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262,685	Lotus position	1,163,229,017	Cross-legged sitting meditation pose	[ "Asymmetric asanas", "Buddhist meditation", "Medieval Hatha Yoga asanas", "Meditation asanas", "Sitting asanas" ]	Lotus position or Padmasana (Sanskrit: पद्मासन, romanized: padmāsana) is a cross-legged sitting meditation pose from ancient India, in which each foot is placed on the opposite thigh. It is an ancient asana in yoga, predating hatha yoga, and is widely used for meditation in Hindu, Tantra, Jain, and Buddhist traditions. Variations include easy pose (Sukhasana), half lotus, bound lotus, and psychic union pose. Advanced variations of several other asanas including yoga headstand have the legs in lotus or half lotus. The pose can be uncomfortable for people not used to sitting on the floor, and attempts to force the legs into position can injure the knees. Shiva, the meditating ascetic God of Hinduism, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and the Tirthankaras in Jainism have been depicted in the lotus position, especially in statues. The pose is emblematic both of Buddhist meditation and of yoga, and as such has found a place in Western culture as a symbol of healthy living and well-being. ## Etymology and history The name Padmasana is from the Sanskrit पद्म Padma, "lotus" and आसन, Āsana, "posture" or "seat". In Asian cultures, the sacred lotus is used as a symbol of growth towards perfection and enlightenment as it is rooted in the mud at the bottom of the pond, but rises and blooms above the water. In Chinese and Tibetan Buddhism, the pose is also called the "vajra position" (Skt. vajrāsana, Ch. 金剛座 jīngāngzuò). The pose is ancient and is described, along with other asanas (sitting postures), in the 8th century book Patanjalayogashastravivarana. A figure seated in lotus position on a lotus flower is shown on dinar coins of Chandragupta II, who reigned c. 380–c. 415 AD. The first tantric text to discuss posture (asana), the 6th-10th century Nisvasattvasamhita Nayasutra (4.11-17, 4.104-106), directs the meditator and "user of mantras" to sit in lotus or a similar posture. The 15th century Hatha Yoga Pradipika states that the pose destroys all diseases, and that a yogin in the pose who retains the air breathed in through the nadi channels attains liberation. Sukhasana is from Sanskrit सुख sukha, meaning "pleasure" or "ease". The 19th century Sritattvanidhi describes and illustrates the pose. The name, and the more general name Yogasana ("Yoga pose") which may denote a variety of sitting poses, is found in much older documents as a meditation seat, such as in the 4th century Darshana Upanishad. ## Position From sitting cross-legged on the floor (Sukhasana), one foot is placed on top of the opposite thigh with its sole facing upward and heel close to the abdomen. The other foot is then placed on the opposite thigh as symmetrically as possible. The pose requires "very open hips". It can be modified using a support such as a cushion or blanket; by sitting on its forward edge, the pelvis is tilted forward. ## Variations Sukhasana (Sanskrit: सुखासन, romanized: Sukhāsana), Easy Pose, has the legs simply crossed in front of the body. In half lotus, अर्ध पद्मासन (Ardha Padmasana), one leg is bent and resting on the ground, the other leg is bent with the foot in lotus position. It is an easier meditation position than full lotus. In bound lotus, बद्ध पद्मासन (Baddha Padmasana), the practitioner sits in full lotus, and each hand reaches around the back to grasp the opposite foot. For psychic union pose, यओगमुद्रासन (Yogamudrasana), the practitioner bends forward in full lotus, bringing the forehead as close to the floor as possible. The pose is both an asana and a mudra; easier variants begin from Ardha Padmasana. Variations of several other asanas such as Sirsasana (yoga headstand), Sarvangasana (shoulderstand), Simhasana (lion pose), Matsyasana (fish pose), and Gorakshasana (cowherd pose) have the legs in lotus. Asanas such as Vatayanasana (horse pose) and advanced forms of Ardha Matsyendrasana (half lord of the fishes pose) have one leg as in half lotus. ## Effects Lotus is one of the yoga poses that most commonly causes injury. Attempts to force the legs into lotus pose can injure the knees by squeezing and damaging the medial meniscus cartilage; this is painful and takes a long time to heal. The hip joints must rotate outwards approximately 115 degrees to permit full lotus. Students who cannot achieve this much hip rotation may try to compensate by bending the knee joint sideways, risking injury. Rather than bending the knee, the thighs can be encouraged to rotate outwards (using hand pressure or a strap). The yoga guru B. K. S. Iyengar notes that people unused to sitting on the floor will initially feel "excruciating" pain in the knees, but that this subsides with practice, until the pose becomes relaxing, both restful and alert and hence ideal for pranayama. Twentieth century advocates of some schools of yoga, such as Iyengar, made claims for the effects of yoga on specific organs, without adducing any evidence. Iyengar claimed that Padmasana encourages blood circulation in the abdomen and lumbar region, toning the spine and abdominal organs. ## In art and culture ### Asian art In Buddhism, statues of the founder, Gautama Buddha, sometimes depict him seated in lotus position and enthroned on a lotus flower. In Hinduism, statues often depict gods, especially Shiva, meditating in Padmasana. In Bali, a Padmasana is also a type of Hindu shrine, named for the posture. In Jainism, seated Tirthankaras are represented in Lotus posture. ### Western culture The scholar of religion Thomas Tweed wrote in 2008 that "the prevailing image of Buddhist practice has been the solitary meditator, eyes half closed, sitting in the lotus position." Ian Fleming's 1964 novel You Only Live Twice has the action hero James Bond visiting Japan, where he "assiduously practised sitting in the lotus position." The critic Lisa M. Dresner notes that Bond is mirroring Fleming's own struggles with the pose. The BBC journalist Megan Lane commented in 2003 that since yoga as exercise had become mainstream, lotus position (like tree pose) had been used by advertisers to sell "all manner of goods and services." She noted that both "healthy living" goods such as vitamins, fitness clubs, water filter and probiotic yogurt, and unrelated items such as cars, airlines, financial services "and even beer" have made use of images of yoga to convey a message of well-being. Poland's Obory Dairy gave its advertising agency the goal of creating awareness of their "Jogi" yogurt as exclusive and with a positive image. The agency responded with a photograph of two young women meditating in lotus pose at dawn under the heading "Start your day with Jogi", the brand name also meaning "yoga" in Polish. ## See also - Kukkutasana, cockerel pose, a balancing asana with the hands threaded through the folded legs of Padmasana - List of asanas - Maravijaya - Padmasana (shrine) - Zazen
212,809	Cog (advertisement)	1,164,730,625	British television and cinema advertisement launched by Honda in 2003	[ "2000s television commercials", "2003 in British television", "2003 works", "British television commercials", "Honda", "Viral marketing", "Wieden+Kennedy", "Works involved in plagiarism controversies" ]	"Cog" is a British television and cinema advertisement launched by Honda in 2003 to promote the seventh-generation Accord line of cars. It follows the convention of a Rube Goldberg machine, utilizing a chain of colliding parts taken from a disassembled Accord. Wieden+Kennedy developed a £6 million marketing campaign around "Cog" and its partner pieces, "Sense" and "Everyday", broadcast later in the year. The piece itself was produced on a budget of £1 million by Partizan Midi-Minuit. Antoine Bardou-Jacquet directed the seven-month production, contracting The Mill to handle post-production. The 120-second final cut of "Cog" was broadcast on British television on 6 April 2003, during a commercial break in ITV's coverage of the 2003 Brazilian Grand Prix. The campaign was very successful both critically and financially. Honda's UK domain saw more web traffic in the 24 hours after "Cog"'s television début than all but one UK automotive brand received during that entire month. The branded content attached to "Cog" through interactive television was accessed by more than 250,000 people, and 10,000 people followed up with a request for a brochure for the Honda Accord or a DVD copy of the advertisement. The media reaction to the advertisement was equally effusive; The Independent'''s Peter York described it as creating "the water-cooler ad conversation of the year", while Quentin Letts of The Daily Telegraph believed it was "certain to become an advertising legend". The high cost of 120-second slots in televised commercial breaks meant that the full version of "Cog" was broadcast only a handful of times, and only in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Sweden. Despite its limited run, it is regarded as one of the most groundbreaking and influential commercials of the 2000s, and received more awards from the television and advertising industries than any commercial in history. Its success was blighted, however, by persistent accusations of plagiarism by Peter Fischli and David Weiss, the creators of The Way Things Go (1987). ## Sequence "Cog" opens with a close-up on a transmission bearing rolling down a board into a synchro hub. The hub in turn rolls into a gear wheel cog, which falls off the board and into a camshaft and pulley wheel. The camera tracks slowly from left to right, following the domino chain of reactions across an otherwise empty gallery space. The complexity of the interactions increases as the commercial progresses, growing from simple collisions to ziplines made from a bonnet release cable, scales and see-saws constructed from multiple carefully balanced parts, and a swinging mobile of suspended glass windows. Later sequences begin to make use of the Accord's electronic systems; the automated water sensors attached to the windscreen are used to make wiper blades start crawling across the floor, and a side door with a door-mirror indicator lowers the automated window to let a part pass through. The majority of "Cog" takes place in complete silence, the only sounds coming from the collisions of the pieces themselves. This is broken with the activation of the CD player from the Accord, which begins playing The Sugarhill Gang's 1979 single "Rapper's Delight". The sequence ends when the button of an electronic key fob is pressed, closing the hatchback of a fully assembled Honda Accord Wagon on a carefully balanced trailer. The car rolls off the trailer, and stops in front of a tonneau cover bearing the "Accord" marque, while narrator Garrison Keillor asks "Isn't it nice when things just work?". The screen fades to white and the piece closes on the Honda logo and the brand's motto, "The Power of Dreams". ## Production ### Background Honda's share of the European automotive market had been in decline since 1998, and the company's position as the number two Japanese automotive company, behind Toyota, had been taken by Nissan. European consumers perceived the brand as staid and uninspiring, and the cars to be of lesser quality than those produced by European manufacturers. In one survey, one quarter of respondents "wouldn't dream of buying a Honda as their next car". It was in this climate in 2001 that advertising agency Wieden+Kennedy proposed to Honda a new advertising strategy based on the company's Japanese motto, "Yume No Chikara" ("Power of Dreams"). The stated goal of the campaign was to increase Honda's share of the UK market to five percent within three years and to change the public image of the brand from "dull but functional" to "warm and consumer-friendly", all on a lower marketing budget than its predecessor agency had demanded. The first series of promotions in the United Kingdom adopted the strapline "What if...?", and explored various "dream-like" scenarios. The first television campaign explicitly introduced the premise of the campaign by asking what would happen if the world's favourite word (Okay) was replaced with "What if?". The next few pieces of the campaign, "Pecking Order", "Seats", and "Bus Lane" for television and "Doodle", "Big Grin", and "Oblonger" for radio, became progressively more surreal, and featured oddities ranging from a traffic cone draped in leopard fur to trees growing traffic lights from their branches. In 2002, W+K Creative Directors Tony Davidson and Kim Papworth and creative team Matt Gooden and Ben Walker, proposed a new television and cinema advertisement to promote the seventh-generation Honda Accord line that had recently been rolled out in Europe and Japan. The advertisement, based on a complex chain reaction of moving parts from the Accord itself, was approved and given the working title "Cog". ### Pre-production Gooden and Walker had been working together since 1988. By 2002, their portfolio included a Guinness World Record-holding one-second advertisement produced for Leo Burnett Worldwide, and a depression-awareness booklet for the Charlie Waller Memorial Trust. Wieden+Kennnedy approached Honda with a rough, low-budget 30-second trial film, inspired by the children's board game Mouse Trap, Caractacus Potts' breakfast-making machine in the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, and a 1987 Swiss art film by Peter Fischli and David Weiss, Der Lauf der Dinge (The Way Things Go). The Honda executives were intrigued, but demanded a cut using actual automotive parts before giving permission to go ahead with the full-scale project. "Cog" was approved with a budget of £1 million, and Gooden & Walker recruited a London-based team to go through the logistics of the shoot in detail. The team, which comprised engineers, special effects technicians, car designers and even a sculptor, spent a month working with parts from a disassembled Honda Accord before the design for the advertisement's set was even finalised. Approval for the script took another month. Honda insisted that several specific Accord features, such as a door with a wing-mirror indicator and a rain-sensitive windscreen, appear in the final cut. The company planned to highlight these features in sales brochures. Antoine Bardou-Jacquet was hired to direct the piece. Bardou-Jacquet was mostly known for directing several award-winning music videos, including Alex Gopher's "The Child", Playgroup's "Number One", and Air's "How Does It Make You Feel". ### Filming Bardou-Jacquet wanted to compose the advertisement with as little computer-generated imagery as possible, believing that the final product would be that much more appealing to its audience. To this end, he set two months aside for the creation of hundreds of conceptual drawings detailing various possible interactions between the parts, and a further four months for practical testing and development. For the testing phase, the script was broken into small segments, each comprising only one or two interactions. Ideas deemed unworkable by the testing crew, such as airbag explosions and collisions between front and rear sections of the car, were abandoned, and the remaining segments were slowly brought together until the full and final sequence was developed. The final cut of "Cog" consists of two continuous sixty-second dolly shots taken from a technocrane, stitched together later in post-production. (The stitching appears during the moment when the exhaust [muffler] rolls across the floor.) Four days of filming were required to get these two shots, two days for each minute-long section. Filming sessions lasted seven hours and the work was exacting, as some parts needed to be positioned with an accuracy of a 1⁄16 inch (1.6 mm). Despite the detailed instructions derived from the testing period, small variations in ambient temperature, humidity and settling dust continually threw off the movement of the parts enough to end the sequence early. It took 90 minutes on the first day just to get the initial transmission bearing to roll correctly into the second. Between testing and filming, it took approximately 100 takes to film the commercial. (Rumors about 606 takes were later debunked.) The team commandeered two of Honda's six hand-assembled Accords—one to roll off the trailer at the end of the advertisement, the other to be stripped for parts. While several sections of the early scripts had to be abandoned due to the total unavailability of certain Accord components, by the time production finished the accumulated spare parts filled two articulated lorries. ### Post-production "Cog" needed only limited post-production work, as the decision had been made early on to eschew computer-generated imagery wherever possible. To further reduce the work required, "Barnsley", a specialist in the Flame editing tool (real name, Andrew Wood), from The Mill, spent a lot of time on set during filming, where he advised the film crew on whether particular sections could be accomplished more easily by re-filming or by manipulating the image afterwards. Even so, the constant movement of the components on-camera made it difficult to achieve a seamless transition between the two 60-second shots. Several sections also required minor video editing, such as re-centering the frame to stay closer to the action, removal of wires, highlighting a spray of water, and adjusting the pace for dramatic purposes. ## Release and reception ### Schedule "Cog" was first aired on British television on Sunday 6 April 2003. It filled an entire commercial break in ITV's coverage of the Brazilian Grand Prix. The release was widely remarked upon by the media, with articles appearing in both broadsheets such as The Daily Telegraph, The Independent and The Guardian; and tabloid papers such as The Sun and The Daily Mirror. The day after "Cog"'s debut, the Honda website received more hits than at any time in its history, and overnight became the second most-popular automotive website in the UK. The full 120-second version of the advertisement aired only 10 times in all, and only in the 10 days after the initial screening. The slots were chosen for maximum impact, mostly in high-profile sporting events such as the UEFA Champion's League football match between Manchester United and Real Madrid. The full version was then put aside in favour of a 60-second and five 30-second variations, which continued to air for a further six weeks. These shortened versions made use of newly introduced interactive options on the Sky Digital television network. Viewers were encouraged to press a button on their remote control, bringing up a menu that allowed the viewer to see the full 120-second version of the advertisement. Other menu options included placing an order for a free documentary DVD and a brochure for the Honda Accord. The DVD, which was also included as an insert in 1.2 million newspapers in the first week of the commercial's rollout, contained a "making-of" documentary featuring interviews and behind-the-scenes footage of the production process, a virtual tour of the Accord, the original music video to "Rapper's Delight" by the Sugarhill Gang, and an illustrated guide to all the parts shown in "Cog". The interactive 30-second versions of "Cog" proved hugely successful. More than 250,000 people used the menu option, spending an average of two-and-a-half minutes in the dedicated advertising area. A significant number watched the looped 120-second version for up to ten minutes. Of those who opened the menu, 10,000 requested either a DVD or a brochure, and Honda used the data collected from the interactive option to arrange a number of test drives. Expansion of the "Cog" campaign to a worldwide market was fraught with a number of logistical difficulties. The cost of airing a 120-second commercial proved prohibitive in most markets. This combined with Honda's use of different advertising agencies in different regions and the relative autonomy of its various business units in marketing decisions, meant that "Cog" screened in only a few selected markets: the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Australia; and in cinemas in only a handful of other countries. For most markets, including the United States, the only way for audiences to see the piece was via the Internet, or in one of a handful of unsolicited and unpaid broadcasts on news channel review programmes. Traffic to Honda websites quadrupled; in the first few weeks, "Cog" was downloaded by over a million people. By mid-May, the number was twice that. It has been estimated that more people in the United States voluntarily chose to watch "Cog" than any other Honda commercial. In financial terms, "Cog" was an unprecedented success for Honda. The £32,000 spent on placements on the BSkyB network alone achieved a greater response than a previous £1 million direct mailing campaign. Sales of Honda vehicles in the United Kingdom jumped by 28 percent, despite lower marketing and public relations spending by the company and an increase in prices relative to competitors' vehicles. Visits to Honda dealerships rose from an average of 3,500 to 3,700 per month, with 22 percent of these resulting in the purchase of a Honda, compared to 19 percent before the campaign. In all, "Cog" has been credited with increasing Honda's revenue by nearly £400m. ### Plagiarism accusations Shortly after Cog appeared on television, Wieden+Kennedy received a letter from Peter Fischli and David Weiss, creators of the 1987 art film Der Lauf der Dinge. The film was well known in the advertising industry and its creators had been approached several times with offers for the right to use the concept, but had always declined. The letter pointed out several similarities between their work and "Cog", and warned the agency that they were considering legal action on the basis of the "commercialisation and simplification of the film's content and the false impression that [they] might have endorsed the use". When interviewed by Creative Review magazine, the pair made clear that they wished they had been consulted on the advertisement, and that they would not have given permission if asked. Media publications quickly picked up the story, and asserted that Fischli and Weiss were already in the process of litigation against the car manufacturer. Comparisons were made between the case and that of Mehdi Norowzian, a British director who complained about Diageo's, the drinks conglomerate, for allegedly plagiarising his work in its 1994 Anticipation campaign for Guinness-brand stout. The matter was complicated by the fact that Wieden+Kennedy acknowledged that the film had served as an "inspiration" for "Cog", and had distributed copies of the work to its script-writers. Ultimately, Fischli and Weiss did not file a lawsuit against either Wieden+Kennedy or Honda UK. ### Awards Despite the lingering shadow of these accusations, "Cog" drew an unprecedented amount of critical acclaim. It received more awards than any commercial in history; so many that it was both the most-awarded commercial of 2004 and the 33rd-most-awarded commercial of 2003. The jury for the British Television Advertising Awards gave the piece the highest score of any commercial ever recorded; the jury's chairman Charles Inge commented: "My own opinion is that this is the best commercial that I have seen for at least ten years." After awarding "Cog" with several Silver awards, the president-elect of the D&AD Awards, Dick Powell, said of the piece: "It delights and entrances, [...] it communicates engineering quality and quality of thinking, and leaves you with a smile." Having swept the majority of award ceremonies within the advertising community to date, "Cog" was widely believed to be the favourite for the industry's top award, the Grand Prix at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival. Its chief competition was thought to be "Sheet Metal" for Saturn automobiles. "Cog" held a disadvantage in that the chairman of the Cannes voting jury, Dan Wieden, was one of the founders of Wieden+Kennedy, the firm responsible for creating "Cog"; tradition holds that it is bad form for the chairman of the jury to vote for a piece by his or her own agency. The result at Cannes was a surprise; after the longest judging period in the festival's history, the Grand Prix went to neither of the two event favourites. Instead, the jury awarded the prize to "Lamp", a U.S. advertisement directed by Spike Jonze for the IKEA chain of furniture stores. Voted second was a British ad, "Ear Tennis" for the Xbox video game console. Chief among speculated reasons for the outcome was the plagiarism debate surrounding "Cog". Ben Walker told Adweek "A couple of people on the jury told me the reason it didn't win is 'cause they didn't want to be seen to be awarding something which people in some corners had said we copied." ## Legacy ### In advertising The popularity and recognition received by "Cog" led a number of other companies to create pieces in a similar vein—either as homages, in parody, or simply to further explore the design space. The first of these was Just Works, a deliberate parody advertisement for the 118 118 directory assistance service in the summer of 2003, in which the Honda parts are replaced with such oddities as a tractor wheel, a flamingo and a space hopper, with impetus provided by two moustachioed runners. Just Works was created by advertising agency WCRS. It was written by Anson Harris and directed by JJ Keith, whose previous work included spots for BT Cellnet, Heinz, and Guinness, and the Oscar-nominated short film Holiday Romance. Honda refused to give WCRS permission to copy its advert, which, under Broadcast Advertising Clearance Centre guidelines, prevented either the 60- or 90-second Just Works spots from appearing on British television. Instead, the ad was shown online and promoted virally. Just Works went on to win a number of awards in its own right, including Golds in several categories at the British Television Advertising Awards and the Creative Circle Awards, a Silver Lion from the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival, and a Bronze award from The One Club. In 2004, BBC Radio Manchester asked for and received permission from Wieden+Kennedy to produce a television advertisement in the style of "Cog" to advertise coverage of football events by local radio stations. The ad, which was directed by Reg Sanders and produced by Tracy Williams, shows pieces of sports equipment such as footballs and team shirts knocking into each other in sequence. In all, 65 versions were broadcast, each tailored to advertise the local BBC Radio station. Wieden+Kennedy were pleased to gain the extra publicity and Neil Christie, managing director of Wieden+Kennedy London, commented: "We are very happy that every time the BBC runs one of their adverts, the person who watches it thinks of Honda." Campaign magazine listed "Cog", along with Balls for the Sony BRAVIA line of high-definition televisions, as one of the most-imitated commercials in recent times. Among the pieces believed to draw inspiration from "Cog" are a 2003 piece for breakfast cereal Sugar Puffs, Nearness for the Oslo School of Architecture and Design, a 30-second animated advertisement for Heinz Tomato Ketchup, an advertisement for BBC Radio Merseyside football coverage, and the 2007 Tipping Point, advertising Guinness stout. When asked about the similarities between "Cog" and "Tipping Point", Paul Brazier, executive creative director at the advertising agency behind Tipping Point, replied: "I knew the ad was similar in places, but as an executive creative director, you have to look at things like that and make a decision. The fact the TV ad was only part of a huge internet campaign meant that I thought it wasn’t that near "Cog"." ### Outside advertising "Cog" has also inspired a number of other creative endeavours outside of the advertising industry, including an elaborate domino toppling world record attempt by Robin Weijers, and a three-minute introductory trailer to the BBC show Bang Goes the Theory. In 2004, the United States Coast Guard Training Centre in California requested permission to use the ad in its training regime as a demonstration of the importance of attention to detail. Discussion of "Cog" as an example of the confluence of art and advertising, and as an example of inspiration versus plagiarism, has been ongoing. Mark Leckey included "Cog" as part of his video art installation "Cinema in the Round", in the Tate Britain gallery, London, in 2008. It was also the focus of a panel discussion at the Tate Modern during a retrospective of Fischli & Weiss' work there in 2006. The next piece created by Wieden+Kennedy for Honda, Sense, advertised the company's "Integrated Motor System" hybrid car technology. Deliberate steps were taken to distance the spot from "Cog", using metaphor to make the promotion, rather than focusing on the technology itself. In 2005, Honda was once again in contention for the Grand Prix at the Cannes Lions International Film Festival, with the animated 60-second spot Grrr. This time, it returned home triumphant, defeating Singing in the rain for the Volkswagen Golf and Stella Artois' Pilot to bring home the top prize. Antoine Bardou-Jacquet went on to direct two further Honda advertisements for Wieden+Kennedy. Choir, created with the help of fellow "Cog" team-members Ben Walker and Matt Gooden, was released in 2006, and Problem Playground'' in 2008.
43,832,462	Rise (perfume)	1,142,581,257	Perfume by Beyoncé	[ "Beyoncé perfumes", "Perfumes released by Coty, Inc.", "Products introduced in 2014" ]	Rise (also known as Beyoncé Rise) is a perfume endorsed by Beyoncé and distributed through division Coty Beauty of manufacturer Coty, Inc. She collaborated with perfumer Loc Dong from the company International Flavors & Fragrances (IFF) for creating the scent. It marks her third fragrance following the release of Heat (2010) and Pulse (2011). Inspired by African-American author Maya Angelou and meant to showcase private sides of Beyoncé's personal life, Rise was created as a woman's fragrance. It was released in February 2014 to various stores; a promotional poster and a commercial shot by English music video director Jake Nava were released the same month with the latter featuring Beyoncé surrounded by golden glitter. Upon their release, the perfume and the commercial were positively received by critics with Rise's various scents and its feminist inspiration being particularly hailed. Rise features top notes of Italian bergamot orange, golden apricot and a basil sorbet middle notes of gold symphony orchid freesia blossom and jasminum sambac and base notes of autumn woods accord, cashmere musk and a vetiver extract. ## Background Beyoncé announced the release of her first fragrance Heat in December 2009 after she had previously worked with Tommy Hilfiger on True Star and with Giorgio Armani on Diamonds for which she also appeared in several promotional campaigns. Heat, released on February 3, 2010, was followed by six additional releases of the same line with various scent changes. It went on to become one of the three best-selling fragrances of all time with \$400 million earned at retail globally. A new line of perfumes titled Pulse followed in September 2011 and included several additional releases. The perfume was meant to showcase the singer's persona and energy while performing live on stage during her concerts. On December 12, 2013, it was reported by MTV that beauty and lifestyle editor Jess Torres of the magazine Siempre Mujer was offered a glimpse of Beyoncé's new perfume called Rise. On December 20, 2013, it was officially announced by fashion magazine Women's Wear Daily that she would release her third line of perfumes titled Rise in early 2014. Perfumer Loc Dong of International Flavors & Fragrances (IFF) served as a collaborator with Beyoncé. The perfume was influenced by Beyoncé's autobiographical HBO documentary Life Is But a Dream (2013); both Rise and the film showcase the singer's personal sides including "inner strength, overcoming adversity, and what it really means to be a woman". ### Conception Marsha Brooks, a vice president of global marketing for Coty Beauty, a division of Coty, Inc. responsible for Beyoncé's fragrance business, said in an interview that Rise was meant to leave a "strong sense of 'overcoming adversity and rising above it all.'" She added, "The fragrance concept is about female empowerment and finding the inner strength that makes women so beautiful... We're getting a little bit more intimate and personal with this next initiative we are doing. The time has come for something more natural and emotional." According to her, testings for Rise were done in multiple countries with positive feedback. It was also revealed that the perfume was inspired by a poem by African-American author Maya Angelou. Journalists Katy Waldman of Slate, Kathleen Hou of New York and Treye Green of the International Business Times noted "Still I Rise" from Angelou's book And Still I Rise as a potential inspiration. The fragrance features various notes. The top notes consist of an Italian bergamot orange, golden apricot and a basil sorbet. The middle notes contain gold symphony orchid (identified as Beyoncé's favorite flower), freesia blossom and jasminum sambac. Rise concludes with base notes of autumn woods accord, cashmere musk and a vetiver extract. ## Release and promotion The perfume was shipped in January 2014 and it was released to stores the following month. It was packaged in a tall glass bottle, designed by Ken Hirst, and contained a gold collar and gold crystals. Marissa G. Muller of MTV compared the packaging with the foil of Jay-Z's Gold perfume. According to Beyoncé's official perfume website, it was meant to show her "resilient spirit and graceful femininity". The promotional poster for Rise was released in early 2014. It features a close-up shot of her face with blonde hair and metallic eye shadow. Reveal magazine writer Brigitte Swimer deemed the photograph "smouldering" and went on to offer praise for Beyoncé looking "breathtaking... rocking flawless skin and perfectly contoured cheeks". Brittany Talarico of People also reviewed the image positively, calling it "sexy" and noting "one of her signature powerhouse stares as her hair blows wildly around her". Talarico concluded that the golden theme matched the perfume's bottle design. It was estimated by several industry sources that the promotion for the fragrance, which mainly included the commercial and promotion on Facebook, was worth US \$10 million and it was predicted the perfume would sell \$25 million. In January, 2014, People magazine organized a contest between readers of its website on Twitter asking them to share a photo of the singer in their favorite outfit on their profiles and win a signed bottle of Rise. In celebration of the perfume's release, a contest was also launched by Beyoncé's team asking fans to tell them "what they rise for"; several of them were filmed and their videos were published on Beyoncé's perfume channel. A winner was announced in June 2014 and awarded with a bottle of Rise. ### Commercial A 30-second clip for the fragrance surfaced on the Internet in January 2014 and several publications reported and speculated it would be the commercial for Rise. A commercial was later officially released in February and was shot by Jake Nava with whom Beyoncé had collaborated frequently. It opens with shots of her showered in gold as she rises out of a glittering bowl formed of dust while dramatic music plays in the background; several of the scenes are filmed using a slow motion technique. Her voiceover is heard in the background, "You can let yourself disappear, or you can stir things up. Never settle, shake loose. Embrace the elements. Because from now on, you will always Rise!". Beyoncé is seen surrounded by glittery ashes, wearing thigh-high gladiator sandals and a bodysuit noted to be Amazonian-inspired. Brigitte Swimer of Reveal labelled it "sizzling" noting scenes showing Beyoncé "swishing her hair around in true Beyoncé style". Kelly Bryant of OK! magazine called the advertisement "sexy". In an in-depth review of the commercial, Caitlin Morton from MTV heavily praised Beyoncé's look, style, movements and poses for the camera and concluded, "THAT ... is how you sell a perfume". Maeve Keirans writing for the same publication wrote the clip was "heavy on the glitter and hair-flips" and added, "We would've bought Rise anyway, but now [due to its commercial] we're definitely going to buy it." Carl Williott from the website Idolator interpreted Beyoncé's character in the video as a "gold dust woman imploring you to embrace the elements and rise". Charlie Gowans Eglinton of Elle magazine provided a positive review for the clip summarizing, "there's hair–flipping, intense eye–contact and a sultry voiceover, all covered in a layer of gold dust. What more could you ask for?". ## Reception Kristin Booker of the fashion website Refinery29 described the scent as a "voluptuous, sexy floral". Kathleen Hou writing for New York opined that the perfume's best part was that it was inspired by a poem by Angelou. Hou also noted feminist influences in the scent with usual additions of orchid and masculine notes of autumn woods, cashmere, musk, and vetiver extract. She concluded her review by stating "Maya Angelou-reading perfume sounds (and will surely smell) pretty good". With a similar opinion, Treye Green of the International Business Times noted more masculine notes with the addition of woods, cashmere, musk. She hailed Rise as a "sweet treat" for her fans along her self-titled album's surprise release a week earlier and noted, "Beyoncé's definition of feminism has stirred quite the debate following her new album's release. But maybe her perfume version of it will be more openly embraced – plus who can deny the genius of a Maya Angelou-inspired scent." Madison Lafayette in an article for VIBE Vixen praised Beyoncé's decision to release Rise "capitaliz[ing] off" her success and "giving us another reason to talk about her". Tor Cardona of the magazine Grazia Daily praised the fact the perfume was announced a week after Beyoncé's fifth album, noting she was set for a "world domination" in 2014. Focusing on the scent, Cardona advised female readers to buy it and went on to state "With hints of orchid, golden apricot and jasmine- we reckon this might just be 2014's hottest scent." BET editor Dorkys Ramos described the scent as a mixture of "sexy, floral" notes. The Daily Telegraph's Katy Young called the gold symphony orchid used in the scent "the queen of orchids". She also said that notes of cashmere musk and vetiver "give the whole blend a grounding element" before concluding "the notes are not wrong". Charlie Gowans Eglinton of Elle, noted that the perfume promised to be "almost as intoxicating as Bey herself" with a "sexy scent" of musk according to reports she had read. In a guide for spring perfumes to buy in 2014, editors of E! Online included Rise, calling it "exactly what you think it would be: vivacious, strong and bold" and concluding "it is certainly not a dainty spring scent". Cinya Burton of the same publication noted the fragrance was different than other floral perfumes during the season, deeming it "plain fierce". ## Products Products related to Rise are taken from Beyoncé's official perfume website. Two additional products were released in the collection—a body lotion for hydrating the skin and a shower gel. Eau de parfume - 100ml / 3.4 oz - 50 ml / 1.7 oz - 30 ml / 1.0 oz - 15 ml / 0.5 oz Glistening body lotion - 200ml / 6.7 oz Silky shower gel - 200ml / 6.7 oz ## See also - List of celebrity-branded fragrances
19,137,903	Will Venable	1,161,941,226	American baseball player & coach	[ "1982 births", "20th-century African-American people", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "African-American baseball coaches", "African-American baseball players", "American expatriate baseball players in the Dominican Republic", "American men's basketball players", "Arizona League Padres players", "Baseball coaches from California", "Baseball players from Marin County, California", "Basketball players from California", "Boston Red Sox coaches", "Chicago Cubs coaches", "Eugene Emeralds players", "Fort Wayne Wizards players", "Gigantes del Cibao players", "Lake Elsinore Storm players", "Lehigh Valley IronPigs players", "Living people", "Los Angeles Dodgers players", "Major League Baseball bench coaches", "Major League Baseball center fielders", "Major League Baseball first base coaches", "Major League Baseball third base coaches", "Oklahoma City Dodgers players", "People from Greenbrae, California", "Peoria Saguaros players", "Portland Beavers players", "Princeton Tigers baseball players", "Princeton Tigers men's basketball players", "San Antonio Missions players", "San Diego Padres players", "Texas Rangers coaches", "Texas Rangers players", "West Oahu Canefires players" ]	William Dion Venable (born October 29, 1982) is an American professional baseball coach and former player. He is the associate manager of the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB). He played in MLB as an outfielder for the San Diego Padres, Texas Rangers and Los Angeles Dodgers, and he was a coach for the Chicago Cubs. He is the son of former MLB outfielder Max Venable and is the older brother of former National Football League player Winston Venable. Venable played college basketball for Princeton, where he was the second athlete to earn first-team All-Ivy League honors in both baseball and basketball. In the 2005 MLB Draft, the Padres selected Venable in the seventh round; he made his major league debut in 2008. Although he broke into MLB as a center fielder, he played mostly as a right fielder after his second season. He finished among the top 10 in the National League in triples four times and in stolen bases twice. He has the most MLB career hits and home runs of any Princeton alumnus. ## Early life and amateur career Venable was born in 1982 in Greenbrae in Marin County, California, at a time when his father Max Venable was a Major League Baseball player for the nearby San Francisco Giants. He grew up travelling around the country with his father and also lived in Japan and the Dominican Republic. ### High school In high school, he envisioned himself as more likely to be a professional basketball player than baseball player. Prior to his freshman year, his mother, Molly, objected to him quitting baseball to focus on basketball. As both a high school sophomore and a high school junior, Venable was second-team San Francisco Bay Area All-Metro basketball player for San Rafael High School. He was the Marin County Athletic League (MCAL) most valuable player in basketball as a freshman, sophomore and junior. As a sophomore, he led his team to the MCAL League Championship. As a senior, he gave up the responsibility of being point forward. ### College career Venable chose to attend Princeton University, not for its academics, but for its tradition of basketball excellence. He respected their tradition of qualifying to participate in the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Tournament. During his time at the University he was a part of two teams that qualified for post season play: 2004 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament and 2002 National Invitation Tournament). Princeton recruited him as a basketball player. He did not play baseball as a freshman, but his father had directed him to Scott Bradley, Princeton's baseball coach, during his recruiting visit. Venable, who was a member of the class of 2005 at Princeton University, was the second athlete in Ivy League history (after his Padres teammate Chris Young) to be first-team All-Ivy in both basketball and baseball and he played on Ivy League Champion National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Championship tournament participants in both sports. He played in two NCAA Championship tournaments in both sports and earned a B.A. in anthropology. In basketball, he averaged over 10 points and over 30 minutes per game in his 2002–03 sophomore season through his 2004–05 senior season. Bradley had left the door open for Venable to come take batting practice if he ever had the urge. As a sophomore, at the suggestion of his mother, Venable resumed baseball. He posted modest numbers in his first season, but in 2004, he hit for a .344 batting average, earned All-Ivy honorable mention, and was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles in the 15th round of the draft (439th overall). Bradley felt that Major League Baseball scouts undervalued Venable because he did not participate in the Cape Cod League for college baseball players. Thus, instead of signing and giving up his amateur status, Venable returned for his senior season and posted a league leading 9 home runs and runner-up .385 batting average while earning All-League honors. Subsequently, the Padres drafted him in the seventh round (215th overall); he was signed by the Padres' Northeast Scouting Director, Jim Bretz. ## Professional career ### Minor League Baseball After graduating from Princeton, Venable made his professional debut in minor league baseball with the Arizona League Padres of the Arizona League in 2005. He hit for a .322 batting average in 15 games and was soon promoted to the Eugene Emeralds of the Single-A Northwest League. In 2006, Venable was the Padres Minor League Player of the Year. With his father as a team hitting coach, Venable posted a .314 batting average, .389 on-base percentage (OBP), and .477 slugging percentage for the Fort Wayne Wizards of the single-A Midwest League (MWL), which earned him both mid-season and post-season MWL All-star honors. That season he tied for the MWL lead in runs scored and was among the top four Padre farmhands in RBIs, batting average, and stolen bases. Among his highlights for the Wizards were his team-high two grand slams and a five-hit performance. Subsequently, for the 2006 West Oahu CaneFires of the Hawaii Winter Baseball, Venable posted a .330 batting average, .390 on-base percentage (OBP), and .473 slugging percentage. He won the batting title that season and was named league most valuable player. He also led the league in doubles and was second to John Otness in OBP. In the outfield, Venable made no errors. Before the 2007 season, Venable was listed as the fifth best prospect in the Padres organization by Baseball America, and they named him the \#11 prospect in the league. They also named him as a Baseball America Low-A All-Star. In 2007, Venable batted .278 with a .337 OBP in 134 games for the San Antonio Missions of the Texas League. This again earned him both mid-season and post-season league All-Star honors. A highlight occurred on May 30, 2007, when he hit for the cycle. After the season ended, he was invited to play for the San Diego affiliate in the Arizona Fall League, but he was afflicted with tendinitis in his shoulder and only hit .228. During 2008 spring training, he had two home runs and eight runs batted in his first twelve at-bats. He then posted a .292 batting average, .361 on-base percentage and .464 slugging percentage in 120 games for the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League in 2008. ### San Diego Padres #### 2008–2011 Venable had been expected to be a September 2008 call-up, but when Scott Hairston was forced onto the disabled list, Venable was called up ahead of schedule. On August 29, 2008, in his debut, he tripled in his first at-bat and came around to score a run. He is the twenty-fifth Princeton alumnus to play in the Major Leagues, but he is the first African-American alumnus. He posted his first Major League home run in his sixth game on September 4, 2008, during a 5–2 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers at Miller Park. His only other home run for the 2008 San Diego Padres was also in a victory on the road on September 19, 2008 in an 11–6 victory over the Washington Nationals at Nationals Park. During this game, Venable posted his first three-hit performance and first three-RBI performance. When Venable batted leadoff for the Padres on September 28, 2008 against Pittsburgh, he became the first Princeton batter to oppose a Princeton pitcher (Ross Ohlendorf). In 2008, Venable accumulated only 110 Major League at-bats, and rookie year is considered to be the season in which one accumulates his 130th at-bat. He only played centerfield in 2008. Following the season he played winter baseball in the Dominican Professional Baseball League, where he struggled. Although in 2008 Baseball America projected Venable as an every day starter for the Padres in 2010, some experts questioned whether he would be a long-term solution in center field for the team. Venable started the 2009 season with the Padres' Triple-A affiliate, Portland Beavers, but he was recalled by the Padres on June 3. His father, Max, served as the Beavers' hitting coach in 2009. Following the July 5 trade of Scott Hairston to the Oakland Athletics, Venable shared right field with Kyle Blanks. On July 12 against the San Francisco Giants, he had his first home run of the season in his first career four-hit game. Between July 30 and August 5, he homered in five of seven games. In an August 23 game against the St. Louis Cardinals, he was involved in a bench-clearing incident when Albert Pujols thought he threw an elbow while being tagged out. In 2009, he posted 12 home runs and tallied 38 runs batted in (RBI), while defensively 493.2 of his 643 innings were spent in right field and only 117 in center field. In 2010, he finished 8th in the National League in triples (7), and 9th stolen bases (29). He executed some delayed steals by taking off with the toss back to the mound "when neither infielder is covering second and the catcher is nonchalant with the ball after receiving the pitch". On May 19, Venable moved into the lead off position in the lineup and he fell a home run shy of the franchise's first cycle against the Los Angeles Dodgers, going 4-for-5 at the plate after getting a triple in the 1st inning and a double in the third. On June 23, 25 and 27, Venable hit tie-breaking home runs in Padre victories against the Florida Marlins and Tampa Bay Rays. On July 3, he went on the 15-day disabled list due to back problems. On September 29 against the Chicago Cubs, he stole two potential home runs (from Alfonso Soriano and Aramis Ramírez) on deep fly balls. In the game, he achieved his career-high 10-game hitting streak. He also led National League outfielders with 5 errors. He set new career-highs with 13 home runs and 51 RBI. Again, the majority of his innings were in right field (600.1 of 936.1 innings). He split his remaining time between left field (171.2) and center field (164.1). In 2011, Venable started slowly, hitting only .205 in April and was eventually optioned to the Tucson Padres on May 23 before being recalled on June 9. At the time of his demotion, he had no home runs and a .224 batting average in 134 at-bats. He was recalled after going 16-for-58 with 3 doubles, 3 triples, 3 home runs and 3 stolen bases in 14 games. In one minor league game on May 27 he homered twice against the Salt Lake Bees. On July 20, Venable scored 3 times in the first two innings as the Padres jumped out to a 13–0 lead against the Florida Marlins. In late July, he missed a few games due to back spasms. On August 10 against the New York Mets, Venable had four hits again missing the cycle by a home run when he posted a second double in a ninth inning at bat. On August 21, Veneble delivered a lead off home run and the game-winning bases-loaded walk-off hit on Trevor Hoffman Day. On September 28, he got his first grand slam home run against the Chicago Cubs off of Ryan Dempster. For the season, his totals dropped to 9 home runs and 44 RBI with the Padres, and he again totaled 7 triples, this time finishing 10th. He played 662.2 of his 793.2 innings in right field. #### 2012–2015 In 2012, Venable and Chris Denorfia formed a platoon in right field, with Venable getting most of the starts against right-handed pitchers and batting .270 against them. Venable made 80 starts in right, but appeared in a then-career-high 148 games for the year. When not starting in right, he made occasional starts in center and left field and made 26 pinch-hitting appearances. On May 15, 2012, Venable had a single, double and triple by the fourth inning against the Washington Nationals, but his 4-hit effort again fell short of the franchise's cycle. On May 23, Venable had his sixth career lead off home run and added a single in the second inning and a double in the fourth against the St. Louis Cardinals. He ended up one hit shy of the cycle for the fifth time, this time a triple. On June 3, Venable suffered a strained oblique muscle and left the game, missing four more games with the injury. Venable finished the year batting .264 with 9 home runs and 45 RBI. He collected 8 triples, finishing 9th in the league, and also committed 7 errors, tied for first among NL outfielders. Coming into 2013, Venable was again expected to platoon with Denorfia in right, but injuries to center fielder Cameron Maybin and left fielder Carlos Quentin expanded his playing time. He made 68 starts in right and 52 in center and played in a career-high 151 games. Venable entered the season with 401 hits, which was 48 shy of the record for an alumnus of Princeton Tigers Baseball held by Moe Berg. His 46 home runs were already a school best. For the week of August 12–18, 2013, Venable won the National League Player of the Week Award. During the week Venable tied his single-game career high with 4 hits, joined the Padres' 100-steal club, hit a walk-off home run, made a home run stealing catch and surpassed his previous career best hitting streak by 5 to 15. It marked his first Player of the Week Award as he hit .406 (13-for-32) with two home runs, two doubles, a triple and seven runs scored. On September 13, David Hale (Princeton class of 2011) made his major league debut for the Atlanta Braves, and it became the second Princeton vs. Princeton batter-pitcher matchup in major league history. Hale struck out Venable and eight other Padres in his debut for the Braves, setting a franchise debut record. Venable was voted the Padres' Most Valuable Player for the 2013 season by local baseball writers and other members of the media as he became the 8th player in Padres history to record at least 20 home runs and 20 steals in a season. For the year, Venable hit .268 with 22 home runs and a .796 on-base plus slugging, all new career highs. He also stole 22 bases and finished tied for 5th in the league with 8 triples. On September 2, 2013, Venable signed a two-year contract extension with the Padres to keep him in San Diego through the 2015 season. Venable batted .224 with eight home runs in the 2014 season. His batting average, .288 on-base percentage, .325 slugging percentage, and 38 RBIs were all career lows for a full season. During the 2014–15 offseason, the Padres acquired outfielders Matt Kemp, Justin Upton, and Wil Myers, shifting Venable into a reserve role. For the Padres in 2015, Venable hit .258 with six home runs, 10 doubles, and 11 stolen bases through mid-August. ### Texas Rangers On August 18, 2015, the Padres traded Venable to the Texas Rangers for catcher Marcus Greene and a player to be named later (PTBNL). The Rangers needed another outfielder to supplement players like Josh Hamilton, who have dealt with injuries in the past. The PTBNL was announced as Jon Edwards on August 21, after Edwards cleared waivers and could be traded. ### Philadelphia Philles On February 28, 2016, Venable signed a minor league deal with the Cleveland Indians. On March 27, he was released by the Indians. The next day, Venable signed a minor league contract with the Philadelphia Phillies. On June 11, 2016, Venable opted out of his minor league deal with the Phillies and became a free agent. ### Los Angeles Dodgers On June 14, 2016, the Los Angeles Dodgers signed Venable and added him to their major league roster. He appeared in six games for the Dodgers and had one hit (a double) in 10 at-bats before he was designated for assignment on June 24. He cleared waivers and accepted an outright assignment to AAA Oklahoma City. On July 1, the Dodgers brought him back to the active roster when Joc Pederson went on the disabled list. The following week he was again designated for assignment and he again accepted an outright assignment to Oklahoma City. He had one hit in 19 at-bats for Los Angeles and played in 46 games for Oklahoma City, where he hit .276. ## Post-playing career On September 6, 2017, Venable was named a special assistant to Chicago Cubs president Theo Epstein. Venable served as the first base coach of the Cubs in 2018 and 2019. For the 2020 season, he was shifted to third base coach. On November 20, 2020, Venable was announced as the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox. On May 29, 2021, Venable managed his first MLB game, filling in for Alex Cora in a game against the Miami Marlins, as Cora was in Puerto Rico to attend the high school graduation of one of his children; the Red Sox won, 3–1. On August 7, 2021, during a series in Canada against the Toronto Blue Jays, Venable tested positive for COVID-19, resulting in Venable and first-base coach Tom Goodwin (deemed a close contact) quarantining away from the rest of Red Sox personnel. During the 2022 season, Venable led the Red Sox for six games in the latter half of April after manager Cora tested positive for COVID-19; the team went 1–5 in those games. On November 16, 2022, Venable was hired by the Texas Rangers to be an associate manager alongside Bruce Bochy. ## See also - List of second-generation Major League Baseball players
3,075,696	Alive (Jennifer Lopez song)	1,146,217,754	null	[ "2000s ballads", "2002 singles", "2002 songs", "Downtempo songs", "Jennifer Lopez songs", "Pop ballads", "Rhythm and blues ballads", "Song recordings produced by Cory Rooney", "Song recordings produced by Dan Shea (producer)", "Songs written by Cory Rooney", "Songs written by Jennifer Lopez", "Songs written for films" ]	"Alive" is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez. It was written by Lopez, Cris Judd, and Cory Rooney for the Michael Apted-directed thriller, Enough (2002). Lopez stars in the film as Slim, a waitress who marries a wealthy contractor, and flees with their 5 year old daughter as he becomes increasingly abusive. While on the run, Slim, who discovers that her husband is following her, "trains herself for a final, violent confrontation". The producers of Enough wanted Lopez to write a new song for film, however, she felt as if it was not something that could be forced. In October 2001, while on their honeymoon, Judd played her a melody that he had written on the piano. Lopez thought that the melody was "really beautiful", and that it would be perfect fit for Enough. She incorporated the hardships that Slim went through in the film, as well as her own personal struggles, into the song's lyrics. "Alive" doesn't appear on the film score of Enough, and instead was included as the sole original song on Lopez's first remix album, J to tha L–O! The Remixes (2002). It was serviced to radio in the United States on April 29, 2002, by Epic Records. The song was released commercially on a 12" vinyl as a double a-side along with "I'm Gonna Be Alright (Track Masters Remix)" on July 30, 2002. Music critics were divided on "Alive"; some deemed Lopez's change in musical style to be refreshing, while others felt as if she should stick to the dance arrangements of her previous work. The song's accompanying music video was directed by Jim Gable. It features Lopez playing the piano, writing the lyrics to "Alive" and recording the song, intercut between scenes from Enough. While the song failed to appear on any national charts, it did reach number two on the US Billboard Dance Music/Club Play Singles chart. Lopez performed the song live for the first and only time on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 17, 2002. ## Background It was first reported in November 2000 that Jennifer Lopez was in talks to star in the Michael Apted-directed thriller Enough. Sandra Bullock had originally signed on to portray the lead, but was forced to back out of the film due to scheduling conflicts. Lopez's casting in the film was confirmed by MTV News on May 19, 2001. Filming began two days later and took place on location in Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle. Recording music and filming Enough at the same time, Lopez became overworked and had a nervous breakdown. She suffered from a lack of sleep and froze up in her trailer. In 2008, Lopez confessed: "I was like – I don't want to move, I don't want to talk, I don't want to do anything". Lopez stars in Enough as Slim, a waitress whose life is severely altered after she marries Mitch, a wealthy contractor portrayed by Billy Campbell. She flees her increasingly abusive husband with their daughter following her birth. Slim soon discovers that she is being followed by Mitch. While on the run, she "trains herself for a final, violent confrontation" with her husband. For the final act, which required Lopez to "become a believable lean, mean fighting machine", she considered learning tai chi or taekwondo, but was worried about learning it at an expert level in a short period of time. Her personal trainer then suggested that she study Krav Maga, the "official self-defense system of the Israeli Defense Forces which has recently become trendy in the States", according to MTV News. Enough was initially scheduled to be released in September 2001, but was later pushed back to "early 2002" and eventually saw a release on May 24, 2002. ## Writing and production The producers of Enough wanted Lopez to write a new song for the film. According to the entertainer, writing a song is something that cannot be forced; "It kinda just has to happen". While on their honeymoon in October 2001, her then-husband Cris Judd played her a melody that he had written on the piano. Lopez thought that the melody was "really beautiful" and that it would make a "wonderful song". She felt that a "little bit of it sounded like the movie, a little haunting". When she heard the melody, she said to herself: "I can write something to that right now. And we can use it in Enough". Lopez then began to think about the film and the character that she portrays and what she had been through. She also thought about the things that she had gone through in her own life. According to Lopez, it was easy to be inspired by the melody Judd had written, "and just kind of that grateful feeling, to just be here [...] And keeping it simple. Because life can get so crazy and everything. And then you realize, it's all just kinda about the simplicity of being here, and being healthy. And being alive. So that's where the song came from". "Alive" was written by Lopez, Judd and her frequent collaborator Cory Rooney. The song was produced by Rooney and Dan Shea, who also provided programming for the song. Lopez's vocals were recorded at Sony Music Studios and The Hit Factory in New York City. Her vocals were engineered by Robert Williams, with assistance from Jamie Gudewicz, Jason Dale and Kyle White. Pat Webe acted as the stage engineer for the song. Humberto Gatica provided audio engineering for the strings, which were arranged and conducted by Bill Ross. They were recorded by Bill Smith at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, with assistance from Jason Lloyd, Mark Eshelman and Julianne Masted. "Alive" was mixed by Mick Guzauski at Barking Doctor Studios in Mount Kisco, with assistance from Tom Bender. The song was mastered by Herb Powers at Hit Factory Mastering in New York City. After the song was completed, Lopez played it for the producers of Enough and they "loved it". "Alive" is not "the type of music" that the singer is used to making. According to Lopez, she knew that there was something "inside of me that I have to offer to this ["Alive"]. And then, you know, things happen. Things have a weird way of happening naturally and organically when they're supposed to. And I feel that this song was just meant to be, for this movie. Basically, I wrote the song for me to go through all these kinds of things as an actress with this character. You draw from all different experiences in your life. From way back to the present, to whatever, to make it really true and honest". "Alive" means "the world" to Lopez because of its positive message and the fact that it was something that she created with Judd. ## Release and promotion "Alive" was serviced to radio in the United States on May 21, 2002, as the third single from J to tha L–O! The Remixes. The song was released commercially on a 12" vinyl as a double a-side along with "I'm Gonna Be Alright" on July 30, 2002. Chris Cox and Barry Harris, known collectively as Thunderpuss, remixed "Alive" into a "club-ready" dance track. The song managed to reach number two on the US Billboard Dance Music/Club Play Singles chart, staying behind "You Gotta Believe" by Tommy Boy Silver. It topped the Maxi-Single Sales chart for three weeks. The song also managed to reach number 18 on the Adult Contemporary chart. At the 2003 Billboard Latin Music Awards the Thunderpuss Remix of "Alive" received an award for Latin Dance Single of the Year and Latin Dance Club Play Track of the Year. The accompanying music video for "Alive" was directed by Jim Gable and edited by Scott C. Wilson. The video opens with Lopez composing the melody and writing the lyrics for "Alive" on a piano in her living room, which overlooks a pier. Behind her, a flashing screen displays scenes from Enough, along with Lopez recording the song in a studio with her band. After walking away from the piano, she lies optimistically on her sofa. She is then seen singing amid a large body of outdoor water. At the instrumental passage for "Alive", Lopez embraces the music being played by the band and changes a few chords with Rooney, who is seated at a piano. She then emotionally finishes recording the song during its final chorus. Throughout the entire video, clips from the film continue to be inter cut with these settings. The music video for "Alive" was included on a special edition DVD re-release of Enough, as well as Lopez's first music video compilation The Reel Me (2003). Lopez performed the song for the first and only time on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 17, 2002. ## Critical reception Music critics were divided on "Alive". Chuck Taylor of Billboard stated that: "Remember that 'Oh, my' feeling the first time you heard Madonna sing her first ballad, 'Crazy for You'? It's déjà vu with 'Alive'." According to Taylor, Lopez instills a "vulnerable spirit of romanticism" in the track. He wrote that Lopez "does her best" with the song, a "regal ballad". He called "Alive" a "bold new terrain" for Lopez, "an artist who is heralded more for her videogenics than her voice." Taylor wrote that "it's nice to have top 40's leading staple artist diversify her portfolio with a musical summer fling that will maintain programmers' and fans' love affair with Lopez". He stated that the radio remix of "Alive" is "made more luxurious" with the addition of a "cascade of fluttering strings". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called "Alive" the "biggest surprise" of J to tha L–O! The Remixes. William Ruhlmann of Allmusic gave the song a negative review, writing that her vocal limitations "come to the fore when she is spotlighted on such a song without a dance arrangement to support her". He stated, however, that her vocal limitations are not "as big a deal" as her lack of emotional involvement: "Though she tries to fake it here and there, she still sounds like she's singing her grocery list instead of the song's clichéd lyrics". David Browne of Entertainment Weekly called the song a "syrupy ballad" that is "neither alive nor a remix". He stated that if you listen to the song long enough, "you may actually be conned into thinking Lopez's voice and songs are passable". He concluded by stating as a result of "Alive", J to tha L–O! The Remixes may be the most insidious album ever made. ## Track listings \; UK CD promo single 1. "Alive" (Album Version) – 4:41 2. "Alive" (Thunderpuss Radio Mix) – 4:12 \; US CD promo single 1. "Alive" (Radio Remix) – 4:20 2. "Alive" (Album Version) – 4:41 \; US 12" promo vinyl 1. "Alive" (Thunderpuss Club Mix) – 8:51 2. "Alive" (Thunderpuss Tribe-A-Pella) – 7:50 3. "Alive" (Thunderpuss Radio Mix) – 4:12 \; US 12" vinyl 1. "I'm Gonna Be Alright" (Track Masters Remix) featuring Nas – 2:51 2. "I'm Gonna Be Alright" (Track Masters Remix) – 3:14 3. "I'm Gonna Be Alright" (Track Masters Remix Instrumental) – 3:14 4. "Alive" (Thunderpuss Club Mix) – 8:51 5. "Alive" (Thunderpuss Tribe-A-Pella) – 7:50 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of J to tha L–O! The Remixes. Locations - Vocals recorded at Sony Music Studios and The Hit Factory in New York City, New York. - Strings recorded at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California. - Mixed at Barking Doctor Studios in Mount Kisco, New York. - Mastered at Hit Factory Mastering in New York City, New York. Personnel - Jennifer Lopez — songwriter - Cris Judd — songwriter - Cory Rooney — producer, songwriter - Dan Shea — producer, programmer - Robert Williams — engineer - Jamie Gudewicz — assistance engineer - Jason Dale — assistance engineer - Kyle White — assistance engineer - Pat Webe — stage engineer - Humberto Gatica — string engineer - Bill Ross — string engineer and conductor - Bill Smith — string recorder - Jason Lloy — assistant string recorder - Mark Eshelman — assistant string recorder - Julianne Masted — assistant string recorder - Mick Guzauski — mixer - Tom Bender — assistant mixer - Herb Powers — mastering ## Charts ## Release history
30,864,342	Mega Man X4	1,170,913,386	1997 video game	[ "1997 video games", "Fiction about rebellions", "Malware in fiction", "Mega Man X games", "Mobile games", "PlayStation (console) games", "PlayStation Network games", "Sega Saturn games", "Single-player video games", "Superhero video games", "Video games about impact events", "Video games about terrorism", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games set in computers", "Video games set in outer space", "Video games set in the 22nd century", "Windows games", "Xebec (studio)" ]	Mega Man X4, originally released in Japan as Rockman X4 (ロックマンX4), is an action-platform game developed by Capcom. It is the fourth game in the Mega Man X series and the second game in the series to be released on the Sega Saturn and PlayStation. The two versions were released simultaneously in Japan in 1997. A North America release followed sometime thereafter, while Europe received only the PlayStation version in 1997. Mega Man X4 allows the player to choose between the two mechanoid "Reploids" protagonists at the beginning of the game: X, who uses traditional, long-range attacks; or Zero, who wields a short-range sword. Taking place in the 22nd century, the Mega Man X series is set in a society populated by humans and intelligent robots called "Reploids" with several having been labeled "Mavericks" as a result committing crimes crimes. Two Maverick Hunters, X and Zero, become with a Reploid army called the "Repliforce" who aim to take down mankind and take the planet. Development of the game started due to Capcom's desire to explore the franchise in a new hardware which proved to be difficult as they aimed to make the two protagonists unique when playing. Xebec produced the animated cutscenes. Critical reception for Mega Man X4 has been generally positive. Critics praised the ability to play as either X or Zero, a concept many found to expand upon the then perceived exhausted gameplay formula of the Mega Man X sub-franchise during the 1990s. However, it was criticized for its lack of innovation and its voice acting. In addition to its console versions, the game was released on Windows worldwide in 1998 and 1999 and on Japanese mobile phones in 2011 and 2012. It was in compilations for the PlayStation 2 and GameCube in 2006, the PlayStation Network in 2014, and the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch as part of Mega Man X Legacy Collection released in 2018. ## Gameplay The gameplay in Mega Man X4 is similar to the previous installments of the Mega Man X series. The player is presented with a series of action-platforming stages that can be cleared in any order desired. In these stages, the player must avoid obstacles like falling debris and spikes, and destroy enemy robots to reach the end of the stages. Some levels contain ridable vehicles such as hover bikes and armored-mecha. The player character's maximum health can be extended by obtaining a "Heart Tank" in each of the eight stages. Two "Sub Tanks" can also be found, which can be filled with life energy and then be used to replenish the player's health at any time. New to Mega Man X4 is the ability to play through the game either as X or Zero fully, (while Zero was playable in Mega Man X3, he acted only as a backup for X). The two characters cannot be switched during a playthrough. Though both of them go through the same stages, they operate differently and are challenged differently from the terrain. X wields the "X-Buster", a plasma cannon on his arm that he uses to attack foes from a distance. It can be charged to fire stronger shots. A new weapon is given to the player with each boss defeated while playing as X. These weapons have limited ammunition. In some stages, the player can find hidden capsules that contain armor upgrades that greatly enhance X's capabilities. Zero is more melee-oriented than X by using a "Z-Saber" sword. Rather than acquiring weapons from the bosses (with the exception of his Giga Attack), Zero learns special techniques such as the "Hienkyaku" air-dash and "Kuuenbu" double-jump. However, Zero cannot upgrade any of his body parts in this game. ## Plot Mega Man X4 takes place in an ambiguous year in the 22nd century (21XX), where humans coexist with intelligent androids called "Reploids". A second Maverick Hunting group has arisen. The army, called the "Repliforce", is a military regime led by the giant Reploid General and his second-in-command, Colonel. The storyline differs slightly depending on whether the player chooses X or Zero. In the game's introduction, the Sky Lagoon, a massive floating city, is sent crashing down onto the city below it, killing countless humans and Reploids. At the crash site, X and Zero encounter Colonel, and attempt to bring him back to Maverick Hunter HQ for investigation. Colonel denies Repliforce's involvement in the Sky Lagoon destruction, and refuses to disarm out of pride. Zero also rescues Iris, Colonel's kind-hearted sister, who was caught in the mayhem but is unharmed. The Repliforce thus begins a movement to claim independence from the human government and create a nation for Reploids only. Back at headquarters, X is greeted by a rookie Hunter named Double, while Zero rendezvouses with Iris. Once all eight Mavericks are beaten, X and Zero are sent to a space port where Colonel guards Repliforce's launch into outer space; Colonel dies after an ensuing battle. X and Zero infiltrate the Repliforce's space station, known as the Final Weapon. X must fight Double, who is revealed to be a double agent sent to gain information from the Hunters. Zero is forced to battle Iris, who is torn over her brother's dream. Zero kills Iris in the confrontation, which causes him to break down in an existential crisis. The Maverick Sigma then reveals he caused the Sky Lagoon crash in order to instigate the conflict between the Maverick Hunters and Repliforce. Additionally in Zero's scenario, Sigma reminds Zero of the time that Sigma led the Maverick Hunters, and of a vicious battle between the two that ended with Zero's apprehension as a Maverick. In the end, Sigma is destroyed, but reveals he already activated the Final Weapon. General then appears and sacrifices himself to destroy the Final Weapon, allowing X and Zero to escape and return to Earth. As they escape, X begs Zero to promise to kill him, should he become a Maverick but he does not answer. Meanwhile, Zero is wrought with pain and guilt for being unable to save any of the Repliforce members, most notably Iris. ## Development and release Originally, the Mega Man X3 team had no plans to provide a sequel until their superiors from Capcom aimed to try the X series on new hardware. The team aimed to make Zero different from X, he was remade as a proper samurai-like warrior who wields a Z-Saber instead of shooting like X. In order to get the approval to make Zero playable, the developers gave him special moves based on the Street Fighter fighting game series to compensate for lacking X's powers. In particular, Capcom struggled in the beginning with the number of backgrounds they had to draw, but were pleased with results. There were twice as many sprite animation patterns to create. Since there was too much data creating the player characters, they had to employ a compression routine to store it all, and divide the stages into two sections. Several difficulties also came with the voice acting. Meanwhile, designing X's armors proved difficult since the character looks different depending on which parts the player obtains first. Instead of designing the game's various pieces of artwork as he had done in the past, Keiji Inafune focused his attention on being a producer. He was also involved in creating the game's storyline, a role he described as "only slightly less than it was for X1". Instead of presenting Repliforce as blatantly evil villains like Sigma, the writing staff decided to leave them some "moral leeway". They did not want the ideals of Repliforce and the Maverick Hunters to be so black-and-white. Since the main theme involved Reploids fighting each other, Capcom decided to avoid featuring human characters, calling it "Robots and The Future". Inafune left his former design responsibilities up to other artists that had previously worked on the Mega Man X series. Artist Haruki Suetsugu did not design its characters as he would do for later games in the series, but was given drafts in order to draw illustrations for promotional purposes. An unknown author was responsible for designing X's secret "Ultimate Armor" featured in both the game after inputting a cheat code and as a Japanese Bandai action figure. In regards to Zero, Suetsugu noted that while he looked appealing, his drawings overshadowed X. Meanwhile, he lamented how brutal was the story of the heroine Iris. Suetsugu spent four days coming up with the initial blueprint. After tinkering with the Mega Man X3 armor parts, he noticed that attaching them in specific ways made it look like an airplane. He recounted creating the armor as an extremely difficult yet fun task. Zero was intended to have his own Ultimate Armor, but the development team chose to not finalize it. The FMV cutscenes in Mega Man X4 were produced by IG Port's subsidiary Xebec. The game's musical score was composed by Toshihiko Horiyama. The score features the opening theme "Makenai Ai ga Kitto aru" (負けない愛がきっとある, lit. "Unbeatable Love I Surely Have") and the closing theme "One More Chance", both sung by Yukie Nakama. All of the game's instrumental and vocal music was compiled on the Capcom Music Generation: Rockman X1 \~ X6 soundtrack released by Suleputer in 2003. The theme songs were also included on the Rockman Theme Song Collection, published by Suleputer in 2002. Mega Man X4 was initially developed as a Sega Saturn exclusive and slated for a June 1997 release, but it was delayed and made multi-platform. Both console versions of Mega Man X4 were released in Japan on August 1, 1997. The cover art for the Japanese Saturn version depicts Zero standing alone in a dark setting. Inafune stated this idea was weird, there was a still a group of hardcore fans wanting this. A "Special Limited Pack" edition of the game included the Ultimate Armor X action figure. The American localization of the Mega Man X4 PlayStation version was originally put on hold after Sony Computer Entertainment America denied Capcom permission to release it in the United States, reportedly due to their policy against 2D games. However, after persistent talks with the company, Capcom finally convinced Sony to allow the game a release. According to a Capcom spokesperson, the reasoning behind the delay was that Mega Man X4 "had just gotten lost in Sony's back log of games waiting for approval". The PlayStation version was released on August 1, 1997 in North America, while the Saturn version came out in the early part of the following week. Customers who preordered either version of the game through Capcom's online store were given a Mega Man X4-themed T-shirt. Capcom's designated European distributor, Virgin Interactive, opted not to release the Saturn version in Europe, though the PlayStation port was released in that region on October 13, 1997. It was later ported to the Windows in 1998 in Japan. A Japan-exclusive Windows reissue by MediaKite Distribution in 1999. A mobile port focused on X was released on December 1, 2011, while the Zero version on January 5, 2012. ## Reception and legacy Reviews for the PlayStation and Saturn console versions of Mega Man X4 have been generally positive. Critics praised the added option to play through the game as either X or Zero, noting that the drastic differences in the way the characters played the same levels added to the game's replay value. However, most of the same critics concurred that Mega Man X4's 2D side-scrolling gameplay was tired and overdone well before the game was released. In particular, GamePro and Next Generation both gave it negative reviews on the sole basis of its perceived lack of series innovation; GamePro asserted that "the gameplay's none removed from Mega Man for the NES - things are just a little bigger and a little louder," while Next Generation suggested that those interested in the game should instead "pick up Mega Man X3 in the used bin for a third of the price, since you won't miss much." However, a different GamePro critic reviewed the PlayStation version and gave it resoundingly positive review, calling it "an impressive 32-bit debut" and "a definite must-have for any action gamer's library." GameSpot took more of a middle ground, concluding that despite its improvements to the Mega Man X formula, it was still a 2D sidescroller that did might not age well. A number of critics praised the intuitive and responsive controls, gigantic bosses, and solid challenge. John Ricciardi of Electronic Gaming Monthly differed on the last point, saying that the stages are too easy, but added that "the overall experience is definitely a positive one." Electronic Gaming Monthly listed the console versions at number 78 on its "100 Best Games of All Time" in the 100th issue of the magazine in 1997, the same issue in which they reviewed the PlayStation version, citing its "significant improvement over X3, with amazingly detailed 2-D graphics, well-balanced (although slightly easy) gameplay and an awesome story with very well-acted animated cut scenes." They also listed Mega Man X4 as a runner-up for "Side-Scrolling Game of the Year" (behind Castlevania: Symphony of the Night) in its 1997 Editors' Choice Awards. The Windows version of the game was met with much lower review scores. Tom Price of Computer Gaming World felt appeal of the game itself is limited to Mega Man and platformer fans, who likely already own at least one of the console versions of Mega Man X4. Computer Games Magazine found it superior to Mega Man X3 but without any sense of the sequel having noticeable improvements. When it came to the story, IGN and GameSpot praised how different was X's story from Zero's as it gave the game replay value. Reactions to X's voice-acting have been mostly negative. Sushi-X of Electronic Gaming Monthly and Hilliard criticized his child-like voice as a poor fit for his character. The fandom in general found the scene where Zero yells "What am I fighting for?!" while holding Iris' dead body as one of the worst parts in voice acting in Mega Man history alongside some cutscenes from Mega Man 8 to the point of calling it "horror". According to Famitsu sales information, the PlayStation version of the game sold 197,385 copies in Japan alone in 1997, making it the 61st best-selling game in the region for that year. In 2002, Capcom re-released the PlayStation version of the game as part of the North American Greatest Hits range, confirming that it had sold at least 350,000 units. Mega Man X4 has also been re-released in multiple budget versions in Japan including PlayStation the Best, PSone Books, and Sega Saturn Collection. Despite decision for retaining the same gameplay formula that the Mega Man franchise had been using for a full decade, Capcom continued to use 2D side-scrolling for another two installments of the series, Mega Man X5 and Mega Man X6. These three games, as well as the three installments that precede them, were included on the North American Mega Man X Collection for the GameCube and PlayStation 2 in 2006. A mobile edition of Mega Man X4 for au and DoCoMo customers was made available for purchase in Japan. A version featuring X as a playable character was released in 2011; a version with Zero in 2012. Mega Man X4 was also released on the PlayStation Network for PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, and PlayStation Portable as part of the PSOne Classics line in 2014. Finally, Mega Man X4 was included in the Mega Man X Legacy Collection, a compilation released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, and Microsoft Windows.
42,812,495	The Boat Race 2001	1,136,847,342	null	[ "2001 in English sport", "2001 in rowing", "2001 sports events in London", "March 2001 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 147th Boat Race was won by Cambridge by 2+1⁄2 lengths. It was the first time in the history of the event that the race was stopped and restarted, following a clash of blades. In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis; Cambridge also won the Women's race. ## Background The Boat Race is an annual competition between the boat clubs of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. First held in 1829, the competition is a 4.2-mile (6.8 km) race along the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 2000 race by three lengths, but Cambridge led overall with 76 victories to Oxford's 69 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management for the second consecutive year. The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Up until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. ## Crews The Oxford crew (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") consisted of seven Britons, an American and a Norwegian, while the Cambridge crew (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues") was composed of six Britons, a German, an Australian and a British/American. The Cambridge crew weighed, on average, 4.5 pounds (2.0 kg) more than their rivals, while Josh West, Cambridge's number five, was the tallest rower, at . ## Race Boat club presidents Kieran West and Dan Snow met on the banks of the Thames at Putney for the coin toss at soon after noon on 24 March 2001. Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station. While the river was calm, rain began to fall just prior the start of the race. Oxford took an early lead, but both coxes were given warnings by race umpire Rupert Obholzer. A clash of blades ensued, with Cambridge's bow Colin Swainson losing his oar; this resulted in Obholzer calling for a restart for the first time in the history of the race. Once again, Oxford took the lead and held a two-second lead at Hammersmith Bridge. Although rating the same, Cambridge took the lead, to be ahead by half-a-length at the Surrey bend, and seven seconds ahead by Chiswick Steps. Extending their lead to more than two lengths by Barnes Bridge, Cambridge passed the finishing post in a time of 19 minutes 59 seconds. It was Cambridge's eighth win in nine races, and took their overall lead to 77 victories to Oxford's 69. In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis by six lengths in a time of 19 minutes, 36 seconds. Cambridge also won the Women's race by three feet. ## Reaction Race umpire Obholzer stated "I could have disqualified Oxford but both sides were responsible". Cambridge president and number six West said "Both teams had a good row but we had good rhythm and pushed really hard", while Oxford president Snow remarked "The Boat Race is not fair... six months' work to be screwed by the system. We have got to deal with that". BBC commentator and former Light Blue president Richard Phelps believed that Cambridge "deserved" the win and that "it was the superior power and application of it that saw Cambridge slowly pull clear of Oxford". Cambridge coach Robin Williams said "It was a brave, quick decision by the umpire", while former Dark Blue and Olympic gold medallist Matthew Pinsent suggested the clash was simply a racing incident and that the race could have been allowed to continue. He added: "There is no yellow card offence between a warning and disqualification". Oxford coach Sean Bowden blamed the defeat on the restart: "We rowed with a lot of courage ... but having to restart after that great first take-off really hurt us. It just put us at a disadvantage from then on".
199,832	Bernadette Peters	1,173,538,619	American actress and singer (born 1948)	[ "1948 births", "20th-century American actresses", "21st-century American actresses", "Actresses from New York City", "American child actresses", "American child singers", "American film actresses", "American musical theatre actresses", "American people of Italian descent", "American sopranos", "American stage actresses", "American television actresses", "American voice actresses", "American women singers", "Angel Records artists", "Audiobook narrators", "Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners", "Drama Desk Award winners", "Living people", "People from Ozone Park, Queens", "Tony Award winners" ]	Bernadette Peters (née Lazzara; born February 28, 1948) is an American actress, singer, and children's book author. Over a career spanning more than six decades, she has starred in musical theatre, television and film, performed in solo concerts and released recordings. She is a critically acclaimed Broadway performer, having received seven nominations for Tony Awards, winning two (plus an honorary award), and nine Drama Desk Award nominations, winning three. Four of the Broadway cast albums on which she has starred have won Grammy Awards. Regarded by many as the foremost interpreter of the works of Stephen Sondheim, Peters is particularly noted for her roles on the Broadway stage, including in the musicals Mack and Mabel (1974), Sunday in the Park with George (1984), Song and Dance (1985), Into the Woods (1987), The Goodbye Girl (1993), Annie Get Your Gun (1999), Gypsy (2003), A Little Night Music (2010), Follies (2011), and Hello, Dolly! (2018). She has recorded six solo albums as well as many cast albums, and performs regularly in her own solo concert act. Peters first performed on the stage as a child actress and then a teenager in the 1960s, and in film and television from the 1970s. She was praised for this early work and for appearances on, among other programs, The Muppet Show and The Carol Burnett Show, and for her roles in films including Silent Movie (1976), The Jerk (1979), Pennies from Heaven (1981, for which she won a Golden Globe Award), and Annie (1982). She has also acted in television shows such as Ally McBeal (2001), Smash (2012–2013), Mozart in the Jungle (2014–2018), The Good Fight (2017–2018), and Zoey's Extraordinary Playlist (2020–2021). ## Early life and family Peters was born into a Sicilian-American family in Ozone Park in the New York City borough of Queens, the youngest of three children. Her mother, Marguerite (née Maltese), started her in show business by putting her on the television show Juvenile Jury at the age of three and a half. Her father, Peter Lazzara, drove a bread delivery truck. Her siblings are casting director Donna DeSeta and Joseph Lazzara. She appeared on the television shows Name That Tune and several times on The Horn and Hardart Children's Hour at age five. ## Career ### 1958–1974: Child actor In January 1958, at age nine, she obtained her Actors Equity Card in the name Bernadette Peters to avoid ethnic typecasting, with the stage name taken from her father's first name. She made her professional stage debut the same month in This Is Goggle, a comedy directed by Otto Preminger that closed during out-of-town tryouts before reaching New York. She then appeared on NBC television as Anna Stieman in A Boy Called Ciske, a Kraft Mystery Theatre production, in May 1958, and in a vignette entitled "Miracle in the Orphanage", part of "The Christmas Tree", a Hallmark Hall of Fame production, in December 1958, with fellow child actor Richard Thomas and veteran actors Jessica Tandy and Margaret Hamilton. She first appeared on the New York stage at age 10 as Tessie in the New York City Center revival of The Most Happy Fella (1959). In her teen years, she attended Quintano's School for Young Professionals, a now-defunct private school. At age 13, Peters appeared as one of the "Hollywood Blondes" and was an understudy for "Dainty June" in the second national tour of Gypsy. During this tour, Peters first met her long-time accompanist, conductor and arranger Marvin Laird, who was the assistant conductor for the tour. Laird recalled, "I heard her sing an odd phrase or two and thought, 'God that's a big voice out of that little girl'". The next summer, she played Dainty June in summer stock, and in 1962 she recorded her first single. In 1964, she played Liesl in The Sound of Music and Jenny in Riverwind in summer stock at the Mt. Gretna Playhouse (Pennsylvania), and Riverwind again at the Bucks County Playhouse in 1966. Upon graduation from high school, she started working steadily, appearing Off-Broadway in the musicals The Penny Friend (1966) and Curley McDimple (1967) and as a standby on Broadway in The Girl in the Freudian Slip (1967). She made her Broadway debut in Johnny No-Trump in 1967, and next appeared as George M. Cohan's sister Josie opposite Joel Grey in George M! (1968), winning the Theatre World Award. Peters's performance as "Ruby" in the 1968 Off-Broadway production of Dames at Sea, a parody of 1930s musicals, brought her critical acclaim and her first Drama Desk Award. She had appeared in an earlier 1966 version of Dames at Sea at the Off-Off-Broadway performance club Caffe Cino. Peters had starring roles in her next Broadway vehicles—Gelsomina in the 1969 musical version of the Italian film of the same name, La Strada (for which she won good reviews but the show closed after one performance) and Hildy in a revival of On the Town (1971), for which she received her first Tony Award nomination. She played Mabel Normand in Mack and Mabel (1974), receiving another Tony nomination. Clive Barnes wrote: "With the splashy Mack & Mabel ... diminutive and contralto Bernadette Peters found herself as a major Broadway star." The Mack and Mabel cast album became popular among musical theatre fans. She moved to Los Angeles in the early 1970s to concentrate on television and film work. ### 1975–1989: Rise to prominence Peters has appeared in more than 40 feature films or television films beginning in 1973, including the 1976 Mel Brooks film Silent Movie for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture. She co-starred in her own television series, All's Fair, with Richard Crenna in 1976–77. She played a young, liberal photographer, who becomes romantically involved with an older, conservative columnist. Although Peters was praised for her charismatic performance, the show ran for only one season. Peters was nominated for a Golden Globe award as Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy. Peters starred opposite Steve Martin in The Jerk (1979) in a role that he wrote for her, and again in Pennies from Heaven (1981), for which she won the Golden Globe Award as Best Motion Picture Actress in a Comedy or Musical. In Pennies from Heaven, she played Eileen Everson, a schoolteacher turned prostitute. Of her performance in Pennies from Heaven, John DiLeo wrote that she "is not only poignant as you'd expect but has a surprising inner strength." Pauline Kael wrote in The New Yorker: "Peters is mysteriously right in every nuance." Peters was nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series on The Muppet Show (1977). On The Muppet Show, Peters sang the song "Just One Person" to Robin the Frog. She was one of the Muppets' guests when they hosted The Tonight Show in 1979, again singing "Just One Person" to Robin, and she appeared in other episodes with the Muppets. She performed and presented at the Academy Awards broadcasts in 1976, 1981, 1983, 1987 and 1994. Peters has been a presenter at the annual Tony Awards ceremony and also co-hosted the ceremony with Gregory Hines in 2002. She also hosted Saturday Night Live in November 1981. Peters has appeared on many TV variety shows, with stars such as Sonny and Cher and George Burns. She made 11 guest appearances on The Carol Burnett Show as well as appearing with Burnett in the made-for-television version of Once Upon a Mattress and the 1982 film Annie. In 1982, Peters returned to the New York stage after an eight-year absence, in one of her few non-musical stage appearances, the Off-Broadway Manhattan Theatre Club production of the comedy-drama Sally and Marsha, for which she was nominated for a Drama Desk Award. She then returned to Broadway as Dot/Marie in the Stephen Sondheim–James Lapine musical Sunday in the Park with George in 1984, for which she received her third Tony Award nomination. The New York Times theatre critic Frank Rich called her performance "radiant". She recorded the role for PBS in 1986, winning a 1987 ACE Award. Her next role was Emma in Andrew Lloyd Webber's Song and Dance on Broadway in 1985, winning her first Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical. Frank Rich wrote in an otherwise negative review of the show that Peters "has no peer in the musical theater right now." She then created the role of the Witch in Sondheim-Lapine's Into the Woods (1987). Peters is "considered by many to be the premier interpreter of [Sondheim's] work," according to writer Alex Witchel. Raymond Knapp wrote that Peters "achieved her definitive stardom" in Sunday in the Park With George and Into the Woods. Sondheim has said of Peters, "Like very few others, she sings and acts at the same time," he says. "Most performers act and then sing, act and then sing ... Bernadette is flawless as far as I'm concerned. I can't think of anything negative." She won the 1987 "CableACE Award" for her role as Dot in the television version of Sunday in the Park with George. In 1989 she starred the James Ivory film Slaves of New York and in the Buddy Van Horn action comedy film Pink Cadillac (1989) alongside Clint Eastwood. ### 1990s In 1990 she starred in Woody Allen's Alice (1990). The following year she acted as Marie D'Agoult in the James Lapine directed period drama film Impromptu (1991). Peters starred alongside Hugh Grant, Judy Davis, Emma Thompson, Mandy Patinkin, and Julian Sands. In 1997 she voiced Sophie in the animated musical film Anastasia (1997). Peters has also appeared in such television films as The Last Best Year (1990), Cinderella (1997; receiving a nomination for the "Golden Satellite Award" for her role). Peters voiced Rita the stray cat in the "Rita and Runt" segments of the animated series Animaniacs in the 1990s. Peters, as Rita, sang both original songs written for the show and parodies of Broadway musical numbers. Peters continued her association with Sondheim by appearing in a 1995 benefit concert of Anyone Can Whistle, playing the role of Fay Apple. Additionally, she appeared in several concerts featuring Sondheim's work, and performed at his 1993 Kennedy Center Honors ceremony. She next starred in the musical adaptation of Neil Simon's The Goodbye Girl with music by Marvin Hamlisch (1993). Peters won her second Tony for Best Leading Actress in a Musical for her performance as Annie Oakley in the 1999 Broadway revival of Annie Get Your Gun. Among many glowing notices, critic Lloyd Rose of The Washington Post commented: "[Peters] banishes all thoughts of Ethel Merman about two bars into her first number, 'Doin' What Comes Natur'lly.' Partly this is because Merman's Annie was a hearty, boisterous gal, while Peters plays an adorable, slightly goofy gamine. ... For anyone who cares about the American musical theater, the chance to see Peters in this role is reason enough to see the show." Playbill went even further: "Arguably the most talented comedienne in the musical theatre today, Peters manages to extract a laugh from most every line she delivers." Peters has been nominated for the Tony Award seven times, winning twice, and has also received an honorary Tony Award. She has also been nominated for the Drama Desk Award nine times, winning three times, for Annie Get Your Gun, Song and Dance and Dames at Sea. ### 2000s For her role in the Fox series Ally McBeal (2001), Peters received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. Peters was also nominated for a 2003 Daytime Emmy Award, Outstanding Performer in a Children's Special, for her work in the 2002 television film Bobbie's Girl. She also performed at the Kennedy Center Honors ceremony for Burnett in 2003. Peters appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and on the day-time talk show Live with Regis and Kelly, both as a co-host and a guest. She appeared on Inside the Actors Studio in November 2000, discussing her career and craft. Peters appeared with three generations of the Kirk Douglas family in the 2003 film It Runs in the Family, in which she played the wife of Michael Douglas's character. That same year she acted in Prince Charming (2003). Also in 2003, Peters starred as Mama Rose in the Broadway revival of Gypsy, earning another Tony nomination. Ben Brantley in The New York Times wrote, "Working against type and expectation under the direction of Sam Mendes, Ms. Peters has created the most complex and compelling portrait of her long career, and she has done this in ways that deviate radically from the Merman blueprint." In March 2005, she made a pilot for an ABC situation comedy series titled Adopted, co-starring with Christine Baranski, but it was not picked up. In May 2006, she appeared in the film Come le formiche (Wine and Kisses) with F. Murray Abraham, filmed in Italy, playing a rich American who becomes involved with an Italian family that owns a vineyard. The DVD was released in 2007 in Italy. In 2006, she participated in a reading of the Sondheim-Weidman musical Bounce. In 2007, she participated in a charity reading of the play Love Letters, with actor John Dossett. Peters appeared in the Lifetime television film Living Proof, which was first broadcast on October 18, 2008. She played the role of Barbara, an art teacher with breast cancer, who is initially reluctant to participate in the study for the cancer drug Herceptin. Andrew Gans of Playbill wrote, "Peters is able to choose from an expansive emotional palette to color the character, and her performance... is moving, humorous and ultimately spirit-raising". Peters's television work also includes guest appearances on several television series. She appeared as the sharp-tongued sister of Karen Walker (Megan Mullally) on the penultimate episode of the NBC series Will & Grace, "Whatever Happened to Baby Gin?" (May 2006); as a defense attorney on the NBC series, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (November 2006); as a judge on the ABC series Boston Legal (May 2007); and as an accident victim in Grey's Anatomy (September 2008). Of her role in Grey's Anatomy, TV Guide wrote: "Peters is especially fine as she confronts a life spinning out of control. I'd make her an early contender for a guest-actor Emmy nomination." In January, February and May 2009, she appeared in the ABC series Ugly Betty in five episodes as Jodie Papadakis, a magazine mogul running the YETI (Young Editors Training Initiative) program that Betty and Marc are in. Her appearance at the Adelaide Cabaret Festival in June 2009 was filmed and broadcast in Australia later that month. ### 2010s Peters starred in the Broadway revival of Sondheim's A Little Night Music (2010), succeeding Catherine Zeta-Jones in the role. The New York Times reviewer wrote of her performance, > [F]or theater lovers there can be no greater current pleasure than to witness Bernadette Peters perform the show's signature number, "Send In the Clowns," with an emotional transparency and musical delicacy that turns this celebrated song into an occasion of transporting artistry. I'm not sure I've ever experienced with such palpable force – or such prominent goose bumps – the sense of being present at an indelible moment in the history of musical theater. Peters's next stage appearance was in the role of Sally Durant Plummer in the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts production of the Sondheim–Goldman musical Follies in 2011. One critic wrote: "Peters ... exquisitely captures the character's unfathomable sadness and longing. It's a star turn, for sure, but one that brings attention to itself because of its truthfulness. Not surprisingly, her rendition of 'Losing My Mind' is simply shattering." She reprised the role in the Broadway revival at the Marquis Theatre, later in 2011, and received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actress in a Musical. At the 66th Tony Awards in 2012, Peters was presented with the honorary Isabelle Stevenson Award for "making a substantial contribution of volunteered time and effort on behalf of one or more humanitarian, social service or charitable organizations, regardless of whether such organizations relate to the theatre", specifically for her work with Broadway Barks. In making the announcement for this award, the Tony official site noted "With a rich generosity of spirit, Bernadette Peters' devotion to charitable causes is perhaps only outweighed by her much fêted dedication to performing. ... Peters' efforts are held in the highest regard on Broadway and beyond." BC/EFA's Tom Viola said, "Bernadette's boundless compassion and generosity represent the best in all of us." She starred in a 2012 film titled Coming Up Roses, playing a former musical comedy actress with two daughters. Peters first appeared in the NBC series Smash in the March 2012 episode "The Workshop", as Leigh Conroy, Ivy's mother, a retired Broadway star, who feels competitive because of her daughter's blossoming career. She visits the workshop and sings Everything's Coming Up Roses (from Gypsy) at the urging of the workshop cast. She also appeared in the season 1 finale, "Bombshell" (May 2012), to celebrate Ivy's presumed role as Marilyn, in "The Parents" episode (April 2013), where, as Leigh, she sings an original Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman song, "Hang the Moon", and in the episodes "Opening Night" (April 2013) and "The Phenomenon" (May 2013). Peters starred in the Sondheim and Wynton Marsalis staged concert revue titled A Bed and a Chair: A New York Love Affair at New York City Center in 2013. This collaboration between Encores! and Jazz at Lincoln Center was directed by John Doyle, with jazzy arrangements of Sondheim's songs. Peters sang "Broadway Baby", "The Ladies Who Lunch", "Isn't He Something?", "I Remember" and "With So Little to Be Sure Of", among others. Jesse Green, in his review in New York Magazine's Vulture site, commented: "[W]hat a wrenching (and funny) actress Peters remains, not on top of her voice but through it." Brantley, in The New York Times wrote: "As a singer and actress, she just can't help being ardent, full-throated and sincere. She also reminds us here of her considerable and original comic gifts." From 2014 to 2018, Peters played Gloria Windsor, the chairwoman of the orchestra board in Mozart in the Jungle, a web video series by Amazon Studios based on Blair Tindall's memoir of the same name. The show was picked up for a second and third season. She was a guest star in the 2014 Bravo television series Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce in the episode "Rule \#21: Leave Childishness to Children". Peters played the recurring role of Lenore Rindell, a financial scammer, in the CBS television series The Good Fight, in 2017 and 2018. In 2020, she played Ms. Freesia in the series Katy Keene. She returned to Broadway in the title role of the 2017 revival of Hello, Dolly! at the Shubert Theatre. Succeeding Bette Midler, Peters began performances on January 20, 2018. Marilyn Stasio wrote in Variety: "This Dolly's personal style is to twinkle and charm people into getting her way. (Her 'So Long, Dearie' is an irresistible gem.) She also has the acting chops to moisten eyeballs when she entreats her late husband to bless her renouncement of widowhood and rejoin the human race in 'Before the Parade Passes By'." Peters played her final performance as Dolly on July 15, 2018. ### 2020s She next played Deb in Zoey's Extraordinary Playlist (2020–2021) and the television film Zoey's Extraordinary Christmas (2021). Beginning in 2023, Peters plays the recurring role of Roslyn in the Apple TV+ comedy series High Desert. For her performance she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. Peters has been cast to make her West End debut alongside Lea Salonga in the Stephen Sondheim tribute revue Old Friends, which is scheduled to run at the Gielgud Theatre from September 16, 2023 to January 6, 2024. ## Recordings Peters has recorded six solo albums and several singles. Three of her albums have been nominated for the Grammy Award. Peters's 1980 single "Gee Whiz", remaking Carla Thomas' 1960 Memphis soul hit, reached the top forty on the U.S. Billboard pop singles charts. She has recorded most of the Broadway and off-Broadway musicals she has appeared in, and four of these cast albums have won Grammy Awards. Peters's debut album in 1980 (an LP), titled Bernadette Peters contained 10 songs, including "If You Were the Only Boy", "Gee Whiz" (a Top 40 hit single), "Heartquake", "Should've Never Let Him Go", "Chico's Girl", "Pearl's a Singer", "Other Lady", "Only Wounded", "I Never Thought I'd Break" and "You'll Never Know". The original cover painting by Alberto Vargas was one of his last works, created at the age of 84. According to The New York Daily News, Peters "persuaded him to do one last 'Vargas Girls' portrait... She just went to his California retreat, asked him to do one more, he looked at her and said, 'You ARE a Vargas girl!'" She kept the original painting. The original title planned for the album was Decades. Rolling Stone wrote of her debut album: > Peters debuts on record as a first-rate pop torch singer: Melissa Manchester with soul, Bette Midler on pitch. Her album has already spawned the hit single "Gee Whiz," a laid-back, doo-wop version ... that makes Peters' piping, little-girl voice seem almost like a cutesy novelty. There are also a couple of Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil rock tunes in which she sounds slightly trashy and out of her depth. The Peter Allen songs on side two are really more her style. In fact, the whole second half of Bernadette Peters is just about perfect, from the star's semi-C&W rendition of Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller's "Pearl's a Singer" to a wistful recap of Harry Warren and Mark Gordon's romantic "You'll Never Know." But the best cuts are in between. "Other Lady," written by Lesley Gore(!) with Ellen Weston, tackles an age-old problem with... devastating eloquence... and Peters delivers it with the proper brooding introspection. Allen's compositions, "Only Wounded" (co-written with Carole Bayer Sager) and the torchy "I Never Thought I'd Break" (co-written with Dean Pitchford), feature the finest singing on the LP...the unusual absence of airbrushing echo places heavy demands on the chanteuse's sultry soprano. That Bernadette Peters rises to the occasion makes her performance that much more impressive. Her next solo album, Now Playing (1981), featured songs by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, Carole Bayer Sager and Marvin Hamlisch, and Stephen Sondheim (for example, "Broadway Baby"). Bernadette Peters was re-released on CD in 1992 as Bernadette, with the 1980 Vargas cover art, and included some of the songs from Now Playing. In 1996, she was nominated for a Grammy Award for her best-selling album, I'll Be Your Baby Tonight, which includes popular songs by John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Lyle Lovett, Hank Williams, Sam Cooke and Billy Joel, as well as Broadway classics by Leonard Bernstein and Rodgers and Hammerstein. The live recording of her 1996 Carnegie Hall concert, Sondheim, Etc. – Bernadette Peters Live At Carnegie Hall, also was nominated for a Grammy Award. Peters's next studio album, in 2002, Bernadette Peters Loves Rodgers and Hammerstein, consisted entirely of Rodgers and Hammerstein songs, including two that she often sings in her concerts, "Some Enchanted Evening" and "There Is Nothin' Like a Dame". This album, which reached position 14 on the Billboard "Top Internet Albums" chart, was her third album in a row nominated for a Grammy Award. It formed the basis of her Radio City Music Hall solo concert debut in June 2002. Her last solo album, titled Sondheim Etc., Etc. Live At Carnegie Hall: The Rest of It, was released in 2005. It consists of all of the songs (and patter) from her 1996 Carnegie Hall concert that were not included in the earlier recording. Additionally, Peters has recorded songs on other albums, such as "Dublin Lady" on John Whelan's Flirting with the Edge (Narada, 1998). On the Mandy Patinkin Dress Casual 1990 album, Patinkin and Peters recorded the songs from Stephen Sondheim's 1966 television play, Evening Primrose. On the tribute album Born to the Breed: A Tribute to Judy Collins Peters sings "Trust Your Heart". In The New York Times review of the 1986 Broadway cast recording of Song and Dance (titled Bernadette Peters in Andrew Lloyd Webber's 'Song & Dance'''), Stephen Holden opined the recording was: > [A] personal triumph for a singer and actress who is rapidly establishing herself as the first lady of the Broadway musical. Performing material whose music borders on kitsch and whose lyrics and story suggest a verbose soap opera, Miss Peters nevertheless projects an astounding emotional generosity and conviction. Almost singlehandedly she turns the inconsequential erotic misadventures of Emma ... into a touching romantic fable about love and its defenses and the loss of innocence. ... Miss Peters has always oozed a cuddlesome Shirley Temple-like sweetness and vulnerability. This quality, which used to seem more like an adorable child-star affectation than a deep-seated trait, has proved to be an essential ingredient of Miss Peters's personality. A delivery that once seemed coy and cutesy has deepened and ripened into an honesty and compassion that pour out in singing that is childlike but also resilient. In 2003, Andrew Gans wrote in Playbill.com of Peters's recording sessions for Gypsy: "What is it about her voice that is so moving? Part womanly and part girlish, it is a powerful instrument, not only in volume (though that is impressive) but in the wealth of emotion it is able to convey. ... her voice – that mix of husky, sweet, rounded, vibrato-filled tones – induces a response that spans the emotional scale." Of her "Rose's Turn", Gans wrote: "...her rendition of this song may be the highlight of a career already filled with many highlights: She has taken a song that has been delivered incredibly by others and brought it to a new level." Of her performance on the recording of Follies (2011), Steven Suskin wrote in Playbill.com: "This is a fine Sally, the sort of Sally you'd expect to get from an actress like – well, Bernadette Peters. The performance on the CD is compelling; either this is simply the magic of the recording studio or Peters has changed what she does and how she does it." ## Concert performances Peters has been performing her solo concert in the United States and Canada for many years. She made her solo concert debut at Carnegie Hall in New York City in 1996, devoting the second half to the work of Stephen Sondheim. She performed a similar concert in London, which was taped and released on video, and also aired on U.S. Public Television stations in 1999. She continues to perform her solo concert at venues around the U.S., such as the Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts in Miami, and with symphony orchestras such as the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, the Dallas Symphony, and the Los Angeles Philharmonic at Walt Disney Hall. In a review of her 2002 Radio City Music Hall concert, Stephen Holden of The New York Times described Peters as "the peaches-and-cream embodiment of an ageless storybook princess... inside a giant soap bubble floating toward heaven. A belief in the power of the dreams behind Rodgers and Hammerstein's songs, if not in their reality, was possible." Peters made her solo concert debut at Lincoln Center in New York City in 2006. Holden, reviewing this concert, noted, "Even while swiveling across the stage of Avery Fisher Hall like a voluptuous Botticelli Venus in Bob Mackie spangles... she radiated a preternatural innocence.... For the eternal child in all of us, she evokes a surrogate childhood playmate". Peters was the headliner at the 2009 Adelaide Cabaret Festival in Adelaide, Australia. The Sunday Mail wrote that Peters showed "the verve, vigour and voice of someone half her age." Peters's concert performances often benefit arts organizations or help them to mark special occasions, such as her performance on an overnight cruise on the Seabourn Odyssey in a benefit for the Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts in Miami in 2009. She was one of the performers to help celebrate the center's grand opening in 2006. She headlined The Alliance of The Arts Black Tie Anniversary Gala at Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Plaza in Thousand Oaks, California, on November 21, 2009. She had helped to celebrate the opening of the Arts Plaza with concerts fifteen years earlier. In 2015, Peters performed in the concert Sinatra: Voice for a Century at Lincoln Center, a fundraiser for the new David Geffen Hall in celebration of Frank Sinatra's 100th birthday. She sang "It Never Entered My Mind". It was hosted by Seth MacFarlane and featured the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, Sting, Billy Porter, Sutton Foster and Fantasia Barrino. PBS plans to broadcast it as part of its "Live from Lincoln Center" series in December 2015. Since 2013, she has been touring intermittently with her cabaret act, An Evening with Bernadette Peters, and a concert series, "Bernadette Peters in Concert". In April 2014, she gave concert performances in Australia. The reviewer for The Sydney Morning Herald wrote: "Perhaps it is a matter of personality as much as voice: a natural warmth and an instinct for never exaggerating the emotional content of a song. Whatever the case, it is easy to see and hear why, for 30 years, Bernadette Peters has probably been musical theatre's finest performer. ... She even breathed new life into 'Send In the Clowns'. ... Rather than make it emotionally swollen (as so many do), Peters contracted it, delicately squeezing out its essence like toothpaste from a near-empty tube." She gave concerts in June 2016 in the UK at the Royal Festival Hall, Manchester Opera House and Edinburgh Playhouse. In 2022, she participated in Stephen Sondheim's Old Friends, a Cameron Mackintosh-produced tribute concert, May 3, 2022 at the Sondheim Theatre, London. ## Children's books Peters sings four songs on the CD accompanying a 2005 children's picture book Dewey Doo-it Helps Owlie Fly Again, the proceeds of which benefit the Christopher Reeve Foundation. Her co-star from Sunday in the Park with George, Mandy Patinkin, also sings on the CD. To support Broadway Barks, the animal adoption charity that she co-founded with Mary Tyler Moore, Peters has written three children's books, illustrated by Liz Murphy. The first is about a scrappy dog, named after her dog Kramer, and the pleasure of adopting a pet. Titled Broadway Barks, the book is published by Blue Apple Books (2008). Peters wrote the words and music to a lullaby, titled "Kramer's Song", which is included on a CD in the book. The book reached \#5 on The New York Times Children's Best Sellers: Picture Books list for the week of June 8, 2008. Her second children's book is the story of a pit bull, named after Peters's dog Stella. The character would rather be a pig ballerina, but she learns to accept herself. Titled Stella is a Star, the book includes a CD with an original song written and performed by Peters and was released in April 2010 by Blue Apple Books. According to Publishers Weekly, "Turning the pages to Peters' spirited narration, which is provided in an accompanying CD, makes for a more rewarding reading experience. The story and disc end with a sneakily affecting self-esteem anthem, which, like the familiar tale itself, is buoyed by the author's lovely vocals." Peters introduced the book at a reading and signing where she also sang part of the song, at the Los Angeles Times Festival of Books, Los Angeles, California, on April 24, 2010. The third book, released in 2015, titled Stella and Charlie Friends Forever, is about her rescue dog Charlie joining her household, and how Charlie got along with her older dog, Stella. ## Activism and charity work Broadway Barks In 1999, Peters and Mary Tyler Moore co-founded Broadway Barks, an annual animal adopt-a-thon. Each July, Peters hosts the Broadway Barks event in New York City. Peters held a concert, "A Special Concert for Broadway Barks Because Broadway Cares", at the Minskoff Theatre, New York City, on November 9, 2009, as a benefit for both Broadway Barks and Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS. The concert raised an estimated \$615,000 for the two charities. Also in support of Broadway Barks, Peters has appeared on the daytime talk show Live With Regis and Kelly. In 2018, Peters received the Brooke Astor Award from the Animal Medical Center for her lifelong commitment to animal welfare, including the "over 2,000 adoptions" to date at Broadway Barks events. In 2022, Broadway Barks held in its first in-person animal adoption event since the COVID-19 pandemic began, with many Broadway stars in attendance and many shelter organizations participating. Activists protesting against the Humane Society of New York, one of the shelter organizations represented at the event, briefly interrupted Peters's speech there. Other Peters serves on the board of trustees of Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS and participates in that organization's events, such as the annual Broadway Flea Market and Grand Auction, and the "Gypsy of the Year" competition. She is also a member of the Board of Directors of Standing Tall, a non-profit educational program offering an innovative program for children with multiple disabilities, based in New York City. Her late husband was the Director and Treasurer of Standing Tall. The 1995 benefit concert Anyone Can Whistle and Peters's "Carnegie Hall" 1996 concert were benefits for the Gay Men's Health Crisis. In 2007, Peters helped the Broadway community celebrate the end of the stagehand strike in a "Broadway's Back" concert at the Marquis Theatre. In 2008, she was one of the participants in a fund-raiser for the Westport Country Playhouse, and in the opening ceremony and dedication of the renovated TKTS discount ticket booth in Times Square. That year, she also presented New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg with the Humanitarian Award at the Breast Cancer Research Foundation awards. On March 8, 2009, she helped celebrate the last birthday of Senator Ted Kennedy (singing "There Is Nothin' Like a Dame") in a private concert and ceremony held at the Kennedy Center, hosted by Bill Cosby, with many senators, representatives, and President Barack and First Lady Michelle Obama in attendance. On November 19, 2009, she helped to celebrate the opening of The David Rubenstein Atrium at Lincoln Center. On February 8, 2010, Peters was one of the many to honor Angela Lansbury at the annual Drama League of New York benefit, singing "Not While I'm Around". In March 2010, Peters helped Stephen Sondheim celebrate his 80th birthday in the Roundabout Theatre Company "Sondheim 80" benefit. She was one of the Honorary Chairs. She had been part of the Roundabout Theatre's Sondheim gala for his 75th birthday. In 2012, Peters became a Patron of The Stephen Sondheim Society. She performed at the Olivier Awards ceremony in 2014, singing the song "Losing My Mind". A review in The Arts Desk read: "The tradition of bringing over a Broadway baby or two ... presumably explained a late appearance by a still-luminous Bernadette Peters, who reached the very high note at the end of 'Losing My Mind' often not attempted by interpreters of that particular Sondheim song." ## Personal life Peters and Steve Martin began a romantic relationship in 1977 that lasted approximately four years. By 1981, her popularity led to her appearing on the cover and in a spread in the December 1981 issue of Playboy Magazine, in which she posed in lingerie designed by Bob Mackie. Peters married investment adviser Michael Wittenberg on July 20, 1996, at the Millbrook, New York, home of long-time friend Mary Tyler Moore. Wittenberg died at age 43 on September 26, 2005, in a helicopter crash in Montenegro while on a business trip. Peters has a mixed-breed dog named Charlie. She has adopted all of her dogs from shelters. ## Acting credits ## Awards and honors Peters has received many honorary awards, including a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1987. She was named the Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year in 1987. Other honors include the Sarah Siddons Award for outstanding performance in a Chicago theatrical production (1994 for The Goodbye Girl); the American Theatre Hall of Fame at the Gershwin Theatre in New York City (1996), as the youngest person so honored; The Actors' Fund Artistic Achievement Medal (1999); an honorary doctorate from Hofstra University (2002); the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame in 2002 and the National Dance Institute 2009 Artistic Honoree. She was the recipient of the Sondheim Award, presented by the Signature Theatre in 2011. In 2012, New Dramatists, an organization that supports beginning playwrights, presented Peters with their Lifetime Achievement Award, stating: "She has brought a new sound into the theatre and continues to do so, in surprising and miraculous ways. By some sleight of magic, her singularity always manages to bring out the best and richest in the work of her composers and writers." In 2013, the Drama League gave Peters its Special Award of Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award for "her contribution to the musical theatre." Peters was the Centennial Honoree at the Drama League Centennial Gala in 2015. A musical tribute was presented by many of Peters's costars over the years, including the original and current casts of Dames at Sea''. The League said that Peters "exemplifies the absolute best of what American musical theater can be." She received the 2016 John Willis Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre, presented at the Theatre World Awards on May 23, 2016. She was the honoree at the Manhattan Theatre Club 2018 Fall Benefit in November 2018. She is the 2019 recipient of the Prince Rainier III Award "for her outstanding artistry and exemplary philanthropic give-back."
8,492,111	Fearful Symmetry (The X-Files)	1,171,386,525	null	[ "1995 American television episodes", "Fiction about zoos", "Television episodes set in Idaho", "The X-Files (season 2) episodes" ]	"Fearful Symmetry" is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It premiered on the Fox network on February 24, 1995. It was written by Steve De Jarnatt and directed by James Whitmore Jr. The episode is a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, only loosely connected to the series' wider mythology. "Fearful Symmetry" received a Nielsen rating of 10.1 and was watched by 9.6 million households. The episode received mixed reviews from critics but later won an EMA Award. The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. Mulder is a believer in the paranormal, while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work. In this episode, Mulder and Scully investigate the death of a federal construction worker and the destruction of various property that can only be tied to an escaped elephant. Unfortunately, the only witnesses claim to have seen no animals which might have caused the turmoil. Soon, Mulder and Scully discover the local zoo whose claim to fame is that they've never had a successful animal birth. "Fearful Symmetry" takes its title from a line in the William Blake poem "The Tyger". Filming for the episode faced several hurdles. Live elephants and tigers were used. Co-Producer J.P. Finn claimed that the hardest part of filming the episode was getting an elephant. The biggest hurdle when filming scenes with the tiger were keeping it "calm and warm", due to the cool nature of Vancouver. ## Plot In Fairfield, Idaho, two janitors witness an invisible force storm down a city street; a road worker is later killed by the force on the highway. The next day, an elephant suddenly materializes in front of an oncoming big rig. The driver manages to stop in time, but the elephant soon collapses and dies, over forty miles away from where it disappeared the night before at the Fairfield Zoo. Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) survey the damage in the city, which appears to have been caused by an elephant even though none was seen. Ed Meecham, an animal handler at the zoo, recounts how he came to the elephant's locked cage to find it empty. His boss, Willa Ambrose, tells the agents that the zoo is in danger of closing due to other animal disappearances. She blames the zoo's decline on an animal rights group which is known to free captive animals. The group's leader, Kyle Lang, denies any involvement in the elephant's release. Lang tells them that Ambrose is being sued by the Malawi government over a lowland gorilla she took from their country ten years prior. Mulder contacts Frohike and Byers, who say that Fairfield is known for its animal disappearances and UFO sightings. They also mention Ambrose's gorilla, who is known to communicate using American Sign Language. Meanwhile, Scully follows one of Lang's activists as he sneaks into the zoo, running into Meecham inside. The activist attempts to free a tiger, but after a flash of light, the tiger seemingly disappears. The activist is promptly mauled to death, with the killing captured on his night vision camera. When questioned, Lang denies any responsibility for the death. Ambrose introduces the agents to the gorilla, Sophie, who has been cowering in her cage and expresses an apparent fear of light. Scully performs a necropsy on the elephant, revealing it to be pregnant — which is impossible, since the animal had never been mated. The tiger reappears at a Boise construction site, and is shot dead by Meecham when it charges at Ambrose; the zoo is shut down the next day over the incident. Mulder tells Ambrose that the tiger was also pregnant, and explains his theory that extraterrestrial aliens are impregnating all the female endangered animals as part of "their own Noah's Ark." Mulder thinks that Sophie too is pregnant and that she is worried that her baby will be abducted. Sophie confirms Mulder's suspicions when she makes signs for "baby go flying light". Sheriff's deputies order Ambrose to release Sophie into protective custody, presumably to be sent back to Malawi. Ambrose unsuccessfully seeks help from Lang, her former boyfriend, but he advises to let Sophie return to the wild. Lang later goes to see Ambrose at the warehouse where Sophie is being prepped for shipping, but finds her cage empty. He is then mysteriously killed by a falling crate. Scully finds that Lang was struck with a cattle prod and suspects Ambrose of killing him, but she claims that Meecham is responsible. Mulder goes to arrest Meecham, who is keeping an angered Sophie at another warehouse near Boise. Meecham suddenly locks Mulder in Sophie's room, where the enraged gorilla attacks and injures him. A bright light appears and causes Sophie to vanish, but not before she gives Mulder a final message in sign language. When Mulder gives the message to Ambrose the next day, she says it means "man save man." Ambrose and the agents are then called to the highway, where Sophie has been struck by a car and killed. Ambrose and Meecham are both charged with manslaughter for Lang's death. As the agents leave Idaho, Mulder says through narration that he believes alien conservationists were behind the events in Fairfield. ## Production "Fearful Symmetry" was written by Steve De Jarnatt and directed by James Whitmore Jr. Co-Producer J. P. Finn later revealed that the trickiest part of the episode was securing the use of an elephant, as this necessitated the show securing a permit for the animal to pass into Vancouver. The producers hit another roadblock when it came to animal cruelty laws, several of which had been passed British Columbia that prohibited the "use or appearance" of large animals like elephants, to protect them from being exploited by unscrupulous circuses. In order to circumvent these rules, scenes filmed with Bubbles were shot "on a quiet country road" in South Surrey, where these laws were not in effect. Finn later revealed that the elephant used for the episode, named "Bubbles", was "fantastic to work with". The producers were initially worried that the elephant would be scared of large vehicles and would thus not run towards a truck—a necessary shot for the episode's opening. However, the producers ended up having difficulty getting the creature away from truck, as it enjoyed running near it. In the episode, the elephant is named "Ganesha" after the Hindu God of the same name. A live tiger was also used in the episode, and the production crew struggled with keeping it "calm and warm", given that Vancouver's climate is drastically different from the one in which tigers evolved to thrive. The episode's title comes from a line in the William Blake poem "The Tyger". The fictional construction site where the tiger appears, "Blake Towers", is named after the poet. ## Reception "Fearful Symmetry" was first broadcast in the United States on February 24, 1995, on the Fox network. In its original broadcast, it was watched by 9.6 million households, according to the Nielsen ratings system. It received a 10.1 rating/17 share among viewers meaning that 10.1 percent of all households in the United States, and 17 percent of all people watching television at the time, viewed the episode. The episode later won an EMA Award for its environmental message. The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics. Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a C, writing, "Aside from a well-executed invisible-elephant rampage, this one's pretty much on automatic pilot". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club also graded it as a C, calling it "forgettable, and under-baked; not terrible enough to be a complete failure, but forgettable enough". John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a moderately negative review and awarded it a 4 out of 10. He wrote, "Overall, this episode felt more like a statement by the writer regarding animal rights than an episode of [The X-Files]. The plot doesn’t seem to know which direction it wants to explore, and ultimately, elements of the episode contradict each other." Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode two stars out of five. The two wrote that, despite the episode having "rare anger" and a "genuine passion behind" its conservation message, the entry was not "a very good story". Shearman and Pearson called the plot "so confusing that all that impact [of the teaser] soon dissipates." The plot for "Fearful Symmetry" was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1996 by Les Martin, under the title Tiger, Tiger.
10,396,793	The Holocaust	1,173,453,305	Genocide of European Jews by Nazi Germany	[ "1940s in Europe", "Antisemitic attacks and incidents", "Ethnic cleansing in Europe", "Genocides in Europe", "History of the Jews in Europe", "Mass murder in 1941", "Mass murder in 1942", "Mass murder in 1943", "Mass murder in 1944", "Mass murder in 1945", "Nazi war crimes", "The Holocaust", "Vichy France" ]	The Holocaust was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe, around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population. The murders were carried out primarily through mass shootings and poison gas in extermination camps, chiefly Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibor, and Chełmno in occupied Poland. The Nazis developed their ideology based on racism and pursuit of "living space" and seized power in early 1933. In an attempt to force all German Jews to emigrate, the regime passed anti-Jewish laws and orchestrated a nationwide pogrom in November 1938. After Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, occupation authorities began to establish ghettos to segregate Jews. Following the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, around 1.5 to 2 million Jews were shot by German forces and local collaborators. Later in 1941 or early 1942, the highest levels of the German government decided to murder all Jews throughout Europe. Victims were deported by rail to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were killed with poison gas. Other Jews continued to be employed in forced labor camps where many died from starvation, abuse or exhaustion or used as test subjects in deadly medical experiments. Although many Jews tried to escape, surviving in hiding was very difficult due to factors such as the lack of money to pay helpers and the risk of denunciation. The property, homes, and jobs belonging to murdered Jews were redistributed to the German occupiers and other non-Jews. Although the majority of Holocaust victims died in 1942, the killing continued at a lower rate until the end of the war in May 1945. Not all victims were Jews however, with millions killed for ethnic and ideological associations. Many Jewish survivors emigrated outside of Europe after the war. A few Holocaust perpetrators faced criminal trials. Billions of dollars in reparations have been paid, although falling short of the Jews' losses. The Holocaust has also been commemorated in museums, memorials, and culture. It has become central to Western historical consciousness as a symbol of the ultimate human evil. ## Terminology and scope The term Holocaust, derived from a Greek word meaning "burnt offering", has become the most common word used to describe the Nazi extermination of Jews in English and many other languages. The term Holocaust is sometimes used to refer to other groups that the Nazis targeted, especially those targeted on a biological basis, in particular the Roma and Sinti, as well as Soviet prisoners of war and Polish and Soviet civilians. All of these groups, however, were targeted for different reasons. By the 1970s, the adjective Jewish was dropped as redundant and Holocaust, now capitalized, became the default term for the destruction of European Jews. The Hebrew word Shoah ("catastrophic destruction") exclusively refers to Jewish victims. The perpetrators used the phrase "Final Solution" to describe their actions towards Jews. ## Background Jews have lived in Europe for more than two thousand years. Throughout the Middle Ages in Europe, Jews were subjected to antisemitism based on Christian theology, which blamed them for killing Jesus. In the nineteenth century many European countries granted full citizenship rights to Jews in hopes that they would assimilate. By the early twentieth century, most Jews in central and western Europe were well integrated into society, while in eastern Europe, where emancipation had arrived later, many Jews still lived in small towns, spoke Yiddish, and practiced Orthodox Judaism. Political antisemitism positing the existence of a Jewish question and usually an international Jewish conspiracy emerged in the eighteenth and nineteenth century due to the rise of nationalism in Europe and industrialization that increased economic conflicts between Jews and non-Jews. Some scientists began to categorize humans into different races and argued that there was a life or death struggle between them. Many racists argued that Jews were a separate racial group alien to Europe. The turn of the twentieth century saw a major effort to establish a German colonial empire overseas, leading to the Herero and Nama genocide and subsequent racial apartheid regime in South West Africa. World War I (1914–1918) intensified nationalist and racist sentiments in Germany and other European countries. Jews in eastern Europe were targeted by widespread pogroms. Germany lost two million war dead and substantial territory; opposition to the postwar settlement united Germans across the political spectrum. The military promoted the untrue but compelling idea that, rather than being defeated on the battlefield, Germany had been stabbed in the back by socialists and Jews. The Nazi Party was founded in the wake of the war, and its ideology is often cited as the main factor explaining the Holocaust. From the beginning, the Nazis—not unlike other nation-states in Europe—dreamed of a world without Jews, whom they identified as "the embodiment of everything that was wrong with modernity". The Nazis defined the German nation as a racial community unbounded by Germany's physical borders and sought to purge it of racially foreign and socially deficient elements. The Nazi Party and its leader, Adolf Hitler, were also obsessed with reversing Germany's territorial losses and acquiring additional Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe for colonization. These ideas appealed to many Germans. The Nazis promised to protect European civilization from the Soviet threat. Hitler believed that Jews controlled the Soviet Union, as well as the Western powers, and were plotting to destroy Germany. ## Rise of Nazi Germany Amidst a worldwide economic depression and political fragmentation, the Nazi Party rapidly increased its support, reaching a high of 37 percent in mid-1932 elections, by campaigning on issues such as anticommunism and economic recovery. Hitler was appointed chancellor in January 1933 in a backroom deal supported by right-wing politicians. Within months, all other political parties were banned, the regime seized control of the media, tens of thousands of political opponents—especially communists—were arrested, and a system of camps for extrajudicial imprisonment was set up. The Nazi regime cracked down on crime and social outsiders—such as Roma and Sinti, homosexual men, and those perceived as workshy—through a variety of measures, including imprisonment in concentration camps. The Nazis forcibly sterilized 400,000 people and subjected others to forced abortions for real or supposed hereditary illnesses. Although the Nazis sought to control every aspect of public and private life, Nazi repression was directed almost entirely against groups perceived as outside the national community. Most Germans had little to fear provided they did not oppose the new regime. The new regime built popular support through economic growth, which partly occurred through state-led measures such as rearmament. The annexations of Austria (1938), Sudetenland (1938), and Bohemia and Moravia (1939) also increased the Nazis' popular support. Germans were inundated with propaganda both against Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis. ### Persecution of Jews The roughly 500,000 German Jews made up less than 1 percent of the country's population in 1933. They were wealthier on average than other Germans and largely assimilated, although a minority were recent immigrants from eastern Europe. Various German government agencies, Nazi Party organizations, and local authorities instituted about 1,500 anti-Jewish laws. In 1933, Jews were banned or restricted from several professions and the civil service. After hounding the German Jews out of public life by the end of 1934, the regime passed the Nuremberg Laws in 1935. The laws reserved full citizenship rights for those of "German or related blood", restricted Jews' economic activity, and criminalized new marriages and sexual relationships between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. Jews were defined as those with three or four Jewish grandparents; many of those with partial Jewish descent were classified as Mischlinge, with varying rights. The regime also sought to segregate Jews with a view to their ultimate disappearance from the country. Jewish students were gradually forced out of the school system. Some municipalities enacted restrictions governing where Jews were allowed to live or conduct business. In 1938 and 1939, Jews were barred from additional occupations, and their businesses were expropriated to force them out of the economy. Anti-Jewish violence, largely locally organized by members of Nazi Party institutions, took primarily non-lethal forms from 1933 to 1939. Jewish stores, especially in rural areas, were often boycotted or vandalized. As a result of local and popular pressure, many small towns became entirely free of Jews and as many as a third of Jewish businesses may have been forced to close. Anti-Jewish violence was even worse in areas annexed by Nazi Germany. On 9–10 November 1938, the Nazis organized Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass), a nationwide pogrom. Over 7,500 Jewish shops (out of 9,000) were looted, more than 1,000 synagogues were damaged or destroyed, at least 90 Jews were murdered, and as many as 30,000 Jewish men were arrested, although many were released within weeks. German Jews were levied a special tax that raised more than 1 billion Reichsmarks (RM). The Nazi government wanted to force all Jews to leave Germany. By the end of 1939, most Jews who could emigrate had already done so; those who remained behind were disproportionately elderly, poor, or female and could not obtain a visa. The plurality, around 110,000, left for the United States, while smaller numbers emigrated to South America, Shanghai, Mandatory Palestine, and South Africa. Germany collected emigration taxes of nearly 1 billion RM, mostly from Jews. The policy of forced emigration continued into 1940. Besides Germany, a significant number of other European countries abandoned democracy for some kind of authoritarian or fascist rule. Many countries, including Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia, passed antisemitic legislation in the 1930s and 1940s. In October 1938, Germany deported many Polish Jews in response to a Polish law that enabled the revocation of citizenship for Polish Jews living abroad. ## Start of World War II The German Wehrmacht (armed forces) invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, triggering declarations of war from the United Kingdom and France. During the five weeks of fighting, as many as 16,000 civilians, hostages, and prisoners of war may have been shot by the German invaders; there was also a great deal of looting. Special units known as Einsatzgruppen followed the army to eliminate any possible resistance. Around 50,000 Polish and Polish Jewish leaders and intellectuals were arrested or executed. The Auschwitz concentration camp was established to hold those members of the Polish intelligentsia not killed in the purges. Around 400,000 Poles were expelled from the Wartheland in western Poland to the General Governorate occupation zone from 1939 to 1941, and the area was resettled by ethnic Germans from eastern Europe. The rest of Poland was occupied by the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland from the east on 17 September pursuant to the German–Soviet pact. The Soviet Union deported hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens to the Soviet interior, including as many as 260,000 Jews who largely survived the war. Although most Jews were not communists, some accepted positions in the Soviet administration, contributing to a pre-existing perception among many non-Jews that Soviet rule was a Jewish conspiracy. In 1940, Germany invaded much of western Europe including the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, and Denmark and Norway. In 1941, Germany invaded Yugoslavia and Greece. Some of these new holdings were fully or partially annexed into Germany while others were placed under civilian or military rule. The war provided cover for the murder of around 70,000 institutionalized Germans with mental or physical disabilities at specialized killing centers using poison gas. The victims included all 4,000 to 5,000 institutionalized Jews. Despite efforts to maintain secrecy, knowledge of the killings leaked out and Hitler ordered a halt to the centralized killing program in August 1941. Decentralized killings via denial of medical care, starvation, and poisoning caused an additional 120,000 deaths by the end of the war. Many of the same personnel and technologies were later used for the mass murder of Jews. ### Ghettoization and resettlement Germany gained control of 1.7 million Jews in Poland. The Nazis tried to concentrate Jews in the Lublin District of the General Governorate. 45,000 Jews were deported by November and left to fend for themselves, causing many deaths. Deportations stopped in early 1940 due to the opposition of Hans Frank, the leader of the General Governorate, who did not want his fiefdom to become a dumping ground for unwanted Jews. After the conquest of France, the Nazis considered deporting Jews to French Madagascar, but this proved impossible. The Nazis planned that harsh conditions in these areas would kill many Jews. During the invasion, synagogues were burned and thousands of Jews fled or were expelled into the Soviet occupation zone. Various anti-Jewish regulations were soon issued. In October 1939, adult Jews in the General Governorate were required to perform forced labor. In November 1939 they were ordered to wear white armbands. Laws decreed the seizure of most Jewish property and the takeover of Jewish-owned businesses. When Jews were forced into ghettos, they lost their homes and belongings. The first Nazi ghettos were established in the Wartheland and General Governorate in 1939 and 1940 on the initiative of local German administrators. The largest ghettos, such as Warsaw and Łódź, were established in existing residential neighborhoods and closed by fences or walls. In many smaller ghettos, Jews were forced into poor neighborhoods but with no fence. Forced labor programs provided subsistence to many ghetto inhabitants, and in some cases protected them from deportation. Workshops and factories were operated inside some ghettos, while in other cases Jews left the ghetto to work outside it. Because the ghettos were not segregated by sex some family life continued. A Jewish community leadership (Judenrat) exercised some authority and tried to sustain the Jewish community while following German demands. As a survival strategy, many tried to make the ghettos useful to the occupiers as a labor reserve. Jews in western Europe were not forced into ghettos but faced discriminatory laws and confiscation of property. Rape and sexual exploitation of Jewish and non-Jewish women in eastern Europe was common. ## Invasion of the Soviet Union Germany and its allies Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Italy invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Although the war was launched more for strategic than ideological reasons, what Hitler saw as an apocalyptic battle against the forces of Jewish Bolshevism was to be carried out as a war of extermination with complete disregard for the laws and customs of war. A quick victory was expected and was planned to be followed a massive demographic engineering project to remove 31 million people and replace them with German settlers. To increase the speed of conquest the Germans planned to feed their army by looting, exporting additional food to Germany, and to terrorize the local inhabitants with preventative killings. The Germans foresaw that the invasion would cause a food shortfall and planned the mass starvation of Soviet cities and some rural areas. Although the starvation policy was less successful than planners hoped, the residents of some cities, particularly in Ukraine, and besieged Leningrad, as well as the Jewish ghettos, endured human-made famine, during which millions of people died of starvation. Soviet prisoners of war in the custody of the German Army were intended to die in large numbers. Sixty percent—3.3 million people—died, primarily of starvation, making them the second largest group of victims of Nazi mass killing after European Jews. Jewish prisoners of war and commissars were systematically executed. About a million civilians were killed by the Nazis during anti-partisan warfare, including more than 300,000 in Belarus. From 1942 onwards, the Germans and their allies targeted villages suspected of supporting the partisans, burning them and killing or expelling their inhabitants. During these operations, nearby small ghettos were liquidated and their inhabitants shot. By 1943, anti-partisan operations aimed for the depopulation of large areas of Belarus. Jews and those unfit for work were typically shot on the spot with others deported. Although most of those killed were not Jews, anti-partisan warfare often led to the deaths of Jews. ### Mass shootings of Jews The systematic murder of Jews began in the Soviet Union. During the invasion, many Jews were conscripted into the Red Army. Out of 10 or 15 million Soviet civilians who fled eastwards to the Soviet interior, 1.6 million were Jews. Local inhabitants killed as many as 50,000 Jews in pogroms in Latvia, Lithuania, eastern Poland, Ukraine, and the Romanian borderlands. Although German forces tried to incite pogroms, their role in causing violence is controversial. Romanian soldiers killed tens of thousands of Jews from Odessa by April 1942. Prior to the invasion, the Einsatzgruppen were reorganized in preparation for mass killings and instructed to shoot Soviet officials and Jewish state and party employees. The shootings were justified on the basis of Jews' supposed central role in supporting the communist system, but it was not initially envisioned to kill all Soviet Jews. The occupiers relied on locals to identify Jews to be targeted. The first German mass killings targeted adult male Jews who had worked as civil servants or in jobs requiring education. Tens of thousands were shot by the end of July. The vast majority of civilian victims were Jews. In July and August Heinrich Himmler, the leader of the SS (Schutzstaffel), made several visits to the death squads' zones of operation, relaying orders to kill more Jews. At this time, the killers began to murder Jewish women and children too. Executions peaked at 40,000 a month in Lithuania in August and September and in October and November reached their height in Belarus. The executions often took place a few kilometers from a town. Victims were rounded up and marched to the execution site, forced to undress, and shot into previously dug pits. The favored technique was a shot in the back of the neck with a single bullet. In the chaos, many victims were not killed by the gunfire but instead buried alive. Typically, the pits would be guarded after the execution but sometimes a few victims managed to escape afterwards. Executions were public spectacles and the victims' property was looted both by the occupiers and local inhabitants. Around 200 ghettos were established in the occupied Soviet Union, with many existing only briefly before their inhabitants were executed. A few large ghettos such as Vilna, Kovno, Riga, Białystok, and Lwów lasted into 1943 because they became centers of production. Victims of mass shootings included Jews deported from elsewhere. Besides Germany, Romania killed the largest number of Jews. Romania deported about 154,000–170,000 Jews from Bessarabia and Bukovina to ghettos in Transnistria from 1941 to 1943. Jews from Transnistria were also imprisoned in these ghettos, where the total death toll may have reached 160,000. Hungary expelled thousands of Carpathian Ruthenian and foreign Jews in 1941, who were shortly thereafter shot in Ukraine. At the beginning of September, all German Jews were required to wear a yellow star, and in October, Hitler decided to deport them to the east and ban emigration. Between mid-October and the end of 1941, 42,000 Jews from Germany and its annexed territories and 5,000 Romani people from Austria were deported to Łódź, Kovno, Riga, and Minsk. In late November, 5,000 German Jews were shot outside of Kovno and another 1,000 near Riga, but Himmler ordered an end to such massacres and some in the senior Nazi leadership voiced doubts about killing German Jews. Executions of German Jews in the Baltics resumed in early 1942. After the expansion of killings to target the entire Soviet Jewish population, the 3,000 men of the Einsatzgruppen proved insufficient and Himmler mobilized 21 battalions of Order Police to assist them. In addition, Wehrmacht soldiers, Waffen-SS brigades, and local auxiliaries shot many Jews. By the end of 1941, more than 80 percent of the Jews in central Ukraine, eastern Belarus, Russia, Latvia, and Lithuania had been shot, but less than 25 percent of those living farther west where 900,000 remained alive. By the end of the war, around 1.5 to 2 million Jews were shot and as many as 225,000 Roma. The murderers found the executions distressing and logistically inconvenient, which influenced the decision to switch to other methods of killing. ## Systematic deportations across Europe Most historians agree that Hitler issued an explicit order to kill all Jews across Europe, but there is disagreement when. Some historians cite inflammatory statements by Hitler and other Nazi leaders as well as the concurrent mass shootings of Serbian Jews, plans for extermination camps in Poland, and the beginning of the deportation of German Jews as indicative of the final decision having been made before December 1941. Others argue that these policies were initiatives by local leaders and that the final decision was made later. On 5 December 1941, the Soviet Union launched its first major counteroffensive. On 11 December, Hitler declared war on the United States after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. The next day, he told leading Nazi party officials, referring to his 1939 prophecy, "The world war is here; the annihilation of the Jews must be the necessary consequence." It took the Nazis several months after this to organize a continent-wide genocide. Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA), convened the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942. This high-level meeting was intended to coordinate anti-Jewish policy. The majority of Holocaust killings were carried out in 1942, with 20 or 25 percent of Holocaust victims dying before early 1942 and the same number surviving by the end of the year. ### Extermination camps Gas vans developed from those used to kill mental patients since 1939 were assigned to the Einsatzgruppen and first used in November 1941; victims were forced into the van and killed with engine exhaust. The first extermination camp was Chełmno in the Wartheland, established on the initiative of the local civil administrator Arthur Greiser with Himmler's approval; it began operations in December 1941 using gas vans. In October 1941, Higher SS and Police Leader of Lublin Odilo Globocnik began work planning Belzec—the first purpose-built extermination camp to feature stationary gas chambers using carbon monoxide based on the previous Aktion T7 programme—amid increasing talk among German administrators in Poland of large-scale murder of Jews in the General Governorate. In late 1941 in East Upper Silesia, Jews in forced-labor camps operated by the Schmelt Organization deemed "unfit for work" began to be sent in groups to Auschwitz where they were murdered. In early 1942, Zyklon B became the preferred killing method in extermination camps after gassing experiments were conducted on Russian POWs in late August 1941. The camps were located on rail lines to make it easier to transport Jews to their deaths, but in remote places to avoid notice. The stench caused by mass killing operations was noticeable to anyone nearby. Except in the deportations from western and central Europe, people were typically deported to the camps in overcrowded cattle cars. As many as 150 people were forced into a single boxcar. Many died en route, partly because of the low priority accorded to these transports. Shortage of rail transport sometimes led to postponement or cancellation of deportations. Upon arrival, the victims were robbed of their remaining possessions, forced to undress, had their hair cut, and were chased into the gas chamber. Death from the gas was agonizing and could take as long as 30 minutes. The gas chambers were primitive and sometimes malfunctioned. Some prisoners were shot because the gas chambers were not functioning. At other extermination camps, nearly everyone on a transport was killed on arrival, but at Auschwitz around 20-25 percent were separated out for labor, although many of these prisoners died later on through starvation, mass shooting, torture, and medical experiments. Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka reported a combined revenue of RM 178.7 million from belongings stolen from their victims, far exceeding costs. Combined, the camps required the labor of less than 3,000 Jewish prisoners, 1,000 Trawniki men (largely Ukrainian auxiliaries), and very few German guards. About half of the Jews killed in the Holocaust died by poison gas. Thousands of Romani people were also murdered in the extermination camps. Prisoner uprisings at Treblinka and Sobibor meant that these camps were shut down earlier than envisioned. ### Liquidation of the ghettos in Poland Plans to kill most of the Jews in the General Governorate were affected by various goals of the SS, military, and civil administration to reduce the amount of food consumed by Jews, enable a slight increase in rations to non-Jewish Poles, and combat the black market. In March 1942, killings began in Belzec, targeting Jews from Lublin who were not capable of work. This action reportedly reduced the black market and was deemed a success to be replicated elsewhere. By mid-1942, Nazi leaders decided to allow only 300,000 Jews to survive in the General Governorate by the end of the year for forced labor; for the most part, only those working in armaments production were spared. The majority of ghettos were liquidated in mass executions nearby, especially if they were not near a train station. Larger ghettos were more commonly liquidated during multiple deportations to extermination camps. During this campaign 1.5 million Polish Jews were murdered in the largest killing operation of the Holocaust. In order to reduce resistance the ghetto would be raided without warning, usually in the early morning, and the extent of the operation would be concealed as long as possible. Trawniki men would cordon off the ghetto while the Order Police and Security Police carried out the action. In addition to local non-Jewish collaborators, the Jewish councils and Jewish ghetto police were often ordered to assist with liquidation actions, although these Jews were in most cases murdered later. Chaotic, capriciously executed selections determined who would be loaded onto the trains. Many Jews were shot during the action, often leaving ghettos strewn with corpses. Jewish forced laborers had to clean it up and collect any valuables from the victims. The Warsaw Ghetto was cleared between 22 July and 12 September. Of the original population of 350,000 Jews, 250,000 were killed at Treblinka, 11,000 were deported to labor camps, 10,000 were shot in the ghetto, 35,000 were allowed to remain in the ghetto after a final selection, and around 20,000 or 25,000 managed to hide in the ghetto. Misdirection efforts convinced many Jews that they could avoid deportation until it was too late. During a six-week period beginning in August, 300,000 Jews from the Radom District were sent to Treblinka. At the same time as the mass killing of Jews in the General Governorate, Jews who were in ghettos to the west and east were targeted. Tens of thousands of Jews were deported from ghettos in the Warthegau and East Upper Silesia to Chełmno and Auschwitz. 300,000 Jews—largely skilled laborers—were shot in Volhynia, Podolia, and southwestern Belarus. Deportations and mass executions in the Bialystok District and Galicia killed many Jews. Although there was practically no resistance in the General Governorate in 1942, some Soviet Jews improvised weapons, attacked those attempting to liquidate the ghetto, and set it on fire. These ghetto uprisings were only undertaken when the inhabitants began to believe that their death was certain. In 1943, larger uprisings in Warsaw, Białystok, and Glubokoje necessitated the use of heavy weapons. The uprising in Warsaw prompted the Nazi leadership to liquidate additional ghettos and labor camps in German-occupied Poland with their inhabitants massacred, such as the Wola Massacre, or deported to extermination camps for fear of additional Jewish resistance developing. Nevertheless, in early 1944 more than 70,000 Jews were performing forced labor in the General Governorate. ### Deportations from elsewhere Unlike the killing areas in the east, the deportation from elsewhere in Europe was centrally organized from Berlin, although it depended on the outcome of negotiations with allied governments and popular responses to deportation. Beginning in late 1941, local administrators responded to the deportation of Jews to their area by massacring local Jews in order to free up space in ghettos for the deportees. If the deported Jews did not die of harsh conditions, they were killed later in extermination camps. Jews deported to Auschwitz were initially entered into the camp; the practice of conducting selections and murdering many prisoners upon arrival began in July 1942. In May and June, German and Slovak Jews deported to Lublin began to be sent directly to extermination camps. In Western Europe, almost all Jewish deaths occurred after deportation. The occupiers often relied on local policemen to arrest Jews, limiting the number who were deported. In 1942, nearly 100,000 Jews were deported from Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Only 25 percent of the Jews in France were killed; most of them were either non-citizens or recent immigrants. The death rate in the Netherlands was higher than neighboring countries, which scholars have attributed to difficulty in hiding or increased collaboration of the Dutch police. The German government sought the deportation of Jews from allied countries. The first to hand over its Jewish population was Slovakia, which arrested and deported about 58,000 Jews to Poland from March to October 1942. The Independent State of Croatia had already shot or killed in concentration camps the majority of its Jewish population (along with a larger number of Serbs), and later deported several thousand Jews in 1942 and 1943. Bulgaria deported 11,000 Jews from Bulgarian-occupied Greece and Yugoslavia, who were murdered at Treblinka, but declined to allow the deportation of Jews from its prewar territory. Romania and Hungary did not send any Jews, which were the largest surviving populations after 1942. Prior to the German occupation of Italy in September 1943, there were no serious attempt to deport Italian Jews, and Italy refused to allow the deportation of Jews in many Italian-occupied areas. Nazi Germany did not attempt the destruction of the Finnish Jews and the North African Jews living under French or Italian rule. ## Perpetrators and beneficiaries An estimated 200,000 to 250,000 Germans were directly involved in killing Jews and including all those involved in the organization of extermination the number rises to 500,000. Genocide required the active and tacit consent of millions of Germans and non-Germans. The motivation of Holocaust perpetrators varied and has led to historiographical debate. Studies of the SS officials who organized the Holocaust have found that most had strong ideological commitment to Nazism. In addition to ideological factors, many perpetrators were motivated by the prospect of material gain and social advancement. German SS, police, and regular army units rarely had trouble finding enough men to shoot Jewish civilians, even though punishment for refusal was absent or light. Non-German perpetrators and collaborators included Dutch, French, and Polish policemen, Romanian soldiers, foreign SS and police auxiliaries, Ukrainian Insurgent Army partisans, and some civilians. Some were coerced into committing violence against Jews, but others killed for entertainment, material rewards, the possibility of better treatment from the occupiers, or ideological motivations such as nationalism and anti-communism. According to historian Christian Gerlach, non-Germans "not under German command" caused 5 to 6 percent of the Jewish deaths, and their involvement was crucial in other ways. Millions of Germans and others benefited from the genocide. Corruption was rampant in the SS despite the proceeds of the Holocaust being designated as state property. Different German state agencies vied to receive property stolen from Jews murdered at the death camps. Many workers were able to obtain better jobs vacated by murdered Jews. Businessmen benefitted from eliminating their Jewish competitors or taking over Jewish-owned businesses. Others took over housing and possessions that had belonged to Jews. Some Poles living near the extermination camps later dug up human remains in search of valuables. The property of deported Jews was also appropriated by Germany's allies and collaborating governments. Even puppet states such as Vichy France and Norway were able to successfully lay claim to Jewish property. In the decades after the war, Swiss banks became notorious for harboring gold deposited by Nazis who had stolen it during the Holocaust, as well as profiting from unclaimed deposits made by Holocaust victims. ## Forced labor Beginning in 1938—especially in Germany and its annexed territories—many Jews were drafted into forced-labor camps and segregated work details. These camps were often of a temporary nature and typically overseen by civilian authorities. Initially, mortality did not increase dramatically. After mid-1941, conditions for Jewish forced laborers drastically worsened and death rates increased; even private companies deliberately subjected workers to murderous conditions. Beginning in 1941 and increasingly as time went on, Jews capable of employment were separated from others—who were usually killed. They were typically employed in non-skilled jobs and could be replaced easily if non-Jewish workers were available, but those in skilled positions had a higher chance of survival. Although conditions varied widely between camps, Jewish forced laborers were typically treated worse than non-Jewish prisoners and suffered much higher mortality rates. In mid-1943, Himmler sought to bring surviving Jewish forced laborers under the control of the SS in the concentration camp system. Some of the forced-labor camps for Jews and some ghettos, such as Kovno, were designated concentration camps, while others were dissolved and surviving prisoners sent to a concentration camp. Despite many deaths, as many as 200,000 Jews survived the war inside the concentration camps. Although most Holocaust victims were never imprisoned in a concentration camp, the image of these camps is a popular symbol of the Holocaust. Including the Soviet prisoners of war, 13 million people were brought to Germany for forced labor. The largest nationalities were Soviet and Polish and they were the worst-treated groups except for Roma and Jews. Soviet and Polish forced laborers endured inadequate food and medical treatment, long hours, and abuse by employers. Hundreds of thousands died. Many others were forced to work for the occupiers without leaving their country of residence. Some of Germany's allies, including Slovakia and Hungary, agreed to deport Jews to protect non-Jews from German demands for forced labor. East European women were also kidnapped, via lapanka, to serve as sex slaves of German soldiers in military and camp brothels despite the prohibition of relationships, including fraternization, between German and foreign workers, which imposed the penalty of imprisonment and death. ## Escape and hiding Gerlach estimates that 200,000 Jews survived in hiding across Europe. Knowledge of German intentions was essential to take action, but many struggled to believe the news. Many attempted to jump from trains or flee ghettos and camps, but successfully escaping and living in hiding was extremely difficult and often unsuccessful. The support, or at least absence of active opposition, of the local population was essential but often lacking in Eastern Europe. Those in hiding depended on the assistance of non-Jews. Having money, social connections with non-Jews, a non-Jewish appearance, perfect command of the local language, determination, and luck played a major role in determining survival. Jews in hiding were hunted down with the assistance of local collaborators and rewards offered for their denunciation. The death penalty was sometimes enforced on people hiding them, especially in eastern Europe. Rescuers' motivations varied on a spectrum from altruism to expecting sex or material gain; it was not uncommon for helpers to betray or murder Jews if their money ran out. Gerlach argues that hundreds of thousands of Jews may have died because of rumors or denunciations, and many others never attempted to escape because of a belief it was hopeless. Jews participated in resistance movements in most European countries, and often were overrepresented. Jews were not always welcome, particularly in nationalist resistance groups—some of which killed Jews. Particularly in Belarus, with its favorable geography of dense forests, many Jews joined the Soviet partisans—an estimated 20,000 to 25,000 across the Soviet Union. An additional 10,000 to 13,000 Jewish non-combatants lived in family camps in Eastern European forests, of which the most well known was the Bielski partisans. ## International reactions The Nazi leaders knew that their actions would bring international condemnation. On 26 June 1942, BBC services in all languages publicized a report by the Jewish Social-Democratic Bund and other resistance groups and transmitted by the Polish government-in-exile, documenting the killing of 700,000 Jews in Poland. In December 1942, the United Nations adopted a joint declaration condemning the systematic murder of Jews. Most neutral countries in Europe maintained a pro-German foreign policy during the war. Nevertheless, some Jews were able to escape to neutral countries, whose policies ranged from rescue to non-action. During the war the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) raised \$70 million and in the years after the war it raised \$300 million. This money was spent aiding emigrants and providing direct relief in the form of parcels and other assistance to Jews living under German occupation, and after the war to Holocaust survivors. The United States banned sending relief into German-occupied Europe after entering the war, but the JDC continued to do so. From 1939 to 1944, 81,000 European Jews emigrated with the JDC's assistance. ## Second half of the war ### Continuing killings After German military defeats in 1943, it became increasingly evident that Germany would lose the war. In early 1943, 45,000 Jews were deported from German-occupied northern Greece, primarily Salonica, to Auschwitz, where nearly all were killed. After Italy switched sides in late 1943, Germany deported several thousand Jews from Italy and the former Italian occupation zones of France, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Greece, with limited success. Attempts to continue deportations in Western Europe after 1942 often failed because of Jews going into hiding and the increasing recalcitrance of local authorities. Most Danish Jews escaped to Sweden with the help of the Danish resistance in the face of a half-hearted German deportation effort in late 1943. Additional killings in 1943 and 1944 eliminated all remaining ghettos and most surviving Jews in Eastern Europe. Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka were shut down and destroyed. The largest murder action after 1942 was that against the Hungarian Jews. After the German invasion of Hungary in 1944, the Hungarian government cooperated closely in the deportation of 437,000 Jews in eight weeks, mostly to Auschwitz. The expropriation of Jewish property was useful to achieve Hungarian economic goals and sending the Jews as forced laborers avoided the need to send non-Jewish Hungarians. Those who survived the selection were forced to provide construction and manufacturing labor as part of a last-ditch effort to increase the production of fighter aircraft. Although the Nazis' goal of eliminating any Jewish population from Germany had largely been achieved in 1943, it was reversed in 1944 as a result of the importation of these Jews for labor. ### Death marches and liberation Following Allied advances, the SS deported concentration camp prisoners to camps in Germany and Austria, starting in mid-1944 from the Baltics. Weak and sick prisoners were often killed in the camp and others were forced to travel by rail or on foot, usually with no or inadequate food. Those who could not keep up were shot. The evacuations were ordered partly to retain the prisoners as forced labor and partly to avoid allowing any prisoners to fall into enemy hands. In October and November 1944, 90,000 Jews were deported from Budapest to the Austrian border. The transfer of prisoners from Auschwitz began in mid-1944, the gas chambers were shut down and destroyed after October, and in January most of the remaining 67,000 Auschwitz prisoners were sent on a death march westwards. In January 1945, more than 700,000 people were imprisoned in the concentration camp system, of whom as many as a third died before the end of the war. At this time, most concentration camp prisoners were Soviet and Polish civilians, either arrested for real or supposed resistance or for attempting to escape forced labor. The death marches led to the breakdown of supplies for the camps that continued to exist, causing additional deaths. Although there was no systematic killing of Jews during the death marches, around 70,000 to 100,000 Jews died in the last months of the war. Many of the death march survivors ended up in other concentration camps that were liberated in 1945 during the Western Allied invasion of Germany. The liberators found piles of corpses that they had to bulldoze into mass graves. Some survivors were freed there and others had been liberated by the Red Army during its march westwards. ## Death toll Around six million Jews were killed. Most of those killed were from Eastern Europe, and half were from Poland alone. Around 1.3 million Jews who had once lived under Nazi rule or in one of Germany's allies survived the war. One-third of the Jewish population worldwide, and two-thirds of European Jews, had been wiped out. Death rates varied widely due to a variety of factors and approached 100 percent in some areas. Some reasons why survival chances varied was the availability of emigration and protection from Germany's allies—which saved around 600,000 Jews. Jewish children and the elderly faced even lower survival rates than adults. The deadliest phase of the Holocaust was Operation Reinhard, which was marked by the introduction of extermination camps. Roughly two million Jews were killed from March 1942 to November 1943. Around 1.47 million Jews were murdered in just 100 days from July to October 1942, a rate approximately 83% higher than the commonly suggested figure for the Rwandan genocide. Separate Nazi persecutions killed a similar or larger number of non-Jewish civilians and POWs; estimated by Gerlach at 6 to 8 million, at more than 10 million by Gilbert and at over 11 million by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. In some countries, such as Hungary, Jews were a majority of civilian deaths; in Poland, they were either a majority or about half. In other countries such as the Soviet Union, France, Greece, and Yugoslavia, non-Jewish civilian losses outnumbered Jewish deaths. ## Aftermath and legacy ### Return home and emigration After liberation, many Jews attempted to return home. Limited success in finding relatives, the refusal of many non-Jews to return property, and violent attacks such as the Kielce pogrom convinced many survivors to leave eastern Europe. Antisemitism was reported to increase in several countries after the war, in part due to conflicts over property restitution. When the war ended, there were less than 28,000 German Jews and 60,000 non-German Jews in Germany. By 1947, the number of Jews in Germany had increased to 250,000 owing to emigration from eastern Europe allowed by the communist authorities; Jews made up around 25 percent of the population of displaced persons camps. Although many survivors were in poor health, they attempted to organize self-government in these camps, including education and rehabilitation efforts. Due to the reluctance of other countries to allow their immigration, many survivors remained in Germany until the establishment of Israel in 1948. Others moved to the United States around 1950 due to loosened immigration restrictions. ### Criminal trials Most Holocaust perpetrators were never put on trial for their crimes. During and after World War II, many European countries launched widespread purges of real and perceived collaborators that affected possibly as much as 2–3 percent of the population of Europe, although most of the resulting trials did not emphasize crimes against Jews. Nazi atrocities led to the United Nations' Genocide Convention in 1948, but it was not used in Holocaust trials due to the non-retroactivity of criminal laws. In 1945 and 1946, the International Military Tribunal tried 23 Nazi leaders primarily for waging wars of aggression, which the prosecution argued was the root of Nazi criminality; nevertheless, the systematic murder of Jews came to take center stage. This trial and others held by the Allies in occupied Germany—the United States Army alone charged 1,676 defendants in 462 war crimes trials—were widely perceived as an unjust form of political revenge by the German public. West Germany later investigated 100,000 people and tried more than 6,000 defendants, mainly low-level perpetrators. The high-level organizer Adolf Eichmann was kidnapped and tried in Israel in 1961. Instead of convicting Eichmann on the basis of documentary evidence, Israeli prosecutors asked many Holocaust survivors to testify, a strategy that increased publicity but has proven controversial. ### Reparations Historians estimate that property losses to Jews of Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, France, Poland, and Hungary amounted to around 10 billion in 1944 dollars, or \$ billion in . This estimate does not include the value of labor extracted. Overall, the amount of Jewish property looted by the Nazis was about 10 percent of the total stolen from occupied countries. Efforts by survivors to receive reparations for their losses began immediately after World War II. There was an additional wave of restitution efforts in the 1990s connected to the fall of Communism in eastern Europe. Between 1945 and 2018, Germany paid \$86.8 billion in restitution and compensation to Holocaust survivors and heirs. In 1952, West Germany negotiated an agreement to pay DM 3 billion (around \$714 million) to Israel and DM 450 million (around \$107 million) to the Claims Conference. Germany paid pensions and other reparations for harm done to some Holocaust survivors. Other countries have paid restitution for assets stolen from Jews from these countries. Most Western European countries restored some property to Jews after the war, while communist countries nationalized many formerly Jewish assets, meaning that the overall amount restored to Jews has been lower in those countries. Poland is the only member of the European Union that never passed any restitution legislation. Many restitution programs fell short of restoration of prewar assets, and in particular, large amounts of immovable property was never returned to survivors or their heirs. ### Remembrance and historiography In the decades after the war, Holocaust memory was largely confined to the survivors and their communities. The popularity of Holocaust memory peaked in the 1990s after the fall of Communism, and became central to Western historical consciousness as a symbol of the ultimate human evil. Holocaust education, which its advocates argue promotes citizenship while reducing prejudice generally, became widespread at the same time. International Holocaust Remembrance Day is commemorated each year on 27 January, while some other countries have set a different memorial day. The Holocaust has been commemorated in memorials, museums, and speeches, as well as works of culture such as novels, poems, films, and plays. Holocaust denial is a criminal offense in some countries. Although many are convinced that there are lessons or some kind of redemptive meaning to be drawn from the Holocaust, whether this is the case and what these lessons are is disputed. Communist states marginalized the topic of antisemitic persecution while eliding their nationals' collaboration with Nazism, a tendency that continued into the post-communist era. In West Germany, a self-critical memory of the Holocaust developed in the 1970s and 1980s, and spread to some other western European countries. The national memories of the Holocaust were extended to the European Union as a whole, in which Holocaust memory has provided both shared history and an emotional rationale for committing to human rights. Participation in this memory is required of countries seeking entry. In contrast to Europe, in the United States the memory of the Holocaust tends to be more abstract and universalized. Whether Holocaust memory actually promotes human rights is disputed. In Israel, the memory of the Holocaust has been used at times to justify the use of force and violation of international human rights norms. The scholarly literature on the Holocaust is massive, encompassing thousands of books. The tendency to see the Holocaust as a unique or incomprehensible event continues to be popular among the broader public after being largely rejected by historians. Another debate concerns whether the Holocaust emerged from Western civilization or was an aberration of it.
459,354	Proposed expansion of the New York City Subway	1,172,777,880	null	[ "Proposed New York City Subway projects", "Proposed public transportation in New York (state)", "Proposed railway lines in New York (state)" ]	Since the opening of the original New York City Subway line in 1904, and throughout the subway's history, various official and planning agencies have proposed numerous extensions to the subway system. The first major expansion of the subway system was the Dual Contracts, a set of agreements between the City of New York and the IRT and the BRT. The system was expanded into the outer reaches of the Bronx, Brooklyn, and Queens, and it provided for the construction of important lines in Manhattan. This one expansion of the system provided for a majority of today's system. Even with this expansion, there was a pressing need for growth. In 1922, Mayor John Hylan put out his plan for over 100 miles of new subway lines going to all five boroughs. His plan was intended to directly compete with the two private subway operators, the IRT and the BMT. This plan was never furthered. The next big plan, and arguably the most ambitious in the subway system's history, was the "Second System". The 1929 plan by the Independent Subway to construct new subway lines, the Second System would take over existing subway lines and railroad rights-of-way. This plan would have expanded service throughout the city with 100 miles of subway lines. A major component of the plan was the construction of the Second Avenue Subway. The Stock Market Crash of 1929 put a halt to the plan, however, and subway expansion was limited to lines already under construction by the IND. During the 1930s and 1940s, the plans were revised, with new plans such as a line to Staten Island and a revised line to the Rockaways. In the late 1940s and 1950s, a Queens Bypass line via the Long Island Rail Road's Main Line was first proposed as a branch of the still-planned Second Avenue Subway. In addition, capacity on existing lines became improved through the construction of strategic connections such as the Culver Ramp, the 60th Street Tunnel Connection, and the Chrystie Street Connection, and through the rebuilding of DeKalb Avenue Junction. These improvements were the only things to come out of these plans. Eventually, these plans were modified to what became the Program for Action, which was put forth by the New York City Transit Authority in 1968. This was the last plan for a major expansion of the subway system. The plan included the construction of the Second Avenue Subway, a Queens Bypass line, a line replacing the Third Avenue El in the Bronx, and other extensions in the Bronx, Queens, and Brooklyn. While ambitious, very little of the plan was completed, mostly because of the financial crisis in the 1970s. Until the 1990s, there was little focus on expansion of the system because the system was in a state of disrepair, and funds were allocated to maintaining the existing system. In the 1990s, however, with the system in better shape, the construction of the Second Avenue Subway was looked into again. Construction of the Second Avenue Subway started in 2007, and the first phase was completed in 2017. Since the 1990s, public officials and organizations such as the Regional Plan Association have pushed for the further expansion of the system. Projects such as the TriboroRx, a circumferential line connecting the outer boroughs, the reuse of the Rockaway Beach Branch, and the further expansion of the Second Avenue Subway have all been proposed, albeit unfunded. ## Triborough System The Triborough System was a proclamation for new subway lines to the Bronx and Brooklyn. The new lines include the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, IRT Pelham Line, and IRT Jerome Avenue Line. The Manhattan Bridge line described below later became the BMT West End Line, BMT Fourth Avenue Line, the BMT Sea Beach Line, and the Nassau Street loops. > The route of the new subway ... comprises a main trunk north and south through Manhattan Borough on Lexington Avenue and Irving Place from the Harlem River to Tenth St. and on Broadway, Vesey and Church Sts. from Tenth St. to the Battery; two branches in Bronx Borough, one northeast via 138th St. Southern Boulevard and Westchester Ave. to Pelham Bay Park. the other northerly via River Ave. and Jerome Ave. to Woodlawn Road, connecting with the Manhattan trunk by a tunnel under the Harlem River; a Manhattan-Brooklyn line extending from the North River via Canal Street across the East River on the Manhattan Bridge to connect with the Fourth Avenue subway in Brooklyn now being built, which thus becomes an integral part of the larger system; two branches southerly from the Fourth Ave. line extending south to Fort Hamilton and southeast to Coney Island; and a loop feeder line in Brooklyn through Lafayette Ave. and Broadway, connecting with the Fourth Ave. line at one end. and at the other crossing the Williamsburg Bridge and entering the Centre Street Loop subway in Manhattan which is thus also incorporated in the system. In 1911, William Gibbs McAdoo, who operated a competing subway company called the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, proposed building a line under Broadway between Hudson Terminal and Herald Square. He later proposed that the Broadway line be tied into the IRT's original subway line in Lower Manhattan. The Broadway line, going southbound, would merge with the local tracks of the IRT Lexington Avenue Line in the southbound direction at 10th Street. A spur off the Lexington Avenue Line in Lower Manhattan, in the back of Trinity Church, would split eastward under Wall Street, cross the East River to Brooklyn, then head down the Fourth Avenue Line in Brooklyn, with another spur underneath Lafayette Avenue. The Triborough System later became part of the Dual Contracts, signed on March 19, 1913 and also known as the Dual Subway System. These were contracts for the construction and/or rehabilitation and operation of rapid transit lines in New York City. The contracts were "dual", in that they were signed between the City and the IRT and Municipal Railway Company, a subsidiary of the BRT (later BMT). Some lines proposed under the Contracts were not built, most notably an IRT line to Marine Park, Brooklyn (at what is now Kings Plaza) under either Utica Avenue, using a brand-new line, or Nostrand Avenue and Flatbush Avenue, using the then-new IRT Nostrand Avenue Line. There were also alternate plans for the Nostrand Avenue Line to continue down Nostrand Avenue to Sheepshead Bay. ## Mayor Hylan's plan On August 28, 1922, Mayor John Francis Hylan unveiled his own plans for the subway system, which was relatively small at the time. His plan included building over 100 miles (160 km) of new lines and taking over nearly 100 miles (160 km) of existing lines. By the end of 1925, all of these routes were to have been completed. The lines were designed to compete with the IRT and BMT. Hylan's plan contained the following lines: - A line running along Manhattan's West Side, stretching from the edge of the city at Yonkers to 14th Street. It would be a two-track line south to Dyckman Street, a three-track line to 162nd Street, and then-on it would be a four-track line. The line would have two southern branches that would diverge at 14th Street. A connection to the BMT Canarsie Line would use a pair of the tracks, while the other pair would go to Atlantic Avenue and Hicks Street in Brooklyn through an East River tunnel. Then it would turn down to Red Hook. There would also be a loop at Battery Park. Another branch would be built; it would consist of two tracks, and would go between 162nd Street and 190th Street via Amsterdam Avenue. - A First Avenue line, consisting of four tracks, would stretch from the Harlem River to City Hall. At 10th Street, the line would cease to be a four-track line, with the line splitting into two branches. One branch would run to a loop near City Hall, while the other would go to a new Lafayette Avenue line in Brooklyn, running via Third Avenue and the Bowery. On the northern end, at 161st Street, the line would split into two 3-track lines. One of the lines would go to Southern Boulevard and Fordham Road; the other would continue to 241st Street after merging with the existing IRT White Plains Road Line at Fordham Road and Webster Avenue. - A line from Astoria, Queens, likely connecting to the BMT Astoria Line, across the East River and via 125th Street (near today's Henry Hudson Parkway). - A line running from Hunters Point in Queens heading southeast to Lafayette Avenue in Brooklyn. The line would consist of between two and four tracks, and at Lafayette Avenue, the line would split. Two of them would continue as a Lafayette Avenue, but would then become four tracks. The remaining two tracks would run to Franklin and Flatbush Avenues. - A new 4-track trunk line along Lafayette Avenue in Brooklyn from Borough Hall to Bedford Avenue. The line would narrow to three tracks to Broadway. Then the line would have continued underneath the BMT Jamaica Line to 168th Street. By running underneath the Jamaica Line, the line would directly compete with the BMT. A two-track connection would also be provided to a First Avenue line. - A new line running under Utica Avenue to Flatlands Avenue. The line would be a branch of the IRT Eastern Parkway Line. - A four-track Flatbush Avenue line to Emmons Avenue in Sheepshead Bay, before turning west to Surf Avenue in Coney Island via Emmons Avenue. Service to Floyd Bennett Field would be provided with a branch via Flatbush Avenue. - The BMT Canarsie Line would be extended past 121st Street in Queens to the BMT Jamaica Line. - A new line, which would run from 90th Street to Prospect Avenue, that would go via Fort Hamilton Parkway and 10th Avenue would be used by BMT Culver Line trains. - Extension of the BMT Fourth Avenue Line in Brooklyn, south to Bay Ridge–95th Street. - Extension of the BMT Fourth Avenue Line east to the Fort Hamilton Parkway Line and the BMT West End Line. - A two-track line from the BMT Fourth Avenue Line at 67th Street to Staten Island via the Staten Island Tunnel. - Extension of the IRT New Lots Line from New Lots Avenue to Lefferts Boulevard. - The IRT Flushing Line would be extended eastward to Bell Boulevard in Bayside via Main Street, Kissena Boulevard, and Northern Boulevard. - At Roosevelt Avenue a branch would be constructed off the IRT Flushing Line to Jamaica. Only some of Hylan's planned lines were built to completion. Completed lines included: - An extension of the Fourth Avenue Line to 95th Street. - Two major trunk lines in midtown Manhattan, with one running under Eighth Avenue and one under Sixth Avenue, which already had an elevated line. - A crosstown subway under 53rd Street (connecting with the Eighth and Sixth Avenue subways) running under the East River to Queens Plaza (Long Island City), meeting with a Brooklyn–Queens crosstown line, and continuing under Queens Boulevard and Hillside Avenue to 179th Street, where bus service would converge. - A subway under the Grand Concourse in the Bronx, diverging from the Eighth Avenue Line in Manhattan at 145th Street and Saint Nicholas Avenue. Major Phillip Mathews disagreed with the Board of Transportation's plan, and in response, he published a report, on December 24, 1926, titled "Proposed Subway Plan for Subway Relief and Expansion". He said that that congestion would not be addressed for Brooklyn and the Bronx; only the planned Grand Concourse line would alleviate congestion, in this case congestion on the IRT Jerome Avenue Line. There would be little relief on the two lines jointly-operated between the IRT and the BMT. He came up with his own plan. He proposed that the Eighth Avenue Line, through a connection from Fulton or Wall Streets to Chambers Street, be connected to the BMT's lines to Coney Island, with a possible connection at the Manhattan Bridge's south side. In Manhattan, he proposed a new four-track line running down Third Avenue from City Hall, with connections to the White Plains Road and Pelham Lines in the Bronx. The line would therefore have to be built to IRT clearances. At the line's southern end, a connection would be built to the Eastern Parkway Line near Franklin Avenue via a new set of tubes under the East River. To alleviate congestion on the Queens lines, a new trunk line would run from Eighth Avenue in Manhattan to Jamaica, with transfers to the north–south lines in Manhattan and to Brooklyn Crosstown service. This would later be built as the IND Queens Boulevard Line. To round out expansion in Manhattan, he proposed that an extension of the BMT Canarsie Line to Eighth Avenue. This was built at a later date. To connect the outer boroughs, a four-track Brooklyn-Queens crosstown line would be designed, with the possibility for future extensions into the Bronx and Staten Island. ## Subways to New Jersey In 1926, a loop subway service was planned to be built to New Jersey. The rationale given was: > Principal features of a comprehensive plan for passenger transportation between communities in the nine northern counties of New Jersey and the city of New York are outlined in a report submitted on Jan. 15 to the Legislature of the state by the North Jersey Transit Commission. A preliminary report presented about a year ago was abstracted in Electric Railway Journal for Feb. 7, 1925... The ultimate object of the program recommended is the creation of a new electric railway system comprising 82.6 miles of route, and the electrification of 399 route-miles of railroad now operated by steam. As the first step it is proposed to construct an interstate loop line 17.3 miles in length connecting with all of the north Jersey commuters' railroads and passing under the Hudson River into New York City by two tunnels, one uptown and one downtown. A new low-level subway through Manhattan would complete the loop. Construction costs of this preliminary project are estimated at \$154,000,000, with \$40,000,000 additional for equipment. The cost of power facilities is not included in this estimate. Because it would be utilized in both directions, the capacity of the proposed interstate loop line would be equivalent, it is said, to two 2-track lines or one 4-track line from New Jersey to New York City due to its having two crossings between New Jersey and New York. The loop was said to be able to carry 192,500 passengers per hour, or 4.62 million daily passengers, had it been built. The estimate was based on the operation of 35 trains per hour in each direction, and each train would be eleven cars long and would carry 100 passengers per car. It was to be built as a multi-phase project, wherein the IRT and BMT would work together to build that system to New Jersey. Extensions of the IRT Flushing Line and BMT Canarsie Line were both considered; the Canarsie Line was to be extended to Hoboken near the Palisades, while the Flushing Line was to be extended to Franklin Street between Boulevard and Bergenline Avenues in Union City. Ultimately, the cost was too great, and with the Great Depression, these ideas were quickly shot down. In 1954, Regional Plan Association advocated for an extension of the BMT Canarsie Line from Eighth Avenue to Jersey City under the Hudson River. The tunnel under the Hudson would have cost \$40 million. The extension would have provided access to commuter railroads in New Jersey as most lines converged there, and the lines that didn't would be rerouted to stop there. The RPA also suggested having a parking lot there for access from the Pulaski Skyway and the New Jersey Turnpike. It was suggested that either the New York City Transit Authority, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey or the Bi-State Metropolitan Rapid Transit Commission would do the construction. In 1963, three major commuter groups in New Jersey made expansion proposals. One of them would have involved an extension of the IRT Flushing Line under the Hudson River with a three-track tunnel and then connect with the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railroad. In 1986, the Regional Plan Association suggested extending the IRT Flushing Line to New Jersey's Meadowlands Sports Complex. On November 16, 2010, the plan was revisited yet again, as The New York Times reported that Mayor Michael Bloomberg's administration had been working on a plan to extend the 7 service across the Hudson River to Hoboken and continue to Secaucus Junction in New Jersey, where it would connect with most New Jersey Transit commuter lines. It would offer New Jersey commuters a direct route to Grand Central Terminal on the East Side of Manhattan and connections to most other New York City subway routes. This was being planned as an extension of the already-under construction 7 Subway Extension (see below). In April 2012, citing budget considerations, the director of the MTA, Joe Lhota, said that it was doubtful the extension would be built in the foreseeable future, suggesting that the Gateway Project was a much more likely solution to congestion at Hudson River crossings. A feasibility study commissioned by the city and released in April 2013 revived hope for the project, however, with Mayor Bloomberg saying "Extending the 7 train to Secaucus is a promising potential solution ... and is deserving of serious consideration." In 2017, a further extension of the 7 train to New Jersey was suggested once again, this time as an alternative to constructing a replacement for the Port Authority Bus Terminal. An alternative would include a new terminal at Secaucus Junction in conjunction with the 7 extension. In February 2018, it was revealed that the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey had advertised for consultants to write a feasibility study for such an extension, and that it had received bids from several companies. This extension was being planned along with the Gateway Project and, if built, would be able to accommodate a projected 38% increase in the number of people commuting between the two states. The 18-month study would include input from the Port Authority, the MTA, and NJ Transit. If the New Jersey subway extension were to be constructed, it could complement the Gateway Project, which might become overcrowded by 2040. ## 1929–1939 plans Before unification in 1940, the government of New York City made plans for expanding the subway system, under a plan referred to in contemporary newspaper articles as the IND Second System (due to the fact that most of the expansion was to include new IND lines, as opposed to BMT/IRT lines). The first one, conceived in 1929, was to be part of the city-operated Independent Subway System (IND). By 1939, with unification planned, all three systems were included. Very few of these far-reaching lines were built, though provisions were made for future expansion on lines that intersect the proposals. The core Manhattan lines of the expansion were the Second Avenue Line (with an extension into the Bronx) and the Worth Street Line, connecting to the Rockaways. The Rockaways were eventually served by the subway via a city takeover of the Long Island Rail Road's Rockaway Beach Branch. A segment of the proposed Second Avenue Subway opened for passenger service in January 2017. The majority of the proposed lines were to be built as elevated subways, likely a cost-cutting measure. The majority of the expansion was to occur in Queens, with the original proposal suggesting 52 miles (84 km) of track be built in Queens alone. ### Details The first plan was made on September 15, 1929 (before the IND even opened), and is detailed in the table below. Cost is only for construction, and does not include land acquisition or other items. ### Other plans during the same time #### Revised 1932 plan The IND expansion plan was revised in 1932. It differs from the 1929 plan, but there are 60.93 route‐miles (98.06 km), of which 12.49 miles (20.10 km) are in Manhattan, 12.09 miles (19.46 km) in the Bronx, 13.14 miles (21.15 km) in Brooklyn, and 23.21 miles (37.35 km) in Queens. It would include a new 34th Street crosstown line, a Second Avenue Subway line, a connection to the New York, Westchester and Boston Railway, and extensions of the IRT Nostrand Avenue Line, IRT Flushing Line, and BMT Astoria Line. It would have created a subway loop bounded by 2nd and 10th Avenues, and 34th and 125th Streets. This plan included no extensions to Whitestone, Queens, however, with the plan to instead serve more densely populated areas such as Astoria and the Roosevelt Avenue corridor. The plan would also take over the local tracks of the New York, Westchester and Boston Railway, and the Rockaway Beach Branch of the Long Island Rail Road. The table of route miles is as follows: #### Smaller plans Other plans, proposed during the same time as the IND Second System plans, included the following: - (1931 plan) A line splitting from the Second Avenue Line north of Houston Street, running southeast under East 16th St, turning southwest under Avenue C, merging with the Houston Street Line, and crossing the East River from Stanton Street towards the huge line under South Fourth Street. - (1931 plan) A line splitting from the Crosstown Line where it turns from Lafayette Avenue to Marcy Avenue, continuing under Lafayette Avenue and Stanhope Street to a junction with the line under Myrtle Avenue. - (1932 plan) A rapid transit shuttle operating from a terminal adjacent to the IRT Flushing Line and Whitestone Landing operating over the Long Island Rail Road's Whitestone Branch. The line would have been under private operation and would have had a 5 cent fare. - (1939 plan) A line splitting from the South Brooklyn (Culver) Line at Fort Hamilton Parkway or Church Avenue, and running under Fort Hamilton Parkway to 86th Street. A branch would split to run under Ovington Avenue and Senator Street, with a tunnel under the Narrows to Staten Island at the St. George Terminal. The line would split, with the north branch ending at Westervelt Avenue around Hamilton Avenue, and the south branch ending at Grant Street around St. Pauls Street. It was presumably designed this way to provide future service to both the Main Line and North Shore Staten Island Railway lines. The Staten Island Tunnel commenced construction in 1923 to serve the BMT Fourth Avenue Line, but was not completed. - (1940 plan, revised 1945) The IND Fulton Street Line would connect to what is now the IND Rockaway Line. A branch of the IND Fulton Street Line would run to a stub-end terminal at 105th Street. The line, east of Euclid Avenue, would be 4 tracks until Cross Bay Boulevard, where the two branches would split. - (unknown date) A third 2-track tunnel under the East River, from the north side of the South Fourth Street/Union Avenue station (as built for six tracks) west to Delancey Street. - (unknown date) A line splitting from the Stuyvesant Avenue line, going southeast under Broadway. - (unknown date) A line under Flushing Avenue from the huge line under Beaver Street to Horace Harding Boulevard (Long Island Expressway). - (unknown date) A 4 track subway under Bedford Ave in Brooklyn connecting to the Worth St Subway and 2nd Ave Subway. An earlier plan in 1920 had an even more expansive plan, with several dozen subway lines going across all five boroughs. ### Provisions for new lines The following provisions were made for connections and transfers to the new lines. It is of note that only four of these provisions were completed. - At Second Avenue on the IND Sixth Avenue Line, the ceiling drops at the west end. Above the ceiling is a provision for a four-track IND Second Avenue Line. The future Second Avenue Line will not utilize this provision; it will instead be built under the station, if a transfer station is ever built. - At East Broadway on the IND Sixth Avenue Line (under Rutgers Street at this station), part of a two-track station was built for the IND Worth Street Line under East Broadway, above the existing line. Most of the constructed portion is now part of the mezzanine, with a small unused section blocked by a door. - At Broadway on the IND Crosstown Line, traces of passageways are visible going towards a six-track station on the line to Utica Avenue, as well as a stair to an upper mezzanine on top of the unfinished station. - At Utica Avenue on the IND Fulton Street Line, a four-track station above can be seen in the ceiling of the existing station. This portion of the Utica Avenue Line was built with the construction of the Fulton Street Line. Ramps were built from the mezzanine to the platforms because the normal vertical distance of ten feet from the mezzanine floor to the platforms was increased to 25 feet in anticipation of the Utica Avenue Line. The existing mezzanine passes over the unused space. - At Roosevelt Avenue on the IND Queens Boulevard Line, a two-track upper level was built for the Winfield Spur towards the line to the Rockaways. Unlike the other stations, this one was completed, except for track. - Hillside Avenue widens out considerably between 218th Street and 229th Street in Queens Village, and gains a very wide median. This section was widened in the 1930s to accommodate construction of the proposed eastern terminus of the IND Queens Boulevard Line at Springfield Boulevard and Rocky Hill Road (Braddock Avenue) and to accommodate an underpass for Hillside Avenue underneath Springfield Boulevard and Braddock Avenue. Six station entrances would have been provided at Springfield Boulevard and Braddock Avenue. The station would have stretched as far east as 88th Avenue. The two tracks would have continued to 229th Street. - The center tracks on the IND Sixth Avenue Line dead end at the curve from Houston Street to Essex Street; these were planned to continue through a new East River tunnel to Williamsburg and south to the proposed Utica Avenue line towards Sheepshead Bay. - The tracks that the IND 63rd Street Line uses to split from the IND Sixth Avenue Line were built for a similar proposed line under 61st Street, connecting to the Second Avenue Subway. - The Lexington Avenue–63rd Street subway station has two island platforms, which were originally built with now-demolished walls on their northern sides. The platforms were designed to provide a cross-platform interchange to the Second Avenue Subway. - The upper level relay tracks east of 179th Street on the IND Queens Boulevard Line were intended to continue toward Floral Park, and the tunnel is designed to allow for such a future extension. - The relay tracks east of Euclid Avenue on the IND Fulton Street Line were intended to continue toward Cambria Heights in Queens. - The Nevins Street station on the IRT Eastern Parkway Line has an unused center trackway and an unused lower level intended for expansion into northern or southern Brooklyn. - South of the 36th Street station on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line, there are three trackways that diverge from the line at a flying junction. These trackways end under the eastern curb of Fourth Avenue. - The BMT Fourth Avenue Line has provisions for two more tracks south of 59th Street, where the line becomes double-tracked: 1. There are four trackways on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line bridge over the LIRR Bay Ridge Branch despite the fact that only the northernmost two tracks are in use. 2. The 86th Street station on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line appears to have "escapes" in the wall bricked over along the Manhattan-bound track, for the never-built fourth tracks. 3. The northbound side platforms of Bay Ridge Avenue and 77th Street do not have platform pillars because the platforms were supposed to be temporary; the southbound platforms do have pillars, however. - Bellmouths for uncompleted lines are scattered in numerous stations, including 21st Street–Queensbridge, 59th Street, 63rd Drive–Rego Park, Bowery, Canal Street, and Woodhaven Boulevard: 1. East of 21st Street–Queensbridge, before the IND 63rd Street Line connects to the IND Queens Boulevard Line, the tracks veer left while the tunnel wall goes straight. The bellmouths were part of a proposed super-express bypass running under the LIRR mainline between Queens Boulevard and Forest Hills. This plan was not in the original Second System plan, but rather, as part of the Program for Action plan that had the tracks from 21st Street–Queensbridge go straight to Forest Hills. 2. There are bellmouths and space for two additional trackways (for a total of six) on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line south of 59th Street. These provisions were for the Staten Island Tunnel, which would have intersected with the line south of 59th Street. 3. East of 63rd Drive–Rego Park on the IND Queens Boulevard Line, bellmouths were built for a proposed connection to the LIRR's Rockaway Beach Branch. They may be used if the Rockaway Beach Branch were ever reused for subway service. 4. A line to the Rockaways would have split from the IND Eighth Avenue Line (under Church Street at this point), east under Worth Street. The junction was built and is used by the local tracks to World Trade Center. The branch to the Rockaways was completed and connected to the IND Fulton Street Line in 1956. - Two bellmouths have since been completed, but were previously unused. 1. The completed IND 63rd Street Line, which the uses to cross the East River, was designed and built with bellmouths to allow for the construction of connections to the planned Second Avenue Subway for service to/from the north and south along Second Avenue. These bellmouths were completed and opened in 2017. 2. A junction was built on the IND Queens Boulevard Line for the line under Van Wyck Boulevard. The junction was completed and has been connected to the IND Archer Avenue Line. #### Shells built The South Fourth Street shell, if complete, was supposed to handle service as follows: Note: The locals would have short-turned here. There would have been two tunnels under the East River: East Houston Street and Grand Street. Another plan for the South Fourth Street shell was simpler (and was the plan that was partially completed): Note: The Flushing Avenue local would have diverged off to the IND Crosstown Line. There would have been three tunnels under the East River: East Houston Street, Stanton Street, and Grand Street. The Utica Avenue station shell, if complete, would be in the standard local-express-express-local platform configuration. The Jackson Heights–Roosevelt Avenue shell, a two-trackbed island-platformed station, would have been for local trains terminating at the station. Express trains would have stopped at the lower level (IND Queens Boulevard Line) platforms. ## 1940–1999 plans After World War II and up until the late 1990s, the New York City Subway did not expand much. Only 28 stations opened in that time, compared to the remaining 393 stations, which opened from the 1880s to before World War II. As such, there have been many plans to expand the system during this time period. ### 1938–1940 The New York City Board of Transportation revised its plans for subway expansion, and released them in 1938 and 1940. - The remnant of the IRT Ninth Avenue Line at 155th Street would connect with the IRT Lenox Avenue Line, giving riders of the Jerome Avenue Line service to Manhattan's West Side. This project was never undertaken because of the high cost of modifying the third rail in the Sedgwick Avenue and Anderson–Jerome Avenues tunnel section to accommodate new subway cars. - The New York, Westchester and Boston Railway's abandoned right-of-way would have been rehabilitated and connected to the IRT Pelham Line. - The IND Concourse Line would have been extended eastward to Gun Hill Road from 205th Street. - The Second Avenue Subway would originate at Harding Avenue in the Bronx, and connect into the Court Street station in Brooklyn as a two-track and four-track line. A yard would have been constructed to store the line's equipment. The first phase would end the line at East 139th Street. The Main Line and its connections to other subway lines was to have cost \$213.95 million, while the future Bronx extension would have cost \$130.16 million. - An extension of the IRT Lenox Avenue Line would have been built so it could connect with the IRT Ninth Avenue Line. - Two express tracks would be built on the IND Sixth Avenue Line between West 9th Street and West 31st Street for \$19.27 million. This was viewed as a requirement for a Second Avenue Line. - The Seventh Avenue Line Extension would extend the Broadway Line north from 59th Street via a tunnel under Central Park to 72nd Street, before turning east into Queens via Northern Boulevard to Jackson Heights. It was to have been built as a two-track and four-track line, and it would have cost \$89 million. The second phase would extend the line as a two-track line along Corona Avenue and Horace Harding Boulevard from Jackson Heights to Marathon Parkway. A storage yard would be built. This phase would have cost \$51.82 million. A connection between the new line and the Crosstown Line was to have been built at 23rd Street (Ely Avenue) for \$10.95 million. - A connection between the Seventh Avenue Extension and the Rockaway Line would be built at 99th Street, costing \$9.2 million.The Rockaway Beach Branch of the LIRR would be purchased and converted for subway operation. Service to the Rockaway would be provided through a connection to the IND Queens Boulevard Line. The extension would have cost \$42.38 million. In addition, \$2.55 million would be spent on a two-track subway an open-cut connection between the Rockaway Line and the Fulton Street Line. Only the portion south of Liberty Avenue was completed. - An extension of the BMT Broadway Line, from 57th Street–Seventh Avenue to 145th Street, would run via Central Park and Morningside Drive. - A crosstown line via Worth Street would serve as a branch of the IND Eighth Avenue Line's local tracks. The line would have branched off at Church Street, from where it would run via Worth Street and East Broadway to Lewis Street. This two-tracks segment would have cost \$15.2 million. The line would then tunnel under the East River between Lewis Street to Driggs Avenue. This section would have cost \$18.5 million. The South Fourth Street junction would be completed. - The IND Queens Boulevard Line and BMT Broadway Line would be connected through the construction of a connection at 11th Street. The connection would be between the Queens Boulevard Line's local tracks at Queens Plaza and the BMT 60th Street Tunnel. - The IND Queens Boulevard Line would be extended from 178th to 184th Streets. - The IRT Flushing Line would be extended from Main Street to Bell Boulevard, as a two-track and a four-track line, along Roosevelt Avenue. The line would be constructed in a tunnel, embankment, and an open cut, costing \$12.07 million. An additional extension would be constructed to College Point, running along 149th Street and 11th Avenue as an elevated line from Roosevelt Avenue to 122nd Street, costing \$14.1 million. - Subway service would be extended eastward along Hillside Avenue to Little Neck Parkway. The line would be an extension of the IND Queens Boulevard Line as a four-track line to 212th Street, and then as a 2-track line to its terminus at Little Neck Parkway. The segment to 184th Street was to have cost \$3.455 million, while the segment to 212th Street was to have cost \$16.355 million. - The provision at Van Wyck Boulevard for a future line would be completed, and a new two-track line would be built to Rockaway Boulevard. - The IND Fulton Street Line would get an eastward extension; it would first be extended to 106th Street as a four-track line, where it would connect to the IND Rockaway Line. Afterwards, the line would stretch along Linden Boulevard to 229th Street in Eastern Queens. The line was to go to a two-track terminal at 105th or 106th Streets, with intermediate stops at 75th or 76th Streets and at 84th or 85th Streets (both proposed local stops), as well as at Cross Bay Boulevard (a proposed express stop). In 1951, these relay tracks east of Euclid Avenue were still planned to go as far as 105th Street, with a connection to the IND Rockaway Line east of Cross Bay Boulevard. In May 2004, this idea resurfaced, with an attached track map drawn up. If the line were ever built, Pitkin Avenue would have been routed to the east rather than to the southeast at 80th Street, and Linden Boulevard between Conduit and Rockaway Boulevards would have been built to facilitate the line. - A new IND line would run from the Lower East Side to Avenue U in Brooklyn, with a possible extension to Floyd Bennett Field. The new line would run via Houston Street and Essex Street in Manhattan, and via Utica Avenue and Flatbush Avenue. - Service on the IRT Nostrand Avenue Line would be extended down Nostrand Avenue to Voorhies Avenue in Sheepshead Bay as a two-track line. The extension would be constructed as a subway until Avenue T, where it would emerge as an elevated line to Voorhies Avenue. It would have cost \$22.7 million. - The IND would be extended to South Brooklyn with a connection at Cortelyou Road between its South Brooklyn Line and the BMT's Culver Line. This was the only completed Brooklyn proposal. - Dyker Heights would get service with the construction of a branch of the BMT Culver Line via 37th Street, Fort Hamilton Parkway and 10th Avenue to 86th Street. In the vicinity of Fort Hamilton Parkway, a connection would be constructed between the BMT West End Line and the IND South Brooklyn Line. Extension work was approved sometime before 1940, and plans were drawn up. - A connection between the BMT Franklin Avenue Line and the IND Crosstown Line would be built through the construction of a line under Lafayette Avenue. - Subway service would be provided to Staten Island for the first time, with the construction of a tunnel under the Narrows connecting at 68th Street to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and with the Staten Island Railway at New Brighton and Tompkinsville. The IND Concourse Line got funding to be extended eastward past 205th Street, but Bronx residents wanted to rehabilitate the New York, Westchester and Boston Railway right-of way. This funding was reallocated, and the old NYW&B line became the IRT Dyre Avenue Line in December 1941, and the IND Concourse Line extension was not brought up again until 1968. ### 1940s: Smaller plans In 1942, Mayor Benjamin F. Barnes of Yonkers proposed that the Getty Square Branch of the New York Central's Putnam Division be acquired for an extension of the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line from Van Cortlandt Park. This service would replace the service operated by the New York Central, which was slated to be discontinued by the New York Central. A rail link to LaGuardia Airport was proposed in 1943, when the city Board of Transportation proposed an extension of the BMT Astoria Line (currently served by the ) from its terminus at Ditmars Boulevard. The line would have run along Ditmars Boulevard, and would have cost \$10.5 million. In 1946, the Board of Transportation issued a \$1 billion plan that would extend the subway to the farthest reaches of the outer boroughs. - A branch of the BMT Fourth Avenue Line at 59th Street under the Narrows to Saint Nicholas Street and Grent Street in Staten Island. - A branch of the IND Fulton Street Line running via Utica Avenue to Avenue U. - An extension of the IRT Nostrand Avenue Line from Flatbush Avenue to Voohries Avenue. - A line branching off of the IND Crosstown Line running via Franklin Avenue connecting with the BMT Brighton Line. This would have replaced the BMT Franklin Avenue Line. - The extension of the IND Fulton Street Line to Euclid Avenue would continue to be built, and would be extended to 229th Street and Linden Boulevard. - The completion of the Culver Ramp, connecting the IND Culver Line with the BMT Culver Line. - A branch of the IND Culver Line running via Tenth Avenue and Fort Hamilton Parkway to 86th Street, with a connection to the BMT West End Line. West End service would run via the Culver Line and would alleviate congestion at DeKalb Avenue Junction. In order to provide access to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line, the Culver Shuttle would be extended to 36th Street. Even though the Board of Transportation did not approve these ideas, they were still proposed. - A line branching off of the IND Eighth Avenue Line running via Worth Street and East Broadway and running under the East River to Driggs Avenue. - A new trunk line built along Second Avenue with a connection at Court Street to the IND Fulton Street Line. - Lines in Queens to the Rockaways, LaGuardia Airport, Idlewild Airport (now called JFK Airport), College Point, Bayside, Little Neck, Douglaston, Saint Albans and Bellerose. In 1949, the Board of Transportation issued a \$504 million plan to increase capacity on several subway lines through the construction of a new trunk line under Second Avenue. - The rebuilding of DeKalb Avenue that would remove the bottleneck and increase capacity by 18 tph. - IND Sixth Avenue Line express tracks between West Fourth Street and 34th Street. - A new subway line under 57th Street connecting the IND Sixth Avenue Line and the proposed Second Avenue trunk line. - A four-track Second Avenue Subway would originate from a connection to the IRT Pelham Line at 138th Street, the Bronx, to Grand Street, Manhattan. The connection to the Pelham Line would allow for eight additional trains per hour operating between Manhattan and the Pelham Line. It would then be possible to operate 10-car trains via the line and it would also be possible to operate full express service via the line's center express track. The trains operating via Nassau Street would go to Brooklyn via the Montague Tunnel. During non-rush hours trains would terminate at Broad Street. There would be a passageway built from Grand Central via 43rd Street to Second Avenue to permit transfers. - The IRT Pelham Line would be rebuilt to accommodate the wider BMT-IND cars to operate via the Second Avenue Line. The connection would provide the Pelham Line with direct service to Sixth Avenue, Second Avenue and Brooklyn. The station platforms, and third rail would have had to be adjusted as they were put in place for the narrower IRT trains. The line was built with this conversion in mind, however. Westchester Yard would have been expanded to accommodate the additional trains added to the line. Since trains to the Pelham Line would no longer use the Lexington Avenue Line, there would be additional capacity for trains to run via the IRT White Plains Road Line and the IRT Jerome Avenue Line. Improved service on the Pelham Line was projected to stimulate growth in the areas of the East Bronx served by the line. The East Bronx was seen to have great potential for industrial growth and other areas suitable for development as residential and recreational areas. - An improved connection between the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and the IRT White Plains Road Line would be built using the tunnel under the Harlem River used by the IRT Pelham Line, and would allow for the full use of the capacity on the White Plains Road Line and the Jerome Avenue Line. Eight additional trains per hour would be added to the White Plains Road Line and fourteen additional trains per hour would be added to the Jerome Avenue Line. The additional service on the Jerome Avenue Line would make use of the third track for express service. - The Second Avenue Line trunk would be extended to 149th Street to allow for a transfer to the Third Avenue Elevated. This would permit the demolition of the Third Avenue Elevated south of 149th Street, which was seen as uneconomical to operate, ugly and a hindrance of the avenue below it. - Connection of the IRT Dyre Avenue Line to the IRT White Plains Road Line. The direct service was predicted to stimulate growth along its route. - Connections would be made to the BMT Nassau Street Line, the Williamsburg Bridge, and the Manhattan Bridge. The Sixth Avenue Line would also be connected to the Williamsburg and Manhattan Bridges. The connection between the Nassau Street Line and the Manhattan Bridge south tracks would be eliminated. This would allow for thirty additional trains to operate between Midtown Manhattan and Brooklyn. - The lengthening of platforms on the BMT lines in Brooklyn would increase capacity and would allow 10-car trains from Second Avenue to run over any section of the BMT and IND. - Increase in capacity on the BMT Brighton Line, BMT Sea Beach Line, BMT West End Line, and the BMT Fourth Avenue Line by 8 tph in total by adding a connection from the BMT Culver Line to the IND Culver Line at Ditmas Avenue. The additional capacity would result from the fact that trains operating via the former BMT Culver Line would not run through DeKalb Avenue Junction. - A connection between the IND Queens Boulevard Line at Queens Plaza to the BMT 60th Street Tunnel that would increase capacity between Queens and Manhattan by 20 tph. This connection would permit the full use of the capacity of the Queens Boulevard local tracks. - The construction of a ramp connecting the IND Fulton Street Line with the Fulton Street Elevated on Liberty Avenue. Six stations on the elevated would have their platforms extended to accommodate 10-car trains. This would make possible the demolition of the BMT Fulton Street Line between Grant Avenue and Rockaway Avenue and the demolition of the BMT Lexington Avenue Line. ### 1950–1951 On June 21, 1950, a plan was created by the Board of Transportation and sent to Mayor O'Dwyer concerning rapid transit expansions in Queens. The total cost of the plan would have been \$134.5 million. Many things were planned: - The rebuilding of DeKalb Avenue that would increase capacity by 18 tph. - IND Sixth Avenue Line express tracks - A four-track Second Avenue Subway between 149th Street, the Bronx, to Grand Street, Manhattan. - Connections would be made to the BMT Nassau Street Line, the Williamsburg Bridge, and the Manhattan Bridge. The Sixth Avenue Line would also be connected to the Williamsburg and Manhattan Bridges. - The Rockaway Beach Branch of the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) would be acquired by the City and an embankment would be created with two bridges for the right-of-way over Jamaica Bay. To provide a connection to the rest of the subway system, a track connection would be built to the IND Fulton Street Line. - The Rockaway Beach Branch would run alongside the LIRR main line tracks as a super-express bypass. Once in Woodside, the line would go underground running under Sunnyside Yards and Long Island City to the East River. It would then go under the East River and 76th Street in Manhattan to the Second Avenue Line. - The bypass would also have a connection to the LIRR's Port Washington Branch with subway service running to Bayside. - Connections to the IRT Pelham Line at Third Avenue–138th Street and to the IRT White Plains Road Line at Third Avenue–149th Street. On September 13, 1951, the Board of Estimate approved a plan put forth by the New York Board of Transportation that would cost \$500 million. Many things were planned: - A six-track Second Avenue Subway between 149th Street, the Bronx, to Grand Street, Manhattan. This line would handle 68 trains per hour (tph) (34 tph on the express tracks and 34 tph on the local tracks). - The line would have a track connection to the IRT Pelham Line at Third Avenue–138th Street and there would be a branch terminating at Third Avenue–149th Street to permit a transfer to the Third Avenue Elevated in the Bronx. This would allow for the elimination of the Third Avenue Elevated south of 149th Street. - A tunnel to the IND Sixth Avenue Line via 57th Street. - A super-express bypass line to the LIRR Rockaway Beach Branch with a new tunnel under the East River. - A connection from the IND Queens Boulevard Line to the Rockaway Beach Branch and IND Rockaway Line. - Various Bronx IRT projects: - Increase in capacity on the IRT Pelham Line. - Connection of the IRT Dyre Avenue Line to the IRT White Plains Road Line. - Increase in capacity on the IRT White Plains Road Line north of Gun Hill Road by 8 trains per hour. (At the time, the IRT Third Avenue Line still connected to the IRT White Plains Road Line at Gun Hill Road.) - Increase in capacity on the IRT Jerome Avenue Line by 9 trains per hour. - The Chrystie Street Connection: - IND Sixth Avenue Line express tracks. - DeKalb Avenue rebuilding, including closure of the Myrtle Avenue station. This would increase capacity by 18 tph. - Increase in capacity on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line's local tracks by 4 tph. - Increase in capacity on the BMT Sea Beach Line by 9 tph. - Increase in capacity on the BMT West End Line by 5 tph. - Connection of the IND Second Avenue and IND Sixth Avenue Lines to the BMT Jamaica Line and to the Manhattan Bridge. - Increase in capacity on the BMT Brighton Line by 8 tph by adding a connection from the BMT Culver Line to the IND Culver Line at Ditmas Avenue. - 60th Street Tunnel Connection. - Extension of the IRT Nostrand Avenue Line to Voorhies Avenue. - Construction of the IRT Utica Avenue Line from Crown Heights–Utica Avenue to Kings Plaza. The Board of Estimate requested that the Board of Transportation evaluate a spur of the IRT Pelham Line to Throggs Neck in the Bronx. ### 1954 The Board of Estimate accepted the following items into its 1954 budget from the New York City Transit Authority: - The elimination of the DeKalb Avenue bottleneck on the BMT. - The construction of the Nostrand Avenue extension to Avenue U. It would have cost \$51.7 million. - The extension of the IND Fulton Street Line to the BMT Liberty Avenue Elevated. - A start on the Second Avenue Subway in Chrystie Street. - Adding express tracks to the IND Sixth Avenue Line. In March 1954, the Transit Authority issued a \$658 million construction program including the following projects: - A Second Avenue trunk line, which would have allowed 34 more trains to midtown per hour. - A tunnel at 76th Street that would connect to the Second Avenue Line that would run under the East River and connect with the existing Long Island Rail Road main line. - An increase of service on the IRT White Plains Road Line by eight trains per hour due to the construction of the Second Avenue Line. - The connection of the IRT White Plains Road Line and the IRT Dyre Avenue Line was nearing completion and would provide direct service to Manhattan and Brooklyn. - Fourteen additional trains per hour would be able to operate on the IRT Jerome Avenue Line if the IRT Pelham Line was connected to the Second Avenue Subway. Service would have been tripled on the Pelham Line. - The completion of the 60th Street Tunnel Connection, which was under construction, would increase service to Jamaica by fifteen trains per hour. - The addition of two tracks to the IND Sixth Avenue Line would allow express service. - The elimination of the DeKalb Avenue bottleneck on the BMT, which would allow eighteen more trains to be operated per hour. - The construction of the Nostrand Avenue exension to Avenue U. - The construction of the Chrystie Street Connection. - The connection of the IND South Brooklyn Line and the BMT Culver Line at Ditmas Avenue would be opened in the spring, and would have allowed eight more trains to run per hour on the BMT Brighton Line. - Bottlenecks would be removed at Grand Central on the IRT East Side Line and at 96th Street on the IRT West Side Line. In 1954, Regional Plan Association advocated for an extension of the BMT Canarsie Line from Eighth Avenue to Jersey City under the Hudson River. The tunnel under the Hudson would have cost \$40 million. The extension would have provided access to commuter railroads in New Jersey as most lines converged there, and the lines that didn't would be rerouted to stop there. The RPA also suggested having a parking lot there for access from the Pulaski Skyway and the New Jersey Turnpike. It was suggested that either the New York City Transit Authority, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey or the Bi-State Metropolitan Rapid Transit Commission would do the construction. ### 1961 John T. Clancy, a Democratic incumbent running for Queens Borough President in 1961 proposed third tracking the BMT Jamaica Elevated Line to provide express service, and reactivating the Rockaway Beach Branch from Rego Park to Liberty Avenue. ### 1962–1963 In July 1962, the NYCTA announced that it had asked the city for money to build a \$190 million high-speed, non-stop subway line from Midtown to the Bronx. The line would have only operated during rush hours. It was estimated that if the funds were given to the project, it would be completed in 1970. The line would be a two-track line running from 59th Street between Fifth and Seventh Avenues to the Bronx, running under Central Park. Running non-stop for 6.5 miles, it would have been the longest continuous run in the subway system. The line, on its southern end, would connect to the BMT Broadway Line at Seventh Avenue near 59th Street and to the IND Sixth Avenue Line near 58th Street and Sixth Avenue. The line would then run through a deep tunnel under Central Park until 110th Street. There would be provisions for a future crosstown line under 76th Street to Queens. The line would then turn east and run along Madison Avenue to 138th Street. One branch would connect to the express track of the IRT Pelham Line, which would be converted to accommodate larger B Division trains. In the morning rush hour, trains from Pelham Park would only make express stops. A new stop would be built at 138th Street and Grand Concourse where transfers would have been available to the IRT White Plains Road and IRT Jerome Avenue Line trains. The second branch would continue under the Grand Concourse until 161st Street where it would connect to the IND Concourse Line at 161st Street. This connection would allow for the diversion of Concourse Line express trains onto the new line, allowing for the addition of an equal number of trains to the IND Central Park West express service and provide relief to that line. The construction of this line was viewed as necessary to relieve the IRT Lexington Avenue Line. In February 1963, the New York City Transit Authority issued a preliminary proposal for rapid transit expansion in the borough of Queens. The plan was designed to relieve congestion on the IRT Flushing Line and IND Queens Boulevard, to deal with expected population growth, and to provide service to areas of the borough without transit service. To expand service to other areas of the borough a new trunk line would be built to provide the necessary capacity. The planned extensions were expected to relieve crowding on the IRT Flushing Line by 22 percent and on the IND Queens Boulevard Line by 19 percent. The first phase of the transit expansion would build a trunk line connecting the IND Queens Boulevard Line's local tracks at Steinway Street and Broadway using existing provisions with the IND Sixth Avenue Line and BMT Broadway Line in Manhattan. The new line would have run under 34th Avenue, a new tunnel under the East River, and 76th Street before turning south under Central Park. Connections would be made to the IND Sixth Avenue Line at 58th Street and to the BMT Broadway Line's stub tracks at 59th Street and Seventh Avenue. In Manhattan, there would have been a transfer connection to the 77th Street station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and a station in Central Park at 70th Street. Provisions would be built for a planned extension to the Bronx. At Steinway Street, switches would be constructed to all GG trains from Brooklyn to terminate there. The new 4.5 miles (7.2 km) line would have provided an additional 30 trains per hour between Queens and Manhattan with a future northern extension. Initially, the line would be used for 15 trains per hour running to the IND Sixth Avenue Line from the IND Queens Boulevard Line. The construction of the trunk line was expected to cost \$138.6 million, of which \$37.4 million would be spent for the section south of 76th Street. The earliest possible date for the completion of the line would have been 1970. To provide service to unserved areas of Queens, three additional routes were considered. The first route would have served northern and northeastern Queens, running along 34th Avenue, Northern Bouelvard, Main Street, Kissena Boulevard, Parsons Boulevard, and one of the Horace Harding Expressway service roads to Springfield Boulevard. The 10.3 miles (16.6 km)-line would have consisted of two tracks and would have cost \$219.4 million. The second route would be a branch of the IND Fulton Street Line heading under Linden Boulevard and Merrick Boulevard to Springield Boulevard. Two options were considered for this line. The first option would have branched off of the Fulton Street Line near Pitkin Avenue and Euclid Avenue using existing provisions in the tunnel. The second option would have extended the Liberty Avenue Elevated from Lefferts Boulevard. This option would have required the acquisition of private property to widen Liberty Avenue so that the line could transition from an elevated line to a subway line and to make the turn from Liberty Avenue and Linden Boulevard. The subway option would have been 6.6 miles (10.6 km) long and would have cost \$116 million while the elevated/subway option would have been 4.5 miles (7.2 km) and would have cost \$80.8 million. The third route would have connected the IND Rockaway Line to the IND Queens Boulevard Line using the Rockaway Beach Branch and an existing provision in the tunnel east of 63rd Drive. The Rockaway Beach Line had been abandoned by the Long Island Rail Road on June 8, 1962. A new stop would be built at Linden Boulevard to connect with a new subway line. This line was expected to cost \$39.9 million. In addition to expanding service to Queens, service to the Bronx would have been expanded as well. The new trunk line connecting the BMT Broadway Line and IND Sixth Avenue Line to Queens south of 76th Street would have been used for the new line to the Bronx. This line would have run under the center of Central Park and then running via Fifth Avenue once out of the park at 110th Street, and would continue under the East River with a branch connecting to the IRT Pelham Line, which would have been modified in order to fit B Division subway cars, and a branch continuing up the Grand Concourse and then connecting to the IND Concourse Line. In May 1963, the New York City Planning Commission proposed the following in response to the NYCTA's proposal: - An implementation of skip-stop service on the BMT Jamaica Line. - An extension of a proposed Madison Avenue Line and the IND Sixth Avenue Line operating via 59th Street, with two branches. One branch would have operated along Second Avenue with a branch connecting to the IRT Pelham Line, which would have had to be modified to fit B Division subway cars, and a branch connecting to the IND Concourse Line. The other branch would have continued under the East River, and would have been connected to the Long Island Rail Road main line in the Sunnyside area. Subway trains would have continued via the Port Washington Branch to Little Neck, and via the LIRR Main Line to Rego Park, where it would have turned via the former Rockaway Beach Branch and then would have turned onto the Lower Montauk Branch, and would have continued on the branch through Jamaica, where it would continue via the Atlantic Branch until Rosedale, staying within city limits. The report claims that its proposed routes would serve up to twice as many people as the NYCTA's proposed routes. - A two-track Madison Avenue Line would have run from the proposed 59th Street tunnel via Madison Avenue and would have tied into the then-underutilized BMT Broadway Line in the vicinity of Madison Square. - In the vicinity of City Hall Park in Lower Manhattan, a connection between the BMT Nassau Street and Broadway Lines would have carried the Madison Avenue service through the financial district at Wall Street and Broad Street. Another connection in Lower Manhattan would have been built connecting the IND Eighth Avenue Line and the BMT Broadway Line in the area of the former Hudson Terminal (today's World Trade Center). ### 1968 #### Proposed lines Similar plans were made by the New York City Transit Authority in 1968. They included: - The IND Second Avenue Line with connections to IRT Dyre Avenue Line at East 180th Street, and the IRT Pelham Line at Whitlock Avenue - A crosstown line under 34th Street from 12th Avenue to 1st Avenue - IND/BMT 63rd Street Line - A new line running along Park Avenue in the Bronx to replace the Third Avenue Elevated - Super-express bypass of IND Queens Boulevard Line - New line splitting from the IND Queens Boulevard Line under the Long Island Expressway to Kissena Boulevard in Phase I and to Springfield Boulevard in Phase II - Archer Avenue Line to Springfield Boulevard branching off of the BMT Jamaica Line at 127th Street and off of the Queens Boulevard Line at bellmouths railroad north of the Van Wyck Boulevard station. - IRT Nostrand Avenue Line extension to Avenue W in Sheepshead Bay. This was by then the fifth time that the Nostrand Avenue extension was proposed. - A new line branching off of the IRT Eastern Parkway Line and running under Utica Avenue to Avenue U - Extension of the BMT Canarsie Line to Nostrand Avenue or JFK Airport - Extension of the IRT New Lots Line to Linwood Street and Flatlands Avenue - Extension of the IND Concourse Line to White Plains Road #### Completed lines The Archer Avenue Lines are two lines, split between the BMT and IND, mostly running under Archer Avenue in the Jamaica neighborhood of Queens. Conceived as part of these 1968 expansion plans, they opened on December 11, 1988. There are stub-end tunnels east of the line's northern terminus, Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer, on both levels, which extend past the station for possible future extensions. The 63rd Street Lines are two lines also split between the BMT and IND. The short BMT line connects the express tracks of the BMT Broadway Line from 57th Street–Seventh Avenue to Lexington Avenue–63rd Street, where it now runs through to the Second Avenue subway. The IND line runs from the IND Sixth Avenue Line at 57th Street in Manhattan east under 63rd Street and the East River through the 63rd Street Tunnel to the IND Queens Boulevard Line in Queens. There is a stub-end tunnel at the northern terminus of the IND line that is intended for the Queens super-express bypass. ### 1970s In Lower Manhattan, plans were made for the following: - A new terminal for IRT Seventh Avenue locals to South Ferry - A track connection between the Hudson Terminal (now World Trade Center) on the IND Eighth Avenue Line and Cortlandt Street on the BMT Broadway Line, both in Manhattan. - RR trains would be discontinued south of City Hall, as the station would permanently become a terminal. The City Hall station is located one block east of Hudson Terminal. The segment between City Hall in Manhattan and Bay Ridge–95th Street would be replaced by two other services. - B Sixth Avenue express trains would be rerouted to the Eighth Avenue Lines, replacing the AA and CC Eighth Avenue locals. B trains would run south through the connection and continue through the Montague Street Tunnel and BMT Fourth Avenue Line, thereby replacing the RR between Cortlandt Street in Manhattan and 59th Street in Brooklyn. - JJ trains would operate via the Montague Street Tunnel and Fourth Avenue line, with an extension to Bay Ridge–95th Street. - A Second Avenue Subway would operate along Second Avenue in Manhattan, connecting New Jersey with both Queens and the Bronx. - T and Y would run the entire length of the Second Avenue line from New Jersey, then run toward Queens and the Bronx respectively. - EE trains would be rerouted onto the southernmost section of the subway into New Jersey via the BMT Broadway express tracks, which turn eastward toward the Manhattan Bridge. The EE would then diverge southward, merging with the Second Avenue main line. ### 1986 In 1986, the Regional Plan Association suggested extending the IRT Flushing Line across the Hudson River to the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey. In 1986, the MTA issued a study on expanding transit options on the west side of Manhattan. It was proposed to use the West Side Line viaduct (today's High Line), and various means of transportation were proposed, including monorail, passenger rail trains, or subway trains. It also proposed to extend the IRT Flushing or BMT Canarsie Lines ( and , respectively). ### 1990 In 1990, the MTA proposed a rail line connecting LaGuardia Airport and John F. Kennedy International Airport. The line would have operated over the Grand Central Parkway and the Van Wyck Expressway. There would be stations at Shea Stadium and Jamaica. The system was proposed to cost \$2 billion. The MTA estimated that the rail link would take 30 minutes from Kennedy to LaGuardia, and the frequency of service would initially be every 15 minutes. There would be a two-track alignment with one track for each direction, as well as at least two trains heading in each direction at all times. If the link were built, the average travel time from Manhattan to Kennedy would have been about 45 minutes using the Long Island Rail Road, including transfers. To LaGuardia, the average travel time from the Grand Central station using the IRT Flushing Line would be 47 minutes. ### 1998–99 In 1998, an extension of the BMT Astoria Line to LaGuardia Airport was planned, but the plan was canceled in 2003 following community opposition. In 1999, the Regional Plan Association considered a full-length Second Avenue Subway from Broad Street to 125th Street, along with the LIRR East Side Access. It also planned the following extensions: - a Co-op City extension of the Second Avenue Subway via the Amtrak right-of-way through the northeast Bronx - a Grand Central Terminal spur of the Second Avenue Subway - a super-express bypass from the Atlantic Terminal via the LIRR Atlantic Branch - an extension to JFK Airport via the Van Wyck Expressway - an extension to Laurelton via the LIRR Atlantic Branch - a branch off the Second Avenue Subway at 14th Street to Avenue C, to merge with the IND Sixth Avenue Line at Essex Street - a connection to the BMT Nassau Street Line near Delancey Street - a super-express bypass of the Queens Boulevard Line from east of 21st Street–Queensbridge to east of Forest Hills–71st Avenue - a new interlocking at Prince Street to allow easy switching of trains between local and express tracks The new set of extensions proposed by the RPA, dubbed "MetroLink", would make use of existing commuter rail infrastructure, so as to make it interoperable with the New York City Subway. Nine hundred fifty "Rx" hybrid railcars would be ordered, with yard expansions and new yards being built. MetroLink, consisting of 31 new metro stations (not counting three recycled commuter rail stations) and 19 new route‐miles of track (31 km) (not including existing commuter rail and then-under construction AirTrain JFK route miles) would have reduced the load on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, and the IND Queens Boulevard Line. Two of these stations would be in Brooklyn, three in Queens, nine in the Bronx, and twenty in Manhattan. Five services would be run: 1. The Co-op City–Second Avenue–Broadway–Whitehall Street service 2. The 125th Street–Second Avenue–Atlantic Terminal Bypass–Jamaica Center service 3. The Grand Central–Second Avenue–Atlantic Terminal Bypass–JFK Airport service 4. The Grand Central–Second Avenue–Fourth Avenue–West End Line to Coney Island service 5. The Laurelton–Jamaica Center–Queens Bypass–Second Avenue–Lower East Side–Culver Express to Avenue X service Stations would have been located at: - New Second Avenue Subway (15 stations): - Lexington Avenue at 125th Street (transfer with ) - Grand Central Terminal (transfer with ) - Second Avenue at 116th, 106th, 96th, 86th, 72nd, 55th (transfer with ), 44th, 34th, 23rd, 14th (transfer with ), and Houston Streets - Bowery/Canal Street - Water Street at Wall/Fulton Streets and at Whitehall/Broad Streets - New Lower East Side Line (4 stations): - First Avenue at 14th Street (transfer with ) - Avenue C at 8th Street and at Houston Street - East Broadway at Pitt Street - New Co-op City Line (9 stations): - Co-op City North, Central, and South stations - Bronx Municipal Hospital Center - East Tremont Avenue at White Plains Road and at West Farms Square (transfer with at the latter) - Boston Road at 169th Street - Third Avenue at 161st and 149th Street (transfer with at the latter) - Atlantic Branch (5 stations): - Jay Street–MetroTech (transfer with ) - Atlantic Terminal (transfer with ) - Linden Boulevard - Locust Manor - Laurelton The AirTrain JFK, Atlantic Branch, Main Line ROW, and Northeast Corridor would all be "recycled" to accommodate subway service under this plan. The Nostrand Avenue and East New York LIRR stations would also have been closed under MetroLink. ## 21st-century expansion The New York City Subway has opened five subway stations since 2009, and up to 15 more subway stations are planned. However, the 21st-century expansion plans pale in comparison to some of the subway system's other previous plans. ### Current or completed plans #### 7 Subway Extension The 7 Subway Extension was devised in the late 1990s to extend the IRT Flushing Line, which carries the local and express services, further westward into Manhattan. The extension stretches a total of 1 mile (1.6 km) from its former terminus at Times Square to a new western terminus at 34th Street and 11th Avenue. The tunnels are actually 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long. A second station at 10th Avenue–41st Street was dropped from the plans in October 2007, but could be restored if funding can be found. The extension's opening had been delayed to June 2014, with the rest of the 34th Street station to open at the end of 2015. Michael Horodniceanu, chief of MTA Construction Company, told The New York Times that complications in the installation of the inclined elevator would likely cause a further delay of about three months, bringing the opening date to very late summer or early fall of 2014. Further complications in February 2014 brought the projected date of the opening to November 2014, then to February 2015, then spring 2015, and to summer 2015. The station opened in September 2015. As proposed under the RPA's Fourth Regional Plan, a second 7 Subway Extension would be built, serving 23rd Street before connecting with the existing 14th Street/Eighth Avenue station. #### Second Avenue Subway The Second Avenue Subway, having been repeatedly delayed and shaved back from a six-track combined local/express line to a two-track superexpress line since 1919 (with occasional construction between 1972 and 1976), was launched in 2007. A tunnelling contract was awarded to the consortium of Schiavone/Shea/Skanska (S3) by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) on March 20, 2007. This followed preliminary engineering and a final tunnel design completed by a joint venture between AECOM and Arup. Parsons Brinckerhoff is the Construction Manager of the project. This contract, and the full funding grant agreement with the Federal Transit Administration, which was received in November 2007, is for Phase I of the project, a new line between the existing 63rd Street Line and 96th Street and Second Avenue. The total cost of the 8.5-mile (13.7 km) line is expected to top \$17 billion. A ceremonial ground-breaking for the Second Avenue Subway was held in April 2007. The tunnel boring machine (TBM) began digging the tunnels for Phase I in May 2010 and completed its excavations in September 2011. Phase I, consisting of two miles (3.2 km) of tunnel and three stations, was opened in January 2017. It cost \$4.45 billion. A 1.5-mile (2.4 km), \$6 billion second phase is in planning; land acquisition for Phase 2 started in April 2022. The RPA's Fourth Regional Plan proposed two northward extensions. Phase 2B would be an extension of Phase 2 under 125th Street from Lexington Avenue to Broadway. Phase 2C would be a spur to Third Avenue–149th Street, connecting with the IND Concourse Line. ### Proposals #### Triboro RX A proposal for the LIRR Bay Ridge Branch would have the New York City Subway use the tracks to link Brooklyn, Queens (both already linked by the G train) and the Bronx via the Hell Gate Bridge. Based on Paris's RER commuter rail system, the Triboro RX proposal would create a partial loop around the city. In 1996, the Regional Plan Association conducted a study to determine the feasibility of the rail link. The original proposal would have terminated at Yankee Stadium. The proposed line, discussion of which was revived in 2012, would connect to all non-shuttle subway services at 12 stations. The line in this proposal would have terminated at Hunts Point. The line was brought back in the 2015 report "The Overlooked Boroughs" by the Regional Plan Association. The line would be 24 miles (39 km) long and would consist of 22 stations, would cost \$1 billion and is projected to have more than 100,000 daily riders. Plans for the line date back to 1995. Obstacles for the proposal include the proposed Cross-Harbor Rail Tunnel, the lack of electrification on the line, as well as the single-tracking in some parts of the line. The current iteration of the plan would have its northern terminus be Co-Op City South using the Hell Gate Branch. The LIRR Bay Ridge Branch and the New York Connecting Railroad have freight operating along them, and are regulated by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). FRA rules require a certain distance between freight and passenger trains that share rights-of-way, and as a result it is uncertain whether the right-of-way is wide enough or if more durable train cars are needed to be able to share the same tracks. The RPA's 2015 plan considered having FRA compliant light rail vehicles run over the line. In addition to providing transfer opportunities, the line would provide transit access to areas without it in Glendale and Middle Village in Queens, as well as in Flatlands and Canarsie in Brooklyn. #### Interborough Express In mid-October 2019, the MTA announced that it would study the feasibility of restoring passenger service on the Bay Ridge Branch portion of the route. In early January 2022, as part of her State of the State address New York governor Kathy Hochul announced that the state would move forward with the Bay Ridge Branch Line by conducting an environmental study on the Interborough Express (IBX), a 14-mile (23 km) corridor using the existing Bay Ridge Branch and Fremont Secondary from Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, to Jackson Heights, Queens. End-to-end travel times are expected to be less than 40 minutes, and weekday ridership is projected to be 115,000. The route would connect up to 17 subway lines and the Long Island Rail Road. The MTA indicated in September 2022 that it wanted to construct the IBX as a light rail line, and Hochul announced in January 2023 that the project would proceed as a light rail corridor. #### Rockaway Line The Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) abandoned the Rockaway Beach Branch in 1962; ever since it has been sought after for reactivation for train service. The line has not been reactivated due to local opposition, specifically the homeowners who live along the right-of-way. One group wants the line's reactivation for transit service. A second group would use the right-of-way as a linear park, known as the Queensway, a proposal inspired by the success of the High Line in Manhattan. The final group involving homeowners would have nothing done, keeping the line as is. Most plans call for the line to be used for subway service, with the line being connected to the south with the IND Rockaway Line. Talks of reactivating the line were publicly endorsed in February 2012 by Assemblymen Phillip Goldfeder and Michael G. Miller. Goldfeder commented "The commute for people here is only going to go from bad to worse. You can't talk about a convention center without talking about transportation." Goldfeder and Miller said they are not opposed to turning sections of the line into a park, but said people who live in the Rockaways, Ozone Park and other areas have no quick or easy way to get into Manhattan. The Genting Group, which operates Resorts World casino and have been asked to construct the convention center, are evaluating several plans to increase transportation access. Genting is committed to paying for part of the transportation improvements. Advocates of the Queensway, a proposed public park along the branch's route, are against resumption of rail service, stating that current bus service fills current transportation needs in the area. U.S. Representatives Hakeem Jeffries and Gregory Meeks added their support for the project in March 2013. Both representatives will push to allocate federal transportation subsidies to study a plan for restored passenger service. The line would cost \$1 billion, if build in its full length with a connection to the IND Queens Boulevard Line, and would stretch across 3.5 miles (5.6 km), providing connections to several subway services as well as the LIRR. Another possible option would have Long Island Rail Road service restored with service to seven stations along the right-of-way, with service ending in Howard Beach. The line would serve upwards of 250,000 passengers per day and would provide access to JFK Airport from Midtown Manhattan. In February 2015, the Regional Plan Association suggested having some F trains, after running through the 63rd Street Tunnel, be rerouted to operate over the Lower Montauk Branch of the LIRR running through underserved Maspeth and Glendale and then meeting up with the Rockaway Beach Branch in Rego Park. #### LaGuardia Airport extension The BMT Astoria Line extension to LaGuardia Airport was suggested as part of LaGuardia's long-range expansion/renovation plan. Currently, no New York City Subway routes service the airport directly, but provisions for a subway connection are part of a 2014 long range rebuilding plan by the MTA. The New York Daily News' editorial board came out in support of this extension on February 21, 2017, detailing why this route is superior to Governor Andrew Cuomo’s plan for an AirTrain from LaGuardia to Willets Point. #### Utica Avenue and Nostrand Avenue Lines In April 2015, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio announced a new plan for building a subway line under Utica Avenue in Brooklyn. Previous plans, most recently the Program for Action, had provisions for such a line. It would branch off from the IRT Eastern Parkway Line () at Crown Heights–Utica Avenue. The new line being proposed is part of de Blasio's "One New York" plan, which aims to improve transit, reduce emissions, and fight poverty. If built, the line would go to Flatbush Avenue, near Kings Plaza. Since the Metropolitan Transportation Authority had budget shortages as of April 2015, however, it is unclear how the line would be funded or built. The MTA Board allocated \$5 million for a feasibility study, the Utica Avenue Subway Extension Study, for this proposal in the MTA's 2015–2019 Capital Program. In August 2016, it was reported that the MTA was looking into an extension of the IRT Nostrand Avenue Line along Flatbush Avenue to Marine Park, which would allow trains to serve Kings Plaza. Both the Utica Avenue and Nostrand Avenue proposals for extensions to Kings Plaza have been proposed since the 1910s. Planning on the Utica Avenue Line stalled because it was no longer viewed as a priority by the MTA. Planning resumed in April 2019 when New York City Transit joined city agencies in launching the Utica Avenue Transit Improvement Study. The study will look into a subway extension, improved bus rapid transit, and a new light rail line. Since the study occurred concurrently with the 2020 redesign of Brooklyn bus routes, the MTA decided to prioritize the Utica Avenue transit study. In November 2017, the RPA suggested building both lines as part of its fourth plan. The Nostrand Line was envisioned as a three-stop extension to Avenue Z, while the Utica Line was planned as a five-stop spur to Kings Plaza. #### RPA plans The Regional Plan Association (RPA) released its fourth Regional Plan in November 2017, twenty-one years after its previous Regional Plan had been published. The fourth plan included several lists of suggestions on how to improve the city's transit system, of which subway expansion was a major component. Under the RPA's plan, the Second Avenue Subway would be completed to its full length within Manhattan and then extended to the Bronx. The 7 Subway Extension would expand in scope, with the IRT Flushing Line being extended to 14th Street and Eighth Avenue. Both the Utica Avenue and Nostrand Avenue Lines in Brooklyn would be realized. Queens would see three subway expansions, including two new Queens lines: one along Northern Boulevard to Flushing or College Point and one along Jewel Avenue to Alley Pond Park. A one-stop extension of the Astoria Line would be built to serve western Astoria. Ultimately, the plan included eight extensions with at least 40 stations in total. #### Subway station in Red Hook In January 2018, Governor Andrew Cuomo ordered the MTA to conduct a study on the feasibility of building a subway station in Red Hook, Brooklyn, in order to redevelop the area. If approved, the station would likely be built as part of an extension of the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line past South Ferry in Lower Manhattan with a station at Governors Island possible, but unlikely due to cost and benefit. As of 2022, a potential extension of the BMT Broadway Line to Red Hook (to be served by the W train) is being evaluated as part of the MTA's 2025–2044 20-Year Needs Assessment. #### Other proposals As of 2022, a potential extension of the IRT New Lots Line (to be served by the 3 train) to Spring Creek, Brooklyn, is being evaluated as part of the 2025–2044 20-Year Needs Assessment. As part of the 2025–2044 20-Year Needs Assessment, the MTA is also evaluating the possibility of extending the Second Avenue Subway westward under 125th Street following the completion of Phase 2. The line might be extended westward to Broadway and 125th Street, connecting with the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line's 125th Street station; to Broadway and 137th Street, connecting with the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line's 137th Street–City College station; to Riverside Drive and 137th Street; or to St. Nicholas Avenue and 135th Street, merging with the IND Eighth Avenue Line. ### Discontinued plans #### PATH-Lexington Avenue connection After the PATH's World Trade Center station was destroyed during the September 11 attacks, there was a proposal to connect the PATH and the New York City Subway. Whereas the original World Trade Center station consisted of five north-south balloon loops that sent eastward trains back west to New Jersey, the rebuilt PATH station would have been built in an east–west alignment. The tracks would have extended eastward by 3,000 feet (910 m) to the Brooklyn Bridge-City Hall station on the New York City Subway's IRT Lexington Avenue Line. The benefits of this connection, called PATH-Lex by its supporters, would have consisted of a one-seat ride from Newark and Jersey City through Lower Manhattan, the East Side of Manhattan, and the Bronx. While the Metropolitan Transportation Authority was interested in the plan, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey dismissed the idea altogether, due to the complexity of connecting the two separate systems.
52,632,631	Project SAINT	1,110,588,715	US anti-Soviet spacecraft system	[ "Military projects of the United States", "Military satellites", "Projects of the United States Air Force" ]	Project SAINT (an acronym formed from "SAtellite INTerceptor") was a project undertaken by the United States during the Cold War to develop a means of intercepting, inspecting and destroying Soviet spacecraft. Many details relating to the project are still classified. The order to launch the SAINT could only be given by the NORAD commander-in-chief, and presumably, anyone higher ranked than them. Calls for an anti-satellite weapon started days after the launch of Sputnik in 1957, but president Eisenhower was concerned about the militarization of space and limited such work to studies only. These early studies suggested using the existing MIDAS and SAMOS airframes armed with a nuclear weapon. Over time these plans changed to a dedicated interceptor, SAINT, which used a hit-to-kill profile. He faced continued pressure to develop a system, which reached a peak in early 1960 due to repeated US Air Force claims that the Soviets were developing space-based nuclear weapons. President Kennedy inherited SAINT, and in keeping with his policy of achieving a technical lead over the Soviets, allowed hardware development to begin. By late 1962 the program was already significantly over budget and still far from a testable system. By this time it was clear the Soviets were not developing the claimed space-based warheads and the need for such an expensive system to counter non-weapon spacecraft could not be justified. As a result of advances in countermeasures on Soviet satellites, alongside the development of cheaper anti-satellite methods, the concept was rendered unsuitable. ## History The project was created after the Central Intelligence Agency's 1957 National Intelligence Estimate 11-5-57, named "Soviet Capabilities and Probable Programs in the Guided Missile Field", estimated that the Soviet Union would be capable of having a reconnaissance satellite in space by 1963. The United States Air Force issued General Operational Requirement-170 on 19 June 1958 ordering the development of a system that was capable of destroying a satellite. Then the United States Air Force and Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) commissioned studies by the Space Technology Laboratories and the Radio Corporation of America. The plan for development of the system formulated by the Air Force was shown to the National Security Council on 5 February 1960. On 17 March 1961, the Radio Corporation of America received a grant to develop Project SAINT. ### Project phases The project was broken into three phases. Phase one was to create a satellite that could meet and inspect another satellite of 1 square meter (11 sq ft) radar cross-section that was in orbit at up to 740 kilometers (460 mi) high. Phase two was to create a satellite capable of making multiple inspections, with a vertical range up to 7,400 kilometers (4,600 mi) high. Phase three was to create a satellite that could destroy other satellites, based on the platform of the satellite of phase two. The SAINTs were expected to weigh 4,400 pounds (2,000 kg), and be 14 feet (4.3 m) long. ### Developments The project included the building of a SAINT operation center within the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) complex in Colorado Springs, and the construction of launch facilities that could respond within 12 hours at Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg, along with stations in Florida and Rhodesia. The study undertaken by the Space Technology Laboratory suggested the use of a Thor-Hydra booster, however the more capable and more readily available Atlas-Agena B booster was selected instead. In phase two they switched to the use of the Atlas-Centaur booster, instead of an Atlas-Agena B booster. The third phase of the project included several elements such as a powerful main engine whose propellant was pressure fed, a computer and a unit to measure inertia in order to control maneuvers. In addition, a long and close range radar system was required to guide the satellite (the system was taken from the Westinghouse radar used in Bomarc surface-to-air missile), as were lights to illuminate the other satellite, and four cameras for observation. A radiation detector was to be installed to determine if a satellite was carrying either a nuclear weapon or something whose power source involved a radioactive substance. Other sensors included infrared and gravimetric sensors to ascertain the mass of the other satellite, while defensive counter measures would be installed to identify decoys, booby traps, anti-jamming devices, and enemy attack, along with nitrogen cold gas thrusters for orientation. The concept was for the satellite to be launched ahead of its target, so that the target would come close to it. After this the Agena would be used as fuel to put the SAINT in a co-orbit with its target, and then the SAINT would locate the target using its long range radar, and jettison its Agena once it had acquired the target. Then within the next 8 to 12 minutes the SAINT's radar and orientation systems would guide it to within 39 ft (12m) of the target. If a SAINT was launched from Cape Canaveral, it would be able to provide initial video of the target and data dumps to the NORAD station in Rhodesia. A full inspection of the target would take two hours, and be recorded, then sent to a ground station as soon as it came within the range of the station. It would then stay within 200 ft (60m) of the target for up to two days, taking pictures and measurements at different angles. After this it would be depleted of battery power and propellant. Several designs for the exact method of destroying the target were suggested. One of these was to have the satellite carry out a kamikaze attack on the target, while another was to coat it with black paint, blocking its ability to see or transmit, rendering it inoperable. Yet another was for it to use a laser to disable reconnaissance or optical sensors of the target. Another suggestion was for the satellite to carry a nuclear missile, of up to one megaton yield, and launch it at the satellite. However, in July 1959, Joseph V. Charyk directed that all technical efforts were to be focused on developing the inspection function, rather than the kill function, effectively ending its role as a satellite interceptor, and shifting the project to the development of a satellite inspector. ### Cancellation It was planned to launch four satellites in December 1962. However, before the launches could take place, then Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara cancelled the program, due to concerns that it would not be able to operate if a full-scale nuclear war broke out, and that only a small number of SAINTs could be launched at a time. The project had also gone over budget, spending over 100 million dollars, which was several times the funding that had been publicly reported. By the end of the 1960s, the concept of inspecting Soviet satellites was abandoned as the Soviets had begun installing destruction packages on their satellites, that would blow up both itself and the SAINT, by use of the APO-2 destruction system, which could either be set off by its operators in the USSR, or if it sensed that it was being scanned. The standard American military reconnaissance satellite was capable of scanning other satellites long range, along with ground-based detection of satellites. The project's only unique role, that of being able to destroy satellites, was then given to fighter planes, which were cheaper and could hit a satellite without being detected, and also to the LIM-49 Nike Zeus, a ballistic missile with possible anti-satellite use. Under Program 437, the Thor DSV-2 rocket, which was derived from the PGM-17 Thor Intermediate-range ballistic missile, was made. The DSV-2 would carry W49 or W50 nuclear warheads, which would ensure that the target satellite would either be destroyed by the nuclear blast, or the resulting electromagnetic pulse. A wing of the program was called "Alternate Payload" used DSV-2J rockets, which were also based on the PGM-17 Thor, to inspect satellites.
67,007,233	The Series Finale	1,171,933,694	null	[ "2021 American television episodes", "American television series finales", "Marvel Cinematic Universe crossover episodes", "Television episodes about witchcraft", "Television episodes set in the 2020s", "Television episodes written by Jac Schaeffer", "WandaVision episodes" ]	"The Series Finale" is the ninth episode and series finale of the American television miniseries WandaVision, based on Marvel Comics featuring the characters Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch and Vision. It follows Wanda as she tries to protect the idyllic suburban life and family that she created in the town of Westview, New Jersey. The episode is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. It was written by head writer Jac Schaeffer and directed by Matt Shakman. Elizabeth Olsen and Paul Bettany reprise their respective roles as Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch and Vision from the film series, with Debra Jo Rupp, Teyonah Parris, Evan Peters, Randall Park, Kat Dennings, and Kathryn Hahn also starring. Development began by October 2018, and Schaeffer was hired to serve as head writer for the series in January 2019. Shakman joined that August. The series finale was designed as an MCU film-style conclusion with a large amount of fighting and visual effects, and it introduces a new Scarlet Witch costume. Filming took place in the Atlanta metropolitan area in Atlanta, Georgia, including at Pinewood Atlanta Studios, and in Los Angeles. The episode ends with mid- and post-credits scenes that respectively set up the MCU films The Marvels (2023) and Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022). "The Series Finale" was released on the streaming service Disney+ on March 5, 2021. Critics praised the performances, visual effects, and payoff for the series' emotional arc, but had mixed reactions to the action-oriented climax and Peters' character reveal. It received several accolades, including three Primetime Emmy Award nominations. ## Plot Agatha Harkness attempts to take Wanda Maximoff's chaos magic but is interrupted by the white, re-assembled, and re-animated Vision who attacks Maximoff, revealing S.W.O.R.D. director Tyler Hayward's orders to eliminate her. He is foiled by the version of Vision created by Maximoff who fights with White Vision across Westview while Harkness continues to attack Maximoff. Harkness frees the residents of Westview from Maximoff's spell that trapped them in sitcom personas, and they implore Maximoff to set them free. Maximoff opens the barrier, allowing the residents to escape, but her Vision and their sons Billy and Tommy begin to disintegrate. She closes the barrier again, but not before Hayward enters with multiple S.W.O.R.D. personnel. Monica Rambeau removes a magical necklace from "Pietro Maximoff", releasing him from Harkness's control and revealing his true identity as Ralph Bohner. Maximoff attempts to overpower Harkness with illusions of her past, but Harkness gains control and overpowers Maximoff. Using newly developed powers, Rambeau saves Billy and Tommy from Hayward, who is detained by Darcy Lewis. Maximoff's Vision helps unlock the White Vision's memories, and the latter departs Westview. Harkness takes Maximoff's magic but does not realize that Maximoff has created magical runes around the barrier to prevent Harkness from using her own magic. Maximoff then reclaims all of her magic and becomes the Scarlet Witch. She traps Harkness as the sitcom persona "Agnes", and then takes her family home as she collapses the barrier. Maximoff and Vision put their sons to bed and then say goodbye, before Vision, the boys, and their house all disappear. Faced with the Westview residents that she has harmed, Maximoff makes peace with Rambeau and goes into hiding. In a mid-credits scene, Hayward is arrested while Rambeau is informed by a Skrull disguised as an FBI agent that a friend of her mother Maria wants to meet with her in space. In a post-credits scene, while studying the Darkhold in her astral form at a remote cabin, Maximoff hears her sons calling for her help. ## Production ### Development By October 2018, Marvel Studios was developing a limited series starring Elizabeth Olsen's Wanda Maximoff and Paul Bettany's Vision from the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films. In January 2019, Jac Schaeffer was hired as head writer of WandaVision. In August, Matt Shakman was hired to direct the miniseries, with Schaeffer and Shakman executive producing alongside Marvel Studios' Kevin Feige, Louis D'Esposito, and Victoria Alonso. Feige described the series as part "Marvel epic", part "classic sitcom", that paid tribute to many eras of American sitcoms. Bettany described the ending as an epic collision. Schaeffer wrote the ninth episode, which is titled "The Series Finale". ### Writing Schaeffer's outline for the series combined sitcom elements with an MCU story, building up to a big finale that had the spectacle of an MCU film. Much of the final episode's elements were known from the beginning of writing the series, with some coming from Schaeffer's initial pitch. These included the involvement of the series' supporting characters, the fights between the two Visions and between Maximoff and Agatha Harkness, and the final goodbye between Maximoff and Vision after putting Billy and Tommy to bed and before Vision disappears. The rest of the episode was then fleshed out during development, with the COVID-19 pandemic forcing some further changes during filming. Schaeffer was glad that the goodbye scene between Maximoff and Vision remained in the final version of the episode, calling it the "heart of the show". The scene originally required Maximoff to release Vision by casting a binding spell that she learned from Harkness earlier, before Harkness was changed from a mentor to an antagonist. COVID-19 delays allowed Schaeffer to fine-tune the episode's logic, including adjustments to the action sequences. Co-executive producer Mary Livanos pitched the idea of using the Darkhold to increase the level of danger Harkness poses to Maximoff. Harkness reads about the Scarlet Witch from the Darkhold and says Maximoff is destined to destroy the world. This prophecy originally had a larger role, with Maximoff having to overcome that destiny, but Schaeffer found this to be too restrictive for future MCU stories and decided to end the series with Maximoff not yet learning everything about her destiny and abilities. The sequence where Maximoff is confronted by the residents of Westview was originally envisioned as a "zombie attack" before being changed to a verbal attack from the residents. Shakman believed Harkness's line in this moment where she says "heroes don't torture people" was a "huge moment" for the episode that gave Maximoff something to contemplate. Bettany portrays both Vision, created by Maximoff, and The Vision, the white body of the original character. These were differentiated in the script as "Soul Vision" and "White Vision", respectively. Bettany was apprehensive of playing The Vision due to the character's short arc and "big turn" within the episode; he differentiated the two versions by making The Vision familiar and intimidating. Schaeffer knew the fight between the two Visions would end in a logic battle, with series writer Megan McDonnell conceiving a conversation about the Ship of Theseus. The writers did not learn that there is a similar conversation about the Ship of Theseus between two versions of the Vision in the Avengers comics until after the episode was released. Shakman said the idea of identity was central to the episode's fights, with the two Visions discussing who the real Vision is while Harkness tries to tell Maximoff who she is. The latter fight ends with Maximoff deciding for herself to embrace the Scarlet Witch identity. Shakman said Monica Rambeau's role in the episode was constantly changing, with some versions giving her a larger role in the final fight than is seen in the episode. Discussing Harkness being forced back to her "Agnes" persona at the end of the episode, actress Kathryn Hahn initially felt that this was not a punishment, believing that Harkness had been restless and lonely for a long time and this would allow her to relax and continue forming the companionships she made with some of the Westview residents. However, Hahn later stated that this was not how she felt and she was partially joking with the earlier comment, instead believing that Maximoff had essentially lobotomized Harkness. She added that, for Harkness, "to clip her wings and put her somewhere like that with boring people and not have anything to do. It's the worst, it's a nightmare." Maximoff's "walk of shame" through the town at the end of the episode was conceived to be "like an assault of death glares from people", with Feige requesting more from that moment so the audience could "understand that what she did was terrible". Schaeffer said Maximoff would most likely face consequences for her actions in the future, and did not want to end the series in a way where Maximoff's actions could be easily forgiven. Livanos enjoyed the "texture" the ending provided of the world possibly still labeling Maximoff as a terrorist. Schaeffer believed the series ended in a way for Maximoff to "say goodbye on her own terms" in order for her to "process everything she's been through and reach acceptance". Regarding the notion that Maximoff may have gotten off "too easy" by simply flying away from Westview, Olsen felt Maximoff had a "tremendous amount of guilt" and needed to leave before those who would hold her accountable arrived. Additional material filmed for this moment that did not appear in the episode would have helped clarify these points. Dr. Stephen Strange was originally set to appear in the episode, with Benedict Cumberbatch reprising the role, in what would have been a hand-off to Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022), but this did not happen because the creatives believed he would have taken focus away from Maximoff and did not want the episode to be "commoditized to go to the next movie" or to have a white male showing Maximoff how to harness her powers. Schaeffer added that the scenes featuring the character never felt right to the writers and seemed "a little tacked on", while also presenting the question of where he had been for the rest of the series. Despite this, Olsen said the episode was a "complete tee-up" for Maximoff's appearance in Multiverse of Madness. Schaeffer said the episode's end credits scenes were the biggest connective tissue between the series and future Marvel projects, and were being re-written until late in the process to make sure they covered what was needed for the hand-offs. This was done in discussion with the creative teams of Multiverse of Madness and The Marvels (2023). The post-credit scene shows Maximoff studying the Darkhold as the Scarlet Witch in her astral form, indicating a passage of time and showing that she has reached self-acceptance. Schaeffer enjoyed the duality of the scene, with Maximoff "ruminating and reflecting" while her astral form functions at an unknown level. Whether Maximoff should hear her children in the scene or not was a topic of discussion. Andi Ortiz of TheWrap said this scene made it unlikely that Maximoff would become a villain in Multiverse of Madness since she was trying to control her powers, but Chancellor Agard of Entertainment Weekly felt the opposite, believing Maximoff was turning to the "bad side" to search for her children in the multiverse which would put her at odds with Strange. ### Casting The episode stars Elizabeth Olsen as Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch, Paul Bettany as Vision and The Vision, Debra Jo Rupp as Sharon Davis, Teyonah Parris as Monica Rambeau, Evan Peters as Ralph Bohner / "Pietro Maximoff", Randall Park as Jimmy Woo, Kat Dennings as Darcy Lewis, and Kathryn Hahn as Agatha Harkness / "Agnes". Also starring in the episode are Julian Hilliard as Billy and Jett Klyne as Tommy, Maximoff and Vision's sons; Josh Stamberg as S.W.O.R.D. Director Tyler Hayward; Asif Ali as Abilash Tandon; Emma Caulfield Ford as Sarah Proctor; Jolene Purdy as Isabel Matsueda; David Payton as John Collins; David Lengel as Harold Proctor; Amos Glick as the delivery man; Selena Anduze as S.W.O.R.D. Agent Rodriguez; Kate Forbes as Evanora Harkness; and Lori Livingston as the Skrull agent. ### Design The writers did not discuss the Darkhold's appearance in Marvel Television series such as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., where it had a different design, with WandaVision's creative team looking more towards how the book had appeared in Marvel Comics. Despite the new design, Shakman believed it was the same book that was seen in the Marvel Television series. Thomas Bacon from Screen Rant felt its appearance was a step towards dismissing the creative choices from the Marvel Television series. The Darkhold was designed by the Multiverse of Madness props team, since it reappears and has more screen time in that film, for the series to use ahead of reusing it for the film. Maximoff spends most of the episode in her "sad sweats" costume from the previous two episodes. Shakman considered having her change into her Avengers superhero costume for the fight with Harkness, as she did for a scene in the episode "On a Very Special Episode...", but found it more satisfying in the finale to have the character be a "suburban mom fighting this witch". The end of the fight introduces a new costume for Maximoff when she takes on the mantle of the Scarlet Witch. This was designed by Andy Park of Marvel Studio's visual development team, and Rubeo worked with Ironhead Studios to create it. Shoemaking company Jitterbug Boy created the boots for the costume. The producers wanted the new costume to be more mature and less revealing than Maximoff's Avengers outfit, as Olsen had previously expressed concern over that "cleavage corset" costume. Olsen consulted on the new design, and adjustments were made to allow her to move and act how she needed to. Rubeo worked with the stunt coordinator to understand the technical requirements for the harnesses that Olsen needed to wear while doing wire work in the costume. There were two to four "hero" versions of the costume and then another two to three for Olsen to wear with harnesses, with two versions for Olsen's stunt double. The stunt versions had parts removed to allow for the harnesses. Rubeo wanted Harkness's witch costume to be a dress made from 10 layers of fabric that were each a different color and texture, which she was able to show due to the wire work that Hahn does in the episode. Rubeo said this created a "Medusa"-like movement in the dress. Hahn had to wear a cooling suit underneath the costume to avoid overheating while wearing it outside during the 2020 California wildfires. Hahn also wears a brooch that she had in earlier episodes to hint at her character's true identity as Harkness. ### Filming and editing Soundstage filming occurred at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, with Shakman directing, and Jess Hall serving as cinematographer. Filming also took place in the Atlanta metropolitan area, with backlot and outdoor filming occurring in Los Angeles when the series resumed production after being on hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Dennings' role in the episode was reduced as she was unable to return for filming in Los Angeles. The mid-credit scene was filmed on the final day. Shakman originally filmed a sequence in which Rambeau, Bohner, and Lewis meet up with Billy and Tommy in Harkness's house and try to steal the Darkhold from the basement. Harkness's pet rabbit Señor Scratchy would have gone through an "American Werewolf in London transformation" into a demon for the scene, leading to a Goonies (1985)-style chase. Shakman felt this was a great, fun sequence, but he cut it from the episode because it was a big detour from the plot. Some visual effects work was completed before the scene was cut. Editor Zene Baker described editing the episode as an "all hands on deck" situation, with the series' other editors, Tim Roche and Nona Khodai, helping Baker work through all of the footage for the episode. Editing for the episode was completed two weeks before it was released; Baker had hoped to complete the episode earlier than this. ### Visual effects Tara DeMarco served as the visual effects supervisor for WandaVision, with the episode's visual effects created by Digital Domain, RISE, Industrial Light & Magic, Luma, Mr. X, capital T, Lola VFX, Weta Digital, Cantina Creative, and The Yard VFX. Digital Domain created the Hex boundary, using the magnetized CRT television screen design that was established in earlier episodes, including when Maximoff opens it which uses erratic-looking tears in the wall with a glitch effect. This causes Vision, Billy, and Tommy to start coming apart, which was inspired by imagery from the "House of M" comic book storyline by Brian Michael Bendis and Olivier Coipel. DeMarco used Vision's introduction in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) as the definitive version of the character when approaching the visual effects for him in WandaVision. Bettany wore a bald cap and face makeup on set to match Vision's color, as well as tracking markers for the visual effects teams to reference. Complex 3D and digital makeup techniques were then used to create the character, with sections of Bettany's face replaced with CGI on a shot-by-shot basis; the actor's eyes, nose, and mouth were usually the only elements retained. Digital Domain handled the Vision and White Vision fight sequences, including their fight over Westview and their confrontation in the library. They created fully digital versions of both the Vision and White Vision, with the model for Vision being based on the one used in Avengers: Infinity War (2018); the company did have existing models of Vision, but they were from Age of Ultron and were not up to the resolution required for the series. The model for White Vision had to be completely different due to the different design for the face panels and costume on White Vision from Marvel's design team; the character has more angular lines than Vision does. The digital model for Vision was then shared with other visual effects vendors for use in earlier episodes, while Digital Domain handled the reveal of White Vision at the end of the previous episode. Digital Domain artists were on set for the filming of the final episode to supervise scenes featuring the two characters, which were each filmed twice so Bettany could portray both versions. Bettany's stunt double Adam Lytle performed the scenes with him, having to learn all the lines for both characters. The visual effects team attempted to retain Bettany's performance as much as possible, in some cases completely replicating his performances on the faces of the digital models. Depicting White Vision in bright sunlight was a challenge, with the effects team having to be strategic with how white they made the character in certain shots. In some instances, they added a "thin film interference layer" that created a slight rainbow effect in front of the character and helped create some variation in the color of his costume. To complete the sequences, Digital Domain replaced the heads of stunt doubles in some instances, and added effects for phasing and Mind Stone beams as well as digital capes using cloth simulations. For the phasing effects, the vendor used a new "muscle transfer tool" that allowed them to automatically move muscle models between the two characters. Digital Domain also handled the fight between Harkness and Maximoff. The cape and hood on Olsen's costume got in the way of her wire work harness, and there were also some leather straps on the costume that she found uncomfortable to maneuver in, so these were removed on set and Digital Domain added them back in post-production using cloth simulation effects. They also used cloth simulations to replace parts of Hahn's dress where it got caught on wires. The vendor developed the look of Maximoff's chaos magic, and went through over 100 iterations of what it might look like before settling on a darker, richer red than Maximoff's previous magic. They added more depth to her magic by creating a "planet element" with additional geometry inside the magic. Digital Domain originally were creating Harkness's magic to just be a purple version of Maximoff's, but ended up adjusting it to have a black, ink-like texture to match the design that was developed by Framestore for the previous episode. For the initial confrontation with Harkness at the start of the episode, Digital Domain replaced bluescreen background elements with a 2.5D matte painting that extended the cul de sac. For the main aerial fights in the episode, they created a digital environment based on plates that we shot at the Disney Ranch and Blondie Street as well as the town of Eatonton, Georgia, outside of Atlanta which inspired some of Westview's "small-town feel". Maximoff and Harkness's fight was originally intended to take place entirely in the clouds, but this was changed during production to include fighting around the town as Shakman wanted to connect the fight to the events in Westview. There were limited plates available of the town square from the Disney Ranch, so Digital Domain spent almost six weeks building a digital environment of the town square and some of the surrounding areas so the witches could fly around in it. When Harkness and Maximoff were both in the air, the Digital Domain team treated the camera as if it was being held by a third flying witch and made sure it moved within the 3D environment in the same way that the two characters did to create natural movements for the sequence. Full digital doubles of Maximoff and Harkness were used for some shots in the episode. The coven scene where Maximoff is attacked by mummified witches was handled by Mr. X, who spent eight months developing the design and approach for the sequence and then another two months completing it as well as the opening Salem scene from the previous episode. Mr. X was asked to make the sequence "dark and scary but not too dark for [the] family friendly audience". The vendor hired more than 100 visual effects artists to complete the sequence in this episode within the short timeframe that they had to do it. Luma created the Darkhold for the episode, which supervisor Andrew Zink described as the introduction of the book to the MCU and something that the vendor wanted to do justice to. They created the book to appear as if it is made of metal and magical spark effects, and focused on the illustration of the Scarlet Witch that appears on one of its pages. They were then given the freedom to create designs for other pages seen in the episode, using the same design language as the Scarlet Witch image. For the scenes where Maximoff says goodbye to her family, MARZ provided some of the effects for Vision. They completed that work after the 2020 Christmas break. The effect of Vision disappearing was created by ILM, and DeMarco listed it as one of the most challenging visual effects of the series. She explained that it needed to be "beautiful and lyrical and emotional, and also really cool-looking and technical", and the visual effects team took a lot of care to make sure the scene would still have an emotional impact. Three different shots were filmed for the moment, with a tracking shot moving toward the house as the boundary of the Hex closes in, as well as two different shots of the camera rotating around Maximoff and Vision inside the house. ILM merged the three shots to create a seamless transition, and then replaced Bettany with a digital version of Vision with the actor's performance replicated onto the 3D face. The digital model is broken up to reveal glowing wires and particles that swirl and dissipate, with some of these created in 2.5D so that they existed within the 3D environment but moved in relation to the plane of the camera. For the house environment, ILM used 2D techniques to wipe between different models of the house that represented the different sitcom decades seen in the series. At the end of the sequence, they broke up the house environment into particles and added "wispy creation magic". DeMarco said one of the most difficult parts of creating this effect was making it feel like it had been filmed on set and keeping the overall effect simple. The post-credits scene's visual effects were updated by the end of June 2021 to include more trees around the cabin's location. Ethan Anderton of /Film said the change was subtle and strange, expressing concern that Marvel had the ability to go back to content they had released to make adjustments. He said this was "probably good for fixing little mistakes... but it also means they can make changes to their shows at any time without letting anyone know". Anderton speculated that if the cabin location was appearing in Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness, the change could have been made to make the location match how it would appear in the film. ### Music Composer Christophe Beck referenced Michael Giacchino's main theme from Doctor Strange (2016) for the post-credits scene where Maximoff studies the Darkhold in her astral form. This had been requested by Shakman and Marvel Studios, but Beck also independently wanted to include the reference. It is heard on the track "Reborn", which was digitally released, along with the rest of Beck's score, as part of the episode's soundtrack album by Marvel Music and Hollywood Records on March 12, 2021. ## Marketing In December 2020, a poster for the series was released featuring Maximoff and Vision standing behind several different televisions, with each screen displaying a different image from the series or showing the section of the actors' bodies behind the screen in a different costume from the series. Cooper Hood of Screen Rant noted that one of the screens in front of Maximoff's upper body depicted part of a costume that had not been seen in the MCU before, and wondered if the series was introducing a new Scarlet Witch costume. Several individual character posters were released for the series a month later, with the same format of televisions being in front of each character. On the poster for Maximoff, a screen in front of her torso revealed a different part of the new costume. Other commentators, including Nerdist and Molly Edwards of GamesRadar+, were surprised to discover the early costume reveal in these posters after seeing the new Scarlet Witch costume in full when watching the episode. Discussing the posters, Edwards stated that "the writing for Wanda's big transformation really was on the wall from the start." Also after the episode's release, Marvel partnered with chef Justin Warner to release a recipe for Westview Finale Snack Mix that was meant to represent many elements of the series mixing together for the final episode. Additionally, Marvel announced merchandise inspired by the episode as part of its weekly "Marvel Must Haves" promotion for each episode of the series, including apparel, toys, accessories, make-up, and jewelry. ## Release "The Series Finale" was released on the streaming service Disney+ on March 5, 2021. Upon the episode's release at midnight PST, Disney+ experienced technical difficulties, mostly on the west coast of the United States, given the influx of viewers attempting to watch the episode right when it was released. The issues only affected approximately 2,300 users. The episode, along with the rest of WandaVision, will be released on Ultra HD Blu-ray and Blu-ray on November 28, 2023. ## Reception ### Audience viewership Nielsen Media Research, which measures the number of minutes watched by United States audiences on television sets, listed WandaVision as the second most-watched original streaming series for the week of March 1 to 7, 2021. 924 million minutes were viewed across all episodes, the highest recorded for the series while it was being released. ### Critical response The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 88% approval rating with an average score of 7.70/10 based on 33 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, The Series Finale' implodes WandaVision's intimacy in favor of bigger MCU bangs, and while it might not be the finale some fans were hoping for, it offers enough breadcrumbs to keep everyone guessing about the future of the multiverse." Vulture's Abraham Riesman felt the general outline of the episode could be mostly predicted from the start of the series, but "even though they stayed within standard thematic lines and introduced a bunch of dumb punching and blasting, and although the first seven episodes were varying degrees of 'meh'... they mostly stuck the landing". Riesman felt the WandaVision was about "what it's like to be in love at the end of the world", and gave the episode 4 out of 5 stars. Writing for Den of Geek, Rosie Knight stated, "for the most part, Matt Shakman and Jac Schaeffer do a solid job of tying up the many loose ends. While the pacing might be a little frantic at times, by the time the credits roll–and the delightful post-credits scenes surprises–you'll likely feel very satisfied by this experimental and emotional conclusion for a show that has been both of those things during its best moments." Knight added the scene between Vision and White Vision having a philosophical debate was one of the best of the MCU. Giving the finale a 7 out of 10, Matt Purslow at IGN described it as "simultaneously unexpected and exactly what many foresaw... Despite a little unevenness, WandaVision's spell holds until the final moments, making for an enjoyable last outing with a wonderfully unusual couple." Purslow felt the reveal that "Pietro" was just a person named Ralph Bohner, after the stunt casting of Peters and prolonged mystery, was "something of an unfair trick from Marvel... as if fan investment in the multiple worlds of Marvel has been leveraged to create excitement for no payoff at all"; he likened it to the Mandarin twist in Iron Man 3 (2013) "but without the actual fun". He also felt Rambeau, Lewis, and Woo were all underutilized in the episode, with Lewis and Woo's storylines not given proper conclusions, but enjoyed the full display of Maximoff becoming the Scarlet Witch. Writing for The A.V. Club, Stephen Robinson gave "The Series Finale" a "B" and called it "a moving final episode that lands with only a few missteps". He enjoyed the final battle between Maximoff and Harkness, particularly the "badass scene" when Maximoff gains the upper hand, but had hoped for more complex motivations from Harkness than "simply craving power for power's sake". He also felt Hahn's less grounded portrayal made the character take a "sharp turn into grandiose Disney villain", but was excited by the prospect of seeing Hahn return as "an unpredictable Loki-style foil" for Maximoff. Unlike Purslow, Robinson did not mind the reveal that Peters' role was less substantial than some predicted, and found it refreshing that no "eleventh hour, last-minute Big Bad" appeared in the series. Conversely, he felt the weakest part of the episode was its action, which he described as "superfluous", and also felt cheated that "Dottie" is revealed to just be a woman named Sarah after her identity had been intentionally withheld earlier in the series when other Westview residents had been identified. Alan Sepinwall, reviewing the finale for Rolling Stone, said "WandaVision concludes very much in MCU territory, a bit for good and more for ill". He continued by saying the episode "looks good, and it has some nice emotional moments. But where so much of the series leading to this point felt like a passion project for all involved, too much of the conclusion felt obligatory, as if the mandate was to return to formula and ensure that Wanda and Monica Rambeau are ready for their upcoming appearances in, respectively, the next Doctor Strange and Captain Marvel movies." He felt the supporting characters such as Rambeau, Woo, and Lewis were largely unnecessary, only a part of the series to "make the story feel linked to the MCU", but also felt that his issues with the episode might not be as strong if he had watched all the episodes at once rather than weekly. Chancellor Agard had mixed feelings on the episode in his review for Entertainment Weekly. Agard said Shakman and Schaeffer ensured there were moments to remind the audience that the series is about grief, such as when Harkness releases the Westview residents from Maximoff's control and when Maximoff and Vision say goodbye, and he also enjoyed the fact that Peters' casting turned out to be "a really fun piece of stunt casting". However, he felt the episode, which he gave a "B−", lost its emotional stakes in the fighting and spectacle, suffering from the superhero film cliché of having problems in their final act. For example, Agard noted that Maximoff and Vision fight evil reflections of themselves and also much of Hahn's dialogue is just exposition between energy blasts. Agard's colleague Christian Holub enjoyed the fight between Vision and White Vision more than Agard due to the "self vs. shadow self" trope, but agreed in regard to Harkness. Holub did enjoy Harkness being trapped as "Agnes", likening this to the finale of the animated series Avatar: The Last Airbender. ### Accolades Hahn was named TVLine's "Performer of the Week" for the week of March 1, 2021, for her performance in this episode. The site noted that Hahn had been receiving praise for her performance throughout the series and this was "well overdue" acclaim after being the "secret weapon" in past comedy series. In this episode, TVLine felt Hahn "relished every moment" of being a villain, with a performance that "oozed with wicked delight" and a "top-notch" witch cackle. They felt Hahn's best work of the series was when Harkness is trapped as Agnes, which "didn't have Agnes's previous cheerfulness, nor did they carry the gravitas of Agatha at the height of her powers".
74,331	Andromeda Galaxy	1,173,320,148	Barred spiral galaxy in the Local Group	[ "Andromeda (constellation)", "Andromeda Galaxy", "Andromeda Subgroup", "Articles containing video clips", "Astronomical objects known since antiquity", "Barred spiral galaxies", "IRAS catalogue objects", "Local Group", "MCG objects", "Messier objects", "NGC objects", "Principal Galaxies Catalogue objects", "UGC objects" ]	The Andromeda Galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy and is the nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way, where the Solar System resides. It was originally named the Andromeda Nebula and is cataloged as Messier 31, M31, and NGC 224. Andromeda has a diameter of about 46.56 kiloparsecs (152,000 light-years) and is approximately 765 kpc (2.5 million light-years) from Earth. The galaxy's name stems from the area of Earth's sky in which it appears, the constellation of Andromeda, which itself is named after the princess who was the wife of Perseus in Greek mythology. The virial mass of the Andromeda Galaxy is of the same order of magnitude as that of the Milky Way, at 1 trillion solar masses (2.0×10<sup>42</sup> kilograms). The mass of either galaxy is difficult to estimate with any accuracy, but it was long thought that the Andromeda Galaxy was more massive than the Milky Way by a margin of some 25% to 50%. This has been called into question by early 21st-century studies indicating a possibly lower mass for the Andromeda Galaxy and a higher mass for the Milky Way. The Andromeda Galaxy has a diameter of about 46.56 kpc (152,000 ly), making it the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies in terms of extension. The Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are expected to collide in around 4–5 billion years, merging to potentially form a giant elliptical galaxy or a large lenticular galaxy. With an apparent magnitude of 3.4, the Andromeda Galaxy is among the brightest of the Messier objects, and is visible to the naked eye from Earth on moonless nights, even when viewed from areas with moderate light pollution. ## Observation history The Andromeda Galaxy has been visible to the naked eye, given dark skies, throughout history; as such, it cannot be said to have been "discovered" by any one individual. Around the year 964, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was the first to formally describe the Andromeda Galaxy. He referred to it in his Book of Fixed Stars as a "nebulous smear" or "small cloud". Star charts of that period labeled it as the Little Cloud. In 1612, the German astronomer Simon Marius gave an early description of the Andromeda Galaxy based on telescopic observations. Pierre Louis Maupertuis conjectured in 1745 that the blurry spot was an island universe. In 1764, Charles Messier cataloged Andromeda as object M31 and incorrectly credited Marius as the discoverer despite its being visible to the naked eye. In 1785, the astronomer William Herschel noted a faint reddish hue in the core region of Andromeda. He believed Andromeda to be the nearest of all the "great nebulae", and based on the color and magnitude of the nebula, he incorrectly guessed that it was no more than 2,000 times the distance of Sirius, or roughly 18,000 ly (5.5 kpc). In 1850, William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse made the first drawing of Andromeda's spiral structure. In 1864 William Huggins noted that the spectrum of Andromeda differed from that of a gaseous nebula. The spectrum of Andromeda displays a continuum of frequencies, superimposed with dark absorption lines that help identify the chemical composition of an object. Andromeda's spectrum is very similar to the spectra of individual stars, and from this, it was deduced that Andromeda has a stellar nature. In 1885, a supernova (known as S Andromedae) was seen in Andromeda, the first and so far only one observed in that galaxy. At the time it was called "Nova 1885"—the difference between "novae" in the modern sense and supernovae was not yet known. Andromeda was considered to be a nearby object, and it was not realized that the "nova" was much brighter than ordinary novae. In 1888, Isaac Roberts took one of the first photographs of Andromeda, which was still commonly thought to be a nebula within our galaxy. Roberts mistook Andromeda and similar "spiral nebulae" as star systems being formed. In 1912, Vesto Slipher used spectroscopy to measure the radial velocity of Andromeda with respect to the Solar System—the largest velocity yet measured, at 300 km/s (190 mi/s). ### "Island universes" hypothesis As early as 1755 the German philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed the hypothesis that the Milky Way is only one of many galaxies, in his book Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens. Arguing that a structure like the Milky Way would look like a circular nebula viewed from above and like an elliptical if viewed from an angle, he concluded that the observed elliptical nebulae like Andromeda, which could not be explained otherwise at the time, were indeed galaxies similar to the Milky Way. In 1917, Heber Curtis observed a nova within Andromeda. Searching the photographic record, 11 more novae were discovered. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred elsewhere in the sky. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 500,000 ly (3.2×10<sup>10</sup> AU). Although this estimate is about fivefold lower than the best estimates now available, it was the first known estimate of the distance to Andromeda that was correct to the order of magnitude (i.e which was correct to within a factor of ten of current high-accuracy estimates, which place the distance around 2.5 million light-years). Curtis became a proponent of the so-called "island universes" hypothesis: that spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies. In 1920, the Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Curtis took place concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe. To support his claim of the Great Andromeda Nebula being, in fact, an external galaxy, Curtis also noted the appearance of dark lanes within Andromeda which resembled the dust clouds in our own galaxy, as well as historical observations of Andromeda Galaxy's significant Doppler shift. In 1922 Ernst Öpik presented a method to estimate the distance of Andromeda using the measured velocities of its stars. His result placed the Andromeda Nebula far outside our galaxy at a distance of about 450 kpc (1,500 kly). Edwin Hubble settled the debate in 1925 when he identified extragalactic Cepheid variable stars for the first time on astronomical photos of Andromeda. These were made using the 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope, and they enabled the distance of the Great Andromeda Nebula to be determined. His measurement demonstrated conclusively that this feature was not a cluster of stars and gas within our own galaxy, but an entirely separate galaxy located a significant distance from the Milky Way. In 1943, Walter Baade was the first person to resolve stars in the central region of the Andromeda Galaxy. Baade identified two distinct populations of stars based on their metallicity, naming the young, high-velocity stars in the disk Type I and the older, red stars in the bulge Type II. This nomenclature was subsequently adopted for stars within the Milky Way, and elsewhere. (The existence of two distinct populations had been noted earlier by Jan Oort.) Baade also discovered that there were two types of Cepheid variable stars, which resulted in a doubling of the distance estimate to Andromeda, as well as the remainder of the universe. In 1950, radio emission from the Andromeda Galaxy was detected by Hanbury Brown and Cyril Hazard at Jodrell Bank Observatory. The first radio maps of the galaxy were made in the 1950s by John Baldwin and collaborators at the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group. The core of the Andromeda Galaxy is called 2C 56 in the 2C radio astronomy catalog. In 2009, a technique called microlensing—a phenomenon caused by the deflection of light by a massive object—may have led to the first discovery of a planet in the Andromeda Galaxy. Observations of linearly polarized radio emission with the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope, the Effelsberg 100-m Radio Telescope, and the Very Large Array revealed ordered magnetic fields aligned along the "10-kpc ring" of gas and star formation. The total magnetic field has a strength of about 0.5 nT, of which 0.3 nT are ordered. ## General The estimated distance of the Andromeda Galaxy from our own was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another, dimmer type of Cepheid variable star. In the 1990s, measurements of both standard red giants as well as red clump stars from the Hipparcos satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances. ### Formation and history A major merger occurred 2 to 3 billion years ago at the Andromeda location, involving two galaxies with a mass ratio of approximately 4. Discovery of a recent merger in the Andromeda galaxy was firstly based on interpreting its anomalous age-velocity dispersion relation, as well as the fact that 2 billion years ago, star formation throughout Andromeda's disk was much more active than today. Modeling of this violent collision shows that it has formed most of the galaxy's (metal-rich) galactic halo, including the Giant Stream, and also the extended thick disk, the young age thin disk, including the static 10 kpc ring. During this epoch, its rate of star formation would have been very high, to the point of becoming a luminous infrared galaxy for roughly 100 million years. Modeling also recovers the bulge profile, the large bar, and the overall halo density profile. Andromeda and the Triangulum Galaxy (M33) might have a very close passage 2–4 billion years ago, but it seems unlikely from the last measurements from the Hubble Space Telescope. ### Distance estimate At least four distinct techniques have been used to estimate distances from Earth to the Andromeda Galaxy. In 2003, using the infrared surface brightness fluctuations (I-SBF) and adjusting for the new period-luminosity value and a metallicity correction of −0.2 mag dex<sup>−1</sup> in (O/H), an estimate of 2.57 ± 0.06 million light-years (1.625×10<sup>11</sup> ± 3.8×10<sup>9</sup> astronomical units) was derived. A 2004 Cepheid variable method estimated the distance to be 2.51 ± 0.13 million light-years (770 ± 40 kpc). In 2005, an eclipsing binary star was discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy. The binary is two hot blue stars of types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars, astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars, they were able to measure their absolute magnitude. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance to the star can be calculated. The stars lie at a distance of 2.52×10^<sup>6</sup> ± 0.14×10^<sup>6</sup> ly (1.594×10<sup>11</sup> ± 8.9×10<sup>9</sup> AU) and the whole Andromeda Galaxy at about 2.5×10^<sup>6</sup> ly (1.6×10<sup>11</sup> AU). This new value is in excellent agreement with the previous, independent Cepheid-based distance value. The TRGB method was also used in 2005 giving a distance of 2.56×10^<sup>6</sup> ± 0.08×10^<sup>6</sup> ly (1.619×10<sup>11</sup> ± 5.1×10<sup>9</sup> AU). Averaged together, these distance estimates give a value of 2.54×10^<sup>6</sup> ± 0.11×10^<sup>6</sup> ly (1.606×10<sup>11</sup> ± 7.0×10<sup>9</sup> AU). ### Mass estimates Until 2018, mass estimates for the Andromeda Galaxy's halo (including dark matter) gave a value of approximately , compared to for the Milky Way. This contradicted earlier measurements that seemed to indicate that the Andromeda Galaxy and Milky Way are almost equal in mass. In 2018, the equality of mass was re-established by radio results as approximately . In 2006, the Andromeda Galaxy's spheroid was determined to have a higher stellar density than that of the Milky Way, and its galactic stellar disk was estimated at about twice the diameter of that of the Milky Way. The total mass of the Andromeda Galaxy is estimated to be between and . The stellar mass of M31 is , with 30% of that mass in the central bulge, 56% in the disk, and the remaining 14% in the stellar halo. The radio results (similar mass to the Milky Way Galaxy) should be taken as likeliest as of 2018, although clearly, this matter is still under active investigation by several research groups worldwide. As of 2019, current calculations based on escape velocity and dynamical mass measurements put the Andromeda Galaxy at , which is only half of the Milky Way's newer mass, calculated in 2019 at . In addition to stars, the Andromeda Galaxy's interstellar medium contains at least in the form of neutral hydrogen, at least as molecular hydrogen (within its innermost 10 kiloparsecs), and of dust. The Andromeda Galaxy is surrounded by a massive halo of hot gas that is estimated to contain half the mass of the stars in the galaxy. The nearly invisible halo stretches about a million light-years from its host galaxy, halfway to our Milky Way Galaxy. Simulations of galaxies indicate the halo formed at the same time as the Andromeda Galaxy. The halo is enriched in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, formed from supernovae, and its properties are those expected for a galaxy that lies in the "green valley" of the Galaxy color–magnitude diagram (see below). Supernovae erupt in the Andromeda Galaxy's star-filled disk and eject these heavier elements into space. Over the Andromeda Galaxy's lifetime, nearly half of the heavy elements made by its stars have been ejected far beyond the galaxy's 200,000-light-year-diameter stellar disk. ### Luminosity estimates Compared to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have predominantly older stars with ages \>7×10<sup>9</sup> years. The estimated luminosity of the Andromeda Galaxy, , is about 25% higher than that of our own galaxy. However, the galaxy has a high inclination as seen from Earth, and its interstellar dust absorbs an unknown amount of light, so it is difficult to estimate its actual brightness and other authors have given other values for the luminosity of the Andromeda Galaxy (some authors even propose it is the second-brightest galaxy within a radius of 10 megaparsecs of the Milky Way, after the Sombrero Galaxy, with an absolute magnitude of around −22.21 or close). An estimation done with the help of Spitzer Space Telescope published in 2010 suggests an absolute magnitude (in the blue) of −20.89 (that with a color index of +0.63 translates to an absolute visual magnitude of −21.52, compared to −20.9 for the Milky Way), and a total luminosity in that wavelength of . The rate of star formation in the Milky Way is much higher, with the Andromeda Galaxy producing only about one solar mass per year compared to 3–5 solar masses for the Milky Way. The rate of novae in the Milky Way is also double that of the Andromeda Galaxy. This suggests that the latter once experienced a great star formation phase, but is now in a relative state of quiescence, whereas the Milky Way is experiencing more active star formation. Should this continue, the luminosity of the Milky Way may eventually overtake that of the Andromeda Galaxy. According to recent studies, the Andromeda Galaxy lies in what in the Galaxy color–magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley", a region populated by galaxies like the Milky Way in transition from the "blue cloud" (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence" (galaxies that lack star formation). Star formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star-forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties to the Andromeda Galaxy, star formation is expected to extinguish within about five billion years, even accounting for the expected, short-term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way. ## Structure Based on its appearance in visible light, the Andromeda Galaxy is classified as an SA(s)b galaxy in the de Vaucouleurs–Sandage extended classification system of spiral galaxies. However, infrared data from the 2MASS survey and the Spitzer Space Telescope showed that Andromeda is actually a barred spiral galaxy, like the Milky Way, with Andromeda's bar major axis oriented 55 degrees anti-clockwise from the disc major axis. There are various methods used in astronomy in defining the size of a galaxy, and each method can yield different results concerning one another. The most commonly employed is the D<sub>25</sub> standard, the isophote where the photometric brightness of a galaxy in the B-band (445 nm wavelength of light, in the blue part of the visible spectrum) reaches 25 mag/arcsec<sup>2</sup>. The Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies (RC3) used this standard for Andromeda in 1991, yielding an isophotal diameter of 46.56 kiloparsecs (152,000 light-years) at a distance of 2.5 million light-years. An earlier estimate from 1981 gave a diameter for Andromeda at 54 kiloparsecs (176,000 light-years). A study in 2005 by the Keck telescopes shows the existence of a tenuous sprinkle of stars, or galactic halo, extending outward from the galaxy. The stars in this halo behave differently from the ones in Andromeda's main galactic disc, where they show rather disorganized orbital motions as opposed to the stars in the main disc having more orderly orbits and uniform velocities of 200 km/s. This diffuse halo extends outwards away from Andromeda's main disc with the diameter of 67.45 kiloparsecs (220,000 light-years). The galaxy is inclined an estimated 77° relative to Earth (where an angle of 90° would be edge-on). Analysis of the cross-sectional shape of the galaxy appears to demonstrate a pronounced, S-shaped warp, rather than just a flat disk. A possible cause of such a warp could be gravitational interaction with the satellite galaxies near the Andromeda Galaxy. The Galaxy M33 could be responsible for some warp in Andromeda's arms, though more precise distances and radial velocities are required. Spectroscopic studies have provided detailed measurements of the rotational velocity of the Andromeda Galaxy as a function of radial distance from the core. The rotational velocity has a maximum value of 225 km/s (140 mi/s) at 1,300 ly (82,000,000 AU) from the core, and it has its minimum possibly as low as 50 km/s (31 mi/s) at 7,000 ly (440,000,000 AU) from the core. Further out, rotational velocity rises out to a radius of 33,000 ly (2.1×10<sup>9</sup> AU), where it reaches a peak of 250 km/s (160 mi/s). The velocities slowly decline beyond that distance, dropping to around 200 km/s (120 mi/s) at 80,000 ly (5.1×10<sup>9</sup> AU). These velocity measurements imply a concentrated mass of about in the nucleus. The total mass of the galaxy increases linearly out to 45,000 ly (2.8×10<sup>9</sup> AU), then more slowly beyond that radius. The spiral arms of the Andromeda Galaxy are outlined by a series of HII regions, first studied in great detail by Walter Baade and described by him as resembling "beads on a string". His studies show two spiral arms that appear to be tightly wound, although they are more widely spaced than in our galaxy. His descriptions of the spiral structure, as each arm crosses the major axis of the Andromeda Galaxy, are as follows<sup>§pp1062§pp92</sup>: Since the Andromeda Galaxy is seen close to edge-on, it is difficult to study its spiral structure. Rectified images of the galaxy seem to show a fairly normal spiral galaxy, exhibiting two continuous trailing arms that are separated from each other by a minimum of about 13,000 ly (820,000,000 AU) and that can be followed outward from a distance of roughly 1,600 ly (100,000,000 AU) from the core. Alternative spiral structures have been proposed such as a single spiral arm or a flocculent pattern of long, filamentary, and thick spiral arms. The most likely cause of the distortions of the spiral pattern is thought to be interaction with galaxy satellites M32 and M110. This can be seen by the displacement of the neutral hydrogen clouds from the stars. In 1998, images from the European Space Agency's Infrared Space Observatory demonstrated that the overall form of the Andromeda Galaxy may be transitioning into a ring galaxy. The gas and dust within the galaxy are generally formed into several overlapping rings, with a particularly prominent ring formed at a radius of 32,000 ly (9.8 kpc) from the core, nicknamed by some astronomers the ring of fire. This ring is hidden from visible light images of the galaxy because it is composed primarily of cold dust, and most of the star formation that is taking place in the Andromeda Galaxy is concentrated there. Later studies with the help of the Spitzer Space Telescope showed how the Andromeda Galaxy's spiral structure in the infrared appears to be composed of two spiral arms that emerge from a central bar and continue beyond the large ring mentioned above. Those arms, however, are not continuous and have a segmented structure. Close examination of the inner region of the Andromeda Galaxy with the same telescope also showed a smaller dust ring that is believed to have been caused by the interaction with M32 more than 200 million years ago. Simulations show that the smaller galaxy passed through the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy along the latter's polar axis. This collision stripped more than half the mass from the smaller M32 and created the ring structures in Andromeda. It is the co-existence of the long-known large ring-like feature in the gas of Messier 31, together with this newly discovered inner ring-like structure, offset from the barycenter, that suggested a nearly head-on collision with the satellite M32, a milder version of the Cartwheel encounter. Studies of the extended halo of the Andromeda Galaxy show that it is roughly comparable to that of the Milky Way, with stars in the halo being generally "metal-poor", and increasingly so with greater distance. This evidence indicates that the two galaxies have followed similar evolutionary paths. They are likely to have accreted and assimilated about 100–200 low-mass galaxies during the past 12 billion years. The stars in the extended halos of the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way may extend nearly one-third the distance separating the two galaxies. ## Nucleus The Andromeda Galaxy is known to harbor a dense and compact star cluster at its very center. A large telescope creates a visual impression of a star embedded in the more diffuse surrounding bulge. In 1991, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to image the Andromeda Galaxy's inner nucleus. The nucleus consists of two concentrations separated by 1.5 pc (4.9 ly). The brighter concentration, designated as P1, is offset from the center of the galaxy. The dimmer concentration, P2, falls at the true center of the galaxy and contains a black hole measured at 3–5 × 10<sup>7</sup> in 1993, and at 1.1–2.3 × 10<sup>8</sup> in 2005. The velocity dispersion of material around it is measured to be ≈ 160 km/s (100 mi/s). It has been proposed that the observed double nucleus could be explained if P1 is the projection of a disk of stars in an eccentric orbit around the central black hole. The eccentricity is such that stars linger at the orbital apocenter, creating a concentration of stars. It has been postulated that such an eccentric disk could have been formed from the result of a previous black hole merger, where the release of gravitational waves could have "kicked" the stars into to their current eccentric distribution. P2 also contains a compact disk of hot, spectral-class A stars. The A stars are not evident in redder filters, but in blue and ultraviolet light they dominate the nucleus, causing P2 to appear more prominent than P1. While at the initial time of its discovery it was hypothesized that the brighter portion of the double nucleus is the remnant of a small galaxy "cannibalized" by the Andromeda Galaxy, this is no longer considered a viable explanation, largely because such a nucleus would have an exceedingly short lifetime due to tidal disruption by the central black hole. While this could be partially resolved if P1 had its own black hole to stabilize it, the distribution of stars in P1 does not suggest that there is a black hole at its center. ## Discrete sources Apparently, by late 1968, no X-rays had been detected from the Andromeda Galaxy. A balloon flight on 20 October 1970, set an upper limit for detectable hard X-rays from the Andromeda Galaxy. The Swift BAT all-sky survey successfully detected hard X-rays coming from a region centered 6 arcseconds away from the galaxy center. The emission above 25 keV was later found to be originating from a single source named 3XMM J004232.1+411314, and identified as a binary system where a compact object (a neutron star or a black hole) accretes matter from a star. Multiple X-ray sources have since been detected in the Andromeda Galaxy, using observations from the European Space Agency's (ESA) XMM-Newton orbiting observatory. Robin Barnard et al. hypothesized that these are candidate black holes or neutron stars, which are heating the incoming gas to millions of kelvins and emitting X-rays. Neutron stars and black holes can be distinguished mainly by measuring their masses. An observation campaign of NuSTAR space mission identified 40 objects of this kind in the galaxy. In 2012, a microquasar, a radio burst emanating from a smaller black hole was detected in the Andromeda Galaxy. The progenitor black hole is located near the galactic center and has about 10 . It was discovered through data collected by the European Space Agency's XMM-Newton probe and was subsequently observed by NASA's Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission and Chandra X-Ray Observatory, the Very Large Array, and the Very Long Baseline Array. The microquasar was the first observed within the Andromeda Galaxy and the first outside of the Milky Way Galaxy. ## Globular clusters There are approximately 460 globular clusters associated with the Andromeda Galaxy. The most massive of these clusters, identified as Mayall II, nicknamed Globular One, has a greater luminosity than any other known globular cluster in the Local Group of galaxies. It contains several million stars and is about twice as luminous as Omega Centauri, the brightest known globular cluster in the Milky Way. Globular One (or G1) has several stellar populations and a structure too massive for an ordinary globular. As a result, some consider G1 to be the remnant core of a dwarf galaxy that was consumed by Andromeda in the distant past. The globular with the greatest apparent brightness is G76 which is located in the southwest arm's eastern half. Another massive globular cluster, named 037-B327 and discovered in 2006 as is heavily reddened by the Andromeda Galaxy's interstellar dust, was thought to be more massive than G1 and the largest cluster of the Local Group; however, other studies have shown it is actually similar in properties to G1. Unlike the globular clusters of the Milky Way, which show a relatively low age dispersion, Andromeda Galaxy's globular clusters have a much larger range of ages: from systems as old as the galaxy itself to much younger systems, with ages between a few hundred million years to five billion years. In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy. The new-found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number of stars that can be found in globular clusters. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger—several hundred light-years across—and hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are, therefore, much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters. The most massive globular cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy, B023-G078, likely has a central intermediate black hole of almost 100,000 solar masses. ## Nearby and satellite galaxies Like the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy has satellite galaxies, consisting of over 20 known dwarf galaxies. The Andromeda Galaxy's dwarf galaxy population is very similar to the Milky Way's, but the galaxies are much more numerous. The best known and most readily observed satellite galaxies are M32 and M110. Based on current evidence, it appears that M32 underwent a close encounter with the Andromeda Galaxy in the past. M32 may once have been a larger galaxy that had its stellar disk removed by M31 and underwent a sharp increase of star formation in the core region, which lasted until the relatively recent past. M110 also appears to be interacting with the Andromeda Galaxy, and astronomers have found in the halo of the latter a stream of metal-rich stars that appear to have been stripped from these satellite galaxies. M110 does contain a dusty lane, which may indicate recent or ongoing star formation. M32 has a young stellar population as well. The Triangulum Galaxy is a non-dwarf galaxy that lies 750,000 light years from Andromeda. It is currently unknown whether it is a satellite of Andromeda. In 2006, it was discovered that nine of the satellite galaxies lie in a plane that intersects the core of the Andromeda Galaxy; they are not randomly arranged as would be expected from independent interactions. This may indicate a common tidal origin for the satellites. ## PA-99-N2 event and possible exoplanet in galaxy PA-99-N2 was a microlensing event detected in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1999. One of the explanations for this is the gravitational lensing of a red giant by a star with a mass between 0.02 and 3.6 times that of the Sun, which suggested that the star is likely orbited by a planet. This possible exoplanet would have a mass 6.34 times that of Jupiter. If finally confirmed, it would be the first ever found extragalactic planet. However, anomalies in the event were later found. ## Collision with the Milky Way The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the Milky Way at about 110 kilometres (68 miles) per second. It has been measured approaching relative to the Sun at around 300 km/s (190 mi/s) as the Sun orbits around the center of the galaxy at a speed of approximately 225 km/s (140 mi/s). This makes the Andromeda Galaxy one of about 100 observable blueshifted galaxies. Andromeda Galaxy's tangential or sideways velocity concerning the Milky Way is relatively much smaller than the approaching velocity and therefore it is expected to collide directly with the Milky Way in about 2.5-4 billion years. A likely outcome of the collision is that the galaxies will merge to form a giant elliptical galaxy or possibly large disc galaxy. Such events are frequent among the galaxies in galaxy groups. The fate of Earth and the Solar System in the event of a collision is currently unknown. Before the galaxies merge, there is a small chance that the Solar System could be ejected from the Milky Way or join the Andromeda Galaxy. ## Amateur observation Under most viewing conditions, the Andromeda Galaxy is one of the most distant objects that can be seen with the naked eye (M33 and M81 can be seen under very dark skies). The galaxy is commonly located in the sky about the constellations Cassiopeia and Pegasus. Andromeda is best seen during autumn nights in the Northern Hemisphere when it passes high overhead, reaching its highest point around midnight in October, and two hours earlier each successive month. In the early evening, it rises in the east in September and sets in the west in February. From the Southern Hemisphere the Andromeda Galaxy is visible between October and December, best viewed from as far north as possible. Binoculars can reveal some larger structures of the galaxy and its two brightest satellite galaxies, M32 and M110. An amateur telescope can reveal Andromeda's disk, some of its brightest globular clusters, dark dust lanes, and the large star cloud NGC 206. ## See also - List of Messier objects - List of galaxies - New General Catalogue
985,644	Constantine (Briton)	1,171,081,792	King of Dumnonia and legendary King of Britain	[ "6th-century English people", "Arthurian characters", "King Arthur's family", "Knights of the Round Table", "Legendary British kings", "Sub-Roman Britons" ]	Constantine (/ˈkɒnstəntiːn/, Welsh: Cystennin, fl. 520–523) was a 6th-century king of Dumnonia in sub-Roman Britain, who was remembered in later British tradition as a legendary King of Britain. The only contemporary information about him comes from Gildas, who castigated him for various sins, including the murder of two "royal youths" inside a church. The historical Constantine is also known from the genealogies of the Dumnonian kings, and possibly inspired the tradition of Saint Constantine, a king-turned-monk venerated in Southwest Britain and elsewhere. In the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth included Constantine in his pseudohistorical chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae, adding details to Gildas' account and making Constantine the successor to King Arthur as King of Britain. Under Geoffrey's influence, Constantine appeared as Arthur's heir in later chronicles. Less commonly, he also appeared in that role in medieval Arthurian romances and prose works, and in some modern versions of the legend. ## History The 6th-century monk Gildas mentions Constantine in chapters 28 and 29 of work De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Constantine is one of five Brittonic kings whom the author rebukes and compares to Biblical beasts. Gildas calls Constantine the "tyrannical whelp of the unclean lioness of Damnonia", a reference to the books of Daniel and Revelation, and apparently also a slur directed at his mother. This Damnonia is generally identified as the kingdom of Dumnonia in Southwestern Britain. Scholars such as Lloyd Laing and Leslie Alcock note the possibility that Gildas may have instead intended the territory of the Damnonii, a tribe in present-day Scotland mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century, but others such as Thomas D. O'Sullivan consider this unlikely. Gildas says that despite swearing an oath against deceit and tyranny, Constantine disguised himself in an abbot's robes and attacked two "royal youths" praying before a church altar, killing them and their companions. Gildas is clear that Constantine's sins were manifold even before this, as he had committed "many adulteries" after casting off his lawfully wedded wife. Gildas encourages Constantine, whom he knows to still be alive at the time, to repent his sins lest he be damned. The murders may relate to a 6th-century cult in Brittany honoring the Saints Dredenau, two young princes killed by an ambitious uncle. Scholars generally identify Gildas' Constantine with the figure Custennin Gorneu or Custennin Corneu (Constantine of Cornwall) who appears in the genealogies of the kings of Dumnonia. Custennin is mentioned as the father of Erbin and the grandfather of the hero Geraint in the Bonedd y Saint, the prose romance Geraint and Enid, and after emendation, the genealogies in Jesus College MS 20. Based on Custennin's placement in the genealogies, Thomas D. O'Sullivan suggests a floruit for Constantine of 520–523. ## Saint Constantine The historical Constantine of Dumnonia may have influenced later traditions, known in Southwestern Britain as well as in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, about a Saint Constantine who is usually said to have been a king who gave up his crown to become a monk. The Cornish and Welsh traditions especially may have been influenced by Gildas, in particular his adjuration for Constantine to repent; the belief may have been that the reproach eventually worked. The two major centers for the cultus of Saint Constantine were the church in Constantine Parish and the Chapel of Saint Constantine in St Merryn Parish (now Constantine Bay), both in Cornwall. The former was established by at least the 11th century, as it is mentioned in Rhygyfarch's 11th-century Life of Saint David. At this time it may have supported a clerical community, but in later centuries it was simply a parish church. The Chapel at Constantine Bay had a holy well, and was the center of its own sub-parish. The Annales Cambriae (Welsh Annals) and the Annals of Ulster record the conversion of a certain Constantine; these may be a reference to the Cornish saint and therefore to the historical figure. Several subsequent religious texts refer to Constantine, generally associating him with Cornwall, often specifically as its king. The Life of Saint David says that Constantine, King of Cornwall, gave up his crown and joined Saint David's monastery at Menevia. The Vitae Petroci includes an episode in which Saint Petroc protects a stag being hunted by a wealthy man named Constantine, who eventually converts and becomes a monk. Here Constantine is not said to be king, but a 12th-century text referring to this story, the Miracula, specifically names him as such, further adding that upon his conversion he gave Petroc an ivory horn that became one of the saint's chief relics. A number of other traditions attested across Britain describe saints or kings named Constantine, suggesting a confusion and conflation of various figures. Other sites in Southwestern Britain associated with figures named Constantine include the church of Milton Abbot, Devon; a chapel in nearby Dunterton, Devon; and a chapel in Illogan, Cornwall. The two Devon sites may have been dedicated instead to Constantine the Great, as local churches were subject to Tavistock Abbey, dedicated to Constantine the Great's mother Helena. In Wales, two churches were dedicated to Constantine: Llangystennin (in Conwy) and Welsh Bicknor (now in Herefordshire, England). The church in Govan, a parish in present-day Scotland, was also dedicated to a Saint Constantine. ## Geoffrey of Monmouth and the chronicle tradition ### Historia Regum Britanniae Geoffrey of Monmouth includes Constantine in a section of his Historia Regum Britanniae adapted from Gildas. As he does throughout the work, Geoffrey alters his source material, recasting Gildas' reproved kings as successors, rather than contemporaries as in De Excidio. In addition to Gildas, Geoffrey evidently knew the Dumnonian genealogy essentially as it appears in Geraint and Enid and similar sources. He further adds a number of other details not found in earlier sources, identifying Constantine as a son of Cador, a Cornish ruler known in Welsh tradition as Cadwy mab Geraint. Notably, Geoffrey's Constantine is King Arthur's kinsman and succeeds him as King of the Britons. Norris J. Lacy and Geoffrey Ashe suggest Geoffrey made this Arthurian connection based on an existing tradition locating Arthur's birthplace in southwest Britain. However, noting that the earliest references place Arthur in northern Britain rather than the southwest, Rachel Bromwich considers the connection an arbitrary invention by Geoffrey, perhaps suggested by his earlier inventions of familial ties between Arthur and Constantine the Great and the usurper Constantine III. Geoffrey calls Constantine Arthur's cognatus, or blood relative, but does not specify the exact relation, causing much confusion for later writers. In Geoffrey, Arthur passes his crown to his relative Constantine after being mortally wounded by the traitor Mordred in the Battle of Camlann. Geoffrey identifies Gildas' "royal youths" as Mordred's two sons, who, along with their Saxon allies, continue their father's insurrection after his death. After "many battles" Constantine routs the rebels, and Mordred's sons flee to London and Winchester, where they hide in a church and a friary, respectively. Constantine hunts them down and executes them before the altars of their sanctuaries. Divine retribution for this transgression comes three years later when Constantine is killed by his nephew Aurelius Conanus (Gildas' Aurelius Caninus), precipitating a civil war. He is buried at Stonehenge alongside other kings of Britain. Latin scholar Neil Wright considers Geoffrey's changes to Gildas to be deliberate reformulations that produce a more sympathetic picture of Constantine and his successors. For Wright, identifying the "royal youths" as traitors justifies the killing, reducing Constantine's offence from murder to sacrilege (for killing the traitors in sanctuary). Overall, scholars regard Geoffrey's depiction of Constantine as pessimistic, highlighting how little of Arthur's legacy survives his death. ### Later chronicles Geoffrey returned to Constantine's struggles and untimely murder in his later work Vita Merlini. The text, set during the reign of Aurelius Conanus, recounts how Constantine gave Mordred's sons a "cruel death" and ended their destructive rebellion, omitting details of the killing. According to the Vita, Constantine ruled only briefly before Conanus rose up, killed him, and seized the kingdom he now governs poorly. Rosemary Morris writes that Vita Merlini reinforces the Historia'''s message that Constantine was unable to perpetuate the glories of Arthur's reign. Variants of Geoffrey's version of Constantine appeared in the numerous later adaptations of the Historia, which were widely regarded as authentic in the Middle Ages. Such variants include Wace's Anglo-Norman Roman de Brut, the Welsh Brut y Brenhinedd, and Layamon's English Brut. These typically reflect Geoffrey's cynicism about the character. Layamon, however, adds a touch of optimism, writing that Constantine successfully if briefly answered Arthur's charge to rule in his manner. Following Geoffrey, many of these works do not expand upon Constantine's relation to Arthur, though others elaborate that he is Arthur's nephew. Taking hints from Geoffrey's version of Arthur's family tree, these writers make Constantine's father Cador a brother, or half-brother, of Arthur through Arthur's mother Igraine. ## Later traditions ### Medieval romance and prose tradition Constantine does not figure strongly in the Arthurian romance traditions or prose cycles. He is absent from the French Vulgate and Post-Vulgate Cycles, in which Lancelot and his kin kill off Mordred's sons, and no successor to Arthur appears. Some scholars find this omission significant. Rosemary Morris suggests these versions downplay the issue of a designated heir to Arthur to heighten the stakes of Mordred's usurpation and to magnify Lancelot's role in the story. Richard Trachsler writes that the exclusion of an heir adds a sense of finality to the Arthurian story after Arthur's death. Constantine does appear in some medieval works. In Jean d'Outremeuse's 14th-century Ly Myreur des Histors, Lancelot installs Constantine on the throne after Arthur's death. He is king of Britain in some versions of the Havelok the Dane legend, beginning with Geoffrey Gaimar's 12th-century Estoire des Engleis. He is also mentioned as Arthur's successor in the 14th-century English alliterative poem known as the Alliterative Morte Arthure, following Arthur's war with the Romans and his subsequent mortal battle with Mordred. Other English romances that reference Constantine in passing include the 14th-century The Awntyrs off Arthure and Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle, written around 1400. Jorge Ferreira de Vasconcelos's 16th-century Portuguese novel Memorial das Proezas da Segunda Távola Redonda fuses Constantine with the ubiquitous Round Table knight Sagramore, creating "Sagramor Constantino", Arthur's son-in-law and heir. As king, he forms a new Round Table to defeat the old enemies and continue the glory of Arthurian Britain. Constantine's relation to Arthur varies widely in these later works. Many works leave it unstated, while others follow the chronicles in making Constantine Arthur's nephew. Several romances, especially English works, cast him as Arthur's grand-nephew, with Cador being the son of a (generally unnamed) sister of the king. Constantine also appears as Arthur's heir in Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, including sections adapted from the Alliterative Morte Arthure. Malory makes several changes to his source material that expand Constantine's role. Malory has Arthur designate Constantine and Baldwin of Britain as regents before going off to fight the Romans, a role that the Alliterative Morte ascribes to Mordred. Eugène Vinaver suggests that Malory modelled this change after Henry V's appointment of John, Duke of Bedford and Bishop Henry Beaufort as regents. Others finds it likelier that Malory simply wanted to replace Mordred in the Roman war narrative. Malory also expands Constantine's role after Arthur's death, saying that he ruled honourably and restored the Bishop of Canterbury to his seat. Scholars note that this expansion closes the book on a much more optimistic note than Malory's sources, indicating that Arthurian ideals lived on under Constantine. ### Modern literature and media Constantine features in some modern treatments of the legend. Katrina Trask's Under King Constantine, an 1892 book comprising three long romantic poems, is set in his reign. He is an important unseen character in Henry Newbolt's 1895 play Mordred in his usual role as Arthur's successor. He similarly appears in Rosemary Sutcliff's 1963 novel Sword at Sunset, in which the grievously wounded "Artos" voluntarily passes the crown to him. In Parke Godwin's 1984 novel Beloved Exile, Constantine is one of several nobles fighting Guenevere, the protagonist, in a bid to succeed Arthur. He is the chief protagonist of the 1990 computer game Spirit of Excalibur; players control Constantine and his allies as they defend the kingdom after Arthur's death. Darrell Schweitzer's 1995 fantasy story "The Epilogue of the Sword" features an ageing Lancelot returning to serve Constantine against the Saxons. Constantine elaborately figures into Arthur Phillips' 2011 novel The Tragedy of Arthur, which centers on an apocryphal Arthurian play attributed to William Shakespeare that the narrator, a fictional version of Phillips, insists is a hoax created by his father. In the play-within-the-novel, Constantine is Guenhera's brother and Arthur's vassal and heir; the novel's narrator claims that Constantine is based on his father's old nemesis, prosecutor Ted Constantine. In Lucy Holland's 2021 novel, Sistersong,'' Constantine is the son of Cador, King of Dumnonia, and has two sisters, Riva and Sinne, whose story is a retelling of the Twa Sisters. Constantine is born under the name Keyne, and is a trans man mentored by the wizard/witch Myrdhin/Mori. His kingdom is being doubly threatened by Gildas, a traveling Roman priest and magician in this telling, and the Gewisse Saxons. Constantine meets Gwen when her people flee the Saxon; the two fall in love, and presumably marry and rule together as King and Queen after the story ends. In the epilogue, Constantine has left his throne and travels alongside Myrdhin/Mori.
7,729	Captain America	1,172,201,240	Comic book superhero	[ "Avengers (comics) characters", "Captain America", "Captain America characters", "Characters created by Jack Kirby", "Characters created by Joe Simon", "Comics characters introduced in 1940", "Fictional New York City Police Department officers", "Fictional Office of Strategic Services personnel", "Fictional World War II veterans", "Fictional cartoonists", "Fictional characters from New York City", "Fictional characters from the 20th century", "Fictional characters with slowed ageing", "Fictional cryonically preserved characters in comics", "Fictional military captains", "Fictional military strategists", "Fictional shield fighters", "Fictional super soldiers", "Film serial characters", "Golden Age comics titles", "Golden Age superheroes", "Marvel Comics American superheroes", "Marvel Comics adapted into video games", "Marvel Comics film characters", "Marvel Comics male superheroes", "Marvel Comics martial artists", "Marvel Comics military personnel", "Marvel Comics orphans", "S.H.I.E.L.D. agents", "Timely Comics characters", "United States-themed superheroes" ]	Captain America is a superhero created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby who appears in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in Captain America Comics \#1, published on December 20, 1940 by Timely Comics, a corporate predecessor to Marvel. Captain America's civilian identity is Steve Rogers, a frail man enhanced to the peak of human physical perfection by an experimental "super-soldier serum" after joining the United States Army to aid the country's efforts in World War II. Equipped with an American flag-inspired costume and a virtually indestructible shield, Captain America and his sidekick Bucky Barnes clashed frequently with the villainous Red Skull and other members of the Axis powers. In the final days of the war, an accident left Captain America frozen in a state of suspended animation until he was revived in modern times. He resumes his exploits as a costumed hero and becomes leader of the superhero team the Avengers, but frequently struggles as a "man out of time" to adjust to the new era. The character quickly emerged as Timely's most popular and commercially successful wartime creation upon his original publication, though the popularity of superheroes declined in the post-war period and Captain America Comics was discontinued in 1950. The character saw a short-lived revival in 1953 before returning to comics in 1964, and has since remained in continuous publication. Captain America's creation as an explicitly anti-Nazi figure was a deliberately political undertaking: Simon and Kirby were stridently opposed to the actions of Nazi Germany and supporters of U.S. intervention in World War II, with Simon conceiving of the character specifically in response to the American non-interventionism movement. Political messages have subsequently remained a defining feature of Captain America stories, with writers regularly using the character to comment on the state of American society and government. Having appeared in more than ten thousand stories in more than five thousand media formats, Captain America is one of the most popular and recognized Marvel Comics characters, and has been described as an icon of American popular culture. Though Captain America was not the first United States-themed superhero, he would become the most popular and enduring of the many patriotic American superheroes created during World War II. Captain America was the first Marvel character to appear in a medium outside of comic books, in the 1944 serial film Captain America; the character has subsequently appeared in a variety of films and other media, including the Marvel Cinematic Universe, where he is portrayed by actor Chris Evans. ## Publication history ### Creation and development In 1940, Timely Comics publisher Martin Goodman responded to the growing popularity of superhero comics – particularly Superman at rival publisher National Comics Publications, the corporate predecessor to DC Comics – by hiring freelancer Joe Simon to create a new superhero for the company. Simon began to develop the character by determining who their nemesis could be, noting that the most successful superheroes were defined by their relationship with a compelling villain, and eventually settled on Adolf Hitler. He rationalized that Hitler was the "best villain of them all" as he was "hated by everyone in the free world", and that it would be a unique approach for a superhero to face a real-life adversary rather than a fictional one. This approach was also intentionally political. Simon was stridently opposed to the actions of Nazi Germany and supported U.S. intervention in World War II, and intended the hero to be a response to the American non-interventionism movement. Simon initially considered "Super American" for the hero's name, but felt there were already multiple comic book characters with "super" in their names. He worked out the details of the character, who was eventually named "Captain America", after he completed sketches in consultation with Goodman. The hero's civilian name "Steve Rogers" was derived from the telegraphy term "roger", meaning "message received". Goodman elected to launch Captain America with his own self-titled comic book, making him the first Timely character to debut with his own ongoing series without having first appeared in an anthology. Simon sought to have Jack Kirby be the primary artist on the series: the two developed a working relationship and friendship in the late 1930s after working together at Fox Feature Syndicate, and had previously developed characters for Timely together. Kirby also shared Simon's pro-intervention views, and was particularly drawn to the character in this regard. Goodman, conversely, wanted a team of artists on the series. It was ultimately determined that Kirby would serve as penciller, with Al Avison and Al Gabriele assisting as inkers; Simon additionally negotiated for himself and Kirby to receive 25 percent of the profits from the comic. Simon regards Kirby as a co-creator of Captain America, stating that "if Kirby hadn't drawn it, it might not have been much of anything." ### 1940–1944: Debut and early success Captain America Comics \#1 was published on December 20, 1940, with a cover date of March 1941. While the front cover of the issue featured Captain America punching Hitler, the comic itself established the Red Skull as Captain America's primary adversary, and also introduced Bucky Barnes as Captain America's teenaged sidekick. Simon stated that he personally regarded Captain America's origin story, in which the frail Steve Rogers becomes a supersoldier after receiving an experimental serum, as "the weakest part of the character", and that he and Kirby "didn't put too much thought into the origin. We just wanted to get to the action." Kirby designed the series' action scenes with an emphasis on a sense of continuity across panels, saying that he "choreographed" the sequences as one would a ballet, with a focus on exaggerated character movement. Kirby's layouts in Captain America Comics are characterized by their distorted perspectives, irregularly shaped panels, and the heavy use of speed lines. The first issue of Captain America Comics sold out in a matter of days, and the second issue's print run was set at over one million copies. Captain America quickly became Timely's most popular character, with the publisher creating an official Captain America fan club called the "Sentinels of Liberty". Circulation figures remained close to a million copies per month after the debut issue, which outstripped even the circulation of news magazines such as Time during the same period. Captain America Comics was additionally one of 189 periodicals that the US Department of War deemed appropriate to distribute to its soldiers without prior screening. The character would also make appearances in several of Timely's other comic titles, including All Winners Comics, Marvel Mystery Comics, U.S.A. Comics, and All Select Comics. Though Captain America was not the first United States-themed superhero – a distinction that belongs to The Shield at MLJ Comics – he would become the most popular patriotic American superhero of those created during World War II. Captain America's popularity drew a complaint from MLJ that the character's triangular heater shield too closely resembled the chest symbol of The Shield. This prompted Goodman to direct Simon and Kirby to change the design beginning with Captain America Comics \#2. The revised round shield went on to become an iconic element of the character; its use as a discus-like throwing weapon originated in a short prose story in Captain America Comics \#3, written by Stan Lee in his professional debut as a writer. Timely's publication of Captain America Comics led the company to be targeted with threatening letters and phone calls from the German American Bund, an American Nazi organization. When members began loitering on the streets outside the company's office, police protection was posted and New York mayor Fiorello La Guardia personally contacted Simon and Kirby to guarantee the safety of the publisher's employees. Simon wrote the first two issues of Captain America Comics before becoming the editor for the series; they were the only Captain America stories he would ever directly write. While Captain America generated acclaim and industry fame for Simon and Kirby, the pair believed that Goodman was withholding the promised percentage of profits for the series, prompting Simon to seek employment for himself and Kirby at National Comics Publications. When Goodman learned of Simon and Kirby's intentions, he effectively fired them from Timely Comics, telling them they were to leave the company after they completed work on Captain America Comics \#10. The authorship of Captain America Comics was subsequently assumed by a variety of individuals, including Otto Binder, Bill Finger, and Manly Wade Wellman as writers, and Al Avison, Vince Alascia, and Syd Shores as pencilers. ### 1944–1950s: Decline in popularity Superhero comics began to decline in popularity in the post-war period. This prompted a variety of attempts to reposition Captain America, including having the character fight gangsters rather than wartime enemies in Captain America Comics \#42 (October 1944), appearing as a high school teacher in Captain America Comics \#59 (August 1946), and joining Timely's first superhero team, the All-Winners Squad, in All Winners Comics \#19 (Fall 1946). The series nevertheless continued to face dwindling sales, and Captain America Comics ended with its 75th issue in February 1950. Horror comics were ascendant as a popular comic genre during this period; in keeping with the trend, the final two issues of Captain America Comics were published under the title Captain America's Weird Tales. Timely's corporate successor Atlas Comics relaunched the character in 1953 in Young Men \#24, where Captain America appears alongside the wartime heroes Human Torch and Toro, which was followed by a revival of Captain America Comics in 1954 written by Stan Lee and drawn by John Romita. In the spirit of the Cold War and McCarthyism, the character was billed as "Captain America, Commie Smasher" and faced enemies associated with the Soviet Union. The series was a commercial failure, and was cancelled after just three issues. Romita attributed the series' failure to the changing political climate, particularly the public opposition to the Korean War; the character subsequently fell out of active publication for nearly a decade, with Romita noting that "for a while, 'Captain America' was a dirty word". ### 1960s: Return to comics Captain America made his ostensible return in the anthology Strange Tales \#114 (November 1963), published by Atlas' corporate successor Marvel Comics. In an 18-page story written by Lee and illustrated by Kirby, Captain America reemerges following years of apparent retirement, though he is revealed as an impostor who is defeated by Johnny Storm of the Fantastic Four. A caption in the final panel indicates that the story was a "test" to gauge interest in a potential return for Captain America; the reader response to the story was enthusiastic, and the character was formally reintroduced in The Avengers \#4 (March 1964). The Avengers \#4 retroactively established that Captain America had fallen into the Atlantic Ocean in the final days of World War II, where he spent decades frozen in ice in a state of suspended animation before being found and recovered. Captain America solo stories written by Lee with Kirby as the primary penciller were published in the anthology Tales of Suspense alongside solo stories focused on fellow Avengers member Iron Man beginning in November 1964; the character also appeared in Lee and Kirby's World War II-set Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos beginning in December same year. These runs introduced and retroactively established several new companions of Captain America, including Nick Fury, Peggy Carter, and Sharon Carter. In 1966, Joe Simon sued Marvel Comics, asserting that he was legally entitled to renew the copyright on the character upon the expiration of the original 28-year term. The two parties settled out of court, with Simon agreeing to a statement that the character had been created under terms of employment by the publisher, and was therefore work for hire owned by the company. Captain America's self-titled ongoing series was relaunched in April 1968, with Lee as writer and Kirby as penciller; Kirby later departed the series, and was replaced by Gene Colan. In 1969, writer and artist Jim Steranko authored a three-issue run of Captain America. Despite the brevity of Steranko's time on the series, his contributions significantly influenced how Captain America was represented in post-war comics, reestablishing the character's secret identity and positioning the character as deeply conflicted by the tension between America as it idealizes itself to be and America in reality – a theme that would recur frequently in Captain America comics in the subsequent decades. ### 1970s: Political shifts In contrast to the character's enthusiastic participation in World War II, comics featuring Captain America rarely broached the topic of the Vietnam War, though the subject of Captain America's potential participation was frequently debated by readers in the letters to the editor section in Captain America. Marvel maintained a position of neutrality on Vietnam; in 1971, Stan Lee wrote in an editorial that a poll indicated that a majority of readers did not want Captain America to be involved in Vietnam, adding that he believed the character "simply doesn't lend himself to the John Wayne-type character he once was" and that he could not "see any of our characters taking on a role of super-patriotism in the world as it is today". Captain America stories in the 1970s began to increasingly focus on domestic American political issues, such as poverty, racism, pollution, and political corruption. Captain America \#117 (September 1969) introduced The Falcon as the first African-American superhero in mainstream comic books and who would become Captain America's partner; the series was cover titled as Captain America and the Falcon beginning February 1971, which it would maintain for the next seven and a half years. These political shifts were significantly shaped by comics created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Sal Buscema, who joined the series in 1972. In a 1973 storyline written by Englehart directly inspired by the Watergate scandal, Captain America is framed for murder by the fascistic Secret Empire, whose leader is ultimately revealed to be the president of the United States. The incident causes a disillusioned Steve Rogers to briefly drop the moniker of Captain America to become "Nomad, the man without a country", though he later vowed to "reclaim the ideals of America, which its leaders have trampled upon" and again assumed the role of Captain America. Englehart and Buscema's run was highly acclaimed, bringing Captain America from one of Marvel's lowest-selling titles to its top-selling comic. In 1975, Roy Thomas created the comic book series The Invaders. Set during World War II, the comic focuses on a superhero team composed of Timely's wartime-era superheroes, with Captain America as its leader; Thomas, a fan of stories from the Golden Age of Comic Books, drew inspiration for the series from Timely's All-Winners Squad. Jack Kirby wrote and illustrated run on Captain America and the Falcon from 1975 to 1977. This was followed by issues authored by a number of writers and artists, including Roy Thomas, Donald F. Glut, Roger McKenzie, and Sal Buscema; the series was also re-titled Captain America beginning with issue 223 in 1978. ### 1980s and 1990s: Post-Vietnam and "Heroes Reborn" Owing to the series' lack of a regular writer, Captain America editor Roger Stern and artist John Byrne authored the series from 1980 to 1981. Their run that saw a storyline in which Captain America declines an offer to run for president of the United States. Following Stern and Byrne, Captain America was authored by writer J.M. Dematteis and artist Mike Zeck from 1981 to 1984. Their run featured a year-long storyline in which Captain America faced a crisis of confidence in the face of what Dematteis described as "Reagan Cold War rhetoric". The story was originally planned culminate in Captain America \#300 with Captain America renunciating violence to become a pacifist; when that ending was rejected by Marvel editor-in-chief Jim Shooter, Dematteis resigned Captain America in protest. Writer Mark Gruenwald, editor of Captain America from 1982 to 1985, served as writer on the series from 1985 to 1995. Various artists illustrated the series over the course of Gruenwald's decade-long run, including Paul Neary from 1985 to 1987, and Kieron Dwyer from 1988 to 1990. In contrast to DeMatteis, Gruenwald placed less emphasis on Steve Rogers' life as a civilian, wishing to show "that Steve Rogers is Captain America first [...] he has no greater needs than being Captain America." Among the most significant storylines appearing in Gruenwald's run was "The Choice" in 1987, in which Steve Rogers renounces the identity of Captain America to briefly become simply "The Captain" after the United States government orders him to continue his superheroic activities directly under their control. After Gruenwald departed the series, writer Mark Waid and artist Ron Garney began to author Captain America in 1995. Despite early acclaim, including the reintroduction of Captain America's love interest Sharon Carter, their run was terminated after ten issues as a result of Marvel's "Heroes Reborn" rebranding in 1996. The rebrand saw artists Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld, who had left the company in the early 1990s to establish Image Comics, return to Marvel to re-imagine several of the company's characters. Marvel faced various financial difficulties in the 1990s, culminating in the company filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1996, and "Heroes Reborn" was introduced as part of an effort to increase sales. As part of the rebrand, Liefeld illustrated and co-wrote with Jeph Loeb a run on Captain America that was ultimately cancelled after six issues. Marvel stated that the series was cancelled due to low sales, though Liefeld has contended that he was fired after he refused to take a lower pay rate amid Marvel's bankruptcy proceedings. Waid would return to Captain America in 1998, initially with Garney as arist and later with Andy Kubert. In 1999, Joe Simon filed to claim the copyright to Captain America under a provision of the Copyright Act of 1976 that allows the original creators of works that have been sold to corporations to reclaim them after the original 56-year copyright term has expired. Marvel challenged the claim, arguing that Simon's 1966 settlement made the character ineligible for copyright transfer. Simon and Marvel settled out of court in 2003, in a deal that paid Simon royalties for merchandising and licensing of the character. ### 2000s–present: Modern era Writer and artist Dan Jurgens took over Captain America from Waid in 2000, positioning the character in a world he described as "more cynical [...] in terms of how we view our government, our politicians and people's motives in general". In the wake of the September 11 attacks, a new Captain America series written by John Ney Rieber with artwork by John Cassady was published under the Marvel Knights imprint from 2002 to 2003. The series received criticism for its depiction of Captain America fighting terrorists modelled after Al-Qaeda, though Cassady contended that the aim of the series was to depict "the emotions this hero was going through" in the wake of 9/11, and the "guilt and anger a man in his position would feel". In 2005, Marvel relaunched Captain America in a new volume written by Ed Brubaker and illustrated by Steve Epting. The run reintroduced Captain America's previously deceased partner Bucky Barnes as the Winter Soldier, a brainwashed cybernetic assassin. Contemporaneously, Captain America was a central character in the 2006 crossover event Civil War written by Mark Millar and penciled by Steve McNiven, which saw the character come into conflict with fellow Avengers member Iron Man over government efforts to regulate superheroes. The character was killed in the 2007 storyline "The Death of Captain America" written by Brubaker, which was accompanied by the miniseries Fallen Son: The Death of Captain America written by Jeph Loeb; the character was later revived in the 2009 limited series Captain America: Reborn. Brubaker's run on Captain America, which ran across various titles until 2012, was critically and commercially acclaimed; Captain America \#25 (which contains the character's death) was the best-selling comic of 2007, and Brubaker won the Harvey Award for Best Writer for the series in 2006. After Brubaker's run on Captain America ended in 2012, a new volume of the series written by Rick Remender was published as part of the Marvel Now rebranding initiative, which saw Sam Wilson assume the mantle of Captain America in 2014. This was followed by a run written by Nick Spencer beginning in 2016, in which Captain America was replaced by a version of himself later known as "Hydra Supreme", loyal to the villainous organization Hydra, culminating in the 2017 crossover event Secret Empire. As part of Marvel's Fresh Start rebrand in 2018, a new Captain America series written by Ta-Nehisi Coates with art by Leinil Francis Yu was published from 2018 to 2021. A new volume of Captain America written by J. Michael Straczynski is slated to begin publication in September 2023. ## Characterization ### Fictional character biography As of 2015, Captain America has appeared in more than ten thousand stories in more than five thousand media formats, including comic books, books, and trade publications. The character's origin story has been retold and revised multiple times throughout his editorial history, though its broad details have remained generally consistent. Steven "Steve" Rogers was born in the 1920s to an impoverished family on the Lower East Side of New York City. The frail and infirm Rogers attempts to join the U.S. Army in order to fight in the Second World War, but is rejected after being deemed unfit for military service. His resolve is nevertheless noticed by the military, and he is recruited as the first test subject for "Project Rebirth", a secret government program that seeks to create super soldiers through the development of the "Super-Soldier Serum". Though the serum successfully enhances Rogers to the peak to human physical perfection, a Nazi spy posing as a military observer destroys the remaining supply of the serum and assassinates its inventor, foiling plans to produce additional super soldiers. Rogers is given a patriotic uniform and shield by the American government and becomes the costumed superhero Captain America. He goes on to fight the villainous Red Skull and other members of the Axis powers both domestically and abroad, alongside his sidekick Bucky Barnes and as a member of the Invaders. In the final days of the war, Rogers and Barnes seemingly perish after falling from an experimental drone plane into the northern Atlantic Ocean. Rogers is found decades later by the superhero team the Avengers, the Super-Soldier Serum having allowed him to survive frozen in a block of ice in a state of suspended animation. Reawakened in modern times, Rogers resumes activities as a costumed hero, joining and later becoming leader of the Avengers. Many of his exploits involve missions undertaken for the Avengers or for S.H.I.E.L.D., an espionage and international law enforcement agency operated by his former war comrade Nick Fury. Through Fury, Rogers befriends Sharon Carter, a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent with whom he eventually begins a partnership and an on-again off-again romance. He meets and trains Sam Wilson, who becomes the superhero Falcon, and they establish an enduring friendship and partnership. After a conspiracy hatched by the Secret Empire to discredit Rogers is revealed to have been personally orchestrated by the President of the United States, a disillusioned Rogers abandons the mantle of Captain America and assumes the title of "Nomad", the "man without a country". He eventually re-assumes the title, and later declines an offer from the "New Populist Party" to run for president himself. He again abandons the mantle of Captain America to briefly assume the alias of "The Captain" when a government commission orders him to work directly for the U.S. government. In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, Rogers reveals his secret identity to the world. Following the disbandment of the Avengers, he discovers that Bucky is still alive, having been brainwashed by the Soviets to become the Winter Soldier. Later, in reaction to government efforts to regulate superheroes, Rogers becomes the leader of an underground anti-registration movement that clashes with a pro-registration faction led by fellow Avengers member Iron Man. After significant rancor, he voluntarily surrenders and submits to arrest. At his trial, he is shot and killed by Sharon Carter, whose actions are manipulated by the villainous Dr. Faustus; in his absence, a recovered Bucky assumes the title of Captain America. It is eventually revealed that Rogers did not die, but became displaced in space and time; he is ultimately able to return to the present. He resumes his exploits as a superhero, though his public identity is briefly supplanted by a sleeper agent from the terrorist organization Hydra. ### Personality and motivations Media scholar J. Richard Stevens notes that Steve Rogers' personality has shifted across his editorial history, a fact he sees as a natural consequence of the character being written and re-interpreted by many writers over the span of multiple decades. However, he identifies two aspects of the character's personality that have remained consistent across expressions: his "uncompromising purity" and "his ability to judge the character in others". Early Captain America stories typically paid little attention to Rogers' civilian identity; in his 1970 book The Steranko History of Comics, Jim Steranko notes that the character was often criticized for being two-dimensional as a result. He argues that this was an intentional device, writing that these critics "failed to grasp the true implication of his being. Steve Rogers never existed, except perhaps as an abstract device for the convenience of storytelling. Captain America was not an embodiment of human characteristics but a pure idea." Following the character's return to comics in the 1960s, many stories gave increased focus to Rogers' civilian identity, particularly his struggles as a "man out of time" attempting to adjust to a new era. Often, stories depict a brooding or melancholic Rogers as he faces both a physical struggle as Captain America, and an ideological struggle as Steve Rogers to reconcile his social values with modern times. The character is frequently conflicted by his World War II-era "good war" morality being challenged and made anachronistic by the compromising demands of the post-war era. Prior to Bucky Barnes' return to comics in the 2000s, many Captain America stories centered on Rogers' sense of guilt over Barnes' death. Culture scholar Robert G. Weiner argues that these stories mirror the post-traumatic stress disorder and survivor guilt held by many war veterans, and that this trauma distinguishes the character from other well-known superheroes such as Batman and Spider-Man: while those characters became heroes because of a traumatic incident, Rogers carries on as a hero in spite of a traumatic incident, with Weiner asserting that this reinforces the nobility of the character. ### Political themes Though Marvel has historically trended away from making overt partisan statements in the post-war period, writers have nevertheless used Captain America to comment on the state of American society and government at particular moments in history. For example, the conspiracy storyline of "Secret Empire" reflected what writer Steve Englehart saw as broad disillusionment with American institutions in the wake of the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal, the "Streets of Poison" storyline by Mark Gruenwald in the 1990s was intended to address anxieties around the drug trade and debates on the war on drugs, and "Civil War" by Mark Millar was widely interpreted as an allegory for the Patriot Act and post-9/11 debates on the balance between national security and civil liberties. While the ideological orientation of Captain America stories has shifted in response to changing social and political attitudes, Stevens notes how a central component of Captain America's mythology is that the character himself does not change: when the character's attitudes have shifted, it is consistently framed as an evolution or a new understanding of his previously-held ideals. Stevens argues that the character's seeming paradoxical steadfastness is reflective of "the language of comics, where continuity is continually updated to fit the needs of the serialized present." Despite his status as patriotic superhero, Captain America is rarely depicted as an overly jingoistic figure. Stevens writes that the character's "patriotism is more focused on the universal rights of man as expressed through the American Dream" rather than "a position championing the specific cultural or political goals of the United States." Weiner similarly concurs that the character "embodies what America strives to be, not what it sometimes is". Dittmer agrees that while the character sees himself "as the living embodiment of the American Dream (rather than a tool of the state)", his status as a patriotic superhero nevertheless tethers him to American foreign policy and hegemony. He argues that Captain America tends to skew away from interventionist actions at moments where the United States is undertaking policies that its critics deem imperialist, specifically citing the character's non-participation in the Vietnam and Iraq wars, and argues that the character's inconsistent position on the use of deadly force across his editorial history "is perhaps a tacit acknowledgment of the violence, or the threat of violence, at the heart of American hegemony." ## Powers, abilities, and equipment Captain America possesses no superpowers, though the Super-Soldier Serum has enhanced his body's strength, speed, agility, endurance, reflexes, reaction time, and natural self-healing ability to the peak of human physical perfection. He is additionally an expert tactician and field commander, and has achieved mastery in a variety of hand-to-hand combat styles, including boxing and judo. The precise parameters of Captain America's physical prowess vary across stories due to editorial dictates and artistic license taken by authors; Steve Englehart was given an editorial order to give the character superhuman strength in the 1970s, but the change did not remain permanent and was soon forgotten. Steve Rogers is also a skilled visual artist, having worked as a commercial illustrator prior to joining the military, and several storylines have depicted the character working as a freelance artist. The basic design of Captain America's costume has remained largely consistent from its original incarnation in the 1940s. Designed by Joe Simon, the costume is based on the United States flag, with Simon likening the character's appearance to that of "a modern-day crusader": chain mail armor, and a helmet adorned with wings in reference to the Roman god Mercury. Steve Rogers has worn other costumes when he has adopted alternate superhero alter egos: as Nomad he wears a domino mask and a black and gold suit that is cut to expose his bare chest and stomach, and as The Captain he wears a modified version of the Captain America suit with a red, white, and black design. Captain America's shield is the character's primary piece of equipment. It is a round shield with a design featuring a white star on a blue circle surrounded by red and white rings. First appearing in Captain America Comics \#1 as a triangular heater shield, beginning in Captain America Comics \#2 it was changed to its current circular design due to a complaint from MLJ Comics that the original design too closely resembled the chest symbol of their superhero The Shield. The shield is depicted as constructed from an alloy of vibranium and adamantium, two highly resilient fictional metals appearing in Marvel comic books. It is portrayed as both a virtually indestructible defensive object and a highly aerodynamic offensive weapon: when thrown, it is capable of ricocheting off multiple surfaces and returning to the original thrower. ## Supporting cast ### Sidekicks and partners Captain America's first sidekick was Bucky Barnes, introduced in Captain America Comics \#1 as the teenaged "mascot" of Steve Rogers' regiment. He is made Captain America's partner in that same issue after accidentally discovering the character's secret identity. Joe Simon described Bucky's creation as being largely motivated by a need to give Captain America "someone to talk to" and avoid the overuse of dialogue delivered through internal monologue, noting that "Bucky was brought in as a way of eliminating too many thought balloons." Bucky was retroactively established as having been killed in the same accident that left Captain America frozen in suspended animation; the character remained deceased for many decades, contrasting the typically ephemeral nature of comic book deaths, until he returned in 2005 as the Winter Soldier. Initially introduced as a brainwashed assassin and antagonist to Captain America, Bucky's memories and personality were later restored, and he was re-established as an ally to Steve Rogers. Rick Jones briefly assumed the role of Captain America's sidekick and the public identity of Bucky following Captain America's return to comics in the 1960s. In 1969, Sam Wilson was introduced as the superhero Falcon and later became Captain America's sidekick, making the characters the first interracial superhero duo in American comic books. Possessing the power to communicate with birds, Wilson is initially depicted as a former social worker living in Harlem, though this identity is revealed to be the result of memories implanted by the Red Skull. He later receives a winged suit from the superhero Black Panther that enables him to fly. Other characters who have served as Rogers' sidekick include Golden Girl (Betsy Ross), Demolition Man (Dennis Dunphy), Jack Flag (Jack Harrison), and Free Spirit (Cathy Webster). ### Enemies Over the course of several decades, writers and artists have established a rogues' gallery of supervillains to face Captain America. The character's primary archenemy is the Red Skull, introduced from the character's origins as an apprentice to Adolf Hitler. Just as Red Skull represent Nazism, many of Captain America's villains represent specific ideologies or political formations: for example, the Serpent Society represents labor unionism, and Flag-Smasher represents anti-nationalism. The political character of Captain America's enemies has shifted over time: the character fought enemies associated with communism during his brief revival in the 1950s before shifting back to Nazi antagonists in the mid-1960s, while comics since 9/11 have frequently depicted the character facing terrorist villains. ### Romantic interests Steve Rogers' first love interest was Betsy Ross, introduced in his World War II-era comics as a member of the Women's Army Corps who later became the costumed superhero Golden Girl. Peggy Carter, an American member of the French Resistance, was retroactively established in comics published in the 1960s as another of Rogers' wartime lovers. When Rogers is revived in the post-war era, he begins a partnership and on-again off-again relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter; introduced as Peggy's younger sister, she was later retconned as Peggy's grandniece to reflect Marvel's floating timeline. In comics published in the 1980s, Rogers dated and became engaged to civilian Bernie Rosenthal, though they ended their relationship amicably after Bernie left New York to attend law school. In the 1990s, Rogers had a romantic entanglement with the alternately villainous and antiheroic Diamondback, a member of the Serpent Society. ### Alternate versions of Captain America The title of "Captain America" has been used by other characters in the Marvel Universe in addition to Steve Rogers, including William Naslund, Jeffrey Mace, and William Burnside. John Walker, also known as U.S. Agent, was introduced as a villainous Captain America in 1988, and Isaiah Bradley was established in the 2003 limited series Truth: Red, White & Black as an African American man who acquired superpowers after being used as a test subject for the Super-Soldier Serum. Rogers' sidekicks Bucky Barnes and Sam Wilson have also alternately held the title of Captain America: Barnes in 2008 following Rogers' death in 2007, and Wilson following Marvel's 2012 rebranding campaign Marvel Now!. Within the multiverse of parallel universes that compose the Marvel Universe, there are many variations of Steve Rogers and Captain America; this includes Marvel's Ultimate Comics universe, which possesses its own version of Steve Rogers that is more overtly politically conservative. ## Cultural impact and legacy Captain America is one of the most popular and widely recognized Marvel Comics characters, and has been described as an icon of American popular culture. He is the most well-known and enduring of the United States-themed superheroes to emerge from the Second World War and inspired a proliferation of patriotic-themed superheroes in American comic books during the 1940s. This included the American Crusader, the Spirit of '76, Yank & Doodle, Captain Flag, and Captain Courageous, among numerous others. Though none would achieve Captain America's commercial success, the volume of Captain America imitators was such that three months after the character's debut, Timely published a statement indicating that "there is only one Captain America" and warning that they would take legal action against publishers that infringed on the character. After being dismissed from Timely, Joe Simon and Jack Kirby would themselves create a new patriotic superhero, the Fighting American, for Prize Comics in 1954; the character became the subject of a lawsuit from Marvel in the 1990s after Rob Liefeld attempted to revive the character following his own departure from Marvel. When the character was killed in 2007, he was eulogized in numerous mainstream media outlets, including The New York Times and The Los Angeles Times, with the former describing him as a "national hero". In 2011, Captain America placed sixth on IGN's "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time", and second in their 2012 list of "The Top 50 Avengers". Gizmodo and Entertainment Weekly respectively ranked Captain America first and second in their 2015 rankings of Avengers characters. Empire ranked Captain America as the 21st greatest comic book character of all time. ## In other media Captain America has appeared in a variety of adapted, spin-off, and licensed media, including films, cartoons, video games, toys, clothing, and books. The first appearance of Captain America in a medium outside of comic books was in the 1944 serial film Captain America, which was also the first piece of non-comics media to feature a Marvel Comics character. The character later appeared in two made-for-TV films in 1979, Captain America and Captain America II: Death Too Soon, and a self-titled feature-length film in 1990. A trilogy of Captain America films starring Chris Evans as the title character were produced as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) in the 2010s: Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), and Captain America: Civil War (2016). The character also appeared in the ensemble films The Avengers (2012), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Avengers: Endgame (2019). The first appearance of Captain America on television was in the 1966 Grantray-Lawrence Animation series The Marvel Super Heroes. The character would make minor appearances in several Marvel animated series in the subsequent decades, including Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1981–1983), X-Men: The Animated Series (1992–1997), and The Avengers: United They Stand (1999–2000). Buoyed by increased popularity from the character's appearances in the MCU, Captain America began appearing in television series in more prominent roles beginning in the 2010s, such as The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes (2010–2012). Captain America was the first Marvel character to be adapted into a novel with Captain America: The Great Gold Steal by Ted White, published in 1968.
12,092,060	List of Smallville characters	1,168,059,050	null	[ "Lists of DC Comics television characters", "Lists of action television characters", "Lists of drama television characters", "Lists of fantasy television characters", "Lists of science fiction television characters", "Smallville characters", "Superman in other media" ]	Smallville is an American television series developed by writer/producers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar, and was initially broadcast by The WB. After its fifth season, The WB and UPN merged to form The CW, which was the second broadcaster for the show in the United States. The series features a regular cast of characters, which began with eight main characters in its first season. Since then, characters from that first season have left the series, with new main characters having been both written in and out of the series. In addition, Smallville features guest stars each week, as well as recurring guests that take part in mini story arcs that span a portion of a season. Occasionally, the recurring guest storylines will span multiple seasons. The plot follows a young Clark Kent, in the fictional town of Smallville, Kansas, as he journeys toward becoming Superman. Additionally, the series chronicles Lex Luthor's path to the dark side, and his metamorphosis from Clark's best friend to greatest enemy. Smallville depicts the relationship between Clark and his first love interest, Lana Lang, as well as his relationship with Lois Lane, the woman he ultimately marries in the comic books. The series also features recurring appearances from other DC Universe characters, such as Arthur Curry and John Jones. With five months devoted to casting for the pilot, Gough and Miller cast ultimately hired eight actors to take on the role of series regulars for the first season. Since then, only two characters from the first season have remained regulars through to the tenth season, with eight new actors taking on lead roles from seasons two through nine. Four of those new actors began as recurring guests in their first seasonal appearance, but were given top billing the following season. As the series progresses, recurring guests appear at various times to help move the overall storyline of the show or just provide a side-story arc for one of the main characters, such as Brainiac or Adam Knight. Other recurring guests appear as background characters, showing up for only a few scenes, which includes characters like Sheriff Nancy Adams or Dr. Virgil Swann. ## Main characters According to co-creator Miles Millar, "unlike most shows, which pick up in January and you've got four weeks [...] to do your casting", Millar and co-creator Al Gough had five months to cast their lead characters. In October 2000, the two producers began their search for the three lead roles, and had casting directors in ten different cities. The following is a list of all the characters that are, or at one time were, a main character in the show. During its first season, Smallville had eight regular characters. Six characters from the original cast left the show, with eight new characters coming in over the course of nine seasons. The following is a list of series regulars who appear in one or more of the series' ten seasons. The characters are listed in the order they were first credited in the series. = Main cast (credited) = Recurring cast (4+) = Guest cast (1–3) ### Clark Kent Portrayed by Tom Welling, Clark Kent is an alien being from a planet called Krypton with superhuman abilities, which he uses to help others in danger. Clark is adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent in the series pilot, when he crash lands to Earth as a three-year-old child. Twelve years later, he tries to find his place in life after being told he is an alien by his adoptive father. For most of the series, Clark spends his time running from his Kryptonian heritage, going as far as leaving Smallville, abandoning a quest his biological father Jor-El sends him on in search of three Kryptonian stones of knowledge, continuing his training at the Fortress of Solitude, and unwittingly unleashing a Kryptonian criminal from the Phantom Zone when he refuses to kill Lex. ### Lana Lang Portrayed by Kristin Kreuk, Lana Lang is one of Clark Kent's friends and on-again-off-again girlfriend. In the first season, Lana and Clark's friendship is just beginning, as she is dating Whitney Fordman during this time. After Whitney leaves for the Marines in the season one finale, Lana and Clark slowly begin to try to start a romantic relationship. In season seven, Lana leaves Smallville, leaving behind a DVD explaining to Clark that, even though she loves him, the only way for him to help the world to the best of his ability would be if she left him and Smallville for good. ### Lex Luthor Michael Rosenbaum portrays Lex Luthor, the son of billionaire Lionel Luthor, who is sent to Smallville to run the local fertilizer plant. After Clark saves his life in the pilot episode, the two become quick friends. Over the course of seven seasons—beginning on the day Clark rescues him from drowning—Lex tries to uncover the secrets that Clark keeps. Lex's curiosity eventually leads to a blowout between him and Clark in the season three finale. Lex's investigations ultimately lead to him discovering the truth about Clark's alien heritage in the season seven finale. ### Whitney Fordman Eric Johnson appears as Whitney Fordman, Lana's boyfriend, in season one. While initially friendly to Clark, he soon makes fun of Clark and Lana's budding friendship, going so far as to bully Clark in the series pilot. Whitney is forced to run the family business when his father is stricken with a heart disease in the episode "Shimmer". He ultimately loses his football scholarship, and in the episode "Kinetic" he starts ignoring Lana, and begins hanging around with past high school football stars, who recruit him for their illegal endeavors. He eventually reconciles with Clark and Lana before joining the Marines in the season one finale and leaving the show. Whitney has made a guest appearance in the season two episode "Visage", where it is revealed he died in combat overseas, and the season four episode "Façade", during a flashback of Clark's freshman year. Eric Johnson auditioned for the roles of Lex and Clark, before finally being cast as Whitney Fordman. When the producers called him in for a third audition, Johnson informed them that if they wanted him then they would bring him in for a screen-test. After the screen-test, Johnson was cast and spent only one day filming his scenes for the pilot. The producers, along with Johnson, wanted to portray Whitney as more than just the "stereotypical jock" that he could have easily become, in an effort to make sure Lana did not look stupid for going out with him. Whitney was given multiple storylines in season one in an effort to get audiences to view the character in a more pleasant light, but Kristin Kreuk felt that it was all for naught, as the audience only sees him through Clark's eyes. Johnson realized after reading the script for the pilot episode that his character was not going to be around for the entirety of the series. This became even clearer when his character's storylines began to develop quickly. While filming "Obscura", Johnson was informed that his character would not be returning as a series regular for season two. Initially fearing that he had made some mistake and that they were going to kill his character off, Johnson learned that Whitney would be enlisting into the Marines. The actor has expressed his pleasure in the way the writers handled Whitney's departure, by giving the character the exit of a hero. ### Pete Ross Sam Jones III plays Pete Ross, another of Clark's best friends. He hates the Luthors for what he sees as their thievery of his family's creamed corn business, and is the first person Clark voluntarily informs of his secret. It is established in season three's "Truth", that Pete is in love with Chloe. He kept this truth to himself because of the Clark–Lana–Chloe love triangle already taking place. In season three's "Velocity", Pete, feeling alienated by Clark, begins hanging around a group of street racers. When Pete refuses to throw a race, his life is put in jeopardy, and he forces Clark to abuse his powers in order to help Pete win a race. This leads to a falling out between the two friends. The character was written out of the series at the end of season three, citing the trouble keeping Clark's secret was causing him. Pete returns to Smallville in season seven's "Hero", after gaining superhuman abilities from kryptonite-enhanced chewing gum, which allow him to stretch his body to extreme lengths. It is revealed that Pete initially blames Clark for his life not turning out the way he intended. Lex learns about Pete's powers and blackmails him into abusing his powers for Lex's personal gain. Clark steps in and saves Pete, and the pair mend their relationship before Pete leaves Smallville again, setting out to get his life in order. Sam Jones III was the last of the season one series regulars to be cast–being hired just four days before filming for the pilot episode began. Jones, who is African American, was also cast against the Superman mythology where Pete Ross is Caucasian. Jones has stated that he would have understood if the producers had simply created a black character for him to portray, but the fact that they chose to go with him, even though the character has always been white, gave him more honor to be a part of the show. During the first season, Jones felt like he should have more screen time, but later conceded that the show was about Clark's journey and that the other characters are there to help his story move along. Jones was not alone in his wish to get more screen time; the writers, who were reading Internet forums and receiving mail from the audience that requested the same thing, decided that Pete would learn Clark's secret in season two. The creative team hoped that knowing Clark's secret would allow the character to be written into more scenes, and become involved on a daily basis with the Kent family. Ultimately, Pete's primary story arc in season three became the character's inability to deal with knowing Clark's secret, and his growing feeling of abandonment from Clark, who was spending more time with Chloe, Lana and Lex. Millar explains that they felt that the character was being wasted on Smallville, and that led to the decision of writing the character off the show with the hope that he could come back in future episodes. There was dissension between the cast and crew over Jones's departure. According to Annette O'Toole (Martha Kent), Clark needs a guy friend in his life, and she feels that the Kents would have taken Pete in when his parents left Smallville. Though Gough does not disagree that writing out Pete Ross was the best thing, he does feel that his exit could have gone better. According to Gough, Pete's departure felt rushed, and seemed to lack the importance that it should have had. ### Chloe Sullivan Allison Mack portrays one of Clark's best friends, Chloe Sullivan. Editor of the school newspaper, her journalistic curiosity—always wanting to "expose falsehoods" and "know the truth"—causes tension with her friends, especially when she is digging into Clark's past. She discovers Clark's secret in the fourth-season episode "Pariah". ### Martha Kent Martha Kent, Clark's adopted mother, is portrayed by Annette O'Toole. Martha, along with her husband Jonathan, gives Clark sage advice about how to cope with his growing abilities. In season two, Martha becomes pregnant with her first child—in the season two episode "Fever", Clark's spaceship heals her body and allows her to have children, something she physically could not do when she adopted Clark—but in season two's finale she suffers a miscarriage after an automobile accident. In order to help the family financially, Martha takes a job as Lionel Luthor's assistant in season two, but quits her job the same season in the episode "Suspect" for undisclosed reasons. She eventually takes over management duties at the local coffee shop, the Talon, in season four. She continues to manage the Talon into season five until Jonathan dies from a heart attack, which ultimately leads to her taking his state senate seat at the request of the Kansas Governor in season five's "Tomb". This eventually paves the way to a job in Washington, D.C. in season six's "Prototype", and the character's exit from the show. Martha would return in the season nine episode "Hostage", where it is revealed that she has been going under the code name "Red Queen" of Checkmate while she attempts to keep Clark off of the government agency Checkmate's radar. She ultimately leaves Clark with a means to send the season's threat, cloned Kryptonians, to another plane of existence. In the season nine finale, it is revealed that before Martha traveled back to Washington, D.C. that she left Clark a new costume to wear while he defends Earth. The role of Martha Kent was originally given to Cynthia Ettinger, but during filming everyone, including Ettinger, realized that she was not right for the role. O'Toole was committed to the television series The Huntress when Ettinger was filming her scenes for the pilot. Around the time the creators were looking to recast the role of Martha Kent The Huntress was canceled, which allowed O'Toole the chance to join the cast of Smallville. Coincidentally, the actress had previously portrayed Lana Lang in Superman III. O'Toole thinks that the producers wanted someone older for the role of Martha, and when she came in to talk to the producers everyone appeared to be on the same page with what the character and the show should be about. O'Toole characterizes Martha as really intelligent, but believes the character has to hide her intelligence at times "to keep the peace". Feeling like her character was wasting her college degree O'Toole suggested to the producers that Martha go to work for Lex during the second season. The producers agreed, but altered the concept so that Martha went to work for Lionel, and that she would use this new position to spy on Lionel and find out what he knows about Clark. Disappointed when the storyline ended quickly into the second season, O'Toole hoped that the secret her character was holding in "Ryan" was that Martha was going to run for Mayor. In O'Toole's opinion, Martha needs some form of outlet for intelligence. To the chagrin of O'Toole, Martha's next storyline—the expectation of a new child—tied the character to the farm in a way the actress did not agree with. O'Toole wanted to perform as if the pregnancy was fake—something mentally created by Clark's ship—but the producers insisted that she wear the pregnancy pads to indicate that she was indeed pregnant. Ultimately, that storyline ended with Martha losing the baby to a miscarriage. Before season four began, O'Toole suggested again to the producers that Martha go to work for Lex. O'Toole had enjoyed the moments in the show when she was working for Lionel, because it gave her character something more to do, and she wanted to do that again for season four. The producers took her suggestion and had Martha take a job at the Talon, which was owned by Lex, and which O'Toole felt allowed Martha to interact more with the other characters in Clark's life. O'Toole relished the opportunity that came with Jonathan's passing, even though she was saddened to see a friend leave the show. Martha taking the senate seat was a chance to explore more adult stories with her character beginning midway through season five, which was important for the actress since Clark was becoming an adult on the show. It also allowed for O'Toole the chance to depict "strong emotions" over Jonathan's death. Al Gough feels that Jonathan's passing allowed for them to explore more of Martha's smart and strong side, as well as her relationship with Lionel. The idea was to show that there was some form of attraction between Martha and Lionel, but that Martha would never have any romantic relationship with the billionaire, especially after all that he had done to her family. O'Toole likens Martha's interest in Lionel with that of watching a dangerous animal: "It's that attraction you have for a very beautiful, dangerous animal. You know you can't stop watching it, but at the same time you feel, 'Oh my God, he's going to kill me'". The actress believes that Martha's ultimate motivation was to get close enough to Lionel to know what he is planning to do to Clark. When it came time for Martha to leave the show, writer Todd Slavkin contends that they wanted to give the character "more of a send-off" than they achieved on film. Slavkin explains that they could not do anything equivalent to what they gave John Schneider, as there were already so many storylines going on by the season six finale that they could not fit anything else in. The writers also realized that they could not kill off the character, and so chose to send her to the US Senate, creating a parallel to Clark where Martha fights injustice on the political stage. ### Jonathan Kent John Schneider portrays Jonathan Kent, Martha's husband and Clark's adopted father. He goes to great lengths to protect his son's secret, which includes: almost killing a reporter, in the season two premiere, who was going to expose Clark's secret to the world, and making a deal to allow Clark's biological father, Jor-El, to take Clark to fulfill his destiny if Jor-El gave Jonathan the power to bring Clark home—Clark had run away after believing his parents blamed him for Martha's miscarriage. As a result, season three's "Hereafter" explains that Jonathan's heart was strained while he was imbued with all of Clark's powers. In season five, Jonathan decides to run for a seat in the Kansas Senate against Lex Luthor. In the season five episode "Reckoning", Jonathan wins the senatorial seat, but after a physical altercation with Lionel Luthor, who he believed was trying to exploit Clark's abilities, Jonathan suffers a fatal heart attack. Millar and Gough loved the idea of casting John Schneider as Jonathan Kent, as they felt he gave the show a recognizable face from his days as Bo Duke from The Dukes of Hazzard. Gough felt that Schneider's experience portraying Bo Duke added belief that he could have grown up running a farm. Schneider was initially uninterested, but after reading the pilot script he saw the potential for bringing back "real parenting" to television. Schneider particularly saw his character as a means to replace the "goof" father-figures that had become prevalent on television. He also saw his character as a means to keep the show grounded in reality, specifically by making sure that Jonathan's life is clearly displayed for the audience, by performing a daily routine on the farm. According to Schneider, Jonathan is "perfectly willing to go to jail, or worse, to protect his son". The actor characterizes Jonathan as fast to lose his temper, which Schneider views as being a development of his protective nature over his family. Schneider believes that the season two episode "Suspect"—where Jonathan is arrested, but his sole concern is protecting Clark's secret—summarizes the character well, and shows that the "least important person in Jonathan's life is Jonathan". Schneider admits that occasionally he and Annette O'Toole have to "police" the creative team when it comes to the relationship between Martha, Jonathan, and Clark. According to Schneider, there are moments where they have to make sure that the characters are not taken to a place they would not normally go, specifically where the parents are useless without the "innate intelligence of [their] teenager". Tom Welling feels that the deal Jonathan made with Jor-El at the beginning of season three made Jonathan realize that he will not always be around to protect Clark. Welling believes that it is the repercussions of that deal that allow Jonathan to give Clark more freedom in the choices that he makes during season three. Jonathan realizes that he must help Clark find the confidence in his ability to survive on his own, so that he can leave home one day. One scene that Schneider specifically remembers was at the end of season three's "Forsaken". Here, Jonathan admits to not trusting his own instincts anymore and allowing Clark to rely on his. This "admission of fallibility", but faith in his son's ability to make the right choices, is what Schneider sees as the growing of the family dynamic. For season three, Jonathan also has to deal with his emerging heart problems. For Schneider, the "treatments" and "cures" that his character underwent were all for nothing, as the actor believes that Jonathan's heart attack at the end of "Hereafter" was less of a real heart attack and more of Jor-El trying to get Jonathan's attention. A heart condition is not new to the character, as it has been used in previous incarnations, like Glenn Ford's portrayal of Jonathan Kent in Richard Donner's Superman, as well as the comic books. In contrast to those versions, it was Smallville that tied his heart condition to a deal that he makes with Jor-El. When the moment came for his character to die, Schneider considers the event an "empowering death", which he likens to John Wayne's character death as Wil Andersen in The Cowboys. ### Lionel Luthor John Glover portrays Lex's father, Lionel Luthor. Lionel initially sends his son to Smallville to run the local fertilizer plant, as a test. When Lex succeeds in making a profit for the first time in years, Lionel closes the plant down completely and blames it on Lex's poor managerial skills. As the series progresses, Lionel becomes interested in the Kawatche caves, which have Kryptonian symbols painted on their walls; his interests also extend to the secrets Clark keeps. After being possessed by Jor-El in the season five episode "Hidden", Lionel begins assisting Clark in keeping his secret hidden from Lex. In season seven, Lionel is murdered by Lex, who realizes that his father has been covering up the truth about an alien visitor. ### Jason Teague Jensen Ackles appears in season four as Jason Teague, a love interest for Lana. The pair meet in Paris, while Lana is studying abroad. When she leaves unexpectedly in the season four episode "Gone", Jason follows Lana back to Smallville and takes a position as the school's assistant football coach. In season four's "Transference", Jason is fired from the school when his relationship with Lana comes to light. By the end of the fourth season, it is revealed that he has been working with his mother Genevieve (Jane Seymour) to locate the three stones of knowledge — three Kryptonian stones that when united form a single crystal that creates Clark's Fortress of Solitude. The Teagues kidnap Lex and Lionel in an effort to discover the location of one of the stones in the episode "Forever", with Lionel claiming that Lana has one of the stones. In the season four finale, Genevieve confronts Lana, and the two women get into a struggle with Genevieve dying by Lana's hand. Jason, who believes that the secret of the stones lies with Clark, heads to the Kent farm where he holds Jonathan and Martha hostage. He is killed during the second meteor shower, when a meteor falls through the Kent home and lands on him. The creation of Jason Teague was something handed down by the network, who wanted Lana to have a new boyfriend—one who was "different from Clark". Gough and Millar were apprehensive because they were already introducing Lois Lane into the series, and introducing two new characters would be difficult. The pair thought about where the relationship between Clark and Lana had left off at the end of season three, and they realized that Clark had turned his back on Lana. Gough and Millar began to like the idea of bringing in a new character, one that would create a new love triangle; eventually they tied him into the larger storyline involving the three Kryptonian stones of knowledge. According to writer Brian Peterson, where Clark brings "angst" and "depth" to his relationship with Lana, Jason is designed to bring "joy", "levity", and "fun". On the topic of Jason's relationship with Lana, Ackles believes the character did love Lana, because he saw an innocence in her that had not been able to experience growing up in the upper class society; Jason grew up having to question the actions of his mother, and with Lana he had the opportunity to experience an honest relationship. Ackles was Gough and Millar's first choice to play Jason Teague, as the actor had been the runner up for the role of Clark Kent when they were casting for the pilot. Ackles was contracted to remain through season five, but was written out of the show in the season four finale, which, according to Ackles, was due to his commitments to the WB's new series Supernatural. Gough contends that Supernatural did not alter any of their plans, and that Jason Teague was intended to be a single season character. ### Lois Lane Erica Durance first appears in season four as Chloe's cousin, Lois Lane. Lois comes to Smallville investigating the supposed death of Chloe, staying with the Kents while she is in town. In season five's "Fanatic", Lois takes a job as Jonathan's Chief of Staff when he runs for state senate; she continues these duties when Martha takes Jonathan's place following his death. After some reservation, Lois decides that she is interested in journalism and takes a job at a tabloid newspaper called The Inquisitor. This eventually lands her a position at the Daily Planet. ### Jimmy Olsen Jimmy Olsen is first mentioned in season four as the person Chloe lost her virginity to while interning at the Daily Planet. He makes his official appearance, portrayed by Aaron Ashmore, in the season six opener. Working as a photographer for the Daily Planet, Jimmy rekindles his relationship with Chloe in the season six episode "Wither". In the episode "Hydro", Jimmy works with Lois to uncover the true identity of Green Arrow, and in season seven, when Lois is hired by the Daily Planet, the pair work together on finding stories for the paper. In the season seven episode "Sleeper", Jimmy falls into Lex's debt when Lex, at Jimmy's request, keeps Chloe from being arrested by the Department of Domestic Security for hacking into their government files. In the season seven finale, Lex goes back on his word and has Chloe arrested, just as Jimmy proposes marriage. After being saved by Oliver Queen and Clark in the season eight premiere, Chloe is reunited with Jimmy and accepts his marriage proposal. In "Committed", a deranged jeweler kidnaps Jimmy and Chloe after their engagement party and subjects them to a torturous test to see if they truly love each other—they both pass and are allowed to return to their normal lives. In the season eight episode "Identity", Jimmy begins to suspect that Clark is the "Good Samaritan", an individual who has been stopping crimes and saving people's lives around Metropolis, until Oliver Queen dresses up as the "Good Samaritan" to help Clark trick Jimmy into believing he was mistaken. In the eighth-season episode "Bride", Jimmy and Chloe are officially married, but Doomsday crashes their wedding and kidnaps Chloe, leaving Jimmy in the hospital because of injuries sustained from Doomsday. In "Turbulence", Jimmy witnesses Davis Bloome murdering someone, but when he tries to warn people Davis drugs him and makes it appear as though he is hallucinating. Eventually, Jimmy ends his marriage to Chloe after getting fed up with her always taking Davis's side. In the season eight finale, Davis murders Jimmy after learning that Chloe is still in love with her ex-husband, and was never in love with him. Ashmore indicates that his casting was both a surprise and what he wanted. The actor states: "I auditioned for [the role] and I put myself on tape. I hadn't heard anything, and a couple of weeks later, all of the sudden, I got the call saying, 'You're going to Vancouver to start shooting Smallville.' It's a dream come true, really". Aaron Ashmore's twin, Shawn, who is better known as Bobby "Iceman" Drake in the X-Men film series, appeared in two episodes of Smallville as the power leeching Eric Summers and had been considered for the part of Jimmy Olsen in Superman Returns. After three seasons with the show, two as a series regular, Ashmore was written out of the series. According to Ashmore, when the producers were first trying to get permission to use the character on Smallville, DC Comics had qualms over how close Jimmy was in age to Clark and Lois, as the character was supposed to be at least ten years younger. The producers guaranteed the department they would eventually reveal the Jimmy Olsen who appeared on the show was not the Jimmy Olsen who would one day work alongside Clark and Lois. At the character's funeral, his full name is shown to be "Henry James Olsen", and it is alluded that Jimmy's younger brother, who is given a brief appearance at the funeral, is the DC Comics version of Jimmy Olsen who will one day work at the Daily Planet with Clark and Lois. Although Ashmore was sad to leave the show, he feels that the redemptive story that was given to Jimmy in the finale, through the self-sacrifice he makes for Chloe, makes a good send off for his character. ### Kara Laura Vandervoort joined the cast in season seven as Kara, Clark's Kryptonian cousin. She arrived on Earth at the same time as Clark, with the mission to protect her cousin, but was stuck in suspended animation for eighteen years. In the season seven premiere, Kara is released from suspended animation and saves Lex from drowning. A brief glimpse of Kara flying into the sky results in Lex's new obsession with finding the "angel" that saved his life. Kara eventually finds Clark, in the episode "Kara", who informs her that Krypton was destroyed when the two of them were sent to Earth, and everyone there is dead. Clark teaches Kara to control some of her abilities, and at the same time blend into society while building a familial relationship with her. In season seven's "Lara", Kara is captured by the Department of Domestic Security and tortured, where she relives one of her early memories of visiting Earth with Clark's mother, Lara. She realizes that her perceptions of her father were wrong and that he was as evil as Clark said. Kara and Clark work together to fight her father, Zor-El, who was unwittingly released when Clark attempted to create a clone of his biological mother in the episode "Blue". When Zor-El is destroyed at the end of the battle, Kara disappears from the Fortress of Solitude. She awakens in Detroit with amnesia and none of her abilities. In the episode "Fracture", Kara is discovered and brought home by Lex, who wants to exploit her amnesia to his benefit, with the intent of discovering the truth about Clark. In season seven's "Traveler", Chloe convinces Jor-El to return Kara's memory and powers before Lex can learn her and Clark's secret. When Lana is placed in a catatonic state by Brainiac in the episode "Veritas", Kara agrees to cooperate with him in the hope that he will not kill Lana. In "Apocalypse", Kara is taken through time to Krypton, just before it explodes, so that Brainiac can kill the infant Clark. With Jor-El's help, Clark manages to arrive on Krypton and stop Brainiac. Unknown to Clark, Brainiac is not killed in their fight on Krypton, and he manages to place Kara in the Phantom Zone, while he assumes her identity back on Earth. In the season eight episode "Bloodline", Clark is transported to the Phantom Zone, where he finds Kara. Working together they escape, and Kara leaves Earth to search for Kandor, a city rumored to hold surviving citizens of Krypton. Vandervoort does not return as a series regular for the eighth season, but returns as a guest star in the season eight episode "Bloodline", and season ten episodes "Supergirl" and "Prophecy". ### Tess Mercer Cassidy Freeman portrays Tess Mercer, the acting CEO of LuthorCorp, who is Lex Luthor's protégé tasked to run the company should something ever happen to him. The character is loosely based on Lena Luthor from the comics, and the name "Tess Mercer" is a homage to two female characters from Superman lore, Eve Teschmacher and Mercy Graves, who are both Lex's henchwomen. As Freeman describes her character, Tess Mercer is Lex's handpicked successor; she is "fierce", "fun" and "intelligent". Debuting in season eight, Tess Mercer's primary goal is finding the missing Lex, which draws her inquisitively to Clark, who she believes will be able to help her find Lex. Tess's first contact with Clark is when he pulls her from a wrecked city bus in the episode "Plastique"; she immediately suspects that Clark is not telling her all that he knows about Lex's disappearance. That same episode reveals that Tess is bringing together a group of meteor-infected individuals, and in "Plastique" she recruits Bette, a young girl with the power to create combustion and explosion remotely. In the episode "Prey", Tess enlists a young man who can turn himself into a shadow. In "Toxic", it is revealed that Tess had a prior romantic relationship with Oliver Queen after she saved his life while he was stranded on an island, but broke up bitterly when he cheated on her. In the season eight episodes "Instinct" and "Bloodline", Tess learns about Krypton and the name "Kal-El", though she does not attribute any of the information directly to Clark. In "Bulletproof", it is revealed that Tess knows where Lex is. Here, Lana informs Tess that Lex surgically implanted a nano-transmitter into Tess's optic nerve so that he could keep an eye on everything she is doing. Visibly upset by this, Tess places a jamming device into her necklace to disrupt the signal, but not before telling Lex that she will cut him off from the outside world and sell off everything that he owns. In the episode "Requiem", Tess sold controlling interest in LuthorCorp to Queen Industries. In "Turbulence", Tess tries to get Clark to reveal his powers after she read one of Lionel Luthor's journals that identified Clark as "The Traveler", but her effort failed. In the episode "Eternal", it is shown that Tess has the Kryptonian orb that brought down the Fortress of Solitude, and in "Injustice" a disembodied voice emanates from the orb revealing that Tess's recent actions to get Clark to reveal his powers and kill Doomsday are because the voice was instructing her to do so. In the season eight finale, the orb activates itself and transports Zod to Smallville. After having her face burned in the season nine finale, Tess wakes up in the season ten premiere, with her face healed, in a secret lab surrounded by clones of Lex. In the tenth-season episode "Abandoned", it is revealed that Tess was born Lutessa Lena Luthor and is the illegitimate daughter of Lionel Luthor, conceived with Lex's nanny, Pamela Jenkins. She was brought, by Lionel, to an orphanage run by Granny Goodness when she was 5 years old. Shortly after Tess arrived at the orphanage, Lionel returned and removed Tess from Granny Goodness's guardianship. Granny Goodness wiped most of Tess's memories before Lionel put Tess up for adoption with the Mercer family. In the series finale, Tess is killed by the revived Lex Luthor after she administers a neurotoxin that removes all of the clone's memories in an effort to protect Clark's secret identity. In the season eleven comic, the neurotoxin caused a psychic link between the two, which caused her consciousness to leave her body and enter Lex's brain, when her body passed away. Eventually, Tess's friends discover this and have her consciousness uploaded into the computer system at Watchtower. At the conclusion of season 11, Tess downloads herself into an android body and becomes Red Tornado. ### Davis Bloome Sam Witwer portrays Davis Bloome, a paramedic for Metropolis General Hospital. He first appears in the season eight episode "Plastique", assisting Chloe with helping an injured person after a bomb explosion. In the episode "Toxic", Chloe calls on his help when Oliver is poisoned and refuses to be taken to a hospital. In "Prey", Clark begins to suspect that Davis is a serial killer after he finds Davis unconscious at one of the murder scenes, and learns later that Davis is usually the first paramedic to arrive on similar scenes. Davis starts to suspect the same thing himself when he begins to lose track of large portions of time, and finds himself covered in blood, but with no wounds on his own body. Davis is informed by Faora, the wife of General Zod, that after the pair learned they could not have children that he was genetically created to adapt to any injury and to be Earth's ultimate destroyer. In "Abyss", Davis confesses to Chloe that he is in love with her, and believes that she is marrying the wrong man; as a result she asks him to not see her again. On Chloe's wedding day, in the episode "Bride", Davis transforms into the hulking monster called Doomsday, and travels to Smallville where he injures Jimmy and kidnaps Chloe. In the episode "Infamous", Davis discovers that he can keep Doomsday from emerging if he kills, and subsequently begins choosing criminals as his victims. He subsequently learns that Chloe's presence will also keep the monster at bay in the episode "Turbulence", and in "Beast" Davis and Chloe leave town together so that Davis can keep Doomsday from coming out. In the season eight finale, Chloe uses black kryptonite to separate Davis from Doomsday, leaving him human; when Davis discovers that Chloe does not love him he stabs Jimmy with a pipe. Before Davis can attack Chloe, Jimmy pushes him into a metal rod, which results in Davis's death before Jimmy himself dies. Davis is actually Smallvilles interpretation of the comic book character Doomsday, the only character to have succeeded at killing Superman. In Smallville, Doomsday is represented as a "nice guy" paramedic, who grew up moving from foster home to foster home. His storyline is considered "very dark" in that the character uncovers horrible truths about himself as season eight progresses. Brian Peterson explained that he, and the rest of the new executive producers, were looking for a villainous character that was "as great as Lex", with Michael Rosenbaum's departure at the end of the seventh season, and Doomsday fit what they were looking for. Although Witwer portrays Davis Bloome, who becomes the creature known as Doomsday, he does not actually wear the prosthetic body suit that was created for when Davis transforms into his monstrous counterpart. Instead Dario Delacio, a stunt double who stands at 6 feet 8 inches (2.03 m), performs the role of "Doomsday" when the creature's monster form appears throughout the season. ### Oliver Queen Justin Hartley portrays Oliver Queen, a billionaire who left Star City to live in Metropolis. While in Metropolis, Oliver masquerades at night as a costumed vigilante, named "Green Arrow" by Lois. He later formed the Justice League. Oliver leaves Metropolis in season six, after destroying one of Lex's secret 33.1 facilities, where Lex experiments on meteor-infected individuals against their will, but he returns in season eight where he and the other Justice League members search for Clark, after the latter goes missing when his Fortress of Solitude is destroyed. Hartley was a recurring guest in the sixth and seventh seasons, but became a series regular in season eight. ### Zod Callum Blue portrays Zod in season nine. Zod is first mentioned in season five's "Arrival", when two of his disciples arrive on Earth attempting to turn the planet into Kryptonian utopia. In the episode "Solitude", Brainiac attempts to release him from the Phantom Zone where it is revealed that Clark's biological father Jor-El placed Zod's spirit after destroying his physical form. In the season five finale, Zod is successfully transferred into Lex Luthor's body, after Clark unknowingly releases him from the Phantom Zone. Clark eventually pulls Zod's spirit out of Lex's body using a Kryptonian crystal of his father's in the season six premiere. In the season eight finale, the Kryptonian purple orb, which was used in the season seven finale to destroy the Fortress of Solitude and remove Clark's powers, appears at the Luthor Mansion and releases Zod in physical form. In the season nine premiere, it is revealed that when Zod was released from the orb, he was also accompanied by hundreds of other Kryptonians, many of which were scattered across the globe. In addition, none of them were given the powers that typically accompany Kryptonians under the yellow Sun. Season nine episode "Kandor" reveals that the Kandorians are in fact clones created by Jor-El—at the orders of the Kryptonian Council—who also corrupted their DNA to prevent them from having powers and subsequently enslaving Earth. Eventually, Zod acquires his abilities when Clark saves Zod's life by healing a gunshot wound with his own blood in the episode "Conspiracy". Zod subsequently gives the rest of the Kandorians powers, using his blood to renew their lifeforce, and then wages a war on Earth in the season nine finale. Reluctant at first, Clark uses the Book of Rao to send all Kryptonians on Earth to another plane of existence where they can live in peace. In an interview, executive producers Brian Peterson and Kelly Souders explained that this version of Zod is different from the one who appeared in prior seasons. The executives classified this incarnation as "Major Zod", as opposed to his typical "General Zod" identifier, and explained that throughout season nine "the venomous side of Zod rises because he experiences a few key betrayals with our beloved characters". ## Recurring characters The following is a list of characters that are recurring on the series; they are listed in the order that they first appeared on the show. Seventeen characters have had storylines that have spanned multiple seasons, while the others are restricted to arcs that occurred during a single season of the show. ### Sheriff Ethan Sheriff Ethan is portrayed by Mitchell Kosterman in seventeen episodes spanning seasons one and two. Kosterman's first scene as Ethan came in "Jitters", which was originally scheduled to be the third episode of season one but was pushed back to eighth. Season one's "Rogue" introduced the idea Sheriff Ethan had a history with Jonathan, and it was that moment that Kosterman felt like he was more than a background image for the show. That history was used against Jonathan in season two's "Suspect", when Ethan framed him for the attempted murder of Lionel Luthor. Ethan's subterfuge was discovered by Clark and Pete, who set up a scheme of their own to bring Ethan's action to light, which resulted in Ethan's surrender and arrest. Kosterman, who has played law enforcement officials before, initially turned down the role. After his agent informed him it would be a recurring role, and the producers were willing to pay him more than he made on any previous show, Kosterman decided to take the job. To executive producers Mark Verheiden and Greg Beeman, making Ethan the villain in "Suspect" was the ultimate "red herring" for audiences. Sheriff Ethan was originally going to take a nurse hostage, but the ending was rewritten to leave Ethan as more of a sympathetic character. Mitchell prefers the filmed ending, as he could not see any reason why his character would suddenly become evil. The actor believes his character fell into the established theme of "good people being pushed to do the wrong thing by bad people like Lionel Luthor". ### Dr. Helen Bryce Dr. Helen Bryce, portrayed by Emmanuelle Vaugier in nine episodes between seasons two and three, is a Smallville medical doctor who first appears in an anger management class Lex is sentenced to attend in the season two episode "Dichotic". She and Lex begin a romantic relationship which eventually turns into an engagement in season two's "Precipice". Her relationship with Lex concerns Jonathan when Helen—after taking a sample of blood from Clark during a period when he was infected by kryptonite—discovers Clark is not human in the episode "Fever". Helen promises Jonathan she will keep Clark's secret, but at the same time she does not destroy the vial of blood she took from Clark. As a result, the blood is stolen from her office in season two's "Calling", though it did not have Clark's name on it. Lex confesses he stole the vial of blood, which causes Helen to break up with him. Helen returns in the season two finale, where she forgives Lex and goes through with the marriage. Helen then drugs Lex on the way to their honeymoon, and leaves him to die in his LuthorCorp jet. When Lex returns in the season three episode "Phoenix", he orchestrates his own plan for revenge resulting in Helen's own disappearance while the two go on their second honeymoon. By the time of season two's nineteenth episode, the writers had decided Helen's fate. Originally, the character was going to die on her wedding night, but the creative team felt they could use her more in the mythology. Gough explains the idea Helen still had Clark's blood, she knew his secret, and her relationship with Lex was too good to write off. The creative team kept Helen's true motivations a secret to Vaugier, which the actress enjoyed because it allowed her to play the character as if there were no ulterior motives. ### Dr. Virgil Swann Christopher Reeve appears twice as Virgil Swann, a scientist who was able to translate the Kryptonian language. Swann first meets Clark in the season two episode "Rosetta", where he explains his team of scientists intercepted a message from space and were able to translate it based on a mathematical key which accompanied the transmission. Swann informs Clark his birth name is Kal-El, and that he comes from a planet called Krypton, destroyed just after he was sent to Earth. When Lionel begins piecing together the alien language on the Kawatche cave walls, and Clark's constant presence at the caves, he seeks out Swann for the answers in the season three episode "Legacy". Swann, though he denies knowing how to read the symbols in the caves, agrees to help Lionel when he correctly guesses Lionel is dying; how Swann helps Lionel is not made clear. In season four's "Sacred", it is revealed that Swann died, but not before sending Clark the octagonal disk from Clark's ship, which had been missing since season three's "Legacy". Gough and Millar always had intentions of bringing Christopher Reeve onto the show. When the pair learned Reeve enjoyed watching Smallville, Gough and Millar decided they were going to bring him on for season two. They had already crafted a character, Dr. Virgil Swann, they knew would reveal the truth about Krypton to Clark, and they decided Reeve would be perfect for the part. According to Gough and Millar, it was "natural" for Reeve to be the one to educate Clark about his past, and help him see his future. As Gough describes it, the scene between Clark and Dr. Swann is a "passing of the torch" moment for the series. Gough and Millar explain the importance of the character: "Dr. Swann provided the first tantalizing answers to the quest plaguing Clark for all of his young life. 'Where am I from?' 'What happened to my parents?' 'Am I truly alone?" The creative team flew to New York to film Reeve's scenes since he used a wheelchair and required additional assistance when travelling. Although James Marshall directed the episode, for Reeve's scenes in New York the Smallville crew sent Greg Beeman as a stand-in director. Gough, Welling and Mat Beck travelled alongside Beeman to New York, where John Wells, who had previously lent his White House office on The West Wing to the Smallville crew for season one's "Hourglass", allowed the team to use the production offices from Third Watch for Reeve's scenes. There was initial concern over Reeve's stamina for shooting the scenes, as his particular scene with Welling was six pages long, which translated to approximately twelve hours of work day. Beeman tried to design everything so it was as simple as possible, but Reeve quickly readjusted the scene. Beeman originally had Welling walk into frame and stand in front of Reeve, and then make a single move behind Reeve. Beeman was told, by Reeve, the scene needed more dynamic between the characters, and if Welling only made a single move, the dynamic would be lost. According to Reeve, "Tom moving around me will hide the fact that I'm unable to move". Beeman's fear of overstretching Reeve's stamina, because of the added shots to the scene, were put to rest when Reeve himself stated it did not matter how long it took to finish the scene, as long as it turned out great. Reeve was directing Yankee Irving when Smallville was gearing up to film the fourth season opener. As a result, Reeve could not reprise his role as Dr. Swann, which was the intention. ### Sheriff Nancy Adams Camille Mitchell appears as Sheriff Nancy Adams in twenty-two episodes of Smallville, spanning the course of four seasons. Sheriff Adams makes her first appearance in the season two episode "Precipice", when she arrests Clark for getting into a fight with another patron of the Talon coffee shop. In the season five episode "Lockdown", Adams is killed by two rogue police officers looking for the black, alien ship which landed during the second meteor shower. Mitchell makes a guest appearance as Nancy Adams in season seven's "Apocalypse". In this episode, Clark is taken to an alternate reality where Adams, an agent for the Department of Domestic Security, is providing Lois with inside information on President Lex Luthor's operations. Camille Mitchell had auditioned for the role of Byron's mother in season two's "Nocturne"; Greg Beeman had remembered the audition and had the actress come in to read for the role of Sheriff Adams. Mitchell did some research for the role, talking with female law enforcement officers to gain an understanding of how they evaluate situations. Mitchell views her character as a "down-to-earth sheriff" that carries with her a "farmer's common sense". The actress believes a character like Nancy Adams lends to the realism the show tries to portray within its comic book environment. Gough describes Sheriff Adams as "a cross between Holly Hunter and the sheriff in Fargo". ### Jor-El Terence Stamp has voiced the disembodied spirit of Jor-El, Clark's biological father, in nineteen episodes from season two through season nine. Jor-El first appears to Clark as a voice emanating from the spaceship that brought Clark to Earth, informing him it is time to leave Smallville and fulfill his destiny. In season three's "Relic", it is revealed Jor-El came to Smallville as a "rite of passage" by his own father. It is deduced by Clark that Jor-El chose the Kent family to be Clark's adoptive family after having a positive experience with Jonathan's father. In the season three finale, Jor-El tricks Clark into leaving Smallville. Jor-El returns Clark three months later, reprogrammed as "Kal-El" to seek out the three stones of knowledge so he can fulfill his destiny, but Clark regains his memories and stops looking for the three stones. Eventually, Clark is forced to find all three stones, which results in the creation of the Fortress of Solitude in the season five premiere. There, Jor-El informs Clark he needs to begin his training in order to complete his destiny, but Clark interrupts the training to go back to Smallville, which forces Jor-El to strip Clark of his powers. When Clark is killed in his mortal body in season five's "Hidden", Jor-El resurrects Clark with his powers; as a result, Jonathan's life is traded for Clark's in the episode "Reckoning". Clark's consistent disobedience forces Jor-El to imprison his son in a block of ice in the season seven episode "Blue", but after learning a clone of Clark has returned to Smallville in "Persona", Jor-El frees his son so he can take care of the creature. When Clark thinks a world without him would be better, Jor-El sends Clark to an alternate reality to show him the world would be worse if he did not exist in it. By the start of season nine, Jor-El begins fully training Clark for his ultimate destiny. As part of that training, Jor-El informs Clark he needs to tune his Kryptonian intuition. To do so, Jor-El gives Clark the ability to read people's thoughts, only to take it away at an important moment and force Clark to apply what he has learned about human behavior. A clone of Jor-El is released on Earth in the episode "Kandor", but he is murdered before he can fully reunite with Clark and is only able to share a single moment with his son before dying. Terence Stamp's name was deliberately kept out of the opening credits in order to keep the secret he was voicing Jor-El. Stamp originally portrayed General Zod in the first two Superman films, starring Christopher Reeve. Gough and Millar wanted to provide answers for certain aspects of the Superman mythology, so at the start of season three they tied Jonathan's heart condition to Jor-El, where Jonathan makes a deal with Jor-El to be given the power to bring Clark back. This power ultimately puts a strain on Jonathan's heart. The refusal by the film department to allow Smallville to cast a body as a physical representation of Jor-El forced the special effects crew to come up with a creative way to display some sort of aid to help the audience visualize this disembodied voice which was supposed to be talking to Jonathan in season three's "Exile". They decided to create a force field around whoever was speaking to Jor-El, which acted as Jor-El's voice, rippling as he spoke. To save money on this effect, the crew filmed John Schneider on a black backdrop, and Entity FX digitally added the force field around him. Wind machines and a spot light were added to help synthesize the atmosphere in the force field. At the time of season three's "Memoria", where a scene depicting Jor-El and Lara placing baby Kal-El into his ship before the destruction of Krypton was scripted, Warner Bros. was working on a new Superman film, and it was going to be an origin story, and as a result was still banning Smallville from showing Jor-El. Millar was forced to take inspiration from comic book scribe Jeph Loeb. In one of Loeb's book, Jor-El and Lara are depicted as just a pair of hands holding on to each other after they place Kal-El into his spaceship. In season nine, the producers were able to provide the character with a physical appearance, and Julian Sands was cast for the role. ### Adam Knight Adam Knight appears in six episodes of season three; he is portrayed by Ian Somerhalder. Adam is first seen as a fellow patient of Lana's at the Smallville Medical Center in the episode "Asylum"; he helps Lana get through her physical therapy after she was trampled by a horse. The two develop a friendship, which starts to grow deeper in the episode "Delete" when Lana offers to rent Adam the apartment above the coffee shop. In "Hereafter", Adam's actions—specifically his injection of an unidentified drug—begin to arouse suspicion in Lana and her friends. It is revealed Adam died of a rare liver disease, and the injection of a drug given to him by LuthorCorp resurrected him and is only thing keeping him alive. Lana discovers Adam has been keeping a journal of all her actions, as well as all of Clark's, so she tries, and fails, to evict him. Lana asks Lex for help in getting rid of Adam, but he disappears before Lex can find him. In "Obsession", Lex tracks Adam's whereabouts to a LuthorCorp lab run by Dr. Tang, where Dr. Tang has been keeping Adam alive against the orders of Lionel Luthor, who cut off his supply when he failed to uncover any new information on Clark. Adam eventually breaks out of his confinement in the episode "Crisis", killing Dr. Tang and the rest of the lab technicians. He kidnaps Lana and attempts to kill her, but Clark arrives in time to stop him. Without his serum, Adam's body rapidly deteriorates until he finally dies. When Adam Knight first appeared, there was internet speculation he was really Smallville'''s version of Bruce Wayne, based on the combination of the name of one of the actors to portray Bruce Wayne/Batman, Adam West, and one of Batman's nicknames, "Dark Knight". The crew stated it was never their intention to reveal Adam Knight to be a young version of Bruce Wayne. The actual intention was for Adam to be Lana's new boyfriend—a legitimate relationship—but the chemistry between Ian Somerhalder and Kristin Kreuk was not working. The creative team decided to bring the character's storyline out of the romantic path and into a "thriller Pacific Heights direction". According to Gough, the character's storyline degenerated into a science fiction story, and when that occurred, they decided they had to wrap it up quickly. ### Brainiac James Marsters appears in eight episodes of season five, as well as four episodes of season seven, as the Kryptonian artificial intelligence known as Brainiac, referred to on the series as the "Brain InterActive Construct". Brainiac first appears in the season five episode "Arrival", and in the episode "Splinter" he assumes the identity of Central Kansas A&M professor Milton Fine, a fellow Kryptonian, in order to befriend Clark. His ultimate plan is revealed in the episode "Solitude" when he attempts to use Clark's Fortress of Solitude to release General Zod from the Phantom Zone; Clark stops Zod from being released. In the season five finale, Brainiac unleashes a computer virus that cripples the world's cyber infrastructure. He then transplants Zod's spirit into Lex when he tricks Clark into stabbing him with a Kryptonian dagger, providing Brainiac with a link to the Fortress so he can release Zod. In season seven, Brainiac is revealed to be alive, and is slowly regaining strength by draining people of their natural metal content. Brainiac re-forms into Milton Fine in the season seven episode "Persona", and learns that his creator, Dax-Ur, is on Earth. Brainiac kills Dax-Ur, downloading the Kryptonian's knowledge so that he can completely repair himself. In season seven's "Apocalypse", Brainiac attempts to go back to Krypton just before it is destroyed and kill the infant Kal-El—he ultimately fails. In the season seven finale, Chloe discovers Brainiac has been impersonating Kara since she and Clark returned from Krypton. Brainiac attacks Chloe and puts her in a coma, but Clark destroys Brainiac before he can locate a device hidden on Earth which would allow him to control Clark. In season eight, Chloe is infected by Brainiac, who attempts to use her as a vessel while trying to take over Earth. In "Legion", he is subsequently exorcised from Chloe's body by the Legion of Super-Heroes, and taken back to the 31st Century to be reprogrammed. The reprogrammed Brainiac returns in the season ten episode "Homecoming" to show Clark his past, present, and future and help him find confidence in becoming the hero the world needs. Gough and Millar had always wanted Marsters for the role of Milton Fine/Brainiac. The pair wrote a draft for the major story arc of season five, knowing they wanted a new villain on the show to fight Clark. With the arrival of the black ship at the end of season four, Gough and Millar decided to introduce Brainiac. To them, Marsters was the only actor they could envision that could fit the "menace, intelligence, and sexiness" Brainiac was going to embody. Had Marsters declined the role, Gough and Millar would have rethought introducing Brainiac, as they could not think of any other actor who could fill those shoes. Marsters felt excited playing a character that was completely intentional; he likened the intention to that of a shark. As Marsters explains, "[Fine] was just composed of his intent. And that's exciting—it's like watching a shark. You don't really ask how a shark is feeling—it's pure". Writer Steven DeKnight, who wrote for Marsters when he was portraying Spike on Buffy the Vampire Slayer, used a different approach for Marsters when writing for him as Brainiac. Spike is more "snarky", and DeKnight felt Fine is more sincere, and a "straight-ahead classic villain". This different approach to villainy worked well for Marsters, who wanted to show people he could portray characters who were not just another "Spike". Marsters describes Brainiac as "a murderous robot" with no remorse over his actions. According to Marsters, the character is an "intellectual" who is focused on what he wants. The actor was drawn to the series because of the "refreshing" take the producers had, as well as an appreciation for the idea of a show about Clark's journey toward becoming Superman. Though the actor enjoyed playing the part of Brainiac, Marsters did have an initial apprehension about taking the role. As he is familiar with Brainiac from the comics, Marsters did not wish to be turned green and wear the character's traditional pink outfit. The actor had to do little research on his character, as Brainiac's original back story only consisted of a few comic book panels. Marsters believes his character wants to get rid of the humans because they are doing nothing but destroying their own planet, and Brainiac sees it as his duty to perform "pest control" on the species. The actor was going to appear in season six, but because his schedule filled, the producers wanted to "close the door" on this storyline, so they "killed" his character. Later, Marsters was approached by Gough and Millar about returning to the show for its seventh season; this time Marsters had free time in his schedule, and was able to return for four episodes. ### Grant Gabriel Michael Cassidy appears in seven episodes of season seven as the Daily Planets newest editor, Grant Gabriel, and the love interest for Lois this season. Shortly after hiring Lois, which he did in part to inspire better stories out of Chloe, Grant begins a romantic relationship with Lois in the episode "Wrath". The couple's secret is discovered by Chloe and Lex in "Blue", who both insist Lois and Grant break up to prevent questions about how Lois actually got her job. The two stay together, working harder to keep their relationship a secret. After Lex buys the Daily Planet in season seven's "Gemini", it is revealed Grant is actually a clone of Lex's baby brother Julian, who died as an infant. When Grant discovers this information, he attempts to connect with Lionel in the episode "Persona", to keep Lex from controlling his life. When Lex cannot control Grant, he has him murdered, staging it as a failed mugging. ## Other characters The following is a supplementary list of recurring guest stars, which includes characters that appear briefly in multiple episodes, like a regularly appearing doctor, but have little to no real world content to justify an entire section covering their in-universe histories. The characters are listed in the order in which they first appeared on Smallville''. ### Season 1 - Sarah-Jane Redmond as Nell Potter - Jason Connery as Dominic Santori - Tom O'Brien as Roger Nixon - Hiro Kanagawa as Principal Kwan - Robert Wisden as Gabe Sullivan - Joe Morton as Dr. Steven Hamilton - Kelly Brook as Victoria Hardwick - Rekha Sharma as Dr. Harden - Julian Christopher as Dr. MacIntyre ### Season 2 - Jerry Wasserman as Dr. Yaeger Scanlan - Patrick Cassidy as Henry Small - Martin Cummins as Dr. Garner - Jill Teed as Maggie Sawyer - Rob LaBelle as Dr. Walden ### Season 3 - Françoise Yip as Dr. Tang - Lorena Gale as Dr. Claire Foster - Sarah Carter as Alicia Baker - Alisen Down as Lillian Luthor - Gary Hudson as Frank Loder ### Season 4 - Kyle Gallner as Bart Allen/Impulse - Jane Seymour as Genevieve Teague ### Season 5 - Alan Ritchson as Arthur Curry/Aquaman - Lee Thompson Young as Victor Stone/Cyborg ### Season 6 - Fred Henderson as Dr. Langston - Ben Ayres as Bartlett - Phil Morris as John Jones ### Season 7 - Kim Coates as Federal Agent Carter - Don Broatch as Shaw Madson - Alaina Huffman as Dinah Lance/Black Canary ### Season 8 - Anna Williams as Eva - Alessandro Juliani as Dr. Emil Hamilton - Serinda Swan as Zatanna Zatara ### Season 9 - Adrian Holmes as Basqat - Sharon Taylor as Faora - Monique Ganderton as Alia - Ryan McDonell as Stuart Campbell - Pam Grier as Agent Amanda Waller - Crystal Lowe as Vala - Michael Shanks as Carter Hall/Hawkman - Britt Irvin as Courtney Whitmore/Stargirl ### Season 10 - Ted Whittall as Rick Flag - Keri Lynn Pratt as Cat Grant
40,197,933	Statue of Ashurbanipal (San Francisco)	1,161,172,044	Bronze statue by Fred Parhad in San Francisco, California, U.S.	[ "1988 establishments in California", "1988 sculptures", "Books in art", "Bronze sculptures in California", "Civic Center, San Francisco", "Cultural depictions of Ashurbanipal", "Outdoor sculptures in San Francisco", "Sculptures of lions", "Sculptures of men in California", "Statues in San Francisco" ]	Ashurbanipal, also known as the Ashurbanipal Monument or the Statue of Ashurbanipal, is a bronze sculpture by Fred Parhad, an artist of Assyrian descent. It is located in the Civic Center of San Francisco, California, in the United States. The 15-foot (4.6 m) statue depicting the Assyrian king of the same name was commissioned by the Assyrian Foundation for the Arts and presented to the City of San Francisco in 1988 as a gift from the Assyrian people. The sculpture reportedly cost \$100,000 and was the first "sizable" bronze statue of Ashurbanipal. It is administered by the City and County of San Francisco and the San Francisco Arts Commission. Parhad's work was met with some criticism by local Assyrians, who argued it was inaccurate to portray Ashurbanipal holding a clay tablet and a lion, or wearing a skirt. The critics thought the statue looked more like the Sumerian king Gilgamesh; Maureen Gallery Kovacs, a Yale Ph.D. who has translated The Epic of Gilgamesh (Stanford U.P., 1989), believed the sculpture depicted neither figure, but rather a Mesopotamian "protective figure". Parhad defended the accuracy of his work, while also admitting that he took artistic liberties. ## Background In Assyrian sculpture, the famous colossal entrance way guardian figures of lamassu were often accompanied by a hero grasping a wriggling lion with one hand and typically a snake with the other, also colossal and in high relief; these are generally the only other types of high relief in Assyrian sculpture. They continue the Master of Animals tradition in Mesopotamian art, and may represent Enkidu, a central figure in the Ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad, a group of at least seven lamassu and two such heroes with lions surrounded the entrance to the "throne room", "a concentration of figures which produced an overwhelming impression of power." The arrangement was repeated in Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh. ## Description The 8-foot (2.4 m) patinated bronze statue, mounted on a base and a plinth to reach a total height of 15 feet (4.6 m), weighs approximately 1,800 pounds (820 kg). It depicts Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian king known for building the eponymously named Library of Ashurbanipal, the first and largest library in Nineveh. The bearded king is shown wearing earrings and a tunic; he is holding a clay tablet in one hand and restraining a lion cub against his chest with the other. According to the Historical Marker Database, the cuneiform inscribed on the tablet reads: "Peace unto heaven and earth / Peace unto countries and cities / Peace unto the dwellers in all lands / This is the statue presented to the City of San Francisco by the Assyrian people in the 210th year of America's sovereignty". The "larger-than-life", full length statue stands above a plinth adorned with a lotus blossom design and a concrete base with an anti-graffiti coating. The base includes rosettes and a bronze plaque. One inscription below the statue reads the text of the tablet in English, Akkadian cuneiform and Aramaic. The text "Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, 669–627 B.C." appears above and the text "Dedicated May 29, 1988" appears below, both in English. Another inscription below the statue reads, "Presented to the City of San Francisco by the Assyrian Foundation for the Arts through donations of American Assyrian Association of San Francisco / Assyrian American National Federation", followed by a list of names of donors. In December 2010, the San Francisco Chronicle reported that a large plaque from the sculpture was missing. ## History Ashurbanipal was designed by Fred Parhad, an Iraqi-born artist of Assyrian descent. Parhad rejected formal arts studies at the University of California, Berkeley and relocated to New York, where the Metropolitan Museum of Art allowed him to study its Assyrian collection. The work was commissioned by the Assyrian Foundation for the Arts under the direction of its president, Narsai David. The Assyrian Universal Alliance Foundation also claims to have commissioned the work. Funds were collected from Assyrians throughout the United States.In 1987, The Telegraph reported that the work cost \$100,000 and was the first "sizable" bronze statue of Ashurbanipal. It was presented to the City of San Francisco as a gift from the Assyrian people on May 29, 1988, unveiled at the entry to the Asian Art Museum on Van Ness Avenue. The statue now stands on Fulton Street between the Main Library and Asian Art Museum, within the city's Civic Center. It is administered by the City and County of San Francisco and the San Francisco Arts Commission. The Smithsonian Institution lists Frank Tomsick as the installation's architect and MBT Associates as its architectural firm. Ashurbanipal was surveyed by the Smithsonian's Save Outdoor Sculpture! program in 1992. In 1996, plans for a Civic Center pedestrian mall were being developed by the San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association; one planner advocated for construction of an Assyrian garden, including lotus blossoms, pomegranate trees and reeds, at the site of the statue. ## Reception In December 1987, as news began to circulate about the commissioned work, local Assyrians accused Parhad of misrepresenting Ashurbanipal. Criticisms included the depiction of the king holding both a clay tablet and a lion, which they argued he "wouldn't do", and for dressing him in a skirt, which they claimed he would never have worn. The critics thought the statue made a better portrayal of the Sumerian king Gilgamesh. One critic said: > It's very simple. The statue represents Gilgamesh.... No Assyrian has a right to imagine things about our king. It's exactly like making a copy of the Statue of Liberty and saying it is George Washington.... Assyrian kings didn't wear miniskirts. They wouldn't have been holding a lion or a book. It's an insult to the Assyrians. Narsai David responded: > They are entitled to their opinion.... We have never said this is a museum-quality reproduction.... We have always said this is a characterization of Ashurbanipal as done by a 20th-century artist. If they choose to think of this as Gilgamesh, they are free to do so. Maureen (Renee) Kovacs, a Yale Ph.D. who has translated The Epic of Gilgamesh (Stanford U.P., 1989), said the statue depicted neither Ashurbanipal nor Gilgamesh, but rather a Mesopotamian "protective figure, like a guard." Parhad defended the accuracy of his work, while also admitting that he took artistic liberties and attempted to incorporate the various aspects of Assyrian culture, from its hunting mastery to its admiration for writing. He said of the sculpture: > The piece has authentic qualities to it, but it is also my statue.... With the earrings and the clothing and the hair and his daggers, it is Ashurbanipal. But in the choice of (stance), the fact that he is holding a tablet and a lion, that is mine. I wanted myself to be represented in the piece. ## See also - 1988 in art - Art in the San Francisco Bay Area - Art of Mesopotamia - Cultural depictions of lions - Lamassu
36,244,868	Algo Centre Mall	1,170,655,285	null	[ "1980 establishments in Ontario", "2012 disasters in Canada", "2012 disestablishments in Ontario", "Building collapses in 2012", "Building collapses in Canada", "Buildings and structures demolished in 2012", "Buildings and structures in Elliot Lake", "Collapsed buildings and structures", "Defunct shopping malls in Canada", "Demolished buildings and structures in Ontario", "Disasters in Ontario", "Shopping malls disestablished in 2012", "Shopping malls established in 1980", "Shopping malls in Ontario" ]	The Algo Centre Mall (legally Eastwood Mall since 2005 but almost never referred to as such) was a mall and hotel located near Highway 108 in Elliot Lake, Ontario, Canada. It was the largest commercial complex in the area. When the community was hit by uranium mine closures in the 1990s, the complex gradually refocused, hosting multiple services, such as a library, constituency offices, and public health offices. In the years leading up to 2012, many businesses located in the mall either closed or moved to outside locations. Still, the mall was a community hub, with most of the area's clothing stores and its largest grocery store, employing upwards of 250 local residents. It accounted for 10% of the community's retail space and 6% of the total wages. The mall was plagued by structural problems and leaks throughout its history. It underwent a partial structural failure on June 23, 2012, when a 12m x 24m (39'-by-79') segment of the rooftop parking deck collapsed into the building, crashing through the upper level lottery kiosk adjacent to the food court and escalators to the ground floor below. Two people died in the collapse and more than 20 people received non-life-threatening injuries. An investigation and class action lawsuits into the collapse are ongoing and the mall has been demolished. The city of Elliot Lake purchased the vacant former Algo Centre Mall site in 2019, as the first stage in redeveloping the land for new residential and commercial uses. Part of the site will be retained by the city as a municipal "community hub" project, while the rest of it will be sold back to residential and commercial developers. ## History Algocen Realty Holdings Ltd., the real estate branch on the Algoma Central Railway, commissioned the Algo Centre Mall project. The project was subsequently approved by the Ontario Municipal Board in 1978, with an estimated cost of \$10 million. Construction began in 1979 and the project was finished the next year. The 80-room Algo Inn, the town's largest hotel and retirement residence, was also built into the mall. In its first year, 1980, the mall featured Woolco, Dominion, and Shoppers Drug Mart, and a total of 35 units. A distinctive architectural feature of the building was rooftop parking. After the closure of the uranium mines in Elliot Lake, in 1990, the revenue prospects of the mall dropped sharply, with no recovery in sight. This prompted the Algoma Central Company to write off over \$5 million in lost property value, despite 98% occupancy. In 1996, a report commissioned by the Town, Downtown Core and Industrial Area Improvements, presented a less-than-favourable assessment of the structure's exterior: > A very significant building within the downtown core is formed by the Algo Mall/Algo Inn. Situated above Ontario Avenue and fronted by parking lots, this large building is clad mostly in brown prefinished metal siding. The entrances are remote and do not address the street. The scale of the building, its introverted nature and the lack of tactile materials, detail, and transparency at the pedestrian level, do little to contribute to the urban environment. The Mall and the Hotel are a terrific amenities and likely contribute greatly to the attraction of shoppers and visitors to the downtown core, but the design is less than sensitive to its urban environment. The final owners, Eastwood Incorporated, acquired the company in August 2005 for the price of \$6.2 million. This firm, owned by Bob Nazarian, was registered in 1994 as a numbered company. At various points, the company has owned strip malls in Kitchener and London, Ontario. Algo had retained Marino Locations Limited to redevelop the property "to accommodate new specialty retailers and possible new anchor/big-box retailers that are not yet in the market. The possibility for exterior pads also exists on the surrounding lands." (Read Jones Christoffersen Ltd. also performed a redevelopment feasibility study on the mall in late 2010, early 2011; part of the cost was not repaid.) Between August 2005 and June 2012, the mall had a series of five managers. Along with the Algo Inn and numerous independent stores and services, the mall included: - Algoma District Services Administration Board (ADSAB) - Algoma Public Health - Algo Room (a community theatre space, used by the Elliot Lake Amateur Youth Theatre Ensemble.) - The Bargain! Shop - Color Your World (paint store, owned by Imperial Chemical Industries) - Curves - Dollarama - Elliot Lake Public Library - Offices of local MP (Carol Hughes) and MPP (Michael Mantha) - Foodland (formerly IGA) - Investors Group - Marlin Travel - Northern Reflections (women's apparel) - Pet Valu - Service Canada - Zellers (Target declined to take over the lease of the Elliot Lake Zellers branch, but the mall collapse took place before Target opened any of their Canadian stores anyway.) - Elliot Lake Transit terminal Zellers received \$1 million from the City of Elliot Lake to open. At some point in the summer of 2008, a location of SAAN, a department store, closed. The Bargain! Shop purchased the brand in August of that year, taking over some leaseholds. In September that year, Mayor Rick Hamilton located his campaign office at the mall. In January 2009, the Elliot Lake Model Railroad Club opened at the local civic centre, moving from the mall. In 2010, a new Shoppers Drug Mart opened away from the mall, more than doubling the 7,000 feet (2,100 m) unit it had at Algo. The mall was offered for sale in 2010, for \$9.9 million, an increase of \$3.7 million from the purchase price five years prior. In 2011, the hotel office was victim of a break-and-enter, with an attempt to do the same at Zellers. The mall hosted car shows, charity head shavings, antique appraisals, promotions for community events, an annual rocking chair marathon for charity, amongst other community events. Despite the centre's issues, it remained a community hub; the mayor notes that it was the social centre of the community, and residents would visit weekly, and in some cases daily. ## Structural problems By 1990, the mall was already regularly plagued with leaks and water damage. The Elliot Lake Standard reported in 2008 on "greater than normal" leaks causing damages to multiple units. Starlight Cafe closed permanently, despite being profitable soon after opening, as customers would occasionally need umbrellas to stand at the take-out counter. Drip-tarps installed by the mall in the kitchen of the restaurant were ineffective. The cafe owner was not made aware of the leaks before starting her lease in 2007, and was successful in a lawsuit against the owner. Scotiabank had closed for a few weeks in 2008 as a precaution. (Scotiabank began construction on a new location in July 2011, to replace their mall location.) Some businesses suggested that additional leaks started after the new owner started repairs to the roof. Tenants noticed a reduced amount of traffic after leaks started, and buckets were scattered throughout the mall. In 2009, leaks in the mall roof and mould caused Elliot Lake city councillors to consider moving the Elliot Lake Public Library out of the mall and back to the Solomon Building, where it had been before 1992. Many books were damaged, despite library staff using tarps to cover shelves. At some points, entire sections were blocked for public health reasons. Much of the leaking was said to be corrected, before council considered the issue, and an environmental study was completed. Some library board members and councillors worried that liability insurance wouldn't cover them in the mall, despite reassurances by library management and the city's insurance broker. With a multi-use complex in the works, some of the library board was concerned with a five-year lease that mall management was pursuing, despite the library's preference for a 21⁄2-year lease. In the end, the library remained at the mall. Some tenants suggest that mall business owners were said to not be vocal about their disappointments, unless "water is dripping right on their head (or) if the water is destroying their business"; conversely, one previous mall manager suggests he was called daily by tenants about the issue, before 2008 repairs started. The owner was aware of the mall's roof problems when purchasing the facility, and suggested there would be renovations to the mall, but would not commit to a date for completing roof repairs or interior upgrades. Over \$1 million was spent in an attempt to repair the roof. Architect John Clinckett of Kitchener was hired to oversee the project; Canadian Construction Controls of Breslau declined to bid to install a membrane created by Carlisle Syntec Systems. Taking issue with the \$1-million cost, Nazarian cancelled the project, hiring Peak Restoration; only a fraction of Peak's \$823,657 worth of work was paid for, and the lien expired in 2010. The mall manager left soon after, in summer 2008, suggesting that he believes mall maintenance staff were set to repair the roof. In spite of the issues, the mall would use the roof for events. In 2011 and 2012, it served as the site for the Heart and Stroke Foundation's Big Bike ride. In summer 2011, a piece of concrete fell through the ceiling at a mall restaurant, Hungry Jack's. Reports were filed with the mall manager and the city, with an inspector scheduled to visit two weeks following the incident. The inspector did not show, and mall management did not reply. Hungry Jack's is near to the eventual mall roof collapse. Mall owners continued repair and maintenance work in 2012, spending \$120,000 into repairs within the 12-month period leading up to June 2012. An engineering and structural study "turned up nothing", according to the mall manager. Even after the repair, there were photos of serious interior damage to the mall's roof. A local plumber that had done work for the mall suggested there was obvious signs of water damage, eight months before the collapse. In March 2012, the mall management pleaded guilty in provincial court, after their fire alarms and sprinklers did not meet code. The mall spent \$50,000 to upgrade the infrastructure to avoid further fines. The process included adding a new roof to the hotel, gutting the second and third floors, including the hotel lounge. The problem was very obvious to residents of the town. During the press conference announcing the class-action lawsuit, a resident suggested that some residents had placed "bets" on when the building would collapse. Ontario's Ministry of Labour visited the mall six times in the three years before the collapse. Pinchin Ltd. issued an "unequivocal" report attesting to the soundness of the structure and deemed the corrosion "not of structural significance." At the 2013 inquest into the roof collapse (see \#Government reaction below), testimony has revealed that many unpublicized structural problems at the mall dated all the way back to its initial construction in the late 1970s. In particular, the expansion joint above the escalators, the failure of which appears to have caused the roof deck collapse, was already not properly binding to the concrete, in turn allowing water to seep into the building's seams, as early as 1981—barely a year after the mall's original opening. The expansion joint was fixed many times, and fully replaced twice, during the building's lifetime, yet always began tearing away from the concrete again shortly after the repairs were complete. The inquiry did not question or raise concern with the areas of slab removal during original construction in 1980 when escalators were installed after the roof was completed. It is unclear if this was a contributing factor. ## 2012 roof collapse At approximately 2:20 pm EDT (1820 GMT) on Saturday, June 23, 2012, part of a 12m x 24m (39'-by-79') segment of the parking deck/roof collapsed at the Algo Centre Mall, sending metal and concrete debris crashing down through two floors of the shopping centre resulting in the deaths of two people and injuring more than 20 people. Soon after the collapse, the owners arrived at the mall. A representative spoke on behalf of the owner, stating "I'd rather not [comment], because we have talked to our lawyers and we're going to be in the City Hall to represent ourselves. But nevertheless, we are very much concerned [about] this accident." By approximately 4:00 pm, local authorities alerted the Commissioner of Community Safety, Dan Hefkey. Hefkey called the Toronto-based Heavy Urban Search and Rescue (HUSAR) at 4:25 pm. The HUSAR crew, after assembling their equipment and travelling the 540 kilometres from Toronto, arrived by 2:00 am Sunday, June 24, and immediately began work. After initial assessments, the HUSAR team felt they had the proper equipment for the mission. In the early hours of Monday morning, June 25 – and despite discovering signs of life – rescue work was suspended due to the danger of additional concrete falling on the potential survivors and the HUSAR rescuers. Following the announcement, numerous residents of the town began to sign a list volunteering to enter the structure themselves to continue the search; the owners also announced their intention to seek a court injunction ordering the resumption of search and rescue efforts. After an appeal from local MPP Michael Mantha, whose constituency office was in the mall, Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty urged rescue workers to resume their search for survivors. HUSAR later stated that the rescue teams were continuing to strategize alternate methods during the work suspension, and that the local residents and the Premier's call did not influence their actions. Shortly after 10 p.m. on June 25, approximately 19 hours after the initial search was suspended, HUSAR confirmed that it would resume its efforts, including a willingness to employ "drastic measures", including the use of heavy equipment to pull down the unstable escalator structure and part of an external wall from the outside. Prime Minister Stephen Harper also offered the assistance of the Canadian Forces on June 26. Two bodies were recovered from the debris on Wednesday, June 27—four days after the collapse. The area which collapsed included two kiosks. The deceased had been a lottery kiosk employee and her customer. Lucie Aylwin, 37, worked just once a week at the lottery booth, earning extra money for her wedding. Aylwin held a full-time job with Collège Boréal, a French language college, as an employment consultant and recruiter in the college's 'Employment Options Emploi' office, located elsewhere in the Algo Centre Mall. Doloris Perizzolo, 74, was a widow and mother believed to be opening pull-tab lottery tickets, which must be opened in view of the booth operator. After the bodies of the two victims were retrieved, and HUSAR confirmed no other victims were trapped in the rubble, efforts shifted to official investigations. ## Investigation On March 8, 2013, the engineering firm NORR, commissioned by the Ontario Provincial Police, released the results of their forensic engineering investigation to the Elliot Lake Inquiry. The investigation found that the collapse was caused by a two-stage failure of the welding on a connection, due to extensive corrosion. The corrosion was caused by improper waterproofing and the placement of a parking lot on the roof, which allowed water, contaminated with road salt, (which accelerated the corrosion) to corrode the structure. ### Oversights and cost-cutting during planning stages The report states that there were two critical errors made during the planning stages. Firstly, the parking lot for the mall was located on the roof of the building without there being sound waterproofing, and secondly the structural inefficiency of the hollow-core slabs (HCS) which prevented the installation of effective waterproofing later on. John Kadlec of Beta Engineering originally planned the use of 8-inch HCS, which he specified could withstand 120 pounds per square foot, a load which exceeded specifications on all 8-inch HCS. During the bidding process, the owners were advised by a bidder, Precon, that the specified load could not be handled by the HCS without reinforcements from a composite concrete topping. However, Kadlec advised the owners that the plans called for 8-inch HCS which could withstand the load without reinforcement from topping. The contract was thus awarded to Coreslab, despite Coreslab's design tables indicating that the specified project loads were 38% higher than the maximum load. In 1992, over a decade after the mall's construction, Coreslab retracted the claim to be able to support the load without the use of a composite topping. Two different waterproofing systems were proposed to the owner by Harry S. Peterson Co. The first system called for a rubberized asphalt membrane to be applied over the non-composite concrete topping, while the second one called for no membrane, and simply controlling leaks with a polyurethane sealant. The second system reduced initial building costs by \$136,000. HSP argued strongly for the second option, and convinced the owner to install the second system. The report called this system "intrinsically flawed", and leaks were noticed immediately after construction. ### Leaking Leaks were noticed immediately after the installation of the topping. Harry S. Peterson Co. attempted many times to fix the leaks. In 1991, the owners contracted Trow to investigate the chronic leaking and find a solution. Two options were provided, but upon consulting with Coreslab, it was determined that neither plan could go forward due to the HCS not being able to support additional loads. These leaks allowed water to seep through the topping and access the steel frame of the building. This corroded much of the building's frame during the mall's three decades in operation. The corrosion was eventually so severe that the weld on a connection failed, resulting in the collapse. ### Inquiry John Kadlec, a consulting engineer on the original construction, has testified that he raised concerns at the time about sloppy workmanship and inadequate construction materials at the site, including structural columns that were already crooked, steel beams that were already rusting despite being new, and the fateful decision to place the complex's parking area on the roof. According to Kadlec, the construction company opted to resolve the structural issues not by redoing the construction, but by anchoring the building's back wall to the rock outcropping behind it. James Keywan, the building's original architect, testified that he also strongly objected to the rooftop parking, but had little choice once Algocen made their decision to proceed with that plan. The son of the mall's owner admitted that the company had pressured engineers to remove information on leaks and corrosion from a report and that fictional repair invoices from a shell company, Empire Roofing and Restoration, were used to mislead mortgage holder Royal Bank of Canada about the building's condition. Speakers at the inquiry have also testified that a significant volume of city traffic regularly cut across the roof deck as a bypass of the traffic lights at the corner of Hillside Drive and Ontario Avenue, resulting in more stress on the structure than it had been designed to handle. The NORR report speculated that a heavy vehicle might have contributed to a previously undetected partial failure of the support structure a few months prior to the final collapse. The inquiry also found that while Perizzolo died almost instantly, Aylwin may have survived for up to 39 hours after the collapse, and may have been found alive if HUSAR had not suspended its rescue operations. ## Aftermath The province ordered a review of both HUSAR and Emergency Management Ontario. The collapse focused attention on the Harper government's cancellation of the Joint Emergency Preparedness Program, which provides funds to Canada's five HUSAR teams. The province and the National Fire Protection Association denounced the cuts. The Canadian Centre for Emergency Preparedness suggested that such cuts would necessitate Canada asking for assistance from the United States in similar situations. Also cancelled by the Conservative federal government was the Canadian Emergency Management College, established in 1954 to train first responders. A spokesperson for Public Safety Minister Vic Toews deflected criticism of the cuts, noting that 90 per cent of emergencies are managed municipally or provincially. As of the end of June, the economic impact of Algo Centre's closure was unknown, but described by Mayor Rick Hamilton as "huge". Estimates suggest 250 people worked at the mall or hotel. The nearest significant cities to Elliot Lake are Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie, both over 100 kilometres away by road; residents were said to be fielding requests from others for essentials like clothing, not readily available without the mall. Apart from the mall's Foodland store, there is only one other grocery store, Lyle's No Frills, in the city; that store and a nearby video store quickly made efforts to expand their merchandise selections to include some clothing items. The Elliot Lake & District Chamber of Commerce has established a committee to help retailers from the building; at one meeting, Premier McGuinty assured that they'd remove rigid program requirements for assistance programs. The East Algoma Community Futures Development Corporation approved interest free "transitional loans" of up to \$25,000 for affected businesses. TD Bank's local branch contributed \$10,000 to the Elliot Lake Food Bank. Foodland announced it will rebuild, and pay employees up to six months wages during the process. Mall owner Nazarian received death threats, which pushed him into hiding, and a class action lawsuit had already been launched by June 28, according to his lawyer. John Pomerleau, owner of Alternative Funeral Service which is located in the Algo Centre Mall said in July that more than 30 cremation urns were still trapped in the mall and it was unknown if or when they could be recovered. The Algo Centre Mall may contain asbestos which may have been released during the collapse and rescue demolition of the mall. Foodland leased the city's Collins Hall recreational facility for conversion into a temporary grocery store, which opened in October 2012. Foodland's permanent new store opened at Pearson Plaza on April 1, 2016; the Collins Hall facility (W.H. Collins Centre) was then converted back to recreational use, with several of the chain's structural improvements to the building—including upgrades to the lighting system and improvements to the building's accessibility for people with disabilities—remaining in place as a donation to the city. The public library branch and some government offices that had been located at the mall were temporarily relocated to the former White Mountain Academy of the Arts. The library moved to Pearson Plaza, and Service Canada relocated to Kilborn Way and Highway 108. Other government offices, including constituency offices of the local members of the federal (Mark Walk) and provincial (Hillside Drive South and Amsterdam Road) parliaments, relocated elsewhere in Elliot Lake. ### Government reaction The Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) is assisting the coroner's office in investigating the two deaths. Once the investigation is completed, the OPP could launch a criminal investigation, if warranted. The Ministry of Labour will have an engineer examine for further structural problems, and thus whether the mall needs to be torn down. Investigating the cause of the collapse is the city's responsibility. Global News reporter Jennifer Tryon attempted to file a Freedom of Information request for documents on June 29, but was refused; an employee came out from the back of the offices, and turned the City Clerk's chair around, so that they couldn't respond. City officials then called the OPP. After the request, the city issued a two line statement that documents are now part of investigations. OPP noted that the documents are still available through Freedom of Information requests, and that the situation likely didn't warrant an emergency call to police. The reporter was provided a FOI application on police arrival, and told to ignore instructions from their superiors on calling police. Tryon, producer Kieron O'Dea and cameraman Trevor Owens would later receive a Canadian Screen Award nomination for Breaking National News Reportage at the 1st Canadian Screen Awards. A public inquiry was established on July 19, 2012, by the Government of Ontario. The inquiry itself started March 4, 2013. As part of the inquiry, portions of a 700-page engineering report (NORR report) into the collapse were made public. ### Lawsuit On June 28, four days after the collapse, the mall owner's lawyer stated that a class action lawsuit had already been launched. A class action lawsuit was launched by Elaine Quinte and Jack Quinte, who owned Hungry Jack's in the mall. The lawsuit lists Algo Centre Mall, Eastwood Mall Inc., Robert Nazarian, the City of Elliot Lake, the Province of Ontario, and the unnamed engineer "who approved the structure of the mall a short time prior to this incident." ### Demolition Local area MPP Michael Mantha raised concerns that confidential records must be extracted, such as those from the public health department. He expressed concern that the information might end up in the local landfill. Documents were never extracted from Algo Mall. Many health, social assistance and Service Canada files were found at the city landfill. Documents found among the rubble by a private source said to be photocopies of clients drivers licences, social insurance numbers, health cards and birth certificates. The private source never removed any documents from the landfill site, although it is unknown if anyone else entered the landfill site after hours while the demolition was progressing. ### Political impact The inquiry's final report was released just 12 days before the 2014 municipal election. Ongoing anger over city council's handling of the Algo Centre Mall resulted in incumbent mayor Rick Hamilton and two incumbent city councillors who ran against him for the mayoralty being defeated by political newcomer Dan Marchisella, and only one seat on city council was won by an incumbent councillor. ### Professional Impact Both Professional Engineers Ontario (PEO) and Ontario Association of Certified Engineering Technicians and Technologists (OACETT) have implemented mandatory Continuing Professional Development programs in response to the Algo collapse. ### Criminal trial Robert G.H. Wood, the engineer who signed off on the engineering report declaring the mall structurally sound just a few weeks before the roof collapse, was indicted on July 11, 2015, with two counts of criminal negligence causing death and one count of criminal negligence causing bodily harm. According to the inquiry, Wood had previously indicated in conversation that he was aware that the roof was at risk of caving in, but altered his final report at Nazarian's request so that the structural issues did not jeopardize the building's refinancing. Furthermore, Wood's engineering licence was already suspended when he performed the inspection, and his licence was then revoked. His trial began in September 2016. #### Verdict In June 2017, Justice Edward E. Gareau of the Ontario Superior Court found that there was not enough evidence to find Wood guilty beyond reasonable doubt. In explaining the verdict, the judge relied on the fact that other engineers had inspected the premises and also failed to accurately assess that the mall was structurally unsafe. He noted that while a judgement that the structure was safe would be "poor judgment", the crown's lead expert (the author of the NORR report Dr. Hassan Saffarini), admitted to the judge that such a judgement could be "conceivable". > The fact remains that there were many other professionals, engineers and architects who inspected the Algo Centre Mall in Elliot Lake, Ontario during the course of its operation who concluded, as Robert Wood did, that the mall was structurally sound. Although Dr. Saffarini found this surprising and even alarming, the fact remains that other professionals reached the same conclusion as Robert Wood did with respect to the condition of the mall. None of these professionals raised concerns that would lead anyone to conclude that the mall was unsafe. In his evidence, the Crown's lead expert, Dr. Hassan Saffarini testified that an engineer who saw the condition and level of corrosion in the Algo Centre Mall could have still reached the professional judgment that the mall was safe. Although this judgment would be "poor judgment", in the words of Dr. Saffarini, I conclude from the evidence of Dr. Saffarini that it would not be an act or omission that reflects an unrestrained disregard for the consequences. In other words, the actions do not elevate to a marked and substantial departure from what a reasonable engineer would do in the same circumstances. In closing, the judge stated that Wood must accept a moral responsibility for the events that unfolded on June 23, 2012. He stated that Mr. Wood's work was "shoddy, sloppy and even inadequate", but that it "did not reach the level of being criminal". He also levelled criticism at the officials of the City of Elliot Lake who did not exercise sufficient vigilance as well as Bob Nazarian, whom the judge called "a neglectful, greedy owner who minimized problems and put cost ahead of people in remedying deficiencies in the mall". ## New mall A new shopping mall, given the name Pearson Plaza, was built less than a kilometre south of Algo Centre Mall, on the site of the former Nordic Hotel (later Huron Lodge) at Hillside Drive South and Ontario Avenue. The first store in the new mall officially opened on April 1, 2016.
23,691,233	The Equation	1,168,464,527	null	[ "2008 American television episodes", "Fringe (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes directed by Gwyneth Horder-Payton" ]	"The Equation" is the eighth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe. The episode follows the Fringe team's investigation into the kidnapping of a young musical prodigy (Charlie Tahan) who has become obsessed with finishing one piece of music. Dr. Walter Bishop (John Noble) returns to St. Claire's Hospital in an effort to find the boy's whereabouts. The episode was written by supervising producer J. R. Orci and co-executive producer David H. Goodman, and was directed by Gwyneth Horder-Payton. Actress Gillian Jacobs guest starred as the boy's kidnapper. The episode featured her character in a "pretty violent and quite messy" fight with Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv), Torv's first for the series. The two actresses spent several weeks practicing the fight's choreography. "The Equation" first aired in the United States on November 18, 2008, garnering an estimated 9.175 million viewers. The episode was the Fox network's fifth ranked show for the week, and helped Fox win the night among adults aged 18 to 49. Critical reception to "The Equation" ranged from mixed to positive, with most reviewers praising the asylum storyline. ## Plot While helping fix a woman's car engine on the side of the road in Middletown, Connecticut, Andrew Stockston (Adam Grupper) sees a sequence of red and green flashing lights and is hypnotized into a suggestive state. Upon 'waking up', he does not have any memory of what happened while hypnotized, but sees that the woman and his son Ben (Charlie Tahan), a young musical prodigy, are missing. Phillip Broyles (Lance Reddick) reveals that similar cases have ended with the victims being returned, but left insane from the trauma of the incident. All the victims were academics and accomplished in their respective fields. When interviewing Andrew, Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv) learns that nine months previously, Ben survived a car accident with a new, extraordinary ability to play the piano, despite never taking lessons. Dr. Walter Bishop (John Noble) recalls memories of red and green lights, but he's unable to remember more. While trying to dredge up the old memories, Walter recounts a previous unsuccessful mind control experiment he had worked on for an advertising agency, who wished to compel customers to buy their products using flashing lights. He deduces that someone succeeded in producing the lights using wavelengths, and these caused Andrew to sustain a "hypnagogic trance" that allowed his son to be abducted. He successfully tests an experiment on Peter Bishop (Joshua Jackson). Andrew's sketch leads to the identification of the kidnapper as Joanne Ostler (Gillian Jacobs), a MIT neurologist who was previously believed deceased. Joanne tricks Ben into helping her complete an unfinished equation by using the image of his mother, who died in the car accident. Meanwhile, Walter suddenly remembers that he heard about the lights from former mathematician Dashiell Kim (Randall Duk Kim), an old bunkmate at St. Claire's Hospital who disappeared under similar circumstances. To discover the child's whereabouts, Olivia encourages Walter to return to St. Claire's. The visit does not go well, and Walter is held by hospital administrator Dr. Bruce Sumner (William Sadler), who remains unconvinced of Walter's sanity. Peter figures out Joanne's assumed name using an FBI database, while Walter manages to convince Kim into giving up a vague description of Joanne's whereabouts by telling him there is a little boy who needs their help. Kim says he was kept in "a dungeon in a red castle." Olivia and Peter use the information to find the boy once they arrange for Walter's release. However, Joanne escapes with the completed formula, which she gives to Mitchell Loeb (Chance Kelly). Loeb kills her, but not before using the equation to allow him to pass through solid matter. ## Production "The Equation" was written by supervising producer J. R. Orci and co-executive producer David H. Goodman. Both would go on to separately write other first season episodes, including Orci's "The Transformation" and Goodman's "Safe", which resolved the fate of the eponymous equation. "The Equation" was directed by filmmaker Gwyneth Horder-Payton, her first and only credit for the series to date. The episode featured guest actress Gillian Jacobs as the kidnapper Joanne Ostler. Jacobs explained her character's motivations, "I'm a very mysterious figure, and at the beginning of the episode you see that I have taken this boy, have kidnapped him. I have taken him to this room and have him hooked him up to these EKG machines. I'm trying to get him to finish writing this piano piece which I need to help solve an equation... It's very important to me." Horder-Payton considered the confrontation between Olivia and Joanne to be the former's "first big fight scene." She added, "It's been well choreographed and they've been practicing for several weeks." According to Torv, she and Jacobs broke the moves down "really simply" and then "put them together into really small little bits." The director called it a "pretty violent and quite messy" fight, to which first assistant director Colin MacLellan added, "It's a pretty phenomenal brawl actually to have two women kick the crap out of each other." The first season DVD includes several scenes that were omitted from the final cut of the episode. The first centers on Walter waking up in the middle of the night, explaining to a disgruntled Peter that he's attempting to "shift my circadian rhythm to the nocturnal cycle." The other scene shows Olivia and Peter playing poker, which leads her to realize an important part of the episode's case. ## Themes and analysis Flashing multicolored lights, specifically red and green, are a consistent theme of the first season, with Into the Looking Glass: Exploring the Worlds of Fringe author Sarah Clarke Stuart calling them "noteworthy recurring images." They can also be seen in the computer graphics of the Observer's binoculars, as well as during the second and third seasons as a way to distinguish the two universes. The character of Walter goes through much development during the first season. Stuart believed that he changes the most out of the main cast, and his return to St. Claire's reflects this progression. Actor John Noble explained his character's evolution in a November 2008 interview, "We see Walter from a different angle, very vulnerable. He goes back to the asylum again, and we see the very, very fearful man return for a while. Although he does have some wonderful moments earlier in the episode, when he goes back inside he turns into this incredibly fearful, stuttering fellow that we saw when we first met him. It's a very interesting journey we see Walter go through." In the episode, Walter sees himself several times while staying in the mental institution. Many reviewers expressed curiosity about this "Visitor" or "Second Walter". After looking through "Walter's Lab Notes," released by Fox after each episode, Ramsey Isler of IGN speculated that Walter suffered from a multiple personality disorder, while AOL TV's Jane Boursaw thought it was either an hallucination or his alternate universe counterpart. ## Reception ### Ratings "The Equation" first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on November 18, 2008. It was watched by an estimated 9.18 million viewers, earning a 4.1/10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49, meaning that it was seen by 4.4 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 11 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of broadcast. The episode also received a 5.6/8 ratings share among all households. Fringe and its lead-in show, House M.D., helped Fox win the night in the adult demographic, as it was Fringe's highest rating since the season's second episode. It was Fox's fifth ranked show for the week. ### Reviews The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics. Fearnet columnist Alyse Wax called it a "pretty good episode", and believed it to be "far more enjoyable than last week's", as it lacked that episode's "conspiracy nonsense" and John Scott storyline. However, Wax continued that "The Equation" "seemed rather pedestrian" because "nothing too freaky" happened, and wished that Walter and Peter had been used more. Jane Boursaw of AOL TV considered Walter's return to the asylum "heartbreaking". IGN's Travis Fickett rated "The Equation" 7.5/10, and called it a "solid episode" despite a few perceived plotholes. He liked Walter and Peter's actions in the asylum, and concluded "At this point, whether a solid single episode is enough to keep you watching Fringe likely has to do with your overall patience with the series and whatever its ultimate goals might be." Erin Dougherty of Cinema Blend called it the best episode since "The Same Old Story" since it contained "suspense and drama and a minimal amount of conspiracy theories", making her feel "seriously giddy". While still calling it "entertaining", she disliked Walter seeing himself in the asylum, believing it "was really strange and didn’t go with the flow of the story". The A.V. Club writer Noel Murray graded the episode with a B+, explaining that he believed it to be mainly an original story; what kept him from promoting it to the "elusive 'A' level–something no Fringe episode has yet done for me" was the ending, which was "like something out of dozens of mediocre cop shows". Despite this, Murray found it and the asylum storyline to be "compelling". Conversely, UGO Networks was critical of the episode, writing "Fringe continues to wobble in story quality. Last night's episode was a perfectly good way to waste an hour, but far off the track of last week's episodes. The episode featured some plot conveniences that were a bit hard to swallow".
2,873,504	Marge Gets a Job	1,173,586,100	null	[ "1992 American television episodes", "Cultural depictions of Elvis Presley", "Cultural depictions of Marie Curie", "Television episodes about sexual harassment", "The Simpsons (season 4) episodes" ]	"Marge Gets a Job" is the seventh episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 5, 1992. In this episode, Marge gets a job at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant to pay for foundation repair at the Simpsons house. Mr. Burns develops a crush on Marge after seeing her at work and sexually harasses her. A subplot with Bart also takes place, paralleling the fable The Boy Who Cried Wolf. The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein and directed by Jeffrey Lynch. ## Plot When a position opens at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant by the enforced retirement of Jack Varley after 45 years of service, Marge decides to apply for the position to pay for expensive repairs for the foundation of the Simpsons house. Mr. Burns is enchanted by Marge. He promotes her ahead of Homer's position, but when she tells him that she is married he fires her from her position and sexually harasses her. She threatens a lawsuit and enlists the help of Lionel Hutz, who is completely unsuccessful and flees from Burns' army of real lawyers; but Burns yields after Homer defends his wife. Homer and Marge enjoy a private show performed by the singer Tom Jones, who is being held captive by Burns following Marge's revelation that she is a fan of Jones's music. Meanwhile, Bart, after making several excuses to avoid taking a test, is forced to take the test by his teacher, Edna Krabappel. She places him alone outside the classroom, hands him the test, and leaves. A captive wolf escapes from a taping of The Krusty the Clown Show and attacks Bart outside the classroom. He cries "Wolf!" but Edna, who previously warned him about The Boy Who Cried Wolf, ignores him. Groundskeeper Willie rescues Bart by fighting the wolf, giving Bart time to return to his classroom. Since he feels that he will not be believed if he tells the truth, Bart says, with apparent honesty, that he made up the story. He then passes out and Edna realizes that Bart really was attacked. ## Production The idea for the show came from Conan O'Brien, who thought of Marge getting a job at the power plant and that Mr. Burns has a crush on her. The animators had trouble animating Marge with the suit and lipstick. Director Jeff Lynch said there were a few scenes where Marge "looks like a monster". All the jargon used by Troy McClure was accurately taken from a Time–Life foundation repair book. The original subplot for the episode was Mr. Burns telling Homer to dress up as Mister Atom and have him go to schools to talk to the children. The cast really liked Tom Jones as a guest star. They said he was fun to work with, and was really nice, and even offered to perform a concert after he was done recording lines. The animators had originally drawn three different versions of Bart after he was attacked by the wolf. They picked the version that looked the least scary, as they did not want Bart to look too "beaten up". An animation error during the dream sequence with Mr. Burns also caused issues when dealing with network censors, mistaking a "lump in his bed" as an erection, which was supposed to be Mr. Smithers' knee. ## Cultural references The song performed for Mr. Burns at the retirement party is a reference to Citizen Kane. The photo of Mr. Burns meeting Elvis Presley is very close to the photo of Richard Nixon meeting Elvis. While Mr. Burns is looking through the surveillance cameras, "The Imperial March" from the Star Wars films is played in the background. ## Reception ### Critical reception Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented, "We like Bart's fantasy of the radioactive Marie and Pierre Curie, and Smithers' fantasy of his loved one flying through the window. A collection of wonderful set pieces rather than a story, which fizzles out without any real attempt at an ending." Empire placed the "Mister Burns" dance number as the show's fourth best film parody, "the pick of a big bunch" from the show's many Citizen Kane parodies, coming "replete with Wellesian camera angles and subtly altered lyrics". ### Ratings In its original broadcast, "Marge Gets a Job" finished 25th in ratings for the week of November 2–8, 1992, with a Nielsen rating of 13.6, equivalent to approximately 12.7 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, beating Beverly Hills, 90210 and The Simpsons episode "Itchy & Scratchy: The Movie", which aired on Tuesday in the same week. ## Alternate version In the original airing of this episode, Mrs. Krabappel names several different diseases Bart has faked in order to get out of taking his English test, one of which is Tourette's syndrome. After Bart claims that he is not over it, he begins barking and snarling and mutters, "Shove it, witch!" This scene garnered many complaints from people who thought it was tasteless of the writers to make fun of an actual condition and Joshua Smith, a boy in Renton, Washington began seeking legal action. Smith demanded that they "not repeat the episode and have Bart Simpson befriend somebody with Tourette's on the show" and include an apology from Bart at the end. Executive producer Mike Reiss replied with an apology saying "We kind of feel like we made a mistake this time. We felt bad about this." In a move that was unprecedented for the show, the producers agreed to remove the scene from future broadcasts. However, Smith's other requests went unfulfilled. In the version of the episode released on the season four DVD boxset, the part with Bart demonstrating his supposed Tourette's syndrome to Mrs. Krabappel was kept intact, but Krabappel's line about Bart having "...that unfortunate bout of Tourette's syndrome" was replaced with "...that unfortunate bout of rabies." Additionally, during Smithers' dream sequence with Mr. Burns, censors demanded the cutting of several seconds of animation that showed "Mr. Burns land[ing] in a particular position on Smithers anatomy". Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the associated nuclear emergency, the episode was pulled from an Austrian network due to jokes about radiation poisoning.
53,023,385	First Battle of Newtonia Historic District	1,130,112,213	Historic district in Missouri	[ "2004 establishments in Missouri", "American Civil War battlefields", "Geography of Newton County, Missouri", "Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri", "Newtonia, Missouri", "Tourist attractions in Newton County, Missouri" ]	The First Battle of Newtonia Historic District, near Newtonia, Missouri, is a National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) site that preserves the location of the First Battle of Newtonia, an 1862 battle during the American Civil War. The battle saw Confederate troops under Colonels Douglas H. Cooper and Joseph O. Shelby defeat a Union force commanded by Brigadier General Frederick Salomon. The historic district contains some Civil War-period structures, as well as the Mathew H. Ritchey House, which is listed separately on the NRHP. ## Battle In September 1862, a Union column commanded by Brigadier General James G. Blunt advanced south into southwestern Missouri. The town of Newtonia was occupied by Confederate troops composed of Confederate-sympathizing Native Americans commanded by Colonel Douglas H. Cooper and cavalry commanded by Colonel Joseph O. Shelby. Cooper had seniority over Shelby, giving him overall command of the Confederate force. Blunt's advance guard, commanded by Brigadier General Frederick Salomon, learned of the Confederate presence of Newtonia. A Union scouting force skirmished with some of Shelby's cavalry near Granby on September 29. The next day, Salomon's main force moved towards Newtonia, encountering the main Confederate force. The battle opened with an artillery duel, which continued until the Confederate artillery began to run low on ammunition. Salomon then ordered the 9th Wisconsin Infantry around the flank of the Confederate front line. The Confederate front line gave way, but a counterattack by some of Shelby's cavalry stopped the Union advance. A combined charge by Shelby's brigade and Cooper's Native Americans broke a secondary line the Union forces had formed after their initial repulse. The Union forces retreated over ten miles to Sarcoxie. The Confederates suffered an estimated 78 casualties during the fighting, while Union casualties are estimated at 245. Despite winning the battle, the Confederate position was still not secure, as Salomon's force had only been the advance guard of a much larger Union army, leading the Confederates to decide to retreat from Missouri. ## Historic district The First Battle of Newtonia Historic District was created in 2004 to preserve the site of the battle and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The central areas of the site are five contributing resources, as well as the Mathew H. Ritchey House, which is listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places. The five contributing resources are the battlefield itself, a stream named Newtonia branch, the Newtonia road, a barnyard associated with the Ritchey House, and a cemetery from the American Civil War period. The district covers 152.3 acres (61.6 ha). While most of the buildings on the battlefield postdate the battle and several stone walls present during the fighting have since been removed, the nature of the battlefield has undergone no major changes since 1862. Besides the five contributing resources, 29 post-battle structures are contained within the historic district. These structures are mostly residential buildings and mobile homes dating to the 20th century. The cemetery within the district contains more than 600 burials, dating back to at least 1858. Nine of the burials can be directly connected to the American Civil War. While the Ritchey barn was destroyed in the late 1800s, the site of the barnyard is preserved within the historic district. Archaeology has confirmed that fighting took place in the barnyard area. While no longer extant, several fences on the barnyard site were used as makeshift breastworks during the battle. A portion of Newtonia Branch, a historic stream, is preserved within the district, as is a stretch of roadway known historically as the Neosho Road (now named Mill Street). Additionally, the Mathew H. Ritchey House, a home built in the 1840s by the founder of Newtonia, is within the district. The Ritchey House, as well as an associated family cemetery, were listed on the National Register of Historic Places separately in 1978. A special resource study conducted by the National Park Service in 2013 determined that the First Battle of Newtonia Historic District did not meet the criteria for becoming a unit of the National Park Service as the historical and cultural features of the site were deemed too similar to those preserved at already-existing National Park Service units. The Ritchey House and 25 acres of the battlefields including the Old Newtonia Cemetery were added to Wilson's Creek National Battlefield in 2022 by the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023, despite National Park Service opposition due to the lack of connection, need for protection, or enhancement of public enjoyment.
55,760,641	Open Here	1,143,772,904	2018 album by English rock band Field Music	[ "2018 albums", "Field Music albums", "Memphis Industries albums" ]	Open Here is the sixth studio album by the English rock band Field Music. Released by Memphis Industries on 2 February 2018, the album combines elements of alternative rock and chamber pop, and includes a wider range of musical instruments than previous Field Music albums, predominantly featuring flutes, horns, and string instruments. The band attempted to create a unique instrumental combination for each song; Field Music's David and Peter Brewis felt more confident about expanding the range of instruments on the album, after having made a film soundtrack with an orchestra just before the recording of Open Here began. Open Here is more overtly political in its themes than Field Music's previous albums, with many of the songs inspired by David and Peter Brewis' frustration with the result of the Brexit referendum vote. Songs like "Goodbye to the Country" and "Count It Up", the latter of which focuses on societal privileges enjoyed by white members of the middle- and upper-class, directly address Brexit; David Brewis described them as "definitely the angriest songs I have ever written". Other songs were inspired by David and Peter Brewis' children and the responsibilities of parenting, including "No King No Princess", which speaks out against social conceptions of femininity and masculinity. Despite occasionally serious or cynical topics, Field Music attempted to infuse a sense of optimism and fun within Open Here; the opening track "Time in Joy", in particular, was described by Peter Brewis as an effort to confront difficult times "with a deliberate sense of fun". Open Here was the last of five consecutive albums Field Music recorded at their home studio in Sunderland, which was to be demolished shortly after the album was completed. Field Music involved a large number of guest musicians in recording the album, including saxophonist Pete Fraser, trumpeter Simon Dennis, flutist Sarah Hayes, and singer Liz Corney of The Cornshed Sisters, as well as the band's usual string quartet. "Count It Up" was the first single from Open Here, and a music video was released for the song. Additional singles included "Time in Joy" and "Share a Pillow". The album received positive reviews, and appeared on several year-end lists of the best albums of 2018. Several reviewers compared Open Here to the work of such artists as David Bowie, Talking Heads, Steely Dan, Prince, Peter Gabriel, and XTC. ## Background Open Here is the sixth studio album by Field Music, the English rock band consisting of the brothers David and Peter Brewis. A follow-up to their 2016 album Commontime, it was released through their label Memphis Industries. In a press release, David Brewis said: "Where Commontime felt like a distillation of all of the elements that make up Field Music, [Open Here] feels like an expansion; as if we're pushing in every direction at once to see how far we can go." The news release also described the album as "bigger in scale, and grander than anything Field Music have done before", and compared it to the works of pop experimentalists from the late 1970s and early 1980s, including Godley & Creme, XTC, and Todd Rundgren. Peter Brewis said the title Open Here was "kind of a joke" revolving around the idea of the album as a packaged consumer commodity, since pre-packaged products often have the phrase "open here" on them. ## Musical style and composition Open Here combines elements of alternative rock and chamber pop in the usual style of Field Music, which includes complicated chords, complex instrumentation, powerful drumming, and idiosyncratic but emotional lyrics. The album also includes the type of 1980s-style pop flourishes the band utilised in Commontime, further enhanced by arrangements featuring flutes, string instruments, and horns. Although Field Music has included these instruments in past works, they were used to a much larger extent in Open Here than in previous albums. Between work on Commontime and Open Here, Field Music collaborated with the band Warm Digits and the Northern Symphonia to make the soundtrack for the film Asunder as part of the 14–18 NOW series of events to commemorate the centenary of World War I. Peter Brewis said that working with the full orchestra on that project gave Field Music more confidence in expanding the range of instruments in their own arrangements, inspiring them to use more wind instruments in addition to their usual string quartet. He said the band sought to create an album that was concise and coherent, but also going in multiple musical directions at the same time. Open Here has been described as a work of multiple genres, including indie rock, progressive pop, and art rock. Peter Brewis said Field Music wanted Open Here to be "a varied but coherent album as a whole", and that they tried to create a unique instrumental combination for each song. For example, "Time in Joy" predominantly features a flute and guitar, "Count It Up" uses a keyboard and drum machine, and "No King No Princess" utilizes guitars and brass instruments. The final song, "Find a Way to Keep Me", includes all of the instruments featured throughout the album, so that it would, according to Peter, "be the link between all these songs". Peter said that when working on the songs, he would make recordings of instrumental ideas, and separately take notes for possible lyrics, before combining the two later. The opening track "Time in Joy" begins with breath-like rhythms, with minimal piano and synthesizer elements, which gradually build into an erratic funk-like groove with circular staccato flute parts, a buoyant bassline, and clattering triangles and bells, becoming what Michael Rancic of Uproxx describes as a "colourful, weightless melody" with string instruments supporting the vocal lines. The Independent music critic Andy Gill said "Time in Joy" sets the general tone for the entirety of Open Here, and called the song "a frothy, blissed-out ode to companionship wrapped in cascading flutes". Kelsey J. Waite of The A.V. Club said "Time in Joy" and "Count It Up", in particular, illustrate the influences of 1980s synth-pop on Field Music and Open Here. The composition of "Count It Up" began when David Brewis played a riff on his son's toy keyboard while his son shouted numbers in the background. The toy keyboard was used to record portions of the song, which Peter Brewis said "is probably why musically it sounds a bit silly, really". David's son did not like when other people used his keyboard, so they had to do it without his knowledge. "Count It Up" makes prominent use of drum machines, synthesizers, and keyboards, in a funk-like style, with a loose conversational vocal delivery typical of David Brewis's singing. "Count It Up" was one of the first songs Field Music has done that has no guitars at all. "Share a Pillow" utilizes loud fast-paced horn sections, driven by a blustering baritone saxophone, which plays between vocal parts layered with harmonies. Peter Brewis said the song's drumbeat was inspired by the one from the Billy Joel song "Uptown Girl". "No King No Princess" features scratchy guitar riffs and jagged drum loops, with loud and vibrant blasts from horn instruments, and vocals by Liz Corney from the band The Cornshed Sisters. Despite the wide array of instruments featured in Open Here, the guitar is still prevalent in many songs. "Goodbye to the Country" includes what Steven Johnson of musicOMH described as "wiggly, elastic guitar lines", and The Irish News writer Dean Van Nguyen said "Checking on a Message" showcases Field Music's "ability to wrangle a swinging rhythm from a guitar". "Cameraman", meanwhile, makes greater use of string quartets, with deep sustained notes from the stringed instruments, as well as a sparse piano chord, complementing what Nguyen described as "George of the Jungle-style drums". Songs like "Open Here", "Daylight Saving", and "Find a Way To Keep Me" include some of the album's most prominent uses of string instruments. The title track is primarily guided by violins, with the string quartet playing in a minuet style. The arrangement was partially inspired by a string quartet Peter Brewis heard during a performance of Kate Bush's song "Cloudbusting", during a celebration of Bush's music organised by Emma Pollock. John Murphy of musicOMH called "Open Here" "a gorgeously atmospheric number, starting with some Eleanor Rigby-style strings before developing into a masterful orchestral pop song". The song "Daylight Saving" includes pizzicato-style strings coupled with soft rock grooves and powerful drumming, before concluding with a sustained major chord. The album closes with "Find a Way to Keep Me", which is built around a delicate piano melody and gradually adds a string section, trumpets, flutes, and a vocal choir, all of which build to a boisterous crescendo of strings and harmonies. Paul Brown of Drowned in Sound called it a "staggeringly beautiful slow-burner", while Anna Alger of Exclaim! said it "provides a larger-than-life closer to the album, with a euphoria to it". Memphis Industries described the song as "the grandest music the brothers have ever made". ## Lyrics and themes ### Brexit and social privilege According to the album's official description by label Memphis Industries, Open Here is in part about the erosion of faith in people, institutions, and shared experiences in response to events from the past two years before the album's release. Open Here is more overtly political in its themes than any of Field Music's previous albums, with many of the songs directly addressing David and Peter Brewis' frustration with the result of the Brexit referendum vote. They are from Sunderland, the first district to declare its support for Brexit, much to the anger and disappointment of the Brewis brothers. Peter Brewis has said, of the two brothers, David felt the most strongly about Brexit during the making of the album; David got "incredibly angry" about Brexit, whereas Peter himself got "a little bit sad". However, both brothers took notes about Brexit throughout the referendum process, and after reviewing them, decided to write songs about the subject because Peter said "we couldn't ignore what was happening". The lyrics of the song "Checking on a Message" depict staying up late to follow the news of political events – including the Brexit referendum results and the U.S. presidential election of Donald Trump – then awaking the next morning in disbelief to messages describing the result and after-effects; the line "hoping that it isn't true" is repeated throughout. Peter Brewis said the song was about overconfidence that world events will go the expected way, and the subsequent disappointment when they do not. The song was inspired by his own experience following election results, saying: "I went to bed thinking, 'Yeah, it's going to be fine, of course it's going to be fine,' and then it wasn't. I couldn't believe it. I couldn't believe the messages I was getting and I thought to myself that it was me being stupid, and that's the problem." Memphis Industries wrote that the song "could be on the apocalyptic party playlist the morning after any number of recent voting catastrophes". The lyrics of the song "Cameraman" depict an attempt to document troubling times, as well as observing comfortable urban life from an outside perspective. Peter Brewis said of the song: "It's about examining this slightly Utopian world that we get to live in from a position of someone who doesn't have that privilege. To them, all this must seem like another planet, a mad dream." The song "Front of House" is about saying goodbye to a deceased friend, while the title track "Open Here" is about a group of old friends who were once in a position of local prominence, but are no longer. David Brewis described "Goodbye to the Country" and "Count it Up" as "definitely the angriest songs I have ever written", adding: "I am quite proud that I have managed to make them into listenable songs and I am sure that anger will resonate with some people." Peter Brewis said he does not believe David could have written "Count It Up" if not for Brexit. "Goodbye to the Country" is a critique of capitalism in the United Kingdom and the post-Brexit Tory-controlled government.\<ref name="Nguyen0126" / The lyrics angrily condemn the prioritization of capitalist greed and riches over people, particularly the line: "I'm sure it'll be good fun making money at your kids' expense." The song also condemns the racism and xenophobia that was prevalent during and after the Brexit referendum process. "Count It Up" is even more pointed in its criticism of post-Brexit Britain, going through a list one-by-one of societal privileges enjoyed and exploited by white members of the middle- and upper-class, including clean water, freedom of expression, and safety from day-to-day discrimination, among others. The song is a critique of racism, privilege, the wealth gap, and the anti-immigration and nationalistic impulses that arose during Brexit. It displays empathy for marginalised citizens, including refugees. David Brewis said the song is "about the ways built-in advantages can make us feel like the world is more of a meritocracy than it is", and how people, particularly those on the political right wing, "tend to ascribe their fortunes entirely in the frame of their own talents" without acknowledging these advantages. David said he wrote "Count It Up" to express frustration with his compatriots' failure to see or think beyond themselves, and their unwillingness to express empathy for the less fortunate. He intended for the song to urge those types of people to "[look] beyond your own experience". David's perspective about privilege in "Count It Up" was partially inspired by his reading of Making Globalization Work (2006) by Nobel Prize laureate Joseph Stiglitz. David acknowledged that people of all political persuasions, and even himself, are guilty of this: "After I'd written lots of things for it, I did think most of these could apply to me. But if you're going to write finger-pointing songs, it's best if you can point the finger at yourself as well." Anti-immigration protests in the United States and the U.S. travel ban supported by President Donald Trump, which David characterised as a "Muslim ban", were also influences for the song. It also condemns materialism, with one lyric noting: "Pounds and pennies aren't the only kind of capital." David said he "wrote tons and tons of lyrics" as he was writing "Count It Up", and "it comes out in an emotional burst". He has described the song as "a howl of rage set to what's basically my version of 'Material Girl'". ### Parenthood and gender roles Several songs were inspired by David and Peter Brewis' children and the responsibilities of parenting. In press materials released about the album, the Brewis brothers said fatherhood helped inspire a new sense of personal and political accountability in their music. Peter Brewis said that, although their children were alive during the recording of Commontime and influenced that album, the songs on Open Here touch upon parenthood in a more substantial way: "Commontime was probably just whinging about us being tired all the time, whereas this album is us talking about our little mates and how they have affected our view of world events." Though many of the songs on Open Here are about global events, Peter said: "I couldn't have written them at all without thinking of them through the eyes of my son." Pitchfork reviewer Olivia Horn wrote: "While more than a dozen artists left their fingerprints on Field Music's sixth album, the people whose presence is most felt throughout its eleven tracks are nowhere to be found in the album credits – they're David's and Peter's young children." Sean Harper of Clash believed the album shows signs of the Brewis brothers' "anxieties about introducing someone to a world as fickle and shallow as ours". The lyrics to the album's closing song, "Find a Way to Keep Me", depict a child potentially becoming separated from his or her parents. Peter Brewis said that scenario would have been upsetting to him even before he was a father, but those emotions are even more heightened as a parent. "No King No Princess" takes a position against gender stereotyping and rigidly-defined social conceptions of femininity and masculinity. It was inspired by the birth of David Brewis' daughter, and the different reactions and expectations he observed from people to both his daughter and son. David said both were inquisitive babies in similar ways, and he noticed people would attribute it to gender for his daughter, but never did so about his son. "It's the idea that your gender says more about you than your character would. It's so bizarre. ... How people respond to their character traits seems to be entirely due to their gender." In particular, David said he finds "princess" a strange nickname for little girls because "it's such a passive aspiration". The song highlights the ways in which gender roles are enforced on children from a young age, and takes particular note of how these gender divisions manifest in the traditional colour of clothing for children. The lyrics of "No King No Princess" feature a parent directly encouraging a daughter that she can do what she wants, dress and play how she wants, and have whatever job she wants, regardless of societal expectations. David said he was not necessarily trying to push for gender neutrality, but rather to encourage children to develop their own personalities and interests on their own. Other songs on Open Here were also inspired by the Brewis' brothers experiences with fatherhood. "Share a Pillow", written by Peter Brewis, was inspired by his son leaving his own bedroom and attempting to sleep in Peter's bed with him. Some of the excuses his son voiced directly inspired lyrics in the song, such as "It's too late to go back to bed" and "It's fine dad, we can share a pillow". Peter Brewis deliberately wrote "Share a Pillow" so it was not too specifically or overtly clear what it was about. As a result, at least one music reviewer mistakenly believed it was about having sex with multiple different partners. "Daylight Saving" was also influenced by parenthood. The song is about two exhausted parents of new children dreaming about eventually recapturing quality time with each other, as exemplified by the lyric: "We might get it back ... not now, not yet." ### Joy and optimism Despite the political and social commentary prevalent on many songs in Open Here, several reviewers have noted that the album nevertheless maintains a sense of optimism and fun, and that many of the songs are musically upbeat even as the lyrics address serious or cynical topics. Memphis Industries' official description of the album notes that, despite the strange and turbulent circumstances that have influenced the album, "there's no gloom here. For Peter and David Brewis, playing together in their small riverside studio has been a joyful exorcism." Peter Brewis said the album title itself, Open Here, was a joke because "We did not want things to be too gloomy, so we tried to give the title a little fun." He also said Field Music strove to write about serious topics like Brexit and social privilege while still maintaining a sense of humour: "I think the whole spirit of the album is to try to have fun in dark times; trying to be defiant about all the shit that's going on." He added: "We tried to make a record where the songs were like spells to get rid of some of those things." Olivia Horn of Pitchfork said "Checking on a Message" is "deceptively peppy" for a song about Brexit. John Murphy of musicOMH called "Find a Way to Keep Me" a particularly uplifting song from a musicality perspective, despite the dark subject matter, and added: "After the political storm of the previous half-hour, this is the closing calm." Record Collector writer Oregano Rathbone believed Open Here has a sense of optimism, despite some of the cynical subject matter and political commentary. He wrote, "The most recurrent motif on Open Here is a determined sense of realistic, measured positivity", and said of "Checking on a Message" in particular: "Its swagger admirably refuses to have its spirit utterly crushed and irrevocably broken." Paul Brown of Drowned in Sound said that the album covers serious topics but "wrap their most substantial motifs around typically playful pop". Likewise, Sean Harper wrote that the album shows Field Music are "not content with wallowing in the state of things and [want] to inspire positive change". In particular, Peter Brewis described the opening track "Time in Joy" as an attempt to confront dark times "with a deliberate sense of fun". According to Memphis Industries, the song "turns dark times into sparkling funk". The song pushes back against the idea that painful or dark feelings are the most meaningful. In contrast, Brewis said: "I've been through dark times [and] I find that there isn't a lot of romance in that, that I function better and get more meaning out of positive experiences." Brewis said "Time in Joy" embodies "fun in the face of hardship" as well as "a kind of defiance in playfulness", both in the context of personal experience and wider national events. The band tried to embrace this idea while making Open Here itself, according to Brewis: "We set out to have a good time making this record, in spite of everything." ## Recording and production David and Peter Brewis recorded Open Here in their home studio in the Wearside area of Sunderland, working mostly with friends and colleagues. It was the last of five consecutive albums Field Music recorded over seven years at the studio, which was located on a light industrial estate in Sunderland overlooking the River Wear. However, in early 2017, it was announced that the studio was to be demolished shortly after the completion of Open Here. The band knew of the demolition plans for the studio well in advance of the formal announcement, and were only able to obtain the space because it was scheduled for demolition. Having a limited amount of time to finish Open Here gave the project a sense of urgency. Peter Brewis believed that deadline ultimately helped the recording process, resulting in a looser and less inhibited album: "I think we let the performances kind of run and we let some, almost, mistakes creep in. There doesn't sound like there's a lot of mistakes in there though." Field Music wanted to involve as many guest musicians as possible because of the impending demolition of the studio, and Peter Brewis said the fact that the studio was closing helped attract musicians to participate. The recording process included Field Music's regular string quartet of Ed Cross, Ele Leckie, Jo Montgomery, and Chrissie Slater, as well as guest appearances by saxophonist Pete Fraser, trumpeter Simon Dennis, flutist Sarah Hayes, and singer Liz Corney of The Cornshed Sisters. Fraser previously performed the saxophone part for Field Music's 2015 single "The Noisy Days Are Over", Hayes had performed for Field Music's Asunder soundtrack, and Corney had previously performed with Field Music on tour following the release of Commontime. The various collaborators made suggestions during the recording process, many of which were accepted by Field Music, particularly flute and saxophone parts that Peter said he would not have considered otherwise. ## Release The forthcoming release of Open Here was first announced on 7 November 2017, during which the band also announced its upcoming schedule for 2018 concerts in the United Kingdom. A one-minute promotional teaser video was released that included animated versions of the album cover artwork, with instrumental portions of the song "Time in Joy" playing in the background. "Count It Up" was the first single from the album, released on 28 November 2017, followed by "Time in Joy", which was first released to the online music magazine Stereogum on 10 January 2018. The third and final single was "Share a Pillow", which was released on 24 January 2018. Open Here released on 2 February 2018, through Memphis Industries. On 15 February 2018, Field Music released an official music video for the song "Count It Up". It was directed by Andy Martin and shot in David and Peter Brewis' hometown of Sunderland. In the video, the Brewis brothers walk and drive through the streets of Sunderland while lip-syncing the song. Though they had considered shooting in parts of Sunderland that were affluent or poor, they ultimately decided "the most interesting locations were the ones that had been up and down, and sometimes were up and down at the same time; derelict factories that used to be the economic centre of the city or former shipyards that had been turned into apartments or business parks". Field Music embarked on a tour of the U.K. in support of Open Here, which ran from 2 February to 25 May 2018. The tour began with two nights at the Northern Stage in Newcastle upon Tyne, and included stops in Amsterdam, Antwerp Birmingham, Brighton Bristol, Exeter, Glasgow, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Nottingham, Norwich, Paris, Sheffield, and Southampton. Sarah Hayes and Pete Fraser joined them for most of the tour dates. Peter Brewis said the idea of touring with an orchestra was partially modelled after a Van Morrison tour with the Caledonia Soul Orchestra, which included a string quartet, as well as horn and woodwind instruments. ## Critical reception Open Here received positive reviews, with an aggregated Metacritic rating of 81/100, which the website characterised as "universal acclaim". The album was praised by several reviewers, with Record Collector and Allmusic calling it one of the best albums of the year, and AllMusic arguing that it stood with Field Music's best work. The album was included on Junkee's list of "2018 Albums That Deserved More Love", where it was described as the band's most ambitious effort to date due to its art-rock compositions and new-wave grooves. Drowned in Sound writer Paul Brown singled out "Count It Up" as one of the best songs released in recent years, and complimented the Brewis brothers for constantly creating fresh material. Other reviews agreed that it was a milestone for the band, with intelligent songs that went in unexpected directions, and Pitchfork suggested that it was the influence of David and Peter Brewis' children that gave the album a new sense of earnest direction. The Quietus was also positive, calling it Field Music's most expansive and brightest album to date, adding: "Amongst the carnage, Field Music have created a magical musical bubble. Anger has rarely sounded so positive." Several critics complimented the technical aspects of Open Here, describing it as well-crafted and stylistically diverse, praising its experimentation and wide range of instruments. Eugenie Johnson of The Skinny described Open Here as one of Field Music's boldest albums, with a more open sound than the distilled, compartmentalised approach of Commontime. Some reviewers highlighted the complexity of particular songs; Uproxx called the song "Time in Joy" a "six minute explosion of unbridled pop perfection". Other reviews focused on the political themes at the heart of Open Here, saying it demonstrated the band's mastery for addressing the political and the personal simultaneously. For some critics it was Field Music's most purposeful album both in terms of message and scope, yet was still enjoyable to the common listener; Juan Edgardo Rodriguez of No Ripcord said: "There's a lot of joy to be had in the Brewis's calm and sophisticated protest." Some of the songs were described as a direct confrontation of privilege and a condemnation of bigotry in the era of Brexit and Trump. Other reviewers felt Open Here was too challenging or contained too many ideas, even as they complimented individual aspects of the album. A review in The Independent described Open Here as "like the oddball offspring of Prince and The Left Banke". Dean Van Nguyen of The Irish Times said the album was charming and at times beautiful, but that some of the arrangements felt cobbled together, as if the sum of the parts could collapse. Mark Beaumont of NME, who mostly liked the album, also called it disjointed and oblique at times, and warned that only fans of art-pop would enjoy it. Open Here made several year-end lists of the best albums of 2018, including No. 15 on musicOMH, No. 22 on Mojo, No. 52 on PopMatters, No. 78 on Under the Radar, and No. 86 on Rough Trade Shops. It was also included in AllMusic's year-end round-up of the best music of 2018. Multiple reviewers compared Open Here to the work of David Bowie, Talking Heads, Steely Dan, Peter Gabriel, Prince, and XTC. Peter Brewis said he had repeatedly heard about comparisons to Steely Dan, but at the time that Open Here was made, he had only ever heard the band's Greatest Hits album and he did not consider them a major influence on Field Music. Bill Pearis of BrooklynVegan drew parallels between "Count it Up" and the early 1980s work of XTC and Bill Nelson, while Junkee writer David James Young compared it to the band Split Enz, calling it "the single greatest Split Enz song that they never wrote". ## Track listing All songs on Open Here were credited as having been written by David and Peter Brewis. ## Personnel Field Music - David Brewis – vocals, composer, engineer - Peter Brewis – vocals, composer, engineer Additional musicians - Jennie Brewis – vocals - Liz Corney – vocals - Ed Cross – violin - Simon Dennis – flugelhorn, trumpet - Sarah Hayes – flute, piccolo - Pete Fraser – saxophone - Ele Leckie – cello - Andrew Lowther – vocals - Josephine Montgomery – violin - Andrew Moore – piano - Marie Nixon – vocals - Chrissie Slater – viola - Cath Stephens – vocals Technical personnel - Kev Dosdale – layout ## Charts
1,208	Alan Turing	1,173,874,038	English computer scientist (1912–1954)	[ "1912 births", "1954 deaths", "1954 suicides", "20th-century English mathematicians", "20th-century English philosophers", "20th-century atheists", "Academics of the University of Manchester", "Academics of the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology", "Alan Turing", "Alumni of King's College, Cambridge", "Artificial intelligence researchers", "Bayesian statisticians", "Bletchley Park people", "British LGBT scientists", "British anti-fascists", "British cryptographers", "British people of World War II", "Castrated people", "Computability theorists", "Computer designers", "Deaths by cyanide poisoning", "English LGBT sportspeople", "English atheists", "English computer scientists", "English inventors", "English logicians", "English male long-distance runners", "English people of Irish descent", "English people of Scottish descent", "Fellows of King's College, Cambridge", "Fellows of the Royal Society", "Foreign Office personnel of World War II", "Former Protestants", "GCHQ people", "Gay academics", "Gay scientists", "Gay sportsmen", "History of computing in the United Kingdom", "LGBT mathematicians", "LGBT philosophers", "LGBT track and field athletes", "LGBT-related suicides", "Officers of the Order of the British Empire", "People convicted for homosexuality in the United Kingdom", "People educated at Sherborne School", "People from Maida Vale", "People from Wilmslow", "People who have received posthumous pardons", "Princeton University alumni", "Recipients of British royal pardons", "Scientists of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)", "Suicides by cyanide poisoning", "Suicides in England", "Theoretical biologists", "Theoretical computer scientists" ]	Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS (/ˈtjʊərɪŋ/; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist. Turing was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer. He is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. Born in Maida Vale, London, Turing was raised in southern England. He graduated at King's College, Cambridge, with a degree in mathematics. Whilst he was a fellow at Cambridge, he published a proof demonstrating that some purely mathematical yes–no questions can never be answered by computation and defined a Turing machine, and went on to prove that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable. In 1938, he obtained his PhD from the Department of Mathematics at Princeton University. During the Second World War, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence. For a time he led Hut 8, the section that was responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Here, he devised a number of techniques for speeding the breaking of German ciphers, including improvements to the pre-war Polish bomba method, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine. Turing played a crucial role in cracking intercepted coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Axis powers in many crucial engagements, including the Battle of the Atlantic. After the war, Turing worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he designed the Automatic Computing Engine, one of the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1948, Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory, at the Victoria University of Manchester, where he helped develop the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, first observed in the 1960s. Despite these accomplishments, Turing was never fully recognised in Britain during his lifetime because much of his work was covered by the Official Secrets Act. Turing was prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts. He accepted hormone treatment with DES, a procedure commonly referred to as chemical castration, as an alternative to prison. Turing died on 7 June 1954, 16 days before his 42nd birthday, from cyanide poisoning. An inquest determined his death as a suicide, but it has been noted that the known evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning. Following a public campaign in 2009, the British prime minister Gordon Brown made an official public apology on behalf of the British government for "the appalling way [Turing] was treated". Queen Elizabeth II granted a posthumous pardon in 2013. The term "Alan Turing law" is now used informally to refer to a 2017 law in the United Kingdom that retroactively pardoned men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. Turing has an extensive legacy with statues of him and many things named after him, including an annual award for computer science innovations. He appears on the current Bank of England £50 note, which was released on 23 June 2021, to coincide with his birthday. A 2019 BBC series, as voted by the audience, named him the greatest person of the 20th century. ## Early life and education ### Family Turing was born in Maida Vale, London, while his father, Julius Mathison Turing was on leave from his position with the Indian Civil Service (ICS) of the British Raj government at Chatrapur, then in the Madras Presidency and presently in Odisha state, in India. Turing's father was the son of a clergyman, the Rev. John Robert Turing, from a Scottish family of merchants that had been based in the Netherlands and included a baronet. Turing's mother, Julius's wife, was Ethel Sara Turing (née Stoney), daughter of Edward Waller Stoney, chief engineer of the Madras Railways. The Stoneys were a Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry family from both County Tipperary and County Longford, while Ethel herself had spent much of her childhood in County Clare. Julius and Ethel married on 1 October 1907 at Bartholomew's church on Clyde Road, in Dublin. Julius's work with the ICS brought the family to British India, where his grandfather had been a general in the Bengal Army. However, both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be brought up in Britain, so they moved to Maida Vale, London, where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of the house of his birth, later the Colonnade Hotel. Turing had an elder brother, John Ferrier Turing, father of Sir John Dermot Turing, 12th Baronet of the Turing baronets. Turing's father's civil service commission was still active during Turing's childhood years, and his parents travelled between Hastings in the United Kingdom and India, leaving their two sons to stay with a retired Army couple. At Hastings, Turing stayed at Baston Lodge, Upper Maze Hill, St Leonards-on-Sea, now marked with a blue plaque. The plaque was unveiled on 23 June 2012, the centenary of Turing's birth. Very early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius that he was later to display prominently. His parents purchased a house in Guildford in 1927, and Turing lived there during school holidays. The location is also marked with a blue plaque. ### School Turing's parents enrolled him at St Michael's, a primary school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-Sea, from the age of six to nine. The headmistress recognised his talent, noting that she has "...had clever boys and hardworking boys, but Alan is a genius". Between January 1922 and 1926, Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, an independent school in the village of Frant in Sussex (now East Sussex). In 1926, at the age of 13, he went on to Sherborne School, a boarding independent school in the market town of Sherborne in Dorset, where he boarded at Westcott House. The first day of term coincided with the 1926 General Strike, in Britain, but Turing was so determined to attend that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied 60 miles (97 km) from Southampton to Sherborne, stopping overnight at an inn. Turing's natural inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics. His headmaster wrote to his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two stools. If he is to stay at public school, he must aim at becoming educated. If he is to be solely a Scientific Specialist, he is wasting his time at a public school". Despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary calculus. In 1928, aged 16, Turing encountered Albert Einstein's work; not only did he grasp it, but it is possible that he managed to deduce Einstein's questioning of Newton's laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit. ### Christopher Morcom At Sherborne, Turing formed a significant friendship with fellow pupil Christopher Collan Morcom (13 July 1911 – 13 February 1930), who has been described as Turing's first love. Their relationship provided inspiration in Turing's future endeavours, but it was cut short by Morcom's death, in February 1930, from complications of bovine tuberculosis, contracted after drinking infected cow's milk some years previously. The event caused Turing great sorrow. He coped with his grief by working that much harder on the topics of science and mathematics that he had shared with Morcom. In a letter to Morcom's mother, Frances Isobel Morcom (née Swan), Turing wrote: > I am sure I could not have found anywhere another companion so brilliant and yet so charming and unconceited. I regarded my interest in my work, and in such things as astronomy (to which he introduced me) as something to be shared with him and I think he felt a little the same about me ... I know I must put as much energy if not as much interest into my work as if he were alive, because that is what he would like me to do. Turing's relationship with Morcom's mother continued long after Morcom's death, with her sending gifts to Turing, and him sending letters, typically on Morcom's birthday. A day before the third anniversary of Morcom's death (13 February 1933), he wrote to Mrs. Morcom: > I expect you will be thinking of Chris when this reaches you. I shall too, and this letter is just to tell you that I shall be thinking of Chris and of you tomorrow. I am sure that he is as happy now as he was when he was here. Your affectionate Alan. Some have speculated that Morcom's death was the cause of Turing's atheism and materialism. Apparently, at this point in his life he still believed in such concepts as a spirit, independent of the body and surviving death. In a later letter, also written to Morcom's mother, Turing wrote: > Personally, I believe that spirit is really eternally connected with matter but certainly not by the same kind of body ... as regards the actual connection between spirit and body I consider that the body can hold on to a 'spirit', whilst the body is alive and awake the two are firmly connected. When the body is asleep I cannot guess what happens but when the body dies, the 'mechanism' of the body, holding the spirit is gone and the spirit finds a new body sooner or later, perhaps immediately. ### University and work on computability After graduating from Sherborne, Turing studied the undergraduate course in Schedule B (that is, a three-year Parts I and II, of the Mathematical Tripos, with extra courses at the end of the third year, as Part III only emerged as a separate degree in 1934) from February 1931 to November 1934 at King's College, Cambridge where he was awarded first-class honours in mathematics. His dissertation, On the Gaussian error function, written during his senior and delivered on November 1934 (with a deadline date of 6 December) proved a version of the central limit theorem. It was finally accepted in 16 March 1935. By spring of that same year, Turing started his master's course (Part III), -which he completed in 1937- and, at the same time, he published his first paper, a one-page article called Equivalence of left and right almost periodicity (sent on 23 April), featured in the tenth volume of the Journal of the London Mathematical Society. Later that year, Turing was elected a Fellow of King's College on the strength of his dissertation. However, and, unknown to Turing, this version of the theorem he proved in his paper, had already been proven, in 1922, by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg. Despite this, the committee found Turing's methods original and so regarded the work worthy of consideration for the fellowship. Abram Besicovitch's report for the committee went so far as to say that if Turing's work had been published before Lindeberg's, it would have been "an important event in the mathematical literature of that year". Between the springs of 1935 and 1936, at the same time as Church, Turing worked on the decidability of problems, starting from Godel's incompleteness theorems. In mid-April 1936, Turing sent Max Newman the first draft typescript of his investigations. That same month, Alonzo Church published his An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory, with similar conclusions to Turing's then-yet unpublished work. Finally, on 28 May of that year, he finished and delivered his 36-page paper for publication called "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". It was published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society journal in two parts, the first on 30 November and the second on 23 December. In this paper, Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines. The Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) was originally posed by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1928. Turing proved that his "universal computing machine" would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the decision problem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a Turing machine will ever halt. This paper has been called "easily the most influential math paper in history". Although Turing's proof was published shortly after Alonzo Church's equivalent proof using his lambda calculus, Turing's approach is considerably more accessible and intuitive than Church's. It also included a notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other computation machine (as indeed could Church's lambda calculus). According to the Church–Turing thesis, Turing machines and the lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable. John von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to Turing's paper. To this day, Turing machines are a central object of study in theory of computation. From September 1936 to July 1938, Turing spent most of his time studying under Church at Princeton University, in the second year as a Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow. In addition to his purely mathematical work, he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier. In June 1938, he obtained his PhD from the Department of Mathematics at Princeton; his dissertation, Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals, introduced the concept of ordinal logic and the notion of relative computing, in which Turing machines are augmented with so-called oracles, allowing the study of problems that cannot be solved by Turing machines. John von Neumann wanted to hire him as his postdoctoral assistant, but he went back to the United Kingdom. ## Career and research When Turing returned to Cambridge, he attended lectures given in 1939 by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics. The lectures have been reconstructed verbatim, including interjections from Turing and other students, from students' notes. Turing and Wittgenstein argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein propounding his view that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths, but rather invents them. ### Cryptanalysis During the Second World War, Turing was a leading participant in the breaking of German ciphers at Bletchley Park. The historian and wartime codebreaker Asa Briggs has said, "You needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing's was that genius." From September 1938, Turing worked part-time with the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), the British codebreaking organisation. He concentrated on cryptanalysis of the Enigma cipher machine used by Nazi Germany, together with Dilly Knox, a senior GC&CS codebreaker. Soon after the July 1939 meeting near Warsaw at which the Polish Cipher Bureau gave the British and French details of the wiring of Enigma machine's rotors and their method of decrypting Enigma machine's messages, Turing and Knox developed a broader solution. The Polish method relied on an insecure indicator procedure that the Germans were likely to change, which they in fact did in May 1940. Turing's approach was more general, using crib-based decryption for which he produced the functional specification of the bombe (an improvement on the Polish Bomba). On 4 September 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GC&CS. Like all others who came to Bletchley, he was required to sign the Official Secrets Act, in which he agreed not to disclose anything about his work at Bletchley, with severe legal penalties for violating the Act. Specifying the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that Turing made during the war. The others were: deducing the indicator procedure used by the German navy; developing a statistical procedure dubbed Banburismus for making much more efficient use of the bombes; developing a procedure dubbed Turingery for working out the cam settings of the wheels of the Lorenz SZ 40/42 (Tunny) cipher machine and, towards the end of the war, the development of a portable secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park that was codenamed Delilah. By using statistical techniques to optimise the trial of different possibilities in the code breaking process, Turing made an innovative contribution to the subject. He wrote two papers discussing mathematical approaches, titled The Applications of Probability to Cryptography and Paper on Statistics of Repetitions, which were of such value to GC&CS and its successor GCHQ that they were not released to the UK National Archives until April 2012, shortly before the centenary of his birth. A GCHQ mathematician, "who identified himself only as Richard," said at the time that the fact that the contents had been restricted under the Official Secrets Act for some 70 years demonstrated their importance, and their relevance to post-war cryptanalysis: > [He] said the fact that the contents had been restricted "shows what a tremendous importance it has in the foundations of our subject". ... The papers detailed using "mathematical analysis to try and determine which are the more likely settings so that they can be tried as quickly as possible". ... Richard said that GCHQ had now "squeezed the juice" out of the two papers and was "happy for them to be released into the public domain". Turing had a reputation for eccentricity at Bletchley Park. He was known to his colleagues as "Prof" and his treatise on Enigma was known as the "Prof's Book". According to historian Ronald Lewin, Jack Good, a cryptanalyst who worked with Turing, said of his colleague: > In the first week of June each year he would get a bad attack of hay fever, and he would cycle to the office wearing a service gas mask to keep the pollen off. His bicycle had a fault: the chain would come off at regular intervals. Instead of having it mended he would count the number of times the pedals went round and would get off the bicycle in time to adjust the chain by hand. Another of his eccentricities is that he chained his mug to the radiator pipes to prevent it being stolen. Peter Hilton recounted his experience working with Turing in Hut 8 in his "Reminiscences of Bletchley Park" from A Century of Mathematics in America: > It is a rare experience to meet an authentic genius. Those of us privileged to inhabit the world of scholarship are familiar with the intellectual stimulation furnished by talented colleagues. We can admire the ideas they share with us and are usually able to understand their source; we may even often believe that we ourselves could have created such concepts and originated such thoughts. However, the experience of sharing the intellectual life of a genius is entirely different; one realizes that one is in the presence of an intelligence, a sensibility of such profundity and originality that one is filled with wonder and excitement. Alan Turing was such a genius, and those, like myself, who had the astonishing and unexpected opportunity, created by the strange exigencies of the Second World War, to be able to count Turing as colleague and friend will never forget that experience, nor can we ever lose its immense benefit to us. Hilton echoed similar thoughts in the Nova PBS documentary Decoding Nazi Secrets. While working at Bletchley, Turing, who was a talented long-distance runner, occasionally ran the 40 miles (64 km) to London when he was needed for meetings, and he was capable of world-class marathon standards. Turing tried out for the 1948 British Olympic team, but he was hampered by an injury. His tryout time for the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medallist Thomas Richards' Olympic race time of 2 hours 35 minutes. He was Walton Athletic Club's best runner, a fact discovered when he passed the group while running alone. When asked why he ran so hard in training he replied: > I have such a stressful job that the only way I can get it out of my mind is by running hard; it's the only way I can get some release. Due to the problems of counterfactual history, it is hard to estimate the precise effect Ultra intelligence had on the war. However, official war historian Harry Hinsley estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years and saved over 14 million lives. At the end of the war, a memo was sent to all those who had worked at Bletchley Park, reminding them that the code of silence dictated by the Official Secrets Act did not end with the war but would continue indefinitely. Thus, even though Turing was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1946 by King George VI for his wartime services, his work remained secret for many years. ### Bombe Within weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park, Turing had specified an electromechanical machine called the bombe, which could break Enigma more effectively than the Polish bomba kryptologiczna, from which its name was derived. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician Gordon Welchman, became one of the primary tools, and the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-enciphered messages. The bombe searched for possible correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings and plugboard settings) using a suitable crib: a fragment of probable plaintext. For each possible setting of the rotors (which had on the order of 10<sup>19</sup> states, or 10<sup>22</sup> states for the four-rotor U-boat variant), the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented electromechanically. The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting, moving on to the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. A contradiction would occur when an enciphered letter would be turned back into the same plaintext letter, which was impossible with the Enigma. The first bombe was installed on 18 March 1940. #### Action This Day By late 1941, Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry were frustrated. Building on the work of the Poles, they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but their limited staff and bombes meant they could not translate all the signals. In the summer, they had considerable success, and shipping losses had fallen to under 100,000 tons a month; however, they badly needed more resources to keep abreast of German adjustments. They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes through the proper channels, but had failed. On 28 October they wrote directly to Winston Churchill explaining their difficulties, with Turing as the first named. They emphasised how small their need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces. As Andrew Hodges, biographer of Turing, later wrote, "This letter had an electric effect." Churchill wrote a memo to General Ismay, which read: "ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done." On 18 November, the chief of the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken. The cryptographers at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister's response, but as Milner-Barry recalled, "All that we did notice was that almost from that day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth." More than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war. ### Hut 8 and the naval Enigma Turing decided to tackle the particularly difficult problem of German naval Enigma "because no one else was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself". In December 1939, Turing solved the essential part of the naval indicator system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. That same night, he also conceived of the idea of Banburismus, a sequential statistical technique (what Abraham Wald later called sequential analysis) to assist in breaking the naval Enigma, "though I was not sure that it would work in practice, and was not, in fact, sure until some days had actually broken". For this, he invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ban. Banburismus could rule out certain sequences of the Enigma rotors, substantially reducing the time needed to test settings on the bombes. Later this sequential process of accumulating sufficient weight of evidence using decibans (one tenth of a ban) was used in Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher. Turing travelled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with US Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington. He also visited their Computing Machine Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio. Turing's reaction to the American bombe design was far from enthusiastic: > The American Bombe programme was to produce 336 Bombes, one for each wheel order. I used to smile inwardly at the conception of Bombe hut routine implied by this programme, but thought that no particular purpose would be served by pointing out that we would not really use them in that way. > > Their test (of commutators) can hardly be considered conclusive as they were not testing for the bounce with electronic stop finding devices. Nobody seems to be told about rods or offiziers or banburismus unless they are really going to do something about it. During this trip, he also assisted at Bell Labs with the development of secure speech devices. He returned to Bletchley Park in March 1943. During his absence, Hugh Alexander had officially assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been de facto head for some time (Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section). Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park. Alexander wrote of Turing's contribution: > There should be no question in anyone's mind that Turing's work was the biggest factor in Hut 8's success. In the early days, he was the only cryptographer who thought the problem worth tackling and not only was he primarily responsible for the main theoretical work within the Hut, but he also shared with Welchman and Keen the chief credit for the invention of the bombe. It is always difficult to say that anyone is 'absolutely indispensable', but if anyone was indispensable to Hut 8, it was Turing. The pioneer's work always tends to be forgotten when experience and routine later make everything seem easy and many of us in Hut 8 felt that the magnitude of Turing's contribution was never fully realised by the outside world. ### Turingery In July 1942, Turing devised a technique termed Turingery (or jokingly Turingismus) for use against the Lorenz cipher messages produced by the Germans' new Geheimschreiber (secret writer) machine. This was a teleprinter rotor cipher attachment codenamed Tunny at Bletchley Park. Turingery was a method of wheel-breaking, i.e., a procedure for working out the cam settings of Tunny's wheels. He also introduced the Tunny team to Tommy Flowers who, under the guidance of Max Newman, went on to build the Colossus computer, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, which replaced a simpler prior machine (the Heath Robinson), and whose superior speed allowed the statistical decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the messages. Some have mistakenly said that Turing was a key figure in the design of the Colossus computer. Turingery and the statistical approach of Banburismus undoubtedly fed into the thinking about cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher, but he was not directly involved in the Colossus development. ### Delilah Following his work at Bell Labs in the US, Turing pursued the idea of electronic enciphering of speech in the telephone system. In the latter part of the war, he moved to work for the Secret Service's Radio Security Service (later HMGCC) at Hanslope Park. At the park, he further developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of REME officer Donald Bayley. Together they undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications machine codenamed Delilah. The machine was intended for different applications, but it lacked the capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions. In any case, Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war. Though the system worked fully, with Turing demonstrating it to officials by encrypting and decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech, Delilah was not adopted for use. Turing also consulted with Bell Labs on the development of SIGSALY, a secure voice system that was used in the later years of the war. ### Early computers and the Turing test Between 1945 and 1947, Turing lived in Hampton, London, while he worked on the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine) at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). He presented a paper on 19 February 1946, which was the first detailed design of a stored-program computer. Von Neumann's incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC had predated Turing's paper, but it was much less detailed and, according to John R. Womersley, Superintendent of the NPL Mathematics Division, it "contains a number of ideas which are Dr. Turing's own". Although ACE was a feasible design, the effect of the Official Secrets Act surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park made it impossible for Turing to explain the basis of his analysis of how a computer installation involving human operators would work. This led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year during which he produced a seminal work on Intelligent Machinery that was not published in his lifetime. While he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was being built in his absence. It executed its first program on 10 May 1950, and a number of later computers around the world owe much to it, including the English Electric DEUCE and the American Bendix G-15. The full version of Turing's ACE was not built until after his death. According to the memoirs of the German computer pioneer Heinz Billing from the Max Planck Institute for Physics, published by Genscher, Düsseldorf, there was a meeting between Turing and Konrad Zuse. It took place in Göttingen in 1947. The interrogation had the form of a colloquium. Participants were Womersley, Turing, Porter from England and a few German researchers like Zuse, Walther, and Billing (for more details see Herbert Bruderer, Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz). In 1948, Turing was appointed reader in the Mathematics Department at the Victoria University of Manchester. A year later, he became deputy director of the Computing Machine Laboratory, where he worked on software for one of the earliest stored-program computers—the Manchester Mark 1. Turing wrote the first version of the Programmer's Manual for this machine, and was recruited by Ferranti as a consultant in the development of their commercialised machine, the Ferranti Mark 1. He continued to be paid consultancy fees by Ferranti until his death. During this time, he continued to do more abstract work in mathematics, and in "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (Mind, October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of artificial intelligence, and proposed an experiment that became known as the Turing test, an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called "intelligent". The idea was that a computer could be said to "think" if a human interrogator could not tell it apart, through conversation, from a human being. In the paper, Turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult mind, it would be better to produce a simpler one to simulate a child's mind and then to subject it to a course of education. A reversed form of the Turing test is widely used on the Internet; the CAPTCHA test is intended to determine whether the user is a human or a computer. In 1948, Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, D.G. Champernowne, began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. By 1950, the program was completed and dubbed the Turochamp. In 1952, he tried to implement it on a Ferranti Mark 1, but lacking enough power, the computer was unable to execute the program. Instead, Turing "ran" the program by flipping through the pages of the algorithm and carrying out its instructions on a chessboard, taking about half an hour per move. The game was recorded. According to Garry Kasparov, Turing's program "played a recognizable game of chess". The program lost to Turing's colleague Alick Glennie, although it is said that it won a game against Champernowne's wife, Isabel. His Turing test was a significant, characteristically provocative, and lasting contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence, which continues after more than half a century. ### Pattern formation and mathematical biology When Turing was 39 years old in 1951, he turned to mathematical biology, finally publishing his masterpiece "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in January 1952. He was interested in morphogenesis, the development of patterns and shapes in biological organisms. He suggested that a system of chemicals reacting with each other and diffusing across space, termed a reaction–diffusion system, could account for "the main phenomena of morphogenesis". He used systems of partial differential equations to model catalytic chemical reactions. For example, if a catalyst A is required for a certain chemical reaction to take place, and if the reaction produced more of the catalyst A, then we say that the reaction is autocatalytic, and there is positive feedback that can be modelled by nonlinear differential equations. Turing discovered that patterns could be created if the chemical reaction not only produced catalyst A, but also produced an inhibitor B that slowed down the production of A. If A and B then diffused through the container at different rates, then you could have some regions where A dominated and some where B did. To calculate the extent of this, Turing would have needed a powerful computer, but these were not so freely available in 1951, so he had to use linear approximations to solve the equations by hand. These calculations gave the right qualitative results, and produced, for example, a uniform mixture that oddly enough had regularly spaced fixed red spots. The Russian biochemist Boris Belousov had performed experiments with similar results, but could not get his papers published because of the contemporary prejudice that any such thing violated the second law of thermodynamics. Belousov was not aware of Turing's paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Although published before the structure and role of DNA was understood, Turing's work on morphogenesis remains relevant today and is considered a seminal piece of work in mathematical biology. One of the early applications of Turing's paper was the work by James Murray explaining spots and stripes on the fur of cats, large and small. Further research in the area suggests that Turing's work can partially explain the growth of "feathers, hair follicles, the branching pattern of lungs, and even the left-right asymmetry that puts the heart on the left side of the chest". In 2012, Sheth, et al. found that in mice, removal of Hox genes causes an increase in the number of digits without an increase in the overall size of the limb, suggesting that Hox genes control digit formation by tuning the wavelength of a Turing-type mechanism. Later papers were not available until Collected Works of A. M. Turing was published in 1992. A study conducted in 2023 confirmed Turing's mathematical model hypothesis. Presented by the American Physical Society, the experiment involved growing chia seeds in even layers within trays, later adjusting the available moisture. Researchers experimentally tweaked the factors which appear in the Turing equations, and, as a result, patterns resembling those seen in natural environments emerged. This is believed to be the first time that experiments with living vegetation have verified Turing’s mathematical insight. ## Personal life ### Treasure In the 1940s, Turing became worried about losing his savings in the event of a German invasion. In order to protect it, he bought two silver bars weighing 3,200 oz (90 kg) and worth £250 (in 2022, £8,000 adjusted for inflation, £48,000 at spot price) and buried them in a wood near Bletchley Park. Upon returning to dig them up, Turing found that he was unable to break his own code describing where exactly he had hidden them. This, along with the fact that the area had been renovated, meant that he never regained the silver. ### Engagement In 1941, Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 colleague Joan Clarke, a fellow mathematician and cryptanalyst, but their engagement was short-lived. After admitting his homosexuality to his fiancée, who was reportedly "unfazed" by the revelation, Turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage. ### Homosexuality and indecency conviction In January 1952, Turing was 39 when he started a relationship with Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old unemployed man. Just before Christmas, Turing was walking along Manchester's Oxford Road when he met Murray just outside the Regal Cinema and invited him to lunch. On 23 January, Turing's house was burgled. Murray told Turing that he and the burglar were acquainted, and Turing reported the crime to the police. During the investigation, he acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray. Homosexual acts were criminal offences in the United Kingdom at that time, and both men were charged with "gross indecency" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885. Initial committal proceedings for the trial were held on 27 February during which Turing's solicitor "reserved his defence", i.e., did not argue or provide evidence against the allegations. The proceedings were held at the Sessions House in Knutsford. Turing was later convinced by the advice of his brother and his own solicitor, and he entered a plea of guilty. The case, Regina v. Turing and Murray, was brought to trial on 31 March 1952. Turing was convicted and given a choice between imprisonment and probation. His probation would be conditional on his agreement to undergo hormonal physical changes designed to reduce libido, known as "chemical castration". He accepted the option of injections of what was then called stilboestrol (now known as diethylstilbestrol or DES), a synthetic oestrogen; this feminization of his body was continued for the course of one year. The treatment rendered Turing impotent and caused breast tissue to form, fulfilling in the literal sense Turing's prediction that "no doubt I shall emerge from it all a different man, but quite who I've not found out". Murray was given a conditional discharge. Turing's conviction led to the removal of his security clearance and barred him from continuing with his cryptographic consultancy for the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the British signals intelligence agency that had evolved from GC&CS in 1946, though he kept his academic job. His trial took place only months after the defection to the Soviet Union of Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean in summer 1951 after which the Foreign Office started to consider anyone known to be homosexual as a potential security risk. Turing was denied entry into the United States after his conviction in 1952, but was free to visit other European countries. In the summer of 1952 he visited Norway which was more tolerant of homosexuals. Among the various men he met there was one named Kjell Carlson. Kjell intended to visit Turing in the UK but the authorities intercepted Kjell's postcard detailing his travel arrangements and were able to intercept and deport him before the two could meet. It was also during this time that Turing started consulting a psychiatrist, Dr Franz Greenbaum, with whom he got on well and subsequently becoming a family friend. ### Death On 8 June 1954, at his house at 43 Adlington Road, Wilmslow, Turing's housekeeper found him dead. A post mortem was held that evening which determined that he had died the previous day at the age of 41 with Cyanide poisoning cited as the cause of death. When his body was discovered, an apple lay half-eaten beside his bed, and although the apple was not tested for cyanide, it was speculated that this was the means by which Turing had consumed a fatal dose. Turing's brother John identified the body the following day and took the advice given by Dr. Greenbaum to accept the verdict of the inquest as there was little prospect of establishing that the death was accidental. The inquest was held the following day which determined the cause of death to be suicide. Turing's remains were cremated at Woking Crematorium just two days later on 12 June 1954 with just three people attending and his ashes were scattered in the gardens of the crematorium, just as his father's had been. Turing's mother was on holiday in Italy at the time of his death and returned home after the inquest. She never accepted the verdict of suicide. Andrew Hodges and another biographer, David Leavitt, have both speculated that Turing was re-enacting a scene from the Walt Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), his favourite fairy tale. Both men noted that (in Leavitt's words) he took "an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses her apple in the poisonous brew". Philosopher Jack Copeland has questioned various aspects of the coroner's historical verdict. He suggested an alternative explanation for the cause of Turing's death: the accidental inhalation of cyanide fumes from an apparatus used to electroplate gold onto spoons. The potassium cyanide was used to dissolve the gold. Turing had such an apparatus set up in his tiny spare room. Copeland noted that the autopsy findings were more consistent with inhalation than with ingestion of the poison. Turing also habitually ate an apple before going to bed, and it was not unusual for the apple to be discarded half-eaten. Furthermore, Turing had reportedly borne his legal setbacks and hormone treatment (which had been discontinued a year previously) "with good humour" and had shown no sign of despondency before his death. He even set down a list of tasks that he intended to complete upon returning to his office after the holiday weekend. Turing's mother believed that the ingestion was accidental, resulting from her son's careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Biographer Andrew Hodges theorised that Turing deliberately left the nature of his death ambiguous in order to shield his mother from the knowledge that he had killed himself. It has been suggested that Turing's belief in fortune-telling may have caused his depressed mood. As a youth, Turing had been told by a fortune-teller that he would be a genius. In mid-May 1954, shortly before his death, Turing again decided to consult a fortune-teller during a day-trip to St Annes-on-Sea with the Greenbaum family. According to the Greenbaums' daughter, Barbara: > But it was a lovely sunny day and Alan was in a cheerful mood and off we went... Then he thought it would be a good idea to go to the Pleasure Beach at Blackpool. We found a fortune-teller's tent and Alan said he'd like to go in[,] so we waited around for him to come back... And this sunny, cheerful visage had shrunk into a pale, shaking, horror-stricken face. Something had happened. We don't know what the fortune-teller said but he obviously was deeply unhappy. I think that was probably the last time we saw him before we heard of his suicide. ### Government apology and pardon In August 2009, British programmer John Graham-Cumming started a petition urging the British government to apologise for Turing's prosecution as a homosexual. The petition received more than 30,000 signatures. The prime minister, Gordon Brown, acknowledged the petition, releasing a statement on 10 September 2009 apologising and describing the treatment of Turing as "appalling": > Thousands of people have come together to demand justice for Alan Turing and recognition of the appalling way he was treated. While Turing was dealt with under the law of the time and we can't put the clock back, his treatment was of course utterly unfair and I am pleased to have the chance to say how deeply sorry I and we all are for what happened to him ... So on behalf of the British government, and all those who live freely thanks to Alan's work I am very proud to say: we're sorry, you deserved so much better. In December 2011, William Jones and his member of Parliament, John Leech, created an e-petition requesting that the British government pardon Turing for his conviction of "gross indecency": > We ask the HM Government to grant a pardon to Alan Turing for the conviction of "gross indecency". In 1952, he was convicted of "gross indecency" with another man and was forced to undergo so-called "organo-therapy"—chemical castration. Two years later, he killed himself with cyanide, aged just 41. Alan Turing was driven to a terrible despair and early death by the nation he'd done so much to save. This remains a shame on the British government and British history. A pardon can go some way to healing this damage. It may act as an apology to many of the other gay men, not as well-known as Alan Turing, who were subjected to these laws. The petition gathered over 37,000 signatures, and was submitted to Parliament by the Manchester MP John Leech but the request was discouraged by Justice Minister Lord McNally, who said: > A posthumous pardon was not considered appropriate as Alan Turing was properly convicted of what at the time was a criminal offence. He would have known that his offence was against the law and that he would be prosecuted. It is tragic that Alan Turing was convicted of an offence that now seems both cruel and absurd—particularly poignant given his outstanding contribution to the war effort. However, the law at the time required a prosecution and, as such, long-standing policy has been to accept that such convictions took place and, rather than trying to alter the historical context and to put right what cannot be put right, ensure instead that we never again return to those times. John Leech, the MP for Manchester Withington (2005–15), submitted several bills to Parliament and led a high-profile campaign to secure the pardon. Leech made the case in the House of Commons that Turing's contribution to the war made him a national hero and that it was "ultimately just embarrassing" that the conviction still stood. Leech continued to take the bill through Parliament and campaigned for several years, gaining the public support of numerous leading scientists, including Stephen Hawking. At the British premiere of a film based on Turing's life, The Imitation Game, the producers thanked Leech for bringing the topic to public attention and securing Turing's pardon. Leech is now regularly described as the "architect" of Turing's pardon and subsequently the Alan Turing Law which went on to secure pardons for 75,000 other men and women convicted of similar crimes. On 26 July 2012, a bill was introduced in the House of Lords to grant a statutory pardon to Turing for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, of which he was convicted on 31 March 1952. Late in the year in a letter to The Daily Telegraph, the physicist Stephen Hawking and 10 other signatories including the Astronomer Royal Lord Rees, President of the Royal Society Sir Paul Nurse, Lady Trumpington (who worked for Turing during the war) and Lord Sharkey (the bill's sponsor) called on Prime Minister David Cameron to act on the pardon request. The government indicated it would support the bill, and it passed its third reading in the House of Lords in October. At the bill's second reading in the House of Commons on 29 November 2013, Conservative MP Christopher Chope objected to the bill, delaying its passage. The bill was due to return to the House of Commons on 28 February 2014, but before the bill could be debated in the House of Commons, the government elected to proceed under the royal prerogative of mercy. On 24 December 2013, Queen Elizabeth II signed a pardon for Turing's conviction for "gross indecency", with immediate effect. Announcing the pardon, Lord Chancellor Chris Grayling said Turing deserved to be "remembered and recognised for his fantastic contribution to the war effort" and not for his later criminal conviction. The Queen officially pronounced Turing pardoned in August 2014. The Queen's action is only the fourth royal pardon granted since the conclusion of the Second World War. Pardons are normally granted only when the person is technically innocent, and a request has been made by the family or other interested party; neither condition was met in regard to Turing's conviction. In September 2016, the government announced its intention to expand this retroactive exoneration to other men convicted of similar historical indecency offences, in what was described as an "Alan Turing law". The Alan Turing law is now an informal term for the law in the United Kingdom, contained in the Policing and Crime Act 2017, which serves as an amnesty law to retroactively pardon men who were cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. The law applies in England and Wales. On 19 July 2023, following an apology to LGBT veterans from the UK Government, Defence Secretary Ben Wallace suggested Turing should be honoured with a permanent statue on the fourth plinth of Trafalgar Square, describing Dr Turing as "probably the greatest war hero, in my book, of the Second World War, [whose] achievements shortened the war, saved thousands of lives, helped defeat the Nazis. And his story is a sad story of a society and how it treated him." ## See also - Legacy of Alan Turing - List of things named after Alan Turing
1,458,234	1934 Atlantic hurricane season	1,158,913,590	Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean	[ "1930s Atlantic hurricane seasons", "1934 meteorology", "1934 natural disasters", "Articles which contain graphical timelines" ]	The 1934 Atlantic hurricane season produced thirteen tropical storms, of which seven further organized into hurricanes. Of those seven hurricanes, only one intensified into a major hurricane, which is a Category 3 or stronger system on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. The first system developed on June 4 while the last storm dissipated on November 30. In 2012, as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, meteorologists identified two previously unknown September tropical storms and fine-tuned the meteorological histories of many others. However, given scant observations from ships and weather stations, significant uncertainty of tropical cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration remains, particularly for those storms that stayed at sea. In the United States, the 1934 hurricane season was significantly less destructive than the preceding year. Forecasters credited this feat to the Weather Bureau's advanced warning to persons in the path of advancing hurricanes. In Central America, however, the season's first hurricane wrought catastrophic rainfall resulting in an enormous loss of life, estimated somewhere between 1,000 and 3,000 people. The storm continued into the United States, killing 10 people and causing about \$4.4 million in damage. In July, a hurricane struck Texas, spawning tornadoes and generating storm surge, killing 19 people; damage was estimated around \$4.5 million. In late August and early September, another hurricane meandered offshore Texas while a weak tropical storm struck North Carolina, each causing minor damage. Shortly thereafter, a hurricane curved up the U.S. East Coast, resulting in 8 fatalities and widespread impacts. A weak tropical storm affected the U.S. Gulf Coast in early October, and the season's only major hurricane meandered across the southwestern Atlantic at the end of November. The season's total activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 48, well below the 1931–1943 average of 91.2. ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. Thus, tropical depressions are not included here. ## Timeline ## Systems ### Hurricane One A tropical depression formed over the Gulf of Honduras around 12:00 UTC on June 4. The system intensified into a tropical storm and reached winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) before striking near Belize City early on June 5. Once inland, it executed a cyclonic loop across the Mexican states of Guatemala and Chiapas before re-emerging into the Gulf of Honduras. The cyclone had weakened to a tropical depression while over land, but it restrengthened once offshore again and became a Category 1 hurricane with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) before making landfall in extreme northern Belize early on June 9. The storm progressed across the Yucatán Peninsula in a weakened state but reacquired hurricane intensity as it made a second cyclonic loop over the Bay of Campeche. Now moving north, the hurricane reached peak winds of 100 mph (160 km/h) and maintained that strength through landfall near Jeanerette, Louisiana, at 19:00 UTC on June 16. It curved northeast once inland, losing tropical characteristics over central Tennessee after 06:00 UTC on June 18 but maintained its status as an extratropical cyclone until late on June 21, when it was located over Newfoundland and Labrador. The cyclone proved to be catastrophic across El Salvador and western Honduras, where rainfall up to 25 in (640 mm) caused widespread flooding and one of the largest death tolls in the history of the Atlantic basin. Press reports indicated the number of fatalities ranged from 1,000 to 3,000, including 500 in the town of Ocotepeque alone. There, all structures but the town's church were reportedly demolished. The system produced hurricane-force winds across a portion of the Yucatán Peninsula before progressing into the United States. A 12 ft (3.7 m) storm surge inundated areas around Oyster Bayou, and boats were run aground along the coast. It brought winds up to 68 mph (109 km/h) in Morgan City, Louisiana, damaging structures. Officials with the United States Red Cross estimated that 75–150 homes were demolished, 1,500 others were left uninhabitable, and between 3,000 and 7,000 more were damaged to some degree by the storm. Rainfall totaled to 9.6 in (240 mm) in Lafayette; that city and Franklin, Melville, and Abbeville recorded daily rainfall records. The hurricane killed six people, caused \$2.605 million in property damage, and incurred another \$1.5 million in crop damage across Louisiana. Squalls from the system killed four people and injured many others in Mississippi, while heavy rainfall caused the Pearl River to exceed flood stage. Record rainfall during June in Tennessee, accumulating to 10 in (250 mm) in a matter of hours in Cedar Hill, caused about \$250,000 in damage across the state. A small tornado struck north of Joelton and resulted in an additional \$3,000 in damage. The extratropical remnants produced winds of 49 mph (79 km/h) in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and delivered needed rainfall throughout the region. Across Ontario and Quebec, heavy rains delayed traffic and congested storm sewers. High tension wires and poles were toppled, causing widespread power outages. Eleven barns were destroyed, and the Varennes lighthouse was put out of commission. ### Hurricane Two On July 10, a weak area of low pressure formed along a stationary front off the eastern coast of Florida. The disturbance gradually shed this frontal boundary and acquired a well-defined center, leading to the formation of a tropical depression around 00:00 UTC on July 12 to the east of the Florida–Georgia border. It intensified into a tropical storm a little over a day later and further to a Category 1 hurricane early on July 14 as it tracked east-northeast. Based on extrapolation from nearby ship reports, the hurricane is analyzed to have reached peak winds of 90 mph (140 km/h) early on July 15. It transitioned into an extratropical cyclone around 06:00 UTC the next day to the south of Newfoundland. ### Hurricane Three On July 21, a dissipating stationary front was analyzed offshore the Southeast United States. A tropical depression formed a short distance southeast of Charleston, South Carolina, around 06:00 UTC on July 22 and tracked southwest. It made landfall around St. Augustine, Florida, at 00:00 UTC on July 23 without having attained tropical storm strength. After crossing over Florida and into the Gulf of Mexico, the system turned west and began to intensify. It became a tropical storm early that day and further developed into a Category 1 hurricane early on July 25. The cyclone struck the coastline just north of Corpus Christi, Texas, around 17:00 UTC with 80 mph (130 km/h) winds. It continued inland across southern Texas and into northern Mexico and was last analyzed west of Piedras Negras, Coahuila, at 18:00 UTC on July 26. Minor impacts were recorded in Florida, where trees were toppled, pecans and pears were blown down, and corn crops were flattened. Along the coastline of Texas, high tides damaged waterfront homes in Nueces and Jefferson counties. San José Island observed a 10.2 ft (3.1 m) storm surge. More than 1,000 residents on the Bolivar Peninsula were cut off for 48 hours, and communications between more than a dozen towns were severed. Numerous levee breaches inundated areas around Freeport and Vealsco, where water levels rose to several feet accordingly. Daily rainfall records were set in Fowlerton and Falfurrias at 6.25 and 4.52 in (159 and 115 mm), respectively. Crops suffered extensive damage through several coastal counties, particularly in Nueces County where the local cotton crop suffered a 75 percent loss; several other counties reported a 50 percent loss. Peak winds of 56 mph (90 km/h) were measured in Corpus Christi. Strong winds smashed small boats and tore the roofs off structures, principally in Victoria. Three oil derricks were toppled to the south of the city. A series of tornadoes occurred in communities throughout central Texas. Across the state, preliminary estimates included the destruction of 260 homes, with severe damage to an additional 400 houses. This reportedly encompassed all homes along the mouth of the San Bernard River, all structures between Freeport and the mouth of the Colorado River, and at least 75 percent of homes in Matagorda. Damage was estimated around \$4.5 million. Throughout the state, 19 people were killed, most from the large storm surge. Cattle losses were estimated to be in the thousands, with five to six hundred on the western end of Galveston Island alone. In the wake of the storm, federal aid was requested for 22 counties, encompassing a total of 272 families. Poor weather conditions hindered oil and gas prospecting across Starr and Hidalgo counties. ### Tropical Storm Four A weak tropical storm, first documented east of Barbados at 18:00 UTC on August 20, moved west-northwest and entered the Caribbean Sea south of St. Lucia. It failed to intensify over the next few days and instead degenerated to a tropical wave south of the Dominican Republic after 06:00 UTC on August 23. Historical weather maps indicate an area of disturbed weather but no concrete evidence of a well-defined, closed center of circulation. Given the lack of surface observations, meteorologists expressed uncertainty whether the system was actually a tropical cyclone. ### Hurricane Five A tropical storm formed in the central Gulf of Mexico around 06:00 UTC on August 26 from a stationary front or perhaps the remnants of the previous tropical cyclone. It initially moved west-northwest off the coast of Louisiana but soon banked toward the south, passing within 25 mi (40 km) of Galveston, Texas, as it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). The slow-moving system weakened as it moved into the Bay of Campeche. It curved southwest and made landfall near Tampico, Tamaulipas, with winds of 45 mph (72 km/h) around 04:00 UTC on September 1 and dissipated after 18:00 UTC that day. In advance of the storm, the American Red Cross was deployed to give aid if needed. Tropical storm-force winds affected the Texas coastline from Port Arthur down to Matagorda Bay; peak winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) likely impacted areas between Freeport and Galveston as the storm made its closest approach. A daily rainfall record during the month of August was set in Garden City, at 6.25 in (159 mm). Tides up to 8.2 ft (2.5 m) affected the coastline around Sabine. At the final landfall point, the tropical storm destroyed houses in the community of Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas. ### Tropical Storm Six In 2012, as part of the National Hurricane Center's reanalysis project, a new tropical cyclone was retroactively added to the season. A stationary front sagged across the western Atlantic in the final days of August. On September 1, an extratropical low developed as the front began to dissipate, and it quickly transitioned into a tropical storm by 06:00 UTC while south and west of Bermuda. The system moved northwest and reached peak winds of 50 mph (80 km/h). Slight weakening ensued before it made landfall on the North Carolina Outer Banks at 10:00 UTC on September 3. The cyclone continued to decay as it moved across Virginia and Maryland, and it was absorbed by a front northwest of Baltimore after 06:00 UTC the next morning. In Virginia, the storm halted the annual James River regatta and three craft were capsized by gusty winds. Owing to heavy rainfall and tides up to 8 ft (2.4 m), several streams were swollen; floodwaters washed away bridges and rendered several routes impassable. ### Hurricane Seven Although its origins are not conclusively known, a tropical storm is believed to have developed near the Bahamas around 06:00 UTC on September 5 from the remnants of a mid-level trough. The cyclone began on a west-northwest trajectory but curved toward the north-northeast over subsequent days. It reached hurricane strength early on September 6 and further intensified to a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) late the next day. The storm made close approaches to the coastlines of North Carolina and New Jersey before making later landfalls in New England. The first landfall occurred on Long Island with winds of 75 mph (121 km/h) at 02:00 UTC on September 9, and the second took place near New Haven, Connecticut, with winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) two hours later. The system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 06:00 UTC on September 9 and curved northeast before dissipating over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence the following morning. The center of the hurricane narrowly missed the North Carolina Outer Banks, where winds of 72 mph (116 km) were recorded in Hatteras. Small craft and light-framed buildings suffered damage but impacts were otherwise negligible. Tropical storm-force winds also overspread much of the Mid-Atlantic states and New England, highest at 66 mph (106 km/h) in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The system produced sporadic areas of heavy rainfall along the U.S. East Coast from North Carolina north into Maine. Accumulations peaked at 9.6 in (240 mm) in Beaufort, North Carolina. In Virginia, the combination of strong winds and heavy rain brought down trees and electrical lines. Numerous accidents were recorded in Richmond and surrounding areas due to wet roadways. Some routes were inundated by floodwaters, and one bridge was washed away. Similar effects were felt across Maryland. In Baltimore, rushing water up to 5 ft (1.5 m) in depth stalled vehicles and displaced some nearly a block away. The cellars and first floors of homes were flooded, while underpasses and roads were deemed impassable. In one case near Ensor, a 2 ft (0.61 m) strip of asphalt was pushed upward several inches. Two buildings were electrically charged for unknown reasons during the storm, shocking one person before the structures were roped off. Throughout Annapolis, about 20 telephones were left out of commission, floodwaters entered cabins and restaurants, and trees and debris washed over roadways. Some rivers and streams throughout the western portion of the state overflowed their banks. In Fair Haven, New Jersey, a 69-year-old man was killed after being electrocuted by a live wire downed by the storm. Along the coastline, the United States Coast Guard attempted search and rescue of the SS Morro Castle which caught fire and killed 137 people on board, but these efforts were limited by low visibility at least partly attributed to the storm. Three crewmen of the schooner Neshaminy died when it capsized off Brigantine. In New York, two seaman drowned and three others were rescued when their tugboat overturned in New York Bay. Further still, a man died after his sailboat overturned in rough seas near Northport, Long Island. Ten people on a fishing expedition were rescued on Long Beach after their attempt to anchor at sea failed. A short distance away in Hempstead Harbor, an inn was washed from its piles and demolished. At the Suffolk County Fairgrounds, an automobile building saw a large section of its sheet metal roof torn off. A number of exhibition tents were blown down. In Patchogue, a garage was flattened and several small signs were torn loose and damaged. Trees and power poles were toppled across the region, disrupting travel, causing damage to structures, and cutting power to entire communities such as Mattituck and Glen Cove. Throughout communities such as Hempstead Harbor, Sea Cliff, Peconic Bay, and Greenport, scores of boats or scows were ripped from their moorings, heavily damaged, displaced, or left in ruin; in Peconic Bay specifically, damage to nearly 50 boats amounted to \$10,000. Docks likewise suffered substantial damage. A 15 ft (4.6 m) section of a cornice on the roof of a four-story warehouse was brought to the ground by the storm's winds. A 15 ft (4.6 m) stretch of the Port Washington Branch, part of the Long Island Rail Road, was disrupted by a washout. In Great Neck, a train track was carried out of line by rushing water. Lightning twice struck the Huntington Station, causing two fires that were quickly extinguished. In the city of Huntington, more than 100 telephones were put out of commission. In Queens, hundreds of sewers filled to capacity or overflowed, but the heavy rainfall was also seen as beneficial to local crops. Four buildings, including a school, were struck by lightning; one home was partially destroyed. A narrow waterspout ripped through the northern part of the borough but caused no known damage. In the eastern section of the borough, a man died after crashing his vehicle in the downpours. James Roosevelt, son of President Franklin Roosevelt, was the subject of an eleven-vessel search as he sailed through the storm off Maine; his schooner made it to Portland safely. On Lake Ontario, a Canadian National Railway car ferry was unexpectedly hit by a large wave, severely damaging the ship and injuring 52 people. ### Tropical Storm Eight A tropical storm was first documented east of Barbados around 12:00 UTC on September 16. It alternated between a west-northwest and west motion for several days, narrowly missing the Leeward Islands and gradually strengthening to a peak intensity of 50 mph (80 km/h). The system weakened to a tropical depression on September 21 and passed near the northern Bahamas before turning north and north-northeast. It dissipated after 12:00 UTC on September 23 off southeastern North Carolina while interacting with an approaching front. ### Tropical Storm Nine Another tropical cyclone discovered during reanalysis was found to have developed southeast of Cabo Verde around 00:00 UTC on September 18. It intensified into a tropical storm eighteen hours later while moving west-northwest through the islands. The cyclone maintained that motion for several days before turning north into the northeastern Atlantic. It reached peak winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) early on September 24 but transitioned into an extratropical cyclone around 00:00 UTC the next day. The post-tropical system merged with another low or dissipated after 06:00 UTC on September 25 to the northwest of the Azores. ### Hurricane Ten An area of low pressure coalesced into a tropical cyclone prior to 12:00 UTC on October 1, when otherwise scant data points supported the existence of a strong tropical storm. It intensified into a hurricane within six hours and peaked at Category 2 intensity with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h) late on October 2. The system gradually decayed thereafter as it moved west-northwest, dissipating over the open Atlantic after 06:00 UTC on October 4. ### Tropical Storm Eleven A tropical depression formed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea around 12:00 UTC on October 1. It progressed northwest through the Yucatán Channel and into the central Gulf of Mexico, where it attained tropical storm intensity early on October 3. The storm peaked with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) while curving toward the north-northeast. It weakened slightly before making landfall east of the Alabama–Florida border at 01:00 UTC on October 6, and the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 12:00 UTC that morning. The storm was absorbed by a frontal system after 18:00 UTC while over southeastern Alabama. Several ships reported gale- and storm-force winds off the Gulf coast. Heavy rainfall overspread the Southeast U.S. from Florida to Virginia, peaking at 15.3 in (390 mm) in Pensacola, Florida. Streets were flooded, leaving automobiles stranded. The floodwaters drove some people out of their homes in the low-lying areas of the city. Sustained winds reached 38 mph (61 km/h) in Pensacola. Higher winds of 44 mph (71 km/h) were recorded in New Orleans, Louisiana. Some bridges in Baldwin County, Alabama, were washed out by the rains. ### Tropical Storm Twelve A tropical depression formed south of Jamaica around 18:00 UTC on October 19 and moved northeast, intensifying to tropical storm intensity within six hours. The lumbering storm curved toward the northwest the next day, with its center narrowly avoiding Jamaica to the north. After reaching peak winds of 45 mph (72 km/h), it once again turned northeast and made landfall in central Cuba around 14:00 UTC on October 21. Some streets across the eastern end of the island were inundated in several feet of water. The storm accelerated northeast through the Bahamas as a tropical depression or minimal tropical storm. It dissipated after 18:00 UTC on October 23 to the southeast of Bermuda. ### Hurricane Thirteen The final and most intense storm of the 1934 season formed northeast of the Leeward Islands from the remnants of a trough or frontal boundary around 06:00 UTC on November 20. It moved northwest for a short time before executing a counter-clockwise loop south of Bermuda and continuing south-southwest. The Susan Maersk encountered the system to the west of island and suffered minor damage; the Malacca too intercepted the storm and saw its decks flooded. The cyclone strengthened into a hurricane late on November 22 and became the season's only major hurricane, with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h), the next afternoon. It gradually lost intensity and made landfall on the northern coast of the Dominican Republic with winds of 45 mph (72 km/h) at 16:00 UTC on November 28. The system weakened to a tropical depression but retained a closed center while crossing the island into the Caribbean Sea. It degenerated to a remnant low and dissipated south of Jamaica after 12:00 UTC on November 30. ## Season effects This is a table of all the storms that have formed in the 1934 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, landfall(s), denoted in parentheses, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low. ## See also - 1934 Pacific hurricane season - 1934 Pacific typhoon season - 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons - 1930s Australian region cyclone seasons
66,877,338	Agatha All Along	1,135,315,704	2021 song from the miniseries "WandaVision"	[ "2021 songs", "Film and television memes", "Hollywood Records singles", "Internet memes introduced in 2021", "Marvel Cinematic Universe songs", "Songs from television series", "Songs written by Kristen Anderson-Lopez", "Songs written by Robert Lopez", "Surf rock songs", "WandaVision" ]	"Agatha All Along", also known as "It Was \_\_ All Along", is an original song from the Marvel Studios Disney+ miniseries WandaVision. Written by the series' theme song composers Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez for the seventh episode, "Breaking the Fourth Wall", the song was performed by star Kathryn Hahn, with Lopez, Eric Bradley, Greg Whipple, Jasper Randall, and Gerald White serving as backup singers. The song drew inspiration from the theme songs from The Munsters and The Addams Family. "Agatha All Along" went viral after appearing in "Breaking the Fourth Wall", and was officially released on February 23, 2021, as part of the WandaVision: Episode 7 (Original Soundtrack). It debuted on Billboard's Digital Song Sales chart at number 36, and earned Anderson-Lopez and Lopez a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics, among other accolades. ## Background and production In December 2020, songwriting couple Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez were announced to have written theme songs for some of the episodes of the Marvel Studios Disney+ miniseries WandaVision. The seventh episode of the series, "Breaking the Fourth Wall", which was released on Disney+ on February 19, 2021, ended by revealing that Kathryn Hahn's character Agnes was actually Agatha Harkness and the manipulator of Wanda Maximoff's idyllic suburban lifestyle inspired by American sitcoms in Westview, New Jersey. The reveal was accompanied by a title sequence for the series Agatha All Along, which featured Anderson Lopez and Lopez's theme and sequences showing moments Agatha had been behind. The credits for "Breaking the Fourth Wall" list the song's name as "It Was \_\_ All Along". When developing the episode, the WandaVision writers wrote placeholder theme songs into the episodes before Anderson-Lopez and Lopez were brought on board, with Cameron Squires, the writer of "Breaking the Fourth Wall", originally naming the Agatha theme "That's So Agatha", as a reference to the television series That's So Raven. "Agatha All Along" is similar to the theme song for The Munsters and "The Addams Family Theme" from The Addams Family. The couple were drawn to the past monster-centric series' music in order to give Agatha's theme song a "witchy, ghoulish feeling" with "a little bit of an Oompa-Loompa tenor feel to it too" and the feeling of something in a haunted house. Initially, Anderson-Lopez and Lopez tried creating a song in a similar vein to "That Girl" by Stevie Wonder, but they felt it was not the right fit. They then began thinking of the song as being about witches, leading them to shows about witches and Goth figures as well as "Halloween-y" songs with a "grinding, growling" baritone saxophone. "Agatha All Along"'s chord progression begins in E minor before moving a tritone to B-flat in the bass, with a bridge centered in G major and a "Shave and a Haircut" ending. The tritone is the same interval used by Anderson-Lopez and Lopez in the final two notes of their four-note WandaVision motif used in their other theme songs. The song includes "a big-band horn riff", "kitschy" electric harpsichord for the repeated chorus, "cheery baritones", a "clap-clap, clap' snare", and is sung in "kooky-spooky voices", with lyrics that reveal how Agatha had been behind all of the show's tragedies. Lopez and Anderson-Lopez produced the song, with Anderson-Lopez conceiving the lyrics and Lopez composing the music. "Agatha All Along" was arranged and orchestrated by Dave Metzger. Hahn is the lead singer on the theme, with Lopez singing backup alongside Eric Bradley, Greg Whipple, Jasper Randall, and Gerald White, the other male backup singers from previous theme songs. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, Hahn recorded her vocals over Zoom. ## Release "Agatha All Along" was released digitally by Marvel Music and Hollywood Records on February 23, 2021, as the second track on the soundtrack WandaVision: Episode 7 (Original Soundtrack). The soundtrack was originally scheduled to be released on February 26, with The Verge speculating the release was moved up due to the popularity of the song. ## Reception ### Critical response Upon the release of "Breaking the Fourth Wall", "Agatha All Along" went viral, with viewers particularly drawn to the theme, creating various remixes, memes, and TikTok videos in the following days. A trap remix created by Leland Philpot received the attention of Anderson-Lopez, who called it "the most glorious thing", while Lopez enjoyed a rock remix from Timmy Sean, saying it was "incredible" that Sean was able to release it shortly after the episode without any sheet music available. By February 23, the hashtag for the song had become a trending topic on Twitter, with Disney linking the hashtag to their Agatha emoji. Disney's president of marketing Asad Ayaz called the moment "a zeitgeisty thing" and his team quickly released the official clip after unofficial ones were going viral. Ayaz noted that the marketing team had a plan around the reveal of Agnes really being Agatha and allowed the fans to help "drive the conversation". Lopez admitted that they did not anticipate "Agatha All Along" would have garnered so much popularity, since by that point they had assumed none of their themes would have become hits since the previous one had not reached any level of popularity. Matt Shakman, the episode's director, and Hahn were also taken aback by the song's popularity. Commentators called the song "catchy", with "delicious" lyrics, and likened it to "Toss a Coin to Your Witcher" from The Witcher Netflix series, which also went viral. The song was also called "the official song of summer 2021", the song of the year, and a song that would be requested at celebrations and nightclubs following the COVID-19 pandemic. Alex Zalben at Decider expanded on why this theme appeared to be more popular than the past WandaVision themes, saying that emulating The Munsters theme allowed it to have "a catchy riff that works, a tried and true earworm" and adding that songs for villains, as seen in many of Walt Disney Animation Studios' films, are more fun and let the villain "ham it up". The Los Angeles Times' August Brown agreed with Zalben that "Agatha All Along" was WandaVision's villain song, describing it as "a meme-able, deliciously vampy single that gleefully twisted the plot of the show" and one that would "likely live on outside it as entrance music for anyone looking to stir chaos". Brown called Hahn's singing perfect with "brassy conviction". Antonio Ferme of Variety called "Agatha All Along" "the greatest character introduction song of all time" and "arguably the most aggressive earworm" of the WandaVision theme songs. Writing for Polygon, Joshua Rivera felt "Agatha All Along" was Anderson-Lopez and Lopez's "finest moment" of WandaVision, calling the song the series' "first real earworm: short, sticky, and extremely meme-able". Collider's Gregory Lawrence felt the theme was an "objectively great surf-rock banger" with "pitch-perfect aping of '60s surf rock [and horror sitcom theme] tropes". Lawrence's colleague Emma Fraser ranked "Agatha All Along" as the best of the WandaVision theme songs, believing it would lead to Anderson-Lopez and Lopez winning an Emmy. ### Commercial performance Following its release, "Agatha All Along" peaked at number one on iTunes' Soundtrack chart, and by February 24, 2021, reached fifth on iTunes' Top 100 singles chart. For the week ending February 25, 2021, "Agatha All Along" placed 36th on Billboard's Digital Song Sales chart, with 3,000 downloads, while also garnering 1.6 million U.S. streams. ### Accolades "Agatha All Along" was nominated at the 2021 MTV Movie & TV Awards for Best Musical Moment; the song and Hahn were nominated at the 2021 Dorian Awards for Best TV Musical Performance; for the 73rd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, Anderson-Lopez and Lopez won Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics for the song; and the song was nominated at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards for the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media.
1,352,814	Johnny Weir	1,164,783,045	American figure skater and commentator (born 1984)	[ "1984 births", "21st-century American memoirists", "21st-century American writers", "American LGBT sportspeople", "American autobiographers", "American male single skaters", "American memoirists", "American people of Norwegian descent", "Competitors at the 2001 Goodwill Games", "Eurovision commentators", "Fantasy on Ice main cast members", "Figure skaters at the 2006 Winter Olympics", "Figure skaters at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Figure skating commentators", "Gay sportsmen", "LGBT figure skaters", "LGBT people from Delaware", "LGBT people from Pennsylvania", "Living people", "Olympic Games broadcasters", "Olympic figure skaters for the United States", "Participants in American reality television series", "People from Lyndhurst, New Jersey", "People from Newark, Delaware", "Sportspeople from Delaware", "Sportspeople from Lancaster County, Pennsylvania", "Sportspeople from New Castle County, Delaware", "University of Delaware alumni", "World Figure Skating Championships medalists", "World Junior Figure Skating Championships medalists" ]	John Garvin Weir (/ˈwɪər/; born July 2, 1984) is an American figure skater and television commentator. He is a two-time Olympian (2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics), the 2008 World bronze medalist, a two-time Grand Prix Final bronze medalist, the 2001 World Junior Champion, and a three-time U.S. National champion (2004–2006). He was the youngest U.S. National champion since 1991, in 2006 the first skater to win U.S. Nationals three times in a row since Brian Boitano in the late 1980s, and the first American to win Cup of Russia in 2007. Weir was raised in Quarryville, Pennsylvania, winning several equestrian competitions before switching to figure skating at the age of 12. Priscilla Hill was his first coach. He became eligible to compete in the Junior Grand Prix during the 1999–2000 season and won the 2001 Junior World Championship. The following season (2000–2001), Weir competed as a senior for the first time, coming in sixth place at the U.S. Nationals. The 2003–2004 season was "the turning point" for Weir and trained with Tatiana Tarasova; he won his first national title at age 19. At the 2006 U.S. Nationals, Weir was the first male skater to win three consecutive U.S. titles since Brian Boitano almost 20 years previously. He finished third at the 2007 U.S. Nationals and replaced his long-time coach Priscilla Hill with Galina Zmievskaya for the 2007–2008 season. At the 2008 U.S. Nationals, he tied for first place with Evan Lysacek, both with a combined score of 244.77 points, but Lysacek was named the U.S. champion because following ISU regulations, he won the free skate. Weir finished fifth place at the 2009 U.S. Nationals, the first time since 2003 that Weir did not qualify to compete at the Worlds championships. He was ready to quit figure skating before the 2009–2010 season, but ended up qualifying for the 2010 Winter Olympics by winning bronze at the 2010 U.S. Nationals. Weir retired from competitive figure skating in 2013. He joined NBC as a commentator beginning at the Sochi Olympics in 2014. He was teamed with sports commentator Terry Gannon and fellow figure skater Tara Lipinski; also in 2014, they became NBC's primary figure skating analysts, commentating for skating in two Olympics. Weir had a classical skating style and was known for being "a very lyrical skater" and "an entertaining artisan". He often designed his own costumes or worked extensively with his designers and later was known for his fashion choices as a broadcaster. His costume choices and outspokenness caused conflicts with U.S. Figure Skating, the governing body of the sport in the U.S., throughout his skating career. Television commentators would bring up his sexual orientation during his performances, causing him to publicly address homophobic remarks by commentators during the 2010 Olympics. He came out in early 2011 and has been involved with LGBTQ activism. ## Early life Weir was born on July 2, 1984, in Coatesville, Pennsylvania, the eldest son of John Weir, a nuclear power plant engineer, and Patti Weir (née Moore), a nuclear power plant worker and home inspector. He is of Norwegian heritage, and has one brother, Brian "Boz" Weir, who is four years younger. Weir was raised in Quarryville, Pennsylvania, a rural town in Amish-dominated central Pennsylvania. Weir's father had competed in English saddle events. Weir was also an accomplished rider; by the age of nine, he had won several equestrian competitions and competed in the Devon Horse Show with his Shetland pony, Shadow. His family moved to New Britain, Connecticut, so he could train. He later said that horse riding had given him body awareness, preparing him for figure skating. Weir began skating at the age of 12. Soon after, his family moved to Newark, Delaware, in early 1996, so he could be near his training rink and coach. Weir was an honor roll student at Newark High School, where he graduated in 2002, and studied linguistics at the University of Delaware before dropping out. ## Competitive career ### Early career In 1992, after Weir and his family watched Kristi Yamaguchi win a gold medal at the Albertville Winter Olympics, his parents bought him a pair of used figure skates, which he used to teach himself to skate on a patch of ice in the cornfields near their home in Quarryville. When the weather was warmer, he practiced jumps on roller skates in the basement of his family's home. In 1994, he was inspired to further pursue figure skating after watching Oksana Baiul compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics, during the sport's rise in popularity caused by the Nancy Kerrigan attack at the 1994 U.S. Figure Skating Championships. For Christmas, his parents bought him a new pair of skates and a package of group lessons at the University of Delaware, 45 minutes from their home. He had a natural talent for jumping. By the time he was 12, Weir was performing single Axels, which he learned after a week of lessons; by the time he turned 13, he learned all the single and double jumps, as well as his first triple jump, the salchow. Also when he was 12, he began training with Priscilla Hill, who had coached many skaters and won national medals as a competitive skater. According to sports writer Barry Mittan, Weir was two or three times older than when most elite skaters start training, although it was not an obstacle for him. Weir made the decision to quit equestrian, since he could not do both and his family could not afford both sports, and they moved again, to Delaware, so Weir could train with Hill. Weir competed in both singles and pair skating during his first year of competition; Hill paired him with Jodi Rudden to help him focus on other aspects of figure skating, such as spins, stroking, and artistry, rather than on jumping. Rudden and Weir won the South Atlantic Regionals and qualified for the Junior Olympics in juvenile pairs that first year, and in intermediate pairs the following season. Also in his first year of skating (1997), Weir finished fourth as a juvenile in the Junior Olympics and won first place in the South Atlantic Regionals, also as a juvenile. During the 1997–1998 season, Weir won regional and other minor competitions as a novice in single skating and came in third place in the novice division at the U.S. National Championships. Weir moved up to the junior level during the 1998–1999 season. Like the previous year, he competed in regional and minor competitions and came in fourth place at the U.S. Nationals. Weir stated that along with his relative inexperience with competing and a growth spurt, he struggled with nerves during this period, which affected his performances. ### 1999–2003 Weir became eligible to compete in the Junior Grand Prix during the 1999–2000 season, coming in seventh and second place in his two Junior Grand Prix assignments. At the 2000 U.S. Nationals, he was the only competitor in the junior division who attempted a triple Axel in his short program, but despite falling, the judges put him in first place. He fell again during his free skate, and ended up in fifth place, while Evan Lysacek, in their first meeting in competition, came in first, even though Lysacek was in fifth after the short program. Weir won the Junior Eastern Sectionals in 1999 and 2000. The following season (2000–2001), Weir competed as a senior for the first time, coming in sixth place at the U.S. Nationals despite "a bad hip flexor injury", and winning the Eastern Sectionals as a senior. He was the third alternate at the 2000 Junior Grand Prix final, coming in sixth and second place at his two Junior Grand Prix assignments, but won, at the age of 16, the gold medal at the World Junior Championships. He was the tenth American to win at Junior Worlds and the first American male skater since Derrick Delmore won in 1998. Lysacek won the silver medal; it was the first time since Rudy Galindo and Todd Eldredge in 1987 American men came in first and second place. Despite falling on the simplest jump in his short program, a triple flip, Weir was placed first going into the free skate. Weir received the best artistic scores, receiving 5.7s for presentation in his free skate. Weir was ranked 18th-best in the world in 2001. He came in seventh place and fourth place in his two Grand Prix assignments during the 2001–2002 season, participated in the Goodwill Games and a team pro-am competition, came in fifth place at the 2002 U.S. Nationals, and came in fourth place in the 2002 Four Continents Championships. In the 2002–2003 season, which figure skating reporter Lou Parees called "disastrous" for Weir, he skated in one international competition, the Finlandia Trophy and withdrew from the Cup of Russia. He also withdrew, during his free skate, from the 2003 U.S. Championships in Dallas, which gold medalist Michael Weiss called "the most bizarre national championships ever". Weir was in second place after the short program, with a clean skate with all eight required elements. He felt confident going into the free skate, but hit the rink wall 23 seconds after he started, catching his blade between the ice and wall while doing a "simple crossover". He fell and injured his back, but the referee allowed him to continue where he stopped. He stepped out of his first triple Axel and fell again on his second, injuring his knee to the point that he had to withdraw. Philanthropist Helen McLoraine, who had helped support Weir and other skaters financially for many years, fell leaving the rink after a skating session in Dallas and died, something that added to his sense of "personal failure and...painful loss". Weir later reported that due to what he called his "stupidity and hubris", U.S. Figure Skating withdrew their support of him; sportswriter Barry Mittan stated that they "essentially gave up on Weir". ### 2003–2004 season The 2003–2004 season was "the turning point" for Weir; Mittan called it "an amazing comeback". In the summer of 2003, he trained with Russian coach Tatiana Tarasova for six weeks at the International Skating Center in Simsbury, Connecticut. Weir's friend and fellow skater Sasha Cohen helped him contact Tarasova, who waived her fees for him. Working with Tarasova gave Weir the confidence he needed to recover from the previous season. He moved from his longtime rink, the more prestigious one at the University of Delaware, to a nearby rink called The Pond, which was less crowded and not as well-known. The only Grand Prix competition U.S. Figure Skating assigned to Weir that season was "the second tier" Finlandia Trophy. He was one of two skaters to skate a clean short program with a triple Lutz-triple toe loop combination, a "scratchy triple Axel", and the best spins in the field. He was first after the short program, but came in second place overall, slightly behind Gheorghe Chiper from Romania. Weir popped both his Lutz and loop jumps, but successfully performed his triple Axel-triple toe loop combination and four other triple jumps. He had to compete in the Eastern Sectionals again, coming in first place despite a fall and securing a spot in the U.S. Nationals. Weir came into the 2004 U.S. Nationals in Atlanta with "something to prove". He came in first place, the first to do so by qualifying at sectionals since Rudy Galindo in 1996. It was his first national title. He was also the youngest male skater, at the age of 19, to win the U.S. Nationals since Todd Eldredge won in 1991, also at the age of 19. Weir's short program was not the most difficult, but he had "a clean and elegant skate" with a triple Lutz-triple toe combination, a triple Axel, and a triple flip, all landed successfully. He was in first place after the short program, with marks ranging from 4.9 to 5.8. He also won the free skate, even though he did not include a quadruple jump. Skating last, his program was "elegant yet loaded with solid jumps", including eight triple jumps and two combination jumps: a triple Axel-triple toe and his triple Lutz-triple toe. After completing his free skate, Weir kissed his hand and pounded the ice with it as the audience gave him a standing ovation; he stated, "I was very thankful at that point, and I was thanking the ice in Atlanta for letting me do my best". His scores ranged from 5.8 to 6.0, which included seven 5.9s for technical merit and a 6.0 for presentation, the first perfect score earned by a man at U.S. Nationals since Weiss earned one in 2000; all but two judges placed Weir in first place. Weir also stated, about his performance: "It was a cool feeling to be written off and then come back to show them what I am made of...I hope I shut up everyone who counted me out". U.S. Figure Skating named Weir to the U.S. World Championships team. He came in fifth place; teammate Michael Weiss came in sixth. Weir opened his short program with a triple Lutz-triple toe loop combination, followed by a triple Axel and a triple flip, earning marks ranging from 5.0 to 5.7. Neither Weir nor Weiss completed quadruple jumps in their free skating programs, whereas the top four placements all performed quads in theirs. It was the first time since 1994 that no American male won medals at the World Championships. Weir, however, came back from seventh place after the short program by completing eight "elegant triples" in his long program, like he had done at U.S. Nationals. His technical scores ranged from 5.3 to 5.7 and his presentation scores were as high as 5.8. Weir skated in the final ISU-sanctioned competition of the season, the 2004 Marshall's World Figure Skating Challenge. coming in third place. He earned marks ranging from 5.4 to 5.7 in his technical scores, and 5.6 to 5.8 in his artistic scores, doubling one jump and stepping out of a triple Axel. He toured with Champions on Ice the summer of 2004, with Cohen, Irina Slutskaya, Elena Sokolova, and his "skating hero", Evgeni Plushenko. ### 2004–2005 season Weir continued to train with Hill and with Tarasova in Simsbury for the 2004–2005 season. For the Grand Prix season, he was assigned the NHK Trophy in Japan and Trophee Bompard in Paris. He also competed in the Cup of Russia in Moscow, although not for points towards the Grand Prix final. He was ranked fifth-best skater in the world. Weir won the NHK Trophy, his first Grand Prix title and the first time he competed under the ISU Judging System (IJS). He earned 146.20 points in the free skate and 220.25 points overall, beating his runner-up Timothy Goebel by over 20 points. Weir's trip to Japan marked the first time he came "face-to-face" with Johnny's Angels, a group of figure skating fans who supported Weir emotionally and financially. He also won Trophee Bompard with a score of 208.10 points, despite coming in second in the free skate, behind French skater and European champion Brian Joubert, who came in second place overall. Weir "skated elegantly" in his free skate, but doubled his three planned triples in the second half of his program, which hurt his technical scores. He again did not include any quadruple jumps, choosing instead to emphasize his artistry, spins, and pirouettes. Weir later said that his win in Paris "signaled my ascendancy on the international stage". Weir came in second after Plushenko at the Cup of Russia, the first time they competed against each other after the implementation of the IJS. In his "elegant" short program, Weir completed a triple lutz-triple toe loop combination, but fell on his last jump, a triple flip, scoring 71.25 points. Weir opened his free skate with a triple Axel-triple toe loop combination and included five other triples, but stumbled coming out of his second triple Axel and missed his triple flip late in the program. He called his performance koshmar (the Russian word for "nightmare"). He earned a score of 207.99 points overall. With his two Grand Prix wins, Weir became the top qualifier for the Grand Prix final but had to withdraw because of a foot injury. The 2005 U.S. Nationals was the last time the 6.0 system was used at a U.S. Nationals. Weir had "the heavy burden of defending a title for the first time", but he was able to control his nerves and win his second Nationals title in a row and the first repeat U.S. Nationals championship since Michael Weiss in 1999 and 2000. Although he finished slightly behind Timothy Goebel in his short program, without a quadruple jump and having a less-technical program than Goebel, he was the favorite going into the free skate. Weir earned one 6.0 in his presentation scores and his program was "full of creative spins and complicated footwork". His performance was solid but subdued; he struggled with the landings of his triple Axel and triple flip jumps. His free skate, which again did not include a quadruple jump but represented a "full range of perfectly executed triple jumps", earned him five 6.0s in presentation. He also received 5.8s and 5.9s in his technical score. Weir's scores in his free skating program were the best among the male skaters since 1988, when Brian Boitano earned eight 6.0s for presentation. Goebel finished in second place and Lysacek came in third place. Weir, along with Goebel and Lysacek, were chosen to represent the U.S. at the 2005 Worlds Championships. At Worlds, Weir continued to struggle with his foot injury, which had given him problems all season and which prevented him from working on adding a quadruple jump to his season's free skate. He considered pulling out of the competition, but Tarsova gave him the motivation to continue despite the severe pain he was experiencing. He received two injections an hour before performing his short program. Weir fell on his opening triple Axel in his short program, but successfully completed a triple Axel-triple toe loop combination, four more triple jumps, and high-quality spins. He also doubled a loop jump and singled a flip jump. Weir was placed in third, but "a human input error" during the input of Chinese skater Li Chengjiang's scores was corrected, putting Weir slightly behind Li and in seventh place after the short program. His "respectable free skate" pulled him up to fourth place. He displayed good flow throughout his free skate, which included a triple Axel-triple toe loop combination, six more triple jumps, and good spins. The first half of his program was strong, with five triples in a row, but his foot pain caused him to change his circular step sequence, which resulted in a slip during the sequence and a fall during his opening triple Axel. He was not able to complete two doubles at the end of his combination jumps, despite accomplishing three previous triples. He finished in fourth place, behind "surprise bronze medalist" and teammate Evan Lysacek. ### 2005–2006 season Weir continued to train with Hill and Tarasov for the 2005–2006 season, when he was ranked seventh-best in the world. He began the season, which reporter John Blanchette called a "minor calamity", with "a series of disappointing finishes". He was told by judges at the beginning of the season, after debuting his short program, which was designed for the new scoring system, that it was not difficult enough, so he had to rework it. A troubled personal relationship also affected his performances. Weir's short program this season was based upon an interpretation of Camille Saint-Saëns' The Swan, which was traditionally danced and skated to by women. Tarasova had been pushing to create a short program for Weir with Saint-Saëns' music since the two began working together, believing that his "naturally quiet and delicate way on the ice mirrored the mellow cello piece". Although Weir was hesitant at first, he agreed to introduce the program during the 2006 Olympic season. The New York Times reported on the costume and music he chose for his short program, "a black-and-white costume that sparkled under the lights, and one red glove symbolizing the beak of a swan". He debuted the program, choreographed by Tarasova, Shanetta Folle, and Evgeni Platov, during a practice session at Skate Canada. He later reported that the initial reaction to it was laughter and that he told reporters, when they asked about the red glove, that he had named it "Camille", in honor of the piece's composer. Weir was aware of the impact it would make on the public and in the figure skating world, and that it could harm his reputation with the judges; he later stated, "Gender bending would take me into a whole new and very taboo area, where I would stand totally alone". He also stated that although people were initially uncomfortable with the program, it would become one of his most popular programs and would "completely change the world's perception of me". His performance and swan costume were parodied in the 2007 comedy Blades of Glory, starring Jon Heder and Will Ferrell. In October, Weir finished in fourth place at the 2005 Campbell's Classic; he popped both of his triple Axels and earned 114.65 points. At Skate Canada also in October, Weir was in second place after the short program, but finished in seventh place, after falling on his first jump and spraining his left ankle during the free skate. He also competed at Cup of Russia a few weeks later in November, even though it was unlikely that he would make it to the Grand Prix final. Weir, "on the comeback trail", won third place overall at Cup of Russia. He missed two triples in his free skate but placed third in the short program with 206.79 points, fourth in the free skate with 75.15 points, and earned a total of 131.64 points. In December, Weir competed in the made-for-TV skating competition Marshalls U.S. Figure Skating Challenge in Boston. He won the event, taking in 64 percent of the fans' votes, via in-stadium voting, telephone, and the internet. At the 2006 U.S. Nationals, Weir was the first male skater to win three consecutive U.S. titles since Brian Boitano almost 20 years previously. He was in first place after the short program, again overcoming his nerves and earning a personal best score of 83.28, almost six points ahead of Weiss, who came in fourth place overall. He successfully landed four triple jumps, including his opening triple Axel and a triple lutz-triple toe loop combination, as well as a flying sit spin, circular step sequence, another triple flip, and his concluding spin combination; the spectators gave him a standing ovation when he finished. He later told reporters, "For this one, they kind of sat back and had their cognac and their cigarettes and they were relaxing and watching", compared fellow competitor Ryan Bradley's faster-paced choreography to "a vodka-shot-and-a-snort-of-coke kind of thing", and then said, "Uh, sorry for all those drug references". Weir's free skate was "not without flaws", so his short program carried his victory. He came in third place in the free skate after Lysacek and Savoie with 142.06 points and a total of 225.34 points. He stepped out of a triple Axel, did too many combination jumps and thus received no points for one jumping pass, and did not complete the third jump of his three-jump combination. After his win, Weir told reporters, "My mom is getting drunk already". U.S. Figure Skating reprimanded both Weir and his mother Patti Weir for his drug references and other statements made during Nationals, but he, along with Lysacek and Savoie, who came in second and third place, were selected to represent the U.S. at the 2006 Winter Olympics, all for the first time. For the first time in his career, Weir changed his free skating program mid-season shortly before the Olympics, from "a techno medley" written by Croatian pianist Maksim Mrvica to "Otoñal" by Argentine pianist Raúl Di Blasio, which Weir used the previous season. He stated that although he had performed the program well, he was bored with it and felt it lacked passion and power. Commentator and former Olympic gold medalist Dick Button agreed, stating that the newer program "was not good enough for him". Weir's coach and mother admitted that Weir felt nervous about competing at the Olympics, and was uneasy about competing against Plushenko, but he was called "the breakthrough personality of the Games". It was the first time Weir's father John Weir, who had difficulty traveling after a disabling car accident in 1984, attended one of his son's competitions since Weir was a novice. Weir received death threats during the Olympics and received "nasty e-mails" for several months afterwards, personal attacks that "targeted his love for things Russian and even his sexual preferences". According to Variety, Weir's habit of wearing "retro Soviet CCCP sweatshirts" instead of USA clothing during the Olympics angered many U.S. supporters. Weir was the only American male in medal contention after his short program in Turin, skating "well but not brilliantly". Weir began his short program with "a smooth triple Axel" followed by the highest-scoring element in his program, a triple lutz-triple toe loop combination. His next elements were a circular step sequence and a triple flip "that was lacking in crispness". His final elements were a sit spin, a straight-line step sequence, and a combination spin. He earned a personal-best score of 80.00 points, the third-highest score of the new system, and second-best behind Plushenko, who was in first place after the short program. Plushenko earned a personal-best score of 90.66, the highest short program score up to that point. Weir was ahead of the reigning world champion, Stéphane Lambiel from Switzerland, who was in third place, and the world silver medalist, Jeffrey Buttle of Canada, who was in fourth place. Weir arrived late to the stadium for his free skate, blaming it on missing the bus from the athletes' village and not being told of a schedule change, which put him 90 minutes off his routine. Reporter John Crumpacker stated that Weir was "out of sorts for his long program and skated abysmally as he went from second place to fifth". He accomplished eight out of his planned 13 jumps, replaced a planned quadruple toe loop with a double Axel, and was shaky on his first triple Axel. He also downgraded another triple jump to a double, and failed to complete a three-jump combination and double-jump combination late in his program. Reporter Gwen Knapp stated, however, this his artistry was best in the field. He earned 136.63 points in his free skate, coming in fifth place overall, for a total of 216.63 points. At the World Championships, Weir "did not fare so well". Plushenko chose not to compete after the Olympics, so Worlds was open for Weir, Lysacek, Lambiel, and Buttle to win the gold medal. Weir had been troubled with back pain all week, which was aggravated during the warm-up for the free skate. He successfully completed his triple Axel-triple Axel combination at the start of his program and attempted a quadruple toe jump, but he two-footed it and fell on his triple flip at the end of the program, taking him out of medal contention. He came in seventh place overall; Lambiel won the gold medal, Brian Joubert came in second, and teammate Lysacek, despite a hard fall during the warm-up, won the bronze medal. Weir toured again with Champions on Ice in-between seasons, his longest tour with them to date; he chose Frank Sinatra's "My Way", "for its obvious symbolism", as his performance number. He also appeared in an episode, in which he called "my entertainment TV debut", of My Life on the D-List with comedian Kathy Griffin, in which he taught Griffin how to skate. ### 2006–2007 season For the 2006–2007 season, Weir was the eighth-highest ranked skater in the world. He began working with ice dancer Marina Anissina, who choreographed both his short program and free skate. The costume he wore for his short program, skated to "King of Chess" by Silent Nick, was described as "a black-and-white chess-themed costume that was restrained by his standards". His free skating program, in which he portrayed the life of Christ, was the weakest of the season; Weir disliked his costume and his program did not go over well with spectators and judges. He did not begin to train for the season until August 2006; illness also hampered his training. Weir started off the season by helping the U.S. men's team come in first place at the Campbell's Skating Challenge. At Skate Canada, he won the bronze medal. He struggled completing a combination spin during his short program and told reporters that he had difficulty with his spins and that he almost tripped during his step sequence. He successfully completed a triple Axel, a triple lutz-triple toe loop combination, and a triple flip, earning 76.28 points, a little over 2.5 points behind Daisuke Takahashi from Japan, who came in first place after the short program. Weir needed a clean skate in his free skate to win the gold medal, but he came in fourth place. Skating last, he put a hand down on his opening triple Axel, popped his second triple Axel, and fell out of his triple salchow. He earned 122.42 points in his free skate and 198.70 points overall. Weir was in second place after the short program at Cup of Russia, less than two points behind Joubert. Weir successfully completed his jumps, but did not attempt a quadruple jump and according to the Associated Press, "generally seemed a bit slow". He came in fifth place in the free skate, with 121.38 points, over 40 points less than Joubert's free skate score, and came in second place overall, with a total score of 196.28. Weir competed at the Grand Prix Final, but had to withdraw after the short program due to an injury to his right hip from a fall. Weir later said that he was embarrassed by his withdrawal, done after "trash-talking" Lysacek for also withdrawing due to an injury. He admitted that his Grand Prix season was "disastrous" and that he had not been skating well going into the 2007 U.S. Nationals in Spokane, Washington. Shortly before Nationals, former figure skater and analyst Mark Lund, who was openly gay, speculated about Weir's sexuality on television; Weir chalked it up to jealousy. Weir went into Nationals hoping to become the first American male since Boitano to win his fourth U.S. championships in a row. His rival Lysacek, who had beaten Weir the last three times they had competed internationally, was seeking his first Nationals title. According to Weir, both the press and U.S. Figure Skating, due to his performances during the season and at the 2006 Olympics, and despite his past successes, began to actively support Lysacek over him. As Weir said, "I couldn't outskate the negativity following me into the competition". In the short program, both Weir and Lysacek skated clean programs and were essentially tied going into the free skate, although Weir had better footwork and Lysacek had better jumps. Weir began his short program with a successful triple Axel and a triple lutz-triple toe loop combination. He had a shaky landing on his triple flip, but his circular and straight-line footwork sequences were well-done, and he performed three level four spins. Lysacek's score of 78.99 points was a slim lead of less than one point over Weir's 78.14 points. Ryan Bradley was in third place after the short program, with 73.58 points. Weir was not able to successfully defend his title, coming in third overall; Lysacek came in first place, and Bradley came in second place. In the free skate, Weir skated immediately after Lysacek, whose performance made the crowd leap to their feet. Weir came in fourth place in the free skate, with 135.06 points. His triple Axel was successful, but it was supposed to be part of a two-triple jump combination. He two-footed his quadruple toe loop, doubled a planned triple-triple combination jump, popped another triple Axel combination, and later in the program, fell on a triple loop. He also popped an Axel and turned it into a single jump, but completed three more triple jumps, high-quality circular and straight-line footwork sequences, and good spins. He later admitted that the pressure of being the defending champion bothered him, and said that it was difficult skating after Lysacek, especially after hearing that Lysacek had earned over 90 points in his element scores alone. Lysacek's total score was 169.89, which was the highest score, by almost 19.5 points, earned by a male skater at the U.S. Nationals, and over 50 points more than Bradley's final score of 219.21 points. Weir also said, "Evan didn't just beat me...[h]e kicked my ass", and called his free skate "probably the most difficult performance of my career thus far". U.S. Figure Skating named all three medalists eligible to compete at 2007 Worlds and 2007 Four Continents Championships; Weir chose not to compete at Four Continents, so fourth-place finisher Jeremy Abbott went in his place. At Worlds, Weir came in eighth place, his worst finish at Worlds in four years. He was in fourth place after the short program; he admitted that he was hampered by his nerves, had trouble adjusting to competing in Tokyo, "forgot to breathe a little bit", and said, "My costume is even tired". He earned 74.26 points. He came in 10th place in the free skate, earning 132.71 points, and earned 206.97 points overall. Over the summer of 2007, Weir again toured with Stars on Ice. One of his performances included a combined skating routine, "Fallen Angels", skated to Handel's "Sarabande", with ice dance team Melissa Gregory and Denis Petukhov. (He designed the costumes they wore for their free dance that season.) They came up with the idea for the routine, which was choreographed by Petukhov, on the plane trip back from the Worlds championships. At first, they received a great deal of resistance from U.S. Figure Skating but were allowed to debut the routine at the Marshalls Showcase, a made-for-TV exhibition. The audience and commentators praised their performance, and the following week, a YouTube clip of their performance got over 100,000 views. Weir reported that people bought tickets to Stars on Ice just to see the routine in person. ### 2007–2008 season Weir began the 2007–2008 season with "a clean slate" and was "all business". In between seasons, he amicably parted from his longtime coach Priscilla Hill, and replaced her with Galina Zmievskaya, who had coached 1992 Olympic champion Viktor Petrenko and Weir's idol Oksana Baiul. Weir hired Zmievskaya because he needed more than Hill's "nurturing approach" and that Zmievskaya's "drill sergeant-like demands for discipline and rigor" would help him grow and win championships again. He also changed his choreographer and training routine, and moved out of his family home in Newark, Delaware to an apartment in New Jersey in order to train with Zmievskaya. He told reporters that he felt homesick and nervous moving to a large city and living on his own for the first time in his life, resorting to sleeping with a kitchen knife next to his bed. He also said that the move taught him discipline and independence. He worked on including a quadruple toe loop in his programs, and on making his triple Lutz and triple flip bigger. He designed his own costumes and worked closely with his choreographers again. He worked with choreographers Faye Kitariev and Viktor Petukhov to compose a Russian rock opera based upon Svetlana Pikous' song, "Yunona I Avos." For his free skating program, he worked with Yoav Goren of the pop group Globus, who helped him create a routine to the group's song, "Love is War". Weir called the costume he wore for his free skating program "a sparkly onesie"; Sports Illustrated described it as "another of his bifurcated black and white, rhinestone-studded costumes with plunging backline". According to figure skating reporter Elvin Walker, Weir demonstrated a desire to win and a new passion for skating throughout the season, skating with an intensity he lacked in previous seasons. He was ranked seventh-best skater in the world. At Cup of China, Weir came in second place, after Lysacek, in the short program, with 79.80 points. He did not include a quadruple jump but completed a triple lutz-triple toe loop combination and had higher-scoring spins than Lysacek. He came in first place in the free skate, with 151.98 points and "a nearly perfect" performance. He earned 231.78 points overall, and "significantly beat" his personal best scores. Lysacek came in second place, and two-time world champion, Stéphane Lambiel from Switzerland, came in third. Weir also won the gold medal at Cup of Russia, beating Lambiel by over 11 points. He came in first place in the free skate, which was described as "somewhat business-like and more suited for the strong technicians rather than the artistic skater Weir is known to be". He opened his program with a strong triple Axel-triple toe loop combination and underrotated his triple Axel, but successfully completed five more clean triple jumps. He also completed three level-four spins and good footwork. His two Grand Prix wins made him eligible to compete at the Grand Prix Final in Turin, Italy, where he came in fourth place. Despite severe back pain, Weir felt better trained going into the U.S. Nationals than ever before. NBC reported that Weir was "more about business in both his short and long programs", skating with "usual elegance, but not his fire". Weir won the short program, with 83.40 points, 1.35 points separating he and Lysacek. Weir was one of the few skaters who completed a triple Axel during his short program, his triple Lutz-triple toe loop combination was "done with ease and control". His footwork was "light and a perfect match for the music". In the free skate, even though Weir had not skated a full program in practice for almost two weeks due to his back pain, Weir and Lysacek were evenly matched in their jumps. Both two-footed their quadruple jump (Weir attempted a quadruple toe), both had similar entrances into their jumps, and both completed seven triples. Weir followed up his quadruple toe with a triple Axel-triple toe combination, a triple Lutz, and a triple Axel. Weir also two-footed the landing on his triple flip, which was supposed to be part of a combination jump but was not because he eliminated a double-toe loop. He received low marks for an upright spin because he did not clearly change skating edges. Lysacek won his second straight gold at Nationals. He and Weir tied for first place, both with a combined score of 244.77 points, but Lysacek was named the U.S. champion because following ISU regulations, he won the free skate (162.72 points to Weir's 161.37 points). It was the first tie at U.S. Nationals since the establishment of the new scoring system. Despite protests from Weir's fans and the media, including charges of homophobia, the results stood. Stephen Carriere, the 2007 World Junior champion, came in third place with 228.06 points. U.S. Figure Skating named Lysacek, Weir, and Carriere eligible to compete at the Worlds Championships. Weir chose not to compete at the Four Continents Championships due to fatigue; he was replaced by Jeremy Abbott, who came in fourth place at U.S. Nationals. Lysacek withdrew from Worlds due to injury; Abbott replaced him as well. At Worlds, Weir was in second place after the short program. His triple Lutz-triple toe combination was "sky high", and he performed high-quality footwork and spins. The Chicago Tribune said his free skate "wasn't memorable", and called it "conservative but relatively error-free". He did not include a triple-triple combination, and his quadruple jump was downgraded to a double. Weir won his first worlds medal, a bronze, with a total score of 221.84 points, and secured three slots for the American men in the 2009 Worlds championship. ### 2008–2009 season Weir started off the 2008–2009 season, when he was ranked seventh-best in the world, struggling with skate boot problems; his blades were not aligned properly on the new skates he purchased over the summer and did not have the time to break in replacements. For the first time in his career, Weir competed at Skate America, the first Grand Prix event of the season. He came in second place in the short program by less than one point behind Lysacek, and came in second place overall, with 225.20 points. Japanese skater Takahiko Kozuka won the gold medal at the event; Lysacek came in third place overall. Both Weir and Lysacek made minor errors in their short programs, but Weir did well, even though it was early in the season. Weir began his short program with three successful jumping passes. Lysacek and Weir both scored the same on their triple Lutz-triple toe loop combinations, 11.60 points, although Weir lost points on a two-footed landing on his triple flip. Weir later told reporters that he was disappointed in his spins, but his footwork sequences were "spectacular", and he scored 80.55 points. Despite battling a cold, Weir came in second place at the NHK Trophy, earning a total of 236.18 points. In the short program, despite a fall, he placed second, with 78.15 points. He later said that he felt his performance in the short program was "a big improvement" over his performance at Skate America. In the free skate, he successfully accomplished all his jumps at the beginning of the program, but performed a double Lutz instead of a triple, and his triple flip turned into a single. He qualified to compete at the Grand Prix final, where he won the bronze medal. Four days later, he was the only American to perform in a charity skating show in Seoul, performing with South Korean champion Yuna Kim; while there, he was hospitalized with the flu and lost eight pounds in one day. Weir and Lysacek had dominated U.S. Nationals for the previous five years, but in 2009, Jeremy Abbott, who had won at the Grand Prix final in December, broke that dominance and won the gold medal. Weir was unprepared for Nationals because he was "compromised" by his illness. In the short program, Abbott finished in first place with 86.40 points, Lysacek was second with 83.59 points, and Weir came in seventh place with 70.76 points. Abbott's overall score was a personal best—237.72 points, four points more than both Weir and Lysacek's personal best scores. It was Weir's lowest result in the short program as a senior skater at a Nationals in his career. After the free skate, in which Abbott earned over 13 points more than the second-place finisher Brandon Mroz, Lysacek came in third place and Weir came in fifth place, with what the Associated Press (AP) called "two dismal performances". Weir needed to excel during the free skate to win a bronze medal, but instead popped his first triple Axel, doubled his planned triple loop, and fell on his triple flip. His footwork was difficult, but as the AP also said, he "appeared to just be going through the motions with it". It was the first time since 2003 that Weir did not qualify to compete at the Worlds championship. Despite his loss, Weir was chosen as favorite skater of the year by the readers of U.S. Figure Skating's Skating Magazine. ### 2009–2010 season In June 2009, Weir's documentary Pop Star on Ice premiered during the Frameline Film Festival in San Francisco and aired at film festivals around the U.S. In January 2010, it premiered in Manhattan and aired on the Sundance Channel, which funded its filming and production. Sundance also commissioned and aired, beginning in January 2010, an eight-episode documentary series, Be Good Johnny Weir, which depicted the "recent ups and downs of his career". Its promotional commercial aired during the U.S. Nationals; Weir later expressed his opinion that U.S. Figure Skating sent him to the Olympics because of the documentary and series' popularity rather than on the strength of his skating performances. Variety called Pop Star on Ice, which was directed by David Barba and James Pellerito and made over the course of two years on three continents, "a fascinating portrait" of Weir. Be Good Johnny Weir continued where Pop Star on Ice ended, following Weir as he attempted to earn a place on the 2010 U.S. Olympic team. After the previous season, Weir became depressed and was ready to quit figure skating before the 2009–2010 season, but his mother talked him into continuing to compete and try to make the U.S. team for the 2010 Olympics in Vancouver. He began the season with "something to prove"; despite his previous season's difficulties, he was ranked eighth in the world. At the Rostelecom Cup (previously Cup of Russia), he came in fourth place overall, after placing third place in the short program and sixth place in his "error-filled" free skate, with a cumulative score of 198.55 points. He later said that his Russian fans gave him the encouragement to continue and perform better at the NHK Trophy, his next Grand Prix slot. Despite a cold he caught on the flight to Nagano, Weir came in second place in Japan. He skated a clean short program and gave his best performance up to that point in the season, with 78.35 points. He successfully accomplished all his triple Axels in both programs. In his free skate, he "started off strong" with a triple flip jump and a triple Axel-triple toe loop combination, but lost stamina. His planned triple toe loop became a double jump, and he left off a double toe loop on his next two combination jumps. He earned 217.70 points overall; the gold medalist, Brian Joubert from France, earned 15 points more than Weir. At the Grand Prix final, all six qualifiers, including Weir, had skated in at least one previous final; Golden Skate called it "one of the most equally matched fields in several years". Weir came in third place, with a total of 237.35 points. He was in fourth place in both his short program and free skate. In his free skate, he earned 152.75 points, a new personal best score. Weir placed third overall at the 2010 U.S. Nationals, with 232.09 points. Sports reporter Jeré Longman of The New York Times, who said that Weir's costume overwhelmed his skating, thought that he "seemed cautious during his jumps before relaxing with a head-bopping playfulness". Longman also called Weir's free skate "oddly passive and stumbling". Weir accomplished three clean triple jumps, but he popped his planned second triple Axel and struggled completing the final jump of his triple-triple combination jump. He came in fifth place in the free skate, but his short program, which was the third-best with 83.51 points, kept him in medal position. Weir, along with first-place finisher Jeremy Abbott and Lysacek, who came in second place, were sent to the 2010 Winter Olympics; they were considered the strongest U.S. Olympic men's team since the 1980s. Weir came into the Olympics "a legitimate medal threat", although he did not anticipate winning a medal and suspected that it would mark the end of his competitive career. He stayed at the Olympic Village in Vancouver, despite wanting to stay at a hotel, for security reasons. He had received "very serious threats" from anti-fur activists for wearing fox fur trim on the left shoulder of his free skate costume during U.S. Nationals. He changed to faux fur for his costume at the Olympics, denying that it was in response to the threats, although he wore fur at a news conference for the U.S. men's team. His roommate was his "longtime friend", American ice dancer Tanith Belbin. He also held a press conference to respond to "offensive" remarks made by two Canadian sports commentators about him. A Quebec gay rights group considered filing a complaint; the commentators later apologized on-air. Weir was in sixth place and earned 82.10 points after the short program; sportswriter Nicholas Benton called it a "flawless program" and reported that the audience "booed lustily" when his scores were announced. He came in sixth place in the free skate, which he later admitted was technically less difficult. His technical score, 79.67 points, was over six points higher than the bronze medalist, Daisuke Takahashi from Japan, but his program component score, 77.10 points, was 7.4 points lower than Takahashi's. Golden Skate called Weir's free skate a "hauntingly beautiful routine", and reporter David Barron called it "emotional" and stated that his performance "won the crowd to his side". The program included seven solid triple jumps, including two triple Axels, and good footwork and spins. Weir earned a personal best score of 156.77 points and 238.87 points overall. The Christian Science Monitor reported that the audience was confused over Weir's scores in the free skate and disagreed with them. Weir finished in sixth place overall. Although Weir was eligible to compete at the 2010 Worlds Championships, he withdrew due to a lack of training. In March 2010, CNN reported that Stars on Ice denied charges that they did not hire Weir for the year's tour because Weir was not "family friendly enough". The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Discrimination (GLAAD) launched a protest against the tour, claiming that it was "a clear jab at his perceived sexual orientation", but Smucker's, the tour's biggest sponsor, said that GLAAD's information was inaccurate, and that Stars on Ice did not have enough room for Weir. ### 2010–2013 Weir took the next two seasons off from competitive skating, focusing on his personal life, figure skating shows, a singing career, and celebrity events. He announced his withdrawal from the 2010–2011 season in July 2010, stating that he wanted to take a year "to explore and reinvent myself as an athlete and artist", although he left open the possibility to return in time for the 2014 Sochi Olympics. Weir served as a judge, along with Olympic gold medalist Dick Button and Canadian figure skating choreographer Laurieann Gibson, on Skating with the Stars in 2010, which lasted only one season. In early 2011, with the publication of his autobiography, Welcome to My World, he officially came out. In June 2011, he participated in a gay pride parade for the first time, the Los Angeles Pride Parade; he also served as its grand marshal. Weir announced his withdrawal from the 2011–2012 season in June 2011, explaining that he was unable to adequately train for competition because of his "many obligations", but expressed his intention to compete in Sochi. In 2013, Weir began writing a weekly column in the Falls-Church News Press, a newspaper published in the Washington, D.C. area. In the fall of 2011, Weir began to quietly train for a possible return to competitive skating. In January 2012, he announced his return, in the hopes of competing at the Sochi Olympics; he insisted that it was not a publicity stunt, and expressed his intent to retire after the Olympics. Part of the reason for his return was his popularity in Russia. He went back to working with his previous coach, Galina Zmievskaya, and retained the same off-ice trainers, designers, and costume seamstresses as before. He used music from "Poker Face" by Lady Gaga, someone he admired, for his short program; she provided him with versions of the song without lyrics. Her choreographers worked with him, but most of the choreography was developed by Weir and Zmievskaya. Weir competed at small competitions and qualifying events in order to be eligible to compete at the 2013 U.S. Nationals. He competed at the 2012 Finlandia Trophy, attempting a quadruple jump in both his short program and free skate for the first time, and coming in fourth place overall. In his short program, he stumbled on his opening quadruple toe jump, which was downgraded, but successfully completed his triple Axel and triple lutz-double toe combination, and earned level-four scores for his flying camel spin. He was in fourth place after the short program, earning 69.03 points. He later told reporters that he was nervous, that his legs felt stiff, and that the competition was the hardest thing he had done in his career. He also had boot problems to overcome, but felt that he had done well. He came in sixth place in the free skate, earning 132.39 points; he earned 201.42 points overall. Weir's two Grand Prix slots were the Rostelecom Cup and Trophée Bompard in Paris. At Rostelecom, he withdrew after the short program after re-aggravating his ACL, which he had injured a month earlier in practice during a fall. He made several mistakes, finished in 10th place, and decided that he was not in good enough physical condition to participate in the free skate. A few days later, he announced that he would withdraw from Trophée Bompard due to a hip injury, putting his comeback attempt on hold. He also did not compete at the 2013 U.S. Nationals, but still hoped to make the U.S. Olympic team in 2014. Weir did not register for a qualifying event that would have made him eligible for the 2014 U.S. Nationals, ending his bid to compete in Sochi. He was not eligible for a bye into Nationals because he did not place in the top five at the 2013 Nationals or medaled at the 2010 Olympics or 2013 World Championships. The Associated Press conjectured that it likely marked the end of Weir's amateur figure skating career. In October 2013, he retired from competition and joined NBC as a figure skating analyst at the Sochi Olympics. ## Skating technique and influence Weir had two coaches in his competitive figure skating career, Priscilla Hill, who was, unlike many figure skating coaches, was "nurturing and gentle" and Russian Galina Zmievskaya, who had a different approach to coaching than Hill. Hill trained Weir in pair skating to strengthen his skating and to focus on skills other than jumps. Zmievskaya had a more Russian approach and focused on "drill sergeant-like demands for discipline and rigor". Weir considered his style of figure skating artistic and classical and was known for his lyricism. He believed that his style was "a hybrid of Russian and American skating", which was brought out by hiring coaches from those countries and often caused conflicts with U.S. Figure Skating, as did many of his costume choices. He was instructed by Yuri Sergeev, a dancer for the St. Petersburg Ballet, taught himself the Russian language, conversing with Zmievskaya in Russian, and compared himself to Russian skater Evgeni Plushenko. In 2014, Weir designed Olympic gold medalist Yuzuru Hanyu's costume for his free skating program, worn during the Sochi Olympics. Weir's outspokenness caused conflict between him and U.S. Figure Skating. Weir was praised for being one of the few figure skaters who spoke his mind, even when he knew it would get him in trouble with federation officials and judges. The press, especially in the U.S., made much out of the rivalry between Weir and his fellow competitor and rival, Evan Lysacek. ## Broadcasting career In October 2013, Weir retired from competition and joined NBC as a figure skating analyst at the Sochi Olympics. He was teamed up with sports commentator Terry Gannon and fellow figure skater, Olympic gold medalist, and good friend Tara Lipinski; their instant comedic chemistry and harmony was a success and they have worked together ever since. They hosted the closing ceremonies in Pyeongchang, as well as for the 2020 Summer Olympics and for the 2022 Winter Olympics. They also commentated for the 2018 Winter Olympics, as well as for the 2022 Winter Olympics. Weir's commentating style was met with mixed responses from figure skating fans and skaters. Weir named fellow figure skater and commentator Dick Button as an influence on his commentating style. Weir and Lipinski were fashion analysts and correspondents for the Oscars, dog shows, the Kentucky Derby, the Super Bowl, and the 2016 Summer Olympics. Weir and Lipinski appeared on reality shows together and separately. He also appeared as a contestant on Dancing with the Stars in 2020. ## Personal life In January 2012, Weir married his partner Victor Voronov, a graduate of Georgetown University Law Center and whose family was from Russia, in a civil ceremony in New York City, five months after the state legalized same-sex marriages. A temporary restraining order was filed and dismissed in January 2014. Weir filed for divorce in February 2014. The couple appeared in court in March 2014 to dismiss allegations of domestic violence against Weir. Later that month, Weir made accusations that Voronov had raped him; Voronov filed a defamation lawsuit against Weir in September 2014. He served as fellow figure skater Tara Lipinski's "bridesman" at her 2017 wedding to sports producer Todd Kapostasy. As of 2021, Weir lives in Greenville, Delaware in a home that was featured on MTV Cribs. Prior to the purchase, he cited privacy, seclusion, and his need for rest from his busy life, as factors guiding his decision to settle in a more rural area. ## Records and achievements - Youngest U.S. National Champion since 1991 (2004). - First skater to win U.S. Nationals three times in a row since Brian Boitano in the late 1980s (2006). ## Awards - Reader's Choice Award (Michelle Kwan Trophy), 2008, 2010 - Philadelphia QFest Viewer's Choice Award, 2009 - NewNowNext Award Most Addictive Reality Star, 2010 - Human Rights Campaign "Visibility Award", 2010 - Main-belt asteroid, discovered in 1995 by T. V. Kryachko at the Zelenchukskaya Station named after Weir, at the suggestion of his Russian fans, 2010 - Grand Marshall Los Angeles Pride Parade, 2011 - Delaware Valley Legacy Fund National Hero Award, 2013 - National Gay & Lesbian Sports Hall Of Fame Inductee, 2013 - U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame, 2021 ## Programs ## Competitive highlights ## Detailed results ### Senior level in +3/-3 GOE system ### Senior level in 6.0 system
33,657,296	Great Dismal Swamp maroons	1,168,123,496	People who escaped slavery in Virginia	[ "18th century in North Carolina", "18th century in Virginia", "19th century in North Carolina", "19th century in Virginia", "African-American history of North Carolina", "African-American history of Virginia", "African–Native American relations", "Demographics of North Carolina", "Demographics of Virginia", "Extinct ethnic groups", "Great Dismal Swamp", "History of slavery in Virginia", "Maroons (people)", "People of African descent", "Swamps in fiction" ]	The Great Dismal Swamp maroons were people who inhabited the swamplands of the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina after escaping enslavement. Although conditions were harsh, research suggests that thousands lived there between about 1700 and the 1860s. Harriet Beecher Stowe told the maroon people's story in her 1856 novel Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp. The most significant research on the settlements began in 2002 with a project by Dan Sayers of American University. ## History The first enslaved Africans brought to the British colonies in Virginia in 1619 arrived on the frigate White Lion, a British privateer ship flying under a Dutch flag. The approximately 20 Africans, from the present-day Angola, had been seized by its crew from a Portuguese slave ship, the São João Bautista. The enslaved Africans in British North America were legally deemed to be indentured servants, since slave laws were not passed until later, in 1641 in Massachusetts and in 1661 in Virginia, for example. As servants, they were entitled to freedom with the passage of a certain period of time; they were also allowed to purchase freedom. Others gained freedom by converting to Christianity, since the English of that time did not typically enslave Christians. Slave labor was used in many efforts to drain and log the Great Dismal Swamp during the 18th and 19th centuries. People who escaped slavery living in freedom came to be known as maroons or outliers. Maroonage, self-liberated Africans in isolated or hidden settlements, existed in all the Southern states, and swamp-based maroon communities existed in the Deep South, in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina. Maroonage in the Upper South was largely limited to Virginia and the Great Dismal Swamp. The origin of the word maroon is uncertain, with competing theories linking it to Spanish, Arawak or Taino root words. In all likelihood, the words maroon and Seminole share the same etymology in the Spanish word cimarrón, meaning "wild" or "untamed". This word usually referred to self-liberated Africans who escaped enslavement and is ultimately derived from the word for "thicket" in Old Spanish. At the beginning of the 18th century, maroons came to live in the Great Dismal Swamp. Most settled on mesic islands, the high and dry parts of the swamp. Inhabitants included people who had purchased their freedom as well as those who had escaped. Other people used the swamp as a route on the Underground Railroad as they made their way further north. Some formerly enslaved lived there in semi-free conditions, but how much independence they actually enjoyed there has been a topic of much debate. Nearby whites often left maroons alone so long as they paid a quota in logs or shingles, and businesses may have ignored the fugitive status of people who provided work in exchange for trade goods. Herbert Aptheker stated already in 1939, in "Maroons Within the Present Limits of the United States", that likely "about two thousand Negroes, fugitives, or the descendants of fugitives" lived in the Great Dismal Swamp, trading with white people outside the swamp. Results of a study published in 2007, "The Political Economy of Exile in the Great Dismal Swamp", say that thousands of people lived in the swamp between 1630 and 1865, Native Americans, maroons and enslaved laborers on the canal. A 2011 study speculated that thousands may have lived in the swamp between the 1600s and 1860. While the precise number of maroons who lived in the swamp at that time is unknown, it is believed to have been one of the largest maroon colonies in the United States. It is established that "several thousand" were living there by the 19th century. Fear of slave unrest and fugitive slaves living among maroon population caused concern amongst local whites. A militia with dogs went into the swamp in 1823 in an attempt to remove the maroons and destroy their community, but most people escaped. In 1847, North Carolina passed a law specifically aimed at apprehending the maroons in the swamp. However, unlike other maroon communities, where local militias often captured the residents and destroyed their homes, those in the Great Dismal Swamp mostly avoided capture or the discovery of their homes. The Chesapeake, the Nansemonds, the Recharians, and the Merrians are all Native American tribes that had connections to the swamp in the 17th century. The presence of hunting bolas indicates that the area may have served as a hunting ground as far back as 5,000 years ago. Native American communities were already in existence in the swamp when the maroons began to settle there. Because leaving the area could lead to recapture, the inhabitants often used what was readily available in the swamp, even recycling tool remnants left by Native Americans. Since the maroons had few possessions, the few small artifacts that have been recovered have given historians little insight into their day-to-day lives. To date, excavation has yet to find any human remains. According to Sayers, historical archaeologist at American University who has led research on the maroons of the swamp, it is possible that the acidity of the water disintegrated any bones which may have been left behind. The Tuscarora tribe resided in the swamp in the early 1700s. Some maroons were born to those who escaped slavery and lived in the swamp for their entire lives despite the hardships of swamp life: dense underbrush, insects, venomous snakes, and bears. The difficult conditions also made the swamp an ideal hiding place, not just for the formerly enslaved but also for free Africans, enslaved Africans who worked on the swamp's canals, Native Americans, and outcast whites such as criminals. Maroons are known to have often interacted with enslaved Africans and poor whites to obtain work, food, clothes, and money. Some maroons plundered nearby farms and plantations, stole from anchored boats, and robbed travelers on nearby roads; those caught were tried for murder or theft. In 1768, George Washington's brother, John posted an advertisement that his man Tom had run away, likely to the swamp. Some maroon communities were set up near the Dismal Swamp Canal, built between 1793 and 1805, which is still in operation. These maroons interacted more with the outside world than those who lived in the swamp's interior, and had more contact with outsiders once canal construction began. Some took jobs on the canal, and with increased contact with the outside world, some people living in the swamp eventually moved away. During the American Civil War, the United States Colored Troops entered the swamp to liberate the people there, many of whom then joined the Union Army. Most of the maroons who remained in the swamp left after the Civil War. The maroon communities in the Great Dismal Swamp were founded on persistence. The conditions in the swamp, whether that be the hot, humid weather, the deadly animals, or the bugs, made it a difficult place to live. These resistant communities would choose areas that were difficult to reach. This allowed for many of these communities to live in peace and to live freely. Maroon communities would also use only natural resources they found in the Great Dismal Swamp to build structures, tools, and other resources. Other more settled communities in this time period would have left behind mass-produced goods, but because of the natural resources maroon communities used, everything marking establishment has eroded away. Maroon communities succeeded in adapting to the ever changing environment and ecology of the Great Dismal Swamp. These communities disbanded for a number of reasons. When the American Civil War began, many people living in these communities left to fight for the Union. Once the war was over and slavery was abolished, many left to find family and to move north. The further development of the Great Dismal Swamp also led to the end of these communities. Many free and enslaved African Americans worked with companies to develop the land in the swamp. The Great Dismal Swamp was drained to create fields. The swamp was also cleared and graded to build roads. By 1836, railroads were being built through the swamp as well. After this construction in the swamp, a 22.5-mile interstate highway was built around the area. With increasing traffic through the area, the Great Dismal Swamp was no longer seen as a place that was "dismal", but more attractive to the people who could afford to visit, and commercial enterprises started to move into the area. Many tourists would come to see the swamp and use the water for medicinal purposes. Many of the free and enslaved people began to leave as the swamp was taken over by commerce and tourism. While these communities eventually disbanded, these maroon communities represented opportunities for black resistance, initiative and autonomy. Researchers have criticized the lack of acknowledgment of these communities, due to both the racial makeup of the community and because they left few artifacts for archaeologists to recover and study. According to American University researcher Daniel Sayers: "There were hardships and deprivations, for sure ... But no overseer was going to whip them here. No one was going to work them in a cotton field from sunup to sundown, or sell their spouses and children. They were free. They had emancipated themselves." ## Location The Great Dismal Swamp spans an area of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina between the James River near Norfolk, Virginia, and the Albemarle Sound near Edenton, North Carolina. The swamp is estimated to have originally been over 1 million acres (4,000 km<sup>2</sup>), but human encroachment has destroyed up to 90% of the swampland. Today, the Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge is just over 112 thousand acres (450 km<sup>2</sup>). The swamp also includes Lake Drummond, which is about 3,100 acres (13 square km). The Great Dismal Swamp is now preserved and protected from further destruction by the Dismal Swamp Act of 1974 which included Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, and North Carolina's declaration of the Dismal Swamp State Park. ## References in literature and art In 1842, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote the poem "The Slave in Dismal Swamp" for his collection Poems on Slavery. The poem uses six quintain stanzas to tell about the "hunted Negro", mentioning the use of bloodhounds and describing the conditions as being "where hardly a human foot could pass, or a human heart would dare". The poem may have inspired artist David Edward Cronin, who served as a Union officer in Virginia and witnessed the effect of slavery, to paint Fugitive Slaves in the Dismal Swamp, Virginia in 1888. In 1856, Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of Uncle Tom's Cabin, published her second anti-slavery novel, Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp. The title character is a maroon of the Great Dismal Swamp who preaches against slavery and incites slaves to escape. In 2022, Amina Luqman-Dawson published a young adult novel called Freewater, set in the Great Dismal Swamp. In 2023, the historical fiction novel won the Newbery Medal as well as the Coretta Scott King Award. ## Research The Great Dismal Swamp Landscape Study began in 2002 and was led by Dan Sayers, a historical archaeologist at American University's Department of Anthropology. In 2003, he conducted the first excavation in the swamp, and in 2009, in partnership with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which manages the Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge) and American University, initiated the annual research program titled the Great Dismal Swamp Archaeology Field School. This effort continues the work of the landscape study. It examines the impact of colonialism, slavery, and development on the swamp, especially on the self-sustaining maroon settlements in the swamp's interior. It also studies native lifestyles before European contact. Prior to Sayers' efforts, no field research had been done on the Great Dismal Swamp maroons. Even today, the swamp is impenetrable in places; a research group gave up in 2003 because it lost its way so many times. Sites deep in the swamp's interior are still so remote that a guide is needed to find them. The National Endowment for the Humanities gave the "We The People Award" of \$200,000 to the project in 2010. In fall 2011, a permanent exhibit was opened by the National Park Service to commemorate those who lived in the swamp during pre-Civil War times. Sayers summarizes: "These groups are very inspirational. As details unfold, we are increasingly able to show how people have the ability, as individuals and communities, to take control of their lives, even under oppressive conditions." ## See also - African-Americans in North Carolina - Atlantic Creole - Bristol slave trade - Coastwise slave trade - Colonial South and the Chesapeake - First Africans in Virginia - Gullah - History of slavery in Virginia - Seasoning (colonialism) - Slavery in the colonial history of the United States - Tobacco colonies
4,998,606	Andrew III of Hungary	1,156,358,191	King of Hungary and Croatia from 1290 to 1301	[ "1265 births", "1301 deaths", "13th-century Hungarian people", "13th-century Venetian people", "13th-century monarchs in Europe", "14th-century Hungarian people", "14th-century monarchs in Europe", "Dukes of Slavonia", "House of Árpád", "Hungarian monarchs", "Kings of Croatia", "Kings of Hungary" ]	Andrew III the Venetian (Hungarian: III. Velencei András, Croatian: Andrija III. Mlečanin, Slovak: Ondrej III.; c. 1265 – 14 January 1301) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1290 and 1301. His father, Stephen the Posthumous, was the posthumous son of Andrew II of Hungary although Stephen's older half brothers considered him a bastard. Andrew grew up in Venice, and first arrived in Hungary upon the invitation of a rebellious baron, Ivan Kőszegi, in 1278. Kőszegi tried to play Andrew off against Ladislaus IV of Hungary, but the conspiracy collapsed and Andrew returned to Venice. Being the last male member of the House of Árpád, Andrew was elected king after the death of King Ladislaus IV in 1290. He was the first Hungarian monarch to issue a coronation diploma confirming the privileges of the noblemen and the clergy. At least three pretenders—Albert of Austria, Mary of Hungary, and an adventurer—challenged his claim to the throne. Andrew expelled the adventurer from Hungary and forced Albert of Austria to conclude a peace within a year, but Mary of Hungary and her descendants did not renounce their claim. The Hungarian bishops and Andrew's maternal family from Venice were his principal supporters, but the leading Croatian and Slavonian lords were opposed to his rule. Hungary was in a state of constant anarchy during Andrew's reign. The Kőszegis, the Csáks, and other powerful families autonomously governed their domains, rising up nearly every year in open rebellion against Andrew. With Andrew's death, the House of Árpád became extinct. A civil war ensued which lasted for more than two decades and ended with the victory of Mary of Hungary's grandson, Charles Robert. ## Childhood (c. 1265–1278) Andrew was the son of Stephen the Posthumous, the self-styled Duke of Slavonia, and his second wife, Tomasina Morosini. Andrew's father was born to Beatrice D'Este, the third wife of Andrew II of Hungary, after the king's death. However, Andrew II's two elder sons, Béla IV of Hungary and Coloman of Halych, accused Beatrice D'Este of adultery and refused to acknowledge Stephen the Posthumous as their legitimate brother. Andrew's mother, Tomasina Morosini, was the daughter of wealthy Venetian patrician Michele Morosini. The exact date of Andrew's birth is unknown. According to historians Tibor Almási, Gyula Kristó, and Attila Zsoldos, he was born in about 1265. Stephen the Posthumous nominated his wife's two kinsmen, including her brother Albertino Morosini, as Andrew's guardians before his death in 1272. ## Pretender (1278–1290) Andrew came to Hungary for the first time in 1278 at the invitation of a powerful lord, Ivan Kőszegi. Kőszegi wanted to play Andrew off against Ladislaus IV of Hungary. Andrew, who was the only male member of the royal family besides the king, adopted the title of "Duke of Slavonia, Dalmatia and Croatia" and marched as far as Lake Balaton. Andrew achieved nothing, however, and went back to Venice in autumn. Andrew returned to Hungary at the beginning of 1290. On this occasion, Lodomer, Archbishop of Esztergom, also urged him to come, since the archbishop wanted to dethrone the excommunicated Ladislaus IV with the assistance of Ivan Kőszegi. Before Andrew was successful, Arnold Hahót, an enemy of the Kőszegis, invited him to the fort of Štrigova and captured him. Hahót sent Andrew to Vienna, where Albert I, Duke of Austria, held him in captivity. Three Cuman assassins murdered Ladislaus IV on 10 July 1290, and Archbishop Lodomer subsequently dispatched two monks to Vienna to inform Andrew of the king's death. With the monks' assistance, Andrew left his prison in disguise and hastened to Hungary. ## Reign ### Coronation and pretenders (1290–1293) Upon Andrew's arrival, his opponents tried to bribe Theodore Tengerdi, Provost of the Székesfehérvár Chapter, not to hand over the Holy Crown of Hungary to the soon-to-be-king, but the prior refused them. Archbishop Lodomer crowned Andrew king in Székesfehérvár on 23 July. The lords and prelates swore loyalty to Andrew only after he issued a charter promising the restoration of internal peace and respect for the privileges of the nobility and the clergymen. He then appointed the most powerful noblemen, who had for years administered their domains independently of the monarch, to the highest offices. Amadeus Aba, who dominated the northeastern parts of the kingdom, was made palatine, Ivan Kőszegi, the lord of the western parts of Transdanubia, became master of the treasury, and Roland Borsa remained the voivode of Transylvania. Andrew held a diet before 1 September. To put an end to anarchy, the "prelates, barons and noblemen" ordered the destruction of castles which had been erected without royal permission and the restoration of estates that had been unlawfully seized to their rightful owners. Andrew promised that he would hold a diet each year during his reign. There were several other challengers to Andrew's claim to the throne. Rudolf I of Germany claimed that Hungary escheated to him after Ladislaus IV's childless death, because Ladislaus IV's grandfather, Béla IV of Hungary, had sworn fidelity to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor during the Mongol invasion of Hungary. Although Pope Innocent IV had years before freed Béla IV of his oath, Rudolf I of Germany attempted to bestow Hungary on his own son, Albert of Austria, on 31 August. The self-declared "Andrew, Duke of Slavonia"—an adventurer who claimed to be identical to Ladislaus IV's dead younger brother—also challenged King Andrew's right to the crown and stormed into Hungary from Poland. He was shortly thereafter forced to return to Poland, where he was murdered. Andrew married Fenenna, the daughter of Ziemomysł of Kuyavia, before the end of 1290. Andrew then held a general assembly for the barons and the noblemen of five counties to the east of the river Tisza—Bihar, Kraszna, Szabolcs, Szatmár, and Szolnok—at Nagyvárad (Oradea) in early 1291. The assembly outlawed Stephen Balogsemjén, a staunch supporter of the late Ladislaus IV, for major trespass. From the assembly, Andrew went to Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia). Here he issued the decrees of his 1290 diet at the assembly of the local noblemen, Saxons, Székelys and Romanians, in February or March. Around the same time, Andrew dismissed Amadeus Aba and made Ivan Kőszegi palatine. Ladislaus IV's sister Mary, wife of Charles II of Naples, announced her claim to the throne in April 1291. The Babonići, Frankopans, Šubići, and other leading Croatian and Slavonian noble families accepted her as the lawful monarch. Andrew's main concern, however, was Albert of Austria's claim. He invaded Austria, forcing Albert to withdraw his garrisons from the towns and fortresses—including Pressburg (Bratislava) and Sopron—that he had captured years before, many of which were held by the Kőszegis before their conquest. The Peace of Hainburg, which concluded the war, was signed on 26 August, and three days later Andrew and Albert of Austria confirmed it at their meeting in Köpcsény (Kopčany). The peace treaty prescribed the destruction of the fortresses that Albert of Austria had seized from the Kőszegis. The Kőszegis rose up in open rebellion against Andrew in spring 1292, acknowledging Mary's son, Charles Martel, as King of Hungary. The royal troops subdued the rebellion by July, but the Kőszegis captured and imprisoned Andrew during his journey to Slavonia in August. Andrew was liberated within four months, after his supporters sent their relatives as hostages to the Kőszegis. ### Rebellions and attempts to consolidate (1293–1298) Upon Andrew's request, his mother, Tomasina, moved to Hungary in 1293. Andrew appointed her to administer Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia. Due to her activities, the Babonići, Šubići, and the Dalmatian towns acknowledged Andrew's rule. Andrew visited the northern parts of Hungary and ordered the revision of former land grants in February. After his return to Buda, he again made Amadeus Aba palatine. In August, Andrew arranged a marriage between his cousin, Constance Morosini, and Vladislav, son of Stefan Dragutin of Serbia, who had earlier acknowledged Charles Martel's claim to Hungary. Roland Borsa besieged and captured Benedict, Bishop of Várad's fortress at Fenes (Finiș) on 23 May 1294. Andrew held a general assembly and outlawed Borsa. According to historian Attila Zsoldos, he made Nicholas Kőszegi palatine on this occasion. Andrew laid siege to Borsa's fort at Adorján (Adrian). The siege lasted three months before the fort fell to Andrew in October. Andrew replaced Roland Borsa with Ladislaus III Kán as voivode of Transylvania, but the former preserved all his domains in the lands east of the Tisza. The Croatian lord Paul Šubić again turned against Andrew and joined the camp of Charles Martel in early 1295, but Charles died in August. Within two months, the Babonići also rebelled against Andrew. Early the next year, the recently widowed King Andrew visited Vienna and arranged a marriage with Duke Albert's daughter Agnes. The Kőszegis soon rose up in open rebellion. Andrew declared war on the rebels, and Archbishop Lodomer excommunicated them. Andrew and Albert jointly seized the Kőszegis' main fort at Kőszeg in October, but could not subdue them. Andrew's mother seems to have died at the end of the year because references to her activities disappear from the contemporaