arbiter of sophisticated comedy."
Poehler co-created, produced, and starred in an animated series for Nickelodeon titled The Mighty B!, about Bessie Higgenbottom, a "sweet, merit-badge-obsessed girl scout". The character of Bessie was inspired by a character Poehler performed doing improv. Season one averaged 3.1 million viewers and ranked as one of the top five animated programs in television. Nickelodeon renewed the show for a second season. In 2009 and 2010, Poehler earned Daytime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program.
She has been an executive producer on series such as Difficult People and Broad City. In 2014, Hulu ordered the comedy Difficult People, as the streaming service's first ever scripted series. Starring Billy Eichner and Julie Klausner, Difficult People ran for three seasons. Broad City grew out of a web series starring Abbi Jacobson and Ilana Glazer. Jacobson and Glazer used their connections at UCB to approach Poehler about starring in the finale of their web series. Poehler agreed to appear in it and then joined Jacobson and Glazer to executive produce a television series. After initially selling a script to FX, the project ultimately landed at Comedy Central where it aired for five years until its 2019 series finale. Poehler appeared in the season one finale.
Welcome to Sweden is a Swedish sitcom that premiered in March 2014, and began airing on NBC in the United States three months later. It is based on the experiences of Greg Poehler, who moved with his girlfriend to her native country of Sweden in 2006. The series was canceled by NBC on July 28, 2015, after two seasons due to low ratings. Amy Poehler makes cameo appearances in multiple episodes as herself as a celebrity client of her brother's character, a former New York tax accountant. She is also co-executive producer with him.
Poehler, along with Natasha Lyonne and Leslye Headland, created and executive produced the comedy-drama series Russian Doll for Netflix. The series premiered on February 1, 2019. The genesis of the series started seven years earlier after Poehler remarked Lyonne was always "the oldest girl in the world." Poehler and Lyonne liked the idea of a female character being many things at once, but joked the only way to have a female character that complex would be to re-do the part repeatedly. The idea evolved into the series where Lyonne's character dies repeatedly on her 36th birthday. Poehler, Lyonne, and Headland put together an all-female team of writers and directors. The series debuted on Netflix with a 100% fresh rating on the ratings aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes. As of December 28, 2020, the rating remained at 97%.
In June 2016, BBC America announced it is developing a scripted series called Zero Motivation. The project is being executive produced by Brooke Posch and Poehler. Poehler is an executive producer on the upcoming series Three Busy Debras, a comedy series being produced for Adult Swim that stars Mitra Jouhari, Alyssa Stonoha, and Sandy Honig. In addition to serving as an executive producer, Poehler also provides the voices for two main characters in the series Duncanville, which premiered on Fox on February 16, 2020.
### Other work
In 1999, Poehler and Tina Fey provided voices for the video game Deer Avenger 2: Deer in the City.
In September 2008, Poehler and Meredith Walker and Amy Miles founded Smart Girls at the Party, an online community and digital web series aimed at empowering girls. The first season premiered online on November 17, 2008, with Mattel's Barbie signed on as the lead sponsor. Smart Girls at the Party returned in 2012 as part of the YouTube Original Channel Initiative that focused upon the creation of new content. The new Smart Girls at the Party YouTube Channel went live on July 2, 2012, including new episodes of the series along with additional shows by Poehler, Walker and Miles.
Four years after the launch of Smart Girls at the Party, digital network company Legendary Entertainment acquired ownership of the project. Poehler said in a statement, "We at Smart Girls are excited to be working with Legendary and look forward to providing funny and inspirational content for all of the goofballs out there." By the time of the deal, over five million views were registered on its YouTube channel and over 550,000 fans had liked the initiative on Facebook. On the Smart Girls YouTube channel, viewers have the opportunity to ask for life advice from Poehler in segments called Ask Amy. Smart Girls celebrated its 10th Anniversary in 2018.
Poehler has also publicly championed a number of social and political causes. In 2012, she collaborated with the National Domestic Workers Alliance to film a public service announcement (PSA) to draw attention to the proposed California Domestic Worker Bill of Rights. The law, providing overtime pay to domestic workers, was signed into law the following year. Poehler also supported One Fair Wage, a campaign to require New York businesses to pay tipped workers the general minimum wage. Poehler has served as a celebrity ambassador for Worldwide Orphans Foundation, traveling to Haiti in 2013. The following year, Poehler joined Michelle Obama in Miami to celebrate the four year anniversary of her Let's Move! youth health initiative.
Poehler's memoir, Yes Please, was published on October 28, 2014. She explained in a promotional interview with National Public Radio (NPR) that she was "used to writing in characters and not really writing about myself... it was easier to share the early parts of my life rather than my own current events." Topics covered in the book include body image, parenthood, and learning about the limitations of physical appearance. The book debuted at number one on The New York Times Best Seller list.
In 2011, Poehler was included on Time's "100 most influential people in the world". She also delivered the Class Day address to Harvard University's class of 2011. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences invited Poehler to become a member as part of its 2017 class.
Poehler is a known fan of the musical group Beastie Boys. She has a role as a disgruntled cafe patron in the music video for the group's song "Make Some Noise", which was nominated for the MTV Video of the Year in 2011. Poehler also wrote a chapter in the Beastie Boys Book in which she reviews 17 of the group's music videos. In the chapter, Poehler states, "Beastie Boys mean a great deal to me. Their music was the soundtrack I heard while I sat in my room, drank in the woods, and rode my bike to my dead-end job." She is also featured as a voice on the audio version of the book.
## Personal life
Poehler married Canadian actor Will Arnett on August 29, 2003. They met in 1996 when he saw one of her performances and they started dating four years later. During their relationship, Poehler and Arnett worked together on several projects, including the series Arrested Development, the 2007 film Blades of Glory, Horton Hears a Who!, and The Secret World of Arrietty. Poehler and Arnett announced their separation in September 2012; and Arnett filed for divorce in April 2014.
She is an active feminist.
Poehler and Arnett have two sons: Archie Arnett, born October 25, 2008 and Abel Arnett, born August 6, 2010. Poehler lives with her children in Los Angeles. She praised her children's nannies as part of her Time 100 speech for helping to take care of them and allowing her to balance her career and family.
From 2013 to 2015, Poehler dated fellow comedian Nick Kroll.
## Filmography
## Awards and nominations
## See also
- Saturday Night Live parodies of Hillary Clinton
|
68,358,159 |
Skate (song)
| 1,171,934,409 | null |
[
"2021 singles",
"2021 songs",
"Aftermath Entertainment singles",
"American disco songs",
"Anderson .Paak songs",
"Atlantic Records singles",
"Bruno Mars songs",
"Roller skating",
"Silk Sonic songs",
"Songs written by Anderson .Paak",
"Songs written by Bruno Mars",
"Songs written by D'Mile"
] |
"Skate" is a song by American superduo Silk Sonic, which consists of Bruno Mars and Anderson .Paak. It was released on July 30, 2021, by Aftermath Entertainment and Atlantic Records as the second single from their debut studio album An Evening with Silk Sonic (2021). The song was written by the artists alongside James Fauntleroy, Domi & JD Beck, and Dernst "D'Mile" Emile II, who produced it with Mars. An R&B, disco, and funk song, it was inspired by music from the 1970s disco period. The song's lyrics discuss roller skating and include an invitation to a dance floor.
"Skate" was well received by music critics, some of whom praised the retro 1970s sound and found it to be perfect for the summer. The song charted moderately in several countries; in the US, it reached number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number four on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Elsewhere, the song peaked at number 12 in New Zealand and number one in Israel. It also entered the top 20 in Canada and the Flanders region of Belgium. It was certified gold by Music Canada (MC). The accompanying music video was directed by Florent Dechard, Mars, and co-directed by Philippe Tayag, being released along with the song. It depicts Mars and .Paak performing the song outdoors in a tropical location as several women roller-stake around them. Mars and .Paak performed the song during their concert residency An Evening with Silk Sonic at Park MGM (2022).
## Background
In late February 2021, Mars and .Paak announced on social media the formation of their new band Silk Sonic and revealed the artwork for their debut studio album An Evening with Silk Sonic (2021). On March 5 that year, they released their first single "Leave the Door Open". The duo teased new music in the months leading up to the release of "Skate". After performing "Leave the Door Open" at the BET Awards 2021, they tempted fans with a new song, which was later revealed to be "a hoax". On July 28, 2021, .Paak posted a picture of a red car with the phrase "You've Been Invited To Silk Sonic's Summertime Jam This Friday" on Twitter, hinting at an impending release.
In an interview with Zane Lowe on Apple Music 1's show New Music Daily, Mars said the track "came about as part of thought exercise in the studio" as he and his team were imagining they were performing a song "in the middle of a roller rink", and the way the bass, guitar, and drums would sound. Mars added; "And I wanted to play congas and that's what you get. You get a song called 'Skate'. Talking about I'm trying to float. I'm trying to glide." He affirmed that "Skate" was chosen as the second single "because the sun is out." Mars hoped that "Everybody's at the pool, at the beach, barbequing, listen to some Silk Sonic." Silk Sonic wanted people to "feel like they were floating and gliding, slipping and sliding."
## Release and production
On July 30, 2021, Aftermath Entertainment and Atlantic Records released "Skate" as the album's second single via digital download and streaming services in several countries. On the same date, Warner Music Group (WMG) also issued the track for radio airplay in Italy. On August 2, 2021, the track was sent to American adult contemporary, hot adult contemporary and modern adult contemporary radio stations. WMG released "Skate" to Australian contemporary hit radio on August 6, 2021.
"Skate" was written by Mars, Brandon Anderson, Dernst Emile II, James Fauntleroy, Domitille Degalle, and JD Beck. It was produced by Mars and D'Mile; Mars played sitar, guitar, congas, and percussion, while D'Mile sang background vocals, as well as playing Rhodes piano and bass guitar. .Paak played the drums and David Foreman played rhythm guitar. Glenn Fischbach played cello; Jonathan Kim and Steve Heitlinger played viola; Blake Espy, Emma Kummrow and Gared Crawford, Natasha Colkett, Tess Varley, and Luigi Mazzocchi played violin. Larry Gold did the arrangement and conduction of the strings at Milkboy Studios, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with co-arrangement by Steve Tirpak. The strings were recorded by Jeff Chestek, who was assisted by Cody Chicowski. Charles Moniz, with engineering assistant Alex Resoagli, engineered and recorded the song at Shampoo Press & Curl Studios. Serban Ghenea mixed "Skate" at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach, John Hanes served as the mix engineer and Bryce Bordone as mixing assistant. The song was mastered by Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound, NYC.
## Composition
Musically, "Skate" is a disco, funk and R&B song. The song starts as "a high-drama anthem of stormy betrayal" and evolves "into a sunburst of roller-disco elation with a melody that could've owned any summer during the [President Gerald Ford] administration". Its instrumentation includes "rhythmic guitars, glockenspiel, Latin percussion, back-talking string section and the rising bridge" with a late '70's sound, as well as congas. "Skate" is described as a "horny track", due to its lyrics; .Paak sings at one point; "If being fine was a crime, girl, they'd lock your lil' fine ass up in a tower".
"Skate" was composed in the key of D minor with a tempo of 112 beats per minute. .Paak "coos, booty-struck", on the later verses. On the bridge, Mars croons, while .Paak "opens up to the love interest" with a "raspy delivery". Silk Sonic shows "vintage vocal exhortations". The song's lyrics discuss roller skating, and are an invitation for young women to a dance floor.
"Skate" has been described as a "silky-smooth jam" and "groovy". Daniel Peters from NME described the track as "smooth and blissed" with Mars' and .Paak's vocals "harmonising on its upbeat refrain". Jason Lipshutz from Billboard called the song an "uptempo, beach-ready single". Lars Brandle, also writing for Billboard, said "Skate" has a "funky throwback '70s vibe". In a similar view, Scott Croker of Idolator said Silk Sonic issued "another dose of '70s nostalgia", describing the track as "a funky smooth tune". Clash's Robin Murray said the single was inspired by 1970s soul-funk and shares "a blissful, sunshine feel, tapping into that uplifting West Coast feeling". Charu Shina of Vulture also said the track was inspired by 1970s music and called it a "kind of smooth, funky summer jam". Consequence's staff and Mary Siroky described "Skate" as a "flashy, '70s jam" and an "euphoric groove with an absolutely unstoppable string section".
Lipshutz compared "Skate" to Mars's 2013 track "Treasure". Variety's Jem Aswad compared its sound to the "disco-era acts like Tavares and mid-tempo tracks from the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack [(1977)]". Jon Pareles of The New York Times said the song is a tentative of "recreating the sounds and structures of the era when 1970s soul melted into disco". Similarly, Sophie Caraan from Hypebeast said the duo take "structural cues from the smooth tunes of the '70s, adding layers of their harmonic vocals to pay homage" to the decade. Hot Press's Pat Carty said "Skate" sounds like a track produced by Gamble and Huff that could have been "included on a Car Wash sequel soundtrack".
## Critical reception
"Skate" was met with acclaim from music critics. Variety's Aswad said the song continues to show Silk Sonic's "loving tribute to the mid-1970s", calling it a "pitch-perfect throwback". Althea Legaspi of Rolling Stone said Mars and .Paak delivered with their promise of a "Summertime Jam" and noted the song's "buoyant, sunny vibes". Croker from Idolator dubbed "Skate" ""the perfect follow-up" to" 'Leave The Door Open'", and said listeners will have the song "on repeat on [their] Spotify". Vibe's Datwon Thomas said the duo "serve up another dance floor scorcher ... with that same ""sing-a-long feel" of" of 'Leave The Door Open'", ultimately calling the track "stellar". Sabrina Park from Harper's Bazaar said "Skate" could "be our next favorite summer anthem", calling it a "certified bop".
Gabrielle Pierre, writing for NPR, praised Silk Sonic for their ability to "authentically reproduce sounds of Motown for today's contemporary audience, coupling modern melodies with classic retro rhythms and reverting to revered melodies, technique and instrumentation". Under the Radar's Mark Refern called the song an "irresistible slice of smooth retro soul". Shina of Vulture also said the song "holds up to repeated listening". Hypebeast writer Caraan opined the track was "one of the most infectious musical offerings of the year". Joe Walker, for HipHopDX, dubbed the song "infectious". Stereogum's staff praised the "effortless" song, saying that despite not bringing anything new, it is "pure early-disco cosplay" and "an irresistible late-summer shimmer".
When reviewing the album, Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone called "Skate" the "best song on the record". In a similar review, Variety's Aswad dubbed "Skate" a "rollerena anthem" and drew attention to the "priceless" verses such as "In a room full of dimes, you'd be a hundred dollars" and "You smell better than a barbecue". NME's Sophie Williams wrote; "there are gorgeously subtle flourishes throughout" the album that are evident on "the crisp, pristine blasts of percussion that uplift...'Skate'." Candace McDuffie, for Paste, said the song's sound "could have easily felt tired and redundant", but added there is "enough feel-good percussion and cheesy one-liners directed at a love interest to glisten and shine". Joe Rivers of No Ripcord said "Skate" is the disco song "you've heard a million times before, "but gains due to its "sheer enthusiasm". Rivers added Mars's "charm" makes his line "You smell better than a barbecue" "sound like a sincere compliment". Sputnikmusic's Sowing praised the track, calling it "adorable" and "entertaining" while noting its romantic theme. Sowing also said the song includes "a slippery synth line" and humorous verses as it compares "the emotional space between the narrator and his partner to skaters drifting apart".
### Accolades
Siroky and the staff of Consequence considered "Skate" the Top Song of the Week on July 30, 2021, saying the single "is the perfect late season bop, all the joyful energy of a cookout, rooftop party, or (naturally) a long skate session under palm trees". Stereogum's staff placed "Skate" among "The 5 Best Songs of the Week" on August 6, 2021, describing it as "deliriously sunny and specific Philly soul homage". The song was also included on Under the Radar's Songs of the Week on July 30, 2021; Redfern said, "It's incredibly cheesy ... but it's also hard to argue with such a joyous song."
## Commercial performance
"Skate" debuted at number 14 on the US Billboard Hot 100 with 13,000 downloads, 13.4 million streams, and 6.9 million radio impressions on its first tracking week. The song peaked at number 16 on the Adult Top 40 and peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It peaked at number 18 on the Mainstream Top 40 and 15 on the Rhythmic chart. The song debuted at number 11 on the US Rolling Stone Top 100. "Skate" entered and peaked at number 19 on the Canadian Hot 100 on the week of August 11, 2021. It also peaked at number 14 on the Canada Hot AC chart and number 19 on the Canada AC chart. It was certified gold by Music Canada (MC).
In Israel, "Skate" peaked at number one on the week of August 8, 2021. On the New Zealand Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 12 on the week of August 9, 2021, and in Australia, it debuted and peaked at number 32 on the ARIA Singles Chart. In Belgium, the single peaked at number 17 on the Ultratop 50 in Flanders and number 34 in Wallonia. It also peaked at number 17 on the Billboard Mexico Airplay chart, number 24 on the Dutch Top 40 chart, number 27 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart and number 29 in Singapore. "Skate" peaked at number 18 on the Billboard Global 200, spending six weeks on the chart.
## Music video
The music video for "Skate" was released alongside the song on July 30, 2021, and was directed by Mars and Florent Déchard, while co-directed by Philippe Tayag. The video is a "vintage visual" depicting Mars and .Paak playing drums that are backed by a band in an impromptu street party at a tropical outdoor location. At the same time, young women in shorts roller-skate around them. Cierra Chérie, one of the roller-skaters in the music video, did not know who the video they were filming was for until the day of the shoot. She said; “I learned a new level of excellence from Bruno Mars and Andy as well as some of the other roller skaters ... they were on the whole time ... they were ready to perform, they were high energy".
Variety's Aswad said the music video is "pitch-perfect" and "a carefree welcome tonic in a tough time". Thomas from Vibe said the video has a "high energy appeal". Legaspi from Rolling Stone called it "nostalgic, feel-good". Walker from HipHopDX also described the video as "feel-good". Writing for American Songwriter, Tina Benitez-Eves wrote the "vintage visuals fit the blissed-out funk and soul of Silk Sonic". USA Today's Jenna Ryu said the music video shows the "'70s feel-good nostalgia" so people "feel as if they're gliding, slipping and sliding into the summer". Park from Harper's Bazaar said the video takes viewers "into summer with its warm and inviting hues, harboring the familiar feel-good disco-R&B nostalgia with its '70s-inspired fashion and cinematographic moments".
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of An Evening with Silk Sonic.
- Bruno Mars – vocals, songwriting, production, sitar, guitar, congas, percussion
- Anderson .Paak – vocals, songwriting, drums
- D'Mile – background vocals, songwriting, production, piano, Rhodes, bass
- James Fauntleroy – songwriting
- Domitille Degalle – songwriting
- JD Beck – songwriting
- David Foreman - rhythm guitar
- Larry Gold – strings arrangements and conducting
- Steve Tirpak – strings co-arrangements
- Emma Kummrow – violin
- Luigi Mazzocchi – violin
- Blake Espy – violin
- Gared Crawford – violin
- Tess Varley – violin
- Natasha Colkett – violin
- Jonathan Kim – viola
- Steve Heitliner – viola
- Glenn Fischbach – cello
- Jeff Chestek – strings recording
- Cody Chicowski – strings recording assistant
- Charles Moniz – recording, engineering
- Alex Resoagli – assistant engineer
- Serban Ghenea – mixing
- John Hanes – mixing engineering
- Bryce Bordone – mixing assistant
- Randy Merrill – mastering
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
|
968,414 |
Lexus LS
| 1,170,238,075 | null |
[
"1990s cars",
"2000s cars",
"2010s cars",
"2020s cars",
"All-wheel-drive vehicles",
"Cars introduced in 1989",
"First car made by manufacturer",
"Flagship vehicles",
"Full-size vehicles",
"Hybrid electric cars",
"Lexus vehicles",
"Limousines",
"Luxury vehicles",
"Partial zero-emissions vehicles",
"Rear-wheel-drive vehicles",
"Sedans"
] |
The Lexus LS (Japanese: レクサス・LS, Hepburn: Rekusasu LS) is a full-size luxury sedan (F-segment in Europe) serving as the flagship model of Lexus, the luxury division of Toyota. For the first four generations, all LS models featured V8 engines and were predominantly rear-wheel-drive. In the fourth generation, Lexus offered all-wheel-drive, hybrid, and long-wheelbase variants. The fifth generation changed to using a V6 engine with no V8 option, and only one length was offered.
As the first model developed by Lexus, the LS 400 debuted in January 1989 with the second generation debuting in November 1994. The LS 430 debuted in January 2000 and the LS 460/LS 460 L series in 2006. A domestic-market version of the LS 400 and LS 430, badged as Toyota Celsior (Japanese: トヨタ・セルシオ, Hepburn: Toyota Serushio), was sold in Japan until the Lexus marque was introduced there in 2006. In 2006 (for the 2007 model year), the fourth generation LS 460 debuted the first production eight-speed automatic transmission and an automatic parking system. In 2007, V8 hybrid powertrains were introduced on the LS 600h/LS 600h L sedans.
Development of the LS began in 1983 as the F1 project, the code name for a secret flagship sedan. At the time, Toyota's two existing flagship models were the Crown and Century models - both of which catered exclusively for the Japanese market and had little global appeal that could compete with international luxury brands such as Mercedes-Benz, BMW and Jaguar. The resulting sedan followed an extended five-year design process at a cost of over US\$1 billion, and premiered with a new V8 engine and numerous luxury features. The Lexus LS was intended from its inception for export markets, and the Lexus division was formed to market and service the vehicle internationally. The original LS 400 debuted to strong sales, and was largely responsible for the successful launch of the Lexus marque.
Since the start of production, each generation of the Lexus LS has been manufactured in the Japanese city of Tahara, Aichi. The name "LS" stands for "Luxury Sedan", although some Lexus importers have preferred to define it as "Luxury Saloon". The name "Celsior" is taken from Latin word "celsus", meaning "lofty" or "elevated".
## First generation (XF10; 1989)
### 1989–1992
In August 1983, Toyota chairman Eiji Toyoda initiated the F1 project ("Flagship" and "No. 1" vehicle; alternatively called the "Circle-F" project), as a clandestine effort aimed at producing a world-class luxury sedan for international markets. The F1 development effort did not have a specific budget or time constraints, and the resulting vehicle did not use existing Toyota platforms or parts. Instead, chief engineer Ichiro Suzuki sought to develop an all-new design, aiming to surpass rival American and European flagship sedans in specific target areas, including aerodynamics, cabin quietness, overall top speed, and fuel efficiency. During development, the 60 designers with 1,400 engineers in 24 teams, 2,300 technicians and over 200 support workers built approximately 450 flagship prototypes and 900 engine prototypes. The teams logged 2.7 million kilometres (1.7 million miles) of testing on locations ranging from winter Europe roadways, to deserts in Arizona, Australia, or Saudi Arabia, to U.S. highways and wilderness areas.
In May 1985, designers started work on the F1 project. In late 1985, designers presented the first exterior study models to F1 management, featuring a sports car-like design with a low-slung hood and narrow front profile. By 1986, the sedan used a three-box design with an upright stance, more prominent grille, and a two-tone body. Extensive modeling and wind tunnel tests resulted in a low drag coefficient for a conventional production vehicle of the time (C<sub>d</sub> 0.29). For the passenger cabin, the materials-selection tests evaluated 24 different kinds of wood and multiple types of leather for two years before settling on specific trim combinations. By 1986, the Lexus marque was created to support the launch of the flagship sedan, and the vehicle became known as the Lexus LS. Following eight design reviews, subsequent revisions, concept approval in February 1987, and over US\$1 billion in development expenses, the final design for the production Lexus LS 400 (chassis code UCF10) was frozen in May 1987 with design patents filed on 20 February 1987 and 13 May 1987.
In January 1989, the LS 400 made its debut as a 1990 model at the North American International Auto Show, in Detroit, Michigan. Production began on 15 May 1989, with the first shipments leaving Japanese ports in late June 1989. The first cars were available in August 1989 and U.S. sales officially began on 1 September 1989, followed by limited exports to Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom starting in 1990. The LS 400's new 4.0-liter 1UZ-FE 32-valve V8 engine, capable of 190 kilowatts (250 hp) and 353 newton-metres (260 ft⋅lbf) of torque, was linked to a new four-speed automatic transmission with ECT-i electronically controlled shifts, super-flow torque converter and rear differential. The chassis used an independent, high-mount upper arm double-wishbone suspension setup with twin tube shock absorbers, and a passive air suspension system was optional. The LS 400's 0–100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) time was 8.5 seconds, and its top speed was 250 km/h (155 mph). Compared to its rivals, namely the BMW 735i (E32) and Mercedes-Benz 420 SE (W126), the LS 400 had a quieter cabin, with 58 dB at 100 km/h (62 mph); a higher top speed; a lower drag coefficient and curb weight; and it avoided the U.S. Gas Guzzler Tax. At its introduction in 1989, it won the Car of the Year Japan award.
The LS 400 was among the first luxury sedans to feature an automatic tilt-and-telescoping steering wheel with SRS airbag, power adjustable shoulder seat belts, and an electrochromic rear-view mirror. The five-passenger cabin included California walnut and leather trim, power-adjustable seats, and soft-touch controls. A back-lit electro-luminescent gauge cluster featured a holographic visual effect, with indicator lights projected onto the instrument panel. The memory system stored the driver's seat, side mirror, steering wheel, and seat belt positions. Available luxury options included a Nakamichi premium sound system and an integrated cellular telephone with hands-free capabilities. The LS 400 further contained some 300 technological innovations to aid smooth operation and silence, including fluid-damped cabin fixtures, vibration-insulating rubber mounts, airflow fairings, and sandwich steel body panels.
In Japan, the launch of Lexus was complicated by Toyota's existing four domestic dealership networks at the time of its introduction. The Toyota Crown and Toyota Century were exclusive to Toyota Store locations. During the LS 400's development, local dealers' requests for a Japanese domestic market version had grown, and a right-hand-drive Toyota Celsior-badged version was introduced shortly after the LS 400's U.S. debut, and introduced on 9 October 1989 and only available at Toyopet Store locations. The Celsior, named after the Latin word for "supreme", was largely identical to the LS. Models came in either basic "A", a "B" model with uprated suspension, or fully equipped "C" trim specifications. The Crown and the Crown Majesta, which appeared later in 1991, were only available at Toyota Store locations which carried Japan-only Toyota luxury models, like the Century. Ownership costs for Japanese drivers were and are expensive due to Japanese Government dimension regulations and annual road tax obligations. Owning a Celsior in Japan is also considered extravagant due to the fact urban two-way streets are usually zoned at 40 km/h (25 mph) or less. The Celsior introduced two world firsts: high-performance twin-tube shock absorbers and an air suspension combined with an upgraded version of Toyota's semi-active Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension, called Piezo TEMS. This was ahead of its time: Mercedes-Benz first introduced a similar electronically controlled air suspension on the 1999 Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220) (Airmatic).
Adding incentive for early U.S. sales was a base price of US\$35,000, which undercut competitors by thousands of dollars and brought accusations of selling below cost from rival BMW. Being a flagship luxury sedan in the full-size segment, the relatively low starting MSRP was actually targeted to be at \$25,000 during initial stages of development. However, the depreciation of the Yen vs. the Dollar resulted in a climb to \$35,000. Lexus division general manager Dave Illingworth admitted in an interview with Automotive News that many in product planning were concerned about the price hike and the potential effect it could have on sales success. Part of the concern was due to the fact that the Lexus nameplate lacked the heritage and brand recognition of German rivals such as Mercedes-Benz. Similarly, luxury cars competing in a class slightly below that of the BMW 7-Series and Mercedes S-Class averaged in the \$25000 range. However, once the LS400 was released, sales figures were very positive, as the vehicle was nearly universally praised for its high standards and levels of specification. Lexus' parent company Toyota had already established a strong reputation of reliability and quality among economy cars, and the Cressida sedan gave the American market some evidence that Toyota was capable of building competent, larger luxury flagships with equivalent reliability.
In December 1989, shortly after the LS 400's launch, Lexus ordered a voluntary recall of the 8,000 vehicles sold so far, based upon two customer complaints over defective wiring and an overheated brake light. All vehicles were serviced within 20 days, and the incident helped establish Lexus' customer service reputation. By 1990, U.S. sales of the LS 400 had surpassed those of competing Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar models. Production of the first-generation LS 400 totaled over 165,000 units. The LS 400 made Consumer Reports 2007 list of recommended vehicles that regularly last 320,000 km (200,000 mi) or more, with proper maintenance.
### 1992–1994
Debuting in September 1992 as a 1993 model, the refreshed LS 400 (designed through 1991) was introduced with more than 50 changes, largely in response to customer and dealer requests. The vehicle received larger disc brakes, wheels, and tires, and adjustments were made to the suspension and power steering systems to improve handling. Stylistic changes included additional body side moldings and a revised grille, along with a greater selection of colors. For the interior, a standard passenger front airbag (making this vehicle the first Toyota-built series production car available with passenger front airbag), external temperature gauge, digital odometer, seat belt pretensioners, and chlorofluorocarbon-free refrigerant were added. In 1992, the Celsior introduced the world's first GPS navigation system with voice instructions, supplied by Aisin. By 1994, the LS 400's U.S. base price exceeded , a figure that had steadily risen since the vehicle's introduction. Customer demand for the vehicle and shifts in foreign exchange rates contributed to the increase in price. The growing popularity of the LS internationally was an asset to Toyota, as Japan had entered into an economic recession in 1991, that later became what was called the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble or "bubble economy".
A considerable point is that in the years after the LS400/Celsior went out of production in 1994, the car has continued to influence the entire world of manufacturing. The Toyota Production System largely infiltrated American manufacturing around the time MIT's IMVP academic group coined lean manufacturing, as MBA John Krafcik used his Lexus-influenced knowledge learned to model Genesis, as Hyundai-Kia themselves used TPS to become benchmarks in modern day. Within Toyota's own development efforts, the LS400's innovative advancements spread down through the company line-up. Through leveraging sister platforms, Toyota also used the economic conditions of currency differentials to trickle down the high standards set by the LS400. This type of reputation-setting efforts was monumental and not very profitable for Toyota, but they saw it as a way to gain a sterling reputation for quality and reliability. Afterwards Toyota planners would look for ways to reduce costs in the lower models (in their next generations). For example, the MX83 Toyota Cressida was a first glimpse at the LS400 and SXV10 Camry to come following in 1992. The MX83 was a clear step up from the 2nd generation V20 Camry. Additionally, Toyota saw it as an educational experience of refinement for engineering researchers in the United States market. It was large (notably more so than V20 Camry), and was designed to be a proper mid-size American car. Toyota used the MX83 as a hollow shell to build the LS400 interior concept into, until that cabin was transferred to a larger, more bubble type body shell. Extensive audio testing with Nakamichi systems was done by using LS400 prototype interiors in Cressida bodies. As the LS400 was then refined, Toyota went through extraordinary efforts to refine the standards of the MX83 even slightly further, as fit and finish became the best in the industry. This level of fit and finish trickled down to the 1992 XV10 Toyota Camry/Lexus ES300 shared platform. The 1992 Camry shocked the industry as it was only a non-luxury midsize family sedan (in base non-XLE trims at least). However, the complex flushed window stamping and flowing one piece roof were modelled from new processes learned by Toyota making the LS400, as were the triple sealing framed doors. To accomplish this, the doors use indented rubber gaskets to seal the door in a fashion similar to that used by Tupperware food containers. There were no other mid-size sedans built to such fit and finish standards, except the high-end German BMW 5-series and Mercedes-Benz E-class cars. This point was made by Chris Goffey during BBC's 1991 Motorfair Top Gear coverage.
Principles such as Heijunka boards, andon pull cords and Gemba walking have become embedded in aerospace engineering production at Boeing and its subsidiaries. The Federal Aviation Administration lists the FV2400-2TC (a 1UZ-FE derivative) as aviation certified. Intel modelled the "Internet of Things" on what was learned from Toyota's LS 400 quality standards.
Production of the first-generation LS ended in September 1994 to make way for production of the second-generation model in October.
## Second generation (XF20; 1994)
### 1994–1997
The second-generation Lexus LS 400 (UCF20) debuted in November 1994 (for the 1995 model year) with a longer wheelbase and similar specifications as the original model. The public unveiling of the vehicle occurred in a gala ceremony held at the San Francisco Opera House in California. The sedan was equipped with an updated 4.0-liter 1UZ-FE V8 engine, producing 194 kilowatts (260 hp) and 366 newton-metres (270 ft⋅lbf) of torque. Internally, over 90% of the redesigned LS 400's composition was new or redesigned, with increased sound insulation, a strengthened body structure, suspension updates (first LS/Celsior with Skyhook adaptive computerized air suspension), and improved brakes. The redesigned model was 95 kg (209 lb) lighter than its predecessor and achieved slightly better fuel economy. The 0–100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) time improved to 7.5 seconds.
Development of the second-generation LS 400 began after worldwide launch of the first generation under program code 250T. Given the first-generation model's successful reception and high level of customer satisfaction with its design, replicating the original LS 400's attributes with its successor was one of chief engineer Kazuo Okamoto's primary goals (he stated that "a tradition cannot be founded if you reject the first generation"). Externally, the most significant change was an increase in wheelbase length of 36 mm (1.4 in), resulting in more interior space and an additional 66 mm (2.6 in) of rear-seat legroom. However, as the overall length remained the same, trunk capacity was slightly reduced. The more aerodynamic body (C<sub>d</sub> 0.28) retained the general profile and contours of the original LS 400 and was the work of the Calty Design Research center in the U.S. Designers had evaluated 20 competing concepts, including several with a radically changed body, before selecting a winning entry in 1991 that included forms and contours similar to the original LS 400. Upon final approval in 1992, an evolutionary redesign was the ultimate result, with new design features consisting of sharper angles, curved body lines, and a beveled grille. More prominent side lines provided a reference point for parking maneuvers, and forward visibility was improved. Production development lasted from 1991 until conclusion in the second quarter of 1994. Design patents were filed at the Japan Patent Office on October 14, 1992 under registration number 732548, using a prototype.
The redesigned LS 400 interior received upgraded features, varying from dual-zone climate controls to rear cupholders. A newly patented seat cushion design, similar to the car's suspension, used lightweight internal coil springs and stabilizer bars to improve comfort. One of the first in-dash CD changers was offered as an option. Safety enhancements included enlarged crumple zones, three-point seat belts at all positions, and a new collapsible steering column. In Japan, the Toyota Celsior equivalents were offered in the same "A", "B", and top-spec "C" configurations as before, along with an additional selection of exterior colors. Several optional features, such as a compact disc-based Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation system and reclining rear seats, were available only in Japan.
At its U.S. debut, the redesigned LS 400 retained a pricing advantage over European competitors in its largest market, launching with a base price of US\$51,000. However, cost differences had narrowed following more aggressive pricing and added feature content from rival manufacturers. To promote their new flagship, Lexus launched a US\$50 million advertising campaign, the most expensive marketing effort since the launch of the division. In mid-1995, sales slowed as the U.S. government threatened tariffs on Japanese luxury cars over the widening U.S.-Japan trade deficit, potentially raising the price of a fully optioned LS 400 to over US\$100,000. Subsequent negotiations averted the sanctions by the second quarter of that year, and sales recovered in the following months. Ultimately, second-generation LS 400 sales were lower than the original model; production totaled approximately 114,000 units.
Production of the UCF20 ran from October 1994 to July 1997. For 1997, a limited "Coach Edition" LS 400 was produced in partnership with American leather manufacturer Coach Inc. The edition featured Coach leather seats; embroidered emblems on the exterior, floormats, and armrest; special colors and added trim; and a Coach cabin bag. Production was limited to a yearly run of 2,500 units.
### 1997–2000
Designed through early 1996, in September 1997 a revised LS 400 was introduced for the 1998 model year. Changes were a five-speed automatic transmission, increased engine output to 216 kW (290 hp), with variable valve timing (VVT-i), and an added 41 N⋅m (30 ft⋅lbf) of torque. Acceleration times and fuel economy were improved as a result. The suspension and steering also received minor tweaks to improve feel and handling. Stylistically, the vehicle sported a new front fascia, side mirrors, and updated wheels; a rear window diversity antenna replaced the conventional power mast. The cabin received upgrades, including a trip computer, HomeLink, retractable rear headrests, reading lamps, and ultraviolet-tinted glass, while the climate control gained a micron filtration feature with a smog sensor.
In August 1997, the first production laser adaptive cruise control on a Toyota vehicle was introduced on the Celsior version (Japan only). It controlled speed only through throttle control and downshifting, but did not apply the brakes. Because of laser technology limitations, it deactivated in bad weather.
A CD-ROM-based GPS automotive navigation system became an option in the U.S. Added safety features included front side airbags, vehicle stability control and in 2000, brake assist. Low beam HID headlamps were introduced as well. The headlights were also equipped with a programmable delay feature for proximity illumination. In February 2000, the limited "Platinum Series" LS 400 was introduced at the Chicago Auto Show in partnership with American Express. The edition featured most luxury options as standard, along with separate exterior colors, wheels, badging, and two years' no-fee use of an American Express Platinum Card.
## Third generation (XF30; 2000)
### 2000–2003
The third-generation Lexus LS 430 (UCF30) debuted at the North American International Auto Show in January 2000 as a 2001 model, introducing a new body design with a host of new interior and technological features. The interior design was inspired by luxury hotels (Imperial Hotel, Four Seasons Hotel, The Ritz-Carlton) and the seats were inspired by the first class seats of British Airways and Japan Airlines.
It was the first US market Lexus with adaptive cruise control (called Dynamic Laser Cruise Control). It employed a lidar sensor and (unlike the laser ACC introduced in 1997 on the Celsior) was able to activate brakes for deceleration. However, because of laser technology limitations, it would deactivate in bad weather.
The sedan was equipped with a new 4.3-liter 3UZ-FE engine generating 216 kW (290 hp) and 434 N⋅m (320 ft⋅lbf) of torque. The LS 430 was one of the first gasoline V8 vehicles to be certified as an Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV). The standard suspension had been completely redesigned, with a double-wishbone setup at all four wheels; a tuned suspension was offered for the first time. A new torque-activated electronic control unit made throttle adjustments based on vehicle speed, engine revolutions per minute, and pedal position. The LS 430 sported a 0–100 km/h (62 mph) acceleration time of 6.7 seconds. Sales began in October 2000 in the United States.
Heading into the planning of the LS 430, division executives concluded that the previous LS redesign had been too restrained in its approach. The LS 430 development team, led by chief engineer Yasushi Tanaka, accordingly opted for a more thorough exterior, interior, and technological redevelopment. The development of the LS 430 took four years. Selected from 16 different concept designs, the resulting vehicle of December 1997—when the final design (by Akihiro Nagaya) was approved—saw the sedan's dimensions increase in terms of wheelbase and height. The exterior featured a larger grille with rounded edges, quarter windows on the rear doors, and rounded trapezoidal headlamps. The body was also more aerodynamic than previous LS sedans (C<sub>d</sub> 0.26; 0.25 with air suspension), and was the product of wind tunnel testing at facilities used for Shinkansen bullet train development. A 76-millimetre (3.0 in) wheelbase stretch resulted in more interior volume and allowed the engine to be positioned further aft for better balance. Trunk space was increased by one-third due to repositioning of the fuel tank.
Compared to previous generations, the LS 430 featured a greater number of model configurations and options. While sharing the same body style, variants were differentiated by chassis configuration and onboard equipment. Models with the tuned sport suspension, sold as the "Touring" package in the United States, featured larger, high-speed brakes. These brakes were also standard on European market models. Fully optioned models with height adjustable air suspension, tuned for a combination of soft ride and responsive handling, were sold in the United States as the "Ultra Luxury" edition.
The LS 430 interior featured walnut wood trim on the dashboard and upper doors, along with semi-aniline leather and oscillating air conditioning vents.
The GPS navigation system was totally redesigned. A liquid crystal display with touchscreen on the upper center console served as interface. The system was the first LS with voice controlled navigation and the first luxury sedan to transition to DVD-based (instead of CD-ROM) maps.
Introduced a Mark Levinson premium sound system. In its highest trim specification, the LS 430 included Lexus Link telematics, power door and trunk closers, heated and cooled front seats, and power reclining massage rear seats equipped with audio controls, power sunshade, a cooler, and air purifier. Several rear seat features adopted for the LS 430 had been previously available in Japanese market luxury vehicles. Safety features added to the LS 430 included front and rear side curtain airbags, park sensors, rain-sensing windshield wipers, and electronic brakeforce distribution. The vehicle also gained water repellent windshield and side glass.
The LS 430 first went on sale in the United States with an initial base price of US\$55,000, ranging up to US\$70,000 when fully equipped. At the high end, the LS 430's pricing encroached on European rivals as Lexus became increasingly able to command higher price premiums for its vehicles. Sales for the LS 430 surpassed the previous generation, and production exceeded 140,000 units. The LS 430 was produced until July 2006, marking the last occasion the Lexus flagship was produced in a single body style. In Japan, the equivalent Toyota Celsior was also sold from August 2000 until March 2006, when the long-awaited introduction of Lexus Japan saw the arrival of new generation Lexus models. XF30 design patents were filed by Toyota in domestic Japan on 8 March 1999 at the Japan Patent Office under patent number 1080448.
In every year of production, the LS 430 was the most reliable luxury sedan in the J.D. Power and Associates Initial Quality Survey (with the early and late models of this series the best performing), and the highest recorded scorer in the history of J.D. Power's Vehicle Dependability Survey. Thatcham ratings data via the UK Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre listed the theft-prevention capabilities of the LS 430 as a maximum 5 stars, with the LS 430 being the first automobile to achieve the maximum theft-deterrence rating in 2001.
### 2003–2006
Designed through early 2002, the LS 430 update launched in September 2003 as a 2004 model.
The first radar (instead of previous lidar) sensor on a Lexus sedan allowed the new Dynamic RADAR Cruise Control to work in any weather conditions. The millimeter-wave radar technology also enabled the first Pre-Collision System (PCS) on a Lexus sedan (with partial autonomous braking only on the Japanese market Toyota Celsior version). A "low-speed tracking mode" was added in 2004. The low-speed tracking mode was a second mode that would warn the driver if the car ahead stopped and provide braking; it could stop the car but then deactivated.
Introduced a new six-speed automatic transmission and revised styling. The powerplant remained the same as before. Exterior changes included restyled front and rear fascias, light-emitting diode (LED) taillights, and different wheels.
It debuted the first Lexus high-intensity discharge headlights for the high beam (Bi-Xenon), and also the first AFS adaptive curve headlights, which swiveled the projector headlamps in the direction of vehicle turns.
The interior received knee airbags, lighted rear-seat vanity mirrors, and new trim selections, including bird's eye maple wood. New options included an updated navigation system, Bluetooth and a backup camera. A driver-programmable electronic key feature allowed the vehicle to detect the key fob in the owner's pocket and unlock the doors by touch.
## Fourth generation (XF40; 2006)
### 2006–2009
Development on fourth generation LS began in 2001 under program code "250L", with the design process being done under Yo Hiruta from 2002 to late 2003, with the final production design being frozen in 2004. In October 2005, Lexus premiered a gasoline-electric hybrid concept car, the LF-Sh (Lexus Future-Sedan hybrid), at the Tokyo Motor Show, publicly previewing the next Lexus flagship with a concept version for the first time. Introduced at the January 2006 North American International Auto Show for the 2007 model year, the fourth-generation Lexus LS became the first Lexus model to be produced in both standard and long-wheelbase versions. Using an all-new platform, the LS 460 (USF40) uses the standard 2,969 mm (116.9 in) wheelbase, while the LS 460 L (USF41) features a stretched 3,091 mm (121.7 in) wheelbase. The fourth-generation models' technical specifications were shown in greater detail at the Geneva Motor Show in February 2006. A hybrid version, LS 600h L (UVF46), was previewed at the New York International Auto Show in April 2006. At its introduction in 2006, it won the Car of the Year Japan award for the second time.
The LS 460 and LS 460 L are both equipped with a new 4.6-liter 1UR-FSE V8 producing 283 kW (380 hp) and 498 N⋅m (367 ft⋅lbf) of torque, coupled to the first production eight-speed automatic transmission. Acceleration from 0–100 km/h (62 mph) is listed at 5.7 seconds.
The development of the LS 460 and its variants, led by chief engineer Moritaka Yoshida, began as Lexus was shifting its design strategy towards a more diversified product lineup, with new-vehicle launches largely focused on global markets. Plans called for the next-generation LS to differentiate itself further beyond previous models in terms of design and technology. A "Super LS" model, priced above the US\$100,000 ultra-luxury category, was also considered. Externally, the Lexus LS received the styling cues of Lexus' new design direction, called L-finesse. First shown on the LF-Sh concept, the vehicle gained body forms running the length of the car, wheel arches, arrow-shaped chrome trim, a lower-set grille, and crystalline adaptive headlamps.
The LS 460 interior gained a push-button start, thin-film transistor instrument display, and numerous luxury options, ranging from a hard disk drive-based GPS navigation system and song library to a heated steering wheel and XM NavTraffic. Standard equipment included power 16-way driver and 12-way front passenger seats with lumbar adjustment and seat heaters, leather upholstery, premium sound system, power moonroof, and trunk pass-through. The climate control offered the first infrared body temperature sensors in an automobile; it also featured ceiling air diffusers. An "Executive" seating package on the LS 460 L included a rear-seat DVD entertainment system, swivel tray table, and a shiatsu massaging ottoman seat.
It was the first LS with continuous controlled Adaptive Variable Suspension (AVS). The addition of an automated parallel parking assist feature, the first of its kind in the U.S., allowed the LS 460 to steer itself into preselected parking spaces. Other drive-assist features included a brake-hold system, radar cruise control, electric variable gear ratio power steering, and electronically controlled braking. The new stability control system was improved to anticipate skids and alter steering assist and gear ratios. The suite of new safety features extended from an eye-tracking Driver Monitoring System to a lane departure warning system. The pre-collision system added the first production image processing chip in a car capable of identifying vehicles and pedestrians in real time, along with millimeter-wavelength radar, stereo cameras, and infrared night vision projectors. A rear pre-collision system with whiplash-preventing active seat headrests and dual-chamber front airbags was also introduced.
The LS 460 and LS 460 L arrived at dealerships in Japan, the U.S., and Europe in late 2006, and the vehicle reached Australia, East Asia, and the Middle East in 2007. The U.S. base prices for the 2007 LS 460 and LS 460 L were US\$61,000 and US\$71,000, respectively. In 2006 and 2007, the average price paid for U.S. market LS 460 L sedans exceeded US\$80,000, due largely to added options packages, placing the Lexus LS in the same average price range as its long-wheelbase Audi, BMW, and Jaguar rivals for the first time.
After debuting a hybrid powertrain with the 2005 LF-Sh concept, Lexus began sales of the LS 600h L (UVF46), the first production V8-powered full-hybrid vehicle, in May 2007 for the 2008 model year. The long-wheelbase LS 600h L is equipped with Lexus Hybrid Drive, featuring a 5.0-liter 2UR-FSE V8 engine mated to a high-output electric motor with nickel-metal hydride battery packs. This system uses a continuously variable transmission and generates an output of 327 kilowatts (439 hp). Fuel economy is slightly higher overall than the lower-powered non-hybrid LS, and the hybrids achieve a U.S. Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV) rating. Features specific to the LS hybrids include the first production low beam LED headlights, a leather-trimmed dash, and blue-tinted hybrid badging. In April 2007, Lexus announced that the base price for the LS 600h L would be over US\$104,000, surpassing the V12-equipped Toyota Century as the most expensive Japanese luxury car ever produced. A standard-wheelbase version destined for Asia and Europe, the LS 600h (UVF45), was launched in Japan in May 2007. The first 100 LS 600h L sedans sold in the U.S. were offered as "Launch Edition" models via the Neiman Marcus catalog for InCircle members.
In 2008, all-wheel drive versions of the non-hybrid LS 460 (USF45) and LS 460 L (USF46) models premiered at the Moscow International Automobile Salon. Debuting at the 2008 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, the LS 600h L "Pebble Beach Edition", limited to 50 units, was produced in partnership with the Pebble Beach Company. A specialized Lexus LS 460 was installed as a driving simulator at Toyota's Higashifuji Technical Center, in Shizuoka, Japan, for automotive safety testing, and in 2009 at Tokyo's Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS-Safety) exhibition, the LS 460 ITS-Safety concept was unveiled showing road-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-vehicle information-exchange technologies.
### 2009–2012
Debuting in late 2009 for the 2010 model year, the revised LS 460 and LS 460 L included restyled front and rear fascias, side mirror turn signals, and new wheel designs. New technology included automatic high beam lights, a self-repairing clear coat for the exterior paint, and an optional pre-crash detection system. The standard cabin received additional chrome trim, an optional DVD entertainment system behind the center armrest, and in certain markets, an all-digital instrument panel with night vision capability. The LS 460 Sport—a performance variant equipped with a sport-tuned air suspension, Brembo brakes, forged wheels, paddle shifters, body kit, and a unique interior—was made available for the short-wheelbase rear-wheel drive configuration. The Sport model received the Sport Direct Shift transmission, also found in the Lexus IS F, with downshift rev-matching capability and manual mode. A new interior customization program, "L-Select", also became available for LS customers in Japan.
### 2012–2017
Lexus released an official photograph of its restyled XF40 series in July 2012. The substantial update incorporates the new Lexus corporate fascia, comprising the "spindle" grill and consequently sees the fitment of a redesigned hood, reshaped front fenders and headlamps, plus a new bumper. These styling revisions see the retention of the side profile and doors, including rear fenders. Thus, the newly designed tail-lamps, trunk lid, and rear bumper are only partially modified. For the first time, an F-Sport variant is being offered. 'Nanoe' technology is used in the air conditioning system where 20–50 nm ions are bonded to water molecules.
## Fifth generation (XF50; 2017)
### 2017–2020
Developed under the 200B program, the fifth-generation LS made its debut at the January 2017 North American International Auto Show. This model was previewed by the LF-FC concept that was first shown at the 2015 Tokyo Motor Show. It is the second Lexus model to be built on GA-L platform, after the LC grand tourer. Dubbed as LS 500 (VXFA50/55), it is the first LS to be powered by a V6 engine. The 3.4 liter twin-turbo V35A-FTS V6 produces 309 kW (415 hp) and 600 N⋅m (440 lb⋅ft) of torque. The wheelbase is 34 mm (1.3 in) longer than the previous long-wheelbase model, the LS 460L. The height is also 15 mm (0.6 in) lower, with the bonnet and boot measuring 30 and 40 mm (1.2 and 1.6 in) lower, respectively.In a couple of Lexus firsts, the fifth-generation LS is the first Lexus sedan to feature a six-sided window design, while the flush-surface windows integrate smoothly with the pillars. In the company's efforts to reconcile two conflicting goals, sufficient headroom with a low roofline, the new LS employs an available outer-slide-type panoramic moonroof instead of the conventional, internally retracting item.
The fifth-generation LS also features 3D-surround Mark Levinson audio with in-ceiling array speakers. The next-generation, remote touch infotainment interface called Lexus Enform, is said to be designed to mimic smartphone operation, with support for handwritten input. Alongside the 12.3 inch navigation display, the fifth-generation LS can be specified with an optional 24 inch, colour HUD for the driver's view. The fifth-generation LS was launched in Japan on December 18, 2017 and globally in the first quarter of 2018.
The LS 500h (GVF50/55) uses the Multi Stage Hybrid System that debuted in the LC 500h. Like the LC 500h, it uses a lithium-ion battery rather than the nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery used in the previous LS 600h.
Lexus Safety System+ 2.0 is fitted as standard to the LS. The available Advanced Safety Package introduced Lexus CoDrive, which help actively steer the vehicle should it detect a pedestrian.
At the 2017 Shenzhen, Hong Kong and Macau International Auto Show, Lexus unveiled the Chinese-market LS 350 (GSF50), which uses a naturally aspirated 2GR-FKS V6 engine from the GS 350, producing 234 kW (318 hp) and 380 N⋅m (280 lb⋅ft) of torque. Hong Kong models uses an 8GR-FKS engine producing 232 kW (315 hp) and 380 N⋅m (280 lb⋅ft) of torque.
### Facelift
The fifth-generation LS received a facelift in 2020 for the 2021 model year. Notable improvements have been made in several areas of the vehicle. The suspension received enhancements that improves ride quality, handling and ingress/egress of the vehicle. The LS 500's 3.4-liter V6 engine has an updated piston design aimed to lower emissions and reduce NVH when the engine is cold while the hybrid variant received several hardware and software upgrades improving the acceleration of the vehicle. The interior of the LS has been further refined with revised seats, touch points, higher-resolution rearview mirror and updated leather options. The facelifted LS uses a 12.3-inch touchscreen infotainment system instead of the mouse-based implementation found in prior model years. Apple CarPlay, Android Auto and Amazon Alexa integration are standard equipment. All grades of the 2021 LS are equipped with Lexus Safety System+ 2.0 as standard and received a number of updates such as Lane Change Assist and Active Steering Assist. Exterior updates include a revised front fascia, radiator intake, headlights, taillights and updated color options.In Europe, the updated LS 500h was launched a few months later and the LS 500 was dropped.
An update launched on 8 April 2021 includes the Advanced Drive including driver monitor camera and remote software updates. It is able to keep the vehicle in its lane, maintain the distance from other vehicles, navigate a lane split, change lanes, and overtake other vehicles. It also has Advanced Park, an advanced parking assistance system.
## Manufacturing
The Lexus LS has been consistently produced on dedicated Lexus assembly lines at Toyota's flagship Tahara factory, located in the city of Tahara, in Aichi Prefecture, Chūbu region, southwest of Nagoya, since 1989. Tahara remains the sole production site, having inaugurated its new line number four specifically for assembly of the original LS 400.
For the Lexus LS, the Tahara plant developed new molds and enhanced assembly techniques and instituted measures aimed at increasing the precision of the sedan's fit and finish. The 1989 LS 400 became the first production automobile to receive extensive laser welding, allowing for seamless steel welds. A large sheet metal press was developed to reduce or eliminate panel gaps by stamping large sections whole instead of singly. Separately installed parts, such as exterior lights, were also spring-loaded for a tighter fit. On the LS 400, engineers reduced door panel gaps in half versus Toyota-brand vehicles, from 7 to 4 mm (0.28 to 0.16 in), with measurements made within 0.01 mm (0.00039 in); on the LS 430, measurement margins were increased tenfold, to 0.001 mm (3.9×10<sup>−5</sup> in). When production switched to the LS 460, the number of laser welds was doubled.
Despite Tahara's large-scale automation, Lexus LS production also involves specialized personnel who are tasked with key production points, such as testing each vehicle's V8 engine via dynamometer and stethoscope for calibration before installation. With the LS 460, a hand-sanded paint process was introduced. The production standards used on the Lexus LS were eventually adopted by the manufacturer for other vehicles; in 2007, the assembly of Toyota Corolla economy cars used the same panel gap measurements as the LS 400 did eighteen years earlier.
## Industrial significance
The Lexus LS marked a successful entrant of a Japanese manufacturer into the prestige luxury arena, after the first Honda (Acura) Legend, a market that had long been dominated by established European and American brands. By 1991, with the LS 400 its top-selling model, Lexus had overtaken Mercedes-Benz and BMW in overall U.S. sales, and in 2000, the marque passed Cadillac as the luxury sales leader in the largest automotive market. Rival manufacturers responded with lower prices and added features. In particular, Mercedes-Benz reorganized its operations, shifting to a targeted-cost process similar to Lexus production methods, and dropped competing U.S. base prices by nearly 10 percent. To rival the LS 400, extra features were rushed for the launch of the 1991 Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W140), causing budget overruns and costing the job of Daimler-Benz's chief engineer, Wolfgang Peter. Approximately 5 percent of 1989 LS 400 sales went to buyers employed by rival manufacturers, including GM, Ford, and Chrysler. When the LS 400 was disassembled for engineering analysis, Cadillac engineers concluded that the vehicle could not be built using existing GM methods. Industry publications noted the LS 400's precise panel gaps, and the subject became a common evaluation standard in road tests. The LS 430's interior noise level was later used by rival makes as a measure of cabin quietness.
According to industry observers, the introduction of the Lexus LS reshaped Toyota's image from that of an "econobox" manufacturer to the builder of an automotive standard bearer. This stood in contrast to the predictions of early detractors, including rival manufacturers who dismissed Toyota as incapable of producing a competitive luxury vehicle. Japanese contemporaries from the luxury divisions of Honda (Acura) and Nissan (Infiniti) had differing degrees of success. Honda had entered into a joint venture with Britain's Austin Rover Group in November 1981, launching Project XX with an Austin Rover–Honda XX letter of intent to replace the Rover SD1 with the Rover 800 and to provide a midsize, V6-powered luxury sedan for Honda, called the Honda Legend. Marketed as the Acura Legend in the U.S., the sedan initially sold well, but subsequent models (renamed Acura RL) performed below sales expectations. Launched by Nissan in December 1989, the V8-powered Infiniti Q45 closely rivaled the LS 400 in specifications and price, but was unsuccessful in sales (attributed to unconventional styling and marketing), leading to its discontinuation in 2006. The success of the Lexus LS became a test case for mainstream manufacturers targeting upscale segments. By investing in a separate marque, Toyota was able to avoid the stigma attached to a mass-market brand's charging premium prices. The effect of the LS 400 on the automotive industry led Automobile magazine to add the sedan to its "24 Most Important Vehicles of the 20th Century" list in 1996.
## Sales and production
In its largest market, the U.S., the Lexus LS was the top-selling flagship luxury sedan for 15 of the first 17 years following its debut. In Japan, the next-largest market for the Lexus LS, the introduction of the 2007 LS 460 attracted 12,000 pre-orders, and the Lexus LS has gone on to sell successfully in its class. Following the introduction of the LS 460 and Lexus' expanded global launch in 2007, sales of the Lexus flagship have increasingly come from outside the brand's traditional U.S. strongholds. By 2007, the Lexus LS ranked second globally in flagship sales, next to the Mercedes-Benz S-Class' 85,500 units, with 71,760 Lexus LS sedans sold worldwide, and over half the total coming from outside the U.S. market. In 2008, U.S. sales fell 42% amidst the late-2000s recession, mirroring the overall decline of the luxury car market.
The Lexus LS has not sold as well in Europe, where Lexus suffers from smaller brand recognition, image, and a less-developed dealership network. In European markets, the Lexus LS has ranked behind Jaguar, Mercedes-Benz, Audi, and BMW in flagship luxury car sales. Automotive analysts have suggested a possible rationale for the sales disparity, in that European buyers place less emphasis on vehicle reliability and have more brand loyalty to established domestic marques. In contrast, the Lexus LS has ranked second in sales to the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (and ahead of rivals from BMW, Audi, and Jaguar) in markets outside Europe, such as South Africa.
## Technical specifications
## Awards
Notable examples of awards received by the Lexus LS include (2007) World Car of the Year, International Car of the Year, (1991) Canadian Car of the Year, Wheels Car of the Year, and Top Gear Limousine of the Year. The Lexus LS has been the highest-rated luxury car in Automobile Magazine, Car and Driver, Consumer Reports, Fleet World, and MotorWeek. In J.D. Power's long-term Vehicle Dependability Study, the Lexus LS has been the most reliable car for fifteen consecutive years, the most for any manufacturer, and Consumer Reports has ranked the sedan as the most reliable vehicle tested. Safety awards include Auto Bild's 2007 Innovation Prize for the LS 460 pre-collision system, consecutive first place rankings in the What Car? Security Supertest, and Kiplinger's "Best in Safety for Cars \$40,000 and Over". Technical honors range from Ward's 10 Best Engines, to Edmunds.com's "Best Sound System in Cars Over \$30,000".
In U.S. consumer publications, Lexus' flagship model is recognized as one of the most reliable vehicles ever built, having held the top ranking in J.D. Power and Associates' U.S. Vehicle Dependability Survey for fifteen consecutive years (1994–2009), again in 2012, third place in 2013, and top again in 2014. A 1996 Lexus LS400 owned by an automotive journalist has surpassed a million miles on what is believed to be its original engine.
|
1,762,071 |
Louis William Valentine DuBourg
| 1,170,855,472 |
French Catholic archbishop and missionary in the American West
|
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"1833 deaths",
"19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in France",
"19th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the United States",
"Archbishops of Besançon",
"Bishops of Montauban",
"Burials at Besançon Cathedral",
"College of Guienne alumni",
"College of Sorbonne alumni",
"French Roman Catholic missionaries",
"French expatriates in the United States",
"French nobility",
"French people of Haitian descent",
"People from Cap-Haïtien",
"People of Saint-Domingue",
"Presidents of Georgetown University",
"Roman Catholic bishops of New Orleans",
"Roman Catholic missionaries in the United States",
"Seminary of Saint-Sulpice (France) alumni",
"St. Mary's Seminary and University faculty",
"Sulpician bishops",
"University and college founders"
] |
Louis William Valentine DuBourg SS (French: Louis-Guillaume-Valentin DuBourg; 10 January 1766 – 12 December 1833) was a French Catholic prelate and Sulpician missionary to the United States. He built up the church in the vast new Louisiana Territory as the Bishop of Louisiana and the Two Floridas and later became the Bishop of Montauban and finally the Archbishop of Besançon in France.
Born in the colony of Saint-Domingue, DuBourg was sent to France at a young age to be educated and entered the Society of Saint Sulpice. As a cleric and son of a noble family, the French Revolution forced him into exile in Spain. In 1794, DuBourg sailed to the United States and began teaching and ministering in Baltimore, and became the president of Georgetown College in 1795. He significantly improved the quality of the institution, but mounted a substantial debt and was ousted by the Jesuit owners of the college in 1798. DuBourg then founded a lay collegiate counterpart to St. Mary's Seminary in Baltimore. He also selected the site of Baltimore's first cathedral and became the ecclesiastical superior to Elizabeth Ann Seton's newly founded Sisters of Charity.
In 1812, DuBourg was made the apostolic administrator of the Diocese of Louisiana and the Two Floridas, and three years later, its bishop. Catholic New Orleanians rejected his authority and he was forced to move his episcopal seat to St. Louis, Missouri. There, he built the first cathedral west of the Mississippi River and established missions to the American Indians, dozens of churches, and numerous schools, including St. Mary's of the Barrens Seminary and Saint Louis University. He also recruited the Sisters of Loretto and Rose Philippine Duchesne's Sisters of the Sacred Heart to found several academies. Never able to establish his seat in New Orleans, DuBourg returned to France in 1826, where he was made the Bishop of Montauban. Just months before his death in 1833, he became the Archbishop of Besançon.
## Early life and education
Louis-Guillaume-Valentin DuBourg was born in the city of Cap-Français (known today as Cap-Haïtien) in the French Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue, likely on 10 January 1766. Born to a noble family originally from Bordeaux, France, his mother was Marguerite DuBourg née Armand de Vogluzan and his father was Pierre DuBourg, who held the titles of chevalier de la Loubère et Saint-Christaud and Sieur de Rochemont. Pierre was a licensed sea captain and highly successful merchant in the coffee trade.
Following the death of his mother, at two years of age, DuBourg was sent to France to be educated. He lived with his maternal grandparents in Bordeaux, and eventually enrolled at the College of Guienne, where he proved to be a good student. Deciding that he would become a priest, DuBourg entered the Saint-Sulpice Seminary, attached to the Church of Saint-Sulpice, in 1786. There, he studied under the direction of Francis Charles Nagot, who would later introduce the Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice to the United States.
In 1788, Nagot selected DuBourg to be the superior of the newly established Sulpician minor seminary in Issy-les-Moulineaux, outside of Paris. At the same time, he continued his studies at the College of Sorbonne, and was ordained a priest by Antoine-Éléonor-Léon Leclerc de Juigné, the Archbishop of Paris, on 20 March 1790.
## Exile and arrival in Maryland
DuBourg was not in Issy long before the school became the target of the French Revolution. With the persecution of clerics during the Reign of Terror, he left the seminary. Five days later, on 15 August 1792, it was attacked by a Jacobin mob that massacred the four remaining priests. DuBourg fled first to Bourdeaux. However, his aristocratic lineage, the presence of anti-clerical spies, and the conduct of home inspections forced him to eventually leave France. Disguised as a traveling fiddler, he escaped to Ourense, Spain.
While exiled in Spain, DuBourg became fluent in Spanish. The Spanish government believed French clergy were engaged in heterodox practices, and restricted their ability to teach and publicly minister. Dissatisfied with these limitations, DuBourg sailed for the United States and arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, on 14 December 1794. He was incardinated in the Diocese of Baltimore by Bishop John Carroll and petitioned Jacques-André Emery, the Sulpician Superior General, for admission to the order, which was by then operating in Baltimore. On 9 March 1795, he became a professed member of the Society of Saint Sulpice.
In Baltimore, there was a rapidly growing population of West Indians who had fled the Haitian Revolution, and French who had fled the French Revolution; in a short time, they doubled the total number of Catholics in the United States. DuBourg began ministering to these French-speaking immigrants and holding classes for their children, as well as those of Spanish immigrants. By teaching these classes, DuBourg learned English, and came to be regarded as a polished and effective preacher.
## President of Georgetown College
In October 1795, just several months after arriving in the United States, DuBourg was appointed by Carroll to succeed Robert Molyneux as the third president of Georgetown College. He was one of four Sulpicians to serve on the faculty during the founding era of the Jesuit college, who together had a significant influence on the school's development. DuBourg had an ambitious vision for Georgetown, seeking to make it the best college in the United States. One historian of the university credits him with transforming Georgetown from an "academy" into a "college."
Seeking to make the school more cosmopolitan, DuBourg recruited many students from Baltimore, particularly French refugees from the West Indies. He also admitted many non-Catholics. Overall, the size of the student body grew during his tenure. DuBourg solicited financial support from Catholic donors, which allowed him to sponsor sixteen students throughout his tenure to study at Georgetown in preparation for the seminary. In 1797, he sponsored one potential seminarian instead of accepting a salary increase. DuBourg hired 16 new teachers, greatly expanding the size of the college's faculty and raised the salary of professors. A significant departure from his predecessors, the significant majority of professors he hired were laymen, rather than clerics.
In keeping with his mission to make Georgetown an elite college, DuBourg improved and expanded the curriculum by adding courses in history, moral philosophy, natural philosophy, and Spanish; music, dancing, and drawing were also taught for the first time. He instituted new features, including the college's first seal and uniforms for students. He promoted the school's public image by advertising its favorable situation upon a hill and proximity to Washington, D.C., the seat of the federal government. DuBourg became active in Washington's high society, including making the acquaintance of Thomas Law, a merchant who enrolled his son at Georgetown. Through Law, DuBuissson received an invitation to dine with the former President George Washington at his home, Mount Vernon, in July 1797. The following month, Washington visited Georgetown's campus. Around this time, DuBourg also invited a group of Poor Clares who fled the revolution in France, and they founded a school for girls in the Georgetown area in 1798.
Though DuBourg's improvements elevated the college's quality, they placed Georgetown in substantial debt. Donations were inadequate to offset this debt, which was worsened by economic stagnation in Washington in the 1790s. This strained the relationship between DuBourg and the Jesuits, who were forced to sell some land in Maryland to meet the financial obligations. The trustees of the Corporation of Roman Catholic Clergymen, which owned Georgetown, elected new Jesuits to the college's board of directors and empowered the board to remove the president. In October 1797, the board decided to keep DuBourg as president, but stripped him of his power over Georgetown's finances, transferring it to a new vice president, Francis Neale, who implemented strict austerity measures. Motivated in part by anti-French sentiment, the Maryland Jesuits eventually took steps to oust DuBourg in 1798, leading to his resignation. He was succeeded by Francis Neale's brother, Leonard Neale, at Christmas.
## Founding St. Mary's College
Upon leaving Georgetown, DuBourg traveled to Havana, Cuba, where he joined two other Sulpicians seeking to establish a college there. However, this project faced political opposition, and DuBourg returned to Baltimore in August 1799.
That year, DuBourg founded and became the first president of a college for lay students at St. Mary's Seminary. Though DuBourg initially intended the school to be open for general education, Bishop Carroll required that admission be limited only to West Indian students, so as not to compete with Georgetown College. As a result, many Cubans who had met DuBourg during his time in Havana sent their sons to be educated at St. Mary's College. The Jesuits opposed the founding of St. Mary's College, and DuBourg offered to resolve the dispute by closing St. Mary's College and transferring its students and faculty to Georgetown; however, the Jesuits did not act on this proposal.
In 1800, the Sulpicians lodged a protest with Carroll over the restriction on admitting only West Indian students. DuBourg travelled to Cuba in 1802 to recruit students, where he was informed by the Spanish government—which feared the education of Cubans in a republican country—that Cuban students would no longer be allowed to attend school in Baltimore. The following year, the Spanish Navy sent a frigate to Baltimore to demand that all Spanish nationals return. Carroll then lifted the restriction on enrollment, and the school began admitting students of any nationality in 1803. As a result, enrollment at St. Mary's College grew rapidly, overtaking that of Georgetown. Students arrived not only from the West Indies, but from South America, Mexico, and many parts of the United States. The new college was chartered by the State of Maryland in 1805, and was elevated to university status by the Maryland General Assembly the following year.
To accommodate the prospering school, DuBourg oversaw the construction of several new buildings. Among these was St. Mary's Seminary Chapel, referred to by Elizabeth Ann Seton as "Mr. DuBourg's chapel." DuBourg hired Maximilian Godefroy to design the chapel, who he had previously appointed to the faculty of St. Mary's. Work began in 1806, and DuBourg expedited the project by retaining Benjamin Henry Latrobe, the Architect of the Capitol, whose skilled Italian artists completed the building ini 1808.
### Diocesan ministry
DuBourg ministered to and provided charity to the many refugees living in Baltimore who had fled Saint-Domingue during the Haitian Revolution. With John Tessier, he also established a congregation for the many poor Black Baltimoreans who met and celebrated Mass at St. Mary's Chapel. From this congregation eventually formed the Oblate Sisters of Providence. DuBourg also established a lay fraternal organization of parishioners that provided charity for the city.
DuBourg played an important role in the construction of Baltimore's first cathedral. Bishop Carroll desired to replace St. Peter's Pro-Cathedral with a proper cathedral, and DuBourg convinced him to move it from St. Peter's to a new location. DuBourg identified a site atop a hill, which would become known as Cathedral Hill, and negotiated with the sale with the owner of the land. He then raised the \$23,000 necessary to purchase the land, . Construction on the cathedral began in 1806.
### Work with Elizabeth Ann Seton
In 1806, DuBourg was in New York City to sell lottery tickets as a fundraiser for St. Mary's University, where he met the future saint Elizabeth Ann Seton, who he urged to travel to Baltimore to establish a school for girls. Seton opened her school in June 1808, where women from around the country joined her. DuBourg was influential in the founding of her religious community. He contributed \$8,000 to establish her religious community, and proposed that she adopt the rule of the French Sisters of Charity. Heeding this proposal, she established a community of the Sisters of Charity on 31 July 1809, in Emmitsburg, Maryland. While Seton was the head of the organization, DuBourg functioned as their ecclesiastical superior.
Before long, tensions arose between Seton and DuBourg, who forbade her from communicating with her mentor, a Sulpician priest, Pierre Babade. Seton appealed DuBourg's instruction to John Carroll, who referred the matter to Nagot, the Suplician superior in the United States. In response to the dispute, DuBourg resigned as superior of Seton's religious community. Despite Seton's desire that DuBourg would remain as superior, he declined and Nagot refused to order him to return.
## Louisiana and the Two Floridas
### Apostolic administrator
With the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, a vast new territory became part of the United States. The first bishop overseeing this territory, which spanned from the Gulf of Mexico to the Illinois Territory, was transferred to another diocese in 1801, leaving the bishopric vacant. The second bishop appointed, Francisco Porró y Reinado, never took possession of the diocese and either died or was appointed to another diocese. Moreover, the vicar general died in 1804, leaving no one to oversee the diocese. While Carroll and the Holy See corresponded to select a new bishop, Carroll named DuBourg the apostolic administrator of the Diocese of Louisiana and the Two Floridas on 18 August 1812.
Upon becoming administrator, DuBourg found an expansive diocese with few priests, hardly any churches, and no Catholic schools or charitable institutions. Upon arriving in New Orleans, he found the local Catholic population aligned with their pastor, a Capuchin priest, Antonio de Sedella. Sedella rejected the jurisdiction of Carroll, an American bishop, to appoint DuBourg as administrator over the French clergy in Louisiana. Due to hostility from the locals, DuBourg was forced to reside outside of the city. Meanwhile, while the Holy See eventually settled on DuBourg as the next bishop, he could not be immediately appointed. Pope Pius VII had been taken prisoner by Napoleon in 1809, and then forcibly brought to France in 1812. In protest of his captivity, Pope Pius refused to issue any papal bulls, including those appointing bishops.
The diocese became embroiled in the War of 1812. During the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, DuBourg called on Catholics to support the Americans over the British. Following the American victory, on 23 January 1815, Major General Andrew Jackson entered the city and was escorted by DuBourg into the St. Louis Cathedral, where he was greeted with a Te Deum hymn.
In order to alleviate the shortage of priests and lack of institutions, DuBourg sailed to Europe in 1815 to recruit priests and fundraise. While in Rome, he was officially appointed by Pius VII as the Bishop of Louisiana and the Two Floridas. He was consecrated by Cardinal Benedetto Pamphili on 24 September in the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi. He would continue his recruiting in Europe for two years, and while in Lyon, France, he met a widow and expressed his desire to create an organization to raise funds for the church in the vast Louisiana diocese. This eventually became the Society for the Propagation of the Faith several years later.
He eventually sailed to the United States from France on 1 July 1817. He returned with five priests—including several Lazarists from Rome, among whom were Felix de Andreis and Joseph Rosati—and 26 other men from Italy and France—including Antoine Blanc—who intended to become priests or brothers. DuBourg also invited the Ursuline nuns to establish a ministry in the diocese, and nine postulants accepted. He arrived in Annapolis, Maryland on 4 September.
### Bishop of Louisiana
Upon returning to his diocese, DuBourg decided that it was not safe for him in New Orleans, and he took up residence in St. Louis, Missouri. As such, he became the first bishop to use the city of St. Louis as his episcopal see. The overland journey from Maryland to St. Louis was perilous and took several weeks. He started out in a stagecoach, which at one point overturned on the rough terrain, causing him to nearly fracture his skull. Unable to continue by stagecoach, he finished the last five days of his journey to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on foot. From there, he traveled by boat to Louisville and Bardstown, Kentucky. DuBourg finally arrived in St. Louis in January 1818, and would remain there for five years.
#### Establishing the church in St. Louis
Unlike in New Orleans, DuBourg was warmly received by the Catholics of St. Louis. Shortly after arriving, he began building up the part of the diocese in the Missouri Territory. He soon raised funds to construct churches throughout the region and staff them with priests. Among these was a grand church for St. Louis that would eventually become the cathedral of the Archdiocese of St. Louis and the first cathedral west of the Mississippi River. DuBourg also sought to promote education in the diocese. In order to be able to train priests at home, rather than rely on a European missionaries, he established St. Mary's of the Barrens Seminary in Perryville in 1818, placing it under the charge of the Lazarist fathers. In August of that year, he also recruited the future saint Rose Philippine Duchesne and her religious order from France, the Society of the Sacred Heart, to open schools for girls on the frontier. They founded the Academy of the Sacred Heart in St. Charles as the first free school west of the Mississippi River. They opened another soon thereafter in Florissant. DuBourg also invited the Sisters of Loretto to establish a school for girls.
In 1818, at DuBourg's instruction, the Saint Louis Academy was founded. Operating out of several rented rooms, its purpose was to educate local laymen. Several years later, he requested that the Maryland Jesuits send several of their members to Missouri to staff the diocese's missions to the American Indians. The Jesuits sent several Belgian members, who arrived in 1823, and established a house in Florissant and began ministering to the Indians. DuBourg visited Washington, D.C. in 1823, where he met the U.S. Secretary of War, John C. Clahoun, who encouraged the Jesuit missions and obtained federal funding for the establishment of Indian schools. On 7 January 1824, DuBourg offered the Jesuits to assume control of the academy, which became known as Saint Louis College in 1820. The Jesuits accepted this offer in 1827, and Peter Verhaegen became the first Jesuit president of the college, which was chartered as Saint Louis University several years later. The school's first Jesuit treasurer was Pierre-Jean De Smet, who became a famous missionary to the Indians. The lower division of the academy became St. Louis University High School.
In 1823, DuBourg's time in St. Louis came to an end. While he had visited New Orleans every year while his seat was in St. Louis, he decided it proper to return the diocesan seat to New Orleans and requested the appointment of Joseph Rosati as his coadjutor bishop. He consecrated Rosati on 25 March 1824, and left him to oversee the church in St. Louis.
DuBourg remained in New Orleans for three years, and once again met local opposition. On 28 August 1825, he became the Vicar Apostolic of Mississippi, in addition to his episcopal duties. He found a shortage of priests in Louisiana but faced resistance when trying to establish a seminary in New Orleans or transfer priests from other parts of the diocese. By this time, he was also weary of traveling throughout the expansive diocese. Therefore, DuBourg sailed to Rome, and on 26 June 1826, he resigned the bishopric. Later that year, the large diocese was split into the Diocese of New Orleans and the new Diocese of St. Louis. By the end of his episcopacy, 40 new churches had been built, in addition to many schools. This significant development, however, left the diocese with considerable debt.
## Return to France
### Bishop of Montauban
Believing that he would enter retirement, DuBourg returned to France on 3 July 1826. However, soon thereafter, he was named to replace Jean-Louis Lefebvre de Cheverus, the first Bishop of Boston, as the Bishop of Montauban on 2 October of that year. This was possible because with the end of the French Revolution, DuBourg's clerical rights and noble rank were restored. In his writings, he wrote of his dislike for Napoleonic titles of nobility, which carried no social responsibilities, and instead supported a noblesse oblige. Pursuant to the Concordat of 1801, he sworn an oath of allegiance to the French government before King Charles X on 13 November 1826.
DuBourg found his episcopacy in France much less taxing than that on the American frontier. At the time he was installed a bishop, the Diocese of Montauban had 242,000 Catholics, 353 priests, grand churches, seminaries and lay schools, and numerous religious orders operating. During his seven years in Montauban, DuBourg improved education in the diocese and increased the number of scholarships for students. He also dissuaded the French authorities from persecuting Catholics in the diocese during the July Revolution of 1830.
### Archbishop of Besançon
In February 1833, DuBourg was appointed to succeed Cardinal Louis-François de Rohan-Chabot as the Archbishop of Besançon. By this time, however, his health had deteriorated, and he visited the thermal baths of Luxeuil-les-Bains for relief. He was formally installed as bishop of the archdiocese on 10 October 1833, and he received the pallium on 1 November. Though confined to his deathbed, DuBourg organized two retreats for the 900 priests of his archdiocese. Two months after his installation, he died in Bensançon on 12 December 1833. He was interred in the Cathédrale Saint-Jean in Besançon.
## Legacy
Several institutions bear the name of DuBourg. DuBourg Hall at Saint Louis University was dedicated on 10 January 1898. Bishop DuBourg High School in St. Louis, Missouri, opened in 1950.
|
24,250,434 |
Ray Ray (album)
| 1,122,208,535 | null |
[
"2004 albums",
"Albums produced by Raphael Saadiq",
"Raphael Saadiq albums"
] |
Ray Ray is the second studio album by American R&B singer, songwriter, and producer Raphael Saadiq. It was released October 5, 2004, by his record label, Pookie Entertainment. After being dropped from Universal Records, Saadiq formed the label and recorded the album. He pursued a 1970s-inspired musical direction that was looser than his 2002 debut album, Instant Vintage, and produced Ray Ray with Michael Angelo, Jake and the Phatman, and Kelvin Wooten.
Titled after Saadiq's childhood nickname, Ray Ray features funky, groove-oriented songs and Saadiq's characteristic fusion of programmed beats, strings, neo soul melodies, and live guitar. They are arranged in a song cycle and touch on lighthearted romantic themes and socially conscious messages.
The album debuted at number 86 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, but fell off the next week. It received generally positive reviews from music critics. Although some were ambivalent towards its loose blaxploitation concept and Saadiq's songwriting, critics praised the album's production quality and vintage musical approach. It is currently out of print.
## Background
In 2002, Saadiq released his debut solo album Instant Vintage, which received critical acclaim and earned him five Grammy Award nominations. However, despite attaining a following among listeners in Europe, it was largely ignored by contemporary R&B listeners in the United States and did not sell well. After its release, he was dropped by his record label Universal Records.
Saadiq subsequently formed his own label, Pookie Entertainment, on which he released the double live album All Hits at the House of Blues in 2003. The live album showcased Saadiq's solo material and songs he recorded as a part of Tony! Toni! Toné! during the late 1980s and 1990s. Saadiq also continued working as a producer for other recording artists, including Erykah Badu, Kelis, Jill Scott, Nappy Roots, Earth, Wind & Fire, Sunshine Anderson, and Jaguar Wright.
## Recording and production
Having fulfilled his creative ambition with Instant Vintage, he sought a looser direction for a follow-up studio album. He said of the direction for Ray Ray in an interview for Rolling Stone, "You only get to make a first statement one time, and I had definite ideas of how I wanted it to sound. Ray Ray represents a more fun side of what I do. I wanted to have a good time with it." In an interview for The Baltimore Sun, Saadiq discussed the inspiration behind the album's blaxploitation concept:
> I was watching some Rudy Ray Moore flicks, some Superfly and got to thinking that all this is a part of our history, you know? It seems more Caucasians use [black] images more than we do. Quentin Tarantino uses them in his movies, especially the '70s stuff ... With Ray Ray, I thought I could, you know, embrace that part of our history and those images from that time.
Saadiq recorded the album with producers Michael Angelo, Focus..., and Jake and the Phatman, among others. He also worked with singer-songwriter Joi, former Tony! Toni! Toné! member D'wayne Wiggins, singer-songwriter Teedra Moses, singer Dawn Robinson, formerly of Saadiq's other group Lucy Pearl, singer-songwriter Babyface, and rapper Allie Baba, Saadiq's nephew.
## Music and lyrics
The album contains a more funk-oriented sound than Instant Vintage, accompanied by generally romantic and some message-oriented themes. In comparison to his first album, Saadiq regarded Ray Ray as "more aggressive, more radio-friendly ... one of those good, Saturday-playing records". Its music incorporates R&B, funk, and soul styles, along with elements of gospel and hip hop music.
As with Instant Vintage, Ray Ray features Saadiq's characteristic fusion of programmed beats, strings, neo soul melodies, and live guitars. The songs are mostly mid-tempo and groove-based, and also feature rubbery bass lines and horns. AllMusic's Andy Kellman views that the album's music is "a little funkier and a lot more energetic than 2002's Instant Vintage, yet just as full of Saadiq's stylish flourishes." He writes of the album's subject matter, "for every song that's charmingly simple and full of lighthearted romantic sentiments, there's something message-oriented". Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe characterizes the album's mood as "playful" and writes that it is composed as "a bouncy song cycle that's a throwback to '70s funk."
The album's first two tracks, "Blaxploitation" and "Ray Ray Theme", serve as audio vignettes introducing Saadiq's alter ego as the main character of a faux-Blaxploitation soundtrack. The latter track has singer Joi calling upon the character, addressing him as "soul brother number one", to "shoot me with your bop gun". Both songs help establish the character as a ladies' man with a penchant for fast cars. However, the concept is not sustained in the following songs on the album. "I Know Shuggie Otis" is a tribute to psychedelic recording artist Shuggie Otis and features a screeching guitar solo. "This One" features orchestral pop and gleeful tones. "Chic Like You" contains elements of G-funk, gospel-styled, vocal "mmms" and fluid, funky keyboards. Its lyrics depict sensual images: "She soaks in green tea lotion / Her legs are so outspoken".
"Not a Game" features a spare hip hop beat and an emotional vocal delivery by Saadiq. "Rifle Love" utilizes the sounds of barrel clicks and gunshots as a rhythm section in its chorus. Both "Live Without You" and "I Want You Back" are pleas to an ex-lover and have romantic crooning by Saadiq over a gritty funk groove. "I Want You Back" also features elements of Miami bass and electro-styled synthesizers. Saadiq adopts a falsetto/high tenor singing voice on "Grown Folks". It features socially conscious lyrics and a Latin-tinged arrangement. "Save Us" has a theme of disillusionment and features sparse keyboard and a somber refrain.
## Title and packaging
The album was titled as a reference to his mother's nickname for him, also a childhood name. Its cover artwork was inspired by the blaxploitation films of the 1970s. It shows Saadiq dressed in a vintage cornflower blue suit, knicker pants, and lime green argyle socks, while leaning on a white 1967 Mercury Cougar.
## Release
Ray Ray was released by Pookie Entertainment on October 5, 2004, in the United States. That same year, two singles were released in promotion of the album: "Chic Like You" and "I Want You Back". The album debuted at number 86 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart in the week of October 23. It was the album's only appearance on the chart. Ray Ray also spent eight weeks on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, on which it peaked at number 18. It eventually went out of print in the U.S. In France, the album charted for two weeks and reached number 145.
## Critical reception
Ray Ray was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 66, based on six reviews.
Reviewing the album in The Independent, Phil Johnson called it "madder and badder" than Saadiq's debut record and found its sound "more radical". "No one can distress a production like Raphael", he said, believing the singer's "multi-instrumental talents and Stevie Wonder-ish voice make him a Prince for the Noughties." Andria Lisle of Paste commended Saadiq's "versatility" and found the album "softer than Cee-lo and sexier than Ricky Fanté". Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly complimented Saadiq's "bass virtuosity" and "grown and sexy" vibe, although he viewed some of his songwriting as "amateur". The Boston Globe's Ken Capobianco observed an "overriding sense of joy and mischief throughout jams", and found Saadiq's "musical exuberance ... infectious". Although he found it lacking a "centerpiece track", Capobianco ultimately praised the album as a "funk" departure from most of the contemporary soul he found "studied and overly reverent". Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani found it flawed as a concept album, but commended Saadiq for "conjuring soul greats like Stevie Wonder ('Live Without You'), Curtis Mayfield ('Grown Folks'), and Prince ('I Know Shuggie Otis') throughout", and stated, "just because the storyline(s) ... ceases to exist after the first few songs that doesn't mean the rest of the tracks aren't good." Geoffrey Himes of The Washington Post noted Saadiq for having "a rare gift for linking seductive melodies to slinky grooves" and stated, "Ray Ray is just a collection of disconnected songs ... failing to establish a narrative. But what terrific songs they are."
Allmusic's Andy Kellman complimented its "varied" subject matter and wrote in summation, "Ray Ray occasionally loses focus, slipping into moments that are either undercooked or worthy of the cutting room, but it's enjoyable enough to keep his followers happy and will certainly act as a remedy for those who don't like the gold-bricked path being taken by mainstream R&B." Ethan Brown of New York stated, "Despite its faults—and there are many ... Ray Ray is a startlingly inventive record", and found Saadiq "at his best when he revives the sad soul of Sam Cooke" on songs like "Not a Game". Andrew Simon of Vibe found a "handful" of songs to be poorly conceived and viewed that the album's strength was Saadiq's "crisp" production and bass playing, writing that "On a dime, the thick tones of the multi-instrumentalist's weapon of choice go from low and rumbly to high and tight." He ultimately commended Saadiq's intentions with the album's concept, stating "Ray Ray hits more than it misses in its celebration of a time when George was making the mothership connection and Marvin just wanted to get it on."
## Track listing
- Credits adapted from liner notes.
• (co.) Co-producer
## Personnel
Credits for Ray Ray adapted from liner notes.
- Michael Angelo – audio production, bass, composer, drum programming, guitar, horn arrangements, keyboards
- Jessie Arellano – assistant engineer
- Allie Baba – rap, vocals
- Babyface – vocals
- Battlecat – clavinet
- William Blochinger – photography
- Torrey Devitto – violin
- Jake and the Phatman – drum programming, drums, flute arrangement, guitar, horn arrangements, keyboards, organ, percussion, producer
- Joi – composer, performer, vocals
- Lawrence "Master Poe" Lejohn – vocals
- Lucy Pearl – performer, vocals
- Sundra "Sun" Manning – keyboards
- Teedra Moses – composer, vocals
- Autumn Moultrie – make-up
- Bobby Ozuna – composer
- Will Ragland – art direction
- Dawn Robinson – vocals
- Daniel Romero – engineer, mixing
- Raphael Saadiq – audio production, bass, composer, drums, executive producer, flute arrangement, guitar, horn arrangements, keyboards, producer, programming, various, vocals
- Anette Sharvit – production coordination
- Kris Solem – mastering
- Glenn Standridge – composer
- James Tanksley – engineer
- John Tanksley – audio engineer, engineer
- Tony! Toni! Toné! – vocals
- D'Wayne Wiggins – vocals
- Kelvin Wooten – audio production, bass, composer, drum programming, guitar, keyboards, producer, string arrangements
- Benjamin F. Wright – arranger, conductor
- The Benjamin Wright Orchestra – strings
- Morgan Zarate – drums
## Charts
|
45,494,254 |
Uherský Brod shooting
| 1,151,434,271 |
2015 shooting in the Czech Republic
|
[
"2010s murders in the Czech Republic",
"2015 crimes in the Czech Republic",
"2015 in the Czech Republic",
"2015 mass shootings in Europe",
"2015 murders in Europe",
"Attacks in Europe in 2015",
"Attacks on restaurants in Europe",
"February 2015 crimes in Europe",
"February 2015 events in Europe",
"Mass murder in 2015",
"Mass murder in the Czech Republic",
"Mass shootings in the Czech Republic",
"Murder–suicides in Europe",
"Uherské Hradiště District"
] |
The Uherský Brod shooting occurred on 24 February 2015 at the Družba restaurant in the town of Uherský Brod, Czech Republic. Nine people were killed, including the gunman, 63-year-old Zdeněk Kovář, who committed suicide after a standoff with police that lasted nearly two hours. In addition, one other person was injured. Uherský Brod is 260 kilometers (160 miles) east-southeast of the Czech capital Prague.
Prior to the 2020 Bohumín arson attack, the shooting was one of the two deadliest mass murders in the country's peacetime history, alongside a 1973 vehicular rampage committed by Olga Hepnarová. The circumstances of the shooting led to an examination of gun politics in the Czech Republic and police rules of engagement against active shooters. Czech media speculated that the rampage may have been triggered by an apparent attempt of the authorities to review Kovář's mental state.
## Background
Due to similarities between the perpetrators, the shooting was compared by Czech media and experts to an explosion that took place two years before in Frenštát pod Radhoštěm, another Moravian town lying 90 km northwards.
Before the shooting, Kovář's family became worried about his mental state to the point that they contacted authorities in connection with his possession of a gun license. Five days before the shooting, Kovář had received a police request to present a new health clearance under the threat of revoking his license. Before entering the Družba restaurant, Kovář visited at least two other venues. Those, however, had fewer customers, and Kovář left them immediately after entering.
## Shooting
Kovář entered the Družba building at about 12:30 pm, the restaurant's busiest daylight time. Around 20 people were in the small restaurant at the time. Before he entered the restaurant itself, which was situated on the first floor, Petr Gabriel, who was rushing to the bathroom, got ahead of Kovář on stairs leading to an upper floor.
Armed with a CZ 75B semi-automatic pistol, which is manufactured in the town, and an Alfa 820 revolver, Kovář opened fire without any warning immediately after entering the restaurant, shooting his victims directly in the head. Eight died immediately or soon afterwards. One female victim, who was shot twice in the chest, managed to leave the restaurant, while Gabriel remained hidden in the restaurant's bathroom. Eight other people escaped the building through the back door. Another customer, Jiří Nesázel, who took cover under a table, used a moment in which Kovář was reloading, and threw a chair at him, hitting him on the neck. This gave him an opportunity to run out through the front door with two other people.
Authorities received the first distress call from a person who escaped from the restaurant at 12:38 pm, and the first police car reached the building at 12:47 pm. The policemen were armed with the standard equipment for Czech police officers: holstered pistols (mostly with variants of CZ 75 that was also used by Kovář), body armor, and a select-fire rifle stored in their cars. The first two officers to arrive immediately entered the building with body armor on and guns drawn. Kovář, taking cover behind a bar opposite to the door, opened fire on the officers as soon as they entered. The police noted people lying on the ground and sitting on chairs between them and Kovář. Not knowing the status of the civilians, the police decided not to return fire, covered the exits, and waited for the arrival of a tactical unit. By this time, other police units as well as the first ambulance car had arrived, taking away the wounded female victim who had escaped.
At 12:56 pm, Kovář called a Prima TV station crime news reporter, claiming that he was being harassed by multiple people and that he had hostages whom he threatened to kill. The journalist who spoke to Kovář called the police, who were already sending all available units to the location.
A police negotiator contacted Kovář by phone at 13:07. During negotiations, Kovář claimed to have hostages, although all of the people remaining inside were most likely already dead (apart from Gabriel, who was hiding in the bathroom, unbeknownst to Kovář). The hostage claim delayed police entry into the building. Kovář stopped communicating at about 14:00 p.m. After attempts to contact him failed, the tactical team breached the building at 14:23 p.m. Upon the team's entry, Kovář immediately shot himself dead.
Apart from stun grenades, the policemen did not fire a single shot. After securing the restaurant, the police let in a large number of medical personnel. The only person alive who remained inside the building was Gabriel, who had been hiding in the bathroom for the entire duration of the incident.
## Perpetrator and victims
### Perpetrator
Zdeněk Kovář (c. 1951 – 24 February 2015) was 63 years old at the time of his death and lived with his wife in a house not far from the scene of the shooting. Neighbours described the couple as deranged and known for loudness and verbal abuse. Kovář was the son of a worker in the local Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod (ČZUB) firearms factory, the largest small arms manufacturer in the country. Formerly an electrician, he had been unemployed for at least ten years. Kovář's wife was taken to a psychiatric hospital following the shooting.
Kovář had held a gun license since 2000, and legally owned both of the guns he used.
### Victims
A total of eight people, excluding the gunman, died in the rampage. This included seven men, aged 27 to 66, and one woman, aged 47. Another woman, aged 37, survived despite being shot twice in the chest.
## Aftermath
As more information about Kovář's notoriety among neighbors surfaced, focus of investigation shifted towards the circumstances under which he gained and retained a gun license and firearms. In order to be granted a gun license in the Czech Republic, a person must pass a qualification exam, receive a health clearance by a general practitioner, who may require a further examination by a specialist, such as a psychological or psychiatric evaluation, and must pass a background check. According to Section 23 of the Czech Firearms Act, an applicant may not be granted a license if they have committed more than one misdemeanor against public order in the previous three years. Similarly, the law further makes a gun license inaccessible to people with mental illnesses. The license must be renewed every five years (every ten years for licenses issued after 1 July 2014). The renewal requires the presentation of a new health clearance, while the police conduct a new background check. Kovář's license was renewed in January 2015.
### Misdemeanors registry
Kovář applied for a gun license renewal in accordance with the law. According to Kovář's brother-in-law, neighbors, and a local policeman who had repeated contacts with him, Kovář and his wife had committed misdemeanors against public order. The municipality of Uherský Brod, which deals with such misdemeanors, did not register them and thus Kovář had an apparently clean history. In turn, this satisfied the requirements and he had his license renewed.
The renewal of his license was due to the fact that while there is a central registry of crimes and of traffic misdemeanors, no such registry exists for other misdemeanors in the Czech Republic. In the case where a non-traffic misdemeanor is solved on the spot (e.g. fining by a policeman), no record of it is made. Only when the investigated person or the police refuse to deal with the misdemeanor on the spot, is an administrative proceeding before a municipal misdemeanor committee initiated and if convicted, then a record of it is made by the municipality.
The Czech government had made a decision to introduce a central registry for all misdemeanors in October 2014, planning to have the system working within two years. As police are obliged to revoke a gun license when the licensee has committed more than one misdemeanor against public order in a period of three years, the central registry of misdemeanors might have allowed police to effectively revoke the license long before the shooting.
### Health clearance
At any time, the police may order a new health clearance inspection if they have a reasonable concern that the person is not healthy enough to continue holding their license.
According to the Uherský Brod mayor Patrik Kunčar, Kovář's family members tried to prevent him from having the license renewed by pleading with his general practitioner not to grant him the necessary health clearance, since they felt threatened and considered him mentally unstable. Nevertheless, Kovář received clearance from his general practitioner and presented it as a part of his license renewal application on 19 January 2015.
After renewing the license in January, the police were contacted by an unspecified person who reported to them on Kovář's mental state. The police subsequently contacted Kovář's general practitioner and psychiatrist, and on 17 February 2015 ordered a health reevaluation. He received the letter on 19 February 2015, five days before the shooting. Under the law, Kovář was obliged to present a new health clearance within a month or lose the license. Czech media has speculated that the apparent attempt of the authorities to review Kovář's mental state may have triggered the rampage.
A few days after the shooting, the Ministry of Interior announced its deliberation about making the gun license registry accessible to psychiatrists in order to give them the ability to report to police possible changes of mental state of their patients having an impact on their eligibility to possess firearms. This was, however, rejected by psychiatric associations. They argued that psychiatrists' main goal is to cure patients, and that potential patients may be more likely to avoid psychiatric treatment for fear of losing their gun license.
### Police response
One of the main topics of debate after Kovář's rampage became the way police dealt with him, especially whether the first two responding officers were, under the circumstances, supposed to immediately engage and neutralize Kovář, and whether the decision to wait for the arrival of the tactical unit was sound. The debate became more vocal after a cook, who managed to escape the rampage, claimed that she heard a slow series of single shots coming from the restaurant after the police had retreated. Another witness, who escaped unharmed, refuted this version of events, saying that shots were fired only during the initial ten minutes leading up to the point of police entry, with no shots heard thereafter.
Police said the first responders decided not to engage because they saw civilians lying and sitting in the line of fire between them and Kovář; they didn't know their status, and Kovář had taken cover behind a bar with only his head and hand holding the pistol visible. According to the Chief of the Zlín Regional Police Department, Jaromír Tkadleček, the Uherský Brod district units present had enough manpower and equipment, including select-fire rifles, to engage Kovář. However, they decided to withdraw due to Kovář's claim of having hostages and stated intent to negotiate their release.
Apart from local units, a special ordnance unit was called in from its regional headquarters in Zlín. It arrived about 30 minutes later. Because there are eight tactical teams covering fourteen Czech regions and none in Zlín, a tactical team from Brno was called in. The team's fifteen members reached the restaurant by cars in 66 minutes, opting not to use their helicopter that has a capacity of six. Furthermore, a paramilitary anti-terrorist police URNA unit was called from Prague. However, its helicopters arrived after the end of the standoff. According to Tkadleček, even if URNA had its headquarters directly in Uherský Brod, it would not have changed anything about the timing nor the manner in which the police engaged Kovář.
Zlín region politicians announced they would call for the establishment of a local tactical team. Meanwhile, the Minister of Interior commented that the police were already in the process of hiring 4,000 new officers (about 10% of its total manpower), thus reversing cuts enacted by previous governments. Experts further pointed out the necessity to provide more CQB training to policemen in small municipalities and at rural areas. This type of training had until that point been largely aimed and directed at police officers in large towns.
On 10 March 2015, weekly newspaper Respekt published more details of the police engagement. By chance, an emergency motorized police unit, which usually serves as immediate reinforcement to police officers in the field, was conducting exercises not far from Uherský Brod. The unit arrived within twenty minutes of the first emergency call. Heavily armed and well trained, their officer in charge gave order to immediately engage Kovář. Within a minute, the local police station chief arrived and ordered them to stand down, began securing the perimeter, gathering information, and preparing an engagement plan. Meanwhile, Kovář called the emergency line 158 and mentioned he had five unharmed hostages and was demanding the presence of TV Prima. The officer in charge ordered the policemen to stand down just as they were about to enter the building in order to start negotiating. At that time, he could not have been aware of the status of victims inside. Fifteen minutes later, the Zlín region police chief arrived. In total, the command over the operation was passed between five people within the initial 40 minutes.
The fact that the police rules allow passing of command during engagement had been condemned a week earlier by Member of Parliament Stanislav Huml, who pointed out the Czech firemen's rules, according to which the first person in charge at the place of engagement remains in charge even if a general happens to come to join an operation afterwards. He noted that the passing of command requires briefing which not only leads to loss of time, but often also to subsequent mistakes.
As of May 2015, the only direct outcome of the inquiry into the police response to the shooting was the lowering of wage of a dispatch officer, who advised the policemen over the radio not to engage "so that nothing worse happens".
In June 2015, two members of the Security Committee of the Czech Parliament visited Uherský Brod and talked to multiple witnesses. The MPs issued a report condemning handling of the situation by the police. Among other issues, the MPs criticized that policemen parked their cars and put bullet proof vests on within the shooting range of Kovář, initially failed to get information from the witnesses and only later during the intervention attempted to contact them, and didn't cover the back exit, thus potentially allowing Kovář to escape from the building and jeopardize other people. The police had also let a helicopter land within the shooting range of Kovář. According to MPs, the police left much to be desired in regards to communication and most importantly, they wrongly decided to believe Kovář's claim of having hostages even though the witnesses could have readily confirmed that everyone inside was most likely dead. The policemen didn't seal the vicinity of the attack until 1 pm and used civilian phones in communication with superior officers instead of using either their own phones or radio transmitters. Minister of Interior Milan Chovanec commented that the MPs failed to interview the policemen and thus didn't get all the relevant information.
### Gun politics
In one of the first reactions on the day of the shooting, before knowing whether Kovář possessed the guns he used legally, Minister of Interior Chovanec stated that it was up for debate whether "[the society] wants to have so many gun license holders".
Support for Chovanec's comments was largely among members of parliament elected for the Communist Party. Others accused Chovanec of abusing the tragedy for his own political benefit. Some members of parliament, such as Miroslav Antl, Chairman of the Senate Constitutional Committee, commented that the licensing process is thorough enough, and pointed out that he considers carrying a concealed firearm to be a necessity due to a variety of reasons, especially during a time of rising threats of Islamic terrorist attacks. Roman Váňa, Chairman of the Parliamentary Security Committee and member of Chovanec's own Social Democratic party, refused Chovanec's argument, while some other members of parliament went in the opposite direction, claiming that there are too few armed people among the Czech population, since a single armed civilian might have stopped Kovář's assault. This sentiment was echoed by Martin Koller, a former ambassador to Kuwait and Iraq, who said that an armed attacker may be stopped only by armed force, and who pointed out the Charlie Hebdo shooting, stating that the attack might have ended quite differently had the victims been armed.
MF Dnes pointed out that despite the steady rise of firearm ownership in the country since abolition of restrictive communist legislation after the Velvet Revolution, the number of intentional homicide victims has been steadily falling since its peak in 1994.
During a press conference on 26 February 2015, Chovanec introduced five areas that were to be scrutinized in connection with the Uherský Brod attack: the communication of national police with municipal authorities, possible changes in crisis plans, operational range of tactical teams, and enhanced training of policemen. Chovanec didn't repeat his sentiment regarding the number of gun license holders, and instead specified that one of the issues to be analyzed will be the issuing and revocation of licenses under the existing legislation.
## Reactions
Czech Minister of Interior Milan Chovanec said on Twitter that the shooting was not a terrorist incident but the actions of a "crazed individual".
Czech Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka, who was on a trip to South Korea at the time, said in a statement, "I am shocked by the tragic attack that happened today in Uherský Brod. I would like to express my deepest sorrow and condolences to the families and relatives of the victims." Uherský Brod mayor Patrik Kunčar also said, "I'm shaken to the core by this incident. I could not have dreamed something like this could happen here, in a restaurant that I'm so familiar with."
The day after the shooting, hundreds of people gathered in front of the Družba restaurant and lit candles to honor the victims.
## See also
- Harok family murder, another mass murder in the Czech Republic
|
9,410,875 |
Bergen Beach, Brooklyn
| 1,147,515,664 | null |
[
"Beaches of Brooklyn",
"Former islands of New York City",
"Islands of Brooklyn",
"Islands of New York City",
"Little Italys in the United States",
"Neighborhoods in Brooklyn",
"Populated coastal places in New York (state)"
] |
Bergen Beach is a residential neighborhood in the borough of Brooklyn, New York City. It is located on a peninsula abutting Jamaica Bay in the southeastern portion of the borough, and is bordered by Mill Basin and the neighborhood of the same name to the south and west; the neighborhood of Flatlands to the northwest; Paerdegat Basin and the neighborhood of Canarsie to the northeast; and Jamaica Bay and the Belt Parkway to the east. Bergen Beach contains a sub-neighborhood named Georgetown. The vast majority of residents are white, and the neighborhood generally has a suburban quality.
Bergen Beach was originally an island. The Canarsie Indians who occupied the area referred to it as Winnipague. The island was renamed Bergen Island for early settler Hans Hansen Bergen. From 1896 to 1919, Percy G. Williams and Thomas Adams operated an amusement park in the area. Bergen Beach was connected to the rest of Brooklyn via landfill by 1918, although development did not come for many years. In the 1960s, a housing development called "Georgetowne" was proposed for Bergen Beach, but it was never built due to opposition from local residents. As a result, much of Bergen Beach was not fully developed until the 1990s.
Bergen Beach is part of Brooklyn Community District 18, and its primary ZIP Code is 11234. It is patrolled by the 63rd Precinct of the New York City Police Department.
## Geography
Originally, Bergen Beach was an island in Jamaica Bay off the coast of Canarsie, called "Bergen Island" or "Bergen's Island". Most of the island was sea-level meadows, but 60 acres (24 ha) of the island were uplands, or hilly areas located above sea level. The sea-level meadows were replete with shell middens, or mounds, harvested from univalves and bivalves caught in Jamaica Bay. A bulkhead was built along the shore in the late 1890s, and was later connected to the uplands of nearby Mill Basin. This created a continuous embankment between Mill Basin and Paerdegat Basin, which was later used for the construction of Belt Parkway.
Bergen Island was connected to the mainland by 1918, when the marshland was filled in, though some sources state that the island was connected to the mainland by 1911. More fill was added in the 1980s. This fill was unstable, and as a result, parts of Bergen Beach have been sinking. Many homes in the area were built so that if the ground in front of the house sank, extra steps could be added. The sinking land is particularly pronounced in some parts of Bergen Beach, where minor rainfall or snow melt can cause ponding and flooding in the streets.
The modern neighborhood of Bergen Beach is adjacent to Canarsie and Paerdegat Basin to the northeast, Flatlands to the west, Mill Basin to the southwest, and Jamaica Bay to the southeast. The website Forgotten NY delineates the boundaries of Bergen Beach as Paerdegat Basin to the northeast, Ralph and Mill Avenues to the west, Avenue U and the Little Mill Basin waterway to the southwest, and Jamaica Bay to the southeast. Google Maps defines the boundaries similarly, except that Veterans Avenue, instead of Avenue U, forms part of the southwestern boundary. Georgetown is considered a subsection of Bergen Beach. It is bounded by Ralph Avenue to the west, Avenue N to the south, Avenue U to the southeast, and Paerdegat Basin to the northeast. Both Bergen Beach and Georgetown are zoned as predominantly residential neighborhoods with one- or two-family residences. Small commercial overlays and recreational waterfront uses also exist, and a strip along Bergen Basin is zoned for light industrial uses.
## History
### Early settlement
The coastal lands around Jamaica Bay, including present-day Bergen Beach, were originally settled by the Canarsie Indians. At the time, the Native Americans referred to Bergen Island as "Winnipague" or "Winnippague". The Canarsie Indians also called the island "Wimbaco", a name meaning "fine water place". The Native Americans likely used Bergen Island to create wampum. This location may have been chosen because it was easy to defend: the Indians could see intruders from the uplands and form a line of defense across the narrow flat that led to the island. Through the 20th century, the shell middens that resulted from the wampum-making process were used to create roads, as well as for fertilizer. Remnants of Native American activity on the island, including stone markings, conch shell beds, and broken arrow tips, could be seen through the mid-20th century. Bergen Island may also have contained fields that the Indians used for planting. There were collectively three planting fields on Bergen Island and in Canarsie.
In 1624, the Dutch Republic incorporated much of the current New York City area into the colony of New Netherland. In 1636, as the Dutch were expanding outward from present-day Manhattan, Dutch settlers founded the town of Achtervelt (later Amersfoort) and purchased 15,000 acres (6,100 ha) around Jamaica Bay. Amersfoort was centered around the present-day intersection of Flatbush Avenue and Flatlands Avenue. The Dutch also founded a trading post on Bergen Island, which they renamed "Mentelaer's Island". Ownership of Bergen Island was granted to John Underhill in 1646, and Underhill soon sold the property to others. New Netherland became British New York in 1664, and Amersfoort was renamed Flatlands. Bergen Island, as well as nearby Mill Island and Barren Island, were part of the Town of Flatlands. A settler named Elbert Elbertse bought Bergen Island in 1665, and by the 1670s, all three islands were leased by Elbertse. When he died in 1686, he bequeathed 60 acres (24 ha) of the island to his son.
The island was known as "Winnipague" through the 18th century. By the turn of the century, it had been renamed for Hans Hansen Bergen, an early Norwegian or Dutch settler of New Netherland. He lived in the Bergen House, which was built sometime before 1800. One story has it that Bergen's house was hit by British bombs during the American Revolutionary War, but this is not supported by documentation. Another rumor, that the American spy Nathan Hale was executed near or on Bergen Island, is also refuted by other evidence.
By the 1850s, Cornelius Bergen owned a farm on the island along the Jamaica Bay coast. However, Bergen Island remained largely undeveloped until the end of the century. According to an 1870 map, John C. Bergen owned most of the island, which only had two structures and a dirt road.
### Amusement park
In the late 1880s, vaudeville theater manager Percy G. Williams partnered with Thomas Adams, the chewing gum magnate, to buy 300 acres (120 ha) of marshland on Bergen Island. The island was sold to the Germania Real Estate and Improvement Company in 1892. It quickly laid out streets between Avenues T and Z, east of present-day East 70th Street.
Williams and Adams had meant to construct housing, but instead decided to emulate the successful Coney Island resort further west. They converted Bergen Island into a resort, which was connected to the rest of the city by the Flatbush Avenue streetcar route (now the B41 bus). The resort opened in 1893 with a dance hall, concessions, rides and a pier. The Flatbush Avenue streetcar to Bergen Beach started operating in May 1896. The coast of Bergen Island, and the park itself, came to be known as "Bergen Beach". In August 1896, the New York Herald characterized the "brightly caparisoned and gilded resort" at Bergen Beach:
> The board walk echoes with the tread of Egyptian dancing girls, Irish villagers, knights in armor, girls in clinging lace costumes, young men in white duck trousers, soubrettes adorned with yellow tresses, jugglers, mountebanks, opera singers, and Frankfurter sausage venders. The Casino is for dining either inside or on the veranda; steak or raw clams. Inside you can watch the soubrettes sing and dance. There are annexes to the Casino on either end of the boardwalk where they sell drinks; hard and soft. The intervening gulfs (along the Boardwalk) are filled with Moorish castles, Egyptian encampments, Irish villages, black Americans, white Coney Island fakirs, blood testing machines, vitascopes, knock-the-baby-down skill games.
The report went on to describe the Irish Village, Mystic Moorish Maze, Egyptian encampment, scenic railway and other attractions. There were also bathing facilities, exhibits, sideshows, eating places and a beer garden. The park had a "casino", which at the time meant a place where entertainments were staged. The casino put on vaudeville, musical comedies and stock company productions. The Trocadero Theatre was also located on the Bergen Beach boardwalk.
In March 1902, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company offered to buy the Bergen Beach resort, but could not meet Williams's price. Separately, the frequency of trolley service was reduced since the Flatbush Avenue tracks had been damaged by a storm that winter. In April of that month, Williams announced that the resort would not open unless the BRT repaired the trolley tracks to Bergen Beach. Later the trolley service improved, since Bergen Beach was a good source of fares. In the summer of 1903 the casino staged The Girl in Black, a popular musical-and-comedy show that ran for the whole season. The resort suffered \$25,000 in damages () due to a fire in 1904, but The New York Times reported that "the tide in Jamaica Bay and two Brooklyn Rapid Transit trolley cars" brought the water that ultimately saved the park from burning down. The Percy Williams Amusement Park opened the next year at the Bergen Beach resort. This became one of several amusement districts in the New York City area, competing with similar resorts in Canarsie; Coney Island; Rockaway Beach, Queens; and Staten Island.
A roller skating rink at the park opened in 1907, with a band playing in the afternoons. That year, surveyors were sent to map the settlements around Jamaica Bay as part of a project to dredge the bay for potential use. They reported that at the time, the only occupied settlements along Jamaica Bay were located at Canarsie and Bergen Beach. Piers for ferry service were constructed along Bergen Beach at Avenues V and X. Two ferry routes to Canarsie ran between 1905 and 1921, and for a short time, there was also a ferry to Rockaway Beach. However, ferry routes to Bergen Beach were not profitable, and it was hard to navigate the shallow channels near Bergen Island.
A more serious fire in 1910 crippled the Percy Williams Amusement Park's operations, destroying \$400,000 worth of property (). By 1912, two more amusement parks had been built, as well as a scenic railroad. The resorts in Coney Island and Rockaway Beach proved to be more popular than Bergen Beach because the other resorts had easy transit access, whereas Bergen Beach did not. Pollution from Barren Island, a notorious waste processing site, also decreased the appeal of Bergen Beach. As a result, the Bergen Beach resort closed by 1919.
In 1917, as part of a dredging project in nearby Rockaway Inlet, the city agreed to add bulkheads along 4,000 feet (1,200 m) of the Bergen Beach coast. Williams and Adams later sued, ostensibly to delay the project.
### Redevelopment
After the failure of the amusement park, Bergen Beach was redeveloped. In 1925, real estate developers Max Natanson and Mandlebaum & Levine bought Williams and Adams's former amusement park for close to \$2 million (). At the time, they planned to develop Bergen Beach's 3,200 lots as a residential area with an entertainment district. There would have been a beach and an amusement park similar to Williams and Adams's park. However, this plan never materialized, and by 1926, the lots were sold off piece-by-piece to different people.
Bungalows and vacation houses were built on the coast of "Flatlands Bay", around Bergen Island, before World War I. However, city records from 1909 to 1915 do not indicate where exactly these houses were erected. In 1927, the New York City Department of Docks began leasing lots and bungalows on Bergen Beach. As of 1930, the yearly rates for these lots ranged between \$10 and \$240 (worth between \$ and \$ in ). Bergen's house itself was demolished during the construction of Belt Parkway, also known as the Shore Parkway, in the 1930s. When the parkway opened in 1936, though, it did not spur development in Bergen Beach. The 1939 WPA Guide to New York City mentions that the area comprising present-day Mill Basin and Bergen Beach was the residence of "pathetic communities of squatters, who live in makeshift houses, and eke out a living by fishing and scouring the near-by city dumps for odd necessities". At the time, the southern shore was still marshland. Although fourteen single-family houses were built in the 1940s, much of the neighborhood retained a rural character through the 1960s.
Starting in the 1950s, a series of suburban waterfront communities were being rapidly developed in Southeast Brooklyn, including in present-day Bergen Beach, Canarsie, and Mill Basin. By 1963, a new 69th Precinct building for the New York City Police Department, as well as the South Shore High School in Canarsie, had to be constructed to accommodate the growing population. The neighborhood had some of the most expensive houses in Brooklyn by 1972. Bergen Beach only became popular as a suburban neighborhood toward the end of the 20th century. Further development did not come until the 1980s, when more of the marsh was filled in. From 1983 to 1988, prices of residential lots in Bergen Beach increased fourfold. At the time, one developer was constructing two- and three-bedroom apartments with prices ranging between \$115,000 and \$243,500. The last city-owned sites along Paerdegat Basin were sold to private developers between 1980 and 1990.
In the 2010s, a combined sewer overflow (CSO) facility for Paerdegat Basin was built in Bergen Beach. It was completed in August 2011.
### Georgetowne
A part of the neighborhood called Georgetowne, located to the north of Bergen Beach proper, was undeveloped until the 1960s, when a community of 400 two-story semi-attached colonials called Georgetowne Greens was proposed. Many of the homes would have been built on the landfilled section of the area. Around the same time, Mayor John Lindsay sought to build a 904-unit middle-class housing development called Harbour Village in the same area. Harbour Village would be a Mitchell-Lama development built using modular construction. The uncertainty of whether it would be approved brought new construction on Georgetowne Greens to a halt.
The New York City Board of Estimate approved Harbour Village by an 18–0 vote on March 25, 1971. However, it ultimately rejected the proposal in September 1972 after public outcry by the mostly white, mostly well-off residents of nearby Bergen Beach and Mill Basin. By that point, interest in Georgetowne Greens had waned, and the project was terminated. The first houses built for the development still remain. The area was ultimately developed as the neighborhood of Georgetown, though parts of Georgetown remained undeveloped through the 2000s. The "Georgetowne" appellation still exists in the name of a strip mall in Georgetown.
## Community
Located along the southern coast of Brooklyn, Bergen Beach has a suburban quality. The nearest stores are located in the Georgetown Shopping Center, as well as a Key Food location in Mill Basin. Bergen Beach also contains the Mill Harbor Condominiums, one of the few gated communities in New York City. The neighborhood includes the St. Bernard Clairvaux Church, located on Veterans Avenue near 69th Street. Bergen Beach and Georgetown are part of Brooklyn Community Board 18, which also includes Canarsie, Mill Basin, Marine Park, and the southern portion of Flatlands.
Bergen Beach and Georgetown are located in ZIP Code 11234, which also includes Mill Basin, Marine Park, and the southern portion of Flatlands. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the combined population of Georgetown, Marine Park, Bergen Beach, and Mill Basin was 45,231, an increase of 2,291 (5.3%) from the 42,940 counted in the 2000 United States Census. Covering an area of 1,662.88 acres (672.94 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 27.2 inhabitants per acre (17,400/sq mi; 6,700/km<sup>2</sup>).
By the end of the 20th century, the vast majority of Bergen Beach residents were white, as were most residents of adjacent neighborhoods such as Mill Basin and Marine Park. Specifically, many of the residents were Italian-Americans. The 1990 United States Census counted 3,873 residents, of which three were black; as of the 2000 United States Census, there were 28 black residents. However, by 2011, the number of black residents in Southeast Brooklyn had risen 241%, the steepest such increase of any area in the city. As of that year, the African American population in these neighborhoods represented 10.9% of the total population. As of the 2010 Census, the racial makeup of Southeast Brooklyn was 73.8% (33,399) White, 10.9% (4,952) African American, 0.1% (47) Native American, 5.6% (2,521) Asian, 0.0% (7) Pacific Islander, 0.3% (144) from other races, and 1.3% (578) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.9% (3,583) of the population.
## Police and crime
Bergen Beach is patrolled by the New York City Police Department's 63rd Precinct. The precinct also covers Marine Park, Mill Basin, and part of Flatlands. Because of the precinct's distance from Bergen Beach, some residents had complained that there was not enough police presence in the neighborhood. The 63rd Precinct ranked 31st safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010.
The 63rd Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 85.9% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 5 murders, 14 rapes, 88 robberies, 131 felony assaults, 92 burglaries, 495 grand larcenies, and 62 grand larcenies auto in 2018.
## Recreation
The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation operates several parks in the Bergen Beach area. Joseph T. McGuire Park is located on Bergen Avenue, along the eastern coast of Bergen Beach between Avenue V and Shore Parkway. It contains several fields for sports such as baseball and volleyball. Bergen Beach Playground is located in Bergen Beach's northwestern section along East 71st Street between Avenues N and T. Hickman Playground, located on Veterans Avenue between East 66th and 68th Streets, is named for Flatlands resident Vincent Hickman, who died during the Korean War.
Since 1971, the Jamaica Bay Riding Academy has operated a horseback riding school along Shore Parkway with 80 stables. The academy spans 500 acres (200 ha) within the Gateway National Recreation Area, which borders Bergen Beach to the south.
## Education
P.S. 312, a public elementary school, is located in Bergen Beach. Success Academy Charter Schools also operates an elementary school in Bergen Beach.
Brooklyn Public Library operates the Mill Basin Library at 2385 Ralph Avenue, near Avenue N. The Mill Basin Library first opened in 1940, and it has been located in its current building since 1975.
## Notable streets
Private Cosmo L. Barone Triangle is bounded by Avenue U, East 71st Street, and Veterans Avenue. It is named after Pfc. Cosmo Barone, a soldier who grew up in Brooklyn and died during the Vietnam War. Veterans Avenue, in turn, was renamed to honor soldiers who fought in World War II. It had been named Island Avenue because it originally led to Bergen Island.
Mill Lane exists in several small, disconnected segments south of Avenue N. One segment is located in the extreme western section of present-day Bergen Beach. It formerly connected with a Native American trail named Bergen Beach Road, which led from the town of Flatlands to Bergen Island.
Ralph Avenue, the western boundary of Bergen Beach, was named after Ralph Patchen, an early landowner in Brooklyn who owned land further north along the avenue.
## Transportation
There is very little public transportation in Bergen Beach. The neighborhood is far away from the New York City Subway, and many residents drive their own vehicles. The only public transportation is the , , and bus routes, operated by MTA Regional Bus Operations.
The B3 route formerly ran further into Bergen Beach, serving East 73rd and East 74th Streets, but was truncated to Avenue U and East 71st Street in 2010. The B41 route actually has two branches: one to Bergen Beach and one to the Kings Plaza shopping mall. It was a descendant of the Flatbush Avenue streetcar route, which was replaced by the current bus service in March 1951.
|
42,630,597 |
Ganga Bruta
| 1,143,441,948 |
1933 film
|
[
"1930s Portuguese-language films",
"1933 drama films",
"1933 films",
"Brazilian black-and-white films",
"Brazilian drama films",
"Films directed by Humberto Mauro",
"Films shot in Rio de Janeiro (city)"
] |
Ganga Bruta (literally "Brutal Gang"; also known as Rough Diamond) is a 1933 Brazilian drama film directed by Humberto Mauro. Starring Durval Bellini and Déa Selva, it follows a man who, after killing his wife on their wedding night, moves to a city where he becomes part of a love triangle. It was produced between 1931 and 1932 for Adhemar Gonzaga at his studio Cinédia.
On its initial release, the film was highly criticized and its poor viewing figures resulted in financial losses for the distribution company, but later critics and film directors expressed praise for it. Cinema Novo's Glauber Rocha considered it to be one of the best Brazilian films of all time, a title that would be recognized by the Brazilian Film Critics Association in 2015.
## Plot
Marcos, a rich engineer, discovers on his wedding night that his bride was not a virgin and murders her in the bridal chamber. Despite the sensation caused in the media by the resultant case, Marcos is acquitted and moves to Guaraíba in an attempt to put the affair behind him. He finds a job managing the construction of a factory and becomes a co-worker of Décio, who lives with his paralyzed mother and Sônia, his adoptive sister. Sônia, who is engaged to Décio, is attracted to Marcos and although he is initially unaware of her feelings, he eventually acknowledges that he has fallen in love with her. After discovering that Marcos has seduced Sônia, Décio swears to kill him, but a fight culminates in Décio's death instead. At the end of the film, Marcos and Sônia get married.
## Cast
- Durval Bellini as Marcos
- Déa Selva as Sônia
- Lu Marival as Marcos' wife
- Décio Murillo as Décio
- Andréa Duarte as Décio's mother
- Alfredo Nunes as butler
- Ivan Villar as servant
## Production
The film was initially called Dança das Chamas (lit. "Dance of Flames"). Raul Schnoor, Tamar Moema, and Ruth Gentil were planned to take starring roles, with shooting taking place in Amazonas and Pará. The film was eventually shot with a different cast in Ilha das Cobras and Quinta da Boa Vista, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, and in Guaxindiba, São Gonçalo, Rio de Janeiro between September 2, 1931 and October 21, 1932, using a hand-held camera.
Ganga Bruta was the sixth feature film directed by Humberto Mauro and his second for film studio Cinédia, a company owned by Adhemar Gonzaga. Gonzaga, who was the film producer, conceived it as a silent film with a score recorded on disk and synchronized to the film during its exhibition. When it was almost finished, however, Gonzaga agreed to adding voices recorded on Vitaphone, a change prompted by the advent of sound films and their rise in popularity in the Brazilian market during the production of the film.
## Reception and analysis
The film was first released on May 29, 1933 in the Alhambra cinema in Rio de Janeiro. It was not well received on its release; Ganga Bruta was labeled "the worst film of all time" by critics and resulted in "huge financial losses" for Cinédia. Time Out Rio de Janeiro stated that "It was roundly rejected by traditional critics and short-sighted viewers." Opinions were revised after its restoration in 1952 for a screening at the 1st Brazilian Cinema Retrospective, when it "deeply impressed" the directors who would be part of Cinema Novo movement in the 1960s and 1970s. For example, Glauber Rocha was especially impressed and later cited it as "one of the 20 best films of all time" in his book Revisão Crítica do Cinema Brasileiro. Another film director, Walter Lima Jr., declared, "there are two films that are such clear archetypes of Brazil's eternal quest, namely Limite and Ganga Bruta. They represent something that you have to polish and something that determines its own space, suggesting at the same time that something more exists beyond its confines." In 2015 it would be further recognized by the Brazilian Film Critics Association as the 24th best Brazilian film of all time on its Top 100.
Randal Johnson and Robert Stam, writers of Brazilian Cinema, called the film "Mauro's masterpiece", saying that it "creatively melds the cinematic styles of expressionism and Soviet montage". Encyclopedia of Contemporary Latin American and Caribbean Cultures's Daniel Balderston, Mike Gonzalez and Ana M. Lopez wrote that the film is "magisterial", combining lyricism, naturalism and expressionism. Writing in South American Cinema: A Critical Filmography, Peter Rist praised its music, saying "Mauro's audio-visual mélange" has a "full lyrical effect". Georges Sadoul, author of Dictionary of Films, noted that "despite its silly and conventional plot, this [is] Humberto Mauro's best film and a landmark in the history of Brazilian cinema." Sadoul suggested the industrial elements were used as "erotic symbols", and compared a scene to Luis Buñuel's film Él. French critic Jacques Lourcelles asserted the main theme of Ganga Bruta is violence, alongside which is "an atmosphere of both carnal and cosmic eroticism". Writing for the book Le cinéma brésilien, Carlos Roberto de Souza commented that "there are Freudian and surreal echoes" in the film.
|
30,862,962 |
Macuahuitl
| 1,163,873,371 |
Weapon used by pre-Columbian Mesoamericans
|
[
"Aztec warfare",
"Melee weapons",
"Mesoamerican military equipment",
"Obsidian"
] |
A macuahuitl () is a weapon, a wooden club with several embedded obsidian blades. The name is derived from the Nahuatl language and means "hand-wood". Its sides are embedded with prismatic blades traditionally made from obsidian. Obsidian is capable of producing an edge sharper than high quality steel razor blades. The macuahuitl was a standard close combat weapon.
Use of the macuahuitl as a weapon is attested from the first millennium CE, although specimens can be found in art dating to at least pre-classic times. By the time of the Spanish conquest the macuahuitl was widely distributed in Mesoamerica. The weapon was used by different civilisations including the Aztec (Mexicas), Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, Toltec, and Tarascans.
One example of this weapon survived the Conquest of the Aztec Empire; it was part of the Royal Armoury of Madrid until it was destroyed by a fire in 1884. Images of the original designs survive in diverse catalogues. The oldest replica is the macuahuitl created by the medievalist Achille Jubinal in the 19th century.
## Description
The maquahuitl (Classical Nahuatl: māccuahuitl, other orthographic variants include mākkwawitl and mācquahuitl; plural māccuahuimeh), a type of macana, was a common weapon used by the Aztec military forces and other cultures of central Mexico. It was noted during the 16th-century Spanish conquest of the region. Other military equipment recorded includes the round shield (, ), the bow (tlahuītōlli, ), and the spear-thrower (, ). Its sides are embedded with prismatic blades traditionally made from obsidian (volcanic glass); obsidian is capable of producing an edge sharper than high-quality steel razor blades.
It was capable of inflicting serious lacerations from the rows of obsidian blades embedded in its sides. These could be knapped into blades or spikes, or into a circular design that looked like scales. The macuahuitl is not specifically a sword or a club, although it approximates a European broadsword. Historian John Pohl defines the weapon as a "kind of a saw sword".
According to conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo, the macuahuitl was 0.91 to 1.22 m long, and 75 mm wide, with a groove along either edge, into which sharp-edged pieces of flint or obsidian were inserted and firmly fixed with an adhesive. Based on his research, historian John Pohl indicates that the length was just over a meter, although other models were larger, and intended for use with both hands.
According to the research of historian Marco Cervera Obregón, the sharp pieces of obsidian, each about 3 cm long, were attached to the flat paddle with a natural adhesive, bitumen.
The rows of obsidian blades were sometimes discontinuous, leaving gaps along the side, while at other times the rows were set close together and formed a single edge. It was noted by the Spanish that the macuahuitl was so cleverly constructed that the blades could be neither pulled out nor broken. The macuahuitl was made with either a one-handed or two-handed grip, as well as in rectangular, ovoid, or pointed forms. Two-handed macuahuitl have been described as being "as tall as a man".
## Typology
According to National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH) archaeologist Marco Cervera Obregón, there were two versions of this weapon: The macuahuitl, about 70 to 80 centimetres (28 to 31 in) long with six to eight blades on each side; and the mācuāhuitzōctli, a smaller club about 50 centimetres (20 in) long with only four obsidian blades.
## Specimens
According to Ross Hassig, the last authentic macuahuitl was destroyed in 1884 in a fire in the Real Armería in Madrid, where it was housed beside the last tepoztopilli. According to Marco Cervera Obregón, there is supposed to be at least one macuahuitl in a Museo Nacional de Antropología warehouse, but it is possibly lost.
No actual maquahuitl specimens remain and the present knowledge of them comes from contemporaneous accounts and illustrations that date to the 16th century and earlier.
## Origins and distribution
The maquahuitl predates the Aztecs. Tools made from obsidian fragments were used by some of the earliest Mesoamericans. Obsidian used in ceramic vessels has been found at Aztec sites. Obsidian cutting knives, sickles, scrapers, drills, razors, and arrow points have also been found. Several obsidian mines were close to the Aztec civilizations in the Valley of Mexico as well as in the mountains north of the valley. Among these were the Sierra de las Navajas (Razor Mountains), named after their obsidian deposits. Use of the macuahuitl as a weapon is attested from the 1st millennia CE. A Mayan carving at Chichen Itza shows a warrior holding a macuahuitl, depicted as a club having separate blades sticking out from each side. In a mural, a warrior holds a club with many blades on one side and one sharp point on the other, also a possible variant of the macuahuitl. Some attestations of a type of macuahuitl are also present dating to Olmec times.
By the time of the Spanish conquest, the macuahuitl was widely distributed in Mesoamerica, with records of its use by the Aztecs, Mixtecs, Tarascans, Toltecs and others. It was also commonly used by the Indian auxiliaries of Spain, though they favored Spanish swords. As Mesoamericans in Spanish service needed a special permission to carry European arms, metal swords brought Indian auxiliaries more prestige than maquahuitls in the eyes of Europeans as well as natives.
## Effectiveness
`The macuahuitl was sharp enough to decapitate a man. According to an account by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, one of Hernán Cortés's conquistadors, it could even decapitate a horse:`
> Pedro de Morón was a very good horseman, and as he charged with three other horsemen into the ranks of the enemy the Indians seized hold of his lance and he was not able to drag it away, and others gave him cuts with their broadswords, and wounded him badly, and then they slashed at the mare, and cut her head off at the neck so that it hung by the skin, and she fell dead.
Another account by a companion of Cortés known as The Anonymous Conqueror tells a similar story of its effectiveness:
> They have swords of this kind – of wood made like a two-handed sword, but with the hilt not so long; about three fingers in breadth. The edges are grooved, and in the grooves they insert stone knives, that cut like a Toledo blade. I saw one day an Indian fighting with a mounted man, and the Indian gave the horse of his antagonist such a blow in the breast that he opened it to the entrails, and it fell dead on the spot. And the same day I saw another Indian give another horse a blow in the neck, that stretched it dead at his feet.
Another account by Francisco de Aguilar reads:
> They used ... cudgels and swords and a great many bows and arrows ... One Indian at a single stroke cut open the whole neck of Cristóbal de Olid's horse, killing the horse. The Indian on the other side slashed at the second horseman and the blow cut through the horse's pastern, whereupon this horse also fell dead. As soon as this sentry gave the alarm, they all ran out with their weapons to cut us off, following us with great fury, shooting arrows, spears and stones, and wounding us with their swords. Here many Spaniards fell, some dead and some wounded, and others without any injury who fainted away from fright.
Given the importance of human sacrifice in Nahua cultures, their warfare styles, particularly those of the Aztec and Maya, placed a premium on the capture of enemy warriors for live sacrifice. Advancement into the elite cuāuhocēlōtl warrior societies of the Aztec, for example, required taking 20 live captives from the battlefield. The macuahuitl thus shows several features designed to make it a useful tool for capturing prisoners: fitting spaced instead of contiguous blades, as seen in many codex illustrations, would intentionally limit the wound depth from a single blow, and the heavy wooden construction allows weakened opponents to be easily clubbed unconscious with the flat side of the weapon. The art of disabling opponents using an un-bladed macuahuitl as a sparring club was taught from a young age in the Aztec Tēlpochcalli schools.
The macuahuitl had many drawbacks in combat versus European steel swords. Despite being sharper, prismatic obsidian is also considerably more brittle than steel; obsidian blades of the type used on the macuahuitl tended to shatter on impact with other obsidian blades, steel swords or plate armour. Obsidian blades also have difficulty penetrating European mail. The thin, replaceable blades used on the macuahuitl were easily dulled or chipped by repeated impacts on bone or wood, making artful use of the weapon critical. It takes more time to lift and swing a club than it does to thrust with a sword. More space is needed as well, so warriors advanced in loose formations and fought in single combat.
## Experimental archaeology
Replicas of the macuahuitl have been produced and tested against sides of beef for documentary shows on the History and Discovery channels, to demonstrate the effectiveness of this weapon. On the History show Warriors, special forces operator and martial artist Terry Schappert injured himself while fencing with a macuahuitl; he cut the back of his left leg as the result of a back-swing motion.
For SpikeTV's reality program Deadliest Warrior a replica was created and tested against a model of a horse's head created using a horse's skeleton and ballistics gel. Actor and martial artist Éder Saúl López was able to decapitate the model, but it took three swings. Blows from the replica macuahuitl were most effective when it was swung and then dragged backwards upon impact, creating a sawing motion. This led Max Geiger, the computer programmer of the series, to refer to the weapon as "the obsidian chainsaw". This may have been due to the unrefined obsidian cutting edges of the weapon used in the show, compared with more finely made prismatic obsidian blades, as in the Madrid specimen.
## See also
- Macana
- Aztec warfare
- Maya warfare
- Obsidian use in Mesoamerica
- Zhanmadao
- Leiomano
|
64,694,049 |
New Zealand White Ensign
| 1,159,483,775 |
Flag used by the Royal New Zealand Navy
|
[
"1968 establishments in New Zealand",
"Flags of New Zealand",
"National symbols of New Zealand",
"Naval ensigns",
"Royal New Zealand Navy",
"Southern Cross flags",
"White Ensigns"
] |
The New Zealand White Ensign (also known as the New Zealand Naval Ensign or the Royal New Zealand Navy Ensign) is a naval ensign used by ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) from 1968. Based on the Royal Navy's White Ensign, it features the Southern Cross from the New Zealand national flag in place of the Saint George's Cross. One of the earliest flags associated with the country, that used by the United Tribes of New Zealand, was a white ensign. This was replaced by the Union Flag when New Zealand became a British colony. A blue ensign with the Southern Cross was introduced for ships of the colonial government in 1867 and this soon became a de facto national flag. Ships in New Zealand naval service wore the Royal Navy's White Ensign until 1968 when the distinct New Zealand White Ensign was introduced. The ensign was implemented out of a desire to distinguish New Zealand vessels from those of the Royal Navy and this decision is regarded as an important step in the development of the RNZN.
The New Zealand White Ensign is worn by commissioned RNZN vessels and shore establishments during daylight hours. It is also flown from the top of the Auckland Harbour Bridge to mark the anniversary of the founding of the RNZN. The right to fly the ensign was granted to flag officers of the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron upon their centenary in 1971 and it may also be used by New Zealand examination vessels.
## History
A version of a white ensign was adopted as the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, a confederation of Māori tribes on the North Island, by a vote in 1834 and approved by the British resident James Busby. This flag had a red Saint George's Cross and the upper canton was blue with a red cross and four eight-pointed stars in each quadrant. In 1840 the British declared sovereignty over New Zealand (including the South Island), by virtue of discovery and the signing of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi with many Māori chiefs. Following the declaration the British Union Flag became the flag of New Zealand and its ship followed the system of British ensigns.
A British parliamentary act of 1865 required the colonies to fly their own distinctive Blue Ensigns from government vessels, rather than using the British version. It took until 1867 for New Zealand to comply with this act, adding the red letters "NZ" to the standard ensign. This was replaced in 1869 by a version with the Southern Cross in red stars on the field. This flag was intended for use at sea only but soon came to be used on land as a de facto national flag. The Blue Ensign was adopted by New Zealand officially as the national flag by the New Zealand Parliament in 1902. New Zealand Minister for Education William Campbell Walker, in a 1900 New Zealand House of Representatives debate, claimed that a version of the White Ensign, with a red cross on a white field with four red stars, had earlier been considered as a candidate for the national flag but had not been adopted because of opposition from the Royal Navy which claimed exclusivity over the White Ensign.
During the New Zealand Wars the colony of New Zealand operated small vessels in a military capacity, the first being a gunboat purchased in 1846. These unofficial vessels did not wear a naval ensign as they were not commissioned and instead wore a Union Flag. The New Zealand Naval Forces were established in 1913 but only as a division of the Royal Navy; its ships therefore wore the usual Royal Navy White Ensign. In 1921 the New Zealand vessels were granted permission to wear the national flag as a jack but, as jacks are not worn at sea, this meant ships in battle were not readily identifiable as belonging to New Zealand. The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) was established as a separate force in 1941 but, due to the ongoing Second World War, there was no discussion about granting it a unique ensign. The RNZN continued to use the British White Ensign including on active service during the 1950–1953 Korean War and the 1948–1960 Malayan Emergency.
The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) also flew the White Ensign. Its entry into the Vietnam War in 1962 led to this being replaced by its own unique white ensign in 1967. This was partly to avoid embarrassment to the British government, which was not involved in the war, and partly from an Australian government desire for its vessels to be distinctive. New Zealand joined the war in 1964, though it sent no naval vessels into the conflict area. The RNZN museum suggests that the RAN's adoption of a distinctive white ensign inspired a similar change in the RNZN; in 1967 Mr E.W. Jones of the Hydrographic Branch was appointed to design one. This was approved by Elizabeth II and adopted by the New Zealand White Ensign Regulations 1968, an Order in Council made by Governor-General Arthur Porritt on 10 June 1968. The adoption of a unique white ensign has been noted as an important step in the development of the RNZN.
## Description
The New Zealand White Ensign, as defined in the 1968 regulations, is identical to the national flag except that the field is white instead of blue and the white border to the stars is replaced with red. In common with the national flag the White Ensign is 1:2 in ratio and has the British Union flag in the canton. The colours used in the ensign are white (Pantone SAFE), red (Pantone 186C) and blue (Pantone 280C). The four stars of the Southern Cross are depicted with five points.
## Use
The 1968 regulations allow the White Ensign to be worn by commissioned vessels of the RNZN and flown at naval establishments. In current RNZN practice the White Ensign is worn only during daylight hours but in times of war it is worn continuously. All RNZN vessels are required to wear the flag, unless authorised by the Chief of Defence Force. When alongside, anchored or secured to a buoy vessels of the RNZN wear the White Ensign at the stern and the national flag as a jack at the bow.
The White Ensign has been flown from the top of Auckland Harbour Bridge annually on 1 October since 2016 to mark the day the RNZN was founded. It is also flown on 6 February, alongside the Union Flag, United Tribes flag and the national flag, at Waitangi to mark Waitangi Day. New Zealand examination vessels are also entitled to wear the White Ensign, though no such vessels have operated since the disbanding of the Examination Service in 1944. In 1971, to commemorate the centenary of the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron, its flag officers (the three senior committee members: commodore, vice-commodore and rear-commodore) were granted the right to wear the White Ensign on vessels on which they are skipper; other member's vessels wear the squadron's blue ensign.
In 1937 the RNZN was granted a King's colour, which serves a similar purpose to the colours of army regiments. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth II, the colour was a variation of the White Ensign with more square proportions and the addition of a device showing the crowned royal cypher of Elizabeth II encircled by the emblem and motto of the Order of the Garter. The King's colour originally showed a St George's Cross, in line with the Royal Navy White Ensign. When the colour was renewed in 1970 the design was changed to show the southern cross, in line with the New Zealand White Ensign.
|
895,994 |
Diddy Kong Racing
| 1,173,749,907 |
1997 video game
|
[
"1997 video games",
"Christmas video games",
"D.I.C.E. Award for Racing Game of the Year winners",
"Donkey Kong video games",
"Kart racing video games",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Nintendo 64 games",
"Racing video games",
"Rare (company) games",
"Vehicular combat games",
"Video games about dinosaurs",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games scored by David Wise",
"Video games set in amusement parks",
"Video games set on fictional islands"
] |
Diddy Kong Racing is a 1997 racing video game developed and published by Rare for the Nintendo 64. The game is set on Timber's Island and revolves around Diddy Kong and his friends' attempt to defeat the intergalactic antagonist, a wizarding pig named Wizpig, through winning a series of races. The player can take control of any of the featured characters throughout the game. Diddy Kong Racing features five worlds with four racetracks each, and the ability to drive a car, hovercraft, or pilot an aeroplane.
Development began after the release of Killer Instinct 2, and was intended to be a real-time strategy game known as Wild Cartoon Kingdom in its early stages. As time progressed, the focus of development shifted from a Walt Disney World-influenced racing game to a unique title named Pro-Am 64, in which Nintendo had no involvement. Due to the delays of Banjo-Kazooie, Rare felt that they needed a stronger intellectual property to attract a wider audience for a game scheduled to release before Christmas 1997, thus making the decision to base a game on the character of Diddy Kong.
Diddy Kong Racing received critical acclaim upon release. The graphics, audio and gameplay were the most praised aspects of the game, with minor criticism directed at the game's repetition. The game has sold 4.8 million copies since release and stands as the Nintendo 64's eighth best-selling game. A sequel named Donkey Kong Racing was in development for the GameCube, but was abandoned in August 2002, one month before Microsoft purchased Rare for £375 million. An enhanced remake for the Nintendo DS titled Diddy Kong Racing DS was released worldwide in early 2007.
## Gameplay
In Diddy Kong Racing, players can choose one of ten characters, who have access to three different vehicles: car, hovercraft and aeroplane. The car is an all-round vehicle, but it is the slowest on surfaces such as sand and water. The hovercraft is designed for both sand and water areas, but lacks in acceleration and manoeuvrability. The aeroplane is designed to access aerial areas; it is good at acceleration and manoeuvring, but it has the slowest speed. Each racetrack has a set of boosters known as "zippers" that temporarily boost the player's speed, as well as featuring regenerating balloons of various colours that provide power-ups. There are five different types of balloons: red, blue, green, yellow, and rainbow. Red balloons grant missiles to attack racers ahead, blue balloons grant a speed boost, yellow balloons grant shields to protect the player from attacks, green balloons grant deployable traps to delay other racers, and rainbow balloons grant a magnet ability that brings the player closer to the nearest racer. If multiple balloons of the same colour are picked up, the power-up will be upgraded to a more powerful version. A total of two upgrades are available for each balloon. Additionally, racetracks contain non-regenerating bananas that add to speed when they are picked up. A maximum of ten bananas will improve the speed, but can also be obtained to prevent other players from gaining speed. If a racer gets hit, two bananas will be deducted.
In "Adventure Mode", players control the racer of their choice to progress through the story. Players begin on Timber's Island, which consists of five interconnected worlds; Dino Domain, Snowflake Mountain, Sherbet Island, Dragon Forest, and Future Fun Land. The worlds are opened up by collecting balloons, except for Future Fun Land, which is unlocked after defeating Wizpig for the first time and rank 1st place in all four Trophy Races of the original worlds. Each world contains four racetracks, an unlockable battle stage and a race against a boss character. If the player defeats Wizpig in Future Fun Land, obtains all amulet pieces and collect all the gold medals, the player will be able to play in a mode called "Adventure 2". In this mode, all the balloons change colour to platinum and the tracks are inverted from left to right. The game also features four battle modes which consist of two deathmatch maps, a capture-the-flag-style battle and a mode which involves opponents capturing eggs. The battle modes are not initially selectable, and must be unlocked by collecting keys hidden in each of the worlds.
## Plot
Timber the Tiger's parents go on holiday and leave their son in charge of the island they live on, prompting him and his friends to organise a race. Their enjoyment is interrupted when a sinister intergalactic pig-wizard named Wizpig arrives at Timber's Island and attempts to take it over after having conquered his own planet. He turns the island's four guardians (Tricky the Triceratops, Bluey the Walrus, Bubbler the Octopus, and Smokey the Dragon) into his henchmen. The only solution available to the island's inhabitants is to defeat Wizpig in an elaborate series of races that involve cars, hovercraft, and aeroplanes. Drumstick the Rooster, the best racer on the island, fails this challenge and is transformed into a frog by Wizpig's magic.
Timber hires a team of eight racers: Diddy Kong, the first recruit; Conker the Squirrel and Banjo the Bear, recruited by Diddy; Krunch the Kremling, Diddy's enemy who follows after him; Tiptup the Turtle, T.T. the Stopwatch, Pipsy the Mouse, and Bumper the Badger, all inhabitants of Timber's island. Aided by Taj, an Indian elephant-like genie residing on the island, they eventually complete all of Wizpig's challenges and confront Wizpig himself to a race and defeat him. Shortly afterward, Drumstick is turned back into a rooster, and Wizpig leaves for his home planet, Future Fun Land. Fearing that Wizpig would again attempt to invade Timber's Island, the islanders travel to Future Fun Land for a second challenge. When Wizpig loses the second race, the rocket he rides on malfunctions and launches him to the moon. However, an additional cutscene reveals Wizpig's spaceship flying through the sky, unscathed.
## Development
Development of the game began after the release of Killer Instinct 2, in which a team was split into making Killer Instinct Gold for the Nintendo 64 and a new racing game for that console. At its first stage of development, Diddy Kong Racing was conceived as a real-time strategy game with a caveman/time-travel theme worked on by a team of four Rare members; Chris Stamper, Lee Musgrave, Rob Harrison and Lee Schuneman. During later stages of development, the game became influenced by Walt Disney World and soon evolved into an adventure game called Wild Cartoon Kingdom, with which Nintendo had no involvement. In June 1997, the game was altered to Pro-Am 64, an unrelated follow-up to the NES racing game R.C. Pro-Am. According to Schuneman, the Pro Am 64 project featured three-wheeled trikes in contrast to radio-controlled cars.
With Banjo-Kazooie being delayed until the summer of 1998, the team was adamant for a release of an AAA video game in time for 1997's Christmas season. Rare felt that Pro Am 64 did not have a strong enough intellectual property to capture the attention of consumers, and thus changed the licence to feature Diddy Kong. According to Musgrave, the decision to choose Diddy Kong rather than Donkey Kong was based on their own choice, a decision which Nintendo "enjoyed". Once the intellectual property was changed, the team were left to adapt the visual aesthetics of the game and packaging before it could be released. Musgrave recalled that the ultimate goal of the game was to make it "run as fast" as Mario Kart 64, which proved difficult during development as the latter game utilised 2D character sprites whereas Diddy Kong Racing used fully 3D models. Musgrave later attributed the success of the overall project due to the "small team" of 14 people who worked on it. In an October 2012 interview, Musgrave said that Timber the Tiger would have been the main character of Pro Am 64 had the intellectual property for Diddy Kong Racing not been conceived. Two of the characters who featured in Diddy Kong Racing, Banjo the Bear and Conker the Squirrel, starred in games (Banjo-Kazooie and Conker's Bad Fur Day, respectively) which were unveiled to the public before Diddy Kong Racing, at the June 1997 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), but ultimately not released until after Diddy Kong Racing. Rare stated that they chose not to exhibit Diddy Kong Racing at E3 because of the proprietary animation technology used in the game.
### Soundtrack
The music for the game was composed by David Wise. The soundtrack was first released in Japan on 1 April 1998, with 42 tracks, while a version of the album was released in Europe with the same number of tracks. For its United States release only 16 tracks were featured. The disc itself was specially shaped in the form of Diddy Kong's head, which was unplayable in certain CD players.
### Release
Due to most of the Nintendo 64's planned 1997 Christmas season line-up being delayed until 1998, Diddy Kong Racing became the main Nintendo 64 release for the holiday shopping season, and a majority of Nintendo's \$200 million advertising budget for the entire year was allocated to promoting the game. The game had a \$20 million marketing budget in North America. Diddy Kong Racing also held the distinction of being the only game in the North American Christmas season line-up for which development was contracted by Nintendo; the other two first-party Nintendo 64 games in the line-up, Bomberman 64 and Mischief Makers, were both licensed from Japanese third-party publishers.
## Reception
The game received critical acclaim upon release. The Nintendo 64 version holds an aggregate score of 89% at GameRankings based on 20 reviews and 88 at Metacritic based on 15 reviews, whereas the Nintendo DS remake received a score of 67% at GameRankings based on 42 reviews and a score of 63 at Metacritic, based on 39 reviews. Diddy Kong Racing sold approximately 4.5 million copies worldwide; which included 3.78 million copies sold in the United States and PAL regions, and 653,928 copies in Japan. At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, it took home a "Gold" prize for revenues above €15 million in the European Union during the previous year. It stands as the Nintendo 64's eighth best-selling game, and broke one million units sold in the United States within three weeks of its release.
The graphics and gameplay were the most praised aspects of the game. Some critics noted how it minimised pop-up without resorting to the use of distance fog. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot disputed this, saying that the game has both pop-up and distance fog in amounts comparable to the average Nintendo 64 game. He nonetheless stated that the game was a "pleasure to look at" and praised the detail of the tracks. Doug Perry of IGN heralded the visuals as the most "spectacular of its kind", and praised Rare's ability to master dynamic animation through enabling polygons to span larger surfaces without loss of framerate. Furthermore, Perry stated that the game's technical achievements were enough to leave "even the most critical Japanese gamer [to] look upon with smiling eyes".
Although Crispin Boyer opened his review of the game for Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) with the warning "Don't dismiss this out-of-the-blue racer as a Mario Kart 64 clone", most reviews compared the two games. Gerstmann suspected Nintendo of rushing Diddy Kong Racing to market in order to fill a quarter left vacant by delays of other Nintendo games, and argued it was much too soon after Mario Kart 64's debut to release such a similar game. Other critics, including Boyer's EGM co-reviewers, focused on Diddy Kong Racing's perceived superiority to Mario Kart 64. Dan Hsu of EGM said it "beats Mario Kart 64 in every department", particularly mentioning the superior balance and level designs. Edge praised the adventure and progression aspect of the game, stating that the game's single-player mode is "everything Mario Kart 64 should have been."
The character designs met with a variety of opinions. EGM's Shawn Smith praised the characters as "hilarious". Next Generation, by contrast, said the character designs are "pathetic and obvious, molded from the same cookie cutter as Banjo-Kazooie and Conker", noting the formulaic use of anthropomorphic animal characters and the simplistic application of each animal's characteristics to gameplay. Perry felt that the vocals of characters in the game were "heartwarming" and "comical", while also stating that "some of the characters are just too damn cute and are certain to annoy older gamers."
Overall assessments of the game were mostly positive. GamePro gave it a 4.5 out of 5 for sound and a perfect 5.0 in control, graphics, and fun factor, calling it "a feverishly fun Nintendo 64 racer that combines elements of Mario Kart 64, Wave Race 64, and Pilotwings 64 into one spectacular game." EGM named it "Game of the Month", with its four reviewers lauding the challenging gameplay and numerous objectives to tackle. Gerstmann instead counted the latter as the game's greatest weakness, arguing that having to repeatedly play through the same courses with slightly different objectives makes the game excessively repetitive. He concluded that the game is far better than Mario Kart 64, but the repetitiveness "ultimately kills it." Next Generation fell more in line with the majority, remarking that the combination of racing and adventure elements works well, and that "Diddy Kong Racing shows Rare's pure craftmanship, displaying keen subtleties that eventually win players over."
In a retrospective review, Andrew Donaldson of Nintendo Life stated that the game was visually "incredibly vibrant" and "captivating" for a game of the early Nintendo 64 era. Scott McCall of AllGame acknowledged its only shortcoming was its "excessive" amount of clipping, although he admitted it was not "unbearable". He praised the wide range of audio in the game, including its voice acting and soundtrack; he heralded the music as "interesting" and "fitting" to its race tracks, also considering it superior to that of Mario Kart 64. Donaldson criticised game's presentation as too "cutesy", especially in terms of the characters' voices. However, he praised the "upbeat" and "catchy" soundtrack, saying that each track had its own unique tune to suit the distinct environment. In 2009, Official Nintendo Magazine ranked the game 79th on a list of the greatest Nintendo games of all time.
EGM named Diddy Kong Racing "Racing Game of the Year" at its 1997 Editors' Choice Awards. Diddy Kong Racing was awarded "Console Racing Game of the Year" by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences in 1998, beating Mario Kart 64, Moto Racer and NASCAR 98.
## Legacy
### Sequels
After the release of Diddy Kong Racing, Rare began development on a sequel named Donkey Kong Racing for the GameCube, which featured Donkey Kong as the titular character. A pre-rendered CG video of the game was shown at E3 2001, which displayed a parody of the speederbike scene from Return of the Jedi. According to Lee Musgrave, the game featured a unique mechanic which involved riding on animals rather than driving vehicles. The player could switch between different types of animals mid-race; larger animals could destroy obstacles, whereas smaller ones allowed more manoeuvrability. Development of Donkey Kong Racing was cancelled when Nintendo turned down the opportunity to purchase its remaining 51 per cent stake in Rare, and the developer was bought out by Microsoft for £375 million in 2002.
After the buyout, Rare took what had been done with Donkey Kong Racing and created a prototype for the Xbox which expanded into an adventure game similar to the original setup of Diddy Kong Racing. Musgrave stated that the concept was essentially "built from scratch" and featured a limited multiplayer version at one point. The concept was in development over 18 months and evolved from being an animal-orientated racing game to an open-world game with Tamagotchi-style features, in which nurturing animals was a "key mechanic". By this point, Donkey Kong Racing had evolved into Sabreman Stampede, part of Rare's Sabreman series. Sabreman Stampede was set for release on the Xbox 360, but was cancelled due to a lack of focus and Rare's unfamiliarity with the hardware.
Aside from Donkey Kong Racing, two other sequels to Diddy Kong Racing were in development. One, named Diddy Kong Pilot, with planes as the only vehicle, was planned for a release on the Game Boy Advance. Originally announced alongside Donkey Kong Racing at E3 2001, the game became Banjo-Pilot after Nintendo sold their share of Rare to Microsoft. At the time of its announcement, the game featured the ability to play using a tilt function as well as a D-pad, and contained at least five tracks. The other, titled Diddy Kong Racing Adventure, was a rejected pitch made by Climax Studios for the Nintendo GameCube around 2004. The project was never announced to the public in any capacity, and only became known after a video game archivist acquired the prototype and published a video about it in November 2016.
As Timber was bypassed as the main character in Diddy Kong Racing, Rare's next game was planned to keep Timber as the main character, according to Kev Bayliss. This game was originally planned as Dinosaur Planet for the Nintendo 64, with Timber as a time traveller to a prehistoric period and gameplay similar to The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, but over time, they found it better to replace Timber with wholly new characters. This game became Star Fox Adventures for the GameCube at the suggestion of Nintendo.
### Remake
Diddy Kong Racing DS is a Nintendo DS remake of Diddy Kong Racing. Developed by Rare and published by Nintendo, it was released in February 2007 in North America, and April in Europe and Australia. This version received enhanced visuals and framerate in addition to touchscreen functions and Rumble Pak support for force feedback. Four new Donkey Kong themed racetracks were included in the remake, along with several modifications to the soundtrack. Banjo and Conker were replaced by Tiny Kong and Dixie Kong, while new playable characters Taj and Wizpig were also added. The DS version also features new modes which allow the player to create their own racetracks, customise their characters through recording voices, and an online multiplayer function. The racetrack creation mode replaced the original game's "battle modes". The game was met with mixed reviews upon release, with critics asserting that the new additions were "gimmicky" and the touchscreen controls felt "horribly sensitive".
|
803,262 |
Tom Wills
| 1,173,865,451 |
Australian sportsman (1835–1880)
|
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"1835 births",
"1880 deaths",
"1880s suicides",
"19th-century Australian businesspeople",
"19th-century squatters",
"Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees",
"Australian cricket administrators",
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"Australian cricket umpires",
"Australian cricketers",
"Australian people of English descent",
"Australian people of Irish descent",
"Australian rules footballers from New South Wales",
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"Cambridge University cricketers",
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"Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees",
"Sportspeople from Geelong",
"Suicides by sharp instrument in Australia",
"Suicides in Victoria (state)",
"Victoria cricketers",
"Victorian Football Association umpires"
] |
Thomas Wentworth Wills (19 August 1835 – 2 May 1880) was an Australian sportsman who is credited with being Australia's first cricketer of significance and a founder of Australian rules football. Born in the British penal colony of New South Wales to a wealthy family descended from convicts, Wills grew up in the bush on stations owned by his father, the squatter and politician Horatio Wills, in what is now the state of Victoria. As a child, he befriended local Aboriginal people, learning their language and customs. Aged 14, Wills went to England to attend Rugby School, where he became captain of its cricket team and played an early version of rugby football. After Rugby, Wills represented Cambridge University in the annual cricket match against Oxford, and played at first-class level for Kent and the Marylebone Cricket Club. An athletic bowling all-rounder with tactical nous, he was regarded as one of the finest young cricketers in England.
Returning to Victoria in 1856, Wills achieved Australia-wide stardom as a cricketer, captaining the Victorian team to repeated victories in intercolonial matches. He played for the Melbourne Cricket Club but often clashed with its administrators, his larrikin streak and defections to rival clubs straining their relationship. In 1858, seeking a winter pastime for cricketers, he called for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws". He captained a Melbourne side that winter, and in 1859 co-wrote its laws—the basis of Australian rules. He and his cousin H. C. A. Harrison further developed the game as players, umpires and administrators.
In 1861, at the height of his fame, Wills retired from sport to help his father run a station in outback Queensland. Soon after arriving, his father and 18 station personnel died in Australia's largest massacre of colonists by Aboriginal people. Wills survived and returned to Victoria in 1864, and in 1866–67, led an Aboriginal cricket team on an Australian tour as its captain-coach. In a career marked by controversy, Wills straddled cricket's amateur-professional divide, and was reputed to bend sporting rules to the point of cheating. In 1872, he became the first bowler to be called for throwing in a top-class Australian match. Dropped from the Victorian team, he failed in an 1876 comeback attempt, by which time he was considered a relic of a bygone era. His final years were characterised by social alienation, flights from creditors, and heavy drinking, likely as a means of numbing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms that plagued him after the massacre. In 1880, suffering from delirium tremens, Wills committed suicide by stabbing himself in the heart.
Australia's first sporting celebrity, Wills fell into obscurity after his death, but has undergone a revival in Australian culture since the 1980s. Today he is described as an archetypal tragic sports hero and as a symbol of reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. He has also become the central figure in "football's history wars"—an ongoing dispute over whether Marn Grook, an Aboriginal ball game, influenced early Australian rules. According to biographer Greg de Moore, Wills "stands alone in all his absurdity, his cracked egalitarian heroism and his fatal self-destructiveness—the finest cricketer and footballer of the age".
## Family and early years
Wills was born on 19 August 1835 on the Molonglo Plain near modern-day Canberra, in the British penal colony (now the Australian state) of New South Wales, as the elder child of Horatio and Elizabeth (née McGuire) Wills. Tom was a third-generation Australian of convict descent: his mother's parents were Irish convicts, and his paternal grandfather Edward was an English highwayman whose death sentence for armed robbery was commuted to transportation, arriving in Botany Bay aboard the "hell ship" Hillsborough in 1799. Granted a conditional pardon in 1803, Edward became rich through mercantile activity in Sydney with his free wife Sarah (née Harding). He died in 1811, five months before Horatio's birth, and Sarah remarried to convict George Howe, owner of Australia's first newspaper, The Sydney Gazette. Mainly self-educated, Horatio worked in the Gazette office from a young age, rising to become editor in 1832, the same year he met Elizabeth, an orphan from Parramatta. They married in December 1833. Seventeen months after his birth, Tom was baptised Thomas Wentworth Wills in St Andrew's, Sydney, after statesman William Wentworth. Drawing on Wentworth's pro-currency writings and the emancipist cause, Horatio, in his nationalist journal The Currency Lad (1832–33), made the first call for an Australian republic.
Horatio turned to pastoralism in the mid-1830s and moved with his family to the sheep run Burra Burra on the Molonglo River. Tom was athletic early on but also prone to illness, his parents at one stage in 1839 "almost [despairing] of his recovery". The following year, in light of Thomas Mitchell's account of "Australia Felix", the Willses overlanded south with shepherds and their families to the Grampians in the colony's Port Phillip District (now the state of Victoria). After squatting on Mount William, they moved a few miles north through the foothills of Mount Ararat, named so by Horatio because "like the Ark, we rested there". Horatio went through a period of intense religiosity while in the Grampians; at times his diary descends into incantation, "perhaps even madness", according to a number of scholarly assessments. He implored himself and Tom to base their lives upon the Gospel of John.
Living in tents, the Wills family settled a large property named Lexington (near present-day Moyston) in an area used by Djab wurrung Aboriginal clans as a meeting place. According to family members, Tom, as one of the few white children in the area, "was thrown much into the companionship of aborigines". In an account of corroborees from childhood, his cousin H. C. A. Harrison remembered Tom's ability to learn Aboriginal songs, mimic their voice and gestures, and "speak their language as fluently as they did themselves, much to their delight." He may have also played Aboriginal sports. Horatio wrote fondly of his son's kinship with Aboriginal people, and allowed local clans to live and hunt on Lexington. However, George Augustus Robinson, the district's Chief Protector of Aborigines, implicated Horatio and other local settlers in the murder of Aboriginal people. Horatio blamed "distant predatory tribes" for provoking hostilities in the area, and the closest he came to admitting that he had killed Aboriginal people was in a letter to Governor Charles La Trobe: "... we shall be compelled in self defence to measures that may involve us in unpleasant consequences".
Tom's first sibling, Emily, was born on Christmas Day 1842. In 1846 Wills began attendance at William Brickwood's School in Melbourne, where he lived with Horatio's brother Thomas (Tom's namesake), a Victorian separatist and son-in-law of the Wills family's partner in the shipping trade, convict Mary Reibey. Tom played in his first cricket matches at school and came in contact with the Melbourne Cricket Club through Brickwood, the club's vice-president. By 1849, the year Wills' schooling in Melbourne ended, his family had grown to include brothers Cedric, Horace and Egbert. Horatio had ambitious plans for the education of his children, especially Tom:
> I now deeply vainly deplore my want of a mathematical and classical education. Vain regret! ... But my son! May he prove worthy of my experience! May I be spared for him—that he may be useful to his country—I never knew a father's care.
## England
### Rugby School
Wills' father sent him to England in February 1850, aged fourteen, to attend Rugby School, then the most prestigious school in the country. In his scheme for his children, Horatio wanted Tom to go on to study law at the University of Cambridge and return to Australia as a "professional man of eminence". Tom arrived in London after a five-month sea voyage. There, during school holidays, he stayed with his paternal aunt Sarah, who moved from Sydney after the death of her first husband, convict William Redfern.
Reforms enacted by famed headmaster Thomas Arnold made Rugby the crucible of muscular Christianity, a "cult of athleticism" into which Wills was inculcated. Wills took up cricket within a week of entering Evans House. At first he bowled underhand, but it was considered outdated, so he tried roundarm bowling. He clean bowled a batsman with his first ball using this style and declared: "I felt I was a bowler." Wills soon topped all of his house's cricket statistics. At bat he was a "punisher" with a sound defence; however, in an era when stylish stroke-play was expected of amateurs, Wills was said to have no style at all. In April 1852, aged sixteen, he joined the Rugby School XI, and on his debut at Lord's against the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) a few months later, he took a match-high 12 wickets. While his bowling proved vital that year in establishing Rugby as the greatest public school in English cricket, anonymous critics in the press stated that he ought to be no-balled for throwing. Rugby coach John Lillywhite, considered an authority on bowling, came to his protégé's defence, rescuing him from further scandal. Wills went on to play with, and attracted praise from the leading cricketers of the age, including Alfred Mynn. He ended 1853 with the season's best bowling average, and in 1854 his hero William Clarke invited him to join the All-England Eleven, but he remained at school. The next year, he became Rugby XI captain.
Like other English public schools, Rugby had evolved its own variant of football. The game in Wills' era—a rough and highly defensive struggle often involving hundreds of boys—was confined to a competition amongst the houses. Spanning his school years, Wills is one of the few players whose on-field exploits feature in the newspapers' otherwise brief match reports. His creative play and "eel-like agility" baffled the opposition, and his penchant for theatrics endeared him to the crowds. One journalist noted his use of "slimy tricks", a possible early reference to his gamesmanship. As a "dodger" in the forward line who served his house's kicker, he took long and accurate shots at goal. Wills also shone in the school's annual athletics carnival and frequently won the long-distance running game Hare and Hounds.
Wills cut a dashing figure with "impossibly wavy" hair and blue, almond-shaped eyes that "[burnt] with a pale light". By age 16 at 5'8" he had already outgrown his father. In Lillywhite's Guide a few years later he measured in at 5'10" and it was written that "few athletes can boast of a more muscular and well-developed frame".
Consumed by sport, Wills fell behind in academics, much to his father's chagrin. One schoolmate recalled that he "could not bring himself to study for professional work" after "having led a sort of nomadic life when a youth in Australia". Suffering from homesickness, Wills decorated his study with objects to remind him of Australia, including Aboriginal weapons. In a letter to Tom, Horatio informed him that his childhood friends, the Djab wurrung, often spoke about him: "They told me to send you up to them as soon as you came back."
### Libertine cricketer
In June 1855, nearing his 20th birthday, Wills finished his schooling. Hailed as Rugby's exemplar sportsman, his status as a cricketer had come to define him in the eyes of others. In a farewell tribute, fellow students referred to him simply as "the school bowler".
After leaving Rugby, and with a steady supply of money from his father, Wills roamed Britain in pursuit of cricketing pleasure. Regarded as "one of the most promising cricketers in the kingdom", he played with royalty, made first-class appearances for the MCC, Kent County Cricket Club, and various Gentlemen sides, and also fell in with the I Zingari—the "gypsy lords of English cricket"—a club of wealthy amateurs known for their exotic costumes and hedonistic lifestyles. Against Horatio's wishes, Tom, having failed to matriculate, did not continue his studies at Cambridge, but played for the university's cricket team (as well as Magdalene College), most notably against Oxford in 1856 when rules barring non-students from playing in the University Match were ignored, Cambridge claiming to be "one man short". In June, Wills played cricket at Rugby School for the last time, representing the MCC alongside Lord Guernsey, the Earl of Winterton, and Charles du Cane, governor-to-be of Tasmania. Following a month of cricket in Ireland, Wills, at the behest of Horatio, returned to England to prepare for his journey home to Australia.
The last eighteen months had exposed Wills to "the richest sporting experience on earth". His six years in England charted a way of life—one of drinking, reckless spending and playing games—that he would follow until his death.
## Colonial hero
Wills returned to Australia aboard the Oneida steamship, arriving in Melbourne on 23 December 1856. The minor port city of his youth had risen to world renown as the booming financial centre of the Victorian gold rush. Horatio, now a member of the Legislative Assembly in the Victorian Parliament, lived on "Belle Vue", a farm at Point Henry near Geelong, the Wills' family home since 1853. In his first summer back in Melbourne, Wills stayed with his extended family, the Harrisons, at their home on Victoria Parade, and entered a Collins Street law firm to appease his father, but he seems never to have practised; the few comments he made about law suggest it meant little to him. "Tom was no dunce", writes Greg de Moore. He was "negotiating a path to greatness."
The Australian colonies were described as "cricket mad" in the 1850s, and Victorians, in particular, were said to live "in an atmosphere of cricket". Intercolonial contests, first held in 1851, provided an outlet for the at times intense rivalry between Victoria and New South Wales. With his reputation preceding him, Wills bore Victoria's hopes of winning its first match against the elder colony. William Hammersley, a former acquaintance in England and now captain of the Victoria XI, recalled Wills' first appearance on the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) for a trial match, staged one week after his return:
> ... the observed of all observers, with his Zingari stripe and somewhat flashy get up, fresh from Rugby and college, with the polish of the old country upon him. He was then a model of muscular Christianity.
Wills won the match for his side with a top score of 57 not out, and The Age said of his playing style and entertaining ability that "there has not been a more amusing scene on this ground". In the January 1857 intercolonial against New South Wales, held on the Domain in Sydney, Wills was the leading wicket-taker with ten victims, but failed with the bat. Bowling fast round-arm, the Victorians scoffed at the "antiquated" underhand action of their opponents. The latter style proved effective, however, giving New South Wales a 65-run win. Back in Victoria, Wills joined numerous clubs, including the provincial Corio Cricket Club, based in Geelong, and the elite Melbourne Cricket Club (MCC). Although he had a greater affinity for Corio, the MCC maintained that Wills belonged to them, and took offence at his lack of loyalty to any one club. In order to secure Wills in matches between the two teams, the MCC allowed Corio to field an extra five men to make up for his loss.
Parliament and business came to a standstill in Melbourne for the January 1858 intercolonial match between Victoria and New South Wales, held at the MCG. Captaining Victoria, Wills took 8 wickets, the most of his side, and on the second day, batting in the middle order, a ball hit an imperfection in the pitch and knocked him unconscious. He recovered, played on for two hours, and won the match at day's end with a top score of 49\*. The crowd rushed the field and chaired Wills off in triumph, and victory celebrations lasted for several days throughout the colony. Now a household name and the darling of Melbourne's elite, Wills was proclaimed "the greatest cricketer in the land".
Although Wills enjoyed his lofty amateur status, he liked to socialise with and support working class professional cricketers—an egalitarian attitude that sometimes led to conflict with sporting officialdom but endeared him to the common man. Wills' allegiance to professionals was highlighted by an incident in Tasmania in February 1858 when the Launceston Cricket Club shunned professional members of his touring Victorian side. Infuriated, he spoke out against being "forsaken" in a "strange land". One week later, during a game in Hobart, Wills earned the locals' ire as he "[jumped] about exultantly" after maiming a Tasmanian batsman with a spell of hostile fast bowling.
Wills served as the MCC's secretary during the 1857–58 season. It was a role in which he proved to be chaotic and disorganised. MCC delegates took issue with Wills' "continued non-attendance" at meetings, and when the club fell into debt, his poor administrative skills were blamed. In mid-1858, he acted on year-long threats and deserted the club, leaving its records and amenities in disarray; to this day, the only MCC minutes that cannot be found date from his secretaryship. A lasting tension existed between Wills and the MCC's inner circle. According to Martin Flanagan, "It was a relationship which couldn't last as Wills only knew one way—his own."
## Football pioneer
Wills was a compulsive writer to the press on cricketing matters and in the late 1850s his letters sometimes appeared on a daily basis. An agitator like his father, he used language "in the manner of a speaker declaiming forcefully from a platform". On 10 July 1858, the Melbourne-based Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle published a letter by Wills that is regarded as a catalyst for a new style of football, known today as Australian rules football. Titled "Winter Practice", it begins:
> Now that cricket has been put aside for some few months to come, and cricketers have assumed somewhat of the chrysalis nature (for a time only 'tis true), but at length will again burst forth in all their varied hues, rather than allow this state of torpor to creep over them, and stifle their new supple limbs, why can they not, I say, form a foot-ball club, and form a committee of three or more to draw up a code of laws?
In endeavouring to keep cricketers active during the off-season, Wills made the first public declaration of its kind in Australia: that football should be a regular and organised activity. Around this time he helped to foster football in Melbourne's schools. The local headmasters, his collaborators, were inspired in large part by descriptions of football in Thomas Hughes' novel Tom Brown's School Days (1857), an account of life at Rugby School under the headship of Thomas Arnold. Due to similarities between their sporting careers at Rugby, Wills has been called the "real-life embodiment" of Tom Brown, the novel's fictitious hero.
Wills' letter was alluded to two weeks after its publication in an advertisement posted by his friend, professional cricketer and publican Jerry Bryant, for a "scratch match" held adjacent to the MCG at the Richmond Paddock. The first of several kickabouts held that year involving Wills, Bryant and other Melbourne cricketers, it was described by one participant as "football Babel"; a "short code of rules" were to be drawn up afterwards, however this does not seem to have occurred. Another landmark game, played without fixed rules over three Saturdays and co-umpired by Wills and teacher John Macadam, began on the same site on 7 August between forty Scotch College students and a like number from Melbourne Grammar. The two schools have since competed annually. Wills emerged as the standout figure in accounts of Melbourne football in 1858. These early experimental games were more rugby-like than anything else—low-scoring, low-to-the-ground "gladiatorial" tussles. The last recorded match of the year is the subject of the first known Australian football poem, published in Punch. Wills, the only player named, is reified as "the Melbourne chief", leading his men to victory against a side from South Yarra.
Following a scratch match at the start of the 1859 football season, the Melbourne Football Club officially came into being on 14 May. Three days later, Wills and three other members—Hammersley, journalist J. B. Thompson and teacher Thomas H. Smith—met near the MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, to devise and codify the club's rules. The men went over the rules of four English schools; Hammersley recalled Wills' preference for the Rugby game, but it was found to be confusing and too violent. Subsequently, they rejected common features such as "hacking" (shin-kicking) and produced a signed document listing ten simple rules suited to grown men and Australian conditions. Heading the list of signatories, Wills, too, saw the need for compromise. He wrote to his brother Horace: "Rugby was not a game for us, we wanted a winter pastime but men could be harmed if thrown on the ground so we thought differently." Thompson and Hammersley's promotion of the new code, together with Wills' star power, encouraged the spread of football throughout Victoria.
## Height of celebrity
After falling out with the MCC, Wills moved freely about Victoria, playing for any club of his choosing. He became president of Collingwood and vice-president of Richmond, raising the standard of the latter club's play to make it the best in the colony. There were calls to ban Wills from certain club matches, for his unexpected appearance in a side, often as a late inclusion, altered the odds to such an extent that bookmakers felt compelled to declare "all bets are off". All clubs still coveted Wills when it suited their cause, and scarcely a day passed when he did not play or practice cricket.
Wills retained the Victorian captaincy for the January 1859 intercolonial against New South Wales, held at the Domain. Despite breaking his right middle finger on day one while attempting a catch, Wills top scored in the first innings with 15\* and took 5/24 and 6/25, carrying Victoria to an upset win. Later that year, he resigned from the intercolonial match committee in protest after Thompson publicly chastised him for not attending practice ahead of the next match against New South Wales. During a follow-up practice match, players struggled in the day's heat, and ignoring calls to retire, Wills suffered a near-fatal sunstroke. Hammersley wrote that Wills felt obliged to perform for the large crowd that had gathered to watch him. Over 25,000 people attended the MCG in February 1860 to see Victoria, captained by Wills, play New South Wales. Wills bowled unchanged in both innings, taking 6/23 and 3/16, and top scored with 20\*. Victoria won by 69 runs.
The Melbourne media gave Wills the sobriquet "Great Gun of the Colony". A British correspondent called him "a cricketer born". The Sydney press, championing Wills as a native New South Welshman, agreed:
> Tall, muscular, and slender, Mr. Wills seems moulded by nature to excel in every branch of the noble game, ... on the field we find him the admiration of the ground, while in the combination of his successes, [his teammates] recognise with pride the still more arduous duties of an unwearied and most discreet captain.
Wills remained an influential figure in Australian football from 1859 to 1860. While he fought for the adoption of several Rugby School customs—such as a free kick for marking, the use of an oval-shaped ball, and (unsuccessfully) a crossbar—he pushed the game in new directions as a captain and tactician. During an 1860 match, he used positional play to exploit the code's lack of an offside law, at which point, according to James Coventry, "the full potential of the sport started to be realised".
At Wills' insistence, his cousin H. C. A. Harrison took up football in 1859, and quickly became a leading player and captain. Harrison venerated Wills, terming him "the beau-ideal of an athlete"—high praise given Harrison's status as the champion runner of Victoria. Their presence in Geelong fuelled a local craze for football and helped ensure during the game's early years the supremacy of the Geelong Football Club, which Wills captained in 1860. In an era when players moved freely among clubs, he still occasionally captained, and served on the committee of Melbourne, and in 1860, became the first captain and secretary of the Richmond Football Club (no connection with today's AFL club). The code underwent revisions around this time, principally in response to the on-field actions of dominant players. "And there were none more dominant than Wills and Harrison", writes Coventry.
## Queensland
With plans underway for the first tour of Australia by an English cricket team, Wills announced his retirement from sport. At his father's beckoning, Wills agreed to leave Victoria to help found and manage a new family station, Cullin-la-ringo, on the Nogoa River in outback Queensland. He prepared for six months in country Victoria where learnt the crafts of a squatter. In his will, Horatio—showing a "deep understanding" of Tom's personality—wrote that his son would be removed from the station and receive a diminished inheritance in the event of "misconducting himself" as manager.
In January 1861, Tom, Horatio and a party of employees and their families travelled by ship to Brisbane, disembarked in Moreton Bay, and then, with livestock and supplies, set out on an eight-month trek through Queensland's rugged interior. Food was scarce and Tom hunted native game to fend off starvation. They suffered many other hardships and even death when, in Toowoomba, one of Horatio's men drowned. On the Darling Downs over 10,000 sheep were collected. Hitherto the largest group of colonists to enter the area, the Wills party drew the attention of local Aboriginal people. Wary of what he called the "perpetual war between the whites and blacks" of Central Queensland, Horatio sought to avoid conflict. The party reached Cullin-la-ringo, situated on Gayiri Aboriginal land, in early October, and proceeded to set up camp.
### Cullin-la-ringo massacre
On 17 October, Horatio and 18 of his party died in Australia's deadliest massacre of colonists by Aboriginal people. Tom was away from the property at the time, having been sent with two stockmen to collect supplies the party left en route. He returned several days later to a scene of devastation. Despairing and vengeful, Wills first wrote to Harrison in Melbourne, listing for him the victims and requesting that he send replacements: "men that will shoot every black they see". Over the following weeks, police, native police and vigilante groups from neighbouring stations drove the Gayiri to near-extinction; an estimated 370 were killed. Due to a dearth of evidence, it has been said that Wills took no part in the counter-massacres. The question of his participation was raised in 2021 after a report that an anonymous Chicago Tribune article, dating from 1895, quotes him as saying that, during a raid on an Aboriginal camp, he and other avengers "killed all in sight".
Conflicting reports reached the outside world and for a time it was feared that Tom had died. In the press, Horatio was accused of ignoring warnings and allowing Aboriginal people to encroach on his property. The retribution was also deemed excessive. Tom vehemently defended his father against any perceived criticism. Privately, in his letter to Harrison, he admitted, "if we had used common precaution all would have been well". It was later revealed that, prior to leaving the camp, Tom "had a sort of presentiment" and advised those remaining to arm themselves, including Horatio, who assured him "It was only his boyish fears". The Queensland press, still in the wake of the massacre, suggested that Wills, "now a Queenslander", be approached to captain the colony's cricket team.
Different reasons were put forward at the time to account for the Wills tragedy. For many colonists, it confirmed the popular belief that Aboriginal people were bloodthirsty savages. Tom never articulated his version of events in writing, but his brother Cedric wrote years later that it was an act of revenge for an attack made on local Aboriginal people by Jesse Gregson, a neighbouring squatter whom they mistook to be Horatio. Cedric quoted Tom as saying, "If the truth is ever known, you will find that it was through Gregson shooting those blacks; that was the cause of the murder."
In the years following the massacre, Wills experienced flashbacks, nightmares and an irritable heart—symptoms of what is now known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Having eagerly participated in the drinking culture of colonial sport, he increased his alcohol consumption in a likely attempt to blot out memories and alleviate sleep disturbance. Wills' sister Emily wrote of him two months after the massacre: "He says he never felt so changed in the whole course of his life".
### Riot and expulsion
Wills made a vow over Horatio's grave to remain on Cullin-la-ringo and make it "the pride of Queensland"—words that, according to de Moore, "enshrined and imprisoned" Tom as the new head of the family. He began to rebuild the station pending the arrival of his uncle-in-law, William Roope, who took control of Cullin-la-ringo in December 1861, but soon left due to Wills' "exceedingly ill" treatment of him. Hypervigilant, Wills slept only three hours a night with a rifle within reach and watched for signs of another Aboriginal attack. Bushrangers and wildlife also posed threats, and for several weeks "sandy blight" left him half-blind. Short of station hands, he at times led the solitary life of a shepherd. "There is no one up here to love old Tom but the gum trees and the little lambs", he wrote to his mother.
He went to Sydney in January 1863 to captain Victoria against New South Wales on the Domain. A run out dispute led to Wills' decision to abandon play. A crowd riot ensued, with the "cabbage tree mob" stoning and beating the Victorians with sticks; Wills received a "severe blow" in the face from a stone before escaping the ground with his men under police escort. Despite this, and with only a nine-man batting order due to William Greaves and George Marshall having fled the city, Wills agreed to resume play the next day. He took 8 wickets and top scored in both innings (25\* and 17\*), but it was not enough to secure victory. The Melbourne media castigated Wills for allowing the game to resume, and Sydneysiders called him a turncoat for reneging on an earlier promise to play for New South Wales. He denied all accusations and wrote in an angry letter to The Sydney Herald: "I for one do not think that Victoria will ever send an Eleven up here again." Back in Victoria, he became engaged to Julie Anderson, a squatter's daughter. He seems to have done so to meet familial expectations. Even so, he was chided by his siblings for prioritising cricket over courtship. In May, as his mother grew concerned over his neglect of Cullin-la-ringo, Wills extended his sojourn south to play football in Geelong.
Wills finally returned to Queensland in May and was sworn in as a Justice of the Peace upon arrival in Brisbane. Over the next few months at Cullin-la-ringo, he reported to the press at least three fatal Aboriginal attacks on local colonists, a shepherd of his numbering among the victims. He accosted government officials for failing to send a native police detachment to his station for protection, and scorned city-dwellers for sympathising with the plight of Aboriginal people in the Nogoa region. With the cricket season approaching, Wills agreed to captain Queensland against New South Wales, and then left the colony to lead a Victoria XXII at the MCG against George Parr's All-England Eleven. In awe of his 1,800 mile dash across the continent to play cricket, the English thought it a madman's journey. Wills arrived on the final day of the match to a rapturous reception, and went in as a substitute fielder. He then joined the visitors on their Victorian tour.
The 1863–64 season saw Wills' engagement to Anderson collapse, possibly due to his womanising, and the trustees of Cullin-la-ringo accused him of mismanaging the property, in part by squandering family finances on alcohol while claiming it as station expenditure. They demanded that he stay in Victoria to answer for the property's runaway debt. In response, Wills left Australia to join Parr's XI on a month-long tour of New Zealand. Initially standing in as umpire, he went on to captain local teams against the English, and filled the same role for a Victoria XXII at the end of the tour in Melbourne. He faced the trustees soon after. With his mother's reluctant approval, they dismissed him from Cullin-la-ringo, thus fulfilling the premonition in Horatio's will.
## Return to Victoria
Wills moved to the family home in Geelong. Always a black sheep of sorts, he became increasingly estranged from his mother and sister Emily from this point on. Family letters from mid-1864 reveal that Wills had a "wife"—a "bad woman", according to Emily. It is likely a reference to the already-married Sarah Barbor (née Duff). Born in Dublin, she is a mysterious figure, but is known to have remained Wills' lifelong partner. The de facto nature of their relationship, and even Barbor's existence, were probably kept secret from Wills' mother for a number of years.
Throughout the 1865 football season, Wills played for and served on the committees of Melbourne and Geelong, then the game's most powerful clubs. At the end of a winter beset with public brawls over which team "owned" him, Wills moved to Geelong for the remainder of his career, prompting Bell's Life in Victoria to report that Melbourne had lost "the finest leader of men on the football field". The following year, when the running bounce and other rules were formalised at a meeting of club delegates under Harrison's chairmanship, Wills was not present; his move to Geelong had cut him off from the rule-making process in Melbourne.
Intercolonials between Victoria and New South Wales resumed at the MCG on Boxing Day 1865, nearly three years since the Sydney riot. Sam Cosstick, William Caffyn and other Victorian professionals defected to the rival colony due to pay disputes with the MCC. Wills, leading the weakened Victorian side to an against-the-odds win, took 6 wickets and contributed 58—the first half century in Australian first-class cricket—to 285, a record intercolonial total. Allegations that Wills cheated his way to victory failed to endanger his status as a folk hero and "a source of eternal hope" for Victoria.
## Aboriginal cricket team
In May 1866, plans were made by the MCC to host and play against an Aboriginal team from Victoria's Western District. The motive behind the match, set for Boxing Day of that year, was a financial one, and in August, Wills agreed to coach the Aboriginal players. Wills' reasons for accepting the role remain a mystery, but a growing need for money likely influenced his decision. The enterprise was to mark the beginning of his transition from amateur to professional sportsman.
Wills travelled inland in November to gather the players from Edenhope and Harrow, where they worked as station hands. One of their employers, William Hayman, acted as the team's manager and "protector". Mostly Jardwadjali men, they shared common vocabulary with the neighbouring Djab wurrung people, which enabled Wills to coach them in the Aboriginal language he learnt as a child. From their training ground at Lake Wallace, Wills, in a "tactical strike", boasted to the Melbourne press of the Aboriginal players' skills, especially the batsmanship of Unamurriman, commonly known as Mullagh. Uneasy over Wills' claims, the MCC strengthened the ranks of its Boxing Day side with non-members, attracting widespread criticism in the process. Public sympathy was with the Aboriginal players when they arrived in Melbourne in late December, and over 10,000 spectators went to the MCG to see them play. Captained by Wills, they lost against the MCC's reinforced side, but won unanimous praise for their performance. Wills afterwards accused the MCC of "treachery".
The team provoked much public discussion over past mistreatment of Aboriginal people and future relations between the races. It is unknown what Wills and his Aboriginal teammates made of these broader social and political dimensions of the enterprise. Some of Wills' contemporaries were shocked that he would associate with Aboriginal people in the shadow of his father's death. Others, such as this contributor to The Empire, addressed him as a hero:
> Although you may not be fully aware of the fact, allow me to tell you that you have rendered a greater service to the aboriginal races of this country and to humanity, than any man who has hitherto attempted to uphold the title of the blacks to rank amongst men.
Wills' role took on a symbolic significance: supporters and critics alike used his status as a 'native' (Australian-born colonist) to identify him with his 'native' (Indigenous) teammates, and he was also noted for speaking in "their own lingo". Jellico (Murrumgunarriman), the "team jester", joked to the press: "[Wills] too much along of us. He speak nothing now but blackfellow talk". While Melburnians were enthralled by Wills and the Aboriginal team, the annual intercolonial between Victoria and New South Wales—usually the season highlight—failed to excite public interest, and Victoria's loss in Sydney was partly attributed to Wills' absence. The Aboriginal players improved as they toured Victoria under his captaincy in January. After an easy win in Geelong, Wills took the team to "Belle Vue" to meet his mother. Back in Melbourne, two members, Bullocky (Bullenchanach) and Cuzens (Yellana), joined Wills in representing Victoria against a Tasmanian XVI.
In February 1867, they went to Sydney to begin an intercolonial and overseas tour. Aware of the tour's lucrative potential, New South Wales captain Charles Lawrence invited the team to stay at his hotel on Manly Beach. Their first match against his club at the Albert Ground in Redfern halted dramatically when policemen entered the field and arrested Wills. He and W. E. B. Gurnett, the tour promoter, had been vying to take over as manager, and Wills ended up in gaol for a breach of contract. Within days of his release in March, Gurnett embezzled some of the funds and left the team stranded in Sydney, dashing any hopes of a trip overseas and confirming Wills' suspicion that he was a con artist. Lawrence set up a "benefit" match for the team and joined them on their travels outside Sydney. By the end of the New South Wales leg of the tour, he had usurped Wills as captain.
No longer attracting significant crowds or media attention, they returned to the Western District in May; Lawrence stayed with the team while Wills went to Geelong to play football. It has been said that, due to his drinking habit, Wills exercised a "bad influence" upon the players, four of whom died from illness during or soon after the tour; the inquest into one death, that of Watty (Bilvayarrimin), and a follow-up police report found evidence of alcohol abuse among the players.
The surviving members formed part of the Aboriginal XI which Lawrence took to England in 1868, making it the first Australian sports team to travel overseas. Wills resented Lawrence for reviving the team without him; his exclusion from the landmark tour has been called the tragedy of his sporting career.
## Ambiguous professional
Without career prospects beyond sport, Wills joined the MCC as a professional at the start of the 1867–68 season; however, he was not openly referred to as such. Instead, the club devised the title of 'tutor' in order that he maintain the prestige of his amateur background.
Played on the MCG, the December 1867 intercolonial between Victoria and New South Wales ended in a sound victory for the former, principally due to Wills' nine-wicket haul and Richard Wardill's century. Wills had been Victoria's preferred captain for over a decade. Writing in his sports column, Hammersley claimed that, as a paid cricketer, Wills lacked "moral ascendancy" over amateurs. When he lost the captaincy to Wardill, an amateur, on the eve of the March 1869 match against New South Wales, he refused to play under him, or, indeed, anyone else. The Victorians condemned Wills and resolved to go on without him, after which he retracted his decision not to play. This was the last intercolonial played on the Domain and Victoria recovered from Wardill's diamond duck to win by 78 runs. Wills scalped 7 wickets in a single innings.
After the intercolonial, Wills announced that he would not play for Victoria again, even if the colony wanted him. He planned to return to Cullin-la-ringo in early 1869, but his mother, still "very dissatisfied" with him, requested that he stay away from the station. The MCC took him back and he continued to act as a tutor with the club. Wills' former Aboriginal teammates, Mullagh and Cuzens, joined him at the MCC as paid bowlers.
Wills' physical appearance had deteriorated; gaining weight, balding and generally unkempt, with "an alcoholic blush of his cheeks", he looked older than his years. Describing his body as "stiff" during a cricket match in 1870, he hinted, for the first time, that his talent was fading. Nevertheless, his reputation as Australia's preeminent cricketer remained intact, with one journalist writing:
> The veteran "Tommy Wills" has long been acknowledged to be at all points the most accomplished cricketer Australia has ever seen. He is the best general out to captain a team; no man is more difficult to send from the wickets; ... and until lately his bowling was among the most difficult as well as the most killing.
## No-ball plot and downfall
> For Mr. Wills to no-ball Mr. Wardill for throwing is like Satan reproving sin.
Hardly a year had passed since Wills' return to Australia in 1856 without public comment on his suspect bowling action. Such comments increased as he aged and turned professional, and by 1870, many former allies that had once colluded to protect him, including journalists and officials, accused him of deliberately throwing. Wills' fame and influence helped make him a "convenient caricature" of the cricketing villain, one that, his critics urged, ought to be no-balled for the good of the game in the colonies.
In February 1870 at the MCG, Wills captained Victoria to a 265-run win over a New South Wales side featuring Twopenny (Jarrawuk), an Aboriginal paceman allegedly recruited by Lawrence as a foil to Wills' "chucks". Comparing the two, the Melbourne press surmised: "Undoubtedly Wills throws sometimes, but there is some decency about it, some disguise." In March, Victoria trounced a Tasmanian XVI in Launceston under Wills' leadership, though not without criticism of his bowling action. Amid accusations that Wills had incited a "plague" of throwing in Australia, one-time ally Hammersley, now Melbourne's foremost sportswriter, emerged as his harshest critic. He accused Wills of resorting to throwing to maintain pace as he aged, and criticised him for introducing a type of bouncer designed to injure and intimidate batsmen. The Australasian, Hammersley's newspaper, summarised Wills' modus operandi: "If I cannot hit your wicket or make you give a chance soon, I'll hit you and hurt you if I can. I'll frighten you out."
In the face of a looming crisis in his career, Wills admitted to throwing in his 1870–71 Australian Cricketers' Guide, and in so doing taunted his enemies to stop him. Nonetheless, he went on to captain Victoria in the March 1871 intercolonial against New South Wales, held at the Albert Ground. Wills' first innings top score of 39\* was offset by his drunken behaviour in the field, and he seemed reluctant to bowl for fear of being called. Victoria won by 48 runs. Not long after, Wills was no-balled for throwing for the first time in a club match. Rumour soon spread that the opposing club's owner had conspired with the umpire against Wills.
A series of superb club cricket performances in February 1872—including a single innings ten-wicket haul for 9 runs against St Kilda—removed any doubt that Wills would play for Victoria in the next intercolonial against New South Wales, scheduled for March on the MCG. Before the game, representatives from both colonies met and entered into a bilateral agreement designed to call Wills. When he opened the bowling, Wills became the first cricketer to be called for throwing in a top-class Australian match. The umpire called him two more times in two overs, and he did not bowl again. He was again no-balled when a Victorian side under his captaincy lost to a combined XIII from New South Wales, Tasmania and South Australia late in 1872.
Hammersley had seemingly triumphed in his campaign to have Wills banned from intercolonial cricket. In an exchange of personal attacks in the press, Wills implied that Hammersley was an architect of the no-ball plot, and protested that he and other English colonists were out to oppress native-born Australians. Wills went on to threaten him with legal action. Hammersley closed:
> You are played out now, the cricketing machine is rusty and useless, all respect for it is gone. You will never be captain of a Victorian Eleven again, ... Eschew colonial beer, and take the pledge, and in time your failings may be forgotten, and only your talents as a cricketer remembered. Farewell, Tommy Wills.
## Grace and comeback attempt
W. G. Grace, the Victorian era's most famous cricketer, brought an English team to Australia in 1873–74. Wills strove to play for Victoria against Grace and rival factions fought over his possible inclusion. Hammersley, a selector, ensured that he missed out. Wills went on to tour with, and play against the Englishmen. Irked by Wills' constant presence, Grace remarked that he seemed to regard himself as a representative of the whole of Australia. It was assumed that, on his homeward journey, Grace would play a final match in the South Australian capital of Adelaide, but he bypassed the city when Kadina, a remote mining town in the Copper Triangle, offered him more money. Wills coached Kadina's miners and captained them against Grace's XI. Played in an open, rock-strewn plain of baked earth, the game was deemed a farce. Wills made a pair and Grace later wrote of the "old Rugbeian" as a has-been. Grace neglected to mention that Wills bowled him, ending with 6/28.
In Geelong, Wills was still idolised, though he seemed discontented, seeking any chance to earn money through cricket in the major cities. He maintained an interest in the development of football, what he called "the king of games". He continued to suggest rule changes, such as the push in the back rule to curb injuries, and, as captain of Geelong, helped shape the sport's playing style. Utilising the speed and skill of Geelong's young players, Wills devised an innovative game plan—what he called "scientific football"—based on passing and running into open space. He pioneered another tactical manoeuvre in Ballarat by ordering his men to flood the backline to prevent the home side from scoring. Having enraged the crowd, he and his men incited them further by wasting time and deliberately kicking the ball out of bounds. A few years later, in a rare act of diplomacy, Wills quelled tensions after a rival club used his "unchivalrous tactics" against Geelong. He played his last football game in 1874.
After Wills' ejection from top-class cricket in 1872, the Victoria XI suffered a streak of losses against New South Wales. In his 1874–75 Australian Cricketers' Guide, Wills argued that Victoria needed a new captain. "No one reading his words could mistake its intent—what Victoria needed was Tom Wills", writes de Moore. For the first time in years, Wills' name appeared on the Victorian selectors' shortlist of players for the next intercolonial against New South Wales. Noting his faded skills and sullied reputation, the Melbourne press lamented, "There is some sentimental notion afloat that as a captain he is peerless." Pessimism gave way to hope as Wills promised to restore the colony's glory, and in February 1876 he led the Victoria XI onto the Albert Ground. Batting last in the order, he went for 0 and 4 and failed to take a wicket despite bowling the most overs of his side. The media blamed him for Victoria's 195-run loss. In turn, he blamed his teammates.
## Final years
By 1877, Wills' cricket career "had become a series of petty disputes in petty games" of "ever-deteriorating standards." No longer an office-bearer with Corio, he moved amongst lower-level clubs in the Geelong area, earning scraps of money wherever he could. In a brief postscript to one of several rejected applications for employment at the MCC, Wills gave voice to old cricketers "left in the cold", an "unmistakable backhander for the club" according to de Moore. He continues: "To see Wills simply as a beggar would be to misunderstand him."
After retiring as a footballer, Wills turned to umpiring and committee work, and despite his continued slide into debt, donated money and trophies for football competitions. He served as Geelong's vice-president from 1873 to 1876, and briefly as club delegate after the 1877 formation of the Victorian Football Association (VFA), but was dropped for unknown reasons. During the 1878 VFA season, he acted as central umpire, and defended his adjudication of a June match between Carlton and Albert Park in what would be his last public letter. That year, Wills, broke and hounded by creditors, began selling land in Geelong to help clear his debt, and moved with Barbor to South Melbourne. He held no positions of power at the South Melbourne Cricket Club and only occasionally appeared in local team lists, but managed to convince the club to open its ground to football in winter as a means of improving the turf's durability. Other clubs soon followed South Melbourne's example as football adapted to an oval-shaped field in the late 1870s. By this stage, the sport had spread throughout Australasia with Melbourne matches attracting the world's largest football crowds yet seen.
In late 1878, the MCC rejected Wills' last application for employment, and his dwindling income from cricket was "finally asphyxiated". From February 1879 onwards, Wills lived with Barbor in Heidelberg, a small village on the margins of Melbourne. His life that year went largely unrecorded, and he made only two trips outside of Heidelberg after moving; on one of these, in January 1880, Tom Horan saw him at the MCG during an intercolonial between Victoria and New South Wales. His alcoholism worsened over this period, as did Barbor's, also a heavy drinker. He occasionally coached the Heidelberg Cricket Club, its members composed mostly of farmers. On 13 March 1880, he played for the side against the Bohemians—a "travelling circus" of wealthy amateurs—in his last game. Wills took five wickets, his "chucks" working "sweetly" on the rough pitch. In his last surviving letters, sent two days later to his brothers on Cullin-la-ringo, he wrote that he felt "out of the world" in Heidelberg, and fantasised about escaping to Tasmania. Begging for money to help pay off debts, he promised, "I will not trouble any of you again".
### Suicide
Isolated and estranged from most of his family, Wills had become, in the words of cricket historian David Frith, "a complete and dangerous and apparently incurable alcoholic". Oft-repeated stories that Wills ended up in gaol or at Kew Asylum near the end of his life are not supported by substantive evidence. He and Barbor abruptly stopped drinking on 28 April 1880; it is presumed that they ran out of money to buy more alcohol. Two days later, Wills started to show signs of alcohol withdrawal, and on 1 May, Barbor, fearing that a calamity was at hand, admitted him to the Melbourne Hospital, where a physician treated him for delirium tremens. Later that night, Wills absconded, returned home and the next day, in the grip of paranoid delusions, committed suicide by stabbing a pair of scissors into his heart three times. The inquest, on 3 May, presided over by coroner Richard Youl, found that Wills "killed himself when of unsound mind from excessive drinking".
His burial took place the next day in an unmarked grave in Heidelberg Cemetery at a private funeral attended by only six people: his brother Egbert, sister Emily and cousin Harrison; Harrison's sister Adela and her son Amos; and cricketer Verney Cameron, who later ran an unsuccessful fundraiser for a tombstone over the grave. When asked by a journalist about her late son, Elizabeth Wills denied that Tom ever existed, and, according to family lore, she never spoke of him again.
## Personality
Wills struck his contemporaries as peculiar and at times narcissistic, with a prickly temperament, but also kind, charismatic and companionable. Often embroiled in controversy, he seemed to lack an understanding of how his words and actions could repeatedly get him into trouble. His obsession with sport was such that he showed little interest in anything else. Through his research, journalist Martin Flanagan concluded that Wills was "utterly bereft of insight into himself", and football historian Gillian Hibbins described him as "an overbearing and undisciplined young man who tended to blame others for his troubles and was more interested in winning a game than in respecting sporting rules." Wills' family and peers, though angered by his misbehaviour, frequently forgave him. It seems unlikely that he sought popular favour, but his strong egalitarian streak helped make him a folk hero. This widespread affection for him, coupled with an understanding of his waywardness, found expression in colonial mottoes and drinking songs, one sung in part: "I have a weakness, I confess — it is for Tommy Wills".
While his manner of speech was breezy and laconic, Wills, as a young adult back in Australia, developed a peculiar stream of consciousness style of writing that sometimes defied syntax and grammar. His letters are laced with puns, oblique classical and Shakespearean allusions, and droll asides, such as this one about Melbourne in a letter to his brother Cedric: "Everything is dull here, but people are kept alive by people getting shot at in the streets". The overall impression is one of "a mind full of energy and histrionic ideas without a centre".
> He could be dismissive, triumphant and brazen all within a single sentence. Whatever his inner world was, he rarely let it be known. Lines of argument or considered opinion were not developed. His stream of thought was in rapid flux and a string of defiant jabs. To give emphasis he underlined his words with a flourish. His punctuation was idiosyncratic. Language was breathless and explosive and he revelled in presenting himself and his motives as mysterious.
In one of his borderline "thought disordered" letters, it is evident that at times he entered a state of depersonalisation: "I do not know what I am standing on ... when anyone speaks to me I cannot for the life of me make out what they are talking about—everything seems so curious." In 1884, Hammersley compared Wills' incipient madness and fiery glare to that of Adam Lindsay Gordon, the Australian bush poet. Wills' mental instability is a source for speculation: epilepsy has been suggested as a possible cause of his perplexed mental state, and a variant of bipolar illness may account for his disjointed thinking and flowery, confused writings.
In 1923, the MCC discovered Wills' old cricket cap and put it on display in the Block Arcade, prompting Horace Wills to reflect: "My brother was the nicest man I ever met. Though his nature was care-free, amounting almost to wildness, he had the sweetest temper I have seen in a man, and was essentially a sportsman."
## Playing style and captaincy
> 'Great' athletes seem to be anointed every day; far rarer are those entitled to be considered 'original'. Tom Wills is such a figure in every respect.
Wills is regarded as Australia's first outstanding cricketer. "The picture of the athlete" in his prime, "full to overflowing with animal vigor", Wills seemed indestructible. Match reports refer to him as a Triton, a Colossus, "and many other things besides a cricketer". Intensely competitive, his win-at-all-costs mentality undermined the amateur ideal of friendly competition, as did his strategic use of intimidation. A natural leader, his supreme confidence emboldened those around him, and he never despaired the fortunes of his side, even in the face of probable defeat. On the off-chance that he sought another player's opinion, he invariably followed his own mind, and his resources at any critical juncture in a match were said to be always clever, and sometimes unique. "As a judge of the game he never had a superior", wrote Britain's The Sportsman. He was "at once a cricket crank and genius", according to The Bulletin. The rarity of Wills' genius drew comparisons to William Shakespeare's.
Classified as an all-rounder, Wills saw himself principally as a bowler. With a repertoire spanning "sparklers, rippers, fizzers, trimmers and shooters", he varied his pace and style in order to quickly work out a batsman's weak points. Noted for his deceptive slow deliveries, dropping mid-flight and big on break, Wills' fast round arm balls sometimes reared head-high from the pitch, terrorising his opponent. His bowling was said to have "the devil" in it at times; English batsman Sir David Serjeant remembered Wills as the only bowler he ever feared. In order to avoid being no-balled for throwing, Wills carefully studied the umpire, and developed various tricks, such as worrying aloud that he might be overstepping the crease at the point of delivery. With the umpire's attention diverted to his feet, Wills would "let go a throw for all he was worth". His most flagrant throws were likened to that of a baseball pitcher.
As a batsman, Wills was an unapologetic stonewaller with a "peculiarly ugly" style; his characteristic shots—cuts and to the leg side—ensured the primacy of defence. He summarised his technique thus: "The ball can't get through the bat." He could also abruptly turn explosive and, according to one sportswriter, hit as hard as Tom Sayers. On one occasion at the MCG, he made a drive into the Richmond Paddock for eight runs. An outstanding fieldsman anywhere, Wills excelled in the slips and ran out batsmen with deadly accurate throwing.
Wills was a "tear-away" footballer whose "pluck and skill", it was said, only George O'Mullane matched. The longest drop kick in Victoria, he was an elusive dodger, as at Rugby, and excelled in different positions, moving from a follower and goal-scorer in the ruck to full back. Of the early footballers, Wills was appraised as the greatest, most astute captain, and is credited with opening up the Australian game to new tactics and skills and a more free-flowing style of play. In July 1860—in what the press called a "coup de main", and what has since been regarded as a "tactical leap" that foreshadowed modern football—Wills breached the era's notional offside line by positioning his Richmond men down the field from defence to attack. By a series of short kick passes, they succeeded in scoring. That same month, captaining Melbourne to victory, he pioneered a rudimentary form of flooding; and, in another win for the club, exploited the low player turnout by instructing his men to dart with the ball in open spaces. In his season-by-season ranking of players, early football historian C. C. Mullen named Wills "Champion of the Colony" five times. Historian Bernard Whimpress called Wills an innovator who "would fit easily into today's game". Historian Geoffrey Blainey writes: "How many of the tricks and stratagems of the early years came from this clever tactician we will never know."
## Legacy
> He was buried on the hill top at Heidelberg, overlooking that green valley which, eight years later, Streeton and Roberts and the painters of the Heidelberg School would depict in summer colours. A third generation Australian—then a rarity—he had often expressed in football and cricket a version of the national feeling which these artists were to express in paint, and he had been quietly proud that the football game he did so much to shape was often called 'the national game'.
Australia's first celebrity sportsman, Wills began to fade from public consciousness within his own lifetime. His dark reputation and suicide, and his links to convictism and frontier violence—sources of cultural cringe—have been posited as reasons for his descent into obscurity. Academic Barry Judd called him "a ghost inhabiting the margins of written history". Coinciding with a revival of interest in Australia's colonial past, Wills has risen "almost to a vogue", and is seen as a forerunner of today's self-destructive star athletes, some of those qualities that alienated his peers "being less shocking to a generation that likes its heroes flawed". The subject of scholarly, literary and artistic works, his story has been likened to Ned Kelly's as a powerful and quintessentially Australian narrative, and in 2006, The Bulletin named him as one of the 100 most influential Australians. After several attempts by different authors since the 1930s, a comprehensive biography was published in 2008, Greg de Moore's Tom Wills: First Wild Man of Australian Sport.
Wills' unmarked gravesite was restored in 1980 with a headstone erected by the MCC using public funds. He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1989 and became an inaugural member of the Australian Football Hall of Fame in 1996. The Tom Wills Room in the MCG's Shane Warne Stand serves as a venue for corporate functions. A statue outside the MCG, sculpted by Louis Laumen and erected in 2001, depicts Wills umpiring the famous 1858 football match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. The AFL commemorated the 150th anniversary of the match by staging the Tom Wills Round during the 2008 AFL Season. The two schools played in a curtain raiser at the MCG ahead of the round opener between Melbourne and Geelong. That same year, Victoria's busiest freeway interchange, the Monash–EastLink interchange in Dandenong North, was named the Tom Wills Interchange. Tom Wills Oval, inaugurated in 2013 at Sydney Olympic Park, serves as the training base for the AFL's Greater Western Sydney Giants.
### Marngrook theory
Since the 1980s, it has been suggested that Wills played or observed an Aboriginal football game, Marngrook, as a child growing up in the Grampians among the Djab wurrung, and incorporated some of its features into early Australian football. The theory has provoked intense debate, amounting to a controversy dubbed "football's history wars". In her essay "A Seductive Myth", published in the AFL's The Australian Game of Football Since 1858 (2008), Hibbins calls the proposed link an "emotional belief" lacking "any intellectual credibility". She points out that neither Wills nor any of his fellow football founders mention Aboriginal games in existing documents, and states that there is no evidence of Marngrook being played in the vicinity where Wills grew up. Since then, among the personal papers of ethnographer Alfred William Howitt, an interview has been found with a Mukjarrawaint man who recalls playing Marngrook in the Grampians. Also, in his first-hand account of Aboriginal games, James Dawson, an Aboriginal rights activist, records the Djab wurrung word for football as "Min'gorm". De Moore therefore argues that Marngrook was likely played around where Wills lived as a boy, "or, at the very least, that the local Aboriginal people knew of such a game". That Wills knew of Marngrook, he adds, is speculative at best.
Proponents of a link point to the games' similarities, such as drop punting the ball and leaping, catching feats. Academics Jenny Hocking and Nell Reidy write that Wills, in adapting football to Melbourne's parklands, wanted a game that kept the players off the ground and the ball in the air. "It is here", they argue, "in the interstices between rugby and Australian football, that the influence of [Marngrook] can be seen most clearly". Historian John Hirst countered that early Australian football was aligned with rugby-style roots, and bore little resemblance to Marngrook. According to de Moore, Wills was "almost solely influenced" by Rugby School football, with local conditions also having an effect.
Flanagan promoted the Marngrook theory in his novel The Call (1996), an historical imagining into Wills' life, and argued in an essay addressed to Wills that he must have known Aboriginal games as it was in his nature to play: "There's two things about you everybody seems to have agreed on—you'd drink with anyone and you'd play with anyone." He quotes Lawton Wills Cooke, a descendant of Horace Wills (Tom's brother), who said a family story had been passed down about Tom playing Marngrook as a boy. Family historian T. S. Wills Cooke disputed that such a story existed, calling the Marngrook link "a bridge too far" and an example of historical revisionism motivated by political correctness. Despite lacking in hard evidence, the theory is often presented as factual. In Moyston, the self-proclaimed birthplace of Australian football, stands an AFL-endorsed monument, unveiled by historian Col Hutchinson, commemorating Wills' childhood in the area playing Marngrook.
### The "father of football"
The role that Wills and others played in pioneering Australian football went largely unrecognised in their lifetimes, as the sport had yet to develop a historical perspective. By the late 1870s, Wills' 1858 letter calling for the organisation and codification of football was singled out as a seminal document. He wrote at this time that he attempted to promote football in Victoria as early as 1857, "but it was not taken to kindly until the following year". By 1908, the year of Australian football's jubilee celebrations, H. C. A. Harrison had become known as the "father of football" on account of his substantial reputation on and off the field. Wills was the next most often recalled pioneer during this period, and Harrison credited him with initiating the sport when he "recommended that we Australians should work out a game of our own." More recent historiography has shown that while Harrison played a pivotal role over a long period, he did not co-write the first rules in 1859, nor did he play in the 1858 games. With this correction, a number of historians elevated Wills to a position of pre-eminence, variously calling him the game's founder, father or inventor. Blainey said of Wills: "It is far too much to say that he founded the game, but it would be too little to say that he was simply one among many founders."
It is often said that, due to his suicide, Wills was written out of the game's history, or at the very least downplayed as an important figure. De Moore rejects this view, noting that the contributions of Hammersley, Smith, Thompson and other pioneers, rather than those of Wills, were generally overlooked. In her analysis of early football, Hibbins concludes that Thompson's journalistic ability as a promoter of the game "probably" makes him the most significant pioneer, and that the importance of Wills' role has been overemphasised. Echoing Hibbins' arguments, Roy Hay writes that Wills, while a "catalyst" for football, was "much more interested in playing and performing than in organising". British historian Tony Collins even compared Wills to William Webb Ellis and Abner Doubleday, the apocryphal inventors of rugby and baseball, respectively. In response to Collins' suggestion that Wills "quickly faded from the footballing scene", journalist James Coventry highlighted his seventeen-year playing career (by far the longest of the pioneers), the influence he wielded as captain-coach of various clubs for much of that time, and his administrative work. He concludes that Collins and other scholars have "perversely" devalued Wills' real contributions "in their rush to discredit [the Marngrook theory]".
## See also
- Cultural depictions of Tom Wills
- List of Australian rules footballers and cricketers
- List of cricketers called for throwing in top-class cricket matches in Australia
- List of Victoria first-class cricketers
- Tom Wills Medal
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"Fictional bullies",
"Fictional characters based on real people",
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"Fictional con artists",
"Fictional criminals in television",
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Eric Theodore Cartman, commonly referred to by his surname, is a fictional character in the adult animated sitcom South Park, created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone. He is voiced by Parker, and is one of the series' four main characters, alongside Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, and Kenny McCormick. He first appeared with the name Kenny in the short film The Spirit of Christmas (1992), and later appeared in the 1995 film of the same title before debuting in "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe", the first episode of the series, on August 13, 1997.
Cartman is an elementary school student who lives with his single mother, Liane, in the eponymous Colorado town. Cartman is principally characterized by his obesity, his amorality, and his bigoted and especially antisemitic disposition, being described by Parker and Stone as "a little Archie Bunker." In later seasons, Cartman exhibits increasingly sociopathic and manipulative behavior. The latter is showcased through Cartman's various schemes, the majority of which fail either due to opposition from other characters or Cartman's own hubris.
Cartman is widely considered to be the most popular South Park character, one of the most influential fictional characters of all time, and an American cultural icon. Parker and Stone have stated that he is their favorite character, and the one with whom they most identify. South Park has received both praise and criticism for Cartman's politically incorrect behavior.
## Role in South Park
Cartman attends South Park Elementary as part of Mr. Garrison's class. During the first 58 episodes, he and his classmates were in the third grade, before transitioning to the fourth grade during the fourth season. He is the only child of Liane Cartman, a promiscuous single mother. In the episode "Cartman's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut", Liane is revealed to be intersex, being both Eric's mother and father. This revelation is later revealed to be an elaborate ruse in the fourteenth-season episode "200". In the following episode, "201", it is revealed that Cartman's true biological father is Jack Tenorman, a former player for the Denver Broncos whom he arranged to have killed in "Scott Tenorman Must Die"; Scott Tenorman, Jack's son, is thus revealed to be Cartman's half-brother.
Cartman is distinguished from most of the other children by a wider physical appearance, and is subject to ridicule from others for his obesity. He is most commonly portrayed as an antagonist, with most of his actions driving the events of many episodes. Cartman is alienated by the majority of the other children for his strong amorality, but they are occasionally influenced by his manipulation.
Though Cartman has shared an enmity with all three of his friends, his rivalry with Stan and Kyle has progressed significantly during the show's run, with Cartman routinely exposing them to physical endangerment. Cartman, a staunch antisemite, reflects most of his hatred towards the Jewish Kyle, such as deliberately infecting him with HIV ("Tonsil Trouble"). Kyle occasionally exhibits similar behavior in such episodes as "Fatbeard", wherein he encourages him to travel to Somalia, hoping he will be killed.
His rivalry with the other characters stems from opposition with their personalities. Where Kyle is restrained by firm morals, Cartman indulges in sadistic hedonism. He revealed that he hated Kenny the most in the episode "Jakovasaurs". He has on numerous occasions made fun of Kenny for being poor. In "Kenny Dies", Cartman takes advantage of his declining health to get a ban on stem cell research lifted in order to construct his own Shakey's Pizza restaurant out of fetus stem cells. However, Cartman also implies that Kenny is his best friend, making their relationship unclear.
Kyle is sometimes an enthusiastic participant in Cartman's schemes and he is sometimes seen treating Kyle well, although this is generally to put aside their hatred momentarily for a common goal or for manipulation. Parker and Stone have compared the relationship to that between Archie Bunker and Michael Stivic on All in the Family. Kyle has a tendency to make what he thinks are safe bets with Cartman, often losing these bets when the improbable actions promised by Cartman are accomplished. Cartman's motivation in this regard is not only monetary gain, but an obsession with beating Kyle, a fixation that ultimately plays a major part in a subplot to the three-part "Imaginationland". This obsession has been shown to overshadow other goals Cartman wishes to achieve. Cartman has a high sadistic streak towards Kyle, and has repeatedly expressed desire in seeing him suffer, often to extremes. In "You're Getting Old", it is suggested that Kyle and Cartman may be developing a genuine friendship, possibly due to the void left by Stan's apparent departure. This relationship ends in "Ass Burgers", however, due to Kyle finding out how Cartman was producing his hamburgers. Cartman's resentment of Stan is at times reserved for when Cartman actively proclaims his hatred for both Stan and Kyle as a duo, and his contempt for Stan as an individual is usually due to his annoyance with Stan's sensitivity, affection for animals, and relationship with Wendy Testaburger.
Despite being intolerant of other cultures, Cartman displays an aptitude for learning foreign languages. He knows German, and once uses this knowledge to impersonate Adolf Hitler while promoting the extermination of Jews to an oblivious audience that did not speak German, and in interactions with Mexican laborers, such as the episode "My Future Self n' Me", seems to speak at least conversational Spanish. This is in service of a running joke in which Cartman displays incredible aptitude at quickly learning almost any topic in service of his schemes, despite being an awful student in a school environment and displaying extreme ignorance about subjects that do not immediately interest him.
Conversely, in "Major Boobage", Cartman shelters the town's cats when they are outlawed; outside of episodes that take place in alternate timelines, this is the only multi-scene plotline in which Cartman acts in a traditionally moral way without any ulterior motive being indicated on-screen.
Cartman will use an awkward pause during a conversation as an opportunity to casually remind Kenny that he hates him. Cartman's mischievous treatment of Butters, and the relationship the duo shares, has received significant focus in the more recent seasons of the series. This reflects Parker's interest, as the scenes between the two are the ones he most enjoys writing.
Several episodes concern Cartman's greed and his get-rich-quick schemes, although his numerous attempts to attain wealth generally fail. His extreme disdain for hippies serves to satirize the counterculture of the 1960s and its influence in contemporary society, reflecting Parker's real-life antipathy towards hippies. Though the role is customarily taken by Stan or Kyle, Cartman will occasionally be the one to reflect on the lessons learned during the course of an episode with a speech that often begins with "You know, I've learned something today ...".
## Character
### Creation and design
A precursor to Cartman first appeared in the first The Spirit of Christmas short, dubbed Jesus vs. Frosty, created by Parker and Stone in 1992 while they were students at the University of Colorado. In the short, the character resembling Cartman was named "Kenny", and a variation of the catchphrase "Oh my God, they killed Kenny!" was exclaimed when this character was killed by an evil snowman. The character was composed of construction paper cutouts and animated through the use of stop motion. When commissioned three years later by friend Brian Graden to create another short as a video Christmas card that he could send to friends, Parker and Stone created another similarly-animated The Spirit of Christmas short, dubbed Jesus vs. Santa. In this short, his character first appears as he does in the series, and is given the name "Cartman", while the character of Kenny appears as the character is depicted today and given Cartman's moniker from the previous short. Cartman next appeared on August 13, 1997, when South Park debuted on Comedy Central with the episode "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe".
In keeping with the show's animation style, Cartman is composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors. He is not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand-drawn characters; his character is mostly shown from one direction, and his movements intentionally jerky. Ever since the show's second episode, "Weight Gain 4000" (season one, 1997), Cartman, like all other characters on the show, has been animated with computer software, though he is portrayed to give the impression that the show still utilizes its original technique.
Cartman is usually depicted wearing winter attire which consists of a red coat, brown pants, yellow gloves/mittens, and a yellow-brimmed turquoise knit cap tapered with a yellow pom-pom. He has parted brown hair, and he is seen without his hat more often than the other characters with distinctive headwear. As he is overweight, his body is wider and his hands noticeably larger than those of the other children, and his head is more elliptical. An additional curved line on his lower face represents a double chin.
Parker adduced that he came up with the voice of Cartman while he and Stone were in film class, where they would speak in high-pitched childish voices, which was quite irksome to their film teachers. They would naturally reproduce these voices in the initial seasons of South Park. Although he had originally voiced Cartman without any computer manipulation, Parker now does so by speaking within his normal vocal range with a childlike inflection. The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools, and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound like that of a fourth grader. Parker says to achieve the effect of Cartman's voice, he simply uses the same technique when voicing Stan while "adding a lot of fat to it".
### Development
Cartman is partially named after and based on Matt Karpman, a high school classmate of Parker who remains a friend of both Parker and Stone. Cartman is also inspired to some degree by All in the Family patriarch Archie Bunker, who is himself inspired by Alf Garnett from Till Death Us Do Part, the original British version of All in the Family. Parker and Stone are reportedly big fans of All in the Family. They alleged in 2008 that creating Cartman as a "little eight-year-old fat kid" made it easier for the two to portray a Bunker-like character after the introduction of political correctness to late-20th century television. While developing the character, Parker noted that everyone either remembers "an annoying fat kid in their pasts", or "they were the annoying fat kid". Stone has observed that "kids are not nice, innocent, flower-loving little rainbow children ... they don't have any kind of social tact or etiquette, they're just complete little raging bastards".
In the season five (2001) episode "Scott Tenorman Must Die", Cartman is tricked into buying the pubic hair of a local ninth-grader named Scott Tenorman for \$16.12. He then successfully executes an elaborate scheme to publicly humiliate Scott in front of his favorite band Radiohead, by getting Scott's parents killed and then tricking Scott into eating them. The show's writers debated during production of the episode whether or not the incident would be "a step too far, even for Cartman". Parker felt that the act could sufficiently be the culmination of Cartman's sociopathic behavior, and would "[set] a new bar" by portraying Cartman as being capable of performing anything short of murder. Fans reacted by ranking it as Cartman's "greatest moment" in a 2005 poll on Comedy Central's website. It is later revealed in the season fourteen episode "201" that Jack Tenorman, Scott's father, was a football player for the Denver Broncos who impregnated Cartman's mom, therefore making him Cartman's father too.
Parker and Stone, despite being the basis for Stan and Kyle, insist that Cartman is their favorite character, and the one with whom they identify the most.
### Personality and traits
Cartman uses profanity (as do his friends) to provide a means for Parker and Stone to portray how they believe young boys really talk when they are alone. According to Parker, Cartman does not possess the "underlying sweetness" of the show's other child characters. Cartman is shown at times to be completely amoral and remorseless. Cartman, as with Stan Marsh and Kyle Broflovski, is amused by bodily functions and toilet humor, and his favorite television personalities are Terrance and Phillip, a Canadian duo whose comedy routines on their show-within-the-show revolve substantially around fart jokes.
Cartman is sensitive and in denial about his obesity. Often reasserting Liane's notion by exclaiming "I'm not fat, I'm big-boned!" and will just as often either threaten to bring harm to anyone who mocks his weight or curse them out in aggravation. He has also had people killed; after his psychiatrist mocked his weight, Cartman framed the man as a pedophile to his wife, causing her to commit suicide. He views himself as more mature than his fellow friends and classmates, and often grows impatient with their company; despite claiming to be more mature, he will often break down crying childishly and pathetically whenever he feels defeated. This often leads to loud arguments, which in earlier seasons typically end with Cartman peevishly saying "Screw you guys ... I'm going home!" and then leaving. In an action King's College philosophy professor David Kyle Johnson describes as "directed either toward accomplishing his own happiness or the unhappiness of others", Cartman often feigns actual friendship with his classmates when needing a favor. The lack of a true father figure in his life, and Liane's promiscuity and drug use have caused repressed psychological hardship in Cartman's life. As a parent, Liane often spoils Cartman, and is largely ineffectual as a disciplinarian. Cartman sometimes commands his mom to do tasks for him, but more often resorts to pleading with her in an ingratiating tone. When neither method works, he resorts to excessive and indecipherable whining, to which Liane usually succumbs. Parker has noted that this is the primary cause for Cartman's behavior, stating that Cartman is "just a product of his environment".
> We always had this thing where Cartman's mother was so sweet—she was always so sweet to him and giving him whatever he wanted. And I don't know if it's worse in L.A. than most places in the country—I hope so—but [we've met] so many parents who were just so desperately trying to be friends to their kids. And it was the thing we really picked up on. And it was just like, 'These [people] are making these really evil kids'.
> – Trey Parker, discussing Liane's role in shaping Cartman's personality in an interview with NPR
Cartman thrives on achieving ascendancy over others, and exerts his will by demagogy and by demanding that others "Respect my authoritah!" Cartman has several times declared that his dream is getting "Ten million dollars", and that if he got it he would be "so happy". He has shown initiative in taking a businesslike approach to earning money, starting his own "hippie control" and "parental revenge" operations, as well as a Christian Rock and a boy band, a basketball team of crack babies (parody of the NCAA) and his own church.
Cartman's anti-Semitism, while mostly limited to mocking Kyle, culminates in the season eight episode "The Passion of the Jew". In the episode, Cartman, after watching The Passion of the Christ numerous times, deifies the film's director, Mel Gibson, and starts an official Gibson fan club, praising Gibson for "trying to express—through cinema—the horror and filthiness of the common Jew". Cartman's interpretation of the film influences him to dress up as Adolf Hitler and lead other fan club members (who are oblivious of Cartman's actual intentions) in a failed effort to engage in a systematic genocide of the Jews similar to that of the Final Solution. In the season 10 episode "Smug Alert!", Cartman anonymously saves Kyle's life in an effort to get him and his family to return to South Park from San Francisco, revealing that he craves the animosity shared between the two. Cartman later directs the "evil god" Cthulhu to destroy "most of the synagogues" during the season 14 episode "Coon vs. Coon and Friends".
Upon hearing his classmates tell him that they hold him in the lowest regard possible and that they could not possibly think any worse of him, a stubborn Cartman misinterprets this act as their attempt to make him feel better, and convinces himself that everyone thinks he is the "coolest kid in school". In the season 13 (2009) episode "Fishsticks", Cartman subconsciously believes that he helped in creating a joke that quickly becomes a nationwide sensation, despite the fact that the character Jimmy Valmer writes the joke without any assistance. Carlos Delgado of If Magazine noted this as "Cartman being so egotistical that he manipulates the past to serve his own purposes".
Though he is commonly portrayed as having a chauvinist disrespect for foreign cultures, Cartman is shown at least twice ("My Future Self n' Me" and "Pandemic") to be able to speak fluent Spanish (and German).
## Cultural impact
Cartman is a South Park fan favorite, and is often described as the most famous character from the series as well as having a significant influence on comedy and culture. With a headline to their online written version of a radio report, NPR declared Cartman as "America's Favorite Little \$@#&\*%". "Respect my authoritah!" and "Screw you guys ... I'm going home!" became catchphrases and, during the show's earlier seasons, were highly popular in the lexicon of viewers. His eccentric enunciation of "Hey!" was included in the 2002 edition of The Oxford Dictionary of Catchphrases. Stone has said that when fans recognize him or Parker, the fans will usually do their imitation of Cartman, or, in Parker's case, request that he do Cartman's voice.
In 2005, Comedy Central ran a three-night marathon of episodes showcasing what voters had deemed to be his "25 greatest moments". A two-disc DVD collection entitled "The Cult of Cartman", which Comedy Central described as "12 classic episodes with Cartman at his very worst!", was released in 2008.
In a 1999 poll conducted by NatWest Bank, eight and nine-year-old children in the United Kingdom voted Cartman as their favorite personality. This drew the concern of several parent councils who were expecting a character from a television show aimed at children to top the list, to which Stone responded by claiming the results of the poll were "upsetting to people who have an idyllic vision of what kids are like".
While some in the Jewish community have praised the show's depiction of Cartman holding an anti-Semitic attitude towards Kyle as a means of accurately portraying what it is like for a young Jew to have to endure prejudice, other Jews have blamed South Park and Cartman for having found themselves surrounded by "acceptable racism". On November 20, 2008, a Facebook group titled "National Kick a Ginger Day, are you going to do it?" surfaced, suggesting abuse towards redheads. Thousands of internet users signed up as a member of the group, and reports of a feared increase of bullying of red-headed students across Canada soon followed. The group's administrator, a 14-year-old from Vancouver Island, said the group was only intended as a joke, and apologized for the offense it caused. The group was inspired by the season nine (2005) episode "Ginger Kids", in which Cartman incites prejudice towards those with red hair, pale skin, and freckles, a group he calls "Gingers" and claims are inherently evil and without souls. A YouTuber, Coppercab, was deeply offended by Cartman's belittlement to gingers. Cartman recreated one of Coppercab's videos, complete with looking like a ginger child, acting crazy, and saying that gingers do have souls.
Other characters commonly express lessons learned from the antagonistic actions Cartman commonly provokes; this has resulted in these characters giving their opinions on issues such as hate crime legislation, civil liberties, excessive religious devotion, the stem cell controversy, anabolic steroid use, the "right to die" debate, and prejudice. In the season 10 (2006) episode "Cartoon Wars Part II", Cartman, planning to exploit the public's fear of terrorism, seeks to get the Fox television series Family Guy, a program he despises, permanently removed from the airwaves when Fox plans to air an episode despite its inclusion of a cartoon likeness of Muhammad. This leads Kyle to give a short speech about the ethics of censorship, which reiterates Parker and Stone's sentiments of "Either it's all okay, or none of it is" in regards to whether or not any subject should remain off-limits to satire. Both Cartman's commentary and the commentary resulting in response to his actions have been interpreted as statements Parker and Stone are attempting to make to the viewing public, and these opinions have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world.
The book South Park and Philosophy: You Know, I Learned Something Today includes an essay in which Johnson uses Cartman's actions and behavior as examples when discussing the logical problem of moral evil, and another essay by College of Staten Island professor Mark D. White cited the season two (1998) episode "Chickenlover", in which Cartman is temporarily granted law enforcement powers, in its discussion regarding the command theory of law and what obligates a citizen to obey the law. Essays in the books South Park and Philosophy: Bigger, Longer, and More Penetrating, Blame Canada! South Park and Contemporary Culture, and Taking South Park Seriously have also analyzed Cartman's perspectives within the framework of popular philosophical, theological, political, and social concepts. Parker and Stone downplay the show's alignment with any particular political affiliation, and deny having a political agenda when creating an episode. In response to the focus on elements of satire in South Park, Parker has said that the main goal of the show is to portray Cartman and his friends as "kids just being kids" as a means of accurately showcasing "what it's like to be in [elementary school] in America".
### Recognition
TV Guide ranked Cartman at number 10 on their 2002 list of the "Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters", 24th on TV Guide's "25 Greatest TV Villains", 198th on VH1's "200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons", and 19th on Bravo's "100 Greatest TV Characters" television special in 2004. When declaring him the second-scariest character on television (behind only Mr. Burns of The Simpsons) in 2005, MSNBC's Brian Bellmont described Cartman as a "bundle of pure, unadulterated evil all wrapped up in a fat—er, big-boned—cartoony package" who "takes a feral delight in his evildoing". In 2014, IGN ranked Cartman first place on their list of "The Top 25 South Park Characters", commenting that he was "the obvious choice" of number one and that "sometimes the obvious choice is also the right one." The website stated that despite Cartman being "one of the worst human beings in the history of fiction ... he's the most loathsome character we've ever loved." IGN concluded by calling him "the biggest contribution to the world of animated characters that South Park has made – and that's saying something." In 2020, Paste ranked Cartman as \#17 of their "The 50 Best Cartoon Characters of All Time".
## In other media
- Cartman has a major role in South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, the full-length film based on the series, and appeared on the film's soundtrack singing the same musical numbers performed in the movie. As a tribute to the Dead Parrot sketch, a short that features Cartman attempting to return a dead Kenny to a shop run by Kyle aired during a 1999 BBC television special commemorating the 30th anniversary of Monty Python's Flying Circus. Cartman is also featured in the documentary film The Aristocrats, telling his version of the film's titular joke to Stan, Kyle, and Kenny, and in "The Gauntlet", a short spoofing both Gladiator and Battlefield Earth that aired during the 2000 MTV Movie Awards.
- Cartman is a central character in South Park: Post Covid, the second film based on the series. In the film, which takes place 40 years after the events of the series, Cartman is depicted as having converted to Orthodox Judaism, becoming a rabbi with a wife and three children, much to the chagrin of Kyle.
- Cartman returns in the follow-up special South Park: Post Covid: The Return of Covid. In it, Cartman has thoroughly convinced his family that Kyle is out to break them apart on the grounds of being anti-Jewish (in reality, Kyle intends to go back in time to try and alter the events of the COVID outbreak and Cartman is concerned that this will cost him his family). In retaliation, Cartman organizes a rebellion group consisting of Butters, Clyde and Scott Malkinson with the sole purpose of going back in time and killing him. After a brief altercation with Kyle himself, Cartman changes his mind about the plan and kills an adult Clyde in the past, who volunteered to attempt to kill Kyle, allowing Stan and Kyle to help their younger selves save their friendship before the pandemic kicked off. In the now-altered future, Cartman is shown to be poor, homeless, and bitter.
- For their 2007 Snakes & Arrows tour, the rock band Rush commissioned a short, video introduction for the song "Tom Sawyer". Cartman, dressed in a long wig to look like singer Geddy Lee, sings his own, personal, version of the song's lyrics prompting the usual outrage from Kyle. The video can be seen on the band's Snakes & Arrows concert video.
- In 2002, Cartman became the main protagonist of a series of promotional videos for the Los Angeles Kings of the NHL, which are played on the big-screen TVs inside of Staples Center where the character ridicules the mascots of rival teams and reacts to various aspects of the game.
- Short clips of Cartman introducing the starting lineup for the University of Colorado football team were featured during ABC's coverage of the 2007 match-up between the University of Colorado and the University of Nebraska.
- In 2008, Parker, as Cartman, gave answers to a Proust Questionnaire conducted by Julie Rovner of NPR.
- Parker performs as Cartman on tracks for Chef Aid: The South Park Album and Mr. Hankey's Christmas Classics. Cartman also appears in six South Park-related video games: In South Park, Cartman is controlled by the player through the first-person shooter mode who attempts to ward off enemies from terrorizing the town of South Park. In South Park: Chef's Luv Shack, a user has the option of playing as Cartman when participating in the game's several "minigames" based on other popular arcade games. In the racing game South Park Rally, a user can race as Cartman against other users playing as other characters, while choosing to place him in any of a variety of vehicles. In South Park Let's Go Tower Defense Play!, Cartman can be selected as a playable character used to establish a tower defense against the game's antagonists. In South Park: The Stick of Truth, Cartman is the leader of one of two tribes in South Park, at war over the Stick of Truth. He plays a similar role in this game's superhero themed sequel, South Park: The Fractured but Whole, where he leads the Coon & Friends team.
## See also
- South Park (Park County, Colorado)
- South Park City
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Temple of Set
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Occult initiatory order founded in 1975
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"1975 establishments in California",
"Left-Hand Path",
"Magical organizations",
"Organizations based in California",
"Religious organizations established in 1975",
"Set (deity)",
"Setians"
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The Temple of Set is an occult initiatory order founded in 1975. A new religious movement and form of Western esotericism, the Temple espouses a religion known as Setianism, whose practitioners are called Setians. This is sometimes identified as a form of Satanism, although this term is not often embraced by Setians and is contested by some academics.
The Temple was established in the United States in 1975 by Michael Angelo Aquino, an American political scientist, military officer, and a high-ranking member of Anton LaVey's Church of Satan. Dissatisfied with the direction in which LaVey was taking the Church, Aquino resigned and – according to his own claim – embarked on a ritual to invoke Satan, who revealed to him a sacred text called The Book of Coming Forth by Night. According to Aquino, in this work Satan revealed his true name to be that of Set, which had been the name used by his followers in ancient Egypt. Aquino was joined in establishing the Temple by a number of other dissatisfied members of LaVey's Church, and soon various Setian groups were established across the United States.
Setians believe that Set is the one real god and that he has aided humanity by giving them a questioning intellect, the "Black Flame", which distinguishes them from other animal species. Set is held in high esteem as a teacher whose example is to be emulated but he is not worshipped as a deity. Highly individualistic in basis, the Temple promotes the idea that practitioners should seek self-deification and thus attain an immortality of consciousness. Setians believe in the existence of magic as a force which can be manipulated through ritual, however the nature of these rituals is not prescribed by the Temple. Specifically, Aquino described Setian practices as "black magic", a term which he defines idiosyncratically.
Following initiation into the Temple, a Setian can proceed along a series of six degrees, each of which requires greater responsibilities to the group; as a result, most members remain in the first two degrees. Governed by a high priest or high priestess and a wider Council of Nine, the Temple is also divided into groups known as pylons, through which Setians can meet or correspond in order to advance their magical work in a particular area. Pylons of the Temple are now present in the United States, Australia, and Europe, with estimates placing the Temple's membership between 200 and 500.
## Definition
The Temple of Set is a new religious movement, and draws upon earlier forms of Western esotericism. Among academic scholars of religious studies, there has been some debate as to whether the Temple of Set can be characterized as "Satanism" or not. The religious studies scholars Asbjorn Dyrendal, Massimo Introvigne, James R. Lewis, and Jesper Aa. Petersen describes the Temple of Set as a Satanic group, despite its reluctance to use the term "Satanism", because it is an offshoot of the Church of Satan which continues to use satanic mythology. Conversely, the scholar Kennet Granholm argued that it should not be considered a form of Satanism because it does not place an emphasis on the figure of Satan. Granholm acknowledged that it was an "actor in the Satanic milieu" and part of the wider left-hand path group of esoteric traditions. He suggested that it could also be seen as a form of "Post-Satanism", thereby continuing to reflect its historical origins within religious Satanism.
The Temple of Set is far more rooted in esoteric ideas than the Church of Satan had been. It has thus been termed "Esoteric Satanism", a term used to contrast it with the "Rational Satanism" found in LaVeyan Satanism. Accordingly, it has been labelled the "intellectual wing of esoteric Satanism", with the Temple presenting itself as an intellectual religion. Aquino possessed a P.h.D. in political science and this formal education was reflected in the way that he presented his arguments, in which he draws broadly upon Western philosophy and science.
## History
### Foundation
Born in 1946, Michael Aquino was a military intelligence officer specializing in psychological warfare. In 1969 he joined Anton LaVey's Church of Satan and rose rapidly through the group's ranks. In 1970, while he was serving with the U.S. military during the Vietnam War, Aquino was stationed in Bến Cát in South Vietnam when he wrote a tract titled "Diabolicon" in which he reflected upon his growing divergence from the Church of Satan's doctrines. In this tract, teachings about the creation of the world, God, and humanity are presented, as is the dualistic idea that Satan complements God. The character of Lucifer is presented as bringing insight to human society, a depiction of Lucifer that was inherited from John Milton's seventeenth-century epic poem Paradise Lost.
By 1971 Aquino was ranked as a Magister Caverns of the IV° within the Church's hierarchy, was editor of its publication The Cloven Hoof, and sat on its governing Council of Nine. In 1973 he rose to the previously unattained rank of Magister Templi of IV°. According to the scholars of Satanism Per Faxneld and Jesper Petersen, Aquino had become LaVey's "right-hand man". There were nonetheless things that Aquino disliked about the Church of Satan; he thought that it had attracted many "fad-followers, egomaniacs, and assorted oddballs, whose primary interest in becoming Satanists was to flash their membership cards for cocktail-party notoriety". When, in 1975, LaVey abolished the system of regional groups, or grottos, and declared that in the future all degrees would be given in exchange for financial or other contributions to the Church, Aquino became increasingly disaffected; he resigned from the organization on June 10, 1975. While LaVey seems to have held a pragmatic and practical view of the degrees and of the Satanic priesthood, intending them to reflect the social role of the degree holder within the organization, Aquino and his supporters viewed the priesthood as being spiritual, sacred and irrevocable. Dyrendal, Lewis, and Petersen describe Aquino as, in effect, accusing LaVey of the sacrilege of simony.
Aquino then provided what has been described as a "foundation myth" for his Setian religion. Having departed the Church, he embarked on a ritual intent on asking Satan for advice on what to do next. According to his account, at Midsummer 1975, Satan appeared and revealed that he wanted to be known by his true name, Set, which had been the name used by his worshippers in ancient Egypt. Aquino produced a religious text, The Book of Coming Forth by Night, which he alleged had been revealed to him by Set through a process of automatic writing. According to Aquino, "there was nothing overtly sensational, supernatural, or melodramatic about The Book of Coming Forth By Night working. I simply sat down and wrote it." The book proclaimed Aquino to be the Magus of the new Aeon of Set and the heir to LaVey's "infernal mandate". Aquino later stated that the revelation that Satan was Set necessitated his own exploration of Egyptology, a subject about which he had previously known comparatively little.
Aquino's Book of Coming Forth by Night makes reference to The Book of the Law, a similarly 'revealed' text produced by the occultist Aleister Crowley in 1904 which provided the basis for Crowley's religion of Thelema. In Aquino's book, The Book of the Law was presented as a genuine spiritual text given to Crowley by preternatural sources, but it was also declared that Crowley had misunderstood both its origin and message. In making reference to The Book of the Law, Aquino presented himself as being as much Crowley's heir as LaVey's, and Aquino's work would engage with Crowley's writings and beliefs to a far greater extent than LaVey ever did.
In establishing the Temple, Aquino was joined by other ex-members of LaVey's Church, and soon Setian groups, or pylons, were established in various parts of the United States. The structure of the Temple was based largely on those of the ceremonial magical orders of the late nineteenth century, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and Ordo Templi Orientis. Aquino has stated that he believed LaVey not to be merely a charismatic leader but to have been actually appointed by Satan himself (referring to this charismatic authority as the "Infernal Mandate") to found the Church. After the split of 1975, Aquino believed LaVey had lost the mandate, which the "Prince of Darkness" then transferred to Aquino and a new organization, the Temple of Set. According to both the historian of religion Mattias Gardell and journalist Gavin Baddeley, Aquino displayed an "obsession" with LaVey after his departure from the Church, for instance by publicly releasing court documents that reflected negatively on his former mentor, among them restraining orders, divorce proceedings, and a bankruptcy filing. In turn, LaVey lampooned the new Temple as "Laurel and Hardy's Sons of the Desert". In 1975, the Temple incorporated as a non-profit Church in California, and later that year secured state and federal recognition and tax-exempted status.
### Later development
Many members of the Temple had voiced their opposition to Aquino's position of power within it. Aquino relinquished his office of High Priest in 1979 to Ronald Keith Barrett, who produced an inspired text of his own, titled The Book of Opening the Way. Barrett's approach was later criticized as "more mystical than magical" by Temple members. Barrett's leadership was also criticized as authoritarian, resulting in a decline in the Temple's membership. Barrett resigned his office and severed ties with the organization in May 1982. He subsequently established his own Temple of Anubis, which he led until his 1998 death; it survived until the early 2010s. After Barrett's departure, Aquino retook leadership of the Temple of Set. During this period, the sociologist Gini Graham Scott clandestinely participated in the Temple, using her observations as the basis for her 1983 book The Magicians: A Study of the Use of Power in a Black Magic Group.
After receiving his PhD in political science from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1980, Aquino worked as an adjunct professor at Golden Gate University until 1986 while continuing to serve in the United States Army as an Active Guard Reserve officer at the Presidio of San Francisco. He was fascinated with the connections between occultism and Nazism, resulting in some accusations that he was sympathetic to Nazi ideology. In 1983, he performed a solitary rite at Walhalla, the subterranean section of the Wewelsburg castle in Germany that was utilized as a ceremonial space by the Schutzstaffel's Ahnenerbe group during the Nazi period. This resulted in his formation of the Order of the Trapezoid, a Setian group whose members understood themselves as a chivalric order of knights. From 1987 through to 1995, the Grand Master of the Order of the Trapezoid was Edred Thorsson, who had joined the Temple of Set in 1984 and risen to the Fifth Degree in 1990. Thorsson exerted a "discernible influence" over the Setian community through his books, in which he combined aspects of Satanic philosophy with the modern Pagan religion of Heathenry. In 1980, he founded the Texas-based Rune-Gild which shared many of the Temple's key philosophical tenets but with a focus on the study of runes and their applications in magical practice.
In the 1980s, Aquino attracted greater publicity for his Temple through appearances on television talk shows like The Oprah Winfrey Show and Geraldo. In 1987, during the Satanic ritual abuse hysteria, the three-year-old daughter of a Christian clergyman accused Aquino of sexually abusing her during Satanic rites held at his Russian Hill home. Responding to the allegations, police raided Aquino's home, however—after no evidence was found to substantiate the allegation and it was revealed that Aquino was living in Washington D.C. at the time of the alleged abuse—the police decided not to charge him with any felony. Aquino attempted to bring formal charges against the chaplain and psychiatrist who had encouraged the girl's claims, although he was more successful in bringing legal action against two books—Carl A. Raschke's Painted Black and Linda Blood's The New Satanists—that had suggested that he was guilty. He then left the Presidio and was transferred to St. Louis. In 1994, Aquino retired from active service in the Army, being honourably transferred to the Retired Reserve and awarded the Meritorious Service Medal.
While the Satanic ritual abuse hysteria declined, Aquino continued to be a figure of prominence in "mind control" conspiracy theories because of his career as a psychological warfare officer in the US Army. In the United Kingdom during this same period, tabloids like the News of the World and Sunday Mirror published sensationalist articles about the Temple. In the mid-1990s, a group of British Setians approached the religious studies scholar Graham Harvey and encouraged him to conduct research into the group so as to combat misconceptions about them. The Temple first registered a website in 1997, the same year as the Church of Satan. It would also establish its own intranet, allowing for communication between Setians in different parts of the world.
One member of the Temple was the New Zealander Kerry Bolton, who split to form his own Order of The Left Hand Path in 1990. In 1995, another couple who joined were LaVey's daughter Zeena Schreck and her husband Nikolas Schreck, both of whom were vocal critics of Zeena's father.
In 1996, Don Webb became the high priest of the Temple, a position that he held until 2002. He was replaced by Zeena Schreck, but she resigned after six weeks and was replaced by Aquino, who took charge once more. In that year, Zeena led a schism within the organization establishing her own Berlin-based group, The Storm, which she later renamed the Sethian Liberation Movement.
Aquino stood down as Supreme Priest again in 2004, to be replaced by Patricia Hardy who was elected to the position of Supreme Priestess. Although no longer in charge of the organization, he nevertheless remained its most visible spokesperson.
Aquino died in July 2020 at the age of 73.
## Ideology
### Writings
In addition to the Book of Coming Forth by Night, in which Set himself is purported to speak, the Temple's philosophy and teachings are revealed in a series of occult writings titled the Jeweled Tablets of Set. Each tablet is keyed to a specific degree in the Temple hierarchy. Only the introduction to the first tablet (Crystal Tablet of Set), titled "Black Magic", is available for non-members. The Ruby Tablet, which is available for second-degree members, is the lengthiest and most diverse of the tablets.
The private Temple literature is not regarded as secret per se, but is kept restricted because it contains materials which, according to the Temple, may be dangerous to the non-initiated.
### Self-deification and Xeper
The human individual is at the centre of Setian philosophy. The Temple places great emphasis on the development of the individual, postulating self-deification as the ultimate goal. The realization of the true nature of the Setian is termed "becoming" or "coming into being" and is represented by the Egyptian hieroglyphic term kheper, or "Xeper" (a phonetic of \_Xpr\_), as the Temple of Set prefers to write it. This term is described in The Book of Coming Forth by Night as "the Word of the Aeon of Set". Members attempt "to preserve and strengthen" their "isolate, psyche-centric existence" through adherence to the left-hand path. This idea is in opposition to the traditional goal of Hermetic and Western mystical practices, which is the surrendering of the ego into a union with either God or the universe.
The Temple teaches that the true self, or essence, is immortal, and Xeper is the ability to align consciousness with this essence. Aquino taught that there is an afterlife for those who have reached the necessary level of individual development. This afterlife could occur in the individual's subjective universe. Those unable to reach this level dissolve into non-existence when the physical body dies. Self-initiation is knowledge understood as a conjunction of intellect and intuition. In keeping with its emphasis on the individual, the Temple encourages their members to celebrate their own birthday, and does not prescribe any other calendar of religious festivities.
Barrett presented Xem as his Aeonic Word to the Setians, presenting it as a natural and necessary further development of Aquino's Xeper. Aquino later acknowledged Xem as a worthwhile magical concept for Setians to explore, but found Barrett's insistence on its exclusivity as incompatible with the Temple's individualistic philosophy.
### Set
Aquino's understanding of Satan differed from the atheistic interpretation promoted by LaVey, and the Temple's theology differs from that of the Church of Satan. The Temple states that the name Satan was originally a corruption of the name Set. The Temple of Set promotes the idea that Set is a real entity, and accordingly has been described as being "openly theistic". It further argues that Set is ageless and is the only real god in existence, with all others having been created by the human imagination. Set is described as having given humanity—through the means of non-natural evolution—the "Black Flame" or the "Gift of Set". This refers to humanity's questioning intellect which sets the species apart from other animals and gives it an "isolate self-consciousness" and the possibility to attain divinity. Aquino argued that the idea of the Gift of Set was inadvertently promoted to a wider audience in Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. According to Aquino, the black monolith which imparts human-level intelligence onto prehistoric apes in the film was a symbol of Set.
While Setians are expected to revere Set, they do not worship him, instead regarding him as a teacher and a guide. He is portrayed as a role model on which Setians can base their own deification. According to Webb, "we do not worship Set - only our own potential. Set was and is the patron of the magician who seeks to increase his existence through expansion."
Embracing the idea of aeons from Crowley's Thelema, Aquino adopted the Crowleyan tripartite division between the Aeon of Isis, Aeon of Osiris, and Aeon of Horus, but added to that the Aeon of Satan, which he dates from 1966 to 1975, and then the Aeon of Set, which he dated from 1975 onward. Despite presenting these chronological parameters, Aquino also portrayed the aeons less as time periods and more as mind-sets that can co-exist alongside one another. Thus, he stated that "A Jew, Christian or Muslim exists in the Æon of Osiris, a Wiccan in that of Isis, and a Thelemite in that of Horus".
### Magic
Aquino placed an emphasis on what he deemed to be the division between the objective and subjective universes. In the Setian religion, the objective world is understood as representing the natural world and humanity's collective meaning systems, while the subjective universe is understood as the individually experienced world and individual meaning systems. Following earlier esotericists like Crowley, Aquino characterized magic as "causing change in accordance with will". Unlike LaVey, Aquino expressed belief in the division between black magic and white magic. He described white magic as "a highly-concentrated form of conventional religious ritual", characterizing it as being "more versatile", "less difficult", and "less dangerous" than black magic. However, he criticized white magic as "fraud and/or self-delusion" which deceives the consciousness into thinking that it has been accepted in the objective universe.
Aquino divided black magic into two forms: lesser black magic and greater black magic. He stated that lesser black magic entails "impelling" things that exist in the "objective universe" into doing a desired act by using "obscure physical or behavioral laws" and into this category he placed stage magic, psychodramas, politics, and propaganda. Conversely, he used the term greater black magic in reference to changes in the subjective universe of the magician, allowing them to realize their self in accordance with the principle of Xeper. Among Setians it is accepted that there may be changes in the objective universe as a result of greater black magic, but such effects are considered secondary to the impact that they have upon the subjective universe.
Within the Temple, rituals are typically known as "workings", and are most often carried out alone. Stressing the religion's individualist nature, there are no rituals that are specifically prescribed by the Temple. Aquino also emphasized that in order to achieve a desired aim, the Setian should carry out physical actions alongside magical ones. There are no regular occasions which are marked by fixed rituals, and the Temple has no calendar of festivals.
## Insignia
The Temple uses an inverted pentagram as its insignia, known as the "Pentagram of Set" to Setians. The use of the geometric shape is derived from the Sigil of Baphomet used by the Church of Satan, although stripped of its overtly Satanic add-ons. The Temple explains the meaning and significance of the pentagram by referring to Pythagorean ideas and "mathematical perfection". At Setian gatherings, members wear the pentagram as a medallion. The medallion is colored according to the initiation degree of the Setian.
Both the Church of Satan and the Temple of Set also use the trapezoid symbol. The version used by the Church includes flames, a pitchfork and the number 666, while the trapezoid of the Temple has a left-facing Egyptian sceptre, and the number 666 stylized in geometric shapes rather than as clear numbers.
## Structure
The internal structure of the Temple of Set is closely reminiscent of that of the Church of Satan as it existed in the 1970s.
### Degrees
All members of the Temple must be affiliated with a pylon, and thus membership is by application, requiring contact with a Setian priestess or priest followed by an evaluation period. The participation of non-initiated in the Temple's rituals are forbidden, due to the belief that their rituals would be dangerous in the wrong hands.
The Temple of Set recognizes several stages or degrees of initiation. The degrees indicate the individual Setian's development and skill in magic. The degree structure is based on that of the Church of Satan, which in turn was based on the degrees of a nineteenth-century occult group, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The Temple terms the progression through degrees as "recognitions", because the organization's philosophy sees that the individual member initiates themselves and that the Temple merely acknowledges this by granting the degree. These degrees are:
1. Setian (First Degree)
2. Adept (Second Degree)
3. Priest / Priestess of Set (Third Degree)
4. Magister / Magistra Templi (Fourth Degree)
5. Magus / Maga (Fifth Degree)
6. Ipsissimus / Ipsissima (Sixth Degree)
The priesthood of the Temple of Set consists of members holding the third degree or higher; those in the first and second degrees are considered "lay members" of the Temple. The first degree serves as a space for mutual evaluation, in which the Temple assesses whether the individual is appropriate for the group, and the individual decides whether they wish to further their involvement with it. Full membership comes with recognition to the second degree. Many members do not advance beyond the second degree, nor is this expected of them, as while the first and second degree members use the organization's teachings and tools for their own development, the priesthood involves greater responsibilities towards the organization, such as being its official representatives.
Recognition is performed by members of the priesthood. The fourth degree, which is acknowledged by the high priest/priestess, entails that the individual is so advanced in their magical skills that they are able to found their own school of magic, represented in the different orders of the Temple. The fifth degree can only be awarded by the unanimous decision of the Council of Nine and by the approval of the Temple's high priest/priestess. A fifth degree member has the power to utter and define a concept which somehow affects the philosophy of the organization, such as the concept of Xeper defined by Aquino in 1975. Only a handful of members have attained this degree and most "fifth-degree" concepts defined in such a manner are no longer studied in the organization. The final sixth degree represents a Magus "whose Task is complete". This degree is held by a very select few in the Temple, although any fifth-degree member can assume the sixth degree based on their own assessment.
### Leadership
The organization is led by a high priest/priestess, who is also the public face of the Temple. The high priest is chosen among fourth or higher degree members by the chairman of the Council of Nine. This ruling council has nine members chosen from the priesthood (third degree or higher), whose mandate lasts for nine years with a new member being elected every year. The chairman of the council is chosen from among the council members each year. The council has the ultimate ruling power in the Temple and even the high priest is responsible to it. The Temple also has an executive director, whose task is to deal with administrative issues.
Since its founding in 1975, the temple has had the following high priests/priestesses:
- Michael A. Aquino (1975–1979, 1982–1996, 2002–2004)
- Ronald K. Barrett (1979–1982)
- Don Webb (1996–2002)
- Zeena Schreck (2002)
- Patricia Hardy (2004–2013)
- James Fitzsimmons (2013–present)
### Pylons, elements, and orders
In addition to the international organization, the Temple sponsors initiatory Orders and Elements and local groups called Pylons. Pylons are intended to facilitate the initiatory work of the Temple's members by conducting meetings where discussions and magical works take place. The purpose of a pylon is to provide a space in which the Setian can focus on their religion, aided by like-minded individuals. Pylons typically meet in a member's home. Members usually join the Pylon located geographically closest to them. Correspondence- or Internet-based Pylons also exist, with Harvey noting that this online networking is more common than in-person interaction. A Pylon is led a by a second-degree (or higher) member who is called a Sentinel. The term pylon derives from the architectural features which served as fortified gateways to ancient Egyptian temples. One Finnish Setian informed Granholm that the relationship between the orders and the temple was like that of different departments in a university.
Elements are loosely structured interest groups, where specific themes and issues are addressed. They can be open for non-members and are commonly in operation only for short periods. Topics of interest include, for example, animal rights, which was the subject of the Arkte element operated by Aquino's wife Lilith.
There are sections of the Temple known as Orders, each of which focus on a particular theme, for instance ancient Egypt, Norse culture, Tantric Hinduism, or vampirism. Others focus on a particular skill, for instance the Order of Uart focuses on the visual arts and the Order of Taliesin on music. Orders can be understood as schools of different aspects of magic providing different paths of initiation. Orders are led by grand masters, who will usually be the founder of the order. In longer-lived orders the founder may have a successive grand master. Orders are founded by members of the fourth degree. When members reaches the second degree of initiation, they are expected to join an order of their own choosing. In normal circumstances, a Setian is only permitted to join one order, however special dispensation can be obtained for a practitioner to join two.
Setians also hold annual International Conclaves. First Degree Initiates who obtain sponsorship by a member of the Priesthood are permitted to attend the International Conclave and Regional Gatherings.
## Demographics
In 2000, the Temple had thirteen pylons, which were operating in the United States, Australia, Germany, and across Sweden and Finland. The extent of the Temple's membership has not been publicly revealed by the group; however, in 2005 Petersen noted that academic estimates for the Temple's membership varied from between 300 and 500, and Granholm suggested that in 2007 the Temple contained circa 200 members. The Temple's members come from a variety of racial backgrounds.
In 1999, the anthropologist Jean La Fontaine suggested that in Britain there were 100 members of the Temple at most, and possibly "considerably fewer". In 2001 the scholar Gareth Medway posited that the group had 70 to 80 members in the United Kingdom, adding that it was the largest Satanic group then active in the country. In 2009, Harvey concurred with La Fontaine's assessment, although still believed that it was the largest Satanic group in the United Kingdom. He noted that most members were male, between the ages of twenty and fifty, and that—despite his expectation that they might be political extremists—they endorsed mainstream political positions, with all those whom he communicated with stating that they had voted for either the Conservative Party, Labour Party, or Liberal Democrats.
## See also
- Joy of Satan Ministries
- Theistic Satanism
|
57,580,029 |
John Middleton (Norfolk artist)
| 1,145,775,166 |
English landscape painter, born 1827
|
[
"1827 births",
"1856 deaths",
"19th-century English male artists",
"19th-century English painters",
"Artists from Norwich",
"English male painters",
"People educated at Norwich School"
] |
John Middleton (9 January 1827 – 11 November 1856) was an English artist known for his accomplished watercolour paintings. He was the youngest and the last important member of the Norwich School of painters, which was the first provincial art movement in Britain. As well as being a talented etcher, he produced oil paintings and was an enthusiastic amateur photographer.
Middleton's father, also named John, was a Norwich glass stainer. His mother painted plants and twice exhibited her work with the Norwich Society of Artists. Middleton was educated in Norwich and studied art under the landscape painters John Berney Ladbrooke and Henry Bright. He first exhibited his paintings before the age of twenty and went on to show paintings at both the Royal Academy and the British Institution. Many of his works have been acclaimed by art historians for their masterly tonal values, confidence and freshness, which gives them a more modern appearance in comparison with the sometimes over-detailed works of other Victorian painters.
Middleton's death in 1856 from tuberculosis, which cut short his career at the age of 29, has been described by the art historian Josephine Walpole as "the supreme tragedy for the Norwich School of painters".
## Background
The Norwich School of painters, which included Middleton, was a group connected by geographical location, the depiction of Norwich and rural Norfolk, and by close personal and professional relationships. The school's most important artists were John Crome, Joseph Stannard, George Vincent, Robert Ladbrooke, James Stark, John Thirtle and John Sell Cotman, along with Cotman's sons Miles Edmund and John Joseph Cotman, and Middleton himself. The Norwich School was a unique phenomenon in the history of 19th-century British art. Norwich was the first English city outside London where a school of artists arose, creating the first provincial art movement in Britain. It had more local-born artists than any subsequently-formed school elsewhere. Norwich's theatrical, artistic, philosophical and musical cultures were cross-fertilised in a way that was unique outside London.
Within the Norwich School was the Norwich Society of Artists, founded in 1803. It arose from the need for a group of Norwich artists to teach each other and their pupils. Though not all of the members of the Norwich School were also members of the Norwich Society, the latter was key in establishing the artists' associations with each other. Its stated aims were "to conduct an Enquiry into the Rise, Progress and Present State of Painting, Archaeology and Sculpture with a view to point out the Best Methods of Study to attain to Greater Perfection in these Arts". It held regular exhibitions and had an organised structure, showing works annually until 1825 and again from 1828 until it was dissolved in 1833. The leading spirits and finest artists of the movement were Crome and Cotman.
John Middleton, who was too young to have had any association with the Norwich Society of Artists, was the last great watercolourist of the Norwich School and the most gifted of the school's third generation of artists. His works provided, according to Andrew Moore, the former Keeper of Art at the Norwich Castle Museum & Art Gallery, "a distinguished coda to the spirit of his immediate contemporaries and the artists of the first generation, John Sell Cotman and John Crome".
Interest in the Norwich School declined during the 1830s, but the school's reputation rose after the Royal Academy's 1878 Winter Exhibition. By the end of the century, however, its paintings—once regarded as modern and progressive—were seen as belonging to a bygone age. This has been attributed by the art professor Andrew Hemingway to the "mythology of rural Englishness" that prevailed at the start of the 20th century. He has commented on a lack of analysis of the Norwich School, such as connections between the Norwich School painters and other artists and developments in landscape painting during the 19th century.
## Life
### Early life and training
Parish records show that John Middleton was born in Norwich on 9 January 1827 and was baptised on 14 January at St Stephen's Church, by his parents John Middleton and Ann Bayfield. Little of his early childhood has been documented and his biographers do not mention any siblings, although the Middletons' memorial in St Stephen's Church includes an unnamed daughter who died in infancy. Some of the family's relatives in Norwich were blacksmiths and weavers, but John Middleton senior was a glass stainer. He was the business successor of Daniel Coppin, one of the founding members of the Norwich Society of Artists. In addition to running a glass colouring business, Middleton senior undertook plumbing and painting work, and studied and collected ferns in his spare time. His wife specialised in painting plants, and as 'Mrs. J. Middleton' exhibited two pictures with the Norwich Society: Cactus Speciocissimus, flowered in the greenhouse of Mr. C. Middleton, April 1828 and Georgina, or Dahlias from Nature (1829). Ann Middleton died in Norwich on 1 January 1830, aged 29.
Middleton was educated at Norwich Grammar School. Upon the completion of his formal education he became the pupil of the landscape painter John Berney Ladbrooke, who referred to "my pupil John Middleton" in a letter dated 11 February 1850. Ladbrooke, a Norwich School artist who produced a large output of works despite having to earn a living as a drawing master, particularly influenced Middleton's oil technique.
Middleton was taught by Henry Bright, whom he visited in London in 1847. Middleton moved to the capital at this time, living at 1, The Terrace, Kensington. From 1847 to 1849 he was both the pupil and friend of Bright, probably travelling with him on a trip to Kent.
Following his father's death in April 1848, Middleton moved back to Norwich in order to take over the running of the family business. His duties as a businessman both interrupted his training and acted to reduce his artistic output. In 1850 he moved with his step-mother from their house adjoining the business to a much larger house in Surrey Street, around the corner from the business in St Stephen's Street.
### Artistic career and friendships
Middleton was a precocious artist, exhibiting before he was twenty. He exhibited in London from 1847 to 1855, despite the interruption caused by his business commitments: he showed fourteen pictures at the Royal Academy and fifteen at the British Institution, where his work was acclaimed.
Middleton's artistic output was influenced by (and in turn had an influence upon) the works of Henry Bright, Thomas Lound and Robert Leman. The four artists were very good friends.
According to the author and art historian William Frederick Dickes, Middleton was the devoted young friend of Lound, who probably introduced him to the works of Thirtle, as well as to photography. Lound worked as a brewer clerk and an insurance agent, whose wealth allowed him to pursue his enthusiasm for collecting, copying and producing art. He was especially passionate about Thirtle's paintings. Along with Middleton, Bright and Leman, Lound was a member of the Committee of the Norfolk and Norwich Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts (1848–1852). A central figure in the history of the Norwich School watercolour painters, the remaining Norwich artists depended on the leadership of Lound (and Leman) for three decades after the demise of the Norwich Society of Artists in 1833.
Middleton befriended William Johnson Jennis Bolding, a resident landowner and farmer in the coastal village of Weybourne. Bolding, known for his pioneering photographs of Norfolk landscapes and estate workers, is regarded as an important early photographer. Middleton was responsible for enrolling him as a member of the Norwich Photographic Society, which held exhibitions that included William Bolding's work. Bolding was also a talented artist who exhibited two oil paintings in 1853. The two friends sketched together, with Middleton often staying at Weybourne, and some of Bolding's landscape photographs have an affinity with Middleton's watercolour technique. A small etching by John Middleton, made en plein air, closely resembles a photograph by Bolding, showing that the friends were working together. Some of Bolding's landscape photographs that show trees, and trees near water, were photographed with a typical Middleton-like composition, with one particular image containing many of the ingredients found in Middleton's watercolours, such as trees, water, fences and a gate.
Although Henry Bright was Middleton's teacher, the outstanding watercolours Bright produced in the 1840s made after a sketching tour of Kent, when he was possibly accompanied by Middleton, show clearly how he was influenced by his pupil. It often difficult to distinguish between the two artists. According to the art historian Francis Cheetham, Lane over the Hill shows Bright's capacity to "use watercolour with (the) freshness and simplicity which characterises the finest work of John Middleton". Their friendship was not always smooth: in a letter of 22 February 1850 to Thomas Lound's son, Bright wrote, "J. Middleton dined here tonight, he was wondrous polite. Tell your good papa that my Lecture did him good."
Middleton travelled to various parts of Britain during his working life. As well as spending time sketching and painting during an excursion to Tunbridge Wells in Kent, he produced paintings of the area around Clovelly during a visit to the Devon coast. Included amongst works he exhibited in London were Scene near Tunbridge Wells (1847) and Clovelly, on the coast of Devonshire (1851). Whilst in London he and other members of the Norwich School attended the evening meetings of the Graphic Society of Painters and Engravers. He became a member of the Society in 1854, but resigned in 1856, shortly before his death.
### Decline and death
During much of his life Middleton suffered from poor health. He became consumptive and was forced to work outdoors less and less as his illness advanced. The art historian Derek Clifford noted that Middleton's inspiration, brilliant colours and confidence in his drawings tailed away after 1848, four years before his last known drawings were made.
Middleton died of tuberculosis at his home at 29, Surrey Street, Norwich, on 11 November 1856. He was buried in the new cemetery at Earlham. His obituary in the local Norfolk press noted that "he painted nature just as he found her in the quiet sequestered nooks which abound in this county, and many a spot, otherwise of little note, will live long on the canvas touched by Middleton’s hand". His will, which was proved in Norwich in July 1857, stipulated that Mary Middleton should inherit both the family business and the remaining funds from the estate. From his estate, which was assessed at under £30,000, he provided for his servants, his relatives and to charities, including the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital, which received £100.
The author Josephine Walpole believes that "the supreme tragedy for the Norwich School was the death of John Middleton at the age of only 29" and that the later works of the most gifted of the school's watercolour artists only "lost their fire and life" because of the debilitating effect of his illness. According to Hemingway, Middleton's death in 1856 marked a decline in the quality of painting produced in the region, and he was the last significant watercolourist to be based in East Anglia.
## Works
There is no published catalogue raisonné of John Middleton's drawings, pictures or photographs. An idea of his artistic output can be obtained from the catalogue of a sale of his works that took place in June 1883, following the death of Mary Middleton earlier that year. On sale were 108 sketches (including a series made by Middleton when he was Ladbrooke's pupil), 108 pencil drawings, 4 sketch books, more than 40 etchings, 63 watercolour paintings, 11 oils and 20 oil painting sketches.
### Watercolours, oil paintings and etchings
John Middleton was a highly talented watercolourist, who according to Clifford, was the most successful of all the Norwich School artists working in this medium during the late 1840s, with the possible exception of John Sell Cotman. Middleton produced works using clear colours and incisively-outlined forms, boldly using the white of his paper and being, in Clifford's words, "delighted in the potentialities of his medium". The author Robert Brall considers Middleton's best paintings to have an "astonishingly modern" look, in comparison with the elaborate detail found in contemporary works. Brall notes that Middleton's more laboured paintings, painted from 1850, lacked much of the fresh and spontaneous appearance of his earlier works, probably because of a growing public interest in art that contained fine detail and an elaborate 'finished' look'.
Writing in 1905, Dickes described Middleton as a painstaking and energetic artist. The Dictionary of National Biography noted his "effective rendering of the seasons of the year, especially the early spring". Walpole has assessed his approach to his work as being more advanced than that of his contemporaries Robert Leman and Thomas Lound. Commentators have praised his ability to show tone in his paintings. According to Josephine Walpole, Middleton's "exquisite use of light and shade enhances the mastery of tonal values", a comment that echoes the Norfolk Chronicle′s report of 11 December 1847, which described his "charming use of light and shade".
His etchings required a different technique from his watercolours: their delicacy and intricacy are said by the author Geoffrey Searle to resemble the work of John Crome. In contrast to his watercolours, his etchings are mostly depictions of wooded landscapes, ranging in tone from those that are heavily inked, to others with a light, silvery touch and delicate lines. None of them depict human figures. A set was published separately in 1852 as Nine Etchings by John Middleton, now held at the British Museum and Norwich Castle. He also painted in oils, but little has been written of his oil paintings, whose subject matter was similar to his watercolours and which displayed a similar immediacy of execution.
### Photographic work
Middleton took a great interest in photography and was an early committee member of the Norwich Photographic Society, which was formed in 1854. He was one of the earliest artists to use a camera as an aid to producing watercolour landscapes, working in the medium whilst it was still in its infancy. Like Lound, who was also a keen amateur photographer, he possessed his own equipment, which at that time only the wealthy could afford.
Middleton used waxed paper negatives to produce his images of the Norfolk countryside. It is not known if he sold any of his photographs or displayed them in any major exhibition. The only photographs that can be attributed to him are a group made during a trip to North Wales. His landscape photographs are reminiscent in their contrasting dark and light tones of the large paintings produced by Bright in the late 1840s, such as Study of a Beech Tree.
Norwich's photographic community, centered around Thomas Damant Eaton (c. 1799–1871), was particularly active during the 1850s. During this period a close relationship existed between the artistic community and Norfolk photographers. An indication of this relationship was a major exhibition of works by both the Norfolk and Norwich Arts Association and the Norwich Photographic Society from November 1856 to February 1857, in which 500 photographs and 425 works of art were shown. It took place only four years after the first large public exhibition of photographs in the world. Middleton died shortly before the Norwich exhibition was opened, and its catalogue shows that none of his works were shown.
### Exhibitions and sales
Middleton's works have been included in fine art exhibitions in both London and Norwich:
- Exhibitions of the Norfolk and Norwich Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts (1848, 1849, 1852, 1853 and 1855)
- British Institution exhibitions (1847–1855)
- Royal Academy exhibitions (1847–1855)
- Exhibition of the Works of Deceased Local Artists, Norfolk and Norwich Fine Arts Association (1860)
- Norwich and Eastern Counties Working Classes Industrial Exhibition (1867)
- British Medical Association Loan Collection (1874)
- Norwich Art Loan Exhibition, Church of St Peter Mancroft Restoration Fund (1878 and 1885)
- Fine Art Exhibition, in aid of the new Norfolk and Norwich Hospital (1883)
- Loan Collection of Drawings in the New Picture Gallery, Norwich Castle (1903)
- Exhibition of Norwich School Pictures, Norwich Castle Museum (October 1927)
- Exhibition at the Bankside Gallery in London from 25 May to 27 June 1982
Few of Middleton's paintings can be seen on public display outside the Norwich area. Several of his works have been sold at auction. His undated At Gunton Park (33 x 47.6 cm), which was sold at Chiswick Auctions in 2018, fetched £3,500. The etching At Hatfield (11 x 16.3 cm) was sold by Keys in 2016, for £120. A shady lane, Tunbridge Wells, Kent realised £6,675 at Christie's in London in July 2012, whilst another watercolour, An old cottage at Tunbridge Wells, Kent, realised £18,000 when sold there in 2007.
### Gallery
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53,601,388 |
Beer in North Korea
| 1,104,091,944 |
Overview of the beer culture in North Korea
|
[
"Beer in North Korea"
] |
North Korea has at least ten major breweries and many microbreweries that supply a wide range of beer products. The top brand is the light lager Taedonggang by the state-owned Taedonggang Brewing Company.
The country's problems with goods distribution and power output have forced North Korean brewers to innovate. To minimize distribution, many restaurants and hotels maintain their own microbreweries. Because unreliable power supply makes it difficult to refrigerate beer, North Koreans have developed their own steam beer, an originally American beer style brewed in higher than normal temperatures, that is widely available.
Although the Korean liquor soju is preferred, beer comes second when it comes to consumption. Since the 1980s, beer has been within reach of ordinary North Koreans, though it is still rationed. Tourists, on the other hand, enjoy inexpensive beer without such limitations.
## History
The Japanese brought beer to Colonial Korea in the 1930s in the form of German lager beers. After WWII and independence, until at least 1960, all beer in North Korea was produced domestically. By the 1980s, beer was in such wide availability that most North Koreans could drink it. Until the mid-1990s when the state rationing system started to crumble, North Koreans would receive one bottle of Korean liquor soju and three bottles of beer for every major public holiday in North Korea. All North Korean beers are bottled in domestic made glass bottles. During the North Korean famine, beer bottles were used for intravenous therapy (IV) due to the shortage of proper hospital equipment.
Although there had been breweries before, brewing in North Korea began in earnest in 2000, when the country's leader Kim Jong-il wanted to build a showcase brewery in the country. The state-owned Taedonggang Brewing Company purchased the old brewery of Ushers of Trowbridge in the United Kingdom and imported it to North Korea. In April 2002 the Taedonggang Beer Factory opened in the capital Pyongyang. The Rakwon Paradise Microbrewery and the Yanggakdo Hotel Microbrewery soon followed.
On 12 August 2016, the Taedonggang brewery opened the first beer festival in the country. The festival was cancelled for 2017, possibly due to drought.
Until recent economic difficulties, there were government-run beer halls in Pyongyang and other major cities. Nowadays beer is generally available in private restaurants that have become more common since government control on the economy has loosened.
## Beer culture
North Korea has a lively beer brewing culture in spite of the country's isolation.
Beer is not the most popular alcoholic beverage among North Koreans, who generally prefer the Korean liquor soju. Consequently, North Korean beer is little known. Nevertheless, beer and soju are the two most common alcoholic drinks in the country, with 94.9 per cent of all alcohol consumed (in pure alcohol) being liquor and the remaining 5.1 per cent beer. An average North Korean consumes just under a litre of pure alcohol in the form of beer annually. Nevertheless, North Koreans are said to "love a beer as much as Europeans or North Americans". According to Josh Thomas, an amateur brewer who has toured North Korean breweries:
> "[T]he average Pyongyang man [drinks] beer fairly frequently — at least once a week. People in the countryside drink less often, and some never at all. Beer culture is still developing; it is mainly men going to a bar after work, drinking a couple of beers."
In the future, beer drinking is expected to trend among young people in particular. North Korean youths have begun to emulate their South Korean counterparts for whom beer and folk music was a youth trend in the 1970s.
## Availability
Mass-produced beer can be found everywhere in the country, and microbreweries are also common.
North Koreans need to expend food coupons when buying beer, which will diminish their grain rations. North Korean men residing in Pyongyang can receive beer vouchers that entitle them to one or two monthly liters of beer at low-end bars. These limitations make beer a beverage primarily for the elite. It is not uncommon for donju, the nouveau riche of Pyongyang, to frequent beer houses. According to the KCNA, there are some 300 newly installed beer taps in Pyongyang, consistent with plans to open 300 pubs announced earlier. There is a "huge number" of bars in Pyongyang where beer is available. In the summer and during festivals, beer tents pop up around Pyongyang.
Tourists can buy beer with foreign currency without the limitations that apply to North Koreans. A beer in international hotels cost about two euros. Although for tourists, according to Josh Thomas, the actual "price of drinking North Korean beer is bowing to a lot of statues of Kim Il-Sung and Kim Jong-Il, listening to their version of the Korean war, and eating anything and everything they give you to eat".
In farmers' markets, a bottle of beer costs about 53 North Korean won. Foreign beers such as Heineken, Tiger, Erdinger and Bavarian and are increasingly available. A can of Chinese beer, such as Tsingtao or Harbin, can cost up to 4,000 won on the Jangmadang (grey market). Poor rural people brew their own beer with whatever ingredients they can find; "We found corn flower and hops and made something that came out a weird milky color. At least it was fizzy like beer", one North Korean defector remembers.
## Brands
There at least ten breweries in North Korea. The country has more major breweries than South Korea. Breweries include the Paradise Microbrewery, the Yanggakdo Hotel Microbrewery (of the Yanggakdo International Hotel), and the Taedonggang National Brewery. Several different beers are brewed in the country, "ranging from steam beers, to oatmeal stouts, to chocolate porters and pale ales". According to Josh Thomas, "[f]or a country that commonly experiences famines, North Korea has a surprisingly large range of beers."
Taedonggang, "Taedong River", a golden orange lager, is the top brand. It is considered one of the best quality beers in all of Korea, or even "significantly better" than all other mass-market beers in the rest of Asia. Taedonggang has been exported, even to South Korea, from 2005 until 2007 when Pyongyang increased its price. Other brands include Ryongsong, Pyongyang, Pohak, Ponghak, Rakwon ("Paradise") and Samgak ("Delta").
### Microbreweries
There are many microbreweries in the country. The "surprising microbrewery culture" can be explained with regards to sanctions against North Korea that limit the availability of petrol, thus making distribution of beer a particularly difficult part of the product lifecycle:
> "[I]t is a country of microbreweries. The hotel makes their own beer. The bowling alley makes their own beer. The restaurants make their own beer. The national Taedonggang beer was certainly available throughout the entire country, but any location with sufficient space for a microbrewery, they seemed to build one in order to offset any supply chain inefficiencies."
Many bars and hotels brew their own beer. The Koryo Hotel, for instance, houses a microbrewery that serves what is considered "the best dark beer in town". There is also a microbrewery at the Chongjin Tourist Hotel in Chongjin. A microbrewery with Czech-made equipment exists in the Rason Special Economic Zone. Only the Taedonggang Brewing Company could be classified as a "macro" brewery and the rest are, in effect, microbreweries.
### Steam beer
There is a North Korean variety of steam beer, an originally American-style of beer brewed in higher than normal temperatures. The North Korean equivalent came about through necessity. Frequent power outages made it impossible to maintain a constant low temperature for brewing. North Korean steam beers are brewed with lager yeast, but for the same reason of unreliable refrigeration, ales are also well-liked. North Korean steam beers are so ubiquitous that it can be said that "the average beer is a steam beer". Since rice — a staple in Asian beers — is reserved for food, and barley is not generally used in Korean cooking, there is ample barley to be used in brewing, up to the point of all-barley beers. As a result, beers are darker, fuller and maltier, which is considered a perk over other Asian beers. Necessities have forced North Koreans to make, according to one writer, "more interesting beers than most other countries of the world".
## Quality
North Korean beers have low hop content due to taste preferences. North Korean breweries have an abundance of fresh water. Due to the underdevelopment of North Korea's industries, there are no pollution problems with the water. Other ingredients are imported.
North Korean beer, in general, is "relatively good", and tends not to be as light as its South Korean counterparts, whose reputation is of blandness and low quality. The British business weekly The Economist caused an uproar in South Korea when it declared in 2012 that "brewing remains just about the only useful activity at which North Korea beats the South." The article and the success of North Korean microbreweries prompted the South Korean beer industry to reform, including changing the alcohol law to allow microbrewing.
## See also
|
28,433,219 |
Brazilian monitor Rio Grande
| 1,137,423,536 |
Imperial Brazilian Navy's Pará-class river monitors
|
[
"1867 ships",
"Pará-class monitors",
"Ships built in Brazil"
] |
The Brazilian monitor Rio Grande was the second ship of the Pará-class river monitors built for the Imperial Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s. Rio Grande participated in the Passage of Humaitá on 19 February 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war. The ship was assigned to the Upper Uruguay (Portuguese: Alto Uruguai) flotilla after the war. Rio Grande was scrapped in 1907.
## Design and description
The Pará-class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small, shallow-draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire. The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service. The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot. It was rotated by four men via a system of gears; 2.25 minutes were required for a full 360° rotation. A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well. The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling.
The ships measured 39 meters (127 ft 11 in) long overall, with a beam of 8.54 meters (28 ft 0 in). They had a draft between of 1.51–1.54 meters (4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in) and displaced 500 metric tons (490 long tons). With only 0.3 meters (1 ft 0 in) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations. Their crew numbered 43 officers and men.
### Propulsion
The Pará-class ships had two direct-acting steam engines, each driving a single 1.3-meter (4 ft 3 in) propeller. Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi (407 kPa; 4 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower (130 kW) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) in calm waters. The ships carried enough coal for one day's steaming.
### Armament
Rio Grande carried a single 70-pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader (RML) in her gun turret. The 70-pounder gun had a maximum elevation of 15°. It had a maximum range of 5,540 meters (6,060 yd). The 70-pounder gun weighed 8,582 pounds (3,892.7 kg) and fired a 5.5-inch (140 mm) shell that weighed 81 pounds (36.7 kg). Most unusually the gun's Brazilian-designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter.
### Armor
The hull of the Pará-class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation. It was 457 millimeters (18.0 in) thick and was capped with a 102-millimeter (4 in) layer of peroba hardwood. The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt, 0.91 meters (3.0 ft) high. It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships, decreasing to 76 millimeters (3 in) and 51 millimeters (2 in) at the ship's ends. The curved deck was armored with 12.7 millimeters (0.5 in) of wrought iron.
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners. It was built much like the hull, but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters (6 in) of armor, the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters. Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12.7 millimeters of armor. The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret.
## Service
Rio Grande was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Corte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866, during the Paraguayan War, which saw Argentina, Uruguay and the Empire of Brazil allied against Paraguay. She was launched on 17 August 1867 and completed on 3 September 1867. She arrived at Montevideo on 6 January 1868 and steamed up the Paraná River, although her passage further north was barred by the Paraguayan fortifications at Humaitá. On 19 February 1868 six Brazilian ironclads, including Rio Grande, sailed past Humaitá at night. Rio Grande and her two sister ships, Alagoas and Pará, were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns. Barroso led with Rio Grande, followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará. The latter two ships were damaged as they sailed past the fortifications and had to be beached to prevent them from sinking. Rio Grande continued upstream with the other undamaged ships and they bombarded Asunción on 24 February. On 23 March Rio Grande and Barroso sank the Paraguayan steamer Igurey. Paraguayan soldiers in canoes attempted to board both ships on the evening of 9 July, but were only successful in getting on board Rio Grande where they were able to kill Antônio Joaquim, the ship's captain and some of the crew. The remaining crewmembers locked the monitor's hatches and Barroso was able to kill or capture almost all of the Paraguayans on deck. On 15 October she bombarded the Angostura Fort in company with Brasil, Silvado, Pará and her sister Ceará.
After the war Rio Grande was assigned to the newly formed Alto Uruguay Flotilla, based at Itaqui. She was docked in Ladário for rebuilding in 1899, but this was never completed and she was scrapped in February 1907.
|
60,880,861 |
Ghana Freedom
| 1,122,733,469 |
2019 art exhibition
|
[
"58th Venice Biennale",
"Ghanaian art",
"Group art exhibitions",
"May 2019 events in Italy"
] |
Ghana Freedom was a Ghanaian art exhibition at the 2019 Venice Biennale, an international contemporary art biennial in which countries represent themselves through self-organizing national pavilions. The country's debut pavilion, also known as the Ghana pavilion, was highly anticipated and named a highlight of the overall Biennale by multiple journalists. The six participating artistsFelicia Abban, John Akomfrah, El Anatsui, Selasi Awusi Sosu, Ibrahim Mahama, and Lynette Yiadom-Boakyerepresented a range of artist age, gender, locations, and prestige, selected by curator Nana Oforiatta Ayim. The show paired young and old artists across sculpture, filmmaking, and portraiture, and emphasized common threads across postcolonial Ghanaian culture in both its current inhabitants and the diaspora. Almost all of the art was commissioned specifically for the pavilion. Architect David Adjaye designed the pavilion with rusty red walls of imported soil to reflect the cylindrical, earthen dwellings of the Gurunsi within the Biennale's Arsenale exhibition space. The project was supported by the Ghana Ministry of Tourism and advised by former Biennale curator Okwui Enwezor. After the show's run, May–November 2019, works from the exhibition were set to display in Accra, Ghana's capital.
## Background
The Venice Biennale is an international art biennial exhibition held in Venice, Italy. Often described as "the Olympics of the art world", participation in the Biennale is a prestigious event for contemporary artists. The festival has become a constellation of shows: a central exhibition curated by that year's artistic director, national pavilions hosted by individual nations, and independent exhibitions throughout Venice. The Biennale parent organization also hosts regular festivals in other arts: architecture, dance, film, music, and theater.
Outside of the central, international exhibition, individual nations produce their own shows, known as pavilions, as their national representation. Nations that own their pavilion buildings, such as the 30 housed on the Giardini, are responsible for their own upkeep and construction costs as well. Nations without dedicated buildings create pavilions in venues throughout the city.
## Description
The pavilion, located in the Venice Arsenale building's Artiglierie (artillery), was made to reflect Ghana in both the material and architectural style of its construction. In reflection of the earthen, cylindrical homes of Gurunsi villages, the pavilion is partitioned into elliptical rooms by rusty red walls of imported Ghanaian soil.
In what journalists described as an all-star lineup, six artists presented work at the Ghana pavilion. El Anatsui's bottletop sculptures were known for their high prices at auction. Felicia Abban was a photographer for the country's first president, and the country's first female professional portrait photographer. Lynette Yiadom-Boakye, a painter, was a Turner Prize nominee in 2013. John Akomfrah was known internationally for his films. Younger artists include Ibrahim Mahama and Selasi Awusi Sosu. Their works share themes of reappropriation, memory and restitution, and representation. Some of the artists do not live in Ghana but consider the country part of their identities. The selected artists were designed to highlight Ghana's range of diversity in gender, age, and location. The show emphasized shared culture in the African diaspora, as only half of the artists currently reside in Ghana. Almost all of the art was commissioned specifically for the pavilion.
The pavilion is presented in pairings. Its two entrances open unto sculptures by Anatsui and Mahama, artists marked by difference in age and stature but both using similar genres and media. Anatsui's Earth Shedding Its Skin (2019), on a theme of ecological and self-renewal, consists of three new wall hangings made from flattened yellow bottle caps and strung with copper wire, in reference to the ravages of gold panning on Ghanaian rivers. Mahama's A Straight Line through the Carcass of History 1649 (2016–9), on a theme of connecting tradition and modernity, is a bunker-like installation of smoked fish mesh, cloth, wood, and archival material, such as maps and exercise books, linking the technology that changed Ghana's fishing industry with the threat that technology poses to the rivers. Deeper within the pavilion are portraits by Yiadom-Boakye and Abban. Yiadom-Boakye's paintings show imaginary figures in inventive spaces, and Abban's black-and-white photographs show herself and other women in the 1960s and 70s. Akomfrah's three-channel video installation, The Elephant in the Room – Four Nocturnes (2019) and Awusi Sosu's Glass Factory II (2019) both use poetic visuals to show postcolonial Africa's cultural landscape. Again, the experienced Akomfrah is paired with Awusi Sosu, for whom the Biennale was her first major international show. While both works showcase a forgotten, fragmented history, Akonfrah's installation juxtaposes West African violence while Awusi Sosu focuses on the rise and decline of glass factories in independent Ghana. Akomfrah described art as a dialogue and therefore the Venice pavilion extended Ghana into the world's biggest conversation.
## Production
For the 58th Venice Biennale in 2019, Ghana and three other countries participated in the biennial for the first time. The show's title, "Ghana Freedom", refers to a song by E. T. Mensah written to commemorate the state's 1957 independence. Ghana was one of eight African nations at the 58th Biennale.
The Ghana Ministry of Tourism supported the project, which was intended both to increase Ghana's international stature and to increase tourism. At the pavilion's May opening, which First Lady Rebecca Akufo-Addo also attended, tourism minister Barbara Oteng Gyasi described the pavilion as part of Ghana's efforts both to become the premier tourist destination in sub-Saharan Africa and to welcome members of the diaspora to return home. The pavilion's curator, Nana Oforiatta Ayim, and its architect, David Adjaye, had previously worked with the government on national museum and art initiatives intended to support the country's international profile. The two believed that Ghana had more cultural power than was credited internationally, and the government approved their pavilion proposal. Oforiatta Ayim originally intended to focus the Biennale pavilion on a single Ghana-based artist but was convinced to expand the show"come out all guns blazing"by Okwui Enwezor, an advisor who had curated the 2015 Venice Biennale. Enwezor's Biennale also influenced the artist selection, as both Akomfrah and Mahama had big installations there and Anatsui had won its lifetime achievement prize. The pavilion is dedicated to Enwezor, who died before the pavilion opened. Oforiatta Ayim saw the pavilion and its focus on Ghanaian culture and diasporas as being part of an international conversation about connections between a diasporic people and their culture, especially the repatriation of culture. Simultaneous with the pavilion, workshops and pop-up exhibitions are planned in Ghana. Works from the pavilion were set to display in Accra, Ghana's capital, after the exhibition closed in November 2019.
The show was meant to provide multiple views into postcolonial Ghana and the influence of independence on Ghanaian art. Taiye Selasi's exhibition catalog essay, "Who's Afraid of a National Pavilion?" emphasizes that the pavilion is less to make conclusions about Ghana as a whole than to challenge assumptions about the country, its continent, and "African art". Philosopher Kwame Anthony Appiah wrote the catalog's lead essay.
## Reception
The pavilion was among the Biennale's most anticipated, and multiple journalists named the pavilion as a "triumph" and highlight of the Biennale, particularly in tribute to its cultural underpinnings both in the country and the diaspora. The Art Newspaper wrote that "a palpable sense of pride" permeated the pavilion. But while the artistic firepower was impressive, the New York Times did not consider the show revelatory, particularly since Anatsui already won a lifetime achievement prize at the 2015 Biennale. Of the individual works, the Financial Times considered Anatsui's new tapestries to be the pavilion's best. While The Art Newspaper wrote that Akomfrah's three-channel film united the pavilion's themes, Frieze thought its clichés did not meet the level of allegory. Of the three artist pairings, Artnet News found the Yiadom-Boakye and Abban portraits to be the richest, with Abban's portraits offering a new narrative for studio photography in West Africa, previously best associated with Seydou Keïta and Malick Sidibé. The publication additionally praised Mahama's archival fish smells for being evocative without becoming overbearing. While pavilions were rarely designed by famous architects, Frieze found Adjaye's womblike scenery to cast an ambiance unlike any other show in Venice. Charlotte Higgins of The Guardian wrote that the pavilion marked a subtle shift in balance as African national pavilions begin to contest the historic dominance of European pavilions at the Biennale, a history intertwined with colonialism. While governments worldwide decreased their arts funding, Ghana resisted the trend to wield art as diplomatic soft power and position Accra as a major cultural hub in Africa. Though Cape Town and Marrakesh had more robust arts infrastructure, the African continent lacked a definitive art market center while Ghana's economy and tourism budget continued to grow rapidly.
|
11,178,883 |
Copano Bay
| 1,173,846,674 |
Bay in Texas on the Gulf of Mexico fed by the two rivers and a creek
|
[
"Bays of Texas",
"Bodies of water of Aransas County, Texas",
"Bodies of water of Refugio County, Texas"
] |
Copano Bay is a northwestern extension of Aransas Bay, west of Rockport, Texas in Refugio and Aransas counties. It is supplied with seawater from the Gulf of Mexico via Aransas Bay, and fed freshwater from the Aransas River, Mission River and Copano Creek. As an estuary, the bay is home to a diverse ecosystem consisting of various birds including the endangered whooping crane, and numerous finfish including the redfish as well as shellfish such as oysters. It is classified as a nursery for shrimp, which prohibits production from the bay. Copano Bay is also a historic location for human usage and settlement that dates back to the 18th century, beginning with the historic port of El Copano and the 19th century settlements of St. Mary's of Aransas and Copano. The present-day towns of Bayside, Copano Village and Holiday Beach were all founded in the 20th century. Oil and natural gas are pumped from below the bay's surface, and contribute to the livelihood of the local economies. Recently, areas around the bay were affected by Hurricane Harvey which crossed over the bay as a Category 3 hurricane.
## History
Copano Bay was inhabited by the nomadic Aransas Indians, who constructed camps along the shore, 4,000 years ago. The Aransas people left the area approximately 700 years ago, and were replaced around 1400 CE by the Copane Indians, for whom the bay is named. The Copane were one of five groups making up the Karankawas, hunter-gatherers who occupied the mid-Texas coast.
Cabeza de Vaca is thought to have been the first European to sight the bay in the early 16th century, evidenced by the descriptions in his logs that match the detail of the area. Diego Ortiz Parrilla is believed to be the first European to explore the bay, doing so in 1766. He named it Santo Domingo (Saint Dominic), but it was later changed to Copano, after the port of Copano was officially opened in 1785 on the northwestern shore. The port later served as a strategically important locale during the Texas Revolution and the American Civil War, and was the site of a settlement that is now completely abandoned. The town of St. Mary's of Aransas was founded southwest of Copano and thrived as a port and wood mart, until numerous shipwrecks caused by the bay's hidden reefs concluded its use in 1875. Like Copano, it is now abandoned.
Further to the southwest, at the mouth of the Aransas River, the town of Black Point was established in the 1840s. The site was attacked by Indians several times before the settlement was abandoned. However, it was reestablished in the early 20th century as the present-day city of Bayside. Bayside developers aimed to attract fruit and vegetable growers to the plots made available and advertised nationwide, but large amounts of land were purchased by speculators, raising demand and forcing further annexation. The 2000 census reported that 360 people lived in the city. The cities of Fulton and Rockport were established on Aransas Bay in the late 19th century, and later expanded development along most of the eastern shore of Copano Bay. Such developments include Copano Village, which registered 210 residents in 2000, and the 1,000 resident Holiday Beach community just west of Goose Island State Park on Lamar Peninsula.
## Features
Copano Bay is approximately twelve-by-six-miles, oriented from the southwest to the northeast. It is found mainly on undeveloped land, though ranches are located on parts of the west, south and north shores. The main extensions include Mission Bay, which stretches to the north to the mouth of the Mission River, and Port Bay to the west, which forms the southern boundary of the Live Oak peninsula. The peninsula is located on the eastern shore of Copano Bay and is lined with beach homes and residences, which begin just west of the inlet Salt Lake to the head of Live Oak peninsula at the confluence of Copano and Aransas Bay. This opening is spanned by the Copano Bay Causeway and the Copano Bay Fishing Pier, which once served as the main crossing to the Lamar peninsula. Holiday Beach is found on the northeastern shore of Copano Bay on the Lamar Peninsula. Just north of the community is the mouth of Copano Creek, which marks the bay's northernmost point. From here, the shoreline turns to the southwest past the Copano Bay Oil and Gas Field and four sloughs before reaching the ruins of the ghost town Copano at Copano Point, marked by white cliffs. At the point, the Copano Reef juts out almost halfway across the bay. Further southwest, past the mouth of Mission Bay, Bayside stretches along the coast to the mouth of the Aransas River. The shoreline turns to the southeast from this point, past the Egery Flats and Egery Island through Swan Lake and to the mouth of Port Bay.
The bay's maximum depth is 3 metres (9.8 ft), and in contrast to the Laguna Madre (approximately 80 miles down the coast to the south), is not hypersaline. The Mission and Aransas Rivers are the main freshwater sources: small rivers with deep banks that carve through a landscape lined with hardwood trees. Their inflows increase during significant rainfall and reach their seasonal highs during the autumn. These rivers have not been dammed and thus flow free. At both mouths, marshes covering several square miles stretch from the confluences with Copano Bay and forming several saline lakes.
## Ecosystem
Copano Bay serves as a nursery for shrimp, which attracts a large number of redfish. Abundant collections of black drum, flounder and trout, can also be found in the bay. Oysters grow in large numbers to form elongated reefs "oriented perpendicular to tidal flow" in the estuary. The reefs provide habitat for fish and sustenance for a wide variety of birds including the black-bellied whistling-duck, black-necked stilt, brown pelican, gull-billed tern, reddish egret, roseate spoonbill, seaside sparrow, white-faced ibis and the whooping crane. The dominant species of gastropod in the bay is Eulimastoma harbisonae.
In 2003, the United States Department of the Interior granted \$574,000 to Texas Parks and Wildlife to purchase over 900 acres (3.6 km<sup>2</sup>) of prime birding habitat at Egery Flats and the mouth of the Aransas River, to prevent further development.
## Industry
Oil and natural gas wells are located both onshore and offshore of Copano Bay. Three oil and natural gas fields are found on the bay, including the Copano Bay Oil and Gas Field, just west of Holiday Beach, the South Copano Bay Oil Field, just offshore from Bayside, and the West Fulton Beach Gas and Oil Field to the west of the Live Oak peninsula. In 1997, a pipeline owned by Koch Industries burst in the marsh in Refugio County, two miles (3 km) west of Copano Bay near the Aransas River, spilling 1,000 gallons of oil over a 10-acre (40,000 m<sup>2</sup>) area. The oil did not seep into Copano Bay, preventing a minor environmental disaster. Copano Bay is off limits to shrimping due to its designation as a nursery bay.
|
30,420,606 |
Bacon ice cream
| 1,173,833,007 |
Bacon dish
|
[
"2010s in food",
"Bacon dishes",
"Flavors of ice cream"
] |
Bacon ice cream (or bacon-and-egg ice cream) is an ice cream generally created by adding bacon to egg custard and freezing the mixture. The concept of bacon ice cream originated in a 1973 sketch on the British comedy series The Two Ronnies as a joke; it was eventually created for April Fools' Day by a New York ice cream parlour in 1982. In the 2000s, the English chef Heston Blumenthal experimented with ice cream, making a custard similar to scrambled eggs and adding bacon to create one of his signature dishes. It now appears on dessert menus in other restaurants.
## Origins
Ice cream is generally expected to be a sweet food, eaten as a dessert, even though there is evidence of savoury ice creams eaten in Victorian times. Bacon ice cream originated as a joke, a flavour that no one would willingly eat, in the 1973 "Ice Cream Parlour Sketch" by The Two Ronnies, where a customer requests cheese and onion flavoured ice cream followed by smokey bacon.
In 1992, bacon-and-egg ice cream was created as an April Fools' Day experiment at Aldrich's Beef and Ice Cream Parlor in Fredonia, New York. Ten years earlier, co-owner Scott Aldrich was challenged by a gravy salesman to make beef gravy ice cream, which he did for April Fools' Day of 1982. Although it was reportedly "their most disgusting" creation, Aldrich's went on to release other unusual flavours on April Fools' Day, such as "chocolate spaghetti ice cream" (Julia Aldrich's first of many contributions),"ketchup and mustard swirl", "pork and beans" or "sauerkraut and vanilla" in 1991. In 1992, they made 15 US gallons (57 L; 12 imp gal) of bacon-and-egg ice cream which he gave away free to anyone who would try it. The ice creams generally received positive reviews. In 1992, The Victoria Advocate reported,
> Despite the disgusting names, most of [Aldrich's] prank flavors taste good, he said. Bacon and egg tastes like a slightly nutty vanilla, though the faint flavor of flaky egg yolk sometimes pushes through.
In 2003 an ice cream parlour, "Udder Delight", opened in Rehoboth Beach, Delaware, specialising in "outlandish" ice cream flavours. Among other flavours, such as their award-winning peanut butter and jelly ice cream, they have created a bacon ice cream which tastes like butter pecan. The owner, Chip Hearn, had included the flavour along with 17 others in an invitation-only focus group, where the tasters were allowed to suggest changes and give opinions on the flavour.
## Heston Blumenthal
The English chef Heston Blumenthal creates unusual dishes using molecular gastronomy. His restaurant, the Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire, has won three Michelin stars among other achievements. As early as 2001, Blumenthal created savoury ice cream flavours such as mustard grain and crab. In an article explaining the concept of "flavour encapsulation", Blumenthal explained that flavour is much more intense in encapsulated bursts, rather than when dispersed in a solution; therefore, the more that eggs are cooked, the more that the proteins stick together. This creates pockets of egg flavour in the ice cream, which release as it melts in customers' mouths.
> [Blumenthal's] bacon and egg ice cream came about through his interest in "flavour encapsulation": the principle of which means a single coffee bean crushed in your teeth while drinking hot water will taste much more of coffee than the same crushed bean dissolved in the water. One day, using that principle, he over-cooked the egg custard for an ice cream, so that it practically became scrambled. He puréed that and made an ice cream from it, that had an immense eggy flavour... [which] was not particularly pleasant. Which was when he decided to see if he could incorporate the sweet tones of smoked bacon into an egg ice cream. Boy, did it work.
Traditional ice cream is frozen egg custard with flavours added. Blumenthal whisks egg yolks with sugar until the sugar interacts with the proteins in the yolk, creating a network of proteins. The entire substance turns white, at which point flavouring can be added and cooked in. While stirring the mixture, Blumenthal cools it as fast as possible using liquid nitrogen.
Blumenthal's bacon-and-egg ice cream, now one of his signature dishes, along with his other unique flavours, has given him a reputation as "The Wizard of Odd" and has made his restaurant a magnet for food enthusiasts. Blumenthal has stated that one ambition is to create an ice cream with flavours released in time-separated stages; for example, bacon and egg followed by orange juice or tea. Once he perfects the technique of separating the flavours, he would attempt mussels followed by chocolate.
In the 2006 New Years Honours List, Blumenthal was awarded Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE), the United Kingdom's fourth highest order of chivalry, for his services to food.
## Recipes
As bacon ice cream was created in 1992 and came to prominence in the 2000s, there is no traditional recipe. Recipes generally involve adding bacon to a standard sweet ice cream recipe, often vanilla but other suggestions include coffee, rum or pecan. The saltiness of the bacon highlights the sweetness of the ice cream. According to one Wired.com article, the bacon should be candied prior to addition, a process which involves baking the bacon in a sugar syrup. This has the benefit of sweetening the bacon, in a similar manner to pancakes in some parts of the United States.
### Heston Blumenthal variation
Blumenthal's recipe uses ice cream without flavouring, but which tastes of egg. In the recipe featured in The Big Fat Duck Cookbook, the bacon is lightly roasted with the fat on, then infused in milk for 10 hours. The infused mix is precisely heated with egg and sugar to overcook the eggs, increasing the "eggy" flavour, then sieved, put through a food processor, churned and frozen. The ice cream is served with caramelised French toast, a tomato compote, a slice of pancetta hardened with maple syrup, and tea jelly.
Blumenthal has since updated his recipe to include a ten-hour period of soaking the bacon in a vacuum-packed bag prior to baking. He has also changed the presentation so that the unfrozen ice cream is injected into empty egg shells, then dramatically scrambled at the customer's table in liquid nitrogen, giving the impression of cooking.
## Reception
Bacon ice cream has received a mixed reception; as a combination of sweet and savoury flavours, it was designed to be controversial. In 2004, rival chef Nico Ladenis thought the Michelin system was doing a "great disservice to the industry" by hailing Blumenthal as a genius for egg-and-bacon ice-cream, saying that originality alone should not merit a Michelin star. Blumenthal pointed out that Ladenis had never tried the aforementioned ice cream.
Trevor White has suggested that Blumenthal had latched onto a culture where diners cannot get enough of the new and are spoiled by choice, comparing the food to a "freak show". Janet Street-Porter has criticised Blumenthal's cooking as pretentious. She attempted to make his bacon-and-egg ice cream from the recipe published in his The Big Fat Duck Cookbook, altering the recipe slightly due to her hectic workload and guessing when she did not have the right tools. The result she described as nauseating and "too sickly for words".
The ice cream sparked debate in the Los Angeles Times, when food writer Noelle Carter described bacon ice cream as perfection but the health section put up a photograph of a heart bypass and the headline "Bacon ice cream. No good can come of it". The Delaware "Udder Delight" ice cream maker, Chip Hearn, who made bacon ice cream appears to have done so partly as a gimmick to get people into his shop, since he allows customers to taste any flavour in the store. He felt that his flavours differentiated him from the many other parlours on the shore and many people come in to try bacon ice cream only to buy something else.
## Notable uses
Bacon ice cream has been recreated by other chefs in recent years. For example, it appears on the menu at Espai Sucre in Barcelona, a restaurant that specialises in desserts, with descriptions such as "innovative" and "spectacular". In the United States, bacon was one of the themes for dessert at the Fancy food show. In 2006, two separate contestants created versions of bacon ice cream in the reality series Top Chef. Celebrity chef Bob Blumer won a Texas ice cream making competition with a bacon ice cream. Originally planning to use candied bacon, he changed at the last moment to do a bacon brittle ice cream. Chef Michael Symon made bacon ice cream in the first season of the Food Network's The Next Iron Chef competition. Andrew Knowlton, a judge, dismissed it as not original. But Symon managed to progress in the competition and eventually win. Burger King rolled out a "bacon sundae", vanilla ice cream with caramel, chocolate, bacon bits, and one strip of bacon, in the summer of 2012 in the US. It was tested in Nashville in April.
## See also
- List of bacon dishes
- List of ice cream flavors
- Bacon sundae
- Beer ice cream
- Chocolate-covered bacon
- Bacon mania
- 2010s in food
|
52,199,393 |
Islands (miniseries)
| 1,173,878,572 |
2017 television miniseries
|
[
"2010s American animated television miniseries",
"2017 American television episodes",
"Adventure Time (season 8) episodes",
"Emmy Award-winning episodes",
"Science Saru",
"Television shows set on islands"
] |
"Islands" is an American animated miniseries comprising eight episodes from the television show Adventure Time, created by Pendleton Ward. It aired as part of the show's eighth season on Cartoon Network from January 30, 2017, to February 2, 2017. Adventure Time follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape, grow and shrink at will. In this limited event series, Finn, Jake, BMO (voiced by Niki Yang) and Susan Strong (voiced by Jackie Buscarino) leave Ooo and voyage across the ocean to learn about Finn's origin. During their trip, they encounter various creatures, new friends, and several interesting islands. The trip culminates with a visit to Founder's Island, where Finn meets his biological mother, Minerva Campbell (voiced by Sharon Horgan), and discovers what happened to the remainder of the human race.
Islands is the second Adventure Time miniseries to have been produced, following Stakes, which aired in November 2015. Islands was preceded by the release of a graphic novel, which tied into the story and served as a prequel. The miniseries' story was developed by head writer Kent Osborne, series showrunner Adam Muto, story editor Jack Pendarvis, and staff writer Ashly Burch. Storyboard artists who worked on this miniseries include Sam Alden, Polly Guo, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Tom Herpich, Steve Wolfhard, Graham Falk, Pendleton Ward, Hanna K. Nyström, Aleks Sennwald, Kent Osborne, and Adam Muto. Cole Sanchez and Elizabeth Ito served as the miniseries' supervising directors, and Sandra Lee served as art director.
Islands was met with critical acclaim, with many critics applauding how the miniseries further developed the show's characters. Additionally, the episode "Imaginary Resources" won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2017. Islands was released on DVD on January 24, 2017.
## Plot
A large robotic craft arrives searching for Susan Strong (voiced by Jackie Buscarino), but the craft is dispatched by Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio). Princess Bubblegum (voiced by Hynden Walch) examines the wreckage and discovers that it is of human origin, which engenders in Finn the Human (voiced by Jeremy Shada) a desire to travel across the sea from whence the craft came and meet others of his kind; Susan, Jake, and BMO accompany Finn on his voyage. Initially, the journey is easy and uneventful, but after a series of mishaps, the group's boat is destroyed by a mysterious colossus, throwing everyone overboard. Finn subsequently wakes up on an island where the weather drastically fluctuates. After meandering around for awhile, he eventually encounters an old lady named Alva (voiced by Helena Mattsson) who does not speak English. Alva invites Finn to her home and shows her home movies of other humans who have since presumably died. Later, Finn and Alva encounter Jake, who informs the group that he does not know the whereabouts of either BMO and Susan. Finn and Jake eventually head to a futuristic island where all of society has hooked themselves up to a virtual reality simulator. BMO is revealed to have become the heroic leader of the VR people. Jake decides to go and destroy the generator powering the VR after BMO refuses to leave. Feeling bad for BMO, as well as the emaciated humans who emerge from the virtual reality simulator, Finn asks Jake to fix the generator, but BMO fixes it himself. BMO recognizes that if he remains behind, he will lose his friends, and so he, Finn, and Jake take a pod to the next island. It is on this stop that Finn, Jake and BMO find Susan, who begins to recall her long-forgotten past.
An extended flashback reveals Finn's origin, and what happened to the other humans. Roughly a thousand years prior to the main events of the series, a group of humans fled Ooo on a container ship (as seen in Stakes). They eventually settled on a secluded island chain far from the mainland. Over the next thousand years, the community grew into a veritable utopia. With that said, there were those few who occasionally grew dissatisfied with their rigidly structured lives and attempted to flee the island; these "hiders" were in turn hunted down and returned by specially trained "seekers". It is revealed that Susan's real name is Kara, and that she was once a seeker in training. Kara was friends with a fellow human, Frieda (voiced by Jasika Nicole), who began expressing a desire to flee the island. This revelation causes Kara some discomfort, so she approaches Dr. Gross (voiced by Lennon Parham), the cybernetic human in charge of training seekers, asking if the humans can live off the island. Dr. Gross convinces her that the outside is dangerous and, to prevent her from fleeing, she controls Kara with a remote control. Now fully under Dr. Gross's control, Kara stops Frieda from leaving and drags her away crying. Back in the present, Susan tells Finn her real name and decides to take Finn to Founders Island so that he can be reunited with his mother, Minerva Campbell (voiced by Sharon Horgan).
The audience is then presented with a series of flashbacks detailing how Minerva, a doctor, met Finn's father Martin Mertens (voiced by Stephen Root) when he was hospitalized after it was mistakenly believed he was attempting to leave the island with a group of escapees. Martin and Minerva eventually fell in love and had Finn. However, when the group of attempted escapees sought revenge on Martin for a previous betrayal, he fled on a boat with Finn. His escape is thwarted by the colossus—revealed to be a security device that was created to protect Founders Island from outside threats—which attacks the craft. In the chaos, the pair are separated, leaving Finn to drift away. The group is arrested and Minerva is heartbroken over Martin and Finn's disappearance.
Back in the present, the group make it to Founders Island where humans have been living in relative peace. While Kara seeks to make amends with Frieda, Finn and Jake discover that Minerva had digitized her consciousness in the past and now exists only in virtual reality. Minerva reveals that she had Dr. Gross send Kara to retrieve Finn, but years had passed and Dr. Gross had accidentally released a deadly virus that was killing humans. Minerva had her essence uploaded into a computer, and then created the helpers to assist the human race. Now that she is with Finn, she expresses her desire that he stay permanently. Finn tries to convince Minerva that life off the island is not all bad, but Minerva thinks off-island life is dangerous. Finn then tries to convince the humans to leave, and they all rally alongside him. This causes Minerva to attempt to upload the consciousnesses of all the islands' inhabitants. To prevent this, Finn shares with her his memories of helping people, causing her to back down; she realizes that Ooo is not nearly a threat as she before believed. The humans all change their minds about leaving, except for Frieda, who announces to Finn, Jake, and BMO that she and Susan have made amends and are leaving to have their own adventures. While setting sail on a new boat bound for Ooo, Finn has one final talk with Minerva through the VR headset, where the two embrace in the digital realm.
## Production
In February 2015 at an upfront regarding Cartoon Network's programming for the 2015 to 2016 television season, the network announced that Adventure Time would air a special miniseries entitled Stakes during the show's seventh season. Comprising 8 episodes and airing in November 2015, this miniseries was a "phenomenal success, ranking as the \#1 program in its time period with all key kids and boys audiences." Prior to the airing of Stakes, head story writer Kent Osborne revealed that the show would likely produce several more miniseries, and when it was announced that the series would end in 2018, the network's official press release stated that prior to the show's conclusion there would be "new episodes, mini-series, specials and more".
According to TheSlanted, Cartoon Network took to "teas[ing]" information about the Islands miniseries immediately prior to its release. For instance, in early November 2016, ComiXology announced that the graphic novel Islands would tie "into the huge Adventure Time: Islands television event, the mini-series airing on Cartoon Network this winter where Finn meets other humans and an important member of his family for the first time", and later that month, an Amazon.com page for a pre-order of the Islands DVD was made available. Similarly, on December 9, the official Adventure Time Tumblr account revealed that the miniseries would have a unique title sequence. The announcements concerning the intro sequence, however, did not specifically explain what Islands was or when it would air. Official announcements detailing the miniseries were finally released on December 12, 2016 via a press release distributed to various media outlets.
Much like Stakes, Islands has a unique title sequence that was designed just for the miniseries. The new intro was storyboarded by Sam Alden and, much like the Stakes intro, was animated by Masaaki Yuasa's company Science SARU. The sequence was previewed via Cartoon Network's Facebook page and the official Adventure Time Tumblr on December 12; at this time, the latter noted: "We were incredibly fortunate to have the fantastic staff of Science SARU animate [the] intro for [the] Islands miniseries. [Science SARU is] so good it's breathtaking." Unlike the usual sequence which begins episodes of Adventure Time, the Islands intro adopts a nautical theme, and highlights the characters Finn, Jake, Susan Strong, and BMO; the theme itself is sung by Jeremy Shada, the voice actor for Finn.
The miniseries' story was developed by head writer Kent Osborne, series showrunner Adam Muto, Jack Pendarvis, and Ashly Burch. Storyboard artists who worked on this miniseries include Sam Alden, Polly Guo, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Tom Herpich, Steve Wolfhard, Graham Falk, Pendleton Ward, Hanna K. Nyström, Aleks Sennwald, Kent Osborne, and Adam Muto. Cole Sanchez and Elizabeth Ito served as the miniseries' supervising directors, and Sandra Lee served as art director.
## Cast
The miniseries features vocal performances courtesy of the show's regular crew: Jeremy Shada (who voices Finn the Human), John DiMaggio (who voices Jake the Dog), Hynden Walch (who voices Princess Bubblegum), and Olivia Olson (who voices Marceline the Vampire Queen). Niki Yang (who voices the sentient video game console BMO) and Jackie Buscarino (who voices Susan Strong) also play an integral part in the miniseries. The Adventure Time cast records their lines together as opposed to doing it individually. This is to capture more natural sounding dialogue among the characters. Hynden Walch has described these group session as akin to "doing a play reading—a really, really out there play."
The miniseries also features several guest actors lending their voices to various characters. Josh Fadem voices Whipple the sea-dragon, Helena Mattsson plays Alva, Reggie Watts voices Vinny, Jasika Nicole voices Freida, Livvy Stubenrauch plays young Kara/Susan, Sharon Horgan voices Finn's mother Minerva, and Laraine Newman lends her voice to the Widow. Likewise, Lennon Parham and Stephen Root reprise their roles as Dr. Gross and Finn's father Martin, respectively. Root had previously appeared in a string of sixth-season episodes, beginning with "Escape from the Citadel", and Parham had last voiced her character in "Preboot".
## Release and reception
### Broadcast
Islands aired as part of the show's eighth season on Cartoon Network from January 30, 2017, to February 2, 2017. The miniseries made its international debut on Cartoon Network Australia on March 13, 2017. In South Korea, Islands was edited into a feature film and then released theatrically on April 13, 2017. Islands premiered on Cartoon Network UK on July 17, 2017 and concluded on July 20, 2017.
### Ratings
The premiere episodes, "The Invitation"/"Whipple the Happy Dragon", were collectively watched by 1.20 million viewers and they both scored a 0.3 in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic according to Nielsen (Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States); this means that 0.3 percent of all households with viewers aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episodes' airing. This made the two episodes the most-watched installments of the series, in terms of viewers, since the seventh-season episode "Five Short Tables", which was viewed by 1.36 million viewers. The miniseries' final two episodes, "Helpers" and "The Light Cloud", were collectively viewed by 1 million viewers, and scored a 0.27 in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic.
### Critical reception
Pre-release reviews of the miniseries were largely positive. Zack Smith of Newsarama gave the miniseries a largely positive review and called it "fan service writ large, one that will prove immensely satisfying for long-term fans of the series". He applauded the way the string of episodes managed to start out with self-contained stories and move into a dense and emotional backstory. Tonally, Smith described the miniseries as possessing "the feel of an old-school post-apocalyptic SF sagaa journey through a devastated-but-wondrous world, with a sense of danger and mystery detached from the Land of Ooo." Smith's only complaint was that "there's enough rich emotional material once the voyagers reach their destination that it feels like more time could be spent there". Matthew Jacobson of The Spectrum wrote that "the story is masterful and imaginative" and that "if Islands is a litmus test, then the final season should be one heck of an adventure."
Post-release reviews were also positive. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the miniseries an "A" and wrote that it "can be seen as a summary of Adventure Time's growth over seven seasons, beginning with smaller, sillier tales that build to something much deeper." He applauded how Islands "does fantastic work fleshing out supporting characters", specifically highlighting the show's nuanced and multidimensional portrayal of Martin, Dr. Gross, and Susan Strong. He wrote that the miniseries' main story is "a powerful thesis statement cementing the show's overall message that adventure is at the core of personal discovery and fulfillment", and that this same story is "extremely relevant to the United States' current socio-political climate". Dave Trumbore of Collider wrote that the string of episodes were "packed full of emotional resonance and deeply complex character relationships" and "dip[ped] into some emotionally difficult territory". Trumbore was particularly complimentary towards the way the show managed to explicate Susan's character by giving her a compelling backstory. Ultimately, Trumbore wrote that while "Adventure Time: Islands succeeds in every aspect the series has become known for," it also "comes up short in familiar ways ... Unfortunately, the style (and the duration) of Adventure Time episodes works against ... delving into [the show's] mythology ... so we'll just have to obsess over whatever glimpses we get and settle for watching this series again and again."
In a highly complimentary review for The New Republic, Juliet Kleber wrote that "Islands does a dizzying amount of plot development in 80-something minutes." Furthermore, she argued that "Finn's coming-of-age story and the exploration of the post-apocalyptic plotline" as featured in the miniseries "are handled just as deftly as any other subject—with fun and a tinge of sorrow." Zach Blumenfeld of Paste Magazine gave Islands a slightly more mixed, albeit still positive, review. He complimented the philosophical musing of the miniseries, which he argued "takes on shades of Black Mirror and existentialism to cast a critical eye on technology and the human spirit." Blumenfeld wrote:
> Islands [...] [gives] us a world in which incredibly advanced bioengineering and cybernetics have kept humans alive and ensconced in relative comfort. But the twist is that the very scientific drive to innovate and develop these technologies is precisely what damned our species in the first place. [...] What Islands ends up delivering, therefore, is the most harrowing answer to Fermi's famous paradox: Intelligent life will inevitably destroy itself.
With this being said, he felt that episodes such as "Whipple the Happy Dragon" and "Mysterious Island" took time away from the main story, compacting Finn's emotional reaction to Founder's Island, which resulted in "relative emotional emptiness".
### Accolades
Common Sense Media awarded the Islands miniseries with "The Common Sense Seal", calling it a "beautiful animated miniseries [that] explores a deep backstory." The episode "Imaginary Resources" won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2017.
## Episodes
## Home media
Warner Home Video released the entire miniseries digitally and on DVD on January 24, 2017. This marked the second time that Adventure Time episodes had been released on home media before officially airing on Cartoon Network (the first instance being the release of the episode "Princess Day" on the DVD of the same name on July 29, 2014).
### DVD release
## Comic book
In October 2016, it was announced that the stand-alone comic book, Islands, written by series' storyline writer Ashly Burch would function as a prequel to the miniseries. The book was released on December 6, 2016.
## See also
- "Orb", which continues from where Islands ends
- "Ketchup", which features a distorted recollection of Islands
- Elements, the third Adventure Time miniseries, which aired as part of the show's ninth season in April 2017
|
4,515,932 |
Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society
| 1,170,133,671 |
2006 film directed by Kenji Kamiyama
|
[
"2006 anime OVAs",
"2006 films",
"Anime films based on manga",
"Bandai Entertainment anime titles",
"Bandai Visual",
"Films set in 2034",
"Ghost in the Shell films",
"Japanese 3D films",
"Japanese animated science fiction films",
"Production I.G",
"Stand Alone Complex"
] |
Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society (Japanese: 攻殻機動隊 STAND ALONE COMPLEX Solid State Society, Hepburn: Kōkaku Kidōtai Sutando Arōn Konpurekkusu Soriddo Sutēto Sosaieti) is a 2006 science fiction anime film and part of the Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex series based on Masamune Shirow's manga Ghost in the Shell. It was produced by Production I.G and directed by Kenji Kamiyama.
The film is set in 2034, two years after the events of 2nd GIG. Togusa is now the team leader for Public Security Section 9, which has increased considerably in size. Section 9 deals with a series of complicated incidents, including the assassination of Ka Rum, a former dictator of the Siak Republic, which leads to a terrorist plot using children as vectors for a cybernetic virus. Investigations reveal that a hacker nicknamed "The Puppeteer" is behind the entire series of events.
The film, which had a production budget of 360 million yen, premiered in Japan on SKY PerfecTV! on September 1, 2006, and later aired in the United States on Sci-Fi Channel's Ani-Monday programming block on June 11, 2007. A stereoscopic 3D version of the film was released in 2011. The film received generally positive reviews, but was criticized for being dialogue-heavy and lacking in action, something many felt the Stand Alone Complex television series did a better job balancing.
## Plot
In 2034, two years after the events of 2nd GIG, Public Security Section 9 is investigating a string of mysterious suicides by refugees from the Siak Republic. Chief Aramaki conducts a raid to arrest the refugee dictator only to find him already dead. In retaliation, a Siak operative plans a terrorist attack with a micromachine virus. Batou is sent to intercept the Siak operative and encounters Kusanagi, who is conducting her own investigation. Before they can apprehend the operative, he dies while attacking them. Kusanagi takes a case of virus ampules and warns Batou to stay away from the Solid State Society before leaving.
Section 9 operatives develop a theory that a hacker known as the Puppeteer or 傀儡廻 (Kugutsumawashi, literally 'Puppet Spinner', contrasted with the original film Puppet Master who was 人形使い Ningyō-zukai, literally 'Doll Handler') is responsible for Siak agents' forced suicides and Togusa discovers sixteen kidnapped children who were intended carriers of the virus. All the children are listed as the children of Noble Rot Senior Citizens and Section 9 begins to suspect a larger conspiracy when they are part of a larger body of 20,000 children.
Soon afterwards, the Puppeteer causes the disappearance of the sixteen children and Batou reveals to Togusa that he believes Kusanagi to be the Puppeteer. Section 9 next intercepts a Siak sniper that is targeting the supposed mastermind of Ka Rum's assassination. After his capture it is revealed the informant and the target are one and the same. The sniper says that the Puppeteer is a mechanism in the Solid State and cannot be killed.
Togusa tracks down one of the missing children, now assigned to an elderly man in the Noble Rot program. As Togusa tries to take the child, the man awakens and demands the child be left with him as he had named the child as his sole heir. He would rather give his assets to a child off the street and to protect them from abuse than have his assets turned over to the government upon his death. The man immediately dies after warning Togusa not to interfere with the will of the Solid State.
Later, Togusa receives a call from the Puppeteer who hacks his brain and forces him to drive to a cyberbrain implant hospital with his daughter. The Puppeteer and Togusa converse, and Togusa is given the option to lose his daughter to the Solid State or commit suicide. He chooses suicide but is saved by Kusanagi who then identifies the Puppeteer as a rhizome formed by the collective consciousness of the Noble Rot Senior Citizens located in a welfare center.
Kusanagi temporarily rejoins Section 9 and confirms that Ito Munei, an influential politician, was behind the assassination of General Ka Rum. She also confirms that Munei and other politicians use it as a front for a brainwashing facility to create an elite group of pure-blooded Japanese to take control of the country in the next generation and lead it into Munei's vision of a new Golden Age. The Solid State decided to eliminate Munei for interfering in its plans, but Munei was ignorant of the origin of the abduction infrastructure.
A designer named Tateaki Koshiki steps forward, claiming he developed the Solid State system before committing suicide. Kusanagi dives into his cyberbrain and into Koshiki's trap, allowing him to hack her cyberbrain. The Puppeteer reveals that he was spread across several egos until a collective consciousness emerged and developed into a Solid State, allowing him to move into the society beyond as the vanishing mediator. Later, Batou tells a recovering Kusanagi that the real Tateaki Koshiki used a prosthetic body and built the Solid State after he was hired by Munei.
Kusanagi does not reveal that the Puppeteer was a fragment of herself, but Batou already knew from being linked to her during the dive. Batou concludes that the ultimate identity of the Puppeteer will remain unknown and that incident will be written off as a scandal. Kusanagi implies that she will permanently rejoin Section 9 after years of wandering the net on her own.
## Cast
## Production
The film was initially hinted as a new anime project collaboration with Bandai Visuals and Production I.G. The film was officially announced by Production I.G at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Fair. Whether the film would be released theatrically, broadcast on television, or released direct-to-DVD was undecided at the time. The film had a production budget of 360 million yen (equivalent to US\$4.3 million). It was produced in Hi-vision format and was made by the same staff that originally made the TV series.
The production team used a 3-D layout system to render the interior shots ahead separately and in advance. The art team was tasked to draw lighting boards to show the position of light sources in the scene to improve the overall quality of the animation. One of the themes in the series was "Motoko Kusanagi's rebirth". The team had a difficult time portraying Motoko Kusanagi and her return to Section 9. Kenji Kamiyama stated that he felt the characters have obtained "ghosts" of their own and that Kusanagi needed a convincing story in order to return to Section 9. Shotaro Suga noted that Kusanagi was more going back to her old self rather than showing the new strength she found when she left Section 9.
For the music, Yoko Kanno read the scripts of the film in order to compose music that would synchronize with each scene, rather than composing music ahead of time. Sound Director Kazuhiro Wakabayashi returned to provide music menus, which made up of 70% of the scores Yoko Kanno composed.
As part of the Nissan sponsorship, the movie features two concept cars designed by Nissan. Togusa drives a white Nissan Sport Concept sports hatchback, Aramaki and Ichikawa are seen travelling in the 7-seater Infiniti Kuraza that premiered at the 2005 New York International Auto Show and North American International Auto Show.
## Releases
The film debuted in Japan on SKY PerfecTV! on September 1, 2006. It premiered in North America at the 2007 New York Comic Con screening from February 23–25, and also featured in 2007's Fantasia Festival in Canada. The English version was released on July 3, 2007. The Limited Edition Steelbook contained an additional DVD containing various development interviews and videos and the Solid State Society Original Soundtrack CD. In July 2008, Solid State Society was released in Blu-ray alongside the two OVA The Laughing Man and Individual Eleven in Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. Trilogy Box.
In November 2010, a stereoscopic 3D version was announced adding a new opening sequence. The 3D version was released in Tokyo's Shinjuku Wald 9 theater on March 26, 2011. The stereoscopic 3D version was released in both normal and deluxe edition on July 22, 2011. The normal version contains opening-day greetings by the staff and cast, film advertisements, and audio commentaries. The deluxe edition titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Solid State Society -Another Dimension- is packaged in a Dennōka Box containing the film in Stereoscopic 3D all the content the normal edition along with three Tachikomatic Days shorts in 3D and one in 2D.
A novel adaptation titled Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. Solid State Society (攻殻機動隊S.A.C. Solid State Society), written by Kenji Kamiyama and his understudy Yasunori Kasuga, was published by Kodansha and released on March 3, 2011. An optical camouflage camera app for iOS was released on September 2, 2011. A video game for the Xbox 360 Kinect was developed by Kayac to promote the 3D remake of the film.
## Reception
Christopher Monfette of IGN gave Solid State Society an "Impressive" score of 8.0 out of 10, stating that it was "A worthwhile watch". Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network gave the film a "B" rating, calling it a "swift-moving futuristic crime film with some clever science-fiction twists and solid action" but criticizing it was "wordy, confusing and somewhat bloodless." The film earned a 1.4% rating when it aired in NTV on October 15, 2012.
Marcus Doidge of DVD Active gave it a 6/10 stating, "Solid State Society isn't as strong as the first and second season of the anime show but being one feature length story as opposed to lots of very cool and largely great individual episodes offers a more in depth and focused story for the most part and a happy return to the world of Ghost in the Shell". The film was awarded the Juri Prize at the 21st Digital Content Grand Prix. The film was featured in the "Late Night Manga to Anime Film Season" hosted by The British Museum. The DVD released ranked No. 1 on Oricon charts on November 23, 2006.
The 3D version ranked at No. 11 in the Japanese box office chart with a total of \$285,268 from a total of nine theaters. The 3D version won the Movie award for The Japanese Committee of the International 3D Society.
|
8,241,411 |
Good Enough (Evanescence song)
| 1,171,936,346 | null |
[
"2000s ballads",
"2006 songs",
"2007 singles",
"Evanescence songs",
"Music videos directed by Marc Webb",
"Music videos directed by Rich Lee",
"Rock ballads",
"Songs written by Amy Lee",
"Wind-up Records singles"
] |
"Good Enough" is a song by American rock band Evanescence from their second studio album, The Open Door. It was released in 2007 in Germany as the album's fourth and final single. The song was written by singer and pianist Amy Lee and produced by Dave Fortman. It was the last song Lee wrote for the album, and placed it as the final track on the album to symbolize its hopeful theme and a new beginning.
"Good Enough" is a piano ballad featuring a strings section. The song received generally positive reviews, with music critics praising its hopeful theme and Lee's composition. The accompanying music video, directed by Marc Webb and Rich Lee, was filmed in Budapest, Hungary, and features Lee in a warehouse singing and playing the piano surrounded by flames.
## Composition and release
"Good Enough" was written by Amy Lee, and produced by Dave Fortman. It is the last song Lee wrote for the album. Partly inspired by her friend and husband, Josh Hartzler, Lee stated the main inspiration behind the song: "I had gone through a lot of difficult things during the writing of the whole album, and by the end of it, I had stepped away from those bad situations. [...] After doing that, I felt so amazing. For the first time I felt like I could write a song based on how good I felt. I have never done that before ever." The song expressed what she felt at the time, that "for once, I wasn't miserable, or stuck or trapped or sad or grieving." She elaborated, "You have to go through those things and make the changes you have to make and be there and go, 'Okay, I did it.' It doesn't come that easy."
Lee described the track as "completely different" for her "because it sort of [has a] happy ending". She found it "scary to be so vulnerable" and a "weird" outcome for her as she had never written a happy song in her life, having felt before like she needed her fear and woes to write. She said that not holding back while writing the album made her "feel really purified, like I've actually gotten a chance to break through instead of just wallowing in all of my problems. It's not about all the times that I've been afraid and tormented and sad, it's about looking at those situations and stomping them out. It feels really good to sing these songs now." Lee placed the song at the end of the album to symbolize its theme and a new beginning for herself.
According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing, the song begins in the key of F minor, later modulating into C minor and then finally landing and remaining in C major, while Lee's vocals for the song range from the musical note of G<sub>3</sub> to the note of E<sub>5</sub>. The song is a piano ballad, with strings and "gentle" vocals from Lee, ending the album on a hopeful note. Jon Dolan from Entertainment Weekly felt that the song lyrically flirts with "the dark side". A writer for The Boston Globe described it as a "moment of romantic peace" with an "incongruously downtrodden groove". Writing in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Sara Berry said the song "lays bare Lee's insecurities in an intimate-sounding setting - just her and the piano."
The single was scheduled for release in Germany in a basic and premium format on December 14, 2007, but a release date was never officially announced.
## Critical reception
"Good Enough" received generally positive reviews from music critics. In his review of The Open Door, Ed Thompson of IGN stated that although Lee's voice gives the song "a funereal cast", it is lyrically optimistic, deeming it "the most unique song Lee has ever released" and "the most beautiful song on the album". Jon Dolan from Entertainment Weekly wrote that "the deceptively soft" song "flirts again with the dark side, offering 'Drink up sweet decadence / I can't say no to you' and striking a final note of cathartic badness." In The Daily Telegraph, Kathy McCabe said Lee's "newfound confidence" is evident in the track. Andree Farias of Christianity Today felt that the song "stands in contrast to everything else" in the album. A writer for The Boston Globe called it the "lone glimmer in the gloom" in which Lee showcases her "most unclenched and luxurious vocal to date". The Providence Journal's Rick Massimo thought the song is "rather melodramatic but melodically successful". Writing for the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Sara Berry concluded that the album balanced the "scorching rock anthems" with "reflective, piano-heavy ballads" like "Lithium" and "Good Enough", adding that in the latter, Lee bares "insecurities in an intimate-sounding setting."
Richard Harrington of The Washington Post highlighted the track as a "quiet moment" in the album and thematically a "different creature". Blabbermouth.net's Don Kaye found the song to be a "melancholy ballad". A writer for Reuters regarded the song "as intense and affecting as anything before it - and this time, Amy Lee's lyric steps from the dark side, reveling in the relief of positivity." In The Courier-Mail, Jason Nahrung praised the song, calling it "sombrely arranged but lyrically uplifting". Blender writer Josh Eells viewed "Good Enough" as one of the album's "most touching moments" and "the sound of a woman who may have finally found true love — probably as close to contentment as a death-obsessed goth princess is going to get." Rolling Stone deemed it a "plaintive" ballad in which Lee's voice gives a "richness and nuance not present on [Fallen]". Writing for Metal Edge, Bryan Reesman said the song is "decidedly upbeat and showcases an Amy Lee that is letting someone in" and "the idea of an upbeat song closing the dark album actually makes sense". AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called it a "brooding affirmation of a closer".
## Music video
The music video directed by Marc Webb and Rich Lee was filmed in Budapest, Hungary. A writer for MTV News found the video to be "dark and cinematic, it's almost as if you swallowed an entire feature length film in 3 minutes." Lee made a guest appearance on MTV's Total Request Live on September 10, 2007, to premier the video.
## Formats and track listings
German CD single
1. "Good Enough" (Radio edit)
2. "Good Enough" (Acoustic from Intl Live)
Premium German maxi single
1. "Good Enough" (Radio edit)
2. "Good Enough" (Acoustic from Intl Live)
3. "Your Star" (Live from Tokyo)
4. "Good Enough" (Video)
## Credits and personnel
Credits for "Good Enough" are taken from The Open Door liner notes.
- Amy Lee – writing, vocals, keyboards, additional programming
- Dave Fortman – producing, audio mixing
- Jeremy Parker – audio engineering
- Mike Houge – assistant engineering
- Wesley Seidman – assistant engineering
- Ted Jensen – audio mastering
- DJ Lethal – programming
- Recorded at Record Plant Studios, Los Angeles
- Mixed at Ocean Way Studios, Los Angeles
- Mastered at Sterling Sound, New York
|
40,370,656 |
Tatuidris
| 1,163,319,415 |
Genus of ants
|
[
"Agroecomyrmecinae",
"Arthropods of South America",
"Fauna of French Guiana",
"Hymenoptera of North America",
"Hymenoptera of South America",
"Insects described in 1968",
"Monotypic ant genera"
] |
Tatuidris, or armadillo ant, is a rare genus of ants consisting of a single species, Tatuidris tatusia. The ants are small in size and inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America, from Mexico to Brazil. Workers are ferruginous-colored to dark red and present a distinctive morphology, consisting of a shield-like head with a broad vertex, ventrally-turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure, and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside-down. Little is known about the biology of the ants, but they are likely nocturnal and specialist predators.
Tatuidris was first described in 1968 and initially placed in the myrmicine tribe Agroecomyrmecini, together with two fossil genera. Since the original description, the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate.
## Taxonomy
Tatuidris tatusia is the only species in Tatuidris, a monotypic genus and one of only two extant genera in the subfamily Agroecomyrmecinae. A new species, T. kapasi, was described by Lacau & Groc in 2012, but has now been relegated to a junior synonym under T. tatusia based on the extent of the morphological variability encountered throughout this broad geographic range. Analysis of DNA barcodes indicated a pattern of genetic isolation by distance, suggesting the presence of a single species undergoing allopatric differentiation.
It was first described by Brown & Kempf in 1968 based on two workers collected in a Berlese sample of humus in El Salvador. Due to morphological similarities, they considered it a very primitive ant and placed it in what was then a myrmicine tribe, the Agroecomyrmecini, together with ants known from Early Eocene Baltic amber (Agroecomyrmex) and late Eocene Florissant shale (Eulithomyrmex).
It bears superficial resemblance to some extant genera (Strumigenys, Ishakidris, Pilotrochus, and Phalacromyrmex) but these similarities are considered to be due to convergent evolution. Due to similarities in the habitus, Brown & Kempf (1968) linked Tatuidris to the Dacetini genus Glamyromyrmex (currently a junior synonym of Strumigenys) and Phalacromyrmex. However they concluded: "analysis of these similarities indicates [...] that they are mostly convergent and not based on close phylogenetic relationship". Further work explored the similarities of Tatuidris with Ishakidris (Bolton 1984) and Pilotrochus (Brown 1977). While these taxa share some characteristics, including an expanded head vertex, deep antennal scrobes and a compact mesosoma, the similarities were again deemed convergent.
Since the original description, the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate. Bolton (2003) was the first to suggest the taxonomic instability of Tatuidris within Myrmicinae and raised the genus to the level of a new subfamily, the Agroecomyrmecinae, suggesting that Agroecomyrmecinae might be the sister taxon to Myrmicinae. The subfamily rank was re-assessed by Baroni Urbani & de Andrade in 2007, this was the first attempt to include Tatuidris as a terminal taxon in a morphological cladistic analysis. In their study, Baroni Urbani & de Andrade identified morphological synapomorphies shared between Tatuidris and the dacetines, justifying the inclusion of the genus within Myrmicinae. In addition, two autapomorphies (a differently shaped petiolar tergum and sternum, and the eyes at or close to the apex of the antennal scrobe) separated Tatuidris from all other extant ant genera included in their study.
Unlike phylogenetic studies based on morphological traits, molecular analyses of the internal phylogeny of the ants have given strong evidence that the armadillo ants are neither closely related to nor nested within the Myrmicinae. Brady et al. (2006), Moreau et al. (2006) and Rabeling et al. (2008) reconstructed phylogenetic trees with the agroecomyrmecines inside the 'poneroid' group of subfamilies, close to the Paraponerinae, and gave support for the exclusion of the genus from the Myrmicinae, a subfamily located inside the 'formicoid' clade. Given the early appearance of the Agroecomyrmecinae in the geologic record, the similarities of armadillo ants to Myrmicinae were hypothesized to represent convergence and/or retention of plesiomorphic forms.
The name Tatuidris means "armadillo ant", which is also the common name for this species; tatu comes from the Tupi and Portuguese word for "armadillo"; the specific epithet for the single described species, tatusia, is an old generic name for armadillo.
## Distribution
Tatuidris is rare but broadly distributed. The ants inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America, from Mexico to French Guiana, central Brazil, and Amazonian Peru. No collections are known from the Caribbean, Galápagos, or other islands. Most specimens and collections are currently known to occur in localities west of the Andes, with more collections tending to occur towards Central America and Mexico. Most collections come from mountainside (pre-montane) areas at mid elevations (usually 800–1200 meters of altitude). Collections from the lowland Amazon rainforest are few. Published records are few, but with the advent of litter sifting and Winkler extraction as a popular method of ant collecting, Tatuidris are not as rare as they used to seem. Although not very abundant, with frequent litter sifting they can be reliably found in Costa Rican wet forests.
## Description
Workers of Tatuidris present a distinctive morphology, consisting of a shield-like head with a broad vertex (upper surface of the head), ventrally-turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure, deep antennal scrobes (an impression that receives parts of the antenna) with eyes at or close to their apex, compact and fused mesosoma, 7-segmented antenna, first gastral segment ventrally directed, and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside-down on the roof of the expanded frontal lobe.
The body of a worker is short and compact, ferruginous-colored to dark red, with thick and rigid integument (external "skin"). The body is covered by hairs, which are variable in length and inclination. The head is pyriform (pear-shaped), broadest behind, with small eyes. Queens are similar to workers, but yellow-colored and paler. Their wings are about 60% longer than total body length. Males, also similar to workers (except head), are darker and have wings about 50% longer than the body. The eyes of the queens and males are larger than in workers.
### Size
Specimens of Tatuidris are small, about 3.5 millimeters (0.14 in) in total length, but specimens can vary greatly in size, with larger specimens being twice as large as the smaller ones. Size variability within trap catches (possibly same colonies) may be considerable. For example, workers from one collection catch in Nicaragua varied 30% in size. It is still unclear whether intra-colony size variation is due to the presence of morphological worker castes (e.g. minor and major castes) or continuous size variability. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that most variability among specimens is related to size, with shape explaining little of total variation.
### Pilosity variability
Four pilosity patterns (patterns of hair-like setae) are known to occur within Tatuidris collections. Pilosity pattern A consists of a mix of both long flexuous and short appressed setae. This is the most common pilosity pattern and the one that most resembles the type specimens from El Salvador and the gyne from Otongachi, Ecuador. Pilosity pattern B is characterized by very short, fully appressed, and regular spaced setae arrayed homogeneously and equidistantly on the head, mesosoma, petiole, postpetiole and gaster. Pilosity pattern C is characterized by dense lanose-looking setae. Pilosity pattern D consists of short and uniform decumbent (strongly inclined but not fully appressed) setae scattered throughout the body.
### Eyes
The relative position of eyes is highly variable within the species. For example, eye location ranges from being completely within the antennal scrobes to completely outside the scrobes. In some cases the eye itself is located outside the antennal scrobe, but the eye's fossa is well marked and confluent with the antennal scrobe. In most specimens, the antennal carina (ridge extending along the dorsal antennal region) bifurcates from the antennal scrobes and lies straight above the eyes. However, in specimens from Nicaragua, a strongly impressed antennal carina is present. In these specimens about 40% of the eye's area lies within the antennal scrobes. In the gyne, only \~1/6 of the eye lies within the antennal scrobes. A depression sometimes forms in the integument in the sides of the propodeum, below the propodeal spiracle and above the metapleural gland. The depth of this depression varies among specimens and tends to be deepest in larger specimens.
## Biology
The biology is poorly known; the male and female reproductive castes were described for the first time in 2012. The genus is known mainly from isolated workers found in Winkler or Berlese samples. Tatuidris workers have peculiar mandibular brushes and a powerful sting, which led Brown & Kempf to speculate that Tatuidris might be specialist predators of active or slippery arthropod prey. Until 2011, no observations of live specimens were registered. Details of a first collection event of a small live colony (3 workers and 4 gynes) by Thibaut Delsinne in a mid-elevation forest in southeastern Ecuador suggest that Tatuidris may well be a highly specialized predator, as colonies kept in captivity did not accept any food item offered to them. Food items rejected by the ants included live and dead termites, millipedes, mites, various insect parts, sugar water, tuna, biscuits, live and dead fruit flies (Drosophila), live springtails, live myriapods (Chilopoda and Diplopoda), live and dead Diplura, small live spiders, small live pseudoscorpions, one small snail, uncooked hen egg (i.e. piece of cotton wool soaked with fresh whisked hen egg), ant larvae (Gnamptogenys sp.), and live ant workers (Cyphomyrmex sp., Brachymyrmex sp.). Potential food items (arthropods) for Tatuidris were taken from soil samples and Winkler samples collected at the site where Tatuidris was a priori determined to be present.
Further observations suggest that Tatuidris may be a sit-and-wait predator. Delsinne observed that "both workers and gynes moved very slowly and were very clumsy. They often remained motionless during several tens of seconds or even several minutes when disturbed (either by my handling or by the contact with another arthropod)." These observations were mainly performed at night, suggesting that Tatuidris may be nocturnal, a hypothesis also supported by collection patterns. For example, in the Río Toachi forest of Ecuador Tatuidris specimens tend to fall in pitfall traps, instead of Winkler sacs. Because pitfall traps usually work 24-h, but Winkler sacs generally uses litter sifted during the day, then ants with nocturnal habits may be underrepresented in Winkler samples. The small eyes of Tatudris species provide further support for this hypothesis.
|
52,728,632 |
Edith Rosenwald Stern
| 1,170,449,157 |
American philanthropist and social reformer (1895–1980)
|
[
"1895 births",
"1980 deaths",
"20th-century American Jews",
"20th-century American philanthropists",
"20th-century women philanthropists",
"Activists from Chicago",
"American women philanthropists",
"Jews and Judaism in Louisiana",
"People from Lenox, Massachusetts",
"Philanthropists from Louisiana",
"Rosenwald family"
] |
Edith Rosenwald Stern (1895–1980) was an American philanthropist and champion of educational causes in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. She was instrumental in formation of the Stern Family Fund and was recognized as being willing to support causes for which she had conviction even if the causes were controversial at the time. Examples of her philanthropy included supporting voter registration of African-Americans in the American South, the anti-nuclear movement, public-interest law firms, organizing union and tenant groups, and initiation of challenges by shareholders who wanted corporations to become more socially responsible. Additionally, as political causes, Stern stood for anti-corruption, political fairness at the voting polls, and higher education for African-Americans. She was a patron of the arts including for the New Orleans Philharmonic Orchestra and for promising young artists, especially musicians.
## Personal life
### Early life and education
Stern was born Edith Rosenwald in Chicago, Illinois, on May 31, 1895, as the third of five children of parents Julius Rosenwald and Augusta Nusbaum Rosenwald. Her family was wealthy, Julius Rosenwald being part-owner and president of the Sears, Roebuck and Company. She grew up with her family in the affluent Kenwood neighborhood of Chicago. As a child, she was known to her family and close friends as Ede.
Starting in early childhood, Stern's parents instilled in her a strong sense of charity, commitment to the social and economic well-being of society, and noblesse oblige. Through childhood, her family annually visited Tuskegee, Alabama, because her father had admiration for Tuskegee resident and scholar Booker T. Washington, who was a prominent African-American. The Rosenwald family and Washington frequently visited each other's homes, and Julius Rosenwald was a benefactor of Washington and the Tuskegee Institute.
Stern's early education was at the Chicago University Elementary School. Subsequently, through coercion by her parents, Stern as a teenager attended a finishing school in Dresden, Germany, where she completed her education.
At age 18, Stern married Germon F. Sulzberger, whom she met through a mutual friend. The couple made their home in New York City. They separated a year later and divorced in May 1921. She was known as Edith Sulzberger during the time that they were married and until her second marriage.
Stern met her future husband Edgar B. Stern through a mutual friend. During their courtship, the couple visited Longue Vue, an old inn that overlooked the Hudson River. This inn became the inspiration for two of her future homes in New Orleans, Louisiana. The couple was married on June 29, 1921, aboard an Illinois Central Railroad passenger car while the train was in Hammond, Indiana. These circumstances were so as to avoid the one year grace period after divorce that was required by the state of Illinois at the time.
### Personal life in New Orleans
By the time of Stern's 1921 marriage, husband Edgar B. Stern was an established businessman in New Orleans. Stern became a New Orleans resident shortly after the marriage, and she quickly embraced life in New Orleans, immersing herself in various civic activities in addition to managing family life. So complete was her immersion in New Orleans life that her husband Edgar gave her the pet name "Yankee Creole".
The couple had three children, and they were active in their communities, like their parents, with respect to charitable, business, and artistic causes. Edgar B. Stern Jr. (1922–2008) was chairman of the Royal Street Corporation and completed extensive developments in the states of Colorado and Louisiana. He also served as a public relations director for United Way. Audrey Stern Hess (died 1974, age 50) was their middle child. She was chairman of the children's rights section of the Citizens Committee for Children. Their son Philip M. Stern (died 1992 at age 66) was a writer and a Democratic Party activist.
In 1929, following a period of intense activity sponsoring educational causes, at a time coincident with the start of the Great Depression, Stern became ill and was admitted to the Riggs Sanitarium in Massachusetts, where she was diagnosed with ulcers and exhaustion. Following her recovery, in 1930, Stern and her husband Edgar, together with Stern's sister Adele Levy, acquired as a summer home the compound known as White Pine Camp, which had been the presidential retreat for President Calvin Coolidge. This home was located on Osgood Pond in the hamlet of Paul Smiths, New York and is an example of an Adirondack great camp. The home was often referred to as the "New York White House" during the Coolidge Administration. It served as a respite from the summertime heat and humidity in New Orleans. The Sterns and Levys often used the compound for entertaining friends and relatives, and they owned the home after World War II ended.
In a 1936 to 1937 visit to Europe and the Holy Lands of Palestine with her husband Edgar, Stern witnessed the tense political climate in Europe of the 1930s. The Sterns observed Europe's rising antisemitism, especially during their visits to Germany, and also the actions of Stalin during their time in Russia and the suffering of Polish Jews. They attended a session of the League of Nations Assembly and witnessed the coronation of King George VI. The Sterns considered their travels to be a rich source of ideas and influences to bring to their hometown of New Orleans. It is also made them more politically aware and enhanced their commitment to educational causes. The Sterns hosted many visitors from Europe and elsewhere at their New Orleans home as a result of their travels.
During World War II, Stern worked as a volunteer for the American Red Cross in New Orleans and in Washington, DC. This divided time was due to the fact that her husband Edgar was working for the United States Department of War as a "dollar a year man". Her efforts on behalf of the American Red Cross included membership drives and sales of war bonds. Shortly after World War II, Stern became active in the United Jewish Appeal, following the lead of her sister Adele who was the first chair of the National Women's Division.
Edith and Edgar Stern frequently attended the annual Tanglewood Music Festival in western Massachusetts. For this reason, Edith established a second summer home near Lenox, Massachusetts, purchasing a cottage home. She decorated this home entirely with furnishings selected from the Sears catalog, and she referred to this cottage as "Austerity Castle". The Sterns frequently hosted visiting musicians at the cottage, and offered visits there as a fringe benefit to servants on the Sterns' payroll.
### Longue Vue House and Gardens
On moving to New Orleans, Stern and husband Edgar lived at Viara House, before establishing a permanent residence of their own. In 1921, the Sterns purchased eight acres of undeveloped land on the outskirts of New Orleans where they established sequentially two homes, both named Longue Vue. The name of the home came from an inn on the Hudson River that the couple enjoyed visiting early in their marriage. The following year, the Edith and Edgar Stern contracted construction of their first home on this property, which eventually became known as Longue Vue House I. This home was designed by architect Moise Goldstein in the colonial revival style.
In 1934, Edith Stern hired landscape architect Ellen Biddle Shipman to build an English landscape garden on this property. Although Shipman completed this project shortly thereafter, Shipman continued development of the gardens until her death in 1950. Horticulturalist Caroline Dormon made significant contributions to the design and construction of the gardens, who likewise continued to improve the gardens for years following initial construction.
In the late 1930s, Stern concluded that the home did not provide sufficient views of the gardens and that the property needed a new house that provided a cohesive design of both home and gardens. To this end, Stern commissioned architects William Platt and Geoffrey Platt. The construction extended until December 1942. The resulting home is in the Classical Greek Revival style, with each of the four facades being distinct. One of the facades, the one on the south, is suggestive of the Beauregard-Keyes House in the French Quarter of New Orleans. The house and gardens, sometimes known as Longue Vue II, are considered examples of the Country Place Era.
At the time of the construction of the second Longue Vue Gardens home, the original home was moved intact within the same neighborhood to another lot on Garden Lane.
In 1977, Stern bequeathed Longue Vue House and Gardens to the city of New Orleans, as an extension of the New Orleans Museum of Art. This donation included funds sufficient to convert the home from a private residence into a museum. This act was controversial at the time and was several years in the making, the controversy being based on a zoning dispute with neighbors. Resolution of the dispute required moving the entrance from Garden Lane to Bamboo Road.
### Later life and death
Due to failing health, in 1978, Stern made her home at the Pontchartrain Hotel in New Orleans. The hotel management converted rooms 503, 504, and 505 into a suite to accommodate Stern. Stern died at her home in 1980 of complications from circulatory diseases. She is buried at Metairie Lakelawn Cemetery alongside her husband Edgar, her daughter Audrey and Audrey's husband. Replicas of the Times-Picayune Loving Cup awards that she and her husband each received are located at the foot of the grave site.
## Philanthropy
As part of her activist philanthropic tenets, Stern required that financial recipients have a personal vested interest in their philanthropic cause. This was a trait that she took on from her father Julius Rosenwald. She often used challenge grants to build support and extend financial backing for her causes and to help assure philanthropic objectives are satisfied.
### Educational causes
Recognizing a need for early childhood education, in 1926, Stern founded the Newcomb School for pre-schoolers on the edge of the Tulane University campus. Besides financial backing, Stern selected administrators and remained involved in the management of the school in its early years. At the time, pre-school education was uncommon in the United States, and the Newcomb School was the first of its kind in the American South. Later, in 1957, when the school needed a new building, Stern commissioned Professor John Dinwiddie, then dean of the Tulane University School of Architecture, to design the facility. The new building opened in 1959.
Following her efforts on early childhood education, in 1929 Stern organized the founding of the Metairie Park Country Day School, for children from kindergarten through high school. Stern provided the initial funding to acquire 14 acres of land in Metairie, Louisiana, to be used for the campus. Stern remained involved in the organization of the school by setting up three committees, one to establish school policy, another to recruit a headmaster, and the third to acquire full funding for the school, including a scholarship program. The first headmaster was Ralph Boothby who served as headmaster until 1956. As part of school policy that continued under Boothby's tenure, the school instituted methods aimed at providing children with an environment in which they learn while playing and exploring. School policy de-emphasized homework until the children were older.
### Patron of the arts
As a young woman, singer Marian Anderson often visited New Orleans, usually singing at churches with African-American congregations. Stern became acquainted with Anderson through Stern's own cook. As a result, Stern befriended Anderson and introduced her as an entertainer within New Orleans society. Stern continued as one of Anderson's patrons through her performing career.
Stern's support of the New Orleans Symphony began in earnest with a meeting in 1952 with newly installed general manager Thomas Greene. Besides her own financial gifts to the orchestra, Stern organized other fund-raising activities. An example was a fund-raiser featuring Parisian chef Raymond Oliver of Le Grand Véfour Restaurant who showcased his culinary talents for prominent American chefs for donations benefiting the orchestra. In this event, Sears-Roebuck donated the equipment for food preparation.
Stern was an early patron of African-American opera singer Annabelle Bernard and of New Orleans impressionist artist William Woodward. After hearing Bernard perform at Xavier University in 1955, Stern arranged for Bernard to have an audition with opera producer Boris Goldovsky. The success of this audition launched Bernard's professional career.
As a member of the board of trustees of the Delgado Museum in New Orleans, Stern worked with architect Arthur Q. Davis to donate the Stern-Davis collection to the museum, emphasizing the Cusco School of art.
Stern provided the initial funding to create the New Orleans Repertory Theatre.
## Political involvement and civil rights
By 1945, concerned women voters in New Orleans organized to reduce the power and influence of established political machines in the city. Stern became part of this effort, and she worked on behalf of politician Chep Morrison who was then a candidate for mayor and who promised to break such political machines. Stern organized the "Women's Broom Brigade", aimed at "a clean sweep" of New Orleans city government. As leader of the group, she organized a march of women carrying brooms across the city ultimately going to the Jerusalem Temple. The Morrison candidacy won the election, and Stern continued to work on behalf of reform of local government.
Stern subsequently took on the issue of voter fraud and worked with the Voter Registration League, as well as the League of Women Voters, on this issue. She organized efforts to educate future voters in New Orleans, including bringing voting machines into local high schools to familiarize young people with the voting process. Mayor Morrison appointed her to the Parkway and Park Commission of the City of New Orleans.
In 1952, as part of her efforts on the U.S. presidential campaign of Adlai Stevenson, Edith Stern hosted then-candidate Stevenson for several days at Longue Vue House during an extended campaign stop in Louisiana. During this campaign season, Stern also hosted John F. Kennedy at her home. At one point during this visit, Stern hosted a dinner party that included Stevenson, Kennedy, and entertainer Ethel Merman, as well as other politically active New Orleanians. Considering the Republican-leaning of her husband Edgar and some of the guests, these events enabled interactions across party lines in this campaign stop. During these campaign events, the Sterns conceived of the idea of Pontchartrain Park, a suburban-style middle-class neighborhood for African-Americans during the Jim Crow South, a project that the Sterns ultimately backed.
Stern continued her involvement in Democratic Party politics at both the local level and national level. In 1960, she attended the Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles, California, in a private box to watch the nomination of John F. Kennedy. Following Kennedy's inauguration as President of the United States, he appointed Stern to the National Cultural Center Advisory Committee on the Arts. Locally, Stern directed the Stern Family Fund to support the Institute of Politics, which is an organization at Loyola University that helped prepare young politicians for their careers.
For the 1970 New Orleans mayoral election, Stern supported the candidacy of Moon Landrieu. Following his election victory, Landrieu was seen locally as being the first true liberal to hold the post, and he was the first New Orleans mayor to fully engage African-Americans in city government. As mayor, he continued to rely on Stern's advice and counsel through his terms of office.
As a member of the board of directors of the Stern Family Fund, Edith Stern made frequent use of the fund to advance causes of African-American education, civil rights, civic responsibility, and corporate responsibility. Engagement in matters of corporate responsibility was controversial among the fund's board, and Stern's son resigned from the board in protest over this policy. The Sterns also directed significant aid to historically black colleges such as Dillard University.
Beginning in 1967, Stern established a fund to aid in the legal defense of Clay Shaw who was alleged to have conspired to assassinate John F. Kennedy. Although Stern was a strong supporter of President Kennedy, Stern was casually acquainted with Shaw through their mutual interest in French Quarter restoration projects. Following Shaw's acquittal of the legal charges, Stern commissioned Shaw to carry out restoration projects of homes that Stern owned, especially in the New Orleans French Quarter.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Stern led several significant fund-raising efforts in New Orleans to benefit the Women's Division of the United Jewish Appeal.
### Opposition
Stern received near daily hate mail as a result of her efforts on civil rights.
Stern supported candidate Adrian G. Duplantier in the 1962 mayoral election in New Orleans. Duplantier's opponent Victor H. Schiro produced campaign literature depicting Duplantier as a political puppet of Stern.
## Awards and recognition
- A 1945 portrait of Stern by artist Malthe M. Hasselriis is housed at the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
- The New Orleans Times-Picayune newspaper presented its Loving Cup award to Stern in 1964 for her charitable, civic, and political work. Her husband Edgar B. Stern in 1930 had also received the same award, making them the only husband-wife couple so honored.
- In 1968, Life Magazine named Edith Stern one of the Grandes Dames' Who Grace America".
- Stern received the Hannah G. Solomon Award in 1971 for the New Orleans Section of the National Council of Jewish Women.
- In 1977, the New Orleans States-Item newspaper named Edith Stern and Edgar Stern the city's outstanding philanthropists.
- Chaim Herzog, Israel's ambassador to the United Nations, acting on behalf of the nation of Israel, planted a tree in Edith Stern's honor on the property of Longue Vue Gardens, on May 21, 1978.
- In 1984, Gerda Weissmann Klein published a biography of Edith Stern.
- In 2018 the New Orleans Times-Picayune newspaper named Stern to its "300 for 300" list of people who have had lasting impact on the city of New Orleans.
## Legacy
Stern's enduring legacy includes the Longue Vue House and Gardens, contributions to education through endowment of schools and their establishment, aid to music and the fine arts, and advances in voting rights and civil rights in the American South. She helped form the Stern Family Fund which provided seed money for social entrepreneurs.
## External links and further reading
- A Passion for Sharing: The Life of Edith Rosenwald Stern, by Gerda Weissmann Klein. Chappaqua, N.Y.: Rossel, 1984.
- Longue Vue House & Gardens
- Wikimedia Commons category on Longue Vue House & Gardens
[1895 births](Category:1895_births "wikilink") [1980 deaths](Category:1980_deaths "wikilink") [American women philanthropists](Category:American_women_philanthropists "wikilink") [Rosenwald family](Category:Rosenwald_family "wikilink") [Jews and Judaism in Louisiana](Category:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Louisiana "wikilink") [Philanthropists from Louisiana](Category:Philanthropists_from_Louisiana "wikilink") [Activists from Chicago](Category:Activists_from_Chicago "wikilink") [People from Lenox, Massachusetts](Category:People_from_Lenox,_Massachusetts "wikilink") [20th-century American philanthropists](Category:20th-century_American_philanthropists "wikilink") [20th-century American Jews](Category:20th-century_American_Jews "wikilink") [20th-century women philanthropists](Category:20th-century_women_philanthropists "wikilink")
|
333,745 |
Woolwich Ferry
| 1,170,824,965 |
Ferry across the River Thames in east London
|
[
"1889 establishments in England",
"Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery",
"London River Services",
"No-fee ferries",
"River Thames ferries",
"Transport in the London Borough of Newham",
"Transport in the Royal Borough of Greenwich",
"Transport infrastructure completed in 1889",
"Woolwich",
"Woolwich Ferry"
] |
The Woolwich Ferry is a free vehicle and pedestrian ferry across the River Thames in East London, connecting Woolwich on the south bank with North Woolwich on the north. It is licensed and financed by London River Services, the maritime arm of Transport for London (TfL). Around two million passengers use the ferry each year.
A ferry has operated on the Thames at Woolwich since the 14th century, and commercial crossings operated intermittently until the mid-19th. The free service opened in 1889 after tolls were abolished on bridges to the west of London. Traffic increased in the 20th century because of the rise in motor vehicle traffic and it remained popular because of the lack of nearby bridges. Pedestrian use dropped after the construction of a parallel foot tunnel and the extension of the Docklands Light Railway to Woolwich Arsenal station. Alternatives such as the Thames Gateway Bridge and Gallions Reach Crossing have been proposed as replacements, but there are no plans to discontinue the Woolwich Ferry as long as there is demand.
## Services
The service links Woolwich in the Royal Borough of Greenwich with North Woolwich in the London Borough of Newham. It also links two ends of the inner London orbital road routes: the North Circular and the South Circular.
On weekdays, the ferry operates from 6.10 am until 8 pm with a two-boat service (10 minutes nominal interval between sailings); on Saturdays, from 6.10 am to 8 pm with a one-boat service (15 minutes nominal interval; the last south-to-north sailing is 15 minutes earlier at 7.45 pm); on Sundays, from 11.30 am to 7.30 pm with a one-boat service (last south-to-north sailing at 7.15 pm). The ferries can carry heavy goods vehicles and other road traffic across the river, up to a maximum height of 4.7 metres (15 ft) and width of 3.5 metres (11 ft). The service is free for all traffic; in 2012 Transport for London (TfL) estimated a subsidy cost of 76.5p per passenger.
### Nearest alternative crossings
The nearest alternative crossing for pedestrians is the Woolwich foot tunnel about 100 metres (110 yds) to the east. A Docklands Light Railway (DLR) station, Woolwich Arsenal on the south side of the Thames, was opened in January 2009 as the new terminus of the London City Airport branch. King George V DLR station, on the opposite side of the river, is close to the north ferry dock.
The nearest vehicle alternatives are the Blackwall Tunnel about two miles (3 km) upstream to the west, or the Dartford Crossing around ten miles (16 km) downstream to the east. Both tunnels have height restrictions for heavy goods vehicles, and users of the Dartford Crossing incur toll charges.
## History
### Early services
There has been a connection across the Thames between what is now Old Woolwich and what would later be North Woolwich since the Norman Conquest. The area was mentioned in Domesday Book as 63 acres (25 ha) belonging to Hamon, the dapifer (steward), "which belong to (pertinent in) Woolwich"; the "pertinent" here refers to the portion of land north of the Thames yet also part of the county of Kent. State papers in 1308 show that a service was running between North Woolwich and Warren Lane. That year, William de Wicton sold the business to William atte Halle for £10. The ferry was subsequently sold in 1320 for 100 silver marks.
Cross-river traffic increased following the establishment of the Royal Arsenal in 1671. To enable movement of troops and supplies, the army established its own ferry in 1810. The following year an Act of Parliament established a commercial ferry company, but it was dissolved in 1844. In 1846, the Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway extended its lines to include a Thames wharf branch; eventually three steam ferries operated, but they proved inadequate to meet the growing demand. In October 1880, a public meeting was held in Woolwich to discuss setting up a locally run steam-ferry service, but the cost was seen as prohibitive.
Following the establishment of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which had taken over toll bridges in west London and opened them to free public use, it was suggested that the board should fund a free crossing of the Thames in east London. Proposals were made to provide services at Woolwich and further upstream at Greenwich, but the latter plan was abandoned. In 1884 the board agreed to provide two steam-powered ferries, each costing £10,650, and asked chief engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette to lead design and construction. In September 1887 Messrs Mowlem and company were awarded contracts valued at £54,900 to build approaches, bridges and pontoons.
### Modern service
The service was officially opened on 23 March 1889, with the paddle steamer Gordon. Two days before the first service, the Metropolitan Board of Works was replaced by the London County Council (LCC), and the opening ceremony was conducted by Lord Rosebery instead of the expected Bazalgette. The sister vessel Duncan was introduced on 20 April.
By the end of the 1920s, the rise in motor traffic had put pressure on the ferry's capacity. A proposed bridge between Shooter's Hill and East Ham was rejected as too obvious a target for wartime bombings, and a third vessel was introduced instead. Because of the lack of a fixed crossing, the Thames became a psychological barrier for those living in the East End of London, who could only use a limited number of routes to cross the river, including the Woolwich Ferry. The lack of a suitable alternative route was instrumental in creating plans for what eventually became the Dartford Crossing further downstream.
By the 1950s it was quicker for ferry traffic to divert via the Blackwall Tunnel even with all three vessels operating at full capacity. In April 1963, the paddle steamers were replaced and the ferry service upgraded to a more modern roll-on/roll-off model, reducing waiting times on the approach roads. The LCC continued to operate the ferry until it was replaced by the Greater London Council (GLC) on 31 March 1965. In 1964, Marples Ridgway started building the current reinforced concrete terminals, which can operate over a 30 feet (9.1 m) tidal range. The current terminals were opened in 1966.
After the abolition of the GLC in 1986, the responsibility for operating the service was transferred to the Secretary of State for Transport, who contracted the then London Borough of Greenwich to run the service. Asset ownership and operating rights were subsequently transferred to Transport for London (TfL) on the establishment of the Greater London Authority, but the London Borough of Greenwich continued to operate the ferry on behalf of TfL.
In March 2008, the London Borough of Greenwich gave TfL notice that it would cease operating the service from 30 September 2008. On 12 September TfL announced that the outsourcing group Serco would take over the operation of the service from 1 October 2008; the contract ran initially until 31 March 2010. Control of the crossing passed from Serco to Briggs Marine, which was expanding into public passenger services, in December 2012. The company was awarded a £50 million seven-year contract, which began in April 2013.
In 2014, TfL began an upgrade of the ferry service, starting by refurbishing the piers and in 2016 ordering two new boats to replace the existing vessels that were nearing the end of their working life. In early 2017, it was announced that the new ferries were being built by Polish firm Remontowa to a design by LMG Marin. The diesel-electric hybrid vessels have 210 metres (690 ft) of space for road vehicles over several lanes and dedicated cyclist accommodation. The vessels are licensed to carry 150 passengers segregated from road traffic. Continuing the tradition of naming the ferries after local people, it was announced in June 2017 that the two new vessels would be named after Dame Vera Lynn, a singer and entertainer from nearby East Ham, and Ben Woollacott, the 19-year-old deckhand on the Woolwich Ferry who drowned after being dragged overboard in a mooring accident in 2011.
In October 2018, the Woolwich Ferry was suspended for four months in order to undertake major repair work for the piers, and the existing vessels were taken out of service. The foot tunnel remained open. The ferry service resumed on 1 February 2019.
Following expiry of Briggs Marine's contract in December 2020, the service is now run by London River Services.
### Incidents
On 3 August 2011, 19-year-old ferry worker Ben Woollacott died after falling off the boat into the River Thames. The MAIB report published in August 2012 blamed "unseamanlike working practices" during the unmooring operation for the death. When two new ships were bought to update the service in 2018, one was named after him.
## Fleet
The first ferries were the side-loading paddle steamers Gordon, Duncan and Hutton, named after General Gordon of Khartoum, Colonel Francis Duncan MP and Professor Charles Hutton. Each was powered by a condensing engine manufactured by John Penn and Sons of Greenwich, producing 100 nominal horsepower.
The initial fleet was eventually replaced, starting in 1923 with The Squire (named after William Squires, a former mayor of Woolwich), and in 1930 with the Will Crooks (Crooks was Labour MP for Woolwich, 1903–21) and the John Benn (Benn was a member of the London County Council, Liberal MP for St George—which included Wapping—and grandfather of Tony Benn).
Three vessels were built in Dundee in 1963 by the Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company to replace the paddle steamers, and were each named after prominent local politicians: James Newman (mayor of Woolwich, 1923–25), John Burns, and Ernest Bevin. These ferries featured Voith Schneider propulsion systems for manoeuvrability. A cycloidal propeller was fitted centrally at either end, each driven by a 500bhp 6-cylinder Mirrlees Blackstone diesel engine. Transport for London introduced an Art On The River scheme in 2014, showing decorative artwork on the ferry vessels. These vessels ceased operation on 5 October 2018, after which service was suspended for four months and the ferries sold for demolition.
Two new vessels, the Ben Woollacott and the Dame Vera Lynn, were delivered from the Remontowa shipyard in Gdańsk, Poland, to replace the previous fleet in October 2018. The new vessels entered service on 1 February 2019. They have suffered from numerous technical issues resulting in closures and service reductions, with Mayor of London Sadiq Khan apologising in November 2019 and stating the new ferries "aren't good enough".
## Passenger numbers
The ferry typically carries about two million passengers a year; occupants of vehicles (including drivers) are counted as passengers. In 2012 the ferry carried around 20,000 vehicles and 50,000 passengers weekly.
At all times of day, but particularly at peak hours, it is common for vehicles to have to queue beyond the next ferry departure. Various improvements have been made to the vehicle queueing arrangements over the years, especially to avoid impacting local traffic.
For foot passengers, bus services connect to both terminals. There is a small bus station on the north side, but some cross-river foot passengers take the foot tunnel instead. About 300 foot passengers used the ferry daily between 1983 and 1985. Further competition arrived in 2009 with the extension to Woolwich of the Docklands Light Railway, which crosses under the river to the east of the crossing and the tunnel, and has led to a reduction in the number of foot passengers using the ferry.
## Future
The ferry service provides one of the few road crossings of the Thames east of the City of London. As long as there is a demand for a vehicle ferry it is unlikely to be discontinued, and doing so would require changing the Metropolitan Board of Works (Various Powers) Act 1885.
Planning applications were submitted for a new bridge, the Thames Gateway Bridge, close to the Woolwich Ferry, in 2004 although the project was cancelled in 2008. In 2012, the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, announced the Gallions Reach Crossing, a replacement ferry service running further east from Beckton to Thamesmead which was expected to open in 2017. This did not occur and has been replaced with proposals for either a new bridge or tunnel in the area. TfL planning director Richard de Cani has said that the ferry will continue to operate as long as there are no alternatives, and there are no current plans to discontinue the service.
Tolls cannot be levied on the ferry without changing the 1885 Act of Parliament. However, it is possible that the service may eventually be tolled in conjunction with other projects.
## Media appearances
The Woolwich ferry has made several appearances on TV and film. The John Benn is seen being destroyed by the titular monster in the film Behemoth, the Sea Monster. A detailed scale model is used to interact with a model of the monster's head, which capsizes the ship in the Thames.
## See also
- List of crossings of the River Thames
|
72,878,713 |
Pizza Tower
| 1,171,164,796 |
2023 video game
|
[
"2023 video games",
"GameMaker Studio games",
"Indie games",
"Platform games",
"Side-scrolling platform games",
"Single-player video games",
"Video games about food and drink",
"Video games developed in Canada",
"Video games set in castles",
"Windows games",
"Windows-only games"
] |
Pizza Tower is a 2023 platform game created by the indie developer Tour De Pizza. It follows a pizza chef, Peppino Spaghetti, who must scale a tower to prevent the destruction of his pizzeria. Across 20 side-scrolling levels, the player increases their score by gathering collectibles and defeating enemies to build combos. At the end of each level, they activate an escape sequence and must return to the beginning within a time limit. Pizza Tower does not feature health or lives, and its difficulty depends on what the player chooses to achieve.
The development began around March 2018 and was led by the pseudonymous designer McPig and programmer Sertif. Pizza Tower began as a role-playing video game with survival horror elements before evolving into a platformer inspired by Nintendo's dormant Wario Land series, to which McPig wanted to provide a spiritual successor. It was developed with GameMaker and features a cartoonish, high-resolution pixel art style inspired by SpongeBob SquarePants and French comics. Wario Land 4 (2001) served as the basis for the gameplay and level design.
Pizza Tower developed a large fandom during its development through early access builds offered to Patreon backers and game demos. It was released for Windows on January 26, 2023. Pizza Tower received positive reviews, with praise for the gameplay, score, visuals, and humor. Critics favorably compared its art style to 1990s Nicktoons and the sense of speed to the Sonic the Hedgehog series. They considered Pizza Tower a worthy substitute for Wario Land, and some called it a rare spiritual successor that is better than its inspiration.
## Gameplay
Pizza Tower is a side-scrolling platform game. Its story begins when Peppino Spaghetti, a pizza chef and the owner of a struggling pizzeria, is approached by Pizzaface, a sentient floating pizza. Pizzaface threatens to destroy Peppino's pizzeria with a nuclear laser atop a nearby tower. Frightened and angered, Peppino sets out to ascend the tower and defeat Pizzaface to save his pizzeria. The tower serves as the setting and hub world of the single-player game. It has five floors, each containing four levels and a boss. Each level has a distinct theme and unique game mechanics, such as a cemetery with surfable corpses and a Five Nights at Freddy's homage with jump scares.
Peppino, the primary player character, can walk, run, jump, roll, and slide. His attacks include a body slam, grabbing and throwing enemies, and a parry. If Peppino runs for long enough, he begins to dash, allowing him to run up walls and plow through enemies and objects. Defeating an enemy initiates a combo that lasts seven seconds; to maintain it, the player must defeat more enemies and collect items. Certain levels feature power-ups that alter Peppino's abilities, such as guns or knight armor, and Gustavo, an alternate player character who rides on the back of his giant pet rat. Palette-swap outfits for Peppino can be acquired through obtaining achievements.
Each level contains various secrets: pizza topping creatures that the player rescues to unlock boss fights; a treasure locked behind a door that can only be opened by a janitor the player must find; and three hidden rooms that provide points. At the end of most levels, the player finds a pillar they must destroy. This activates "Pizza Time", a phase in which the player must return to the level's entrance within a time limit. The player is forced to restart the level if they fail. A portal allows the player to do an optional second lap in which they return to the end and must make their way back to the entrance again for bonus points. After completing each level, the player is given a letter grade based on their score and performance. The highest rank, P, can only be acquired if the player gets enough points for an S rank, finds the three secrets, collects the tower secret treasure, and completes a Lap 2 while maintaining a single, uninterrupted combo.
Pizza Tower does not feature traditional difficulty levels; rather, the difficulty depends on what the player chooses to achieve. Secrets are optional and there are no lives and health. Colliding with an obstacle does not hurt Peppino, though it lowers the player's score and subtracts two seconds from the combo timer. The only stages where Peppino can be harmed are the boss fights, arena battles against foes such as the Vigilante, a cheese cowboy, and the Noise, Peppino's archenemy. The player must dodge the bosses' attacks and deplete their health to proceed.
## Development
### Conception
Pizza Tower was the debut project of the indie developer Tour De Pizza, which developed it for around five years. Development was led by the pseudonymous designer and artist McPig, also known as Pizza Tower Guy, and funded through Patreon. The concept originated from the Peppino character, who McPig created for comics and drawings in which he imagined pizza monsters appearing in his restaurant at night. McPig conceived a role-playing video game (RPG) with survival horror elements similar to Resident Evil in which Peppino traversed his restaurant while battling pizza monsters. It featured a cartoonish but dark style that McPig compared to Courage the Cowardly Dog.
McPig attempted to develop the game using RPG Maker, but the game engine's limitations prevented him from achieving the animation quality he desired. McPig switched to GameMaker since it was accessible and he had seen other developers use it for smaller projects. He began developing Weenie Cop, a platform game featuring a sentient hot dog who battled junk food criminals. Though he described this project as "all over the place in the gameplay department because it wasn't very well conceptualized", it got him accustomed to GameMaker. He also conceived a game in which Peppino attacked using a pizza cutter chainsaw, inspired by Wario's dash from the Wario Land series.
Wanting to work from a point of reference, McPig switched to a Wario Land-inspired platformer. The series had been dormant since Wario Land: Shake It! (2008) and McPig felt it needed a spiritual successor in the vein of games like A Hat in Time (2017), Bloodstained: Ritual of the Night (2019), and Wargroove (2019) to show its publisher, Nintendo, that fans were still interested. He decided to use Peppino as the protagonist—thinking he "was just fun to draw and relatable enough in his character traits"—and retained the basic concept of "a scared crazy pizza man fighting pizza monsters" from the RPG. The title, Pizza Tower, came from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, as the "Pisa" reminded McPig of "pizza". Development began around 2018, and the pseudonymous Sertif joined as the programmer in early 2020.
### Design
McPig initially designed Pizza Tower as a maze-like, puzzle-oriented platform game similar to Wario Land. To prepare, he played every Wario Land game and dropped Peppino's chainsaw to make the gameplay more similar. The Game Boy Advance entry Wario Land 4 (2001) was the biggest inspiration, with McPig likening Pizza Tower's level design to Wario Land 4's with a greater emphasis on dashing. He modeled the level progression on Wario Land 4's "frog switch" game mechanic and use of power-up-based puzzles. Power-ups were originally designed in the style of Wario Land, opening new areas while slowing the player down. In 2021, the game underwent a change in direction and became more speed oriented. The levels were streamlined and McPig and Sertif changed how they handled power-ups so they would fit the speed without feeling like a burden.
Peppino's basic moveset was based on Wario's from Wario Land 4. It evolved as McPig and Sertif observed how players played a 2019 demo that experimented "with a more free-form moveset" and decided to emphasize speed and score-attack elements. They linked Peppino's different abilities, which Sertif described as "an absolute nightmare when doing level design" since it complicated the game balance. McPig and Sertif experimented with limitations, but found them unfun and chose to go with the freer moveset. Early versions included a traditional health system, but McPig and Sertif removed it to make the gameplay more accessible; the ranking system was included to reward skilled players. McPig and Sertif introduced the secondary playable character, Gustavo, to streamline a pizza delivery-based level as they reduced the maze-like design.
Each level began as a basic theme, such as a city or space. McPig and Sertif conceived around 28 levels; they cut and combined themes to make development feasible. They wanted each level to feel distinct and accessible to both skilled and unskilled players. Sertif said that after conceiving a game mechanic, generally, he would begin prototyping while McPig created animations in Aseprite. Sertif described this process as challenging since it meant many ideas ended up scrapped, but felt it was for the best since they both worked quickly: "we implemented a lot of things we wouldn't have otherwise, scrapping the bad ideas, leaving only the decent or good ones." Sertif estimated that every level was redesigned two or three times between 2020 and 2023. Members of McPig's Discord server provided feedback throughout the development.
SpongeBob SquarePants and the French comics McPig had grown up reading inspired Pizza Tower's pixel art style. McPig chose a cartoon style because it was the only one he felt confident using. Additionally, he felt low-resolution pixel art evocative of the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and Super NES era was too common in the indie game scene, and that Pizza Tower's style and higher resolution art would make it stand out. Sertif described Peppino as "an absolute mess, and we (or rather McPig) wanted to convey that in every animation." McPig colored Peppino like Wario's sprite from Wario Land 3 (2000) and his pants black to make animating them easier. He based the Noise on the Noid, an advertising mascot used by the pizza chain Domino's, feeling he would be a suitable villain for a pizza-based game. McPig did not put much thought into the character and enemy designs, preferring to "make it up as [he went] along".
### Music
The soundtrack was composed by Ronan "Mr. Sauceman" de Castel and the pseudonymous ClascyJitto (also known as Frostix). It was de Castel's first published work; composition was mostly a hobby for him and he never released any of his music out of insecurity. He learned about Pizza Tower around the time he was beginning to take composing seriously and was mesmerized by the gameplay videos he saw on Twitter. He wrote a demo track and emailed it to McPig. To de Castel's surprise, McPig loved the track and asked him to join the project. The track, which McPig felt "sounded perfectly insane and dynamic", became "It's Pizza Time!", the escape theme. McPig recruited ClascyJitto, a high school student who published music on SoundCloud and Bandcamp in their spare time, after they shared remixes of de Castel's work in the Discord server.
De Castel and ClascyJitto, who worked in France and the United States, respectively, each composed about half the soundtrack, while the pseudonymous Post Elvis composed the title screen theme. De Castel's video game inspirations included Sonic CD (1993) and the Wario Land series, specifically Wario Land 4. He also looked to the electronic, funk, and house music of artists such as Chick Corea, Daft Punk, Mr. Oizo, and Justice. ClascyJitto, whose prior work relied heavily on sampling and remixes, described working on Pizza Tower as "sort of like a fun little game for me" since it required them to put more time into each composition.
## Release
McPig started promoting Pizza Tower in 2018 by sharing screenshots on Tumblr, before moving to Twitter to raise its profile. He also started the Discord server to get feedback. McPig released two game demos in 2018, and opened a Patreon where he offered early access builds for those who pledged \$5 monthly. A third demo released during the Sonic Amateur Games Expo in 2019 featured an exclusive playable character, Snick. After Sertif joined, McPig began streaming development on Twitch and releasing builds yearly rather than monthly.
Pizza Tower developed a large fandom, which Sertif attributed to the demos, Patreon builds, and livestreamers such as Vinesauce showcasing it. It was released for Windows via Steam on January 26, 2023. Tour De Pizza collaborated with Fangamer to produce merchandise including plushies, T-shirts, and pins. Following the release, the Discord server's membership grew from 5,000 to 20,000 before McPig and Sertif discontinued it. McPig stated he would not consider releases for other platforms until finishing the Windows version.
## Reception
Pizza Tower received "generally favorable reviews", according to the review aggregate website Metacritic, and became one of the highest rated games of 2023 on Steam within a day of its release. Critics were surprised by Pizza Tower's quality and considered it a worthy substitute for Wario Land, some calling it a rare spiritual successor that is better than its inspiration. Polygon said Pizza Tower "has sharpened, tuned, evolved, and damn near perfected [Wario Land's] odd niche of platforming", and PC Gamer found it difficult to expect a potential Wario Land revival to be as invigorating and inventive. MeriStation said Pizza Tower was "an instant classic" and a breath of fresh air in the side-scrolling indie scene, which they felt was lacking creativity.
Reviewers favorably compared the visuals to 1990s Nicktoons like The Ren & Stimpy Show, Cartoon Network shows, and Microsoft Paint art. IGN said the intentionally cheap-looking art style lent Pizza Tower a striking, idiosyncratic appearance, and Multiplayer.it said the levels were so detailed that players would continue to find new animations for hours. The animation quality was also commended, as was the humor. IGN enjoyed Pizza Tower's use of the cartoon trope in which characters are depicted in a different style for comedic effect, and alongside PC Gamer and Rock Paper Shotgun, praised the expressiveness of Peppino. PC Gamer said Peppino's animations made him feel like a fleshed-out character despite never speaking.
The soundtrack was acclaimed for its intensity. MeriStation said it complimented the visuals, Multiplayer.it wrote it combined funk with metal while remaining true to the style of 1990s platform games, and PC Gamer likened its "clever" blend of a retro style and samples to Jet Set Radio (2000). IGN said the soundtrack did an excellent job conveying the distinct atmosphere of each level. IGN and PC Gamer considered "It's Pizza Time!" a particular highlight. Beyond the soundtrack, Multiplayer.it praised the sound design, describing the sound effects as instantly iconic.
Critics commended Pizza Tower's gameplay. They enjoyed each level's distinct theme and mechanics as well as the secrets scattered throughout, and compared the sense of speed to the Sonic the Hedgehog series. Reviewers felt it improved and expanded on the Wario Land formula, with Den of Geek calling it "faster, crazier, [and] sillier". Polygon and IGN highlighted the escape sequences, Multiplayer.it said the power-ups surpassed Wario Land's in terms of surrealness and fun, and PC Gamer said the final boss's spectacle rivaled that of the Bayonetta series. IGN said that while Pizza Tower would only take five to six hours to finish, the secrets and ranking system provided substantial replay value, and MeriStation said replaying levels to obtain P ranks was where the gameplay was at its best. Polygon thought allowing the player to choose what they liked to achieve instead of featuring traditional difficulty levels was an "elegant-ass approach to game difficulty".
IGN, MeriStation, PC Gamer, and Polygon found controlling Peppino satisfying, PC Gamer likening his moveset to a Swiss Army knife for its versatility. Polygon described Peppino's abilities as limited but intuitive and excellently complementing the level design. Conversely, Multiplayer.it and Rock Paper Shotgun felt it was challenging to become accustomed to controlling Peppino since he requires considerable precision, which Rock Paper Shotgun said was Pizza Tower's biggest flaw. While its levels were still designed in Wario Land's slow and methodical fashion, Rock Paper Shotgun wrote, Pizza Tower expects the player to move fast, leading to the repeated frustration of losing momentum. They said this meant the game would not be for everyone, though some would consider the "rough edges... an essential part of the appeal".
|
605,891 |
David Bowie (1967 album)
| 1,172,555,422 |
1967 studio album by David Bowie
|
[
"1967 debut albums",
"Albums produced by Mike Vernon (record producer)",
"Baroque pop albums",
"David Bowie albums",
"Deram Records albums",
"Psychedelic pop albums"
] |
David Bowie is the debut studio album by the English musician David Bowie, originally released in the United Kingdom on 1 June 1967 through Decca subsidiary Deram Records. Produced by Mike Vernon and recorded from November 1966 to March 1967 at London's Decca Studios, the album followed a string of singles for Pye Records that failed to chart. Vernon hired numerous studio musicians for the album's sessions; Bowie and his former Buzz bandmate Derek Fearnley composed music charts for the orchestra using Freda Dinn's Observer's Guide to Music.
Musically, the album displays a baroque pop and music hall sound influenced by Anthony Newley and the Edwardian styles of contemporary British rock bands. The songs are primarily led by orchestral brass and woodwind instruments rather than traditional instruments in pop music at the time, although some tracks feature guitar. The lyrics are short-story narratives ranging from lighthearted to dark, discussing themes from childhood innocence, to drug use and totalitarianism. Bowie utilised various ideologies on the record for his later works. The cover artwork is a headshot of Bowie in a mod haircut wearing a high-collared jacket.
Released in both mono and stereo mixes, David Bowie received positive reviews from music journalists but was a commercial failure due to a lack of promotion from Deram. Two tracks were omitted for its release in the United States in August 1967. Bowie provided more tracks for Deram, all of which were rejected and led to his departure from the label. Retrospective reviews unfavourably compare David Bowie to the artist's later works, but some recognise it positively on its own terms. The album was reissued in a two-disc deluxe edition in 2010, featuring both mixes and other tracks from the period.
## Background
David Bowie was let go from Pye Records in September 1966 following a string of singles that failed to chart. A lack of promotion from Pye also contributed to his disenchantment with the label. In order to secure him a new record contract, his soon-to-be manager Kenneth Pitt financed a recording session at London's R G Jones Studio. On 18 October, Bowie and his backing band the Buzz conducted a four-hour session with a group of local studio musicians, producing a new version of the rejected Pye track "The London Boys" and two new songs, "Rubber Band" and "The Gravedigger".
Pitt showed acetates of the tracks to executives at Decca Records, who were impressed and signed Bowie to the label's progressive pop subsidiary label Deram Records. His contract gave him a deal that financed the production of a full-length studio album and paid £150 for the three tracks and a further advance of £100 for royalties on the album. According to biographer Nicholas Pegg, being granted an album deal before having a hit single was a rare occurrence at the time. Decca A&R manager Hugh Mendl later said: "I had a minor obsession about David—I just thought he was the most talented, magical person. ... I think I would have signed him even if he didn't have such obvious musical talent. But he did have talent. He was bursting with creativity."
## Writing and recording
Bowie spent time before the album sessions writing songs, accumulating almost 30 new compositions. According to author Paul Trynka, his songwriting focused less on traditional instrumentation and more in favour of orchestral arrangements, in the vein of the Beach Boys' recently-released Pet Sounds. The sessions officially commenced on 14 November 1966 at Decca Studio 2 in West Hampstead, London with the recording of "Uncle Arthur" and "She's Got Medals". Decca in-house producer Mike Vernon handled production while Gus Dudgeon engineered. Bowie's band the Buzz contributed with the exception of keyboardist Derek Boyes.
Rather than hire an arranger, Bowie and Buzz member Derek "Dek" Fearnley used Freda Dinn's Observer's Guide to Music to study orchestra arrangements and requested Vernon hire the appropriate musicians. Fearnley had little experience writing music charts, while Bowie could not read music at all, so Fearnley found it a daunting task, later stating: "It was bloody hard work. I knew how to read the staves and that a bar had four crotches; David had never seen or written a note, so I was the one qualified to write stuff out." He found that when presenting the charts to the musicians, some of whom were members of the London Philharmonic Orchestra, they threw them back and requested new scores, which he had to do himself while Bowie monitored from the control room.
"There Is a Happy Land", "We Are Hungry Men", "Join the Gang" and the B-side "Did You Ever Have a Dream" were completed by 24 November. Around the same time, Pitt and Bowie's current manager Ralph Horton decided that Bowie would cease live performances so he could focus on recording the album and that he would part ways with the Buzz. Bowie and the Buzz made their final live performance together on 2 December, the same day Deram issued the "Rubber Band" single. The sessions continued between 8 and 13 December with the recording of "Sell Me a Coat", "Little Bombardier", "Silly Boy Blue", "Maid of Bond Street", "Come and Buy My Toys" and "The Gravedigger", now titled "Please Mr. Gravedigger".
Besides the orchestra, Vernon hired several uncredited session musicians who were integral to the album's sound; credited players included guitarist John Renbourn, whose playing is heard prominently on "Come and Buy My Toys", and multi-instrumentalist Big Jim Sullivan, who contributed banjo and sitar on "Did You Ever Have a Dream" and "Join the Gang", respectively. Fearnley's friend Marion Constable also contributed backing vocals to "Silly Boy Blue". Vernon recalled having "a lot of fun" during the sessions and described Bowie as "the easiest person to work with", further adding that "some of the melodies were extremely good, and the actual material, the lyrics, had a quality that was quite unique". Dudgeon also found the material unique, telling biographer David Buckley that "the music was very filmic, all very visual and all quite honest and unaffected".
A provisional running order was drawn up at the end of December 1966, which included tracks that were absent from the final album, such as "Did You Ever Have a Dream", "Your Funny Smile" and "Bunny Thing". In mid-January 1967, Bowie fired Horton as his manager after months of financial mismanagement and hired Pitt in his place. Bowie and the musicians reconvened at Decca on 26 January, recording the backing tracks for "The Laughing Gnome" and "The Gospel According to Tony Day", which were chosen as the next single; vocals were added in early February. A new version of "Rubber Band" was recorded for inclusion on the album on 25 February, as well as "Love You till Tuesday" and "When I Live My Dream". These tracks featured uncredited arrangements by Arthur Greenslade. The sessions completed on 1 March. The album was mixed in both mono and stereo, making David Bowie one of the first albums to be released in both formats. According to Pegg, the two variants featured minor differences in instrumentation and mixing: mono editions used slightly different mixes of "Uncle Arthur" and "Please Mr. Gravedigger".
## Styles and themes
David Bowie consists of 14 tracks, all written entirely by Bowie. His influences at this time included Anthony Newley, music hall acts like Tommy Steele, British-centred material by Ray Davies of the Kinks, Syd Barrett's psychedelic nursery rhymes for early Pink Floyd and the Edwardian flair shared by the contemporary works of the Kinks and the Beatles. Pitt's desire for Bowie to become an "all-around entertainer" rather than a "rock star" also impacted the songwriter's style. According to author James E. Perone, the songs include styles of up-tempo pop, rock and waltz; BBC Music retrospectively categorised David Bowie as baroque pop and music hall. Rather than using traditional instruments in pop music at the time, such as guitar, piano, bass and drums, the instruments on David Bowie likened to those in music hall and classical music, such as brass instruments (tuba, trumpet and French horn) and woodwind instruments (bassoon, oboe, English horn and piccolo). Buckley notes almost a complete absence of lead guitar in the final mix.
Brass-led tracks include "Rubber Band", "Little Bombardier" and "Maid of Bond Street", woodwind-led tracks include "Uncle Arthur" and "She's Got Medals". "Little Bombardier" and "Maid of Bond Street" are in waltz time, while "Join the Gang" includes sitar and a musical quotation of the Spencer Davis Group's recent hit "Gimme Some Lovin'". Newley's influence is present on "Love You till Tuesday", "Little Bombardier" and "She's Got Medals". Regarding the influence, Newley himself stated in 1992: "I always made fun of it, in a sense. Most of my records ended in a stupid giggle, trying to tell people that I wasn't being serious. I think Bowie liked that irreverent thing, and his delivery was very similar to mine, that Cockney thing."
"Love You till Tuesday" and "Come and Buy My Toys" are among the few songs on the album with an acoustic guitar, the former heavily augmented by strings. The latter is noted by biographer Chris O'Leary as more minimalist in nature, and exemplifies folk in a way author Peter Doggett likens to Simon & Garfunkel. "Please Mr. Gravedigger", which Buckley described as "one of pop's genuinely crazy moments", utilises various studio sound effects and no backing instrumentation. Biographers compare it to a radio play from the 1940s and 1950s and consider it a comedic parody of the old British song "Oh! Mr Porter".
Like the music, the lyrical themes on David Bowie are widespread, ranging from lighthearted, to dark, to funny to sarcastic. The characters range from societal outcasts, to losers, "near-philosophers" and dictators. According to O'Leary, David Bowie found Bowie composing third-person narratives compared to the first-person love stories of his previous releases, a statement echoed by Kevin Cann, who likens the song narratives to traditional folk stories. In 1976, Bowie commented that "the idea of writing sort of short stories, I thought was quite novel at the time". Mark Spitz writes that David Bowie contains several "vaguely dark, arcane English story songs" ("Please Mr. Gravedigger", "Uncle Arthur", "Maid on Bond Street") that Pitt envisioned Bowie performing in lounges. "Rubber Band", "Little Bombardier" and "She's Got Medals" all evoke the Edwardian theme.
Lighthearted themes, such as childhood innocence, are celebrated in "Sell Me a Coat", "When I Live My Dream" and "Come and Buy My Toys", as well as the psychedelic-influenced "There Is a Happy Land", which took its title and subject matter from the Andrew Young hymn of the same name. "Silly Boy Blue" expresses Bowie's then-recent interest in Buddhism. Darker ideals such as peer pressure and drug use are discussed in "Join the Gang", while "We Are Hungry Men" depicts a totalitarian world that reflects messianic worship and cannibalism in a comedic way. "Little Bombardier" concerns a war veteran who is forced to leave town after being suspected for pedophilia, and the a cappella "Please Mr. Gravedigger" details a child-murderer contemplating his next victim while standing in a graveyard.
## Release
David Bowie was released in the United Kingdom on 1 June 1967, with the catalogue numbers DML 1007 (mono) and SML 1007 (stereo). Its release coincided with the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The American release, issued in August 1967, omitted "We Are Hungry Men" and "Maid of Bond Street", which Pegg speculates was possibly due to the US practice of trimming track listings in order to "reduce publishing royalties".
The sleeve photograph is a full-headshot of Bowie in a mod haircut wearing a high-collared jacket. The sleeve was taken by Fearnley's brother Gerald in his basement studio near Marble Arch, where Bowie and Dek Fearnley had conducted rehearsals for the sessions. Bowie himself chose the jacket and later recalled that he was "very proud" of it, quipping that "it was actually tailored". Spitz considers the image "very rooted" in the mid-1960s, while Consequence of Sound's Blake Goble called it "perhaps the most uninteresting and dated album cover of Bowie's career" in 2018. Pitt's sleeve notes described Bowie's vision as "straight and sharp as a laser beam. It cuts through hypocrisy, prejudice and cant. It sees the bitterness of humanity, but rarely bitterly. It sees the humour in our failings, the pathos of our virtues."
Despite promotional attempts by other countries outside the UK and US, David Bowie was a commercial failure, in part due to lack of promotion from Deram; the label were unimpressed with the "Rubber Band" single and one of the executives who was instrumental in Bowie's signing departed the company in May 1967, leaving little confidence in Bowie. Vernon later felt that Decca "didn't understand what rock music was ... at all". Bowie's other Deram singles "The Laughing Gnome" and a remake of "Love You till Tuesday, issued in April and July, respectively, both failed to chart, further signalling his downturn with the label.
### Reception
David Bowie received few, albeit positive reviews from music critics on release. In the New Musical Express, Allen Evans praised the record as "all very refreshing" and called the artist "a very promising talent", with "a fresh sound to [Bowie and Fearnley's] light musical arrangements". Chris Welch of Melody Maker enjoyed the album as "a singularly rewarding collection" boasted by "excellent" production. Welch was surprised Bowie had yet to impact the pop scene. A reviewer for Disc & Music Echo described the album as "a remarkable, creative debut album by a 19-year-old Londoner", declaring: "Here is a new talent that deserves attention, for though David Bowie has no great voice, he can project words with a cheeky 'side' that is endearing yet not precious ... full of abstract fascination. Try David Bowie. He's something new." The journalist also suggested that Bowie could garner more attention if he "gets the breaker and the right singles". Pitt sent copies of David Bowie to music executives in order to generate publicity, receiving letters of admiration from Lionel Bart, Bryan Forbes and Franco Zeffirelli.
## Subsequent events
After the album's failure, Bowie recorded several more tracks for Deram from late 1967 to early 1968 as potential singles, all of which were rejected. Departing from the sound of David Bowie, these included "Let Me Sleep Beside You", "Karma Man", a new version of "When I Live My Dream", "In the Heat of the Morning" and a remake of "London Bye Ta–Ta". The failure of David Bowie, its singles and failed follow-up attempts led to Bowie's departure from Deram in May 1968. Outside of music, he acted in mime actor Lindsay Kemp's play Pierrot in Turquoise throughout early 1968, performing the David Bowie songs "When I Live My Dream", "Sell Me a Coat" and "Come and Buy My Toys".
The commercial failure of David Bowie led Pitt to authorize a promotional film in an attempt to introduce Bowie to a larger audience. The film, Love You till Tuesday, went unreleased until 1984. Bowie wrote a new song for the film, "Space Oddity", a tale about a fictional astronaut. Produced by Dudgeon and released as a single in July 1969 for Mercury affiliate Philips Records, "Space Oddity" became the artist's first hit, 18 months after David Bowie's release.
## Legacy
David Bowie, and the Deram period in general, were routinely mocked throughout Bowie's career, being dismissed, in Pegg's words, as "music-hall piffle derived from a passing Anthony Newley fad". Dudgeon later acknowledged the similarities to Newley, saying that it "bothered" him and Vernon because they felt Bowie was "really good and his songs are fucking great". Bowie himself downplayed or disowned the period entirely in later decades, dismissing it as "cringey" in 1990. According to Pegg, Bowie's fans have attempted to place blame on Pitt for the record's sound, despite Pitt being absent from Bowie's person during the majority of the writing and recording period. The manager himself dismissed the theory in his memoir, stating that it was Bowie's sole idea to mimic Newley.
Other claims made about David Bowie include the argument that it sounded like nothing else at the time, which is mostly attributed to Dudgeon's "oft-quoted" description of the album as "about the weirdest thing any record company have ever put out". Pegg debunks this idea, writing that the record's blend of "folk and short-story narrative" shared similarities with the more commercial releases of the British psychedelia movement of 1966–1967, while the motifs of wartime nostalgia and childhood innocence reflected the contemporary ideals of Syd Barrett's Pink Floyd, the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band and the Beatles. The Beatles, in particular, embellished similar ideas as David Bowie into their recent records Revolver (1966) and Sgt. Pepper: the latter's "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" matched the waltz-style of "Little Bombardier", while Pegg compares the styles of "Uncle Arthur", "She's Got Medals" and "Sell Me a Coat" to "Eleanor Rigby", "Lovely Rita" and "She's Leaving Home". Buckley writes that Bowie's use of brass and woodwinds on "Rubber Band" predated their use by the Beatles on Sgt. Pepper, while Doggett argues that "Rubber Band" and "With a Little Help from My Friends" both feature lyrical gags about performing "out of tune". Regarding the blend of folk, pop and classical, Perone argues that the Moody Blues' Days of Future Passed, also released by Deram in 1967, was more commercially viable but displayed the combination on David Bowie, particularly on "Rubber Band" and "Sell Me a Coat". Bowie also utilized the same sound effects as the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band's debut single "My Brother Makes the Noises for the Talkies" for David Bowie's "We Are Hungry Men", "Please Mr. Gravedigger" and the outtake "Toy Soldier".
Commentators have recognised themes on David Bowie that informed the artist's later works, such as the self-styled messiah of "We Are Hungry Men". Perone argues that the track anticipated the post-punk and new wave styles of the late 1970s, naming Talking Heads' first and second albums. The folk of "Come and Buy My Toys" also anticipated Bowie's exploration of the genre on his 1969 second self-titled album, while Doggett finds the sense of desperation on "Rubber Band" predated the Station to Station and "Heroes" LPs of 1976 and 1977, respectively. Others found the gender-bending themes of "She's Got Medals" predated 1971's "Queen Bitch" and 1974's "Rebel Rebel".
### Later reviews
Retrospective reviews of David Bowie have unfavourably compared the LP to the artist's later works, although some have recognised it positively in its own terms. Pegg summarises: David Bowie justifiably resides in the shadow of [Bowie's] later work, but those with open ears and open minds know it as a sweet, clever album that has borne decades of derision with consummate dignity."
Writing for AllMusic, Dave Thompson called the LP "an intriguing collection, as much in its own right as for the light it sheds on Bowie's future career" and concluded that "though this material has been repackaged with such mind-numbing frequency as to seem all but irrelevant today, David Bowie still remains a remarkable piece of work. And it sounds less like anything else he's ever done than any subsequent record in his catalog". The same publication's Stephen Thomas Erlewine saw it as "a fascinating, highly enjoyable debut" on its own merits. Reviewing in 2010, BBC Music's Sean Egan found an "unrefined" talent in Bowie, noting "above average" lyrics that are "hardly deep". Nevertheless, he praised Bowie's commitment to the project, concluding that "David Bowie is hardly an essential listen but historically interesting as unmistakably the entrée of someone with a future." In 2017, Dave Swanson of Ultimate Classic Rock found the music joyful, but felt the record was out of place with the music industry at the time, which mostly contributed to its failure.
Bowie's biographers have held mixed opinions on David Bowie. NME critics Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray said, "a listener strictly accustomed to David Bowie in his assorted '70s guises would probably find this debut album either shocking or else simply quaint", while Buckley describes its status in Bowie's discography as "the vinyl equivalent of the madwoman in the attic", ridiculing it as a "cringe-inducing piece of juvenilia" only to be braved by "those with a high enough embarrassment threshold". Perone felt the wide variety of musical styles were displayed "generally to good effect". Trynka praises Bowie's confidence and highlights individual tracks, such as "We Are Hungry Men" and "Uncle Arthur", but notes that he lacked ambition and commerciality at the time. Doggett similarly contends that its "whimsical character studies" stood against the "psychedelic ambiance" of the era.
In a 2016 list ranking Bowie's studio albums from worst to best, Bryan Wawzenek of Ultimate Classic Rock placed David Bowie at number 23 (out of 26), criticising Bowie's vocal performances, lyrics and overall sound that lacks "wit and energy". Including Bowie's two albums with Tin Machine, the writers of Consequence of Sound ranked David Bowie number 26 (out of 28) in their 2018 list. Goble called it "an awkward artifact", representing signs of what was to come for the artist but as a standalone album, it remains "not essential".
## Reissues and compilations
Bowie's Deram recordings have been recycled in a multitude of compilation albums, including The World of David Bowie (1970), Images 1966–1967 (1973), Another Face (1981), Rock Reflections (1990), and The Deram Anthology 1966–1968 (1997).
Deram first reissued David Bowie on LP in August 1984, followed by a CD release in April 1989. In January 2010, Deram and Universal Music reissued the album in a remastered two-disc deluxe edition package. Containing 53 total tracks, the collection compiles both the original mono and stereo mixes, Bowie's other Deram recordings, such as "The London Boys" and "The Laughing Gnome", single mixes, previously unreleased stereo mixes, alternate takes and for the first time, Bowie's first BBC radio session (Top Gear, December 1967). The tracks were remastered by Peter Mew and Tris Penna, who previously undertook Virgin's deluxe reissue of David Bowie (1969). Penna stated in the deluxe edition liner notes that they wanted "to ensure [the tracks] sounded as good, if not better, than when they were first released".
Reviewing the deluxe edition for The Second Disc, Joe Marchese considered it a welcome supplement to The Deram Anthology 1966–1968 that showed Bowie had talent but lacked direction. He concluded that the set allows listeners to reexamine David Bowie and "makes the best possible case for this 'lost era' of Bowie history". Pegg similarly called the set "excellent". Barry Walters of Rolling Stone described the collection as an "early portrait of pop's ultimate shape-shifter". Erlewine praised the addition of the new tracks, arguing that they enhance the debut rather than diminish it, fully offering more insight into Bowie's talent at this stage of his career. More unfavourably, Egan felt the collection was "comprehensive" but "aesthetically too much even if the parent album was the greatest ever made".
## Track listing
The LP was released in mono and stereo in the UK. Mono editions use slightly different mixes of "Uncle Arthur" and "Please Mr. Gravedigger". The American release omits "We Are Hungry Men" and "Maid of Bond Street".
All tracks are written by David Bowie.
Side one
1. "Uncle Arthur" – 2:07
2. "Sell Me a Coat" – 2:58
3. "Rubber Band" – 2:17
4. "Love You till Tuesday" – 3:09
5. "There Is a Happy Land" – 3:11
6. "We Are Hungry Men" – 2:59
7. "When I Live My Dream" – 3:22
Side two
1. "Little Bombardier" – 3:23
2. "Silly Boy Blue" – 4:36
3. "Come and Buy My Toys" – 2:07
4. "Join the Gang" – 2:17
5. "She's Got Medals" – 2:23
6. "Maid of Bond Street" – 1:43
7. "Please Mr. Gravedigger" – 2:35
## Personnel
According to biographers Kevin Cann and Nicholas Pegg:
- David Bowie – vocals, guitar, arrangements
- Big Jim Sullivan – guitar, banjo, sitar (11)
- Derek Boyes – organ
- Derek "Dek" Fearnley – bass, arrangements
- John Eager – drums
- Marion Constable – backing vocals (9)
- Arthur Greenslade – arrangements (3, 4, 7)
Technical
- Mike Vernon – producer
- Gus Dudgeon – engineer
- Gerald Fearnley – cover photography
|
634,320 |
Big Bertha (howitzer)
| 1,138,614,847 | null |
[
"420 mm artillery",
"Siege artillery",
"World War I artillery of Germany",
"World War I howitzers"
] |
The 42-centimetre kurze Marinekanone 14 L/12 (short naval cannon), or Minenwerfer-Gerät (M-Gerät), popularly known by the nickname Big Bertha, was a German siege howitzer built by Krupp AG in Essen, Germany and fielded by the Imperial German Army from 1914 to 1918. The M-Gerät had a 42 cm (17 in) calibre barrel, making it one of the largest artillery pieces ever fielded.
The M-Gerät designed in 1911 as an iteration of earlier super-heavy German siege guns intended to break modern fortresses in France and Belgium and entered production in 1912. Test firing began in early 1914 and the gun was estimated to be finished by October 1914. When the First World War broke out, the two M-Gerät guns, still prototypes, were sent to Liège, Belgium, and destroyed Forts Pontisse and Loncin. German soldiers bestowed the gun with the nickname "Big Bertha", which then spread through German newspapers to the Allies, who used it as a nickname for all super-heavy German artillery. The Paris Gun, a railway gun used to bomb Paris in 1918, has historically been confused for the M-Gerät.
Due to losses from faulty ammunition and Allied counter-battery artillery, a smaller-calibre (30.5 cm (12.0 in)) gun called the Beta-M-Gerät was built and fielded from 1916 until the end of the war. It had a longer and heavier barrel that was mated to the M-Gerät's carriage but was found to be less effective than the base gun.
## Development and design
The quick advancement of artillery technology beginning in the 1850s provoked an arms race between artillery and military architecture. Rifled artillery could now fire out of range of fortress guns, so military architects began placing forts in rings around cities or in barriers to block approaching armies. These forts were vulnerable to new artillery shells, which could penetrate earth to destroy masonry underground. In response, star forts evolved into polygonal forts, mostly underground and made of concrete with guns mounted in armoured, rotating casemates. Combining rings and barriers, France created a vast fortified zone on its border with Germany, while Belgium began construction of the National Redoubt in 1888.
The German Empire also fortified its borders, but Chief of the General Staff Helmuth von Moltke the Elder desired the ability to break through Franco-Belgian fortifications. Although German artillery had been effective during the Franco-Prussian War, it had been allowed to stagnate. By the 1880s the barrel diameter of the German Army's most powerful gun, the 21 cm (8.3 in) field howitzer, was no longer adequate against fortresses. Moltke began requesting more powerful guns that same decade. More powerful artillery became essential to his successor, Alfred von Schlieffen, who planned quickly to defeat France by sweeping through Belgium (the Schlieffen Plan) in response to the 1893 Franco-Russian Alliance. To be able to reduce French and Belgian fortresses, the Artillerieprüfungskommission [de] (Artillery Test Commission, APK) formed a partnership with Krupp AG in 1893. The first result of this partnership was a 30.5 cm (12.0 in) mortar, accepted into service four years later as the schwerer Küstenmörser L/8, but known as the Beta-Gerät (Beta Apparatus) to disguise its purpose as a siege gun. Tests in the mid-1890s showed that the Beta-Gerät could not destroy French or Belgian forts, even with improved shells. Interest in a more powerful siege gun waned until the Russo-Japanese War, during which the Japanese Army used 28 cm howitzer L/10 (28 cm (11 in) coastal guns) brought from Japan to end the 11-month long Siege of Port Arthur.
In 1906, Helmuth von Moltke the Younger became Chief of the General Staff and instructed the APK to study and improve the performance of the Beta-Gerät. The APK recommended a more powerful gun, with a diameter as large as 45 centimetres (18 in), but the German Army opted for a 30.5-centimetre howitzer, the Beta-Gerät 09 and a 42 cm (17 in) gun. Design and testing for the Gamma-Gerät began in 1906 and lasted until 1911. Although the Gamma-Gerät had the destructive power the General Staff required and could outrange French and Belgian fort guns, it could only be emplaced near rail lines and took 24 hours to prepare. As early as 1907, Krupp began development of siege artillery transported by gun carriage. Testing resulted in a 28 cm (11 in) howitzer transportable over road and countryside but it was rejected by the APK, as was Krupp's 30.5-centimetre model. Finally, in late 1911, Krupp and the APK developed a wheeled 42-centimetre howitzer, the 42-centimetre kurze Marinekanone 14 L/12 or Minenwerfer-Gerät (M-Gerät). The APK ordered its first M-Gerät in July 1912 and another in February 1913. Tests of the gun's mobility began in December 1913 and found that gas-powered tractors were best for pulling it. Test firing, at one point observed by Kaiser Wilhelm II, began in February 1914, and Krupp estimated that the M-Gerät would be complete by October 1914.
### Design and production
Assembled and emplaced, the M-Gerät weighed 42.6 t (47.0 tons), was 4.5 m (15 ft) tall, 10 m (33 ft) long and 4.7 m (15 ft) wide, and sat on a steel base with a spade for bracing. This spade could be lifted out of the ground while the M-Gerät was emplaced to move it, giving it a traverse of 360°. The gun was breech loaded, using a horizontally-sliding breech block and had a 5.04 m (16.5 ft) barrel that could be elevated to a maximum of 65°. The M-Gerät had a muzzle velocity of about 815 m/s (2,670 ft/s) and a maximum range of 9,300 m (30,500 ft). Post-prototype M-Gerät guns had a crew platform in front of the blast shield, a detachable breech, and solid wheels. The APK ordered the first M-Gerät in July 1912, delivered the following December, and a second in February 1913. Another two guns were ordered before the First World War on 31 July 1914, and then two more on 28 August and another pair on 11 November. Krupp eventually built 12 M-Gerät howitzers.
The M-Gerät had to be assembled for firing and for transport was dismantled and towed in five wagons. These wagons, weighing 16 to 20 t (16 to 20 long tons; 18 to 22 short tons) each, were designed to hold a specific portion of the M-Gerät, sans the gun carriage, which was its own wagon. These were towed by purpose-built, gas-powered tractors as the wagons were too heavy to be pulled by horses. To move across open country, the wagon wheels were fitted with articulated feet called radgürteln to reduce their ground pressure. Under optimal circumstances, the tractors and wagons could move at 7 km/h (4.3 mph).
The 30.5-centimetre Beta-M-Gerät, called the schwere Kartaune L/30, was developed in late 1917 to replace M-Gerät guns that had been rendered inoperable by premature detonation of shells. To increase the range of the M-Gerät and lower the likelihood of premature detonation, the APK selected a 9 m (30 ft)-long, 16 t (16 long tons; 18 short tons) naval barrel to be mounted onto the chassis of the M-Gerät. Two large spring cylinders were added to the front of the gun to counterbalance the new barrel, which had to be carried in a new carriage weighing 22 t (22 long tons; 24 short tons). Fully assembled, the Beta-M-Gerät weighed 47 t (46 long tons; 52 short tons) and had a maximum range of 20,500 m (67,300 ft). The propellant used to achieve that range caused three of the four Beta-M-Gerät guns to explode, forcing their crews to limit its range by 4,000 m (13,000 ft), defeating the purpose of the longer L/30 barrel. Only four Beta-M-Gerät guns were modified from two M-Gerät guns and two Gamma-Gerät guns (a one- to two-month-long process per gun), but 12 L/30 barrels were built.
### Ammunition
German siege artillery had three types of projectiles: armour-piercing, high-explosive and intermediate. The armour-piercing shell was designed to smash through concrete and metal armour but was largely ineffective against reinforced concrete. High-explosive shells were fitted with two charges and could be set to have no delay, a short delay or a long delay. If set to "no delay" the shell burst on impact. If set to a delayed detonation, it could penetrate up to 12 m (39 ft) of earth. Finally, the intermediate, or "short shell", weighed half as much as the high-explosive shell and was fitted with a ballistic tip for range and accuracy. Shells for the 42-centimetre guns were generally 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) long, weighed between 400 and 1,160 kg (880 and 2,560 lb), and were propelled via primer loaded into the gun with a brass casing. Siege artillery shells were produced in limited runs of varying quality. Beginning in early 1916, German siege guns began to suffer internal explosions due to faulty ammunition. Crews were required to disembark from the gun before firing via a lanyard.
## Service history
The kurze Marinekanone (KMK) batteries that formed with M-Gerät guns were 3 (2 August 1914), 5 (June 1915), 6 (Summer 1915) and 7 (early 1916). Battery 3 was split in half in April 1916 to form 10 with a single M-Gerät each. The four Beta-M-Gerät guns produced were fielded by KMK Batteries 8 and 10 after their M-Gerät gun barrels had been destroyed by premature detonation. When the German Army was reorganised in late 1918, only Battery 5 had M-Gerät guns, and schwere Küstenmörser (SKM) Battery 3 was assigned the remaining two Beta-M-Gerät guns.
### Western Front
By June 1914, the prototype M-Gerät howitzers had returned to Essen for final adjustments and would have been formed into a reserve artillery battery on completion in October. On 2 August 1914, they were organised into KMK Battery 3 and sent to the Western Front with 240 men. On 4 August, the 1st Army arrived near Liège, Belgium, the first objective of the Schlieffen Plan and began the Battle of Liège. Although German troops entered the city on 7 August, its forts were firing upon the road to be taken by the 2nd Army and had to be reduced. Heavy artillery began their attack on 8 August. KMK Battery 3 was the first siege battery sent into battle to bombard the Fort de Pontisse on 12 August, which surrendered after two days. The battery next moved to the Fort de Liers but the fort surrendered as the battery was being emplaced. KMK Battery 3 relocated to the Fort de Loncin, where Gérard Leman directed the defence of Liège. Firing commenced on 15 August and lasted two hours, as the 25th shot fired struck a magazine and caused an explosion that destroyed the fort. The Germans carried Leman, unconscious, out of Loncin, and the last two forts, Hollogne and Flémalle, capitulated on 16 August.
With Liège captured, the 1st Army continued north-west while the 2nd and 3rd Armies marched to Namur, whose forts were undermanned, unmaintained, and poorly stocked with ammunition. The 2nd Army arrived on 20 August 1914 to open the Siege of Namur, but began their main attacks the following day with 400 pieces of artillery. KMK Battery 3 fired upon the Fort de Marchovelette, which was destroyed on 23 August by a magazine explosion. The battery shifted its fire to the Fort de Maizeret, already under bombardment by four Austro-Hungarian Skoda 30.5-centimetre guns, and compelled its surrender. With the eastern forts occupied, the Germans entered Namur and the remaining Belgian forces evacuated from the city.
Following the defeat of the Western Allies at Charleroi and at Mons, the British Expeditionary Force withdrew past Maubeuge, their base of operations after arriving in France. On 24 August 1914, the advancing Germans arrived at the fortresses of Maubeuge and began the Siege of Maubeuge and its garrison of 45,000 soldiers. The next day, the VII Reserve Corps were left behind the main German armies to take the city. Bombardment of the forts began on 30 August, with KMK Battery 3 tasked with reducing Ouvrage Les Sarts (Fort Sarts) but it mistakenly shelled an interval fortification in front of Sarts. By 5 September, a hole in the fortress ring had been opened by German 21-centimetre guns, but they had by now exhausted their ammunition. To widen that gap, the siege guns then expended their remaining ammunition against Forts Leveau, Héronfontaine, and Cerfontaine on 7 September, and destroyed them in quick succession. The two remaining French forts surrendered that same day and the Germans occupied Maubeuge on 8 September.
With Maubeuge taken, German siege guns were available for an attack on Paris, but Germany's defeat at the Battle of the Marne blocked the advance of the 1st and 2nd Armies, and the guns were instead sent to Antwerp. King Albert I had ordered a general retreat to Antwerp on 18 August, and his army arrived in the city two days later. From Antwerp, Albert made attacks on the German flank on 24–25 August and 9 September, prompting General Alexander von Kluck of the 1st Army to send the III Reserve Corps to seize Antwerp. It arrived and partially surrounded Antwerp from the south-west on September 27, and bombardment began the next day. KMK Battery 3 arrived on 30 September and opened fire on the Fort de Lier [nl], whose artillery narrowly missed the battery. The fort was abandoned by its garrison on 2 October, allowing KMK Battery 3 to attack and destroy the Fort de Kessel [nl] in a day. The battery then moved to attack the Fort de Broechem [nl], which was also destroyed within two days. From 7 to 9 October, the Belgian army fled from Antwerp and the city surrendered on 10 October.
Early in 1916, all 42-centimetre guns were assigned to the 5th Army, which amassed a total of 24 siege guns, the highest concentration of them during the war. The Battle of Verdun was opened on 21 February 1916 with an intense, nine-hour long artillery bombardment. The 42-centimetre guns had to suppress the artillery of Forts Vaux, Douaumont, Souville and Moulainville [fr] but were unable to penetrate the concrete of the modern fortresses. On the second day of the battle, both of KMK Battery 7's M-Gerät guns were destroyed by premature detonations and KMK Batteries 5 and 6 both lost an M-Gerät each to the same cause. Most of the siege guns at Verdun were moved north in July to participate in the Battle of the Somme, and by September the only M-Gerät units left in Verdun were KMK Batteries 3 and 6.
In the final two years of the war, KMK batteries that suffered losses of their big guns had them replaced with smaller–calibre weapons. Those that remained primarily shelled field works and often had low survivability due to malfunctions or Allied counter-battery artillery. KMK Battery 10 lost one M-Gerät to a premature detonation and the other to British warships near Ostend in August 1917 and was rearmed with captured Russian 12 cm (4.7 in) howitzers. It and KMK Battery 10 were given the four Beta-M-Geräts made during the war in early 1918. For the German spring offensive, KMK Battery 8 was assigned to the 6th Army, Battery 6 to the 2nd Army, and Battery 3 to the 18th Army. The effect of the siege guns was negligible. For Germany's final offensive in July 1918, KMK Batteries 5 and 6 were reassigned to the 7th Army at the Marne, while Batteries 3, 8 and 10 went to the 1st Army at Reims. The batteries again had little to no effect, and Battery 10 became the last German siege battery to fire on a fort, the Fort de la Pompelle. In November 1918, KMK Battery 5 surrendered its guns, the remaining two M-Gerät howitzers, to the American Expeditionary Force.
### Eastern Front
On 2 May 1915, August von Mackensen launched the Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive. By the end of the month, his forces neared Przemyśl, which had been captured by the Russians from Austria-Hungary on 22 March 1915. KMK Battery 6 took part in the bombardment of forts X, Xa, XI and XIa, opened on 30 March. Two days later, the Germans took and held forts X, Xa and XI against counter-attack, compelling the Russians to abandon Przemyśl. German troops entered the city on 3 June, then took the remaining forts two days later. From 8 August, KMK Battery 6 supported the XXXX Reserve Corps in its attack on Kaunas Fortress by bombarding Kaunas's three westernmost forts. Although the German siege artillery's shelling of Kaunas was slow, the fortifications were outdated and were easily destroyed. The city fell on 18 August.
To the south, KMK Batteries 3 and 5 participated in the siege of Novogeorgievsk, which the Germans had surrounded on 10 August. On 13 August, KMK Batteries 3 and 5 attacked with the siege guns from the north, shelling forts XIV, XV and XVI. On 16 August, German infantry stormed forts XV and XVI as the artillery bombarded them. A 42-centimetre shell struck German troops attacking Fort XV, resulting in heavy casualties but the Germans took the forts. The Russians abandoned the outer ring on 18 August, allowing the Germans to open a hole in the inner ring and capture Novogeorgievsk the next day. The Russians abandoned fortresses wholesale during the Great Retreat. At Grodno, KMK Batteries 3, 5, and 6 were not even fully emplaced when the fortress was evacuated on 3 September. The last deployment of M-Gerät guns on the Eastern Front was in October 1915, when KMK Battery 6 was attached to the German 11th Army as it invaded Serbia.
## Replicas and legacy
The nickname "Big Bertha" appeared early in the war, when German soldiers named the guns Dicke Berta at the Battle of Liège, a reference to Bertha Krupp, who had inherited the Krupp works from her father. The name spread to German newspapers and then to Allied troops as "Big Bertha" and became slang for all heavy German artillery, but especially the 42-centimetre guns. The name has since entered the public consciousness, for example being applied as a moniker to a line of Callaway golf clubs and a satirical French-language magazine and a bond-buying policy by Mario Draghi, President of the European Central Bank.
Two M-Gerät guns were surrendered to the US Army at Spincourt in November 1918. One was taken to the United States, evaluated and then put on display at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, while the other was left unassembled in its transport configuration. Both were scrapped in 1943 and the early 1950s. World War I veteran Emil Cherubin built a replica of an M-Gerät, which toured Germany and appeared on a few postage stamps. The Paris Gun, a railway gun developed during the war and used to bomb Paris in 1918, has historically been confused with the M-Gerät since World War I.
## See also
- List of the largest cannon by caliber
- German WW II Karl-Gerät SP mortar
|
18,310,015 |
Burning of Norfolk
| 1,170,816,119 |
1776 incident during the American Revolutionary War involving Royal Navy ships
|
[
"1776 in Virginia",
"1776 in the United States",
"Battles in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War 1775–1779",
"Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Virginia",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"History of Norfolk, Virginia"
] |
The Burning of Norfolk was an incident that occurred on January 1, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. British Royal Navy ships in the harbor of Norfolk, Virginia, began shelling the town, and landing parties came ashore to burn specific properties. The town, whose significantly Loyalist population had fled, was occupied by Patriot forces from Virginia and North Carolina. Although the Patriots worked to drive off the British landing parties, they did nothing to impede the progress of the flames, and began burning and looting Loyalist-owned property instead.
After three days, most of the town had been destroyed, mostly due to the action of Patriot forces. The destruction was completed by the Patriots in early February to deny use of even the remnants of the town to the British. Norfolk was the last significant foothold of British authority in Virginia; after raiding Virginia's coastal areas for a time, its last royal governor, Lord Dunmore, left for good in August 1776.
## Background
Tensions in the British Colony of Virginia were raised in April 1775 at roughly the same time that the hostilities of the American Revolutionary War broke out in the Province of Massachusetts Bay with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Rebellious Patriots in control of the provincial assembly had begun recruiting troops in March 1775, leading to a struggle for control of the colony's military supplies. Under orders from John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, British marines removed gunpowder from the colonial storehouse in Williamsburg to a Royal Navy ship, alarming colonial legislators and prompting a militia uprising. Although the incident was resolved without violence, Dunmore, fearing for his personal safety, left Williamsburg in June 1775 and placed his family on board a Royal Navy ship. A small British fleet then took shape at Norfolk, a port town whose merchants had significant Loyalist tendencies. Although the town did have some Patriot support, the threat posed by the British fleet may have played a role in minimizing their activity in the town.
Confrontations and minor skirmishes continued in Virginia between Patriots on one side and Tories on the other until October, when Dunmore had acquired enough military support to begin organized operations against the Patriots. General Thomas Gage, the British commander-in-chief for North America, had ordered a small detachment of the 14th Regiment of Foot to Virginia in response to pleas by Dunmore for military help. These troops began raiding surrounding counties for rebel military supplies on October 12. This activity continued through the end of October, when a small British ship ran aground and was captured by Patriot forces during a skirmish near Hampton. Navy boats sent to punish the townspeople were repulsed by Continental Army troops and militia in a brief gunfight that resulted in the killing and capture of several sailors. Dunmore reacted to this event by issuing a proclamation on November 7 in which he declared martial law, and offered to emancipate Patriot-owned slaves in Virginia willing to serve in the British forces. The proclamation alarmed Tory and Patriot slaveholders alike, concerned by the idea of armed former slaves and the potential loss of their property. Nevertheless, Dunmore was able to recruit enough slaves to form the Ethiopian Regiment, as well as raising a company of Tories he called the Queen's Own Loyal Virginia Regiment. These local forces supplemented the two companies of the 14th Foot that were the sole British military presence in the colony. This successful recruiting drive prompted Dunmore to write on November 30, 1775 that he would soon be able to "reduce this colony to a proper sense of their duty."
Virginia's assembly had sent companies of militia to Hampton under the command of William Woodford, the colonel of the 2nd Virginia Regiment in October, and further militia continued to arrive at Williamsburg. Woodford, his force swollen to 700 men, advanced toward Great Bridge in early December. Some of Dunmore's troops had fortified the north side of the bridge, so Woodford began entrenching the position on his side of the bridge, while more and more militia companies arrived from the surrounding counties and North Carolina. On December 9, British troops attempted to disperse Woodford's force, and were decisively repulsed. Following the battle, the British retreated back into Norfolk, and shortly after, Dunmore and his entire force withdrew to Royal Navy ships anchored in Norfolk's harbor, along with most of the remaining Loyalist population of the town. Woodford's force continued to grow with the arrival of Colonel Robert Howe and North Carolina regulars the day after the battle.
## Continental Army occupation of Norfolk
On December 14, with the Patriot ranks being swelled by further militia arrivals to about 1,200, Howe and Woodford moved into Norfolk. Since Colonel Howe held a senior Continental Army commission, he outranked Woodford, and assumed command of the occupying forces. He adopted a hard line in dealings with Dunmore and the Royal Navy captains, denying the delivery of supplies to the overcrowded ships, and insisting on parity in the exchange of prisoners.
Howe and Woodford were also concerned about the possibility of a British attack, and at first appealed for additional troops. However, on further consideration they realized that the British fleet could easily maneuver around the town and isolate the garrison. They consequently recommended to the Virginia assembly that the town be abandoned and rendered useless to their enemy.
On December 20 the Liverpool arrived, accompanied by a store ship loaded with supplies and munitions. Dunmore positioned four ships, the Dunmore, the Liverpool, the Otter, and the Kingfisher in a threatening line along the town's waterfront, setting off an exodus of people and possessions from the town. On Christmas Eve, Liverpool's captain, Henry Bellew, sent what amounted to an ultimatum into the town, stating that he preferred to purchase provisions instead of taking them by force. Howe rejected the ultimatum, and prepared for a bombardment. On December 30, Bellew demanded that Patriot forces cease parading and changing the guard on the waterfront because he found it offensive, and suggested that it would "not be imprudent" for women and children to leave the town. Howe refused to withdraw his men, telling Bellew "I am too much an Officer [...] to recede from any point which I conceive to be my duty."
## Burning and looting
On New Year's Day 1776, Howe's guards paraded as they had before. Between 3:00 and 4:00 pm, the four ships of the British fleet opened fire on the town. Mounting more than 100 guns, they cannonaded the town well into the evening hours. Landing parties were sent ashore, some to obtain provisions, others to set fire to buildings that Patriot marksmen had been using as posts from which to fire on the fleet. Although the British movements were not particularly well coordinated, they succeeded in setting most of the waterfront ablaze.
Patriot militiamen resisted the landing parties, but did little to stop the flames, which were spread by advantageous winds. Some Loyalist properties were targeted for burning and looting by the Patriots shortly after the bombardment began, including a local distillery. Although the British ended their operations that day, the fires continued to rage; the next morning Colonel Howe reported that "the whole town will I doubt not be consum'd in a day or two." The burning and looting by the occupying Patriots continued for three days. By the time order was restored, much of the town had been destroyed.
## Aftermath
Damage to the town by Patriot forces significantly exceeded that done by the British, destroying 863 buildings valued at £120,000 (an estimated £ in modern pounds sterling). In comparison, the British bombardment destroyed only 19 properties worth £3,000 (£); this was in addition to £2,000 (£) in damages done by Lord Dunmore during the British occupation of Norfolk. Howe's report to the Virginia Convention omitted the role of Patriot forces in the burning, and repeated the recommendation that the town be destroyed. A newspaper account published by Lord Rawdon prompted some questions in Patriot circles about the event, but many assumed that British forces were responsible for most of the damage, and no inquiries were made in the immediate aftermath. The convention approved Howe's plan, and by February 6 the remaining 416 structures had been destroyed. It was not until 1777 that the full extent of Patriot participation in the burning was acknowledged.
Patriot forces withdrew from the ruins of the town after completing its destruction, and took up posts in other nearby towns. They were further organized in March, when General Charles Lee arrived to take command of the Continental Army's Southern Department. He mobilized the militia to evict Dunmore from a camp he had established near Portsmouth; Dunmore finally abandoned Virginia for good in August 1776. While the lands at an already established Fort Nelson and what would later become Fort Norfolk had been fortified, these defensive positions were too weak to prevent the British Royal Navy from bombarding Norfolk. As a result, following the war, the U.S. Federal Government bought the fortified land in Norfolk and established Fort Norfolk. Both fortifications were reinforced and used to prevent any further naval assaults on the cities which lie on the Elizabeth River. There is a marker at St. Paul's Boulevard and City Hall Avenue in Norfolk commemorating the action.
## See also
- Burning of Falmouth
- List of American Revolutionary War battles
## General references
|
9,483,085 |
New York State Route 348
| 1,054,948,824 |
Former highway in New York
|
[
"Former state highways in New York (state)",
"Transportation in Clinton County, New York"
] |
New York State Route 348 (NY 348) was a state highway located within the town of Chazy in Clinton County, New York, in the United States. It stretched for 6.2 miles (10.0 km) from NY 22 in the hamlet of West Chazy to U.S. Route 9 (US 9) in the hamlet of Chazy and passed under the Adirondack Northway (Interstate 87 or I-87). NY 348 did not intersect any state routes or pass through any communities other than those at each of its termini.
When NY 348 was originally assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, it began in West Chazy and ended in the village of Champlain. The route was extended northeastward to Rouses Point by 1931, then truncated to the hamlet of Chazy in the early 1960s. NY 348 ceased to exist entirely in 1980, at which time its former routing became County Route 24 (CR 24).
## Route description
NY 348 began at an intersection with NY 22 and West Church Street in the hamlet of West Chazy (within the town of Chazy), located 2 miles (3.2 km) east of Flat Rock State Forest. NY 348 proceeded east along East Church Street, crossing over tracks once used by the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, reaching a junction with CR 25 (Stratton Hill Road). At this junction, NY 348 turned northeast along Fiske Road, crossing over the Little Chazy River and nearby Bayington Brook. Bending further northeast through the town of Chazy, the route paralleled the Delaware and Hudson until reaching a crossing with the Adirondack Northway (I-87).
NY 348 and the Northway did not connect, as NY 348 crossed under the four lane expressway, crossing the alignment of a railroad spur and soon reached the hamlet of Chazy. In Chazy, the route crossed over the Little Chazy River once again then intersected with US 9. This junction with US 9 marked the northern terminus of NY 348.
## History
The alignment that would become NY 348 between the hamlet of West Chazy and the town of Chazy was taken over by the state of New York and improved to state highway standards in 1907–1908. The 6.34 miles (10.20 km) alignment was 14 feet (4.3 m) wide and to be constructed with stones approved by the state with sand and limestone filler. The state engineer estimated that the improvement of the road would cost \$58,250 (1907 USD), and a contract was let on September 19, 1907 to Jeremiah T. Finch, who commenced work on the new roadway in October of that year. The work was completed 11 months later (September 1908) at the cost of \$54,111.94.
NY 348 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. At the time, it began at NY 22 in West Chazy and ended at US 11 in the village of Champlain. NY 348 had an overlap with US 9 from Chazy to what is now NY 9B in the town of Champlain. Here, US 9 forked to the east and followed the length of modern NY 9B to Rouses Point. NY 348 was extended east to Rouses Point along US 11 and what is now NY 276 by the following year.
In the mid-1940s, US 9 was rerouted to follow its modern alignment through Champlain, creating a lengthy overlap between NY 348 and US 9 from Chazy hamlet to Champlain village. The overlaps with both US 9 and US 11 were eliminated in the early 1960s after NY 348 was truncated on its northern end to its junction with US 9 in Chazy.
NY 348 was removed from the state highway system in 1980. The designation officially ceased to exist on January 7, 1980, and ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Clinton County on April 1, 1980, as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The former routing of NY 348 was redesignated as CR 24.
## Major intersections
## See also
- List of county routes in Clinton County, New York
|
22,463,181 |
Drayson Bowman
| 1,168,420,288 |
American professional ice hockey center
|
[
"1989 births",
"Albany River Rats players",
"American men's ice hockey centers",
"Carolina Hurricanes draft picks",
"Carolina Hurricanes players",
"Charlotte Checkers (2010–) players",
"Colorado Eagles players",
"Düsseldorfer EG players",
"Hamilton Bulldogs (AHL) players",
"Ice hockey players from Michigan",
"Living people",
"Montreal Canadiens players",
"Spokane Chiefs players",
"Sportspeople from Grand Rapids, Michigan"
] |
Drayson Jack Bowman (born March 8, 1989) is an American former professional ice hockey center. He previously played for the Montreal Canadiens and Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League (NHL). Bowman was selected 72nd overall by the Hurricanes in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft.
Bowman spent four years at the major junior level with the Spokane Chiefs of the Western Hockey League (WHL). He won a Memorial Cup with the Chiefs in 2008 and was named a WHL West Second Team All-Star in 2009. He turned professional in 2009–10 and has spent the majority of his tenure with the Hurricanes in the team's farm system with the Albany River Rats and Charlotte Checkers of the American Hockey League (AHL). Internationally, Bowman has competed for the United States at the 2009 IIHF World U20 Championships.
## Early life
Bowman was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and was raised in Littleton, Colorado, after his family moved in the early 1990s. His father, Mark Bowman, owns a financial consulting company in Colorado. His younger brother, Collin, is also a hockey player and went on to also compete in the Western Hockey League with the Kelowna Rockets, Moose Jaw Warriors and Calgary Hitmen.
As a youth, Bowman played in the 2001 and 2002 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with the Colorado Junior Avalanche minor ice hockey team from Littleton. Bowman attended Deer Creek Middle School in Littleton. As a Colorado Avalanche fan, he has listed Joe Sakic as a player he looked up to.
In 2003, he and his family moved once more to Vancouver, British Columbia to better his opportunities in hockey. He attended Vancouver Christian School while playing at the bantam level for the North Vancouver Winter Hawks.
## Playing career
### Junior
Bowman was selected eighth overall by the Spokane Chiefs in the 2004 WHL Bantam Draft. He debuted in four games with the Chiefs in 2004–05, a season he spent primarily at the Junior B level with the Kimberley Dynamiters of the Kootenay International Junior Hockey League (KIJHL). He recorded 29 goals and 59 points over 47 games with the Dynamiters to be named the Eddie Mountain Division's rookie of the year. Bowman joined the Chiefs full-time in 2005–06 and notched 17 goals and 34 points over 72 games (17th in WHL rookie scoring) to be named the team's rookie of the year. On a team basis, the Chiefs finished last in the Western Conference and failed to qualify for the playoffs.
Bowman entered the 2006–07 season listed as the ninth-best WHL prospect in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau (CSB)'s preliminary rankings of draft-eligible players. He was invited to play in the CHL Top Prospects Game and was subsequently listed in the CSB's midterm rankings as 44th among North American skaters. Bowman finished the season with an improved 24 goals and 43 points in 61 games. He played in his first WHL playoffs after the Chiefs ranked fourth in the U.S. Division. Playing in six post-season games, Bowman recorded a team-leading seven points (two goals and five assists). The Chiefs were eliminated in the first round by the Everett Silvertips. Entering the 2007 NHL Entry Draft in the off-season, he moved up to 36th among North American skaters in the NHL CSB's final rankings. Bowman was selected 72nd overall by the Carolina Hurricanes.
Following his draft, Bowman participated in his first NHL training camp in September 2007 before being returned to Spokane to continue playing at the junior level. Playing in his third full WHL season, Bowman recorded a team-leading 82 points in 66 games. His 42 goals tied for fourth in the league. Bowman added a team-leading 20 points in 21 playoff games as the Chiefs captured the Ed Chynoweth Cup as WHL champions. The league title earned the Chiefs a berth in the 2008 Memorial Cup in Kitchener, Ontario. Bowman notched a hat trick in the opening game of the tournament, including the game-tying goal late in the third period of a 5–4 overtime win over the Belleville Bulls. He went on to score in all four games of the tournament, including game-winners against the Kitchener Rangers in the round-robin and final. The Chiefs went undefeated in the tournament to capture the Memorial Cup as Canadian major junior champions, beating the Kitchener Rangers 4–1 in the final. With a team-high eight points (third in tournament scoring behind Justin Azevedo and Matt Halischuk of the Rangers), including a tournament-leading six goals, in four games, Bowman was named to the Memorial Cup All-Star Team.
Following his Memorial Cup performance, the Hurricanes signed him to a three-year, US\$2.06 million contract on July 31, 2008. Playing in his final season with the Chiefs in 2008–09, Drayson was named an alternate captain to Justin McCrae along with Seth Compton and Jared Spurgeon. He was named WHL and CHL Player of the Week after recording 12 points in 3 games for the week ending on February 1, 2009. The next month, he earned his second WHL and CHL Player of the Week distinctions with an eight-point effort in two games for the week ending on March 15, 2009. He finished the season with 47 goals, fourth in the league, and a junior career-high 83 points to lead his team in scoring for the second consecutive year. He was named to the WHL West Second All-Star Team along with goaltending teammate Dustin Tokarski. Bowman and the Chiefs were not able to defend their WHL or CHL titles as they were eliminated in seven games in the second round of the WHL playoffs by the Vancouver Giants. Spokane's elimination marked the end of Bowman's junior career. He left the Chiefs fifth on the team's all-time goals scored list with 136, 10 behind leader Pat Falloon. He had 114 assists for 250 points total over 269 games.
### Professional
Upon the completion of Bowman's final WHL season, he was called up by the Hurricanes to travel and practice with the team during their 2009 playoff season. Carolina advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were eliminated by the Pittsburgh Penguins in four games. The following season, he was assigned to the Hurricanes' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Albany River Rats. He scored his first professional goal in his AHL debut with Albany on October 3, 2009, in a 6–3 loss to the Manchester Monarchs. Midway through the season, he was called up by the Hurricanes and made his NHL debut on January 16, 2010. Bowman recorded one shot on goal in 10 minutes of ice time in a 5–3 loss to the Atlanta Thrashers. After being sent back down to Albany, he received another call-up on March 24 in light of an injury to forward Tuomo Ruutu. During that call-up, he scored his first and second career NHL goals against goaltender Antero Niittymaki in the first period of an 8–5 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning on April 6. The milestone occurred in his seventh NHL game. Bowman completed the 2009–10 NHL season with two goals in nine games, while averaging 12 minutes of ice time. Hurricanes head coach Paul Maurice heralded him as a player with "a good set of hands and a really good hockey IQ" during his first stint in the NHL. As Carolina failed to qualify for the 2010 playoffs, ranking 11th in the East, Bowman was reassigned to the River Rats for their 2010 playoff season. In the AHL, he finished the regular season with 32 points (17 goals and 15 assists) over 56 games, tying for 31st among league rookies and 10th among River Rats players. Bowman added nine points (three goals and six assists) over eight games in the playoffs (ranking fifth among rookies and tying for first in team scoring) as the River Rats were eliminated in the second round by the Hershey Bears.
Bowman made the Hurricanes' roster out of training camp in 2010–11, but was returned to the AHL within a month. With the Hurricanes having changed their minor league affiliate, he joined a new team, the Charlotte Checkers. After recording 30 points (12 goals and 18 assists) over 51 games with the Checkers (10th in team scoring), he was recalled on March 10, 2011. Spending the remainder of the season with the Hurricanes, he finished 2010–11 with one assist over 23 games, while averaging 10 minutes of ice time. Carolina failed to qualify for the playoffs, coming within three points of the eighth and final seed in the Eastern Conference. With his NHL season over, the Hurricanes returned him to the AHL, where the Checkers had qualified for the 2011 Calder Cup Playoffs. Bowman contributed 8 points (2 goals and 6 assists) over 15 games as the Checkers were eliminated in the Conference Finals by the Binghamton Senators.
Bowman remained with Charlotte for the beginning of the 2011–12 season, failing to make the Hurricanes' roster out of training camp. In November 2011, he received a call-up to Carolina that lasted five days. The following month, he was recalled again and recorded a two-goal game against the Vancouver Canucks on December 15, 2011. The goals were his first in the NHL in over a year and eight months. After being reassigned, he received two more call ups before the end of the season. Bowman finished the season with 13 points over 37 NHL games in Carolina and 26 points over 42 AHL games in Charlotte. In the off-season, he was tendered a qualifying offer from the Hurricanes in order to retain his restricted free agent status.
A free agent following his first full season in the NHL with the Hurricanes in the 2013–14 season, Bowman agreed to attend the Montreal Canadiens training camp on a try-out contract on September 2, 2014. On October 2 Bowman agreed to a one-year two way contract with the Montreal Canadiens.
Bowman was not re-signed by the Canadiens and on October 12, 2015, without any NHL interest, Bowman signed a one-year deal with the Colorado Eagles of the ECHL. After registering 3 assists in 3 games with the Eagles to start the 2015–16 season, Bowman was loaned to former club, the Charlotte Checkers of the AHL on October 22, 2015. Bowman played a further 16 games with the Checkers before he left the club to pursue a European career in agreeing to a contract for the remainder of the season in Germany with Düsseldorfer EG of the DEL on December 21, 2015.
After two seasons with DEG, Bowman joined his brother Collin in returning to the Colorado Eagles of the ECHL as a free agent on September 14, 2017.
## International play
Bowman was named to the United States' under-20 team for the 2009 World Junior Championships in Ottawa, Ontario. He was joined on the national team by Spokane Chiefs teammates Tyler Johnson and Mitchell Wahl. Playing against Germany in the first game of preliminaries, he scored twice and was named player of the game. Over six games at the tournament, Bowman totalled three goals and one assist, tying for fifth in team point-scoring. After losing to Slovakia 5–3 in the quarterfinal, the United States beat the Czech Republic 3–2 in overtime of their placement game to rank fifth in the tournament.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
### International
## Awards and honors
|
54,602,525 |
The Accelerators (comics)
| 1,008,482,916 |
American comic book created by writer Ronnie Porto
|
[
"2013 comics debuts",
"American comics titles",
"Comics about time travel",
"Science fiction comics"
] |
The Accelerators is an American comic book created by writer Ronnie Porto, who originally conceived it as a screenplay. It is illustrated by Gavin Smith, colored by Tim Yates, and published by Blue Juice Comics. Planned to be a six-issue limited series released in 2013, it was followed by three additional storylines. Accelerators was promoted through podcasts and social media. Twenty issues have been released on an irregular schedule, and the first fifteen have been collected into four square bound volumes. Porto expects the story to be complete after the fifth volume. The series has received mostly positive reviews from critics for its handling of time travel and its characters.
The story is about a teenager named Spatz who is accidentally taken to the future. As the story progresses, he encounters future versions of himself at various ages and states of sanity.
## Publication history
### Development
Ronnie Porto originally conceived The Accelerators as a screenplay, as he had previously had success with other film scripts, and worked on it periodically for about two years. While working on the set of AMC's Comic Book Men television show in 2012, he met members of Blue Juice Films, Inc who were also involved in the show's production. The show's content convinced Blue Juice Films to start a comic division called Blue Juice Comics. Blue Juice asked Porto to pitch ideas for a comic series, and they liked The Accelerators the best. They fine-tuned the concept for four months, deciding what events should happen in each issue and where chapter breaks would fit best. The series was initially planned as a five-issue limited series, but Porto was able to persuade editor Tom Mumme to extend the plan to six issues.
Another worker on the set who was aware of the developing book knew Gavin Smith, an aspiring comic book artist, and told Porto about him. Smith had graduated from the Kubert School in 2011, and he agreed to illustrate The Accelerators after a two hour telephone conversation with Porto in July 2012. Because no one was sure how successful the comic might be, Mumme only promised to pay Porto and Smith for two issues, with only one issue guaranteed to be published. The book would be released on a bimonthly schedule to allow extra time to gauge sales. If sales were weak, the rest of the project would be cancelled.
When Smith's artwork arrived, Porto and most of the Blue Juice team thought the quality was high enough to publish it in black and white, which would reduce costs. As an experiment to see if color could help distinguish different time periods in the story, Smith had his friend, colorist Tim Yates, submit a colorized version of one page. His enhancements to Smith's line art, such as scars on a soldier's face and red hair on a character whose clothes often blended into backgrounds, convinced everyone involved that the series needed to be done in full color. Due to the development path of the project, Porto and Blue Juice share ownership of The Accelerators, while Smith and Yates are considered work for hire. The final product was available in stores nearly a year after Porto began working on the script.
### Production
As the creators developed the comic, they gave weekly progress updates on the "I Sell Comics" podcast hosted by Comic Book Men stars Mike Zapcic and Ming Chen and shared various stages of artwork on social media. Through Facebook, Blue Juice Comics ran a poll to see what a fair price for an independent comic would be. At the same time, Blue Juice was working with Diamond Comic Distributors and Comixology to secure a way to get the finished product to readers. This process took longer than expected according to Porto, but he was glad for the delay because it allowed him and Smith to get ahead of schedule.
Before starting each issue, Porto and Smith have a phone conversation to discuss the coming story. Most of the plot comes from Porto, but Smith occasionally suggests ideas that are used in the finished work, such as a main character befriending one of the henchmen. When drafting a script, Porto provides specific details to let Smith know how certain scenes and settings should look. Aside from a costume request from Porto, all character designs are left to Smith. After Smith completes the pencil work, he scans it and applies inks to a full-size copy. He sometimes applies white out to the inks to achieve a smear effect, and will occasionally use digital tools to add zipatone patterns or to make an adjustment. The line work is sent to Yates for coloring with only a few notes, since they established comfortable baselines on the first issue.
To draw more attention to the series, Walt Flanagan provided pencils for the first five covers, with Smith inking. Niko Walter also provided art for a variant cover of the first issue. Beginning with issue six, Smith has penciled and inked the cover art.
### Publication
On October 17, 2012, the Blue Juice Comics blog released a free PDF containing two covers and the first seven pages of the first issue. Beginning in May 2013, a new issue of Accelerators was released to comic specialty shops every two months. Following issue six, the comic series went on hiatus. A paperback collection of the first six issues was released in July 2014 with the subtitle "Time Games". At that time, sales had been good enough for Blue Juice Comics to approve an additional four issues.
The next issue was released May 2015 as Accelerators: Momentum \#1. It was labeled as a four-issue limited series and released on a monthly schedule. It was followed by a second paperback collection in December 2015. After another hiatus, the series returned with five more monthly issues in May 2016. These issues carried the subtitle "Relativity" and were numbered eleven through fifteen. They were collected into a third paperback volume that was released in December of 2016. After yet another hiatus, the series returned with five more monthly issues (skipping August) in May 2020. These issues carried the subtitle "Backwards and Forwards" and were numbered sixteen through twenty. A fourth collected edition is scheduled for release in 2021.
In a 2015 interview, Porto said his ideas for the series would last for a total five volumes.
## Plot
### Time Games
In 1960, Alexa is part of a team of physicists studying a mysterious piece of torus-shaped technology. Her husband, Bertram, is a member of the US Army and is part of the guard surrounding the project. One day the torus repeatedly and uncontrollably transports Alexa and Bertram into the future, with each jump skipping a longer duration of time. As they pass through the 1990s, they are joined by a teenager named Spatz. The trio arrives in the dystopic year 2046 where the torus technology is commonplace. They are captured and forced into gladiatorial combat with other participants pulled from the past. The leader of the games is a woman named Bob, and she removes Spatz from the games when she recognizes him. She explains that when he is older, Spatz will be able to travel back in time and that he was instrumental in the development of her society. With the aid of one of Bob's cyborg henchmen, Spatz rescues Alexa, Bertram, and a Centurion before sabotaging the torus powering the coliseum to end the gladiator games. As the whole building is transported to a future time, the group is confronted by an elderly version of Spatz. He explains that they must continue their journey forward, and that they must take Bob with them because she will be important.
### Momentum
After a few stops in increasingly unpleasant time periods, Alexa, Bertram, Spatz, the henchman, the Centurion, and Bob stop in a peaceful pre-industrial society. Spatz discovers it is ruled by an artificial intelligence that believes humanity is more secure without advanced technology. It dismantles the torus so the group cannot leave. It has also been imprisoning criminals who have travelled from the past in suspended animation. It claims Spatz is responsible for many crimes that occurred in the past, but is confused because it already has him incarcerated. Spatz reveals the AI's existence to the rest of the group, activating a program hidden in the henchman's cyborg attachments which causes the AI to malfunction and shut down. The criminals escape, including an elderly version of Spatz. Without using a torus, the elderly Spatz warps the teen Spatz and his group further into the future.
### Relativity
The group appears in the coliseum from the Time Games during an ice age in the 88th century, where they meet a middle-aged Spatz. The elderly Spatz explains that the teen Spatz will develop a brain tumor that causes insanity. The middle-aged "Lost" Spatz is in the midst of the insanity and devotes himself to traveling through time trying to prove the future can be changed. At some future point, the tumor will be surgically removed. The elderly Spatz, now sane, tries to undo the Lost Spatz's actions. Lost Spatz tries to persuade the teen Spatz to join him, but the teen declines. Lost Spatz then reveals that due to his meddling, Bob is actually Alexa and Bertram's daughter. Her cyborg henchmen are all created by mixing Spatz's DNA with other people. In an effort to force the elderly Spatz to take action, Lost Spatz fatally shoots Bob. An older version of Eve appears and knocks out Lost Spatz. As Bob dies, the time travels abilities of teen Spatz activate, but unable to control it, he travels to "the end of time" and discovers a meeting of countless copies of himself.
### Backwards and Forwards
Framed as a story an ancient Spatz relates to his childhood self, teen Spatz meets his various future selves and discovers that only he can travel backwards in time. He departs for the past with a middle-aged "almost lost" Spatz. In the framing story, the Lost Spatz appears to kill his childhood self, only to be restrained by multiple versions of himself. The ancient Spatz continues the story about the group in the 88th century, where elderly Spatz takes control of the cyborgs, who fly the coliseum into the air and towards "the way home." On the way, they encounter three immense wormlike remnants of humanity who have mutated and bonded with Accelerator technology. Spartacus sacrifices himself to destroy one, and the others two are destroyed by a skull-headed cyborg Eve knows as "The Face", who stands in front of a gigantic spire that stretches into the sky, along with a teen Spatz in grunge attire. Face explains that the Spire grew from the Seedling, which grew from one of the original 1960s toruses, and that it acts as a door to a refuge from time travel. Elderly Spatz and Alexa operate on the brain (revealed to be technological rather than human) of Lost Spatz , while Bertram digs graves and Eve fights young worms along with Face. The grunge teen Spatz tells the story of time travelling with the almost lost Spatz, continually hunted by the Lost Spatz and continually saved by his various future incarnations. They eventually return to a later version of pre-industrial town, now run by Eve, but the Lost Spatz appears and sabotages the Seedling, annihilating the town and prompting the almost lost Spatz to depart and become the Lost Spatz. An older Spatz gives Eve a torus, who jumps to the 88th century to stop the Lost Spatz. The now sane Lost Spatz awakens from the surgery and joins the group in front of the now activated Spire, where Face, slacker teen Spatz, the former Lost Spatz, and the elderly Spatz explain that "home" is the 999th century, where Spatz are not permitted. Alexa and Bertram enter the Spire, while Eve and Face remain to guard it along with the former Lost Spatz. The grunge teen Spatz travels back to hear the end of the framing story, briefly considers killing their now sleeping childhood self, and witnesses the death of the ancient Spatz from old age. He and multiple other versions carry the body back to the gathering at the end of time.
## Reception
The first issue debuted to mostly positive reviews, earning an average score of 8.2 out of 10 according to the review aggregator Comic Book Roundup. The series overall averages 8.7 out of 10. Several reviewers praised the way time travel was represented, particularly that travelers could only move forward in time. In a review for Multiversity Comics, Drew Bradley said Porto had "adapted himself [from screenplays] to the 22-page serial format very well." Both Bradley and Capeless Crusader's Thom Obarski felt the characters were engaging. Smith's pencils and Yates' colors were also praised by reviewers. While Florida Geek Scene reviewer Dustin Infinger agreed the comic was well made, he felt "that nothing about [it] is very unique."
|
311,897 |
People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm
| 1,170,746,325 | null |
[
"1990 debut albums",
"A Tribe Called Quest albums",
"Albums produced by Q-Tip (musician)",
"Jive Records albums",
"Progressive rap albums"
] |
People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm is the debut studio album by American hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest, released on April 10, 1990 on Jive Records. After forming the Native Tongues collective and collaborating on several projects, A Tribe Called Quest began recording sessions for People's Instinctive Travels in late 1989 at Calliope Studios with completion reached in early 1990. The album's laid back production encompassed a diverse range of samples which functioned as a template for the group's unorthodox lyrics.
People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was met with acclaim from professional music critics and the hip hop community on release, and was eventually certified gold in the United States on January 19, 1996. Its recognition has extended over the years as it is widely regarded as a central album in alternative hip hop with its unconventional production and lyricism. It is also credited for influencing many artists in both hip hop and R&B. In a commemorative article for XXL, Michael Blair wrote that "People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was immensely groundbreaking, and will eternally maintain its relevance within the culture and construction of hip-hop".
## Background
A Tribe Called Quest formed in Queens, New York, in 1985. After establishing a friendship with hip-hop act Jungle Brothers, both groups formed a collective dubbed Native Tongues, which also included De La Soul.
Several years prior to recording People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm, group member Q-Tip created much of the album's production on pause tapes when he was in the 10th grade. He would have his first studio experience while recording with Jungle Brothers on their debut album Straight out the Jungle (1988). Although this was a learning experience, he acquired more recording and producing knowledge being present at all of De La Soul's 3 Feet High and Rising (1989) sessions. Recording engineer Shane Faber taught Q-Tip how to use equipment such as the E-mu SP-1200 and Akai S950 samplers, and soon-after, renowned producer Large Professor taught him how to use other equipment, for which he would expand upon on People's Instinctive Travels.
Initially, record labels would not sign A Tribe Called Quest due to their unconventional image and sound, but took interest after the success of 3 Feet High and Rising, which featured appearances from Q-Tip. The group hired Kool DJ Red Alert as their manager, and after shopping their demo to several major labels, they signed a contract with Jive Records in 1989.
## Recording
Recording for the album began in late 1989, and finished three months later in early 1990, with "Pubic Enemy" and "Bonita Applebum" as the first tracks recorded.
The group chose Calliope Studios as their primary studio, as it was renowned to promote artistic freedom. Jungle Brothers, Queen Latifah and Prince Paul with De La Soul and Stetsasonic, were all recording new music in separate rooms while A Tribe Called Quest recorded People's Instinctive Travels. Q-Tip later commented, "It was exciting. We were kinda left to our own devices. It was just a great environment, conductive for creating. We didn't have cell phones, we didn't have the internet, we didn't have a bunch of things to tear at us. When we got to the studio, the specific job was to make music. There was no TV in there. It was all instruments and speakers. It was just music."
Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad would listen to records several seconds at a time, and re-work them in relationship with other records that would fit. Ali played all live instruments, DJ scratches and programming, while Q-Tip handled everything else with production, including sampling and mixing.
Although claiming that "we all helped put the album together", Q-Tip was the only group member present at every recording session. Group member Phife Dawg later admitted, "I was being ignorant on that first album, that's why I was only on a couple of tracks. I was hardly around. I would have rather hung out with my boys on the street and got my hustle on rather than gone in the studio. I wasn't even on the contract for the first album. I was thinking me and Jarobi were more like back-ups for Tip and Ali, but Tip and Ali really wanted me to come through and do my thing".
## Music and lyrics
People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm has been described as "a celebration of bohemia, psychedelia and vagabondia", as well as "laid back". Los Angeles Times critic Dennis Hunt described the album as consisting of "mostly happy hip-hop, featuring gently humorous, casual, conversational raps". Michael Blair from XXL wrote that "the innovative production on this album created an optimal platform for the group's wildly inventive relationship with their words. From a lyrical standpoint, Tribe was both sophisticated and playful in the same breath".
Much of the musical landscape on the album consisted of background noises such as a child crying, frogs and Hawaiian strings. The jazz, R&B and rock samples that were used were from artists that most hip-hop producers of the time ignored, or who were unfamiliar with. For the known artists that were sampled, Q-Tip used breaks that were unique for those artists, which turned out to be highly influential for hip-hop production. Ian McCann from NME stated "They break beats from anywhere they want ... and deliver them in an easy, totally sympathetic setting." Entertainment Weekly's Greg Sandow said the album "has a casual sound, something like laid-back jazz".
Regarding the album's lyrics, Kris Ex from Pitchfork said "The rhymes here are at once conversational and repressed, the topics concurrently large and small. The lyrics are 25 years old. But were they released today they'd seem right on time."
## Critical reception
People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was met with widespread acclaim from critics. Reviewing the album for NME, Ian McCann wrote that "A Tribe Called Quest put no feet in the wrong place here. This is not rap, it's near perfection". In Entertainment Weekly, Greg Sandow commented that on the album, rather than "defining Afrocentric living", the group "more or less exemplifies it with no fuss at all". Robert Tanzilo from the Chicago Tribune stated that the album "avoids the gimmickry and circus atmosphere" of the group's contemporaries, while "focusing solely on the music". The Source gave it the first "five-mic" rating in the magazine's history, describing it as a "completely musical and spiritual approach to hip-hop," as well as "a voyage to the land of positive vibrations, and each cut is a new experience".
Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Dennis Hunt called the album "fascinating" and wrote "These songs lope along in a quirkly, jazz-like pace. They're intriguingly non-linear and quite provocative, even though their meaning is somewhat elusive". The Village Voice's Robert Christgau said that the album, while "subtler than ... necessary" at points, is "indubitably progressive" and "has more good songs on it than any neutral observer will believe without trying". Chuck Eddy from Rolling Stone was more critical, finding that "the real pleasure on People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm comes from a detailed mesh of instruments and incidental sounds", and that "the rappers of A Tribe Called Quest tend to mumble in understated monotones that feel self-satisfied, even bored".
### Retrospect
John Bush of AllMusic said "Restless and ceaselessly imaginative, Tribe perhaps experimented too much on their debut, but they succeeded at much of it, certainly enough to show much promise as a new decade dawned". Thomas Golianopoulos of Spin wrote that "following in the ground-breaking footsteps of their Native Tongues brethren, Tribe's laid-back debut had no heavy handed political or battle raps, just youthful exuberance and playfully goofy lyrics". Praising its production and lyricism, Kris Ex, writing for Pitchfork, credited the album for showcasing the group as "whimsical yet grounded in reality" with its "clean and focused" quality. He went on to write that "all these many years later People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm is more than a nostalgia artifact. It's a worthy listen, not because of what it was, but because of what it is". Dave Heaton of PopMatters called the album "brilliant" and said it was "an introduction to Q-Tip's talent." In his 5th edition of Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin rated the album three stars and called it "eclectic and self-consciously jokey".
### Accolades
Since its release, People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm has been included on numerous "best of" lists compiled by music writers and journalists. The following information is adapted from Acclaimed Music.
## Legacy
People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm has been recognized for widening hip-hop's vocabulary, as well as instrumentation and samples within hip-hop music. It has also been recognized for influencing a wide range of acclaimed hip-hop and R&B artists, including Common, D'Angelo, Digable Planets, Erykah Badu, Fugees, J Dilla, Kendrick Lamar, Mos Def, Outkast, Scarface, and Kanye West. Pharrell Williams stated "I listened to 'Bonita' everyday. I'd never heard anything like that in my life. That's where I changed". On another occasion, Williams explained that People's Instinctive Travels "caused a turning point in my life, which made me see that music was art."
Reviewing the album for AllMusic, John Bush called People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm "the quiet beginning of a revolution in non-commercial hip-hop." For Pitchfork, Kris Ex stated that with the album the group "created and refined a template for '90s hip-hop that was street-astute, worldly, and more inspirational than aspirational". In a commemorative article for XXL, Michael Blair wrote "What A Tribe Called Quest ultimately became the pioneers of, and was on full display throughout the production on their debut album, was a certain proficiency in illustrating and honoring a diverse array of genres that preceded them. In what is mostly attributed to Q-Tip's deep appreciation and understanding of those definitive genres, Tribe's sound was perpetually laced with elements of Jazz, Soul, R&B, and Funk". Blair concluded that "People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was immensely groundbreaking, and will eternally maintain its relevance within the culture and construction of hip-hop".
Hip-hop journalist Harry Allen described the album as a turning point in hip-hop where artists did not have to be "tough". A Tribe Called Quest member Ali Shaheed Muhammad further elaborated that "LL Cool J, Big Daddy Kane, KRS-One, N.W.A, even Public Enemy, had a tough guy image. It was this bravado at the time that all the hip-hop artists had. People's Instinctive Travels wasn't any of that. We weren't trying to be tough guys. It was about having fun, being lighthearted, being witty, being poetic. Just being good with one another. That's what we presented. Just be. Just exist. Be comfortable in your own skin. People's Instinctive Travels was about celebrating you, whoever you are".
## Track listing
All tracks written and produced by A Tribe Called Quest. Credits from album liner notes.
Partial sample credits
- "Push it Along" contains a sample from "Loran's Dance", as performed by Grover Washington Jr.
- "Luck of Lucien" contains a sample from "All You Need Is Love", as performed by The Beatles, and "Forty Days", as performed by Billy Brooks.
- "Footprints" contains samples from "Sir Duke", as performed by Stevie Wonder and "Think Twice", as performed by Donald Byrd.
- "I Left My Wallet in El Segundo" contains a sample from "Let's Get Funky", as performed by The Chambers Brothers.
- "Bonita Applebum" contains samples from "Daylight", as performed by RAMP, "Memory Band", as performed by Rotary Connection and "Soul Virgo", as performed by Cannonball Adderley.
- "Can I Kick It?" contains samples from "Spinning Wheel", as performed by Lonnie Smith and "Walk on the Wild Side", as performed by Lou Reed.
- "Mr. Muhammad" contains a sample from "Brazilian Rhyme (Beijo)", as performed by Earth, Wind & Fire.
- "Ham 'n' Eggs" contains a sample from "Nappy Dugout", as performed by Funkadelic.
- "Go Ahead in the Rain" contains a sample from "Slide", as performed by Slave.
- "Description of a Fool" contains a sample from "Running Away", as performed by Roy Ayers.
- "Rhythm (Devoted to the Art of Moving Butts) contains a sample from "Get Off Your Ass and Jam", as performed by Funkadelic.
## Personnel
- Q-Tip – performer, production, mixing
- Ali Shaheed Muhammad – scratching, programming
- Phife Dawg – performer
- Jarobi White – performer
- Lucien – background vocals
- Bob Power – engineer
- Shane Faber – engineer
- Tim Latham – engineer
- Bob Coulter – engineer
- Anthony Saunders – engineer
- Kool DJ Red Alert – management, executive producer
- Paije Hunyady – cover art
- Bryant Peters – cover art
- Ari Marcopoulos – photography
- Justin Herz – photography
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
|
605,843 |
Stanley Donen
| 1,171,767,840 |
American film director and choreographer (1924–2019)
|
[
"1924 births",
"2019 deaths",
"20th-century American Jews",
"20th-century American male actors",
"Academy Honorary Award recipients",
"American Cinema Editors",
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"American music video directors",
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"American people of Russian-Jewish descent",
"American tap dancers",
"Comedy film directors",
"English-language film directors",
"Film choreographers",
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"Male actors from Columbia, South Carolina",
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] |
Stanley Donen (/ˈdɒnən/ DON-ən; April 13, 1924 – February 21, 2019) was an American film director and choreographer. Donen directed some of the most iconic films of the Golden Age of Cinema. He received the Honorary Academy Award in 1998, and the Career Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 2004. Four of his films have been inducted into the National Film Registry at the Library of Congress.
Donen began his career in the chorus line on Broadway for director George Abbott. From 1943, he worked in Hollywood as a choreographer before collaborating with Gene Kelly where Donen worked as a contract director for MGM under producer Arthur Freed. Donen and Kelly directed the films On the Town (1949), Singin' in the Rain, and It's Always Fair Weather (1955). Donen's relationship with Kelly deteriorated during their final collaboration. His other films during this period include Royal Wedding (1951), Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954), and Funny Face (1957).
He then broke his contract with MGM to become an independent producer in 1957. Donen received acclaim for his later films including the romance films Indiscreet (1958), Charade (1963), and Two for the Road (1967). He also directed the spy thriller Arabesque (1966), the British comedy Bedazzled (1967), the musicals Damn Yankees (1958), and The Little Prince (1974), and the comedy Lucky Lady (1975).
## Early life and stage career
Stanley Donen was born on April 13, 1924, in Columbia, South Carolina, to Mordecai Moses Donen, a dress-shop manager, and Helen (Cohen), the daughter of a jewelry salesman. His younger sister Carla Donen Davis was born in August 1937. Born to Jewish parents, Donen became an atheist in his youth. Donen described his childhood as lonely and unhappy as one of the few Jews in Columbia, and he was occasionally bullied by antisemitic classmates at school. To help cope with his isolation, Donen spent much of his youth in local movie theaters and was especially fond of Westerns, comedies and thrillers. The film that had the strongest impact on him was the 1933 Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers musical Flying Down to Rio. Donen said that he "must have seen the picture thirty or forty times. I was transported into some sort of fantasy world where everything seemed to be happy, comfortable, easy and supported. A sense of well-being filled me." He shot and screened home movies with an 8 mm camera and projector that his father bought for him.
Inspired by Astaire, Donen took dance lessons in Columbia and performed at the local Town Theater. His family often traveled to New York City during summer vacations where he saw Broadway musicals and took dance lessons. One of his early instructors in New York was Ned Wayburn, who taught eleven-year-old Astaire in 1910. After graduating from high school at the age of sixteen, Donen attended the University of South Carolina for one summer semester, studying psychology. Encouraged by his mother, he moved to New York City to pursue dancing on stage in the fall of 1940. After two auditions, he was cast as a chorus dancer in the original Broadway production of Rodgers and Hart's Pal Joey, directed by George Abbott. The titular Pal Joey was played by the young up-and-comer Gene Kelly, who became a Broadway star in the role.
Abbott cast Donen in the chorus of his next Broadway show Best Foot Forward. He became the show's assistant stage manager, and Kelly asked him to be his assistant choreographer. Eventually Donen was fired from Best Foot Forward, but in 1942 was the stage manager and assistant choreographer for Abbott's next show Beat the Band. In 1946, Donen briefly returned to Broadway to help choreograph dance numbers for Call Me Mister.
## Film career
### 1943–1949: Hollywood choreographer
In 1943 Arthur Freed, the producer of musical films at Metro Goldwyn Mayer, bought the film rights to Best Foot Forward and made a film version starring Lucille Ball and William Gaxton. Donen moved to Hollywood to audition for the film and signed a one-year contract with MGM. Donen appeared as a chorus dancer and was made assistant choreographer by Charles Walters. At MGM Donen renewed his friendship with Kelly, who was now a supporting actor in musicals. When Kelly was loaned to Columbia Pictures for a film, he was offered the chance to choreograph his own dance numbers and asked Donen to assist. Kelly stated: "Stanley needed a job. I needed someone to count for the cameraman, someone who knew the steps and could explain what I was going to do so the shot was set up correctly." Donen accepted and choreographed three dance sequences with Kelly in Cover Girl (1944). Donen came up with the idea for the "Alter Ego" dance sequence where Kelly's reflection jumps out of a shop window and dances with him. Director Charles Vidor insisted that the idea would never work, so Donen and Kelly directed the scene themselves and Donen spent over a year editing it. The film made Kelly a movie star and is considered by many film critics to be an important and innovative musical. Donen signed a one-year contract with Columbia and choreographed several films there, but returned to MGM the following year when Kelly wanted assistance on his next film.
In 1944 Donen and Kelly choreographed the musical Anchors Aweigh, released in 1945 and starring Kelly and Frank Sinatra. The film is best known for its groundbreaking scene in which Kelly dances with Jerry the Mouse from the Tom and Jerry cartoons. This was the first time in feature-film history that hand-drawn animation was blended with live-action footage. The animation was supervised by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera and is credited to the MGM animation producer Fred Quimby, but the idea for the scene was Donen's. Donen and Kelly originally wanted to use either Mickey Mouse or Donald Duck for the sequence and met with Walt Disney to discuss the project; Disney was working on a similar idea in The Three Caballeros (1944) and was unwilling to license one of his characters to MGM. The duo spent two months shooting Kelly dancing and Donen spent a year perfecting the scene frame by frame. According to Barbera "the net result at the preview of Anchors Away that I went to, blew the audience away".
While Kelly completed his service in the U.S. Naval Air Service as a photographer from 1944 to 1946, Donen did uncredited work as a choreographer on musical films. Of this period Donen said, "I practiced my craft, working with music, track and photography. I often directed the sequences. I always tried to have an original idea about how to do musical sequences." Donen stated that he was excused from military service as 4-F due to his high blood pressure. When Kelly returned to civilian life, he and Donen directed and choreographed Kelly's dance scenes in Living in a Big Way (1947). They then began work on an original story about two baseball players in the early 20th century who spend their off-season as vaudevillian song and dance men. This film would eventually become Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949). Kelly and Donen hoped to co-direct the film, but Freed hired Busby Berkeley instead, and they only directed Kelly's dance numbers. The film starred Kelly, Frank Sinatra and Jules Munshin.
### 1949: On the Town
After the success of Take Me Out to the Ball Game, Freed gave Donen and Kelly the chance to direct On the Town, which was released in 1949. The film was an adaptation of the Betty Comden and Adolph Green Broadway musical about sailors on leave in New York City and was the first musical to feature location-filming. Donen and Kelly wanted to shoot the entire film in New York, but Freed would only allow them to spend one week away from the studio.
That week produced the film's opening number "New York, New York". Away from both studio interference and sound stage constrictions, Donen and cinematographer Harold Rosson shot a scene on the streets of New York City that pioneered many cinematic techniques that would be adopted by the French New Wave a decade later. These techniques included spatial jump cuts, 360-degree pans, hidden cameras, abrupt changes of screen direction and non-professional actors. Donen's biographer Joseph A. Casper stated that the scene avoids being gratuitous or amateurish, while still "developing plot, describing the setting while conveying its galvanizing atmosphere and manic mood, introducing and delineating character." Casper also said: "Today the film is regarded as a turning point: the first bona fide musical that moved dance, as well as the musical genre, out of the theater and captured it with and for film rather than on film; the first to make the city an important character; and the first to abandon the chorus."
On the Town starred Kelly, Frank Sinatra and Jules Munshin as three sailors on a 24-hour shore leave in New York whose romantic pursuits lead them to Ann Miller, Betty Garrett and Vera-Ellen. The film was a success both financially and critically and won the Academy Award for Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture while screenwriters Comden and Green won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical. Like Orson Welles, Donen made his directorial debut at 25. Donen stated that Kelly was "responsible for most of the dance movements. I was behind the camera in the dramatic and musical sequences." Kelly believed that he and Donen "were a good team. I thought we complemented each other very well" he said.
### 1949–1952: MGM contract director
After the success of On the Town, Donen signed a seven-year contract with MGM as a director. His next two films were for Freed, but were made without Kelly's participation. After being replaced as director on Pagan Love Song over personal differences with star Esther Williams, Donen was given the chance to direct his boyhood idol Fred Astaire.
Royal Wedding (1951) starred Astaire and Jane Powell as a brother-sister American dancing team performing in England during the royal wedding of Elizabeth and Philip in 1947. Judy Garland was originally cast in the lead role, but was fired for absenteeism due to illness and was ultimately replaced by Powell. In the film, Powell's love affair with a wealthy Englishman (Peter Lawford) threatens to ruin the brother-sister act, while Astaire finds his own romance with another dancer (Sarah Churchill). The film is loosely based on Astaire's real-life career with his sister and early dancing partner, Adele Astaire, who retired after marrying an English lord in 1932 and includes one of Astaire's best remembered dance sequences, the "You're All the World to Me" number where he appears to defy gravity by dancing first on the walls and then on the ceiling. The shot was achieved by building the set inside a steel-reinforced rotating cylindrical chamber, with the camera attached to the cylinder. Both Astaire and the film's lyricist Alan Jay Lerner claimed that they thought of the idea. The film included music by Lerner and Burton Lane and was released in March 1951.
Next, Donen made Love Is Better Than Ever, which was not released until March 1952. The film stars Larry Parks as a streetwise show business agent who is compelled to marry an innocent young dance teacher (Elizabeth Taylor). Donen and Kelly appear in cameo roles. The reason for the film's delayed release (by over a year) was Parks's appearance before the House Un-American Activities Committee and his eventual admission of his former membership in the Communist Party, and for naming other participants. The film was unsuccessful at the box-office.
### 1952: Singin' in the Rain
Donen teamed again with Kelly -- who was at the height of his fame after the release of An American in Paris (1951). He then re-teamed with Kelly to make Singin' in the Rain (1952), which would become one of the most highly praised films of all time. The film was produced by Freed, written by Comden and Green, photographed by Harold Rosson and starred Kelly, Debbie Reynolds, Donald O'Connor, Jean Hagen, Millard Mitchell and Cyd Charisse.
Donen, along with Kelly, were brought in by Freed (who also hired Comden and Green to write a script) to make a musical using old songs that he and composer Nacio Herb Brown wrote in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Comden and Green decided to write a story inspired by the time period in which the songs were written, and satirized Hollywood's transition from silent films to "talkies" in the late 1920s. Comden, Green and Donen interviewed everyone at MGM who was in Hollywood during that period, poking fun at both the first movie musicals and the technical difficulties with early sound films. This included characters loosely based on Freed and Berkeley and a scene that references silent film star John Gilbert. Donen and Kelly also made use of MGM's large collection of sets, props, costumes and outdated equipment from the 1920s.
In the film, Don Lockwood (Kelly) and Lina Lamont (Hagen) are two silent film stars in Hollywood whose careers are threatened by the invention of "talkies". With help from his best friend Cosmo Brown (O'Connor) and love interest Kathy Selden (Reynolds), Lockwood saves his career by turning his latest film into a musical. Filming was harmonious, but Donen thought Kelly's "Broadway Melody" ballet sequence was too long. The "Singin' in the Rain" musical number took several months to choreograph, and Donen and Kelly found it necessary to dig holes in the cement to create puddles in the street.
The film was a hit when it was released in April 1952, earning over \$7.6 million. Kelly's An American in Paris had been a surprise Best Picture winner at the Oscars in March, and MGM decided to re-release it. Singin' in the Rain got pulled from many theaters to showcase the earlier film, preventing it from making further profits. Singin' in the Rain was nominated for two Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actress for Hagen and Best Original Score. Donald O'Connor won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy and Comden and Green once again won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical. Initially the film received only moderate reviews from critics such as Bosley Crowther and did not begin to receive widespread acclaim until the late 1960s. One of its earliest supporters was critic Pauline Kael, who said that it "is perhaps the most enjoyable of all movie musicals – just about the best Hollywood musical of all time." It was re-released in 1975 to critical and popular success.
### 1952–1955: Further success and break with MGM
Now established as a successful film director, Donen continued his solo career at MGM with Fearless Fagan (1952). Based on a true story, the film stars Carleton Carpenter as a GI who brings his tame lion with him when he joins the army. Donen's musical Give a Girl a Break (1953) stars Debbie Reynolds, Marge Champion and Helen Wood as three aspiring dancers competing for the lead in a new Broadway musical. Bob Fosse, Gower Champion and Kurt Kasznar also appear, with music by Burton Lane and Ira Gershwin. The "Give a Girl a Break" dance between Reynolds and Fosse was choreographed backwards and then played in reverse to create the illusion that the two are surrounded by hundreds of balloons that instantly appear at the touch of their fingers. Shooting the film became a bitter experience for Donen due to a major on-set fight over the film's choreography between Fosse and Gower Champion. The film was not well reviewed upon release, but its reputation has grown over time.
Donen solidified his solo career and scored another hit with the musical Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954). Based on a short story by Stephen Vincent Benét, the film's music is by Saul Chaplin and Gene de Paul, with lyrics by Johnny Mercer and choreography by Michael Kidd. Jane Powell plays Milly, an 1850s frontierswoman who marries Adam (Howard Keel) only hours after meeting him. When she returns with Adam to his log cabin in the Oregon backwoods, Milly discovers that her husband's six brothers are uncivilized and oafish. She makes it her mission to domesticate them and, upon Milly's sarcastic suggestion, the brothers kidnap six women from a neighboring town to marry them. The film was shot in the new CinemaScope format and is remembered for its dance sequences, particularly the "barn raising scene" in which architecture and construction become acrobatic ballet steps. Seven Brides for Seven Brothers was one of the highest-grossing films of 1954 and appeared on many critics' 10 Best Films lists. It was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Music (Scoring of a Musical Picture), which it won. Its success was a surprise to MGM, which invested more money in two other musicals: Rose Marie and Brigadoon, starring Kelly. Seven Brides for Seven Brothers was more profitable than either of the other films, as well as On the Town and Singin' in the Rain, and its success was a major turning point for Donen's career. The film was later criticized by novelist Francine Prose, who described it as anti-woman, calling it "one of the most repulsive movies about men and women that has ever been made" and a musical about rape.
Deep in My Heart (1954), is Donen's biographical film concerning Sigmund Romberg, the Hungarian-born American operetta composer. Starring José Ferrer, the film included cameos by many MGM contract actors, including the only screen pairing of Gene Kelly and his brother Fred. Although it received mediocre reviews, Romberg's status helped make the film a hit.
Donen's third and final directorial collaboration with Kelly was It's Always Fair Weather (1955), another musical. It was produced by Freed, written by Comden and Green and the score was by André Previn. It starred Kelly, Dan Dailey, Cyd Charisse, Michael Kidd, and Dolores Gray. Originally envisioned as a sequel to On the Town, Kelly, Dailey and Kidd play three ex-GIs who reunite 10 years after World War II and discover that none of their lives have turned out how they had expected. Kelly approached Donen with the project and at first Donen was reluctant due to his own success. Their friendship deteriorated during production and Donen noted, "the atmosphere from day one was very tense and nobody was speaking to anybody." He called it a "one hundred percent nightmare" which was a "struggle from beginning to end". This time, MGM refused to allow the co-directors to shoot on location in New York. It's Always Fair Weather was moderately profitable, but not as successful as their previous two films. It was Donen's last film with Kelly or Freed. After its completion he fulfilled his MGM contract agreement by working with other studios. His last project for MGM was completing the final four days of shooting on Kismet in July 1955 for director Vincente Minnelli.
### 1956–1959: director and independent producer
Donen's next film was at Paramount Pictures for producer Roger Edens. Funny Face (1957) contains four of the original George and Ira Gershwin songs from the otherwise unrelated 1927 Broadway musical of the same name that had starred Fred Astaire. Loosely based on the life of fashion photographer Richard Avedon, who was also the visual consultant and designed the opening title sequence for the film, it was written by Leonard Gershe and included additional music by Gershe and Edens. Donen and Edens began pre-production at MGM, but had difficulty juggling Astaire and Audrey Hepburn's Paramount contracts, the Warner Brothers-owned rights to the Gershwin music that they wanted and their own MGM contracts. Eventually a deal was reached that both released Donen from his MGM contract and allowed him to make his next two films at Paramount and Warner Brothers respectively. Astaire plays an aging fashion photographer who discovers the intellectual bohemian Hepburn at a used bookstore in Greenwich Village and turns her into his new model while falling in love with her in Paris. Donen, Avedon and cinematographer Ray June collaborated to give the film an abstract, smokey look that resembled the fashion photography of the period despite protests by Paramount, which had recently invested in the sharp VistaVision film format. Funny Face was screened in competition at the 1957 Cannes Film Festival and received good reviews from critics like Bosley Crowther. Sight & Sound, in contrast, accused it of being anti-intellectual.
While in pre-production on Funny Face, Donen received a letter from his old boss George Abbott inviting him to make a film version of Abbott's stage hit The Pajama Game at Warner Brothers. As part of the deal to secure the Warner-owned Gershwin music he wanted for Funny Face, Donen accepted the offer and he and Abbott co-directed the film version. The Pajama Game (1957) stars Doris Day and John Raitt, with music by Richard Adler and Jerry Ross and choreography by Bob Fosse. Raitt plays a plant supervisor at a nightwear factory who is in constant disputes with the plant's union organizer (Day), until they end up falling in love. Donen described his working relationship with Abbott as relaxed, stating that "[Abbott would] play tennis, come watch on the set for an hour, then watch the rushes, then go home." It was only a modest financial success, but Jean-Luc Godard praised it and declared "Donen is surely the master of the movie musical. The Pajama Game exists to prove it."
Donen's next film was Kiss Them for Me (also 1957). He was personally asked by Cary Grant to direct and began developing it while still under contract at MGM. With a plot that strongly resembles On the Town, the film features Grant, Ray Walston and Larry Blyden as three navy officers on leave in San Francisco in 1944. Unlike On the Town, Kiss Them for Me is a dark comedy that contrasts the officers' selfless heroism with their self-absorbed hedonism while on leave. The film received mostly poor reviews.
After three films released in 1957, Donen became an independent producer and director. He had reluctantly agreed to direct Kiss Them for Me on condition that 20th Century Fox buy out his remaining contract with MGM. Now free from contractual obligations, he formed Grandon Productions with Grant and signed a distribution deal through Warner Brothers. Donen would self-produce nearly all of his films for the rest of his career, sometimes under the name "Stanley Donen Productions". Donen and Grant inaugurated their company with Indiscreet (1958), based on a play by Norman Krasna and starring Grant and Ingrid Bergman. Because of Bergman's schedule, the film was shot on location in London. Bergman plays a famous and reclusive actress who falls in love with the supposedly married playboy-diplomat Grant. When Bergman discovers that he has been lying about having a wife, she concocts a charade with another man in order to win Grant's full affection. A scene in the film involves Donen's clever circumvention of the strict Production Code. In the scene, Grant is in Paris while Bergman is still in London and the two exchange pillow talk over the phone. Donen used a split screen of the two stars with synchronized movements to make it appear as though they were in the same bed together. The film was a financial and critical success, and Donen was compared to such directors as Ernst Lubitsch and George Cukor.
Donen briefly returned to the musical genre with Damn Yankees! (also 1958), based on George Abbott's Broadway hit. He again co-directed with Abbott in the same hands-off collaboration as their first film. Like The Pajama Game the film includes music by Adler and Ross and choreography by Fosse. It starred Tab Hunter, Gwen Verdon, and Ray Walston. Damn Yankees! is an adaptation of the Faust legend about a fan of the Washington Senators who would sell his soul to give the losing team a good hitter. Walston plays the Brooks Brothers-attired Devil who grants the fan his wish and transforms him into the muscular young hitter Joe Hardy (Hunter). Donen was able to shoot three real Senator–Yankee games on location with seven hidden cameras. The low-budget film was a moderate financial success and received good reviews. It was also Donen's last musical film until The Little Prince (1974).
### 1960–1969: United Kingdom
After Indiscreet Donen made England his home until the early 1970s. Musicals' waning popularity caused Donen to focus on comedy films. He observed that his "London base afforded me the advantage of being away from the Hollywood rat race. Just going your own way in spite of whatever anyone else is doing or in spite of what you've done already was satisfying. I also had the advantage of the European influence: their way of looking at life, of making movies." While in the UK in the early 1960s, Donen was praised as an early influence on the then-emerging British New Wave film movement.
In the late 1950s, Donen signed a non-exclusive, three-film deal with Columbia Pictures. His first film under this contract was Once More, with Feeling! (1960). Adapted by Harry Kurnitz from his own stage play, the film was shot in Paris and starred Yul Brynner as a tyrannical orchestra conductor whose mistress (Kay Kendall) grows tired of his tantrums and plots to marry him in order to quickly divorce him for his money. Kendall was terminally ill with leukemia during the shoot and died before its release. The film was not successful financially or critically.
Donen quickly re-teamed with Brynner and Kurnitz for the film Surprise Package (also 1960). In this film Brynner plays an American gangster who is deported to the Greek island of Rhodes. Mitzi Gaynor plays the "surprise package" who is sent to the island to appease Brynner, and Noël Coward plays the King of Rhodes whom Brynner plots to dethrone. The film was not a financial success, and Donen stated that it was made because he "desperately needed money for personal reasons." These were the only two films that Donen completed for his Columbia contract. The studio cancelled the deal after their poor box-office returns, and Donen was unable to produce the projects that he was pursuing at that time: playwright Robert Bolt's A Man for All Seasons and A Patch of Blue, both of which became successful films for other directors.
Grandon Productions produced Donen's next film: The Grass Is Greener, released through Universal Pictures in December 1960. Cary Grant and Deborah Kerr play the earl and countess of a large estate in England who are forced to permit guided tours of their mansion in order to help their financial problems. Robert Mitchum plays an American oil tycoon who falls in love with Kerr and Jean Simmons plays an eccentric American heiress who is Grant's former girlfriend. The film was a financial disappointment in the United States, but was successful in England where the original stage version had been a West End hit.
One of Donen's most praised films was Charade (1963), starring Cary Grant, Audrey Hepburn, Walter Matthau, James Coburn, George Kennedy and Ned Glass. Donen said that he had "always wanted to make a movie like one of my favorites, Hitchcock's North by Northwest" and the film has been referred to as "the best Hitchcock movie that Hitchcock never made." Charade was produced by Stanley Donen Productions, released through Universal and adapted by Peter Stone from his own novel. Reggie Lampert (Hepburn) discovers that her husband has been murdered and (at least) three sinister men are all searching for the \$250,000 in gold that he had hidden somewhere. Peter Joshua (Grant) befriends Reggie and helps her fight off the three thugs while the two begin to fall in love. The film was released in December 1963, only two weeks after the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy, and the word "assassinate" had to be redubbed twice. It was Donen's most financially successful film and influenced a number of romantic comedy-thrillers released in the years following it. Film critic Judith Crist called it a "stylish and amusing melodrama", and Pauline Kael said it had "a freshness and spirit that makes [it] unlike the films of any other country" and was "probably the best American film of [1963]". It was remade as The Truth About Charlie (2002), directed by Jonathan Demme.
Donen made another Hitchcock-inspired film with Arabesque (1966), starring Gregory Peck and Sophia Loren. The film was written by Julian Mitchell and Stanley Price, with an uncredited rewrite by Peter Stone. Peck plays an American professor at Oxford University who is an expert in ancient hieroglyphics. He is approached by a Middle Eastern prime minister to investigate an organization that is attempting to assassinate him and uses hieroglyphic codes to communicate. The investigation leads Peck to one mystery after another, often involving the prime minister's mysterious mistress (Loren). The film was Donen's second consecutive hit.
Donen made Two for the Road (1967), starring Audrey Hepburn and Albert Finney with Eleanor Bron, William Daniels, and Jacqueline Bisset in supporting roles. The film was conceived by Donen and written by novelist Frederic Raphael, who was nominated for an Academy Award. It has been called one of Donen's most personal films, "with glints of passion never disclosed before", and "a veritable textbook on film editing." The film's complicated and non-linear story is about the 12-year relationship between Hepburn and Finney over the course of four separate (but interwoven) road trips that they take together throughout the years in the south of France. It was moderately successful at the box-office while the critical reception was extremely mixed. Bosley Crowther called the film "just another version of commercial American trash." It is also the film that Donen said he was most frequently asked about by film students.
While living in England, Donen became an admirer of the British stage revue Beyond the Fringe and wished to work with two of the show's participants, Peter Cook and Dudley Moore. The resulting film was Bedazzled (1967), an updated version of the Faust legend. It was written by Cook with music by Moore, and also starred Eleanor Bron and Raquel Welch. Moore plays a lonely young man whose unrequited love of his co-worker (Bron) drives him to attempt suicide. Just then the devil (Cook) appears and offers him seven wishes in exchange for his soul. The film's fun-loving association with the Swinging London of the 1960s divided critics, but Roger Ebert called its satire "barbed and contemporary ... dry and understated", and overall, a "magnificently photographed, intelligent, very funny film." On the other hand, Time magazine called it the feeblest of all known variations on the Faust theme. The film was a hit and was especially popular among American college students. Donen considered it a favorite among his own films and called it "a very personal film in that I said a great deal about what I think is important in life." It was remade as Bedazzled (2000) by director Harold Ramis.
Staircase (1969) is Donen's adaptation of the autobiographical stage play by Charles Dyer with music by Dudley Moore. Rex Harrison and Richard Burton star as a middle-aged gay couple who run a London barber shop and live together in a "bad marriage". The film was shot in Paris for tax purposes and was not a financial success. It received poor reviews upon release, but was re-evaluated by film critic Armond White in 2007. He called the film "a rare Hollywood movie to depict gay experience with wisdom, humor and warmth", and "a lost treasure".
### 1970–2003: Later works
After Donen's marriage to Adelle Beatty ended, he moved back to Hollywood in 1970. Producer Robert Evans asked Donen to direct an adaptation of the beloved children's book The Little Prince first published in 1943. Lyricist Alan Jay Lerner and composer Frederick Loewe wrote the music and screenplay and filming was done on location in Tunisia. The Little Prince (1974) stars Steven Warner in the title role, with Richard Kiley, Bob Fosse, Gene Wilder and Donna McKechnie. It was Donen's first musical film since Damn Yankees! Although it contained very little dancing, Fosse choreographed his own dance scenes as the snake. Lerner stated that Donen "took it upon himself to change every tempo, delete musical phrases at will and distort the intention of every song until the entire score was unrecognizable". It was released in 1974 and was a financial disaster.
Donen's next film was Lucky Lady (1975), starring Liza Minnelli, Gene Hackman and Burt Reynolds. Minnelli plays a Prohibition era bootlegger who smuggles alcohol from Mexico to California with the help of Hackman and Reynolds, who both compete for her affection. Donen stated that he "really cared about [the film] and gave three years of my life to it ... I think it's a very good movie." It went over budget and was unsuccessful at the box office. Most critics were unenthusiastic; however, Jay Cocks praised the film for having "the glistening surface and full-throttle frivolity that characterized Hollywood films in the 1930s."
Nostalgia for old Hollywood movies would be a theme of Donen's next film: Movie Movie (1978), produced by Lew Grade's ITC Entertainment and scripted by Larry Gelbart and Sheldon Keller. The film is actually two shorter films presented as an old fashioned double feature, complete with a fake movie trailer and an introduction by comedian George Burns. It starred George C. Scott, Trish Van Devere, Red Buttons, Michael Kidd and Eli Wallach and premiered in competition at the 29th Berlin International Film Festival in 1978. The first of the two films is Dynamite Hands, a black and white tribute to boxing – morality films. The second film is Baxter's Beauties of 1933, a tribute to the extravagant musicals of Busby Berkeley. Like Donen's previous two films, it was unsuccessful financially, although the reviews were more positive. In The New York Times, Vincent Canby called the film "Hollywood flimflamming at its elegant best."
Donen made the science fiction film Saturn 3 (1980), starring Kirk Douglas, Farrah Fawcett and Harvey Keitel. Donen first read the script when its writer (and Movie Movie's set designer) John Barry showed it to him, prompting Donen to pass it along to Lew Grade. Donen was initially hired to produce, but Grade asked him to complete the film when first-time director Barry was unable to direct. According to Donen "only a tiny bit of what Barry shot ended up in the finished film." It was a critical and financial disaster and initially Donen did not want to be credited as director. In the early 1980s, Donen was attached to direct an adaptation of Stephen King's The Dead Zone and worked with writer Jeffrey Boam on the script. Donen eventually dropped out of the project and David Cronenberg directed the film a few years later. Boam stated that Donen was initially attracted to making the film because he wanted to "connect with contemporary youthful audiences" and that the script that they worked on together was "very close to the script that David wound up making."
Donen's last theatrical film was the May – December romance Blame It on Rio (1984). The film is a remake of the Claude Berri film Un moment d'égarement (1977) and was written by Gelbart and Charlie Peters. It stars Michael Caine, Joseph Bologna, Michelle Johnson, Valerie Harper and Demi Moore and was shot on location in Rio de Janeiro. Caine and Bologna play wealthy executives on vacation with their families in Rio, where Caine has an affair with Bologna's teenage daughter (Johnson). It received poor reviews, but was a modest success financially.
In 1986, Donen produced the televised ceremony of the 58th Academy Awards, which included a musical performance of the song "Once a Star, Always a Star" with June Allyson, Leslie Caron, Marge Champion, Cyd Charisse, Kathryn Grayson, Howard Keel, Ann Miller, Jane Powell, Debbie Reynolds, and Esther Williams. Also in 1986 Donen directed a musical sequence for an episode of the popular TV series Moonlighting and directed the music video for Lionel Richie's song "Dancing on the Ceiling", which employed the same rotating-room filming techniques that he used in "You're All the World to Me" from Royal Wedding. In 1989 Donen was awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Fine Arts from the University of South Carolina. In his commencement address, Donen stated that he thought he was unique in being the first tap dancer to be a doctor and then tap danced for the graduates. At around the same time Donen taught a seminar on film musicals at the Sundance Institute at the request of Robert Redford.
In 1993, Donen was preparing to produce and direct a movie musical adaptation of Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde starring Michael Jackson. After allegations that Jackson had molested young boys at his Neverland Ranch became a tabloid scandal, the project was abandoned. Later that year Donen directed the stage musical The Red Shoes (based on the Powell and Pressburger film) at the Gershwin Theatre. He replaced the original director Susan Schulman just six weeks before the show opened. It closed after four days.
Donen's last film was the television movie Love Letters, which aired on ABC in April 1999. The film starred Steven Weber and Laura Linney and was based on the play by A. R. Gurney. Weber plays a successful U.S. Senator who finds out that his long lost love (Linney) has recently died. The two had only corresponded through mail over the years, and Weber remembers Linney through his collection of old love letters. Donen had wanted to make a theatrical film version of the play, but was unable to secure financing from any major studio and instead took the project to ABC. In 2002 Donen directed Elaine May's musical play Adult Entertainment starring Danny Aiello and Jeannie Berlin in Stamford, Connecticut. In 2004 he was awarded the Career Golden Lion at the 61st Venice International Film Festival.
## Technical innovation
### Style
Donen is credited with having made the transition of Hollywood musical films from realistic backstage dramas to a more integrated art form in which the songs were a natural continuation of the story. Before Donen and Kelly made their films, musicals – such as the extravagant and stylized work of Busby Berkeley – were often set in a Broadway stage environment where the musical numbers were part of a stage show. Donen and Kelly's films created a more cinematic form and included dances that could only be achieved in the film medium. Donen stated that what he was doing was a "direct continuation from the Astaire – Rogers musicals ... which in turn came from René Clair and from Lubitsch ... What we did was not geared towards realism but towards the unreal."
Donen is highly respected by film historians, but his career is often compared to Kelly's, and there is debate over who deserves more credit for their collaborations. Their relationship was complicated, both professionally and personally, but Donen's films as a solo director are generally better regarded by critics than Kelly's. French film critic Jean-Pierre Coursodon has said that Donen's contribution to the evolution of the Hollywood musical "outshines anybody else's, including Vincente Minnelli's". David Quinlan called him "the King of the Hollywood musicals".
### Cine-dance
Donen made a host of critically acclaimed and popular films. His most important contribution to the art of film was helping to transition movie musicals from the realistic backstage settings of filmed theater to a more cinematic form that integrates film with dance. Eventually film scholars named this concept "cine-dance" (a dance that can only be created in the medium of film), and its origins are in the Donen/Kelly films. Film scholar Casey Charness described "cine-dance" as "a melding of the distinctive strengths of dancing and filmmaking that had never been done before" and adds that Donen and Kelly "seem to have elevated Hollywood dance from simplistic display of either dancing or photographic ability into a perception that incorporates both what the dancer can do and what the camera can see ... [They] developed a balance between camera and dancer that ... encouraged both photographer and choreographer to contribute significantly to the creation and final effectiveness of dance."
When "talkies" began to gain momentum in the film industry, the Hollywood studios recruited the best talent from Broadway to make musical films, such as Broadway Melody and Berkley's 42nd Street. These films established the backstage musical, a subgenre in which the plot revolves around a stage show and the people involved in putting it on. They set the standard for the musical genre, placing their musical numbers either within the context of a stage performance or tacked on and gratuitous, without furthering the story or developing the characters. Donen stated that he disliked them and that his own films were "a reaction against those backstage musicals." Donen credited producer Freed as the driving force behind the transition, adding that Freed "had some sort of instinct to change the musical from a backstage world into something else. He didn't quite know what to change it into, just that it had to change." Kelly stated that Donen was the only person he knew that understood how musicals could progress and better suit the film medium.
### Techniques
Donen and Kelly's films set new standards for special effects, animation, editing and cinematography. Their first collaboration Cover Girl firmly established their intentions, particularly in the "Alter Ego" dance sequence. It employed a special effect that could not be achieved with a live take, while advancing the story and revealing the character's inner conflict. Donen and Kelly tested the limits of film's potential with the Jerry the Mouse dance in Anchors Aweigh, one of the first films where a live action character dances with an animated one.
By the time they made Take Me Out to the Ball Game they had perfected what Martin Rubin called an "indication of changing trends in musical films" which differed from the Berkeley spectacles towards "relatively small-scale affairs that place the major emphasis on comedy, transitions to the narrative, the cleverness of the lyrics and the personalities and performance skills of the stars, rather than on spectacle and group dynamics." Rubin credits Donen and Kelly with making musicals more realistic, compared to Berkeley's style of a "separation of narrative space from performance space" Take Me Out to the Ball Game was Berkeley's last film as a director and today can be viewed as a passing of the torch. Both Donen and Kelly found working with Berkeley difficult, and the director left before the film's completion.
When Donen and Kelly released On the Town, they boldly opened the film with an extravagant musical number shot on location in New York with fast-paced editing and experimental camera work, thus breaking from the conventions of that time. Their most celebrated film Singin' in the Rain is appropriately a musical about the birth of the movie musical. The film includes a musical montage which Donen said was "doing Busby Berkeley here, only we're making fun of him." Charness stated that Singin' in the Rains references to Berkeley "marks the first time the Hollywood musical had ever been reflexive, and amused at its own extravagant non-dancing inadequacy, at that" and that Berekeley's "overhead kaleidoscope floral pattern is predominantly featured, as is the line of tap-dancing chorines, who are seen only from the knees down." Charness also stated that the film's cinematography "moves the audience perspective along with the dance."
Charness singled out the film's famous title number and states, "it's a very kinetic moment, for though there is no technically accomplished dance present, the feeling of swinging around in a circle with an open umbrella is a brilliantly apt choice of movement, one that will be readily identifiable by an audience which might know nothing kinesthetically of actual dance ... Accompanying this movement is a breathless pullback into a high crane shot that takes place at the same time Kelly is swinging into his widest arcs with the umbrella. The effect is dizzying. Perhaps the finest single example of the application of camera know-how to a dance moment in Donen-Kelly canon." He also complimented Donen's direction in the "Moses Supposes" number, including "certain camera techniques which Donen had by now formularized ... the dolly shot into medium shot to signify the ending of one shot and the beginning of another." Although Donen credits earlier musicals by René Clair, Lubitsch and Astaire as "integrated", he also states that "in the early musicals of Lubitsch and Clair, they made it clear from the beginning that their characters were going to sing operatically. Gene and I didn't go that far. In 'Moses Supposes', he and Donald sort of talk themselves into a song." Donen's Royal Wedding and Give A Girl A Break continued to use special effect shots to create elaborate dance sequences.
## Relationship with Gene Kelly
Donen's relationship with Gene Kelly was complicated and he often spoke bitterly about his former friend and mentor decades after they worked together. Kelly was never explicitly negative about Donen in later years. However, Silverman has asserted that Kelly's comments were often condescending and demonstrated "a long-standing attempt to diminish Donen's contributions to their collective work." The reasons for their conflict were both personal (both men married dancer Jeanne Coyne) and professional (Donen always felt that Kelly did not treat him as an equal). They disagreed over who deserved more credit for their joint projects: three films as co-directors and four as co-choreographers.
### Jeanne Coyne
At age 7 Coyne enrolled in the Gene Kelly Studio of Dance in Johnstown, Pennsylvania and developed a schoolgirl crush on him In her twenties she was cast in Best Foot Forward, where she reconnected with Kelly and first met Donen, later moving to Hollywood with them. She and Donen eloped in 1948, but their marriage became strained. They separated in 1950 and divorced in 1951. During their marriage Donen confided to Coyne his frustration with Kelly while making On the Town, only to find that she immediately took Kelly's side. Coyne worked as Kelly's personal assistant on several films while married to Donen and continued assisting Kelly until her death. Rumors held that Kelly and Coyne were having an affair both during and after Coyne's marriage to Donen, as well as that Donen was in love with Kelly's first wife Betsy Blair. Blair's autobiography makes no mention of an affair between Kelly and Coyne nor of any romantic relationship with Donen. However, she does state that Donen's marriage to Coyne was unhappy and that Donen was very close to both her and Kelly.
Kelly said that Donen's impulsive marriage to Coyne showed an emotional immaturity and lack of good judgment, and stated that "Jeannie's marriage to Stanley was doomed from the start. Because every time Stanley looked at Jeannie, he saw Betsy, whom he loved; and every time Jeannie looked at Stanley, I guess she saw me. One way or another it was all pretty incestuous." Kelly's marriage to Blair ended in 1957, after which he moved in with Coyne. They married in 1960 and had two children together. Coyne died of leukemia in 1973. In November 2012 the musical What a Glorious Feeling depicted both the making of Singin' in the Rain and the love triangle among Donen, Kelly and Coyne.
### Professional conflict
Donen and Kelly's relationship has been described as similar to that of the characters Don Lockwood and Cosmo Brown in Singin' in the Rain, with Kelly as the star performer and Donen as his trusted sidekick. Kelly described Donen as being like a son to him and Donen initially idolized Kelly while finding him "cold, egotistical and very rough." Although Donen credited Kelly for "jump-starting his career as a filmmaker", he said that MGM producer Roger Edens was his biggest promoter.
Many people believe that Donen owed everything to Kelly, and Kelly biographer Clive Hirschhorn described Donen as having "no particular identity or evident talent ... and was just a kid from the south who wanted to make it in show business." Donen stated that he moved to Hollywood of his own accord; other sources state that he followed Kelly, who then helped him get his first job. Kelly sometimes embarrassed and patronized Donen in public, such as berating him for not being able to keep up with his dance steps during the rehearsals for Cover Girl. Donen admitted that he did not consider himself to be a great performer. Despite Donen's growing resentment of Kelly, he was able to contain his feelings and professional attitude during their collaborations. Tensions between the two exploded on the set of It's Always Fair Weather. After Donen's recent hits Deep in My Heart and Seven Brides for Seven Brothers he did not want to make another film with Kelly. They fought on the set for the first time, with the now more confident Donen asserting himself. Donen almost quit the film, and his friendship with Kelly ended.
Other tensions included Donen's hit films as compared to Vincente Minnelli's Brigadoon (which Kelly was closely involved in and had wanted to direct) and Kelly's own ambitious film Invitation to the Dance, both of which were financially unsuccessful. During the shooting of Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, Donen often complained about his budgetary constraints, while Brigadoon had a much larger budget. Around this time Kelly's attempts at dramatic acting with The Devil Makes Three (1952) and Seagulls Over Sorrento (1954) flopped, and his marriage to Betsy Blair was coming to an end.
In later years, Donen would state that he had nothing nice to say about Kelly. At a 1991 tribute to Comden and Green, Kelly said in a public speech that Donen "needed [him] to grow up with" but added "I needed Stanley at the back of the camera." He also described Donen as being thought of as his whipping-boy at MGM. Although Donen often complained that Kelly never gave him enough credit for their work, Kelly did credit him for the Jerry the Mouse and "Alter Ego" dance sequences. In 1992 Donen said "I'm grateful to him, but I paid back the debt, ten times over. And he got his money's worth out of me." Betsy Blair claimed to be "surprised and bemused" about Donen's bitterness towards Kelly.
### Directorial careers
The relative importance of the two men's contributions has been debated by critics. David Thomson wrote about "the problem in assessing [Donen's] career: who did what in their collaboration? And what is Donen's real standing as a director?" Thomson remarked that "nothing in his career suggests that Gene Kelly could have filmed himself singing in the rain with the exhilaration of Donen's retreating crane shot." However set reports state that Kelly rode the camera boom between shots and during camera set-ups. Donen stated that "by the time you hash it through from beginning to end ten million times, you can't remember who did what except in a few instances where you remember getting an idea." Composer Saul Chaplin said that "Gene was the prime mover and Stanley an eager and talented pupil." During the shooting of On the Town, all memos and correspondence from MGM to the production were addressed exclusively to Donen and not to Kelly.
However, actress Kathleen Freeman stated that when people visited the set of Singin' in the Rain to relate their experiences during the silent era, they would ask to speak with Kelly. Singin' in the Rain art director Randall Duell stated, "Gene ran the show. Stan had some good ideas and worked with Gene, but he was still the 'office boy' to Gene, in a sense, although Gene had great respect for him." Kelly became more involved with the Singin' in the Rain script during its third draft, which was when its structure began to resemble the final version. Comparing Donen and Kelly's films as solo directors, Donen's were usually more critically acclaimed and financially successful than Kelly's films. Kelly's film Hello, Dolly! (1969) is credited with effectively killing the Hollywood musical.
## Personal life
Donen married and divorced five times and had three children. His first wife was dancer, choreographer and actress Jeanne Coyne. They married on April 14, 1948, and divorced in May 1951. Donen's second wife was actress Marion Marshall, who had been the girlfriend and protégé of Howard Hawks and later married actor Robert Wagner. Donen and Marshall had two sons together: Peter Donen (1953–2003) and Joshua Donen, born in 1955. The boys' first names put together provided the name for Cary Grant's character in the 1963 movie Charade. Donen and Marshall were married from 1952 to 1959. They had a lengthy custody battle over their sons after Marshall married Wagner and Donen moved to England. Donen's third wife was Adelle, Countess Beatty. She had previously been the second wife of the 2nd Earl Beatty. They married in 1960, had one son (Mark Donen, born 1962), and lived together in London. They separated in 1969 and divorced in 1971. Donen's fourth wife was American actress Yvette Mimieux. They were married from 1972 to 1985, but remained close friends after their divorce. Donen's fifth wife was Pamela Braden, 36 years his junior. Donen proposed to her four days after having met her. They were married from 1990 to 1994.
In the early 1940s, Donen dated actress Judy Holliday while working on Broadway. He also dated Elizabeth Taylor for a year between his first and second marriages. In his final years Donen's longtime companion was writer and director Elaine May, whom he dated from 1999 until his death and claimed to have proposed marriage to "about 172 times."
Donen's eldest son, Peter Donen, was a visual effects artist who worked on such films as Superman III, Spaceballs, The Bourne Identity, and The Truth About Charlie. He also designed the title credits for Blame It on Rio. He died of a heart attack in 2003 at age 50. Donen's second son, Joshua Donen, is a film producer who worked on such films as The Quick and the Dead and Gone Girl. Mark Donen, Stanley's third son, worked as a production assistant on Blame It on Rio.
In 1959, Donen's father, Mordecai, died at 59 in Beaufort, South Carolina. His mother, Helen, died in 1989 at 84 in South Carolina, and Donen delivered the eulogy at her funeral.
With the deaths in the 2000s of Billy Wilder, George Sidney, Elia Kazan, Robert Wise, and Jules Dassin, Donen became the last surviving notable film director of Hollywood's Golden Age. In his final years he occasionally appeared at film festivals and retrospectives and continued to develop ideas for film projects. He was the subject of the 2010 documentary Stanley Donen: You Just Do It.
In December 2013 it was announced that Donen was in pre-production for a new film co-written with Elaine May, to be produced by Mike Nichols. A table reading of the script for potential investors included such actors as Christopher Walken, Charles Grodin, Ron Rifkin and Jeannie Berlin. In celebration of Donen's 90th birthday in 2014, a retrospective of his work, "A Lotta Talent and a Little Luck: A Celebration of Stanley Donen", was held from July to August in Columbia, South Carolina. It included a tour of Donen's childhood neighborhood, a lecture by Steven Silverman and film screenings at the Nickelodeon movie theater Donen frequented as a child.
On February 21, 2019, Donen died at age 94 from heart failure in New York City, two months short of his 95th birthday. In addition to May, he is survived by two sons and a sister.
## Filmography
Selected filmography'''
## Honors and legacy
During his career Donen's biggest rival was Vincente Minnelli, to whom he is often compared. Like Donen, Minnelli was a contract director at MGM known for the musicals he made for the Freed Unit. According to Donen's biographer Stephen M. Silverman, critics tend to "express a distinct preference for Donen's bold, no-nonsense style of direction over Minnelli's Impressionist visual palette and Expressionist character motivations", while most film directors are said to prefer Minnelli's work. Michael Kidd, who worked with both directors early in his career, describes Minnelli as being much less open to collaborative suggestions than Donen. The two directors' camera work differs in that Minnelli often used forward and backwards tracking shots while Donen preferred horizontal tracking shots and crane shots. Silverman said film critics consider Donen's approach to be better suited for dance sequences.
In 1998, Donen was chosen to receive the Honorary Academy Award at the 70th Academy Awards "in appreciation of a body of work marked by grace, elegance, wit and visual innovation." Film director Martin Scorsese was chosen to present the award to Donen. Scorsese gave tribute to Donen speaking about his career and his impact on film before playing a montage of his work in the movies from Singin' in the Rain, and Funny Face, to On the Town and Charade. In Donen's acceptance speech he danced with his Oscar statue while singing Irving Berlin's "Cheek to Cheek", a song first popularized by his boyhood idol Fred Astaire.
David Thomson dismisses most of his later comedy films, but praises him for leading "the musical in a triumphant and personal direction: out of doors ... Not even Minnelli can rival the fresh-air excitement of such sequences. And few can equal his integration of song, dance and story." Andrew Sarris dismisses Donen as being without a personal style of his own and as being dependent upon his collaborators on his better films. Debbie Reynolds downplayed his contributions to Singin' in the Rain, stating that "Stanley just operated the camera, because Stanley didn't dance."
Among Donen's admirers are film directors Woody Allen, Pedro Almodóvar, Lindsay Anderson, Charlie Chaplin, Damien Chazelle, Jules Dassin, Guillermo del Toro William Friedkin, Jean-Luc Godard, Stanley Kubrick, Christopher McQuarrie, Karel Reisz, Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, François Truffaut, and Edgar Wright. Donen's skill as a director has been praised by such actors as Cyd Charisse, Mitzi Gaynor and Audrey Hepburn. Donen's work influenced later directors of film musicals Bill Condon, Rob Marshall, and Baz Luhrmann The 2011 film The Artist pays tribute to Singin' in the Rain (among other films), and Donen praised the film after attending its Los Angeles premiere.
Singin' in the Rain is Donen's most revered film and it was included in the first group of films to be inducted into the National Film Registry at the Library of Congress in 1989 and has been included on Sight & Sound'''s prestigious list of "Top Ten Films" twice, in 1982 and in 2002. Chaplin and Truffaut were among its earliest admirers. Billy Wilder called the film "one of the five greatest pictures ever made."
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National Football League
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Professional American football league
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"1920 establishments in Ohio",
"501(c)(6) nonprofit organizations",
"Cooperatives in the United States",
"National Football League",
"Organizations based in New York City",
"Sports leagues established in 1920"
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The National Football League (NFL) is a professional American football league that consists of 32 teams, divided equally between the American Football Conference (AFC) and the National Football Conference (NFC). The NFL is one of the major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada and the highest professional level of American football in the world. The league is headquartered in New York City.
Each NFL season begins with a three-week preseason in August, followed by the 18-week regular season which runs from early September to early January, with each team playing 17 games and having one bye week. Following the conclusion of the regular season, seven teams from each conference (four division winners and three wild card teams) advance to the playoffs, a single-elimination tournament that culminates in the Super Bowl, which is contested in February and is played between the AFC and NFC conference champions.
The NFL was formed in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association (APFA) before renaming itself the National Football League for the 1922 season. After initially determining champions through end-of-season standings, a playoff system was implemented in 1933 that culminated with the NFL Championship Game until 1966. Following an agreement to merge the NFL with the rival American Football League (AFL), the Super Bowl was first held in 1967 to determine a champion between the best teams from the two leagues and has remained as the final game of each NFL season since the merger was completed in 1970.
The NFL is the wealthiest professional sports league in the world by revenue and the sports league with the most valuable teams. The NFL also has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and is the most popular sports league in the United States. The Super Bowl is also among the biggest club sporting events in the world, with the individual games accounting for many of the most watched television programs in American history and all occupying the Nielsen's Top 5 tally of the all-time most watched U.S. television broadcasts by 2015.
The Green Bay Packers hold the most combined NFL championships with thirteen, winning nine titles before the Super Bowl era and four Super Bowls afterwards. Since the creation of the Super Bowl, the New England Patriots and Pittsburgh Steelers are tied for the most Super Bowl victories at six each. The reigning league champions are the Kansas City Chiefs, who defeated the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl LVII.
## History
### Founding and history
On August 20, 1920, a meeting was held by representatives of the Akron Pros, Canton Bulldogs, Cleveland Indians, and Dayton Triangles at the Jordan and Hupmobile auto showroom in Canton, Ohio. This meeting resulted in the formation of the American Professional Football Conference (APFC), a group who, according to the Canton Evening Repository, intended to "raise the standard of professional football in every way possible, to eliminate bidding for players between rival clubs and to secure cooperation in the formation of schedules".
Another meeting was held on September 17, 1920, with representatives from teams from four states: Akron, Canton, Cleveland, and Dayton from Ohio; the Hammond Pros and Muncie Flyers from Indiana; the Rochester Jeffersons from New York; and the Rock Island Independents, Decatur Staleys, and Racine (Chicago) Cardinals from Illinois. The league was renamed to the American Professional Football Association (APFA). The league elected Jim Thorpe as its first president, and consisted of 14 teams (the Buffalo All-Americans, Chicago Tigers, Columbus Panhandles and Detroit Heralds joined the league during the year). The Massillon Tigers from Massillon, Ohio was also at the September 17 meeting, but did not field a team in 1920. Only two of these teams, the Decatur Staleys (now the Chicago Bears) and the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals), remain in the NFL.
Although the league did not maintain official standings for its 1920 inaugural season and teams played schedules that included non-league opponents, the APFA awarded the Akron Pros the championship by virtue of their record. The first event occurred on September 26, 1920, when the Rock Island Independents defeated the non-league St. Paul Ideals 48–0 at Douglas Park. On October 3, 1920, the first full week of league play occurred. The following season resulted in the Chicago Staleys controversially winning the title over the Buffalo All-Americans. On June 24, 1922, the APFA changed its name to the National Football League (NFL).
In 1932, the season ended with the Chicago Bears () and the Portsmouth Spartans () tied for first in the league standings. At the time, teams were ranked on a single table and the team with the highest winning percentage (not including ties, which were not counted towards the standings) at the end of the season was declared the champion; the only tiebreaker was that in the event of a tie if two teams played twice in a season, the result of the second game determined the title (the source of the 1921 controversy). This method had been used since the league's creation in 1920, but no situation had been encountered where two teams were tied for first. The league quickly determined that a playoff game between Chicago and Portsmouth was needed to decide the league's champion. The teams were originally scheduled to play the playoff game, officially a regular-season game that would count towards the regular season standings, at Wrigley Field in Chicago, but a combination of heavy snow and extreme cold forced the game to be moved indoors to Chicago Stadium, which did not have a regulation-size football field. Playing with altered rules to accommodate the smaller playing field, the Bears won the game 9–0 and thus won the championship. Fan interest in the de facto championship game led the NFL, beginning in 1933, to split into two divisions with a championship game to be played between the division champions. The 1934 season also marked the first of twelve seasons in which African Americans were absent from the league. The de facto ban was rescinded in 1946, following public pressure and coinciding with the removal of a similar ban in Major League Baseball.
The NFL was always the largest professional football league in the United States; it nevertheless faced numerous rival professional leagues through the 1930s and 1940s. Rival leagues included at least three separate American Football Leagues and the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), on top of various regional leagues of varying caliber. Three NFL teams trace their histories to these rival leagues; the Los Angeles Rams who came from a 1936 iteration of the American Football League, and the Cleveland Browns and San Francisco 49ers, both from the AAFC. By the 1950s, the NFL had an effective monopoly on professional football in the United States; its only competition in North America was the professional Canadian football circuit, which formally became the Canadian Football League (CFL) in 1958. With Canadian football being a different football code than the American game, the CFL established a niche market in Canada and still survives as an independent league.
A new professional league, the fourth American Football League (AFL), began to play in 1960. The upstart AFL began to challenge the established NFL in popularity, gaining lucrative television contracts and engaging in a bidding war with the NFL for free agents and draft picks. The two leagues announced a merger on June 8, 1966, to take full effect in 1970. In the meantime, the leagues would hold a common draft and championship game. The game, the Super Bowl, was held four times before the merger, with the NFL winning Super Bowl I and Super Bowl II, and the AFL winning Super Bowl III and Super Bowl IV. After the league merged, it was reorganized into two conferences: the National Football Conference (NFC), consisting of most of the pre-merger NFL teams, and the American Football Conference (AFC), consisting of all of the AFL teams as well as three pre-merger NFL teams.
Today, the NFL is the most popular sports league in North America – with much of the league's growth and popularity attributable to former Commissioner Pete Rozelle, who led the league from 1960 to 1989. Overall annual attendance increased from 3 million at the beginning of his tenure to 17 million by the end of his tenure, and 400 million global viewers watched 1989's Super Bowl XXIII. The NFL established NFL Properties in 1963. The league's licensing wing, NFL Properties, earns the league billions of dollars annually; Rozelle's tenure also marked the creation of NFL Charities and a national partnership with United Way. Paul Tagliabue was elected as commissioner to succeed Rozelle; his 17-year tenure, which ended in 2006, was marked by large increases in television contracts and the addition of four expansion teams, as well as the introduction of league initiatives to increase the number of minorities in league and team management roles. The league's current Commissioner, Roger Goodell, has focused on reducing the number of illegal hits and making the sport safer, mainly through fining or suspending players who break rules. These actions are among many the NFL is taking to reduce concussions and improve player safety. Prior to 2021, the NFL had utilized race-based adjustments of dementia claims in the \$1 billion settlement of concussion claims, which had been criticized by critics before the NFL decided to end what was called "race-norming".
### Season and playoff development
From 1920 to 1934, the NFL did not have a set number of games for teams to play, instead setting a minimum. The league mandated a twelve-game regular season for each team beginning in 1935, later shortening this to eleven games in 1937 and ten games in 1943, mainly due to World War II. After the war ended, the number of games returned to eleven games in 1946, and later back to twelve in 1947. The NFL went to a 14-game schedule in 1961, which it retained until switching to a 16-game schedule in 1978. In March 2021, the NFL officially adopted a 17-game schedule after gaining the agreement of the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA).
Having an odd number of games in the schedule will give half the teams nine games as the home team, while half the teams have only eight home games. To minimize the perceived benefit on competition of having more home games, the extra home game will be rotated between the two conferences each year. This is because playoff berths are allocated at the conference level, so all teams within the conference will have played the same number of home games.
The NFL operated in a two-conference system from 1933 to 1966, where the champions of each conference would meet in the NFL Championship Game. If two teams tied for the conference lead, they would meet in a one-game playoff to determine the conference champion. In 1967, the NFL expanded from 15 teams to 16 teams. Instead of just evening out the conferences by adding the expansion New Orleans Saints to the seven-member Western Conference, the NFL realigned the conferences and split each into two four-team divisions. The four division champions would meet in the NFL playoffs, a two-round playoff. The NFL also operated the Playoff Bowl (officially the Bert Bell Benefit Bowl) from 1960 to 1969. Effectively, a third-place game, pitting the two conference runners-up against each other, the league considers Playoff Bowls to have been exhibitions rather than playoff games. The league discontinued the Playoff Bowl in 1970 due to its perception as a game for losers.
Following the addition of the former AFL teams into the NFL in 1970, the NFL split into two conferences with three divisions each. The expanded league, now with twenty-six teams, would also feature an expanded eight-team playoff, the participants being the three division champions from each conference as well as one 'wild card' team (the team with the best win percentage that did not win its division) from each conference. In 1978, the league added a second wild card team from each conference, bringing the total number of playoff teams to ten, and a further two wild card teams were added in 1990 to bring the total to twelve. When the NFL expanded to 32 teams in 2002, the league realigned, changing the division structure from three divisions in each conference to four divisions in each conference. As each division champion gets a playoff bid, the number of wild card teams from each conference dropped from three to two. The playoffs expanded again in 2020, adding two more wild card teams to bring the total to 14 playoff teams.
## Corporate structure
At the corporate level, the National Football League considers itself a trade association made up of and financed by its 32 member teams. Up until 2015, the league was an unincorporated nonprofit 501(c)(6) association. Section 501(c)(6) of the Internal Revenue Code provides an exemption from federal income taxation for "Business leagues, chambers of commerce, real-estate boards, boards of trade, or professional football leagues (whether or not administering a pension fund for football players), not organized for profit and no part of the net earnings of which inures to the benefit of any private shareholder or individual." In contrast, each individual team, with the exception of the non-profit Green Bay Packers, is subject to tax because they make a profit.
In 2015, the NFL gave up its tax-exempt status following public criticism; in a letter to the club owners, Commissioner Roger Goodell labeled it a "distraction", saying "the effects of the tax-exempt status of the league office have been mischaracterized repeatedly in recent years... Every dollar of income generated through television rights fees, licensing agreements, sponsorships, ticket sales, and other means is earned by the 32 clubs and is taxable there. This will remain the case even when the league office and Management Council file returns as taxable entities, and the change in filing status will make no material difference to our business." As a result, the league office might owe around US\$10 million in income taxes, but it is no longer required to disclose the salaries of its executive officers.
The league has three defined officers: the commissioner, secretary, and treasurer. Each conference has one defined officer, the president, which is essentially an honorary position with few powers and mostly ceremonial duties, including awarding the conference championship trophy.
The commissioner is elected by the affirmative vote of two-thirds or eighteen (whichever is greater) of the members of the league, while the president of each conference is elected by an affirmative vote of three-fourths or 10 of the conference members. The commissioner appoints the secretary and treasurer and has broad authority in disputes between clubs, players, coaches, and employees. He is the "principal executive officer" of the NFL and also has authority in hiring league employees, negotiating television contracts, disciplining individuals that own part or all of an NFL team, clubs, or employed individuals of an NFL club if they have violated league by-laws or committed "conduct detrimental to the welfare of the League or professional football". The commissioner can, in the event of misconduct by a party associated with the league, suspend individuals, hand down a fine of up to US\$500,000, cancel contracts with the league, and award or strip teams of draft picks.
In extreme cases, the commissioner can offer recommendations to the NFL's executive committee, up to and including the "cancellation or forfeiture" of a club's franchise or any other action, he deems necessary. The commissioner can also issue sanctions up to and including a lifetime ban from the league if an individual connected to the NFL has bet on games or failed to notify the league of conspiracies or plans to bet on or fix games. The current Commissioner of the National Football League is Roger Goodell, who was elected in 2006 after Paul Tagliabue, the previous commissioner, retired.
## Teams
The NFL consists of 32 clubs divided into two conferences of 16 teams each. Each conference is divided into four divisions of four clubs each. During the regular season, each team is allowed a maximum of 55 players on its roster; only 48 of these may be active (eligible to play) on game days. Each team can also have a sixteen-player practice squad separate from its main roster.
Each NFL club is granted a franchise, the league's authorization for the team to operate in its home city. This franchise covers 'Home Territory' (the 75 miles surrounding the city limits, or, if the team is within 100 miles of another league city, half the distance between the two cities) and 'Home Marketing Area' (Home Territory plus the rest of the state the club operates in, as well as the area the team operates its training camp in for the duration of the camp). Each NFL member has the exclusive right to host professional football games inside its Home Territory and the exclusive right to advertise, promote, and host events in its Home Marketing Area. There are a couple of exceptions to this rule, mostly relating to teams with close proximity to each other: teams that operate in the same city (e.g. New York City and Los Angeles) or the same state (e.g. California, Florida, and Texas) share the rights to the city's Home Territory and the state's Home Marketing Area, respectively.
Every NFL team is based in the contiguous United States. Although no team is based in a foreign country, the Jacksonville Jaguars began playing one home game a year at Wembley Stadium in London, England, in 2013 as part of the NFL International Series. The Jaguars' agreement with Wembley was originally set to expire in 2016 but was extended through 2020 prior to travel restrictions relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Las Vegas Raiders (then in Oakland) played one game each in the 2018 and 2019 seasons in London, while each of the Los Angeles teams (Rams, Chargers) played a game there from 2016 to 2019.
The Buffalo Bills played one home game every season at Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, as part of the Bills Toronto Series from to . Mexico also hosted an NFL regular-season game, a 2005 game between the San Francisco 49ers and Arizona Cardinals known as "Fútbol Americano", and 39 international preseason games were played from 1986 to 2005 as part of the American Bowl series. Three additional games have since been played in Mexico.
According to Forbes, the Dallas Cowboys, at approximately US\$8 billion, are the most valuable NFL franchise and the most valuable sports team in the world. Also, 26 of the 32 NFL teams rank among the Top 50 most valuable sports teams in the world; and 16 of the NFL's owners are listed on the Forbes 400, the most of any sports league or organization.
The 32 teams are organized into eight geographic divisions of four teams each. These divisions are further organized into two conferences, the National Football Conference and the American Football Conference. The two-conference structure has its origins in a time when major American professional football was organized into two independent leagues, the National Football League and its younger rival, the American Football League. The leagues merged 1970, adopting the older league's name and reorganizing slightly to ensure the same number of teams in both conferences.
## Season format
The NFL season format consists of a three-week preseason, an 18-week regular season (each team plays 17 games), and a 14-team single-elimination playoff culminating in the Super Bowl, the league's championship game.
### Preseason
The NFL preseason begins with the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, played at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium in Canton. Each NFL team is required to schedule three preseason games. NFC teams must play at least two of these at home in odd numbered years and AFC teams must play at least two at home in even numbered years. However, the teams involved in the Hall of Fame game, as well as any team that played in an American Bowl game, play four preseason games. Preseason games are exhibition matches and do not count towards regular-season totals. Because the preseason does not count towards standings, teams generally do not focus on winning games; instead, they are used by coaches to evaluate their teams and by players to show their performance, both to their current team and to other teams if they get cut. The quality of preseason games has been criticized by some fans, who dislike having to pay full price for exhibition games, as well as by some players and coaches, who dislike the risk of injury the games have, while others have felt the preseason is a necessary part of the NFL season.
### Regular season
Currently, the 14 opponents each team faces over the 17-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula: The league runs an 18-week, 272-game regular season. Since 2021, the season has begun the week after Labor Day (the first Monday in September) and concluded the week after New Year. The opening game of the season is normally a home game on a Thursday for the league's defending champion.
Most NFL games are played on Sundays, with a Monday night game typically held at least once a week and Thursday night games occurring on most weeks as well. NFL games are not normally played on Fridays or Saturdays until late in the regular season, as federal law prohibits professional football leagues from competing with college or high school football. Because high school and college teams typically play games on Friday and Saturday, respectively, the NFL cannot hold games on those days until the Friday before the third Saturday in December. While Saturday games late in the season are common, the league rarely holds Friday games, the most recent one being on Christmas Day in 2020. NFL games are rarely scheduled for Tuesday or Wednesday, and those days have only been used three times since 1948: in 2010, when a Sunday game was rescheduled to Tuesday due to a blizzard; in 2012, when the Kickoff game was moved from Thursday to Wednesday to avoid conflict with the Democratic National Convention; and in 2020, when a game was postponed from Sunday to Tuesday due to players testing positive for COVID-19.
NFL regular season matchups are determined according to a scheduling formula. Within a division, all four teams play 14 out of their 17 games against common opponents or each other– two games (home and away) are played against the other three teams in the division, while one game is held against all the members of a division from the NFC and a division from the AFC as determined by a rotating cycle (three years for the conference the team is in, and four years in the conference they are not in). Two of the other games are intraconference games, determined by the standings of the previous year – for example, if a team finishes first in its division, it will play two other first-place teams in its conference, while a team that finishes last would play two other last-place teams in the conference. The final game is an inter-conference based on a rotating cycle and determined by previous season's standings. In total, each team plays 17 games and has one bye week, where it does not play a game.
Although a team's home and away opponents are known by the end of the previous year's regular season, the exact dates and times for NFL games are not determined until much later because the league has to account for, among other things, the Major League Baseball postseason and local events that could pose a scheduling conflict with NFL games. During the 2010 season, over 500,000 potential schedules were created by computers, 5,000 of which were considered "playable schedules" and were reviewed by the NFL's scheduling team. After arriving at what they felt was the best schedule out of the group, nearly 50 more potential schedules were developed to try to ensure that the chosen schedule would be the best possible one.
### Postseason
Following the conclusion of the regular season, the NFL Playoffs, a 14-team single-elimination tournament, is then held. Seven teams are selected from each conference: the winners of each of the four divisions as well as three wild card teams (the three remaining teams with the best overall record, with tiebreakers in the event of two or more teams having the same record). These teams are seeded according to overall record and tiebreakers, with the division champions always ranking higher than the wild card teams. The top team (seeded one) from each conference are awarded a bye week, while the remaining six teams (seeded 2–7) from each conference compete in the first round of the playoffs, the Wild Card round, with the 2-seed competing against the 7-seed, the 3-seed competing against the 6-seed and the 4-seed competing against the 5-seed. The winners of the Wild Card round advance to the Divisional Round, which matches the lower seeded team against the 1-seed and the two remaining teams against each other. The winners of those games then compete in the Conference Championships, with the higher remaining seed hosting the lower remaining seed. The AFC and NFC champions then compete in the Super Bowl to determine the league champion.
The only other postseason event hosted by the NFL is the Pro Bowl, the league's all-star game. Since 2009, the Pro Bowl has been held the week before the Super Bowl; in previous years, the game was held the week following the Super Bowl, but in an effort to boost ratings, the game was moved to the week before. Because of this, players from the teams participating in the Super Bowl are exempt from participating in the game. The Pro Bowl is not considered as competitive as a regular-season game because the biggest concern of teams is to avoid injuries to the players.
## Trophies and awards
### Team trophies
The National Football League has used three different trophies to honor its champion over its existence. The first trophy, the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup, was donated to the NFL (then APFA) in 1920 by the Brunswick-Balke Collender Corporation. The trophy, the appearance of which is only known by its description as a "silver loving cup", was intended to be a traveling trophy and not to become permanent until a team had won at least three titles. The league awarded it to the Akron Pros, champions of the inaugural 1920 season; however, the trophy was discontinued and its current whereabouts are unknown.
A second trophy, the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy, was issued by the NFL from 1934 to 1967. The trophy's namesake, Ed Thorp, was a referee in the league and a friend to many early league owners; upon his death in 1934, the league created the trophy to honor him. In addition to the main trophy, which would be in the possession of the current league champion, the league issued a smaller replica trophy to each champion, who would maintain permanent control over it. The current location of the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy, long thought to be lost, is believed to be possessed by the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame.
The current trophy of the NFL is the Vince Lombardi Trophy. The Super Bowl trophy was officially renamed in 1970 after Vince Lombardi, who as head coach led the Green Bay Packers to victories in the first two Super Bowls. Unlike the previous trophies, a new Vince Lombardi Trophy is issued to each year's champion, who maintains permanent control of it. Lombardi Trophies are made by Tiffany & Co. out of sterling silver and are worth anywhere from US\$25,000 to US\$300,000. Additionally, each player on the winning team as well as coaches and personnel are awarded Super Bowl rings to commemorate their victory. The winning team chooses the company that makes the rings; each ring design varies, with the NFL mandating certain ring specifications (which have a degree of room for deviation), in addition to requiring the Super Bowl logo be on at least one side of the ring. The losing team are also awarded rings, which must be no more than half as valuable as the winners' rings, but those are almost never worn.
The conference champions receive trophies for their achievement. The champions of the NFC receive the George Halas Trophy, named after Chicago Bears founder George Halas, who is also considered one of the co-founders of the NFL. The AFC champions receive the Lamar Hunt Trophy, named after Lamar Hunt, the founder of the Kansas City Chiefs and the principal founder of the American Football League. Players on the winning team also receive a conference championship ring.
### Player and coach awards
The NFL recognizes a number of awards for its players and coaches at its annual NFL Honors presentation. The most prestigious award is the AP Most Valuable Player (MVP) award. Other major awards include the AP Offensive Player of the Year, AP Defensive Player of the Year, AP Comeback Player of the Year, and the AP Offensive and Defensive Rookie of the Year awards. Another prestigious award is the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award, which recognizes a player's off-field work in addition to his on-field performance. The NFL Coach of the Year award is the highest coaching award. The NFL also gives out weekly awards such as the FedEx Air & Ground NFL Players of the Week and the Pepsi MAX NFL Rookie of the Week awards.
## Media coverage
In the United States, the National Football League has television contracts with five networks: ABC, CBS, ESPN, Fox, and NBC. Collectively, these contracts cover every regular season and postseason game. In general, CBS televises afternoon games in which the away team is an AFC team, and Fox carries afternoon games in which the away team belongs to the NFC. These afternoon games are not carried on all affiliates, as multiple games are being played at once; each network affiliate is assigned one game per time slot, according to a complicated set of rules. Since 2011, the league has reserved the right to give Sunday games that, under the contract, would normally air on one network to the other network (known as "flexible scheduling"). The only way to legally watch a regionally televised game not being carried on the local network affiliates is to purchase NFL Sunday Ticket, the league's out-of-market sports package, which is only available to subscribers to the DirecTV satellite service. The league also provides RedZone, an omnibus telecast that cuts to the most relevant plays in each game, live as they happen.
In addition to the regional games, the league also has packages of telecasts, mostly in prime time, that are carried nationwide. NBC broadcasts the primetime Sunday Night Football package', which includes the Thursday NFL Kickoff game that starts the regular season and a primetime Thanksgiving Day game. ESPN carries all Monday Night Football games. The NFL's own network, NFL Network, broadcasts a series titled Thursday Night Football, which was originally exclusive to the network, but which in recent years has had several games simulcast on CBS (since 2014) and NBC (since 2016) (except the Thanksgiving and kickoff games, which remain exclusive to NBC). For the 2017 season, the NFL Network will broadcast 18 regular season games under its Thursday Night Football brand, 16 Thursday evening contests (10 of which are simulcast on either NBC or CBS) as well as one of the NFL International Series games on a Sunday morning and one of the 2017 Christmas afternoon games. In addition, 10 of the Thursday night games will be streamed live on Amazon Prime. In 2017, the NFL games occupied the top three rates for a 30-second advertisement: \$699,602 for Sunday Night Football, \$550,709 for Thursday Night Football (NBC), and \$549,791 for Thursday Night Football (CBS).
The Super Bowl television rights are rotated on a three-year basis between CBS, Fox, and NBC. In 2011, all four stations signed new nine-year contracts with the NFL, each running until 2022; CBS, Fox, and NBC are estimated by Forbes to pay a combined total of US\$3 billion a year, while ESPN will pay US\$1.9 billion a year. The league also has deals with Spanish-language broadcasters NBC Universo, Fox Deportes, and ESPN Deportes, which air Spanish language dubs of their respective English-language sister networks' games. The league's contracts do not cover preseason games, which individual teams are free to sell to local stations directly; a minority of preseason games are distributed among the league's national television partners.
Through the 2014 season, the NFL had a blackout policy in which games were 'blacked out' on local television in the home team's area if the home stadium was not sold out. Clubs could elect to set this requirement at only 85%, but they would have to give more ticket revenue to the visiting team; teams could also request a specific exemption from the NFL for the game. The vast majority of NFL games were not blacked out; only 6% of games were blacked out during the 2011 season, and only two games were blacked out in and none in . The NFL announced in March 2015 that it would suspend its blackout policy for at least the 2015 season. According to Nielsen, the NFL regular season since 2012 was watched by at least 200 million individuals, accounting for 80% of all television households in the United States and 69% of all potential viewers in the United States. NFL regular season games accounted for 31 out of the top 32 most-watched programs in the fall season and an NFL game ranked as the most-watched television show in all 17 weeks of the regular season. At the local level, NFL games were the highest-ranked shows in NFL markets 92% of the time. Super Bowls account for the 22 most-watched programs (based on total audience) in US history, including a record 167 million people that watched Super Bowl XLVIII, the conclusion to the 2013 season.
In addition to radio networks run by each NFL team, select NFL games are broadcast nationally by Westwood One (known as Dial Global for the 2012 season). These games are broadcast on over 500 networks, giving all NFL markets access to each primetime game. The NFL's deal with Westwood One was extended in 2012 and continued through 2017. Other NFL games are nationally distributed by Compass Media Networks and Sports USA Radio Network under contracts with individual teams.
Some broadcasting innovations have either been introduced or popularized during NFL telecasts. Among them, the Skycam camera system was used for the first time in a live telecast, at a 1984 preseason NFL game in San Diego between the Chargers and 49ers, and televised by CBS. Commentator John Madden famously used a telestrator during games between the early 1980s to the mid-2000s, boosting the device's popularity.
The NFL, as a one-time experiment, distributed the October 25, 2015, International Series game from Wembley Stadium in London between the Buffalo Bills and Jacksonville Jaguars. The game was live streamed on the Internet exclusively via Yahoo!, except for over-the-air broadcasts on the local CBS-TV affiliates in the Buffalo and Jacksonville markets.
In 2015, the NFL began sponsoring a series of public service announcements to bring attention to domestic abuse and sexual assault in response to what was seen as poor handling of incidents of violence by players.
The NFL finished the new contract negotiation for the media rights deal worth over \$110 billion on March 18, 2021. In this contract, ABC would be eligible to broadcast the Super Bowl on U.S. television for the first time since it broadcast Super Bowl XL after the end of the 2005 NFL season. Also in current agreement, Amazon would be the new home for Thursday Night Football starting in 2023.
On August 25, 2021, the NFL sent a memo to all 32 teams that only fully vaccinated personnel, with a maximum of 50 people, will have access to locker rooms while players are present on game days. The memo also stated that non-club-affiliated media are not permitted in the locker room.
On February 9, 2022, as part of efforts to increase the sport's international reach, the NFL announced that Munich will host its first regular-season game in Germany in 2022.
## Draft
Each April (excluding 2014 when it took place in May), the NFL holds a draft of college players. The draft consists of seven rounds, with each of the 32 clubs getting one pick in each round. The draft order for non-playoff teams is determined by regular-season record; among playoff teams, teams are first ranked by the furthest round of the playoffs they reached, and then are ranked by regular-season record. For example, any team that reached the divisional round will be given a higher pick than any team that reached the conference championships, but will be given a lower pick than any team that did not make the divisional round. The Super Bowl champion always drafts last, and the losing team from the Super Bowl always drafts next-to-last. All potential draftees must be at least three years removed from high school in order to be eligible for the draft. Underclassmen that have met that criterion to be eligible for the draft must write an application to the NFL by January 15 renouncing their remaining college eligibility. Clubs can trade away picks for future draft picks, but cannot trade the rights to players they have selected in previous drafts.
Aside from the seven picks each club gets, compensatory draft picks are given to teams that have lost more compensatory free agents than they have gained. These are spread out from rounds 3 to 7, and a total of 32 are given. Clubs are required to make their selection within a certain period of time, the exact time depending on which round the pick is made in. If they fail to do so on time, the clubs behind them can begin to select their players in order, but they do not lose the pick outright. This happened in the 2003 draft, when the Minnesota Vikings failed to make their selection on time. The Jacksonville Jaguars and Carolina Panthers were able to make their picks before the Vikings were able to use theirs. Selected players are only allowed to negotiate contracts with the team that picked them, but if they choose not to sign they become eligible for the next year's draft. Under the current collective bargaining contract, all contracts to drafted players must be four-year deals with a club option for a fifth. Contracts themselves are limited to a certain amount of money, depending on the exact draft pick the player was selected with. Players who were draft eligible but not picked in the draft are free to sign with any club.
The NFL operates several other drafts in addition to the NFL draft. The league holds a supplemental draft annually. Clubs submit emails to the league stating the player they wish to select and the round they will do so, and the team with the highest bid wins the rights to that player. The exact order is determined by a lottery held before the draft, and a successful bid for a player will result in the team forfeiting the rights to its pick in the equivalent round of the next NFL draft. Players are only eligible for the supplemental draft after being granted a petition for special eligibility. The league holds expansion drafts, the most recent happening in 2002 when the Houston Texans began play as an expansion team. Other drafts held by the league include an allocation draft in 1950 to allocate players from several teams that played in the dissolved All-America Football Conference and a supplemental draft in 1984 to give NFL teams the rights to players who had been eligible for the main draft but had not been drafted because they had signed contracts with the United States Football League or Canadian Football League.
Like the other major sports leagues in the United States, the NFL maintains protocol for a disaster draft. In the event of a 'near disaster' (less than 15 players killed or disabled) that caused the club to lose a quarterback, they could draft one from a team with at least three quarterbacks. In the event of a 'disaster' (15 or more players killed or disabled) that results in a club's season being canceled, a restocking draft would be held. Neither of these protocols has ever had to be implemented.
## Free agency
Free agents in the National Football League are divided into restricted free agents, who have three accrued seasons and whose current contract has expired, and unrestricted free agents, who have four or more accrued seasons and whose contract has expired. An accrued season is defined as "six or more regular-season games on a club's active/inactive, reserved/injured or reserve/physically unable to perform lists". Restricted free agents are allowed to negotiate with other clubs besides their former club, but the former club has the right to match any offer. If they choose not to, they are compensated with draft picks. Unrestricted free agents are free to sign with any club, and no compensation is owed if they sign with a different club.
Clubs are given one franchise tag to offer to any unrestricted free agent. The franchise tag is a one-year deal that pays the player 120% of his previous contract or no less than the average of the five highest-paid players at his position, whichever is greater. There are two types of franchise tags: exclusive tags, which do not allow the player to negotiate with other clubs, and non-exclusive tags, which allow the player to negotiate with other clubs but gives his former club the right to match any offer and two first-round draft picks if they decline to match it.
Clubs also have the option to use a transition tag, which is similar to the non-exclusive franchise tag but offers no compensation if the former club refuses to match the offer. Due to that stipulation, the transition tag is rarely used, even with the removal of the "poison pill" strategy (offering a contract with stipulations that the former club would be unable to match) that essentially ended the usage of the tag league-wide. Each club is subject to a salary cap, which is set at US\$188.2 million for the 2019 season, US\$11 million more than that of 2018.
Members of clubs' practice squads, despite being paid by and working for their respective clubs, are also simultaneously a kind of free agent and are able to sign to any other club's active roster (provided their new club is not their previous club's next opponent within a set number of days) without compensation to their previous club; practice squad players cannot be signed to other clubs' practice squads, however, unless released by their original club first.
## See also
- American football in the United States
- List of NFL champions (1920–1969)
- List of Super Bowl champions (1966–present)
- National Football League (1902)
- National Football League All-Decade Teams
- National Football League Cheerleading
- National Football League controversies
- National Football League franchise moves and mergers
- National Football League records
- National Football League 75th Anniversary All-Time Team
- National Football League 100th Anniversary All-Time Team
- NFL Europe
- NFL Films
- International Player Pathway Program (IPPP)
- List of NFL franchise owners
- List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees
- List of NFL players with chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
|
2,024,839 |
Jack Stewart (ice hockey)
| 1,173,914,097 |
Canadian ice hockey player (1917–1983)
|
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John Sherratt "Black Jack" Stewart (May 6, 1917 – May 25, 1983) was a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who played 12 National Hockey League (NHL) seasons for the Detroit Red Wings and Chicago Black Hawks. He won two Stanley Cup championships with the Red Wings and was named to the post-season NHL All-Star team on five occasions: three times on the first team and twice on the second. Stewart also played in the first four NHL All-Star Games. After completing his NHL career as captain of the Black Hawks, he went on to coach numerous teams at various levels of hockey.
Stewart was regarded as the hardest hitting defenceman of his time, a reputation that earned him his nickname. His style of play routinely resulted in injuries and scars; he defied expectations by returning to the game after suffering a ruptured disc in his back and later a fractured skull. He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964, and is also honoured by the Manitoba Hockey and Sports Halls of Fame.
## Playing career
Stewart played junior hockey with the Portage Terriers of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League in 1935–36 and 1936–37, where he was discovered by a Winnipeg businessman who suggested that James Norris, owner of the Detroit Red Wings, sign him. He was sent to play his first season of professional hockey for the team's minor league affiliate, the Pittsburgh Hornets of the International-American Hockey League (IAHL). He recorded one assist in 48 games in the 1937–38 season.
Partway through his second season with the Hornets, the Red Wings recalled Stewart as part of a bid to shake up their team which had been struggling. He appeared in 32 games in his NHL rookie season of 1938–39, and immediately established himself as a physical presence. He played in all 48 games for Detroit in 1939–40; his lone goal on the campaign was the first of his career. Stewart and the Red Wings reached the Stanley Cup final in both 1941 and 1942, but lost to the Boston Bruins and Toronto Maple Leafs, respectively. In his fifth season, 1942–43, Stewart was named to the NHL first All-Star team on defence and helped lead the Red Wings to the NHL regular season title. Reaching the final for the third consecutive season, Detroit defeated Boston to win the Stanley Cup. Stewart scored one goal, added two assists and had 35 penalty minutes in ten playoff games.
Stewart's NHL career was interrupted by the Second World War in 1943. He remained in Canada, serving as a Leading Aircraftman in the Royal Canadian Air Force and playing hockey for the Montreal RCAF and Winnipeg RCAF teams between 1943 and 1945. Upon his return to the NHL, Stewart was paired up with Bill Quackenbush on the Red Wings defence. He went on to earn four additional all-star selections: he was named to the second team in 1945–46 and 1946–47, and to the first team again in 1947–48 and 1948–49. Additionally, he played in the first four National Hockey League All-Star Games, held between 1947 and 1950. Not known for his offence, Stewart never scored more than five goals in a season, and his career high of 19 points was set in 1947–48. He won his second Stanley Cup with the Red Wings in 1950 as they defeated the New York Rangers in double overtime of the deciding seventh game.
Following the championship, the Red Wings dealt Stewart to the Chicago Black Hawks as part of a nine-player trade that was, at the time, the largest in NHL history. Stewart, Harry Lumley, Al Dewsbury, Pete Babando and Don Morrison were sent to Chicago in exchange for Metro Prystai, Bob Goldham, Gaye Stewart and Jim Henry. The Black Hawks named Stewart team captain and assistant coach almost immediately.
Stewart missed the majority of the 1950–51 NHL season and his career was believed over after he suffered a serious spinal injury in a December 14, 1950, game against the Toronto Maple Leafs. Doctors diagnosed his injury as a ruptured disc and urged him to retire. He was told following the injury that he was lucky he could still walk without a cane and not to risk further damage on the ice. Instead, Stewart had the disc removed and after completing what Black Hawks' team doctors described as a "most remarkable" recovery, he opted to continue his career and signed with Chicago for the 1951–52 season.
Early in the season, Stewart suffered a minor skull fracture after colliding with teammate Clare Martin, an injury that forced him out of the lineup for several weeks. Stewart spent two weeks in hospital, after which he announced his retirement, but he again shocked observers by returning to the ice. However, by mid February 1952, his injuries led Stewart to ask the Black Hawks for his release so that he could seek a minor league coaching position.
## Coaching career
Stewart was considered as coach of the New Westminster Royals of the Pacific Coast Hockey League, but chose to take the reins of the senior A Chatham Maroons in the Ontario Hockey Association. He served as a player-coach, appearing in 45 games for the Maroons in 1952–53, where he scored two goals and 29 points while accumulating 129 penalty minutes. Stewart played the final games of his career in 1953–54, finishing with eight assists in 21 games.
The following seasons saw Stewart move between several teams as head coach. He left the Maroons to guide the Kitchener-Waterloo Dutchmen in 1955–56, then the Windsor Bulldogs for two seasons between 1957 and 1959. At one point in 1957, he was rumoured to become the next coach of the Chicago Black Hawks, a job that went instead to Rudy Pilous. Stewart moved into the professional ranks in 1961, taking over as the coach of Chicago's Eastern Professional Hockey League affiliate, the Sault Thunderbirds. One year later, Stewart moved to the Pittsburgh Hornets, an American Hockey League affiliate of the Detroit Red Wings. After winning only 16 games in 1962–63, Stewart retired after he was dismissed by the Hornets.
## Playing style
During his career, Stewart was regarded as one of the hardest bodycheckers in the National Hockey League. He also carried the heaviest stick in the league, explaining that "I don't use it for scoring. I use it for breaking arms". Stewart was known for his large grin when hitting opponents; teammate Ted Lindsay noted "when he had that smile, it was time for the opposition to look out". He led the league with 73 penalty minutes in 1945–46, and in the late 1940s, his rivalry with Milt Schmidt of the Boston Bruins was so intense that their physical interactions occasionally overshadowed the games themselves.
Stewart hated his nickname of "Black Jack", as he believed it made him out to be a dirty player. Hockey Hall of Fame defenceman King Clancy agreed he was not dirty, but stated he was the "roughest son of a gun you'd ever want to meet." Stewart's style of play resulted in numerous injuries; he had dozens of scars and required over 200 stitches to close various cuts during his career. At one point he played a full season with a broken hand using a cast formed to hold his stick.
On the ice, Stewart showed good judgment as a defenceman and rarely took himself out of position to throw a hit. His coach in Detroit, Jack Adams, called Stewart "one of the best blueliners in the game", and claimed he was the best defenceman in Red Wings history. Regarded as a good skater, he was able to clear the puck out of his zone and rarely turned it over to the other team. Clare Martin said he was a "defensive defenceman" and that he "didn't carry the puck too much ... His job was defence and everybody in the league knew it."
A charter member of the Detroit Red Wings Hall of Fame in 1944, Stewart was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964. He is also an honoured member of the Michigan Sports, Manitoba Hockey and Sports Halls of Fame. He was named to the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame's First All-Century Team in 2000.
## Personal life
Stewart was born May 6, 1917, in Pilot Mound, Manitoba, where he learned to play hockey on the community's outdoor rinks. He had three sisters. In the off-seasons, he returned to his family farm, work which was said to have given him the strength he displayed in the NHL. An avid sportsman, Stewart was an active curler during his playing career, and played softball in the summer. Though he was regarded on the ice as one of toughest players in the game, he was also quiet. He was known as "Silent Jack" by his teammates, allowing his actions to speak for him.
Upon leaving hockey in 1963, he focused on a career in harness racing. Stewart's father built a track on the family farm and held a horse racing meet each year to entertain the residents of Pilot Mound. He also followed and assisted his father when the elder Stewart acted as a race judge at fairs held in Manitoba. Stewart was actively involved in the sport from the time he retired as a player. He worked as a race timer and held various judging roles during the summers. He was a judge with the Ontario Racing Commission for nearly 30 years where his reputation matched that of his playing days.
Stewart retired to Florida but returned to Michigan to undergo treatment for cancer. He died on May 6, 1983, at his home in Troy following a lengthy battle with the disease. A widower, he was survived by two children, son Barclay and daughter Jaqueline.
In 2010, the new Pilot Mound Arena was named The 'Black Jack Stewart Arena'.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
## Awards and honours
|
813,035 |
Eppa Rixey
| 1,153,717,650 |
American baseball player (1891-1963)
|
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"People from Culpeper, Virginia",
"Philadelphia Phillies players",
"Virginia Cavaliers baseball players",
"Virginia Cavaliers men's basketball players"
] |
Eppa Rixey Jr. (May 3, 1891 – February 28, 1963), nicknamed "Jephtha", was an American baseball player who played 21 seasons for the Philadelphia Phillies and Cincinnati Reds in Major League Baseball from 1912 to 1933 as a left-handed pitcher. Rixey was best known as the National League's leader in career victories for a left-hander with 266 wins until Warren Spahn surpassed his total in 1959.
Rixey attended the University of Virginia where he was a star pitcher. He was discovered by umpire Cy Rigler, who convinced him to sign directly with the Phillies, bypassing minor league baseball entirely. His time with the Phillies was marked by inconsistency. He won 22 games in 1916, but also led the league in losses twice. In 1915, the Phillies played in the World Series, and Rixey lost in his only appearance. After being traded to the Reds prior to the 1921 season, he won 20 or more games in a season three times, including a league-leading 25 in 1922, and posted eight consecutive winning seasons. His skills were declining by the 1929 season, when his record was 10–13 with a 4.16 earned run average. He pitched another four seasons before retiring after the 1933 season.
An intellectual who taught high school Latin during the off-season, earning the nickname "Jephtha" for his southern drawl, Rixey was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1963.
## Early life
Eppa Rixey Jr. was born on May 3, 1891, in Culpeper, Virginia, to Eppa Rixey and his wife Willie Alice (née Walton). At the age of ten, his father, a banker, moved his family to Charlottesville, Virginia. His uncles were John Franklin Rixey, a former congressman, and Presley Marion Rixey, a former Surgeon General of the United States Navy. He attended the University of Virginia, where he played basketball and baseball; he was a member of Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity. His brother Bill also played baseball for Virginia. During the off-season, umpire Cy Rigler worked as an assistant coach for the University. He recognized Rixey's talent and tried to sign him to the Philadelphia Phillies. Rixey originally declined, saying he wanted to be a chemist, but Rigler insisted, even offering a substantial portion of the bonus he received for signing a player. With his family in financial trouble, Rixey accepted the deal. The National League, upon hearing of the deal, created a rule that prohibits umpires from signing players. Neither Rixey nor Rigler received any signing bonus.
## Baseball career
### Philadelphia Phillies
Rixey joined the Phillies for the 1912 season without playing a single game of minor league baseball. His time with the Phillies was marked by inconsistency. He went 10-10 in his first year, with a 2.50 earned run average (ERA) and 10 complete games in 23 games pitched. He had a three hit shutout against the Chicago Cubs on July 18. Rixey was on the losing end of a no-hitter by Jeff Tesreau on September 6. After the season, the Chicago Cubs, under new manager Johnny Evers, offered a "huge sum" to the Phillies for Rixey, but manager Red Dooin declined the offer. Prior to the 1913 season, Rixey notified the Phillies of his desire to finish his studies at the University of Virginia and graduate in June; however, after some negotiation, he decided to sign a contract and re-joined the team shortly after the season began. That season, he appeared in 35 games, started 19 of them, winning nine games, and had a 3.12 earned run average. In 1914, his record worsened to 2–11, and his earned run average increased to 4.37. Rixey's record improved to 11–12 in 1915, and his earned run average was 2.39 as the Phillies won the National League pennant and played the Boston Red Sox in the 1915 World Series. During Game 5 of the series, Rixey replaced starter Erskine Mayer for the final six innings of the game. He allowed three runs in the final two innings and lost 5–4.
Rixey went 22–10 in 1916 with a 1.85 ERA and a career high of 134 strikeouts. On June 29, Rixey pitched a four-hit shutout against the New York Giants, facing the minimum 27 batters, because of three double plays, and a player caught stealing. In 1917, despite having a 2.27 earned run average, Rixey led the league in pitching losses with 21. He also handled 108 chances without a single error. Rixey hated losing and was known for destroying the team locker room, or disappearing for days at a time after a loss. He missed the 1918 season to serve in the Chemical Warfare Division of the United States army during the war effort. He struggled upon returning to baseball, going 6–12 with a 3.97 earned run average in 1919, and again leading the league in losses with 22 in 1920. Prior to the 1920 season, rumours circulated that his former manager, Pat Moran, now with the Cincinnati Reds, was interested in trading for Rixey. The relationship between Rixey and manager Gavvy Cravath was never good, and Cravath had made known his desire to trade him; however, he stayed with the Phillies that season, working on his delivery with former pitcher Jesse Tannehill, who, Rixey admitted, helped with his pitching delivery. On November 22, 1920, Rixey was traded to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Jimmy Ring and Greasy Neale. His record during his eight seasons with the Phillies was 87 wins and 103 losses.
### Cincinnati Reds
In his first season with the Reds, Rixey won 19 games, and set a Major League record by allowing just one home run in 301 innings pitched. In three of the next four seasons, he had 20 or more victories each season, with a league-leading total of 25 in 1922. He also led the league in innings pitched and hits allowed in 1922 and shutouts with four in 1924. In 1926 he had 14 wins, followed by seasons of 12, 19 and 10 wins. Rixey's production began to decline in 1930, when he went 9–13 with a 5.10 ERA, and pitched fewer than 200 innings for the first time since 1919. From 1931 through 1933, Rixey pitched very little, and was used almost exclusively against the Pittsburgh Pirates. For the 1933 season, he was the only Reds pitcher with a winning record, at 6–3 as the Reds finished last in the National League at 58–94. He retired prior to the 1934 season, stating "the manager wasn't giving me enough work". Rixey completed his career with 266 wins, 251 losses, and a 3.15 ERA. He appeared in 692 games and completed 290, and had 20 wins and 14 saves as a relief pitcher.
Rixey was a better than average hitting pitcher, posting a .191 batting average (291-for-1,522) with 95 runs, 33 doubles, 3 home runs, 111 RBI and 49 bases on balls. He was also better than average defensively, recording a .978 fielding percentage which was 20 points higher than the league average at his position.
Bubbles Hargrave, former Cincinnati catcher, gave this testimonial: "Eppa was just great. He was great as a pitcher, fielder and competitor. I look on him as the most outstanding player I came in contact with in my entire career." For his part, Rixey described his approach to the game in 1927 as follows: "How dumb can the hitters in this league get? I've been doing this for fifteen years. When they're batting with the count two balls and no strikes, or three and one, they're always looking for the fastball and they never get it."
## Legacy
Originally Rixey had trouble controlling his speed, but eventually, weighing in at 210 pounds, he became one of the most feared pitchers in baseball. Rixey was considered a pitcher with a "peculiar motion," who rarely walked a batter. Throughout his long career, Rixey charmed teammates and fans with his dry wit and big Southern drawl. His nonsensical nickname "Jephtha" seemed to capture his roots and amiable personality. Some writers thought "Jephtha" was a part of Rixey's real name, but it was likely invented by a Philadelphia sportswriter. Rob Neyer called Rixey the fourth best pitcher in Reds history behind Bucky Walters, Paul Derringer and teammate Dolf Luque.
His 266 career victories stood as the record for most wins by a left-handed pitcher in the National League until Warren Spahn broke it in 1959; however, his 251 losses are an all-time record for left-handed pitchers. He also held the record for most seasons pitched by a National League left-hander until Steve Carlton broke it in 1986. As time passed, support for Rixey to be inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame grew. He was inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame in 1958. In 1960, Rixey finished third in the balloting behind former teammate Edd Roush and Sam Rice (who was later inducted the same year as Rixey). Upon his election to the Hall of Fame on January 27, 1963, he was quoted as saying "They're really scraping the bottom of the barrel, aren't they?"
In 1969, he was named by Reds fans as the greatest left-handed pitcher in Reds history. The Reds Hall of Fame declared Rixey "was the best left-hander ever to pitch for the Reds with a 179–148 record, 180 complete games, 23 shutouts and a 3.33 ERA in his 13 seasons."
In 1972 he was inducted into the first class of the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame and Museum.
In 2017 he was inducted into the inaugural class of the University of Virginia Baseball Hall of Fame:
Rixey's childhood home in Culpeper still stands, although it suffered some damage in the 2011 Virginia earthquake.
## Personal life
He was married to Dorothy Meyers of Cincinnati and had two children, Eppa Rixey III and Ann Rixey Sikes; and five grandchildren, James Rixey, Eppa Rixey IV, Steve Sikes, Paige Sikes, and David Sikes. After his retirement from baseball, Rixey worked for his father-in-law's successful insurance company in Cincinnati, eventually becoming president of the company. He died of a heart attack on February 28, 1963, one month after his election to the Hall of Fame, becoming the first player to die between election and induction to the Hall of Fame. He is interred at Greenlawn Cemetery in Milford, Ohio.
When Rixey started playing, he was considered an "anomaly." He came from a well-off family and was college-educated, something that was rare during his era. He wrote poetry, and took postgraduate classes in chemistry, mathematics and Latin. During the off-season, he was a Latin teacher at Episcopal High School in Alexandria, Virginia. He was also considered among the best golfers among athletes during the time period. Nonetheless, he was the target of hazing in his first few years in the major leagues. Eventually he teamed up with other college graduates Joe Oeschger and Stan Baumgartner and the hazing lessened to a degree.
## See also
- List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
|
71,774,193 |
Severo Aguilar
| 1,166,044,288 |
Bolivian politician (born 1975)
|
[
"1975 births",
"21st-century Bolivian politicians",
"Bolivian people of Quechua descent",
"Bolivian politicians of indigenous peoples descent",
"Bolivian trade union leaders",
"Living people",
"Members of the Bolivian Chamber of Deputies from Potosí",
"Members of the Bolivian Constituent Assembly",
"Movimiento al Socialismo politicians",
"People from Chayanta Province",
"Quechua politicians"
] |
Severo Aguilar Gabriel (born 11 March 1975) is a Bolivian politician and trade unionist who served as a member of the Chamber of Deputies from Potosí, representing circumscription 41 from 2010 to 2015. A member of the Movement for Socialism, he previously served as a member of the Constituent Assembly from Potosí, representing the same circumscription from 2006 to 2007.
An ethnic Quechua, Aguilar spent his early life in the rural regions of northern Potosí, dedicated to work in agriculture and animal husbandry. Having spent a few years abroad and in other departments, Aguilar returned to his native Chayanta in the early 2000s, where he gained prominence locally as a community and organizational leader. Aguilar's active participation in promoting regional concerns catapulted his participation in politics, first in the Constituent Assembly, then the Chamber of Deputies, each time representing his home province.
## Early life and career
Severo Aguilar was born on 11 March 1975 to Crisóstomo Aguilar Estrada and Felipa Gabriel Cruz, a peasant family native to Futina in northern Potosí's Chayanta Province—one of the poorest and most isolated regions in the country. An ethnic Quechua, Aguilar spent his childhood in rural poverty, working in agriculture and animal husbandry. Orphaned at around age 13, he relocated to Pocoata [es], briefly attending the local primary school before moving to Llallagua, where he completed secondary education and fulfilled his term of mandatory military service. Shortly after graduating, Aguilar traveled to Argentina, where he spent a year harvesting the tobacco and tomato crop, later settling in Santa Cruz for some time.
Upon returning to Potosí in 2001, Aguilar dedicated himself to promoting civic engagement in his community, pushing for greater allocation of resources in favor of public works and other infrastructure projects. From there, Aguilar quickly rose as a prominent local peasant leader. In January 2002, he was appointed as executive secretary of the Colquechaca Sectional Center, assuming the demands of the entire municipality's peasant movement. During the 2003 gas conflict, Aguilar led mobilizations against the government of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, rejecting the sale of natural gas to Chile and calling for the convocation of a constituent assembly to reform the Constitution—two demands that proved successful in the ensuing years.
## Constituent Assembly
### Election
In 2006, in representation of the Unified Syndical Center of Indigenous Workers and Ayllus of the Chayanta Province, Aguilar was nominated for a seat in the newly-formed Constituent Assembly. Together with Irma Mamani, the pair was comfortably elected to represent circumscription 41 on behalf of the Movement for Socialism.
### Tenure
For Aguilar, whose rural community lacked public transport services, the trek to Constituent Assembly's headquarters in Sucre required a four-hour hike through the foothills before a truck finally took him the rest of the way. Once sworn in, Aguilar was appointed the to assembly's Autonomies Commission, from which he pushed for the implementation of a broad system of indigenous self-government, including state recognition of indigenous customary law and control over natural resources situated in indigenous lands.
### Commission assignments
- Departmental, Provincial, Municipal, and Indigenous Autonomies, Decentralization, and Territorial Organization Commission (2006–2007)
## Chamber of Deputies
### Election
For many members of the Constituent Assembly, prolonged procedural stalemate and limited debate made it difficult to stand out individually. As a result, few constituents continued political careers following the assembly's closure. Aguilar, on the other hand, was among the roughly one-tenth who did. In 2009, party bases in his home region nominated him to seek a seat in the Chamber of Deputies. He once again contested circumscription 41 and was elected by one of the largest margins of the entire election cycle, attaining nearly ninety percent of the popular vote.
### Tenure
As a deputy, Aguilar sought to coordinate his work with municipal administrations in order to directly meet their needs. He promoted the allocation of public resources in favor of agriculture, the expansion of rural education, and the construction of infrastructure aimed at combating the consequences of climate change. Upon the conclusion of his term, he was not nominated for reelection, no less because the district he represented was abolished during 2014's decennial redistribution process.
### Commission assignments
- Territorial Organization of the State and Autonomies Commission
- Departmental Autonomies Committee (Secretary: 2012–2015)
- Plural Economy, Production, and Industry Commission
- Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Committee (2010–2011)
- International Relations and Migrant Protection Commission
- International Relations, Migrant Protection, and International Organizations Committee (Secretary: 2011–2012)
## Electoral history
|
5,671,197 |
The Screaming Skull
| 1,161,058,836 |
1958 American film by Alex Nicol
|
[
"1950s American films",
"1950s English-language films",
"1950s ghost films",
"1958 directorial debut films",
"1958 films",
"1958 horror films",
"American International Pictures films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American exploitation films",
"American supernatural horror films",
"Films based on works by Francis Marion Crawford",
"Films scored by Ernest Gold",
"Films set in country houses"
] |
The Screaming Skull is a 1958 independently made American black-and-white horror film, produced by John Kneubuhl and directed by Alex Nicol, starring John Hudson, Peggy Webber, Russ Conway, Tony Johnson, and Nicol. The Screaming Skull marked Nicol's directorial debut; he decided to try it because he felt that he was not acting in the roles which he wanted. The film was distributed by American International Pictures as a double feature in different markets with either Earth vs. the Spider or Terror from the Year 5000.
The film's storyline concerns a newlywed woman who believes she is being haunted by the ghost of her new husband's previous wife. The simplistic musical score centres on the dies irae.
## Plot
Over a scene of an opening coffin, a narrator explains that the film's climax is so terrifying that it may kill the viewer, while reassuring the audience that should they die of fright they will receive a free burial service. Inside the coffin is a card that reads "Reserved for You."
Newlyweds Jenni and Eric arrive at Eric's palatial country home in a gull-wing Mercedes-Benz 300 SL. It is revealed that Jenni is Eric's second wife: his first wife Marion died when she accidentally slipped and hit her head on the edge of a decorative pond on the estate, drowning in the pond. At the home they meet Eric's friends, the Reverend Snow and his wife, as well as Mickey, the mentally disabled gardener. Eric privately mentions to the Snows that Jenni spent time in an asylum following the sudden death of both her parents, who were also drowned, and Mrs. Snow reveals that Jenni is very wealthy.
Jenni is disturbed both by Mickey's belief that Marion's ghost wanders the estate and by Marion's self-portrait inside the house, which Jenni believes resembles her mother. When she begins to hear unexplained screaming noises and see skulls around the house, she believes that Marion is haunting her. Though Eric speculates to Jenni that Mickey, who was a childhood friend of Marion and thus dislikes Jenni, may be behind the trickery, Jenni worries that she is going insane. Eric suggests that they remove Marion's self-portrait from the home. Eric and Jenni take the painting outside and burn it, later uncovering a skull from the ashes. Jenni panics at the sight of the skull, but Eric denies that the skull is there. As Jenni faints, Eric withdraws the skull and hides it, revealing that he has been gaslighting her all along.
Believing she has finally lost her sanity, Jenni resolves to be committed, and Eric says he has arranged for them to leave that night. Reverend Snow visits, and Eric tells him that Jenni is going back to the hospital. Later, Jenni tells Eric that Reverend Snow, when saying goodbye, had promised to bring people the next day so that the entire property can be meticulously searched for the skull as a last resort. Mickey secretly steals the skull and brings it to Snow before Eric can retrieve it. That night, Eric prepares to murder Jenni and stage it as a suicide. Jenni sees Marion's ghost in Mickey's greenhouse and flees back to the house, where Eric begins throttling her. The ghost appears and chases Eric outside, corners, and attacks him, drowning him in the decorative pond.
After Jenni regains consciousness, the Snows arrive. Mrs. Snow comforts an hysterical Jenni and the Reverend discovers Eric's body in the pond. Some undisclosed time later, Jenni and the Snows depart from the house. Reverend Snow declares whether or not Marion's death was an accident will remain a mystery.
The film ends with Mickey taking some water from the pond in his hand and placing it on his face before saying "They're gone. Rest." A vision of what may be a woman's face begins to appear in the pond as smoky bubbles cover its surface.
## Cast
- John Hudson as Eric Whitlock
- Peggy Webber as Jenni Whitlock
- Russ Conway as Rev. Edward Snow
- Tony Johnson as Mrs. Snow
- Alex Nicol as Mickey
## Production
The Screaming Skull was directed by Alex Nicol, an actor who had roles on Broadway productions and often played supporting characters. He decided to try directing a film, as he felt that he had not been performing the roles that he desired. Nicol noted that "as an actor, you're in perfect position, if you choose to do so, to watch the directors you're working with setting up the shots, making decisions as to where to place the camera, and so I picked up a lot over the years."
The film is loosely based on a horror story written by Francis Marion Crawford, which itself drew its inspiration from "folklore surrounding the so-called screaming skull that was kept on display at Bettiscombe Manor in Dorset, England." The skull is said to have belonged to a black slave who was refused a burial in his native country following his death, and "there were strange occurrences and unexplainable shrieking noises that came from the wooden box in which the skull was kept."
John Hudson stars as Eric, Jenni's new husband. Jenni is played by Peggy Webber. In order to get Webber interested in starring in the film, Nicol told her that he was planning to do a remake of the Alfred Hitchcock film Rebecca and brought a copy of the screenplay to her house. Other cast members include Russ Conway as Reverend Snow and Toni Johnson as Snow's wife. Nicol also stars as Mickey, the gardener.
The film's cinematographer was Floyd Crosby, who had previously won an Academy Award for his work on Tabu. John Kneubuhl wrote the film's screenplay; he also produced the film alongside executive producer T. Frank Woods and associate producer John Coots. The music was composed by Ernest Gold, and the film was edited by Betty Jane Lane.
The film was shot over a period of six weeks at the Huntington Hartford Estate, on a small budget. The film did not have a large crew, and according to Webber, the actors were paid around \$1,000 for their performances. During the production, Nicol promised the actors a cut of the film's ultimate box office earnings, but due to an issue with the film's distributor, this never occurred. During filming, Webber discovered she was pregnant, and so several scenes had to be re-written, including one where she was meant to fall down a staircase.
The Screaming Skull's opening disclaimer that a free burial would be provided to anybody who died of fright while watching the film was inspired by a gimmick that had been used by William Castle in his film Macabre (1958), in which he offered every viewer who bought a ticket life insurance in case they died watching the film. Unlike Castle, Nicol did not actually contact an insurance company.
## Reception and legacy
The Screaming Skull was released in August 1958. It was never registered with a copyright office, despite the presence of an onscreen copyright notice belonging to Madera Productions. As a result, it has seen many public domain DVD releases by video companies, such as Alpha Video, Echo Bridge Home Entertainment, and Mill Creek Entertainment.
Erick Harper of DVD Verdict remarked that the film was "of questionable value" and opined it was a "truly awful example of drive-in cinema." He believed that the film was not "worth the time to watch." Leonard Maltin gave the film one and a half stars, calling it "dreary," but he believed that it became "reasonably eerie toward the end, with a twist that's actually a surprise." Authors Phil Hardy and Tom Milne wrote of the film: "Nicol, an actor here directing for the first time, lets the action spin out much too slackly, dissipating the grasp of moody tension he displayed in his unpretentiously excellent war movie, Three Came Back."
Film historian Steven H. Scheuer graded the film one and a half stars, writing "Wife is terrorized by unexplainable happenings. Or is it inexplicable? Both describe the film." VideoHound's Golden Movie Retriever by Jim Craddock also gave the film one and a half stars, and TV Guide gave it two. Webber herself did not like the film, stating that "it didn't impress me" and she "wanted to throw up" after watching it. However, Nicol took a more positive stance, saying "I liked it. It had some nice dolly shots, a good atmosphere. So I was happy with that. It was a nice change from the films I'd been doing."
The Screaming Skull was featured in a ninth season episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000, a comedy television series which features a human and his robot creations watching bad films while providing a running commentary which mocks the film being shown. It was featured alongside an episode of The Gumby Show entitled "Robot Rumpus." Series writer Bill Corbett disliked the film, saying that "making someone watch this even once is specifically outlawed by the Geneva Convention."
## See also
- List of ghost films
|
52,371 |
Titanic (1997 film)
| 1,172,090,014 |
1997 American film by James Cameron
|
[
"1990s American films",
"1990s English-language films",
"1990s adventure films",
"1990s disaster films",
"1997 films",
"1997 romantic drama films",
"20th Century Fox films",
"3D re-releases",
"American 3D films",
"American adventure drama films",
"American disaster films",
"American epic films",
"American historical romance films",
"American nonlinear narrative films",
"American romantic drama films",
"American survival films",
"Best Drama Picture Golden Globe winners",
"Best Picture Academy Award winners",
"Epic films based on actual events",
"Films about RMS Titanic",
"Films about artists",
"Films about interclass romance",
"Films about mother–daughter relationships",
"Films about social class",
"Films about survivors of seafaring accidents or incidents",
"Films directed by James Cameron",
"Films produced by James Cameron",
"Films produced by Jon Landau",
"Films scored by James Horner",
"Films set in 1912",
"Films set in 1996",
"Films set in Newfoundland and Labrador",
"Films set in the Atlantic Ocean",
"Films set on ships",
"Films shot in Mexico",
"Films shot in Nova Scotia",
"Films shot in Vancouver",
"Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award",
"Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award",
"Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award",
"Films that won the Best Sound Editing Academy Award",
"Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award",
"Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award",
"Films using motion capture",
"Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award",
"Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award",
"Films whose director won the Best Directing Academy Award",
"Films whose director won the Best Director Golden Globe",
"Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing Academy Award",
"Films with screenplays by James Cameron",
"Historical epic films",
"IMAX films",
"Lightstorm Entertainment films",
"Love stories",
"Murder–suicide in films",
"Paramount Pictures films",
"Romantic drama films based on actual events",
"Romantic epic films",
"Sea adventure films",
"Seafaring films based on actual events",
"Titanic (1997 film)",
"United States National Film Registry films"
] |
Titanic is a 1997 American disaster film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. Incorporating both historical and fictionalized aspects, it is based on accounts of the sinking of in 1912. Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio star as members of different social classes who fall in love during the ship's maiden voyage. The film also features Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Gloria Stuart, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Victor Garber, David Warner, Suzy Amis and Bill Paxton.
Cameron's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks. He felt a love story interspersed with the human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began on September 1, 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer-generated imagery and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Baja Studios were used to recreate the sinking. The film was co-financed by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox; Paramount handled distribution in the United States and Canada while 20th Century Fox released the film internationally. Titanic was the most expensive film ever made at the time, with a production budget of \$200 million. Filming took place from July 1996 to March 1997.
Titanic was released on December 19, 1997. It was praised for its visual effects, performances (particularly those of DiCaprio, Winslet, and Stuart), production values, direction, score, cinematography, story and emotional depth. Among other awards, it was nominated for 14 Academy Awards and won 11, including Best Picture and Best Director, tying Ben-Hur (1959) for the most Academy Awards won by a film. With an initial worldwide gross of over \$1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion-dollar mark. It was the highest-grossing film of all time until Cameron's next film, Avatar (2009), surpassed it in 2010. A number of re-releases have pushed the film's worldwide total to \$2.257 billion, making it the second film to gross more than \$2 billion worldwide after Avatar. It was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 2017.
## Plot
In 1996, aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, Brock Lovett and his team search the wreck of RMS Titanic. They recover a safe they hope contains a necklace with a large diamond known as the Heart of the Ocean. Instead, they find only a drawing of a young nude woman wearing the necklace. The sketch is dated April 14, 1912, the same day the Titanic struck the iceberg that caused it to sink. After viewing a television news story about the discovery, centenarian Rose Dawson Calvert contacts Lovett, identifying herself as the woman in the drawing. Hoping she can help locate the necklace, Lovett brings Rose aboard Keldysh, where she recounts her experiences as a Titanic passenger.
In 1912 Southampton, 17-year-old Rose DeWitt Bukater, her wealthy fiancé Caledon "Cal" Hockley and Rose's widowed mother Ruth board the Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Rose's marrying Cal will resolve the family's financial problems and maintain their upper-class status. Meanwhile, Jack Dawson, a poor young artist, wins a third-class Titanic ticket in a poker game. After setting sail, Rose, distraught over her loveless engagement, climbs over the stern railing, intending to commit suicide. Jack coaxes her back onto the deck and they develop a friendship. Jack soon admits that he has feelings for Rose. When Cal and Ruth object, Rose rejects Jack's attentions, but returns to him after realizing she has fallen in love.
Rose brings Jack to her state room and requests he draw her nude, wearing only the Heart of the Ocean. They later evade Cal's servant, Lovejoy, and have sex in a Renault Towncar inside the cargo hold. On the forward deck, they witness the ship's collision with an iceberg and overhear its officers discussing its seriousness. Cal discovers Jack's sketch and an insulting note from Rose in his safe, along with the necklace. When Jack and Rose return to warn the others about the collision, Cal has Lovejoy slip the necklace into Jack's pocket to frame him for theft. Jack is confined in the master-at-arms' office. Cal puts the necklace into his own overcoat pocket.
With the ship sinking, the crew prioritize women and children for evacuation. Rose finds and frees Jack, and they make it back to the deck, where Cal and Jack urge Rose to board a lifeboat. Intending to save himself, Cal lies that he will get Jack safely off the ship and wraps his overcoat around Rose. As her lifeboat is lowered, Rose, unable to abandon Jack, jumps back onto the ship. Cal grabs Lovejoy's pistol and chases Jack and Rose, but they escape. Cal realizes the necklace is still in the coat he gave Rose. He poses as a lost child's father to board a lifeboat.
Jack and Rose return to the deck. The ship's stern is rising as the flooded bow sinks; the two desperately cling to the stern rail. The upended ship breaks in half and the bow section sinks. The stern slams back onto the ocean, upends again and sinks. In the freezing water, Jack helps Rose onto a wood transom panel among the debris, buoyant enough only for one person, and makes her promise to survive. Jack dies of cold shock, but Rose is among six people saved by the one returning lifeboat. rescues the survivors. Rose avoids Cal and her mother by hiding among the steerage passengers and giving her name as Rose Dawson. Still wearing Cal's overcoat, she discovers the necklace tucked inside the pocket.
In the present, Rose says she heard that Cal committed suicide after losing his fortune in the Wall Street Crash of 1929. Lovett abandons his search after hearing Rose's story. Alone on the stern of Keldysh, Rose takes the Heart of the Ocean, which has been in her possession all along, and drops it into the sea over the wreck site. While she is seemingly asleep in her bed, her photos on the dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by Jack. A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic's Grand Staircase, applauded by those who died that night.
## Cast
### Fictional characters
- Kate Winslet as Rose DeWitt Bukater. Cameron said Winslet "had the thing that you look for" and that there was "a quality in her face, in her eyes" that he "just knew people would be ready to go the distance with her". Rose is a 17-year-old girl from Philadelphia, who is forced into an engagement to 30-year-old Cal Hockley so she and her mother, Ruth, can maintain their high-class status after her father's death had left the family debt-ridden. Rose boards Titanic with Cal and Ruth, as a first-class passenger, and meets Jack. Winslet said of her character, "She has got a lot to give, and she's got a very open heart. And she wants to explore and adventure the world, but she [feels] that's not going to happen." Gwyneth Paltrow, Winona Ryder, Claire Danes, Gabrielle Anwar, and Reese Witherspoon had been considered for the role. When they turned it down, Winslet campaigned heavily for the role. She sent Cameron daily notes from England, which led Cameron to invite her to Hollywood for auditions. As with DiCaprio, casting director Mali Finn originally brought her to Cameron's attention. When looking for a Rose, Cameron described the character as "an Audrey Hepburn type" and was initially uncertain about casting Winslet even after her screen test impressed him. After she screen tested with DiCaprio, Winslet was so thoroughly impressed with him, that she whispered to Cameron, "He's great. Even if you don't pick me, pick him." Winslet sent Cameron a single rose with a card signed, "From Your Rose", and lobbied him by phone. "You don't understand!" she pleaded one day when she reached him by mobile phone in his Humvee. "I am Rose! I don't know why you're even seeing anyone else!" Her persistence, as well as her talent, eventually convinced him to cast her in the role.
- Leonardo DiCaprio as Jack Dawson. Cameron said he needed the cast to feel they were really on the Titanic, to relive its liveliness, and "to take that energy and give it to Jack, ... an artist who is able to have his heart soar". Jack is portrayed as an itinerant, poor orphan from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, who has travelled the world, including Paris. He wins two third-class tickets for the Titanic in a poker game and travels with his friend Fabrizio. He is attracted to Rose at first sight. Her fiancé's invitation to dine with them the next evening enables Jack to mix with the first-class passengers for a night. Cameron's original choice for the role was River Phoenix, however he died in 1993. Though established actors like Matthew McConaughey, Chris O'Donnell, Billy Crudup, and Stephen Dorff were considered, Cameron felt they were too old for the part of a 20-year-old. Tom Cruise was interested, but his asking price was too high. Cameron considered Jared Leto for the role, but Leto refused to audition. Jeremy Sisto did a series of screen tests with Winslet and three other actresses vying for the role of Rose. DiCaprio, 21 years old at the time, was brought to Cameron's attention by casting director Mali Finn. Initially, he did not want the role and refused to read his first romantic scene. Cameron said, "He read it once, then started goofing around, and I could never get him to focus on it again. But for one split second, a shaft of light came down from the heavens and lit up the forest." Cameron strongly believed in DiCaprio's acting ability and told him, "Look, I'm not going to make this guy brooding and neurotic. I'm not going to give him a tic and a limp and all the things you want." Cameron envisioned the character as being like those played by James Stewart or Gregory Peck. Although Jack Dawson was a fictional character, in Fairview Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where 121 victims are buried, there is a grave labeled "J. Dawson". The producers did not know of the real J. Dawson until after the film was released.
- Billy Zane as Caledon Hockley, Rose's arrogant and snobbish 30-year-old fiancé, who is the heir to a Pittsburgh steel fortune. He is resentful of Rose's affection for Jack. The part was offered to Matthew McConaughey, and Rob Lowe said he pursued it.
- Frances Fisher as Ruth DeWitt Bukater, Rose's widowed mother, who arranges Rose's engagement to Cal to maintain her family's high-society status. Like many aristocratic passengers portrayed in the film, her disposition is elitist and frivolous. She loves her daughter but believes that social position is more important than having a loving marriage. She strongly dislikes Jack, even though he saved her daughter's life.
- Gloria Stuart as the modern-day Rose Dawson Calvert. Rose narrates the film in a framing device. Cameron stated, "In order to see the present and the past, I decided to create a fictional survivor who is [close to] 101 years, and she connects us in a way through history." The 100-year-old Rose gives Lovett information regarding the "Heart of the Ocean" after he discovers a nude drawing of her in the wreck. She shares the story of her time aboard the ship, and speaks about her relationship with Jack for the first time since the sinking. At 87, Stuart had to be made up to look older for the role. Of casting Stuart, Cameron stated, "My casting director found her. She was sent out on a mission to find retired actresses from the Golden Age of the thirties and forties." Cameron said that he did not know who Stuart was, and Fay Wray was also considered for the role. "But [Stuart] was just so into it, and so lucid, and had such a great spirit. And I saw the connection between her spirit and [Winslet's] spirit," stated Cameron. "I saw this joie de vivre in both of them, that I thought the audience would be able to make that cognitive leap that it's the same person."
- Bill Paxton as Brock Lovett, a treasure hunter looking for the "Heart of the Ocean" in the wreck of the Titanic in the present. Time and funding for his expedition are running out. He reflects at the film's conclusion that, despite thinking about Titanic for three years, he has never understood it until he hears Rose's story.
- Suzy Amis as Lizzy Calvert. Rose's granddaughter, who accompanies her when she visits Lovett on the ship and learns of her grandmother's romantic past with Jack Dawson.
- Danny Nucci as Fabrizio. Jack's Italian best friend, who boards Titanic with him after Jack wins two tickets in a poker game. Fabrizio fails to board a lifeboat when the Titanic sinks and is killed when one of the ship's funnels breaks and crashes into the water, crushing him and several other passengers to death.
- David Warner as Spicer Lovejoy, an ex-Pinkerton constable and Cal's English valet and bodyguard. He monitors Rose and is suspicious about the circumstances surrounding Jack rescuing her. He dies when the Titanic splits in half, causing him to fall into a massive opening. Warner had appeared in the 1979 TV miniseries S.O.S. Titanic.
- Jason Barry as Tommy Ryan, an Irish third-class passenger who befriends Jack and Fabrizio. Tommy is killed when he is accidentally pushed forward and shot by a panicked First Officer Murdoch.
### Historical characters
Although not intended to be an entirely accurate depiction of events, the film includes portrayals of several historical figures:
- Kathy Bates as Margaret "Molly" Brown. Brown is looked down upon by other first-class women, including Ruth, as "vulgar" and "new money". She is friendly to Jack and lends him a suit of evening clothes (bought for her son) when he is invited to dinner in the first-class dining saloon. She was dubbed "The Unsinkable Molly Brown" by historians because, with the support of other women, she commandeered Lifeboat 6 from Quartermaster Robert Hichens. Some aspects of this altercation are portrayed in Cameron's film. Reba McEntire was offered the role, but had to turn it down, because it conflicted with her touring schedule.
- Victor Garber as Thomas Andrews: The ship's builder, Andrews is portrayed as a kind, decent man who is modest about his grand achievement. After the collision, he tries to convince the others, particularly Ismay, that it is a "mathematical certainty" that the ship will sink. He is depicted during the sinking of the ship as standing next to the clock in the first-class smoking room, lamenting his failure to build a strong and safe ship. Although this has become one of the most famous legends of the sinking of the Titanic, this story, which was published in a 1912 book (Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder) and therefore perpetuated, came from John Stewart, a steward on the ship who in fact left the ship in boat no.15 at approximately 1:40 a.m. There were testimonies of sightings of Andrews after that moment. It appears that Andrews stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts, then he continued assisting with the evacuation.
- Bernard Hill as Captain Edward John Smith. Smith planned to make the Titanic his final voyage before retiring. He retreats into the wheelhouse on the bridge as the ship sinks, dying when the windows burst from the water pressure whilst he clings to the ship's wheel. There are conflicting accounts as to whether he died in this manner or later froze to death in the water near the capsized collapsible lifeboat "B".
- Jonathan Hyde as J. Bruce Ismay, White Star Line's ignorant, boorish managing director. Ismay influences Captain Smith to go faster with the prospect of an earlier arrival in New York and favorable press attention; while this appears in popular portrayals of the disaster, it is unsupported by evidence. After the collision, he struggles to comprehend that his "unsinkable" ship is doomed. Ismay later boards Collapsible C (one of the last lifeboats to leave the ship) just before it is lowered. He was branded a coward by the press and public for surviving the disaster while many women and children had drowned.
- Eric Braeden as John Jacob Astor IV, a first-class passenger and the richest man on the ship. The film depicts Astor and his 18-year-old wife Madeleine (Charlotte Chatton) as being introduced to Jack by Rose in the first-class dining saloon. During the introduction, Astor asks if Jack is connected to the "Boston Dawsons", a question Jack deflects by saying that he is instead affiliated with the Chippewa Falls Dawsons. Astor is last seen as the Grand Staircase glass dome implodes and water surges in.
- Bernard Fox as Colonel Archibald Gracie IV. The film depicts Gracie making a comment to Cal that "women and machinery don't mix", and congratulating Jack for saving Rose from falling off the ship, though he is unaware that it was a suicide attempt. He is later seen offering to lead Jack and Rose to the remaining lifeboats during the sinking. Fox had portrayed Frederick Fleet in the 1958 film A Night to Remember.
- Michael Ensign as Benjamin Guggenheim, a mining magnate traveling in first-class. He shows off his French mistress Madame Aubert (Fannie Brett) to his fellow passengers while his wife and three daughters wait for him at home. When Jack joins the other first-class passengers for dinner after his rescue of Rose, Guggenheim refers to him as a "bohemian". He is seen in the flooding Grand Staircase during the sinking, saying he is prepared to go down as a gentleman.
- Jonathan Evans-Jones as Wallace Hartley, the ship's bandmaster and violinist who plays uplifting music with his colleagues on the boat deck as the ship sinks. As the final plunge begins, he leads the band in a final performance of "Nearer, My God, to Thee", to the tune of Bethany, and dies in the sinking.
- Mark Lindsay Chapman as Chief Officer Henry Wilde, the ship's chief officer, who lets Cal on board a lifeboat because he has a child in his arms. Before he dies, he tries to get the boats to return to the sinking site to rescue passengers by blowing his whistle. After he freezes to death, Rose uses his whistle to attract the attention of Fifth Officer Lowe, which leads to her rescue.
- Ewan Stewart as First Officer William Murdoch, the officer in charge of the bridge when the Titanic struck the iceberg. During a rush for the lifeboats, Murdoch shoots Tommy Ryan, as well as another passenger, in a momentary panic, then commits suicide by shooting himself in the head. When Murdoch's nephew Scott saw the film, he objected to his uncle's portrayal as damaging to Murdoch's heroic reputation. A few months later, Fox vice-president Scott Neeson went to Dalbeattie, Scotland, where Murdoch lived, to deliver a personal apology, and also presented a £5000 donation to Dalbeattie High School to boost the school's William Murdoch Memorial Prize. Cameron apologized on the DVD commentary, but stated that there were officers who fired gunshots to enforce the "women and children first" policy. According to Cameron, his depiction of Murdoch is that of an "honorable man," not of a man "gone bad" or of a "cowardly murderer." He added, "I'm not sure you'd find that same sense of responsibility and total devotion to duty today. This guy had half of his lifeboats launched before his counterpart on the port side had even launched one. That says something about character and heroism."
- Jonathan Phillips as Second Officer Charles Lightoller. Lightoller took charge of the port side evacuation. The film depicts Lightoller informing Captain Smith that it will be difficult to see icebergs without breaking water, and following the collision, suggesting the crew should begin boarding women and children to the lifeboats. He is seen brandishing a gun and threatening to use it to keep order. He can be seen on top of Collapsible B when the first funnel collapses. Lightoller was the most senior officer to have survived the disaster.
- Simon Crane as Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall, the officer in charge of firing flares and manning Lifeboat 2 during the sinking. He is shown on the bridge wings helping the seamen firing the flares.
- Ioan Gruffudd as Fifth Officer Harold Lowe, the only officer to lead a lifeboat to retrieve survivors of the sinking from the icy waters. The film depicts Lowe rescuing Rose.
- Edward Fletcher as Sixth Officer James Moody, the only junior officer to have died in the sinking. The film depicts Moody admitting Jack and Fabrizio onto the ship only moments before it departs from Southampton. Moody is later shown following Murdoch's orders to put the ship to full speed ahead, and informs Murdoch about the iceberg. He is last seen clinging to one of the davits on the starboard side after having unsuccessfully attempted to launch collapsible A.
- James Lancaster as Father Thomas Byles, a second-class passenger and a Catholic priest from England. He is portrayed praying and consoling passengers during the ship's final moments.
- Lew Palter and Elsa Raven as Isidor and Ida Straus. Isidor is a former owner of R.H. Macy and Company, a former congressman from New York, and a member of the New York and New Jersey Bridge Commission. During the sinking, the couple were offered seats on a lifeboat together. Isidor refused to go before all women and children have been evacuated, and urged his wife Ida to go ahead. Ida is portrayed refusing to board the lifeboat, saying that she will honor her wedding pledge by staying with Isidor. They are last seen lying on their bed, embracing each other as water fills their stateroom.
- Martin Jarvis as Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, a Scottish baronet who is rescued in Lifeboat 1. Lifeboats 1 and 2 were emergency boats with a capacity of 40. Situated at the forward end of the boat deck, these were kept ready to launch in case of a person falling overboard. On the night of the disaster, Lifeboat 1 was the fourth to be launched, with 12 people aboard, including Duff-Gordon, his wife and her secretary. The baronet was much criticized for his conduct during the incident. It was suggested that he had boarded the emergency boat in violation of the "women and children first" policy, and that the boat had failed to return to rescue those struggling in the water. He offered five pounds to each of the lifeboat's crew, which those critical of his conduct viewed as a bribe. The Duff-Gordons at the time (and his wife's secretary in a letter written at the time and rediscovered in 2007) stated that there had been no women or children waiting to board in the vicinity of the launching of their boat; there is confirmation that lifeboat 1 of the Titanic was almost empty, and that First Officer William Murdoch was apparently glad to offer Duff-Gordon and his wife and her secretary a place (simply to fill it) after they had asked if they could get on. Duff-Gordon denied that his offer of money to the lifeboat crew represented a bribe. The British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster accepted Duff-Gordon's denial of bribing the crew, but maintained that, if the emergency boat had rowed towards the people who were in the water, it might very well have been able to rescue some of them.
- Rosalind Ayres as Lady Duff-Gordon, a world-famous fashion designer and Sir Cosmo's wife. She is rescued in Lifeboat 1 with her husband. They never lived down rumors that they had forbidden the lifeboat's crew to return to the wreck site in case they would be swamped.
- Rochelle Rose as Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes. The Countess is shown to be friendly with Cal and the DeWitt Bukaters. Despite being of a higher status in society than Sir Cosmo and Lady Duff-Gordon, she is kind, and helps row the boat and even looks after the steerage passengers.
- Scott G. Anderson as Frederick Fleet, the lookout who saw the iceberg. Fleet escapes the sinking ship aboard Lifeboat 6.
- Paul Brightwell as Quartermaster Robert Hichens, one of the six quartermasters and at the ship's wheel at the time of collision. He is in charge of lifeboat 6. He refuses to go back and pick up survivors after the sinking and eventually the boat is commandeered by Molly Brown.
- Martin East as Reginald Lee, the other lookout in the crow's nest. He survives the sinking.
- Gregory Cooke as Jack Phillips, the senior wireless operator whom Captain Smith ordered to send the distress signal.
- Craig Kelly as Harold Bride, a junior wireless operator.
- Liam Tuohy as Chief Baker Charles Joughin. The baker appears in the film helping Rose stand up after she falls, following her and Jack to the ship's stern, and finally hanging onto the ship's railing as it sinks, drinking brandy from a flask. According to the real Joughin's testimony, he rode the ship down and stepped into the water without getting his hair wet. He also admitted to hardly feeling the cold, most likely thanks to alcohol. In a deleted scene, he's shown throwing deckchairs overboard before taking a drink from his bottle.
- Terry Forrestal as Chief Engineer Joseph G. Bell: Bell and his men worked until the last minute to keep the lights and the power on in order for distress signals to get out. Bell and all of the engineers died in the bowels of the Titanic.
### Cameos
Several crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear, including Anatoly Sagalevich, the creator and pilot of the Mir self-propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle. Anders Falk, who filmed a documentary about the film's sets for the Titanic Historical Society, makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda, then President and Vice President of the Society, who served as film consultants, were cast as extras in the film.
## Pre-production
### Writing and inspiration
James Cameron has long had a fascination with shipwrecks, and for him Titanic was "the Mount Everest of shipwrecks". He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition, but said he still had "a mental restlessness" to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college. When an IMAX film, Titanica, was made from footage shot of the Titanic wreck, Cameron decided to seek Hollywood funding for his own expedition. It was "not because I particularly wanted to make the movie," Cameron said. "I wanted to dive to the shipwreck."
Cameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film, met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin, and pitched it as "Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic". Cameron said the executives were unconvinced of the commercial potential, and had instead hoped for action scenes similar to his previous films. They approved the project as they hoped for a long-term relationship with Cameron.
Cameron convinced Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck, and organized several dives over a period of two years. He also convinced Fox that shooting the real wreck for the film scenes, instead of simulating it with special effects, would provide value: "We can either do [the shots] with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that, which will cost X amount of money – or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck."
The crew shot at the wreck in the Atlantic Ocean 12 times in 1995. The work was risky, as the water pressure could kill the crew if there were a tiny flaw in the submersible structure. Additionally, adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting footage. During one dive, one of the submersibles collided with Titanic's hull, damaging both sub and ship, and leaving fragments of the submersible's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. The external bulkhead of the captain's quarters collapsed, exposing the interior, and the area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was damaged.
Descending to the site emphasized to the crew that the Titanic disaster was not simply a story but a real event with real loss of life. Cameron said: "Working around the wreck for so much time, you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it, and the message of it." He felt a "great mantle of responsibility" to convey the emotional message of the story, as he was aware there might never be another filmmaker to visit the wreck.
Cameron felt the Titanic sinking was "like a great novel that really happened", but that the event had become a mere morality tale; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history. The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy. He believed that the romance of Jack and Rose would be the most engaging element: when their love is finally destroyed, the audience would mourn the loss. He said: "All my films are love stories, but in Titanic I finally got the balance right. It's not a disaster film. It's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history."
After filming the underwater shots, Cameron began writing the screenplay. He wanted to honor the people who died, and spent six months researching the Titanic's crew and passengers. He created a detailed timeline of the events of the voyage and sinking and had it verified by historical experts. From the beginning of the shoot, the team had "a very clear picture" of what happened on the ship. Cameron said. "That set the bar higher in a way – it elevated the movie in a sense. We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you'd gone back in a time machine and shot it." Cameron was influenced by the 1958 British film about Titanic, A Night to Remember, which he had seen as a youth. He liberally copied some dialogue and scenes, including the lively party of the passengers in steerage, and the musicians playing on the deck during the sinking.
Cameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant. While Winslet and Stuart believed Rose dies at the end of the film, Cameron said "the answer has to be something you supply personally; individually".
### Scale modeling
Harland and Wolff, Titanic's builders, opened their private archives to the crew, sharing blueprints that were previously thought lost. For the ship's interiors, production designer Peter Lamont's team looked for artifacts from the era. The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch. Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico, and began building a new studio on May 31, 1996. A horizon tank of 17 million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship, providing 270 degrees of ocean view. The ship was built to full scale, but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank, with the remaining sections filled with digital models. The lifeboats and funnels were shrunk by ten percent. The boat deck and A-deck were working sets, but the rest of the ship was steel plating. Within was a 50-foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences. The 60-foot 1/8th scale model of the stern section was designed by the naval architect Jay Kantola using plans of the Titanic's sister ship . Above the model was a 162-foot-tall (49 m) tower crane on 600 feet (180 m) of rail track, acting as a combined construction, lighting, and camera platform.
The sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly using photographs and plans from the Titanic's builders. The Grand Staircase, which features prominently in the film, was recreated to a high standard, though it was widened 30% compared to the original and reinforced with steel girders. Craftsmen from Mexico and Britain sculpted the ornate paneling and plaster-work based on Titanic's original designs. The carpeting, upholstery, individual pieces of furniture, light fixtures, chairs, cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece were among the objects recreated according to original designs. Cameron hired two Titanic historians, Don Lynch and Ken Marschall, to authenticate the historical detail.
## Production
Principal photography began on July 31, 1996 at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, with the modern-day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh. In September 1996, the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios in Rosarito, Mexico, where a full-scale Titanic had been constructed. The poop deck was built on a hinge that could rise from zero to 90 degrees in a few seconds, just as the ship's stern rose during the sinking. For the safety of the stuntmen, many props were made of foam rubber. By November 15, the boarding scenes were being shot. Cameron built his Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data revealed it was a prevailing north-to-south wind, which blew the funnel smoke aft. This posed a problem for shooting the ship's departure from Southampton, as it was docked on its port side. Implementation of written directions, as well as props and costumes, had to be reversed; for example, if someone walked to their right in the script, they had to walk left during shooting. In post-production, the film was flipped to the correct direction. A full-time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast in the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912. Despite this, several critics noted anachronisms in the film.
Cameron sketched Jack's nude portrait of Rose for a scene which he feels has the backdrop of repression. "You know what it means for her, the freedom she must be feeling. It's kind of exhilarating for that reason," he said. The nude scene was DiCaprio and Winslet's first scene together. "It wasn't by any kind of design, although I couldn't have designed it better. There's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them," Cameron stated. "They had rehearsed together, but they hadn't shot anything together. If I'd had a choice, I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot." Cameron said he and his crew "were just trying to find things to shoot" because the big set "wasn't ready for months, so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot." Cameron felt the final scene worked well.
The shoot was an arduous experience that "cemented Cameron's formidable reputation as 'the scariest man in Hollywood". He became known as an "uncompromising, hard-charging perfectionist" and a "300-decibel screamer, a modern-day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie-talkie, swooping down into people's faces on a 162ft crane". Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m-gallon water tank in which the ship would sink. "There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him. Jim has a temper like you wouldn't believe," she said. "'God damn it!' he would yell at some poor crew member, 'That's exactly what I didn't want!'" Bill Paxton was familiar with Cameron's work ethic from his earlier experience, and said: "There were a lot of people on the set. Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds." The crew felt Cameron had an evil alter ego and so nicknamed him "Mij" (Jim spelled backwards). In response to the criticism, Cameron said, "Film-making is war. A great battle between business and aesthetics." More than 800 crew members worked on the film, a large number for any Hollywood production.
On August 9, 1996, during the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada, an unknown person, likely a crew member, put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. It sent more than 50 people to the hospital, including Paxton. "There were people just rolling around, completely out of it. Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics," said actor Lewis Abernathy. Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold. Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked. "One eye was completely red, like the Terminator eye. A pupil, no iris, beet red. The other eye looked like he'd been sniffing glue since he was four." The Nova Scotia Department of Health confirmed that the soup had contained PCP on August 27, and the Halifax Regional Police Service announced a criminal investigation the next day. The investigation was closed in February 1999. The person behind the poisoning was never caught.
The filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160 (officially wrapped on March 23, 1997). Many cast members came down with colds, flu, or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water, including Winslet. In the end, she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned "a lot of money". Several others left the production, and three stuntmen broke their bones, but the Screen Actors Guild decided, following an investigation, that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set. Additionally, DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming. Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets, although he acknowledged:
> I'm demanding, and I'm demanding on my crew. In terms of being kind of militaresque, I think there's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe. I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people.
The costs of filming Titanic ballooned and eventually reached \$200 million, a bit over \$1 million per minute of screen time. Fox executives panicked and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three-hour film. They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings, thus less revenue, even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars. Cameron refused, telling Fox, "You want to cut my movie? You're going to have to fire me! You want to fire me? You're going to have to kill me!" The executives did not want to start over, because it would mean the loss of their entire investment, but they also initially rejected Cameron's offer of forfeiting his share of the profits as an empty gesture, as they predicted profits would be unlikely. Worried about the mounting costs, Fox wanted to find a partner studio to co-finance the film; Fox approached Paramount Pictures in May 1996, and the two studios agreed to split the costs and distribution rights. Fox retained the international distribution rights and sold the domestic rights to Paramount in return for \$65 million, in an effort to recoup their investment.
Cameron explained forfeiting his share as complex. "... the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than T2 and True Lies. Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget. Titanic also had a large budget to begin with, but it went up a lot more," he said. "As the producer and director, I take responsibility for the studio that's writing the checks, so I made it less painful for them. I did that on two different occasions. They didn't force me to do it; they were glad that I did."
## Post-production
### Effects
Cameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects, and enlisted Digital Domain and Pacific Data Images to continue the developments in digital technology he pioneered on The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing. Cameron encouraged his crew to shoot their 45-foot-long (14 m) miniature of the ship as if "we're making a commercial for the White Star Line". Afterwards, digital water and smoke were added, as were extras captured on a motion capture stage. Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors, including himself and his children, for the digital extras and stuntmen. There was also a 65-foot-long (20 m) model of the ship's stern that could break in two repeatedly, the only miniature to be used in water. For scenes set in the ship's engines, footage of the SS Jeremiah O'Brien's engines were composited with miniature support frames, and actors shot against a greenscreen. In order to save money, the first-class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop behind the actors. The miniature of the Lounge would later be crushed to simulate the destruction of the room and a scale model of a First-Class corridor flooded with jets of water while the camera pans out.
An enclosed 5,000,000-US-gallon (19,000,000 L) tank was used for sinking interiors, in which the entire set could be tilted into the water. In order to sink the Grand Staircase, 90,000 US gallons (340,000 L) of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank. Unexpectedly, the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel-reinforced foundations, although no one was hurt. The 744-foot-long (227 m) exterior of Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank, but as the heaviest part of the ship it acted as a shock absorber against the water; to get the set into the water, Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself. After submerging the dining saloon, three days were spent shooting Lovett's ROV traversing the wreck in the present. The post-sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350,000-US-gallon (1,300,000 L) tank, where the frozen corpses were created by applying on actors a powder that crystallized when exposed to water, and wax was coated on hair and clothes.
The climactic scene, which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic, involved a tilting full-sized set, 150 extras, and 100 stunt performers. Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the liner's final plunge as a graceful slide underwater. He "wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was". When carrying out the sequence, people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck, plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down. A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt people resulted in some minor injuries, and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts. The risks were eventually minimized "by using computer-generated people for the dangerous falls".
A Linux-based operating system was utilized for the creation of the effects.
### Editing
Cameron said there were aspects of the Titanic story that seemed important in pre- and post-production, but became less important as the film evolved. He omitted the SS Californian, the ship that was close to the Titanic the night she sank but had turned off its radio for the night, did not hear her crew's SOS calls, and did not respond to their distress flares. A scene involving the Californian was cut, according to Cameron, "because it focuses you back onto that world. If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor, as a microcosm, for the end of the world in a sense, then that world must be self-contained." He said its omission was not "a compromise to mainstream filmmaking" but "about emphasis, creating an emotional truth to the film".
During the first assembly cut, Cameron altered the ending. In the original version, Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat and fear she is going to commit suicide. Rose reveals that she had the Heart of the Ocean diamond all along but never sold it, to live on her own without Cal's money. She allows Brock to hold it, but tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean. After accepting that treasure is worthless, Brock laughs at his stupidity. In the editing room, Cameron decided that by this point, the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the scene, so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond. He also did not want to disrupt the audience's melancholy after the Titanic's sinking. Paxton agreed that his scene with Brock's epiphany and laugh was unnecessary: "I would have shot heroin to make the scene work better ... You didn't really need anything from us. Our job was done by then ... If you're smart and you take the ego and the narcissism out of it, you'll listen to the film, and the film will tell you what it needs and what it does not need."
The version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon. The scene was written to give the film more suspense, and had Cal offering to give Lovejoy, his valet, the Heart of the Ocean if he can get it from Jack and Rose. Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first-class dining room. Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a window; this is why Lovejoy has a gash later in the film. Test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one's life for wealth, and Cameron cut it for this reason, as well as for timing and pacing reasons. Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons.
### Heart of the Ocean
For the Heart of the Ocean design, London-based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold to create an Edwardian-style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. The studio designed and produced three variations, very similar but unique and distinguishable in character. Two of them were used in the film while the third went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace and the Asprey necklace.
The third and final design was not used in the film. After the film's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum-set, 171-carat (34.2 g) heart-shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds. This design featured a much larger inverted pear-shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client for \$1.4 million, under the agreement that Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. This necklace has since not been made available for public viewing.
## Soundtrack
Cameron wrote Titanic while listening to the work of the Irish new-age musician Enya. After Enya declined an invitation to compose for the film, Cameron instead chose James Horner. The two had parted ways after a tumultuous working experience on Aliens, but Titanic cemented a successful collaboration that lasted until Horner's death. For the vocals heard throughout the film, Horner chose the Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø, commonly known as "Sissel". Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen, and particularly liked how she sang "Eg veit i himmerik ei borg" ("I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle"). He tried around 30 singers before choosing Sissel.
Horner wrote the end theme, "My Heart Will Go On", in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs in the film. Céline Dion agreed to record a demo at the persuasion of her husband René Angélil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, although worried that he would have been criticized for "going commercial at the end of the movie". Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and "saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion".
## Release
### Initial screening
Distribution for the film was split between Paramount and Fox; the former handling the distribution in the United States and Canada, and the latter handling the international release. Both studios expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2, 1997. The film was to be released on this date "to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better". In April, Cameron said the film's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film on that date would not be possible. The studios considered pushing the film to late July or the first week of August, but Harrison Ford, whose film Air Force One was to be released on July 25, is reported to have informed Paramount, which had produced his lucrative Indiana Jones and Jack Ryan franchises, that he would never work with them again if they released Titanic so close to his own film. On May 29, 1997, Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19, 1997. "This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster." A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 "generated positive reviews" and "[c]hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the [film]". This eventually led to more positive media coverage.
Cameron refused to hold the film's world premiere in Los Angeles. Paramount disagreed with Cameron's decision, but Fox acquiesced and went ahead and held the premiere on November 1, 1997, at the Tokyo International Film Festival, where reaction was described as "tepid" by The New York Times. Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14, 1997, where "the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media".
## Box office
Including revenue from the 2012, 2017 and 2023 reissues, Titanic earned \$674.3 million in North America and \$1.583 billion in other countries, for a worldwide total of \$2.257 billion. It became the highest-grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998, beating Jurassic Park (1993). The film remained so for twelve years, until Avatar (2009), also written and directed by Cameron, surpassed it in 2010. On March 1, 1998, it became the first film to earn more than \$1 billion worldwide and on the weekend April 13–15, 2012—a century after the original vessel's foundering, Titanic became the second film to cross the \$2 billion threshold during its 3D re-release. Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth-highest-grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation. The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
Titanic was the first foreign-language film to succeed in India, which claims to have the largest movie-going audience in the world. A Hindustan Times report attributes this to the film's similarities and shared themes with most Bollywood films.
### Initial theatrical run
The film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday, December 19, 1997. By the end of that same weekend, theaters were beginning to sell out. The film earned \$8,658,814 on its opening day and \$28,638,131 over the opening weekend from 2,674 theaters, averaging to about \$10,710 per venue, and ranking number one at the box office, ahead of Mouse Hunt, Scream 2 and the eighteenth James Bond film, Tomorrow Never Dies. It would go on to surpass The Godfather Part III's record for having the highest Christmas Day gross, generating a total of \$9.2 million. For its second weekend, the film made \$35.6 million, making it the biggest December weekend gross, surpassing Scream 2. By New Year's Day, Titanic had made over \$120 million, had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out. In just 44 days, it became the fastest film to approach the \$300 million mark at the domestic box office, surpassing the former record held by Jurassic Park, which took 67 days to do so. Titanic would hold this record until 1999 when it was taken by Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.
Its highest grossing single day was Saturday, February 14, 1998, on which it earned \$13,048,711, more than eight weeks after its North American debut. On March 14, it surpassed Star Wars as the highest-grossing film ever in North America. It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America, a record for any film. By April 1998, the film's number one spot would be overtaken by Lost in Space, dropping into second place. The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday, October 1, 1998, with a final domestic gross of \$600,788,188, equivalent to \$ million in . Outside North America, the film made double its North American gross, generating \$1,242,413,080 and accumulating a grand total of \$1,843,201,268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run.
### Commercial analysis
Before Titanic's release, various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, especially since it was the most expensive film ever made at the time. When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997, "it was with massive forebodings", since the "people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs – because of this great albatross of a picture on which, finally, two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making". Cameron also thought he was "headed for disaster" at one point during filming. "We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose \$100 million. It was a certainty," he stated. As the film neared release, "particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance". A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that "Cameron's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project" and that the film was "a hackneyed, completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances".
When the film became a success, with an unprecedented box-office performance, it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers' emotions. The film was playing on 3,200 screens ten weeks after it opened, and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts, jumped 43% in total sales in its ninth week of release. It earned over \$20 million for each of its first 10 weekends, and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than \$1 million on weekdays. 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week. Although young women who saw the film several times and subsequently caused "Leo-Mania" were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all-time box office record, other reports have attributed the film's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground-breaking special effects. The Hollywood Reporter estimated that after a combined production and promotion cost of \$487 million, the film turned a net profit of \$1.4 billion, with a modern profit of as much as \$4 billion after ancillary sources.
Titanic's impact on men has also been especially credited. It is considered one of the films that make men cry, with MSNBC's Ian Hodder stating that men admire Jack's sense of adventure and his ambitious behavior to win over Rose, which contributes to their emotional attachment to Jack. The film's ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland, where character Tallahassee (Woody Harrelson), when recalling the death of his young son, states: "I haven't cried like that since Titanic."
In 2010, the BBC analyzed the stigma over men crying during Titanic and films in general. "Middle-aged men are not 'supposed' to cry during movies," stated Finlo Rohrer of the website, citing the ending of Titanic as having generated such tears, adding that "men, if they have felt weepy during [this film], have often tried to be surreptitious about it." Professor Mary Beth Oliver, of Penn State University, stated, "For many men, there is a great deal of pressure to avoid expression of 'female' emotions like sadness and fear. From a very young age, males are taught that it is inappropriate to cry, and these lessons are often accompanied by a great deal of ridicule when the lessons aren't followed." Rohrer said, "Indeed, some men who might sneer at the idea of crying during Titanic will readily admit to becoming choked up during Saving Private Ryan or Platoon." For men in general, "the idea of sacrifice for a 'brother' is a more suitable source of emotion".
Scott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense, given its success, it is considered a film "for 15-year-old girls" by its main detractors. He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for teenage girls fails to consider the film's accomplishment: "that [this] grandiose, 3+ hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone—including teenage boys." Meslow stated that despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18, matching the ratings for teenage boy-targeted films like Iron Man, it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic. He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it. "It's this collection of elements—the history, the romance, the action—that made (and continues to make) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe," he stated. "Titanic has flaws, but for all its legacy, it's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe. It's a great movie for 15-year-old girls, but that doesn't mean it's not a great movie for everyone else too."
Quotes in the film aided its popularity. Titanic's catchphrase "I'm the king of the world!" became one of the film industry's more popular quotations. According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University, who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. "People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh", he said.
Cameron explained the film's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing. "When people have an experience that's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it," he said. "They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. That's how Titanic worked." Media Awareness Network stated, "The normal repeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5%. The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20%." The box office receipts "were even more impressive" when factoring in "the film's 3-hour-and-14-minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie's four showings". In response to this, "[m]any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3:30 am".
Titanic held the record for box office gross for 12 years. Cameron's follow-up film, Avatar, was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross, and did so in 2010. Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given. For one, "Two-thirds of Titanic's haul was earned overseas, and Avatar [tracked] similarly ... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no. 1 in all of them" and the markets "such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white-hot today" with "more screens and moviegoers" than ever before. Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, said that while Avatar may beat Titanic's revenue record, the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. "Ticket prices were about \$3 cheaper in the late 1990s." In December 2009, Cameron had stated, "I don't think it's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch. Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years. Titanic just struck some kind of chord." In a January 2010 interview, he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar's performance was easier to predict. "It's gonna happen. It's just a matter of time," he said.
Author Alexandra Keller, when analyzing Titanic's success, stated that scholars could agree that the film's popularity "appears dependent on contemporary culture, on perceptions of history, on patterns of consumerism and globalization, as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s – awesome screen spectacle, expansive action, and, more rarely seen, engaging characters and epic drama."
## Critical reception
### Initial
Titanic garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics, and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars, who commented on the film's cultural, historical, and political impacts. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 250 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A mostly unqualified triumph for James Cameron, who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old-fashioned melodrama." Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on 35 critics, reports the film has "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A+" grade, one of fewer than 60 films in the history of the service from 1982 to 2011 to earn the score.
With regard to the film's overall design, Roger Ebert stated: "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding ... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all, but almost impossible to make well." He credited the "technical difficulties" with being "so daunting that it's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion" and "found [himself] convinced by both the story and the sad saga". He named it his ninth-best film of 1997. On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film received "two thumbs up" and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship's sinking; Ebert described the film as "a glorious Hollywood epic" and "well worth the wait," and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio "captivating".
James Berardinelli stated: "Meticulous in detail, yet vast in scope and intent, Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity. You don't just watch Titanic, you experience it." It was named his second best film of 1997. Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded: "To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short. James Cameron's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the 'unsinkable' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood."
The romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised. Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said: "You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time, but of its enormous emotive power, big as the engines of the ship itself, determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart, and as lasting as the love story that propels it." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as "a lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom. Writer-director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking." Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that "Cameron's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind." Adrian Turner of Radio Times awarded it four stars out of five, stating "Cameron's script wouldn't have sustained Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh for 80 minutes, but, somehow, he and his magical cast revive that old-style studio gloss for three riveting hours. Titanic is a sumptuous assault on the emotions, with a final hour that fully captures the horror and the freezing, paralysing fear of the moment. And there are single shots, such as an awesome albatross-like swoop past the steaming ship, when you sense Cameron hugging himself with the fun of it all."
Titanic suffered backlash in addition to its success. Some reviewers felt that while the visuals were spectacular, the story and dialogue were weak. Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote a mostly negative review, criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements. Kenneth Turan's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he stated, "What really brings on the tears is Cameron's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only is it not, it is not even close." He later argued that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total. Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying, "The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two [lead characters] refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say."
### Retrospective
According to Dalin Rowell of /Film, "With complaints about its lengthy runtime, observations that certain characters could have easily fit onto pieces of floating furniture, and jokes about its melodramatic nature, Titanic is no stranger to modern-day criticism." In 2002, filmmaker Robert Altman called it "the most dreadful piece of work I've ever seen in my entire life". Similarly, French New Wave director and former Cahiers du Cinéma editor Jacques Rivette referred to it as "garbage" in a 1998 interview with Frédéric Bonnaud and was particularly critical of Winslet's performance, who he said was "unwatchable, the most slovenly girl to appear on the screen in a long, long time." In 2003, the film topped a poll of "Best Film Endings", but it also topped a poll by Film 2003 as "the worst movie of all time".
In his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic, historian Richard Davenport-Hines said, "Cameron's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English, anathematizing their emotional restraint, good tailoring, punctilious manners and grammatical training, while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered." The British film magazine Empire reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review, to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition, to accommodate its readers' tastes, who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film, and the reported activities of its fans, such as those attending multiple screenings. In addition to this, positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet, often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film. Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film. "What really irks me ...," he said, "are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it." Willcock stated, "I obviously don't have anything against those who dislike Titanic, but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so (and they do exist, trust me) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy."
In 1998, Cameron responded to the backlash, and Kenneth Turan's review in particular, by writing "Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off. They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3-hour and 14-minute chunk out of their lives, and dragging others with them, so they can share the emotion." Cameron emphasized that people from all ages (ranging from 8 to 80) and from all backgrounds were "celebrating their own essential humanity" by seeing it. He described the script as earnest and straightforward, and said it intentionally "incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless – and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric" and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes. He did not see it as pandering. "Turan mistakes archetype for cliché," he said. "I don't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience, or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration."
In 2000, Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that "the critical knives were out long before James Cameron's Titanic was complete. Spiralling costs that led to it becoming the most expensive motion picture of the 20th Century, and a cast without any big stars seemed to doom the film before release. But box office and audience appreciation proved Cameron right and many critics wrong." He added that "the sinking of the great ship is no secret, yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy" and that "when you consider that [the film] tops a bum-numbing three-hour running time, then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron". Empire eventually reinstated its original five-star rating of the film, commenting: "It should be no surprise[,] then[,] that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet's favourite film. Ever."
In 2017, on the 20th anniversary of its release, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It was listed among the 100 best films in an Empire poll and in a later poll of members of the film industry. In 2021, Dalin Rowell of /Film ranked it the third-best film of Cameron's career, stating that it is "easily one of his best films, simply because it defied the odds", and considering it "a legitimately remarkable achievement — one that, despite its large budget, has a humble, earnest center. Even with all of the jokes the Internet loves to throw its way, Titanic demonstrates that Cameron is truly capable of everything he can imagine."
## Accolades
At the Golden Globes, Titanic won Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song. Winslet and Stuart were also nominated. The film garnered fourteen Academy Award nominations, tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz's All About Eve and won eleven: Best Picture (the second film about the Titanic to win that award, after 1933's Cavalcade), Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound (Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano), Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, Best Original Song. Winslet, Stuart and the make-up artists were nominated, but lost to Helen Hunt in As Good as It Gets, Kim Basinger in L.A. Confidential and Men in Black. Titanic was the second film to receive eleven Academy Awards, after Ben-Hur (1959). The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King matched the record in 2004.
Titanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as four Grammy Awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television, and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. The soundtrack became the best-selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time, spending sixteen weeks at number-one in the United States, and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone. It was also the best-selling album of 1998 in the US. "My Heart Will Go On" won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television.
Titanic also won various awards outside the United States, including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year. It eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty-seven nominations from various award-giving bodies around the world. The book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times' bestseller list for several weeks, "the first time that such a tie-in book had achieved this status".
Titanic has appeared on the American Film Institute's award-winning 100 Years ... series six times.
## Home media
Titanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS on September 1, 1998. More than \$50 million was spent to market the home video release of the film. Both VHS formats were also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie. In the first 3 months, the film sold 25 million copies in North America with a total sales value of \$500 million becoming the best selling live-action video, beating Independence Day. In that time, it sold 58 million copies worldwide, outselling The Lion King for a total worldwide revenue of \$995 million. By March 2005, the film has sold 8 million DVD and 59 million VHS units. In the United Kingdom, the film sold 1.1 million copies on its first day of release, making it the country's fastest-selling home video release. It would hold this record until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in May 2002 when that film sold 1.2 million home video units during its first day. Within the first week of release, Titanic quickly beat The Full Monty, selling a total of 1.8 million home video copies.
A DVD version was released on August 31, 1999, in a widescreen-only (non-anamorphic) single-disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later. This release became the best-selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000, becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies. At the time, less than 5% of all U.S. homes had a DVD player. "When we released the original Titanic DVD, the industry was much smaller, and bonus features were not the standard they are now," said Meagan Burrows, Paramount's president of domestic home entertainment, which made the film's DVD performance even more impressive.
Titanic was re-released to DVD on October 25, 2005, when a three-disc Special Collector's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada. This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film, a 6.1 DTS-ES Discrete surround sound mix and various special features. In PAL regions, two-disc and four-disc variants were released, marketed as the Special Edition and Deluxe Collector's Edition respectively. They were released in the United Kingdom on November 7, 2005. A limited 5-disc set of the film, under the title Deluxe Limited Edition, was also only released in the United Kingdom with only 10,000 copies manufactured. The fifth disc contains Cameron's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss, which contained two discs, only the first disc was included in the set. In 2007, for the film's tenth anniversary, a 10th Anniversary Edition was released on DVD, which consists of the first two discs from the three-disc 2005 set containing the movie and the special features on those discs.
The film was released on Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on September 10, 2012. The 3D presentation of the film is split over two discs and is also THX-certified. Special features on another disc included many of those featured on the 2005 Special Collector's Edition DVD along with two new documentaries titled "Reflections on Titanic" and "Titanic: The Final Word with James Cameron." The latter aired on National Geographic on April 9, 2012 and was executively produced by Cameron.
## Re-releases
### 3D conversion
A 2012 3D re-release was created by re-mastering the original to 4K resolution and post-converting to stereoscopic 3D format. The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and \$18 million to produce, including the 4K restoration. The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D. Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process. The only scene entirely redone for the re-release was Rose's view of the night sky at sea on the morning of April 15, 1912. The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night-sky star pattern, including the Milky Way, adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912. The change was prompted by the astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who had criticized the unrealistic star pattern. He agreed to send Cameron a corrected view of the sky, which was the basis of the new scene.
The 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27, 2012, with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance, and entered general release on April 4, 2012, six days before the centenary of Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage.
Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue 3+1⁄2 stars out of 4, explaining he found it "pretty damn dazzling". He said, "The 3D intensifies Titanic. You are there. Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule." Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade. He wrote, "For once, the visuals in a 3-D movie don't look darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive." Richard Corliss of Time, who was very critical in 1997, remained in the same mood: "I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water-logged." In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the "careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments ... [but] in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels." Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking "whether the film's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron's 3-D conversion, and the answer to that is: They aren't." She added that the "3-D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy, not to mention odd moments in framing and composition."
The film grossed an estimated \$4.7 million on the first day of its re-release in North America (including midnight preview showings) and went on to make \$17.3 million over the weekend, finishing in third place behind The Hunger Games and American Reunion. Outside North America it earned \$35.2 million, finishing second, and it improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with \$98.9 million. China has proven to be its most successful territory, where it earned \$11.6 million on its opening day, going on to earn a record-breaking \$67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run.
The reissue earned \$343.4 million worldwide, with \$145 million coming from China and \$57.8 million from Canada and the United States. With a worldwide box office of nearly \$350 million, the 3D re-release of Titanic remains the highest grossing re-released film of all time, ahead of The Lion King, Star Wars, and Avatar.
The 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories, which allows the audience to experience the film's environment using motion, wind, fog, lighting and scent-based special effects.
### 20th anniversary
For the 20th anniversary of the film, Titanic was re-released in cinemas in Dolby Vision (in both 2D and 3D) for one week beginning December 1, 2017.
### 25th anniversary
Titanic was re-released in theaters by Paramount domestically and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (through the 20th Century Studios label) internationally on February 10, 2023, in a remastered 3D 4K HDR render, with high frame rate, as part of the film's 25th anniversary. For this version, the international prints update 20th Century's logo with the studio's current name, as a result of Disney's 2019 acquisition of the studio.
## Titanic Live
Titanic Live was a live performance of James Horner's original score by a 130-piece orchestra, choir and Celtic musicians, accompanying a showing of the film. In April 2015, Titanic Live premiered at the Royal Albert Hall, London, where the 2012 3D re-release had premiered.
## Merchandise
- In 1998, an official tie-in CD-ROM game was released, titled James Cameron's Titanic Explorer. The educational game covered the history of the vessel's construction, maiden voyage and sinking, as well as the discovery and exploration of the wreck. The game included deleted footage from the film and extensive 360-degree video footage of the film's sets.
- In 2020, a board game based on the film, titled Titanic: The Game, was released by Spin Master Games.
## See also
- List of Academy Award records
- Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture
|
62,684,433 |
Arijský boj
| 1,163,623,650 |
Fascist Czech newspaper (1940–1945)
|
[
"1940 establishments in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia",
"1945 disestablishments in Czechoslovakia",
"Antisemitism in the Czech Republic",
"Czech-language newspapers",
"Nazi newspapers",
"The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia",
"Weekly newspapers"
] |
Arijský boj ("Aryan Struggle") was a pro-Nazi Czech-language weekly tabloid newspaper published between May 1940 and May 1945 in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Inspired by the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, the newspaper made antisemitism its main theme and was also critical of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile. Denunciations published by the newspaper contributed to the isolation of Jews during the first years of the Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia.
## Background
Antisemitism and fascism, as represented in the newspaper, were the fringe of opinion among Czechs, but gained in popularity after the 1938 Munich Agreement forced Czechoslovakia to cede the Sudetenland to Nazi Germany. The paper's antecedent was another newspaper Štít národa (Shield of the Nation), which started to publish soon after the German occupation of the Czech rump state in March 1939, which established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Arijský boj began to publish in May 1940, in tabloid format, publishing weekly on Saturdays. Its slogan was "Proti Židům pravdou a činy!" (Against the Jews with truth and deeds). Inspired by Der Stürmer, the newspaper made antisemitism its main theme. In a letter to Emanuel Moravec, editor-in-chief Rudolf Novák stated: "Our paper spreads throughout the Czech countryside an antidote against Benešite whispered propaganda... In a reporting fashion... we expose local Jew-lovers, Benešites, and the like." It was the official organ of the Vlajka Czech fascist movement.
## Contributors
Rudolf Novák [sv] (1890–1947), who had been imprisoned in Austria-Hungary for his activism in the Czech National Social Party and served in the Czechoslovak Legion, was the editor-in-chief of the newspaper from early 1941. Novák managed to increase the newspaper's circulation to 16,000 by employing a "ruthless, tabloid writing style". Jan Vladimir Břetenář, another ex-legionnaire fascist, was originally the publisher. However, he was arrested by the Gestapo in December 1940 and deported to Dachau concentration camp; ownership passed to his daughter, Olga. Other contributors included Vladimír Krychtálek, Karel Lažnovský, and Emanuel Vajtauer.
## Content
The main theme of the newspaper was antisemitism and criticism of "Jew-lovers". It also promoted Nazism and collaboration with the Nazis and criticized both the interwar Czechoslovak government and the Czechoslovak government-in-exile. In practice, this was two sides of the same coin because Arijský boj claimed that the democratic Czechoslovak government had been nothing more than "little Palestine" and had been preceded by "Jew-Habsburg Austria". The government-in-exile was supposedly dominated by Jews, such as Jaroslav Stránský [cs], the minister of justice, whose grandfather had converted to Christianity. Arijský boj attacked celebrities and organizations which it felt were insufficiently enthusiastic about the German occupation, accusing other newspapers of keeping "two irons in the fire". Those with a "Janus head" were threatened with denunciation. Simultaneously, the newspaper promoted fascist and antisemitic associations.
The first page contained criticism of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile, often employing fabricated stories involving fictional mistresses. The article "Alice Masaryk's Harem" accuses the former president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk's daughter of being a lesbian who kept a harem in Carpathian Ruthenia, while simultaneously having a fetish for Jewish men. The newspaper also published "bizarre antisemitic ramblings"; headlines included "Stalin: 'Slavic' Jew", "Jews – parasites", and "The Jew wanted this war". Blood libel allegations were resuscitated, and antisemitic theories of individuals such as Houston Stewart Chamberlain were profiled. The newspaper also agitated for anti-Jewish measures.
In December 1942, following the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations against Nazi Germany's ongoing extermination of European Jews, Arijský boj claimed in an article title that "The Jewish Mischling [half-breed] Masaryk, Jr., threatens from London". In another article two weeks later, the paper recommended continued support for the persecution of Jews despite the threat of prosecution after the war and information from foreign radio that the Jews deported from the Protectorate were being systematically murdered. The antisemitic content and promotion of collaboration did not decrease, even after it became clear that Germany would lose the war. In 1944, several contributors to the magazine, including Novák, published a book titled "Protižidovská čítanka" (Anti-Jewish Reader). In March 1945, Novák claimed that antisemitism was victorious and that "The great significance of 15 March 1939 [German occupation of Czechoslovakia] lies... in the fact that we got rid of the Jews forever!"
## Denunciations
The "Floodlight" section on the third page was dedicated to insults and denunciations against specific Jews and non-Jews, usually with addresses and threats. The newspaper solicited denunciations of Jews and non-Jews who failed to follow anti-Jewish regulations or were insufficiently pro-Nazi from its readership, making it easier for Czechs to make denunciations without going directly to Nazi institutions. "Write us, call (our telephone number is 313-75), visit us. Take part actively in the purifying anti-Jewish struggle." In his postwar trial for collaboration, Novák estimated that he had received 60 such letters daily and it was not possible to print them all. The Czech police investigated all of these denunciations and some of the victims of denunciations were arrested by the Gestapo and deported to concentration camps. Not all victims survived the experience. Its role in printing denunciations meant that Arijský boj and similar newspapers played a key role in the isolation of the Jewish population during the first years of the German occupation. People—especially sympathizers of National Partnership—denounced others that they knew, claiming that they aided Jews or continued to associate with them. Denunciations also affected Czechs who were accused of sympathy to Jews, preventing those inclined from offering aid.
Not all denunciations targeted individuals: one anonymous letter alleged: "For its Jewish politics the former state paid the highest price: collapse and destruction... never forget the period of Jewish rule." Most correspondents had specific complaints, such as the fact that the synagogue at Moravské Budějovice, though it had been shuttered, still had Hebrew signage; or that Jews had not yet been banned "from going to the market in the morning". In one complaint against a baker selling bread to a Jew, the writer said, "It's high time for the Czech person to understand that the Jew is his greatest enemy." Some denunciations shed light not just on the willingness of antisemites to report on their neighbors, but also the resistance to Nazi edicts among other Czechs. According to one writer from the town of Čáslav:
> That some of our people provocatively overlook the regulations for Jews is evident from the fact that they over-respectfully greet Jews on the street and often stop and have friendly conversation with them. If they continue to repeat such improper conduct then those apprehended will also be marked... as apparent Jew-lovers and humiliated friends of Jews!
## Aftermath
The last issue was published 4 May 1945, the day before the Prague uprising. Novák was arrested eleven days later by the Allied authorities. In 1947, he was convicted of collaboration and sentenced to death by hanging. Václav Píš, the regional editor in Čáslav, was also convicted, sentenced to death, and executed in 1947. In his editing, Píš had focused on attacking specific Czech "Jew-lovers" rather than political writing on the Reich or the exile government. Although dozens of people were tried for denunciations to Arijský boj and the similar newspaper Vlajka, denunciations were difficult to prove and typically initiated by Holocaust survivors. However, most Czech Jews did not survive in order to testify; in Novák's trial, most evidence was given by Jews who had been in mixed marriages.
In 2012, former Prime Minister Miloš Zeman claimed that the campaign in the Czech Republic against restitution to churches for communist confiscations resembles Arijský boj.
|
17,488,730 |
Hibernian F.C. in European football
| 1,173,191,140 |
Overview of Hibernian F.C. in European football
|
[
"Hibernian F.C.",
"Scottish football clubs in international competitions"
] |
Hibernian Football Club ("Hibs") is a Scottish football club, based in the Leith area of Edinburgh. Hibernian were the first ever British club to enter an official European footballing competition, doing so in the inaugural 1955–56 season of the European Cup. They were also the first Scottish club to participate in the Fairs Cup, an unofficial forerunner of the UEFA Cup and Europa League competitions.
Hibernian reached the semi-final stage in the European Cup (1955–56) and the Fairs Cup (1960–61). They participated in European competition during the 1960s and 1970s on an almost annual basis, competing with many of the major club sides during this period. During this time, Hibernian recorded notable victories against Barcelona (1960–61), Napoli (1967–68) and Sporting Lisbon (1972–73). Since the late 1970s, Hibernian have qualified for European competition much less frequently. During the 2000s they appeared three times in the Intertoto Cup, a summer competition that offered qualification for the UEFA Cup. The club most recently participated in the 2023–24 Europa Conference League qualifying rounds.
## History
### 1955–1961: Pioneers
The first officially sanctioned European club tournament, the European Champion Clubs' Cup, was launched in 1955. Conceived by Gabriel Hanot, the editor of L'Équipe, as a competition for winners of the European national football leagues, it is considered the most prestigious European football competition. Hibernian had only finished fifth in the 1954–55 Scottish league, but were one of the 16 sides invited to take part in the tournament's first season. As there was no English representative in the first competition, Hibernian also became the first British club to participate in European club competition. In their first tie, Hibernian defeated Rot-Weiss Essen (West Germany) thanks to a comfortable win in the away leg. Swedish club Djurgården were their next opponents, but they were unable to play the home match in Stockholm due to adverse winter weather. Both legs were played in Scotland, with the Djurgardens "home" venue being Firhill. Hibernian won 3–1 in Glasgow and 1–0 at Easter Road to progress to the semi-finals. At that stage they were drawn with French club Reims, who won 3–0 on aggregate to progress to the final (which Reims lost 4–3 to Real Madrid).
The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, which is treated as an unofficial European competition as it was not operated by UEFA, was also established in 1955. Hibernian became the first Scottish club to participate in that competition, in 1960. After a walkover victory against Swiss club Lausanne, Hibernian faced Spanish giants Barcelona in the quarter-final. The first leg in the Camp Nou ended in a 4–4 draw, after Hibernian had twice led by two goals. In the return leg at Easter Road, a late penalty kick by Bobby Kinloch gave Hibernian a 3–2 win on the night and a 7–6 victory on aggregate. In the semi-final, Hibernian faced Italian side Roma. They drew 2–2 at Easter Road and 3–3 in Rome, but the away goals rule did not apply at that time and a playoff match was required. The playoff was also played in Rome, which Roma won 6–0 as they went on to win the tournament.
### 1961–1979: Regulars
Through most of the 1960s and the 1970s, Hibernian were regular participants in European competition. Wins against select teams from Copenhagen (Stævnet) and Utrecht put Hibernian into the quarter-finals of the 1962–63 Fairs Cup, where they lost 6–2 on aggregate to Valencia. In the 1965–66 Fairs Cup, Hibernian met Valencia again with each team winning their home game 2–0; Valencia progressed after they won a playoff match.
Hibernian defeated Portuguese club Porto in the first round of the 1967–68 Fairs Cup, but then lost 4–1 to Napoli in the second round first leg. Napoli were the league leaders in Italy at the time, had only conceded five goals in their last six matches and had legendary goalkeeper Dino Zoff in their lineup. Despite this, Hibernian overwhelmed their Italian opponents and won 5–0 at Easter Road to win the tie 6–4 on aggregate. In the following round, Hibernian were beaten 2–1 on aggregate by Leeds United.
Wins against Olimpija Ljubljana and Lokomotive Leipzig in the 1968–69 Fairs Cup pushed Hibernian into a third round tie with Hamburg. Hibernian won 2–1 at home and lost 1–0 in Germany, which meant that they were eliminated by the away goals rule. In the final season (1970–71) of the Fairs Cup, Hibernian defeated Malmo 9–2 and Vitoria Guimaraes 3–2, but were then beaten 3–0 by English side Liverpool. Joe McBride scored a hat-trick in the home leg against Malmo, which set a club record for goals scored in European competition.
Hibernian entered the European Cup Winners' Cup for the first (and only) time in 1972–73, as the Scottish Cup winners (Celtic) had also won the league championship. They faced Portuguese club Sporting in the first round, and lost 2–1 in the first leg in Lisbon. Hibernian scored first in the return leg through Alan Gordon. Sporting equalised before half-time, but five goals without reply in the second half gave Hibernian a 6–1 victory on the night and 7–3 on aggregate. Jimmy O'Rourke scored a hat-trick in what was Sporting's heaviest defeat in European competition at that time. Another emphatic home win, 7–1 against Albanian club KS Besa, put Hibernian into the quarter-finals. Hibernian won 4–2 at Easter Road in the first leg against Hajduk Split, but a 3–0 defeat in Yugoslavia knocked them out of the tournament.
UEFA had taken over the operation of the Fairs Cup in 1971 and rebranded it as the UEFA Cup. Hibernian entered this competition for the first time in 1973–74. After a 3–1 aggregate win against Icelandic club Keflavík in the first round, Hibernian met Leeds United for a second time. Both games ended goalless, and Leeds won the tie after a penalty shootout. Norwegian club Rosenborg were the first round opposition in the 1974–75 UEFA Cup. After a 3–2 win in Norway, three goals in four minutes started a 9–1 rout for Hibernian (and a club record defeat for Rosenborg) in the second leg. They would progress to the second round, where they lost 8–2 to Italian club Juventus.
In the 1975–76 UEFA Cup, Hibernian were paired with English side Liverpool in the first round. A Joe Harper goal gave Hibernian a 1–0 win in the first leg at home, but Ray Clemence saved a penalty that could have given Hibernian a two-goal lead. This moment was to prove crucial, as Liverpool won 3–1 at Anfield to narrowly win the tie on aggregate. Liverpool went on to win the competition, with that first leg loss against being their only defeat en route. In the following season, Hibernian managed to squeeze through 1–0 in the first round of the UEFA Cup against French side Sochaux. A 2–0 home win against Swedish club Öster raised hopes of further progress, but that lead was overturned by a 4–1 defeat in the return leg.
Manager Eddie Turnbull enjoyed success with Hibernian and guided them to several European entries during the 1970s. The last of these was in the 1978–79 UEFA Cup, where they defeated Norrkoping 3–2 at home and this lead was preserved as the Swedes were held to a goalless draw in the second leg. Hibernian had been known for their attacking play under Turnbull, but he adopted more defensive tactics this season. This proved unsuccessful in the second round, as Hibernian lost 2–0 in Strasbourg. A 1–0 win for Hibernian in the return leg was therefore insufficient, and it was to be the club's last involvement in European football for 11 years.
### 1979–present: Sporadic appearances
Since 1979, Hibernian have qualified for European competition much less frequently. They did not qualify at all for most of the 1980s, as the New Firm of Aberdeen and Dundee United enjoyed success domestically and in Europe. Their next participation came in the 1989–90 UEFA Cup, where Hibernian won 3–0 in Hungary (and 4–0 on aggregate) against Videoton in the first round. The second round tie with Belgian club Liège went into extra time after two goalless draws. Keith Houchen had missed a penalty kick in the first leg, and this proved costly as Liège scored the only goal of the tie during the additional period. Victory in the 1991–92 Scottish League Cup qualified Hibernian for the 1992–93 UEFA Cup, where they were paired with Belgian opposition again. Anderlecht scored two away goals in a 2–2 draw at Easter Road, and a 1–1 draw in the return game meant that Hibernian went out on the away goals rule.
Hibernian next qualified for European competition in 2001, having finished third in the 2000–01 Scottish Premier League. They entered the 2001–02 UEFA Cup and were drawn against Greek club AEK Athens. The first leg in Greece, which was postponed by a week due to the September 11 attacks against the United States, ended in a 2–0 defeat for Hibernian. A strong performance in the return leg gave them a 2–0 lead, equalising the aggregate score. Paco Luna missed a chance to score a third and tie-winning goal late in normal time, and the tie entered an extra period. Two away goals gave AEK an aggregate win, although Hibernian won 3–2 on the night. Despite exiting the competition, the home game against AEK was fondly remembered by the Hibernian supporters; the actor Dougray Scott later named it as his favourite match.
During the 2000s, Hibernian also volunteered to enter the Intertoto Cup on three occasions. This offered a potential backdoor route into the UEFA Cup, but the fixtures being played in early July meant that Hibernian had to start their pre-season training earlier than other Scottish clubs. The games themselves also fell early in pre-season, and they lost in the 2004 competition to Lithuanian club Vetra. They played a friendly match against Rot-Weiss Essen in July 2005 to mark the 50th anniversary of the clubs' first match in European competition. Hibernian had finished third in the league and qualified for the 2005–06 UEFA Cup. In the opening round, they held Ukrainian club Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk to a goalless draw at home but fell to a 5–1 defeat in the return leg.
After further entries in the Intertoto Cup were ended by Odense (2006) and Elfsborg (2008), Hibernian next qualified properly for European competition in 2010. By then, the Intertoto Cup had been abolished and the UEFA Cup had been rebranded as the Europa League. In the 2010–11 competition, Hibernian were defeated home and away by Slovenian club Maribor in the third qualifying round. Hibernian lost 7–0 at Easter Road to Swedish club Malmo in the 2013–14 Europa League qualifiers. The aggregate score of 9–0 was a record defeat for a Scottish club in European competition, surpassing the 12–4 defeat suffered by Rangers in 1959–60.
Having won the 2015–16 Scottish Cup, Hibernian entered the 2016–17 Europa League qualifiers. They lost 1–0 at home to Danish club Brondby, but a David Gray goal gave Hibernian a 1–0 win in Copenhagen. This forced the tie into a goalless period of extra time, and Brondby progressed to the next round by winning 5–3 on penalties. Hibernian next qualified for the Europa League in 2018–19 and progressed through qualifying rounds against Runavík and Asteras Tripolis, before losing in the third round to Molde. After finishing third in the 2020–21 Scottish Premiership, Hibs entered the newly-established Europa Conference League in 2021–22, beating Andorrans Santa Coloma before losing to Croatian side Rijeka. A fifth place finish in 2022–23, meant another qualification for the Europa Conference League in 2023–24. Hibs progressed to the playoff round by beating Andorrans Inter Club d'Escaldes and Swiss club Luzern, but then suffered an 8–0 aggregate defeat against Premier League club Aston Villa.
## Overall record
### By country
#### UEFA competitions
#### Non-UEFA competitions
#### Top goalscorers
## Matches
The number of goals scored by Hibernian is on the left in each instance.
|
36,611,705 |
Mam Sonando
| 1,121,128,364 |
Cambodian radio journalist (born 1942)
|
[
"1942 births",
"Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by Cambodia",
"Cambodian Theravada Buddhists",
"Cambodian emigrants to France",
"Cambodian nationalists",
"Cambodian prisoners and detainees",
"Cambodian radio journalists",
"Controversies in Cambodia",
"French people imprisoned abroad",
"French people of Cambodian descent",
"French radio journalists",
"Living people",
"People from Kampong Cham province",
"Radio controversies"
] |
Mam Sonando (Khmer: ម៉ម សូណង់ដូ; born 13 February 1942) is a Cambodian radio journalist and politician with French dual citizenship. He is the owner and director of Phnom Penh's Beehive Radio, which the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) described in 2012 as "one of Cambodia's few independent news outlets". He also acts as a political commentator for the station.
Sonando has been imprisoned three times on charges related to his reporting: a 2003 arrest for "inciting riots", a 2005 arrest for defamation, and a 2012 arrest for insurrection. His twenty-year prison sentence for the latter was protested by human rights groups, and US President Barack Obama expressed concerns about the case in a meeting with Prime Minister Hun Sen. The sentence was overturned by an appeals court in March 2013, and Sonando was instead given a five-year suspended sentence on charges of causing civil unrest.
## Biography
Mam Sonando was born on 13 February 1942 in a small district called Kampong Siem in Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia. His father, Mam Soth, was a lawyer. His mother Eam Ouch was born in Battambang province. Sonando traveled to Paris in 1964 for school. He attended the Vaugirard State Technical College of Photography and Cinematography, in Paris, France, from 1969 to 1970. In 1973, he received a bachelor's degree with major in sociology and cinematography and audio visuals, at the Paris XV University.
He left Cambodia again in 1975 to avoid the rule of the Khmer Rouge, remaining in France until 1993. That year, he returned to Cambodia and acquired a broadcasting license for a new station which he named Beehive Radio. He used the station to advertise a new political party, the Beehive Democratic Society Party, and stood in the 1998 parliamentary election. According to the Asia Times, his campaign only won him "a reputation as an eccentric, spouting Buddhist philosophy, pleas for democracy and a personal campaign for attention." After failing to be elected, Sonando dissolved his party, but continued broadcasting on Beehive Radio as an independent journalist.
Sonando is the owner and director of Beehive Radio. In 2012, Human Rights Watch described Beehive Radio as "a key platform for promotion of human rights and democracy in Cambodia". The station is one of the few to address controversial topics, including "Cambodian civil society, the fight against HIV/AIDS, maternal mortality and human trafficking, campaigns for women's rights and gender equality, political and economic transparency, equitable and sustainable development, labor rights, environmental protection, the rule of law, and electoral education and election monitoring." It also carries programming by Radio Free Asia, Voice of America, the Cambodian Center for Human Rights, and Radio France Internationale.
The station is funded by a combination of advertising and private donations. Some companies have declined to advertise with Beehive Radio due to its occasionally controversial reporting and political stances. Sonando also refuses to run advertisements for "vice" products, including cigarettes.
## 2003 arrest
In January 2003, riots broke out in Phnom Penh after a Cambodian newspaper incorrectly reported that a Thai actress had stated Angkor Wat properly belonged to Thailand. On 29 January, the Thai embassy was burned, and hundreds of Thai immigrants fled the country to avoid the violence. During the riots, a caller to Beehive Radio claimed incorrectly that Cambodian embassy officials were killed in Bangkok. On 31 January, Sonando was arrested and accused of "relaying false information", "inciting discrimination", and "inciting crime". He stated to reporters, "They blame me for broadcasting an opinion of a listener which turned out to be untrue. But if I have to go to jail to allow people to express their opinion I am happy."
Sonando was formally charged in court on 1 February; ten days later, he was released on bail. The charges never came to trial.
## 2005 arrest
Sonando was arrested again on 11 October 2005 after reporting on Prime Minister Hun Sen's treaty with Vietnam settling the two nations' border dispute; the report included a discussion with a French-based expert who criticized Hun Sen's concessions. Sonando was charged with "criminal defamation", "disseminating false information", and "incitement". On 3 November, he was denied bail.
Sonando's arrest was criticized by the United Nations and the European Union. A coalition of 70 Cambodian civil society organizations also pushed for his release. CPJ condemned the arrest as part of a "broad crackdown on freedom of expression", and Amnesty International named him a prisoner of conscience.
In late January 2006, Sonando was granted bail ahead of a visit by US Assistant Secretary of State Christopher R. Hill. Hun Sen described the release as a "gift" to the visitor. The charges against Sonando were dropped before the end of the month.
## 2012 arrest
In mid-2012, Beehive Radio reported on an International Court of Justice complaint against Prime Minister Hun Sen blaming him for the 2010 Phnom Penh stampede, in which 347 people were killed. The report sparked a new series of disputes between Sonando and Hun Sen. On 26 June 2012, Hun Sen called for Sonando's arrest while Sonando was out of the country, accusing him of heading a separatist plot in Kratié Province to break it away from the rest of the nation. From 15 to 17 May, the province had been the site of a protest against evictions for a new rubber plant that residents accused of "land grabbing". On the final day of the protests, soldiers opened fire on a crowd of families, killing a 14-year-old girl. Though Sonando returned during the 2012 ASEAN meeting, he was not arrested until 15 July, a few days after its end.
Hun Sen accused Sonando of attempting to create a "state within a state", and Sonando was formally charged with "insurrection" and "inciting people to take up weapons against state". The charges carried a maximum sentence of 30 years in prison. Secessionist charges were also brought against several community activists from the province.
According to Ou Virak of the Cambodian Center for Human Rights, Sonando was then imprisoned in a cell shared with 17 other people, leaving him "half a square meter [5 square feet] to sleep in". On 22 July, he was moved to a prison hospital on account of illness.
Sonando's arrest quickly generated domestic and international criticism. A coalition of 22 Cambodian rights groups, known as the Cambodian Human Rights Action Committee, called on the government to free Sonando "to save the country's reputation". Members of Beehive Radio and the Association of Democrats protested in front of Phnom Penh's royal palace on 23 July.
CPJ called for Sonado's immediate release, stating that Hun Sen had "a well-worn history of leveling unsubstantiated anti-state charges against journalists to stifle criticism of the administration." Human Rights Watch said that "Sonando's arrest on the heels of [US Secretary of State Hillary] Clinton's visit is a brazen signal that Hun Sen thinks that the US wants his cooperation on other matters so much that he isn't afraid to lower the boom on his critics". Amnesty International again named Sonando a prisoner of conscience, "held for the peaceful exercise of his right to freedom of expression". The International Federation for Human Rights and the World Organisation Against Torture issued a joint statement noting that they were "gravely concerned" about the charges and calling for Sonando's immediate release. Reporters Without Borders described the arrest as "like a parting slap to all those who attended last week's ASEAN summit in Phnom Penh. As soon the diplomats leave, the authorities arrest dissidents." The Ireland-based NGO Front Line Defenders included him on the short list for its 2013 Human Rights Defender at Risk award.
On 1 October 2012, Sonando was found guilty by a Phnom Penh court. He was sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment and fined 10 million riel (US\$2,500). In November, US President Barack Obama raised concerns about the case during a meeting with Hun Sen. French Prime Minister Jean-Marc Ayrault also called for Sonando to be released.
An appeals court overturned Sonando's conviction on anti-state charges on 14 March 2013, finding that there had been no evidence to convict him. The court instead gave Sonando a five-year suspended sentence on charges that he had been involved in the Kratié unrest. A crowd of hundreds of Sonando supporters gathered outside the courthouse to hear the verdict. Amnesty International called the ruling "a positive step for freedom of expression in the country", but added that "Mam Sonando should never have been imprisoned in the first place, and the convictions that stand appear baseless." Sonando was released from prison on 15 March, the day after the ruling. Following his release, Sonando stated his intention to clear his name of the remaining charges.
## 2014 protest
In January 2014, Mam Sonando organized a mass demonstration, which demanded the government to expand his radio reach and open a TV station. The Minister of Information Khieu Kanharith denied the permission for the expansion but Mam Sonando told reporters the denial is unconstitutional. Protesters clashed with police on 28 January injuring at least 9 of the demonstrators. In response to the violence, Human Rights Watch calls for the United Nations to pressure the Cambodian government. Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House have also condemned the violence.
## Personal life
Sonando is married to Den Phanara. He is a devout Buddhist who constructed a Buddhist temple beside his radio station, and is an avid fan of jazz.
He is Soth Polin's brother-in-law.
|
2,631,295 |
Cy Seymour
| 1,162,191,552 |
American baseball player (1872–1919)
|
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] |
James Bentley "Cy" Seymour (December 9, 1872 – September 20, 1919) was an American professional baseball center fielder and pitcher, who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) from to for the New York Giants (1896–; –), Baltimore Orioles (–), Cincinnati Reds (1902–1906) and Boston Braves (1913). He batted and threw left-handed.
Primarily a center fielder, Seymour retired with 1,724 hits and a lifetime batting average (BA) of .303. He was a pitcher for his first five seasons, ending his MLB career with a 61–56 win–loss record and a 3.76 earned run average (ERA) in 140 games pitched (123 as a starting pitcher). Seymour is the only player apart from Babe Ruth to finish his career with at least 50 home runs (HR) and 50 pitching wins. Seymour is the Reds' career leader in batting average (.332) and holds the Reds' single-season record for batting average (.377 in ).
## Career
### Early career
Seymour played semi-professional baseball in Plattsburgh, New York, receiving a monthly salary of \$1,000 (\$ in current dollar terms). He began his professional career in minor league baseball with Springfield Ponies of the Class-A Eastern League and New York Metropolitans of the Class-A Atlantic League in 1896.
### Major League Baseball
#### New York Giants (1896–1900)
Seymour signed with the New York Giants of the National League (NL) during the 1896 season, making his Major League Baseball (MLB) debut on April 22. A sometimes wild pitcher, The New York Times described him as having a "\$10,000 arm and a \$00,000 head". Seymour set an MLB record with three errors in one inning, a record later tied by Tommy John. However, he pitched to an 18–14 win–loss record in 1897, with a 3.37 earned run average (ERA), while recording 149 strikeouts, good for second in the NL.
In 1898, he won 25 games, had a 3.18 ERA, and led the NL in strikeouts with 239, while leading the team in wins and games started (43). During the season, Seymour pitched three games in two days against the Baltimore Orioles. Orioles manager John McGraw later said that Seymour deserved the title of "Iron Man" more than Joe McGinnity.
Seymour held out from the Giants for the first month of the 1899 season in a contract dispute, eventually signing for \$2,000 (\$ in current dollar terms), a \$500 raise (\$ in current dollar terms) over his 1898 salary. He finished second in the NL in strikeouts with 142. Seymour was briefly demoted to the minor leagues after walking 11 batters in a victory against the St. Louis Perfectos on June 7, 1900. Due to injuries and the ineffectiveness of the Giants' outfielders, the team began to play Seymour in the outfield, though they insisted that Seymour would not shift positions on a permanent basis. Seymour last pitched for the Giants that season, at which point he converted into an outfielder full-time due to injury from throwing the screwball.
#### Baltimore Orioles (1901–1902)
With the formation of the American League (AL) as a competitor to the NL, Seymour joined many fellow NL players who jumped to the AL. McGraw, remembering Seymour's toughness in previous seasons, signed Seymour to his team, the Baltimore Orioles, before the 1901 season. Seymour batted .303 with the Orioles that year. By 1902, the franchise began to fall into significant debt. Joe Kelley, star player for the Orioles and son-in-law of part-owner John Mahon, reported that the team owed as much as \$12,000 (\$ in current dollar terms). Unable to afford that debt, Mahon purchased shares of the team from Kelley and player-manager McGraw, who had resigned from the team and signed with the Giants. With this, Mahon became the majority shareholder. On July 17, 1902, Mahon sold his interest in the Orioles to Andrew Freedman, principal owner of the Giants, and John T. Brush, principal owner of the Cincinnati Reds, also of the NL. That day, Freedman and Brush released Seymour, McGraw, Kelley, McGinnity, Roger Bresnahan, Jack Cronin, and Dan McGann from their Oriole contracts. Brush then signed Seymour and Kelley to the Reds, while Freedman signed McGinnity, Bresnahan, Cronin, and McGann, joining McGraw, his new player-manager, on the Giants.
#### Cincinnati Reds (1902–1906)
Reds owner Garry Herrmann added \$100 per month (\$ in current dollar terms) to Seymour's \$2,800 annual salary (\$ in current dollar terms) when he acquired him from Baltimore, and made him the team's starting center fielder. He set a record with four sacrifice bunts in one game on July 25, 1902; this mark was tied by Jake Daubert on August 15, 1914. Seymour continued to bat above .300 with the Reds in each season through 1905, when he led the NL in batting average (.377), hits (219), runs batted in (RBI) (121), doubles (40), triples (21), and slugging percentage (.559). He nearly won the Triple Crown but finished second in home runs with eight, behind Fred Odwell's nine. His .377 batting average set the single-season record for the Reds, and his 325 total bases that season were an NL record through 1919. Seymour had a .333 batting average during his tenure with the Reds, which remains a franchise record.
#### New York Giants (1906–1910)
The Giants purchased Seymour from the Reds on July 12, 1906 for \$10,000 (\$ in current dollar terms), the largest monetary transaction in baseball to date. Seymour attempted to hold out from the Giants in order to obtain a portion of this transfer fee, claiming that Herrmann had promised him this money if the sale was completed. McGraw convinced Seymour not to hold out, which could have set a precedent for players obtaining money in player transactions. He batted .286 in 1906 for the Reds and Giants, finishing eighth in the NL.
Seymour finished fifth in the NL in batting average (.294) for the 1907 season. However, an ankle injury prematurely ended his season. His batting average declined to .267 for the 1908 season. That year, he participated in one of baseball's most infamous plays, known as Merkle's Boner, in which the Giants lost the pennant to the Chicago Cubs. In the replayed game between the Giants and Cubs, Giants pitcher Christy Mathewson reportedly waved Seymour to move further back in the outfield; Seymour refused, only to see the ball hit over his head, allowing the Cubs to score three runs on their way to the win. Mathewson later denied waving Seymour back, saying Seymour "knew the Chicago batters as well as [he] did and how to play them."
As there were no full-time base coaches at the time, players took turns in the role. While coaching at third base, Seymour tackled teammate Moose McCormick as he rounded third base and headed for home plate, in an attempt to keep McCormick at third. McCormick overpowered Seymour and scored. When McGraw asked why, Seymour made an excuse about having the sun in his eyes. This led McGraw, now realizing the need for a full-time coach, to hire Arlie Latham for the role, the first full-time coach in MLB. Seymour got into an altercation with Latham in March 1909 at the team's hotel, prompting McGraw to seek a buyer for Seymour. Seymour apologized to McGraw, who responded by suspending Seymour for eight weeks. However, Seymour injured his right leg in his first game back from the suspension. This injury limited his effectiveness for the rest of his career. As a part-time player that season, he batted .311, best among NL reserves. He again played a reserve role for the Giants in 1910, batting .265 in 79 games.
### Later career
The minor league Baltimore Orioles of the Class-A Eastern League purchased Seymour from the Giants on August 24, 1910. After playing for the Orioles in the 1911 season, they sold him to the Newark Indians of the Class-AA International League, where he played during the 1912 season. Seymour became property of the Los Angeles Angels of the Class-A Pacific Coast League after the 1912 season, but he secured his release from the Angels without playing a game for them,
Seymour subsequently signed as a free agent with the Boston Braves on February 25, 1913. After playing sparingly for the Braves during the 1913 season, the Braves released him on July 19, 1913, as they were carrying 26 players on their roster, though league rules permitted a maximum roster of 25. Seymour played for the Buffalo Bisons of the Class-A International League after being released by the Braves. He returned to professional baseball in 1918, playing in 13 games for the Newark Bears of the International League.
## After baseball
Seymour was declared physically unfit for service in World War I. However, he worked in wartime jobs in the Speedway shipyards and Bush terminal. While working in the shipyards, he contracted tuberculosis, and died at his home on September 20, 1919. He was interred in Albany Rural Cemetery.
## Career perspective
Few players enjoyed as much success as Seymour as both a pitcher and hitter; only Babe Ruth recorded more combined pitching victories and hits. As a pitcher, Seymour threw a fastball, a curveball, and a screwball. Orioles catcher Wilbert Robinson said that he had never caught a pitcher as wild as Seymour, as opposing batters did "not know whether their head or feet were in most danger."
In his 16-year MLB career, Seymour hit 52 home runs with 799 RBI, 1,723 hits, 222 stolen bases, and a .303 batting average. He also won 61 games as a pitcher. Seymour was posthumously inducted in the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame in 1998.
The New York World listed Seymour as one of the best players in baseball, along with Mathewson, Ed Walsh, Honus Wagner, Nap Lajoie, and Roger Bresnahan. Elmer Flick insisted that Seymour was the toughest pitcher he batted against, saying he "was practically unhittable" and that Seymour "had a wonderful control of his curve ball."
According to a formula for evaluating baseball players developed by Bill James, Seymour ranks above Hall of Famers Lloyd Waner, Jimmy Collins, and Joe Tinker.
## See also
- List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders
- List of Major League Baseball batting champions
- List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders
- List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
|
13,737,778 |
Keeping Up with the Kardashians
| 1,173,272,529 |
American reality television series
|
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"2000s American reality television series",
"2007 American television series debuts",
"2010s American reality television series",
"2020s American reality television series",
"2021 American television series endings",
"E! original programming",
"English-language television shows",
"Keeping Up with the Kardashians",
"Kendall Jenner",
"Kim Kardashian",
"Kylie Jenner",
"Television series about families",
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"Television series by Bunim/Murray Productions",
"Television series by Ryan Seacrest Productions",
"Television shows related to the Kardashian–Jenner family",
"Television shows set in Los Angeles"
] |
Keeping Up with the Kardashians (often abbreviated KUWTK) is an American reality television series which focused on the personal and professional lives of the Kardashian–Jenner blended family, airing between 2007 and 2021. Its premise originated with Ryan Seacrest, who also served as an executive producer. The series premiered on the E! cable network on October 14, 2007, and ran for 20 seasons over the span of almost fourteen years, becoming one of the longest-running reality television series in the US. The final season premiered on March 18, 2021.
The series focused mainly on sisters Kim, Kourtney, and Khloé Kardashian and their half-sisters, Kendall and Kylie Jenner. It also featured their parents, Kris and Bruce/Caitlyn Jenner, and brother, Rob. Partners of the Kardashian sisters also appeared on the show.
Keeping Up with the Kardashians was critically panned since its premiere. It was often criticized for the high degree of emphasis on the "famous for being famous" concept, and for appearing to fabricate some aspects of its storylines. However, some critics recognized the reality series as a "guilty pleasure" and acknowledged the family's success. Despite the negative reviews, Keeping Up with the Kardashians attracted high viewership ratings, becoming one of the network's most successful shows and winning several audience awards.
The series' success led additionally to the creation of numerous spin-off series, including: Kourtney and Kim Take Miami, Kourtney and Kim Take New York, Khloé & Lamar, Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons, Dash Dolls, Rob & Chyna, Life of Kylie, and Flip It Like Disick. The network also broadcast several television specials featuring special events involving members of the family and friends.
On September 8, 2020, the family announced via Instagram that the show would end in 2021. The series concluded on June 20, 2021. Nearly a year later, the family returned to reality television for the Hulu series The Kardashians, which premiered on April 14, 2022.
## Background
Robert Kardashian (1944–2003) and Kristen Houghton (born 1955) married in 1978, and had four children together: daughters Kourtney (born 1979), Kim (born 1980), and Khloé (born 1984), and son Rob (born 1987). The couple divorced in 1991. In 1991, Kris married retired Olympic decathlon champion Bruce Jenner (born 1949; now known as Caitlyn Jenner since undergoing a gender transition in 2015). In 1994, Robert entered the media spotlight when he defended O. J. Simpson for the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman during the O.J. Simpson trial. Kris and Caitlyn had two daughters together, Kendall (born 1995) and Kylie (born 1997). Robert died in 2003, eight weeks after being diagnosed with esophageal cancer.
The Kardashian sisters began appearing in the media spotlight more often. In the early 2000s, Kim worked as a personal assistant for hotel heiress and reality TV star, Paris Hilton. During her employment for Hilton, Kim briefly developed a very close friendship with Hilton during a high point in Hilton's fame. This friendship helped boost Kim's personal fame by allowing her to occasionally appear in episodes of Hilton's TV show The Simple Life. Furthermore, Kim and Hilton's close friendship ensured that Kim would appear in public, notably in paparazzi shots, with Hilton. Kim also worked for several other celebrities in the early 2000s, further boosting her fame and connections. Notably, in 2004, Kim became a personal stylist for singer Brandy Norwood. She eventually developed into a full-time stylist, and was a personal shopper and stylist for actress and singer Lindsay Lohan.
Khloé, Kim, and Kourtney ventured further into fashion, opening a high fashion boutique Dash in Calabasas, California. Throughout Kim's early career, she was involved in some high-profile relationships including Brandy Norwood's brother, singer Ray J, and later, singer Nick Lachey. In 2005, Kourtney starred in her first reality television series, Filthy Rich: Cattle Drive.
In February 2007, a home sex tape that Kim made with Ray J in October 2003 was leaked. Vivid Entertainment bought the rights for \$1 million and released the film as Kim Kardashian, Superstar on February 21. The release of the sex tape was a major contributor to the rising fame of Kim Kardashian and her family.
## Production
### Development
The idea of creating a reality series originated in 2006 when Kris Jenner showed an interest in appearing on a television show together with her family. Jenner commented: "Everybody thinks that [my children] could create a bunch of drama in their lives, but it's something that I felt I didn't even have to think about. It would be natural." Producer Ryan Seacrest, who had his own production company, decided to develop the idea, having the popular family-based show The Osbournes in mind. He hired a camera man to visit the Kardashian's family home to film them having a Sunday barbeque: "They were all together—as crazy and as fun as loving as they are," Seacrest described the family after seeing the tape. He later initiated the series by sharing the tape with E!, an American cable network which features mostly entertainment-related programming, and reality television series; the show was eventually picked up. In August 2007, it was announced that the Kardashian and Jenner families would star in a yet-to-be-titled reality show on E! described as a "new non-scripted family sitcom", being produced by Ryan Seacrest and Bunim/Murray Productions. The series' announcement came one week after Paris Hilton and her friend Nicole Richie announced that their popular E! series, The Simple Life, was ending.
The show, titled Keeping Up with the Kardashians, premiered on October 14, 2007. The reality series centers around the members of the Kardashian-Jenner blended family, focusing on the sisters Kourtney, Kim and Khloé. Most episodes have very similar structure: the family "show[s] off their privileged lifestyle and maybe get into one or two minor family squabbles before ultimately wrapping things up with a monologue that reinforces the importance of family," as noted by Caroline Siede of Quartz. Harriet Ryan and Adam Tschorn of the Los Angeles Times described the reality series as a: "Hollywood version of The Brady Bunch -- the harmless high jinks of a loving blended family against a backdrop of wealth and famous connections". Kim Kardashian described the beginning of filming the show, "When we first started [the show], we came together as a family and said, 'If we're going to do this reality show, we're going to be 100 percent who we really are.'". She further commented on the show's authenticity by saying that the network "has never once put anything out there that we haven't approved of or accepted". The series was renewed for a second season one month after its premiere due to high ratings. Seacrest described the show's success: "At the heart of the seriesdespite the catfights and endless sarcasmis a family that truly loves and supports one another [...] The familiar dynamics of this family make them one Hollywood bunch that is sure to entertain."
The following year, Keeping Up with the Kardashians was picked up for a third season. In April 2012, E! signed a three-year deal with the Kardashian family that kept the series airing through seasons seven, eight and nine. Keeping up with the Kardashians was later renewed for a tenth season which premiered on March 15, 2015. In February 2015, it was announced that the show had been renewed for four more years, along with an additional spin-off series, making it one of the longest-running reality television series in the country. In terms of the show's future, Kim Kardashian has commented that the reality series could go for an indefinite number of seasons saying that she: "hope[s] it goes on for as long as it can." Keeping Up with the Kardashians, including its spin-off series, has become the cable network's flagship show and its most lucrative franchise. "It has changed the face of E!" said Lisa Berger, the network's executive producer. "We were a place to report on celebrity; we weren't a place to break and make celebrity, which is now the whole idea of the E! brand." The show's success contributed significantly towards building the "Kardashian brand", or "Kardashian Inc." as it is called by The Hollywood Reporter. "These shows are a 30-minute commercial," Khloé Kardashian admitted in 2011, in response to a suggestion that the television series is used to promote their retail stores and endorsement deals.
On August 3, 2017, it was announced the show's 10 year anniversary will premiere on September 24, 2017, following the show's season 14 premiere. On August 24, 2017, it was announced the family had signed a \$150 million deal with E!. Kim Kardashian announced on Twitter that the family would begin filming Season 16 the following week in August 2018.
## Series overview
## Cast
The reality series revolves around the children of Kris Jenner, and originally focused mainly on the children from her first marriage to deceased attorney Robert Kardashian: Kourtney, Kim, Khloé, and Rob. Kris' children Kendall and Kylie from her subsequent marriage to American athlete Caitlyn Jenner have also been featured on the show since its beginning. Kourtney's boyfriend Scott Disick has also been appearing frequently on the show since the first season, as well as on the show's spin-offs. Cast members also include numerous friends and other acquaintances of the family members, most notably Malika Haqq and Jonathan Cheban who joined Keeping Up with the Kardashians in the second and third seasons, respectively.
Most of the Kardashian sisters' significant others have appeared on the reality series. Kim's relationship with football player Reggie Bush was featured on the early seasons of the show when they were dating; after the breakup, Bush commented on appearing on the show saying that he never felt comfortable being followed by cameras, adding: "I do it because it's important to [Kim]." Rob's relationship with singer Adrienne Bailon has also been documented on the show when they were dating from 2007 to 2009; although Bailon later admitted that the decision to appear on the show, and be associated with the family, hurt her career. Kim's eventual husband Kris Humphries first appeared on the show during the premiere of the sixth season; their relationship was chronicled throughout the season and ended with the couple's wedding special "Kim's Fairytale Wedding: A Kardashian Event". They eventually went through a highly publicized divorce; Kardashian's former publicist later claimed that Humphries was allegedly set up to be portrayed on the show in a negative way and that the short-lived marriage was staged for the cameras as a ploy to generate money.
Khloé married basketball player Lamar Odom during a fourth-season premiere aired in 2009. He later had a major role as part of the supporting cast from the fourth series, though he ceased appearing following the breakdown of the marriage. He later returned to the show during the conclusion of the 11th series and subsequent 12th season following his collapse. Kim's latest ex-husband Kanye West made his first appearance on Keeping Up with the Kardashians in July 2012 during the seventh season when he started dating Kim. However, West initially did not continue to appear. He explained the reasons for not appearing on the show later: "You know, the amount of backlash I got from it is when I decided to not be on the show anymore. And it's not that I have an issue with the show; I just have an issue with the amount of backlash that I get." He also criticized the show for its cinematography and further complained about the way how the show is filmed. Despite this, West increased his appearances from the 12th season onwards and undertook a more prominent position from season 16 onwards. Rob's fiancé Blac Chyna undertook a recurring role throughout the 12th season. In the eighth season, Caitlyn Jenner's sons, Brandon and Brody Jenner, as well as Brandon's wife at the time, Leah, joined the cast for regular appearances following Brody's cameo in season 1 and Kim’s Fairytale Wedding. Khloe's boyfriend Tristan Thompson made recurring appearances on the show whilst they were together from Season 13 to 16. Although absent for most of season 17, Thompson began re appearing from season 18 onwards, undertaking a prominent role in the final season.
## Cast overview
## Spin-offs
The success of the reality series resulted in the development of several spin-off shows and other related programming. In April 2009, E! announced the first spin-off of Keeping Up with the Kardashians titled Kourtney and Khloé in Miami, which was later renamed Kourtney and Kim Take Miami. The series followed the sisters who moved to Miami to open a new Dash boutique. Ted Harbert, president and CEO of Comcast Entertainment Group, considered the sisters capable of handling their own standalone series. "It's a very simple formula that we took from scripted TV and applied to a reality show. [...] There are a lot of family sitcom elements to 'Kardashians,' and we think that humor and warmth will carry over to Miami," Harbert added. The show premiered on August 16, 2009, to very high ratings; the first episode brought in 2.7 million total viewers and then became the most-watched show on the network since The Anna Nicole Show in 2002. The spin-off was subsequently renewed for a second season which premiered on June 13, 2010, and later returned as Kourtney and Kim Take Miami for a third season on January 20, 2013. In 2010 The Spin Crowd premiered, produced by Kim Kardashian West, which focused on best friend Jonathan Cheban's PR agency, Command PR. Additionally, a series of webisodes titled Lord Disick: Lifestyles of a Lord were released following the show, which showcased Disick as he informed viewers how to live like a "king".
In October 2010, the network announced another spin-off called Kourtney and Kim Take New York which followed the same format as its predecessor. The show debuted on January 23, 2011, and followed the sisters who opened a Dash location in New York City. The series returned for another season which premiered on November 27 the same year. In January 2011, Khloé & Lamar, which featured Khloé and her husband Lamar Odom, became the third spin-off of Keeping Up with the Kardashians. The show premiered on April 10, 2011, and lasted two seasons. In March 2014, E! announced the fourth spin-off titled Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons. The series premiered on November 2, 2014, and followed Kourtney and Khloé who relocated to the Hamptons to work on opening a new Dash pop-up store. The fifth spin-off series called Dash Dolls premiered on September 20, 2015. The reality series chronicles the daily life of the employees of the Dash boutique in Los Angeles. In June 2016, the network announced another show titled Rob & Chyna which premiered on September 11 the same year, and follows the relationship of Rob Kardashian and Blac Chyna as they prepare to welcome their first child. The show was later renewed for a second season. In July 2017, E! confirmed the series was put on hold, and not on their current schedule.
The network has also aired several television specials featuring important family events. A two-part television event called "Kim's Fairytale Wedding: A Kardashian Event", showcasing the wedding between Kim and Kris Humphries, was broadcast on October 9 and 10, 2011, as part of the sixth season; the special was highly successful with a combined 10.5 million viewers. In May 2015, a few days after Caitlyn Jenner came out as a trans woman during a 20/20 interview with Diane Sawyer E! aired a two-part special on Keeping Up with the Kardashians titled "About Bruce", in which another side of the story was told featuring family members who were not involved in the previous interview on 20/20. The first part of the special debuted on May 17, 2015, and attracted 2.92 million total viewers, a 40% increase from the previous episode, while the second part aired the following day with similar viewership. I Am Cait, a separate documentary series, was announced immediately after the 20/20 interview. Jeff Olde, head of programming at E! network, said that the series is "not at all a Kardashian spin-off", and that "we will not resort to spectacle," trying to emphasize its distinct format that is entirely different from most programming on the network, including Keeping Up with the Kardashians. The eight-part, one-hour docuseries debuted on July 26, 2015, on E!, and focused on how Jenner was handling the aftermath of the transition; it also attempted to deal with various LGBT-related issues. It was later cancelled after two seasons. In April 2017, it was announced E! had ordered an 8-episode spin-off Life of Kylie revolving around Kylie Jenner. It premiered on August 6, 2017.
## Reception
### Critical response
Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been the subject of constant panning by critics since its inception. Brian Lowry, reviewing the show for Variety, said that the network: "widens its lens to encompass the whole irritating brood—including Kim's sisters Khloé and Kourtney, momager Kris and stepdad Bruce Jenner, who now has the distinction of having two sets of useless rich kids featured in pointless reality shows." Ginia Bellafonte of The New York Times compared the show to reality series Gene Simmons Family Jewels and exclaimed that: "the Kardashian show is not about an eccentric family living conventionally; it is purely about some desperate women climbing to the margins of fame, and that feels a lot creepier." Laura Burrows of IGN criticized the family for being too self-seeking and using the given platform only to gain more notoriety for themselves. Following the conclusion of the second season of the series, Burrows wrote: "Those of us who watch this show [...] want to believe that these whores of attention have souls and would actually do something for their fellow man and not reap the benefits of their service, but two seasons' worth of self-absorbed egocentrism speaks to the contrary."
Roxana Hadadi, reviewing Keeping Up with the Kardashians for The Washington Post, was extremely negative towards the reality series due to its absurdity, and commented that the show: "firmly captures all of Kim and Co.'s dumbest instances from the series' debut—from the simply self-absorbed to the downright despicable." Amaya Rivera, writing about the series for Popmatters, noted: "Indeed, there is something disturbing about the Kardashians' intense hunger for fame. But even worseit is downright boring to watch this family live out their tedious lives." John Kubicek, the senior writer of BuddyTV, reviewed the premiere of the third season of the show and discussed the reason for the family's success by saying that: "the Kardashians' fame is a lot like Möbius strip or an M. C. Escher painting." Harriet Ryan and Adam Tschorn of the Los Angeles Times described Keeping Up with the Kardashians as a: "Hollywood version of The Brady Bunch -- the harmless high jinks of a loving blended family against a backdrop of wealth and famous connections". Jessica Chasmar of The Washington Times said that series: "illustrates our nation's moral, spiritual and cultural decay." Chasmar emphasized its negative influence and noted: "America of 50 years ago would regard Ms. Kardashian with a mixture of disdain and pity, embarrassed by the very idea of a young lady's most private moments being broadcast for all the world to see."
Goal Auzeen Saedi, reviewing Keeping Up with the Kardashians for Psychology Today, emphasized the show's influence saying that: "The Kardashians become more relatable the more famous they become." Saedi also questioned their decision to appear on the show and added: "But if living life in the spotlight is so taxing and demands multiple justifications for the way your life is being lived and criticized, perhaps you can take the cameras out of your house." Vinnie Mancuso, writing for New York Observer, criticized the show and felt: "roughly one iota of shadenfreudic pleasure from this endeavor, but for the most part this show is the 100% drizzling poops." David Hinckley of the New York Daily News, reviewing the tenth season, said that "even when you think something about the Kardashians could be interesting, it's not," adding that the "entertainment value [of the show] is like having spent 10 years in Rapid City, S.D., watching the traffic lights change." Amy Amatangelo of The Hollywood Reporter said that "in true Kardashian fashion, they managed to make everything about them," after Caitlyn Jenner came out as a trans woman to her family in the "About Bruce" special aired as part of the tenth season. Amatangelo felt that the conversations "seemed a little too staged, too controlled", and noted that "there was no attempt to educate the viewers about transgender issues."
However, several critics were more positive towards the show. A number of publications welcomed the show as "guilty pleasure", including The Huffington Post, The Atlantic, and The Week. Tim Stack, writing for Entertainment Weekly, described the reality series as: "my favorite little slice of reality TV spongecake." Lauren Le Vine of Refinery29 appreciated the success of the family which "achieved the American dream of making something out of nothing," using the given platform. Libby Hill of The A.V. Club also acknowledged the show's success and said: "Keeping Up With The Kardashians gives us real, joyous, ugly, unsavory, hilarious life, with all the polished sitcom trappings. And though the latter may have launched a multimedia empire, the former has made it last". Maura Kelly of The Guardian evaluated the aftermath of the failed wedding of Kim Kardashian and Kris Humphries, which was documented on Keeping Up with the Kardashians, and subsequently caused public outrage, including an online protest petition to cancel the show. "Since Kim doesn't exactly seem to be an exemplar of self-awareness, I suppose it's possible that she really believed she and Humphries would live happily ever after," Kelly speculated whether or not the marriage was a publicity stunt. "But more likely, she and E! are laughing all the way to the bank – 10.5 million viewers tuned into "Kim's Fairytale Wedding: A Kardashian Event", after all," Kelly summarized the controversy. Josh Duboff, writing for Vanity Fair, commented on the show's long run and said that "it is near impossible to argue that their continued relevance, 10 years later, is anything other than awe-inspiring and remarkable".
### Viewership
Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been a ratings success for E! – in its first month it became the highest-rated series aired on Sunday nights for adults 18–34 and was seen by 1.3 million total viewers, according to Nielsen Media Research. Lisa Berger, executive vice president of original programming and series development for E!, said: "The buzz surrounding the series is huge, and viewers have clearly fallen for the Kardashians. [...] Seacrest and Bunim-Murray's unique ability to capture this family's one-of-a-kind dynamics and hilarious antics has made the series a fantastic addition to our prime-time lineup." The second season continued the success and was viewed by 1.6 million viewers on average, which led to a third season renewal. The two-hour fourth-season premiere, which aired on November 8, 2009, and featured the wedding ceremony of Khloé and Lamar Odom, brought in then-record ratings with 3.2 million viewers. The subsequent season debuted with nearly 4.7 million total viewers, which ranked as the highest-rated season premiere of the show, as of August 2015. It was also the second highest-rated episode of Keeping Up with the Kardashians, second only to the previous season's record-breaking finale with 4.8 million viewers.
The seventh-season premiere of the series, which aired on May 20, 2012, in its earlier timeslot, continued to deliver high ratings attracting almost three million total viewers which exceeded the premiere of the previous season by 16%. Kim Kardashian has explained the success of the show by saying that people tune in to watch the series because they can relate themselves to the members of the family; in an interview with the V magazine she said: "You can see that soap operas aren't on the air as much anymore. I think reality shows are taking over that genre, but I think the draw to our show is that we are relatable." The eighth season debuted to 3 million viewers, up 6% from the previous season, while the subsequent ninth season's premiere was down by 20%. The ninth season averaged 3.3 million total viewers and almost 2.2 million in the 18–49 years adult demographic, the most sought after by advertisers. It was the highest rated cable show in its timeslot. The series finished as the most-social ad-supported cable program and, as of March 2015, Keeping Up with the Kardashians is the most-watched show on E! network. The first episode of the tenth season averaged 2.5 million viewers, slightly less than the premiere of the ninth season. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Keeping Up with the Kardashians "tends to most popular in areas with large Hispanic populations, particularly in the Southwest". In the final list for the 2019–2020 season, the program was in the 100 most watched things of that season.
## Awards and nominations
Despite negative reviews from critics, Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been nominated for, and won, several television awards. The reality series has received nominations for a Teen Choice Award in the Choice TV: Celebrity Reality Show category nine consecutive times between 2008 and 2016, winning the award in 2010, 2013, 2014 and 2016. The show also won a People's Choice Award as Favorite TV Guilty Pleasure in 2011. The Kardashian sisters have been nominated as part of the cast for five awards, winning four times; Kim Kardashian has been nominated for three awards winning one in 2012. In 2010, Kris and Caitlyn Jenner received a Teen Choice Award nomination in a one-time Choice TV: Parental Unit category.
## Broadcast history
Keeping Up with the Kardashians premiered on October 14, 2007, in the United States on the E! cable network at 10:30/9:30 pm ET/PT. The half-hour reality series continued to air every Sunday night in the same time slot, and the eight-episode first season of the show concluded on December 2. The subsequent season premiered the following year on March 9 in an earlier time slot at 10:00/9:00 pm with a repeated episode airing immediately afterwards. The season ended on May 26, 2008, with an episode "Junk in the Trunk", which featured the Kardashian siblings sharing the most memorable moments of the season. The third season commenced airing on March 8, 2009, and concluded with two back-to-back episodes which aired on May 25. The subsequent season premiered with a two-hour long episode titled "The Wedding" on November 8, and ended on February 21, 2010; some of the episodes aired throughout the season were extended to a full hour.
The fifth season of Keeping Up with the Kardashians began airing on August 22, 2010, and concluded with another "Junk in the Trunk" episode on December 20. The sixth season commenced on June 12, 2011, and ended with a television special "Kim's Fairytale Wedding: A Kardashian Event" which aired two extended episodes on October 9 and 10. The show later returned on December 19 with the episode "Kendall's Sweet 16". Starting with the seventh season, which premiered on May 20, 2012, the half-hour reality series was extended to a full hour in a new 9:00/8:00 pm time slot. The season concluded on October 28. The eighth season of the series started airing on June 2, 2013; it became the longest season with 21 episodes and ended on December 1. The ninth and tenth seasons aired in 2014 and 2015, respectively. The latter season included a television special titled "About Bruce" which aired on May 17 and 18, 2015. The eleventh season premiered on November 15, one month after the previous season finished. The twelfth season of the show debuted on May 1, 2016. The thirteenth season premiered on March 12, 2017. The sixteenth season premiered on March 31, 2019.
In the United States, episodes are aired in a censored form with stronger swearwords and sex references bleeped or removed. In the UK, episodes are broadcast uncensored after the watershed.
## Home video releases and streaming
In North America, the first three seasons of the reality series were distributed on DVD. The first season was released on October 7, 2008, by Lions Gate Entertainment which obtained the home entertainment distribution rights for a variety of programming from Comcast Entertainment Group, including Keeping Up with the Kardashians. The second and third seasons of the series were released on November 10, 2009, and August 17, 2010, respectively. In Australia, the first four seasons were released by Shock Entertainment, followed by a Season 1-4 box set, all remaining seasons are released on DVD by Universal Sony Pictures with the first four seasons re-issued by Universal in 2017. The latest addition, which includes the eleventh season of the show, was released on April 28, 2016. In the United Kingdom, the reality series is distributed by Universal Pictures UK. The DVD set of the seventh season, the latest addition, was released on June 24, 2013. The episodes of Keeping Up with the Kardashians are also available on numerous streaming video on demand services, such as Amazon Video, iTunes, Google Play, Microsoft Movies & TV, Hulu, Peacock, and Vudu, as well as the E! network's own streaming service.
On May 7, 2020, it was announced that the show would be released on Netflix for the UK.
## See also
- History of Armenian Americans in Los Angeles
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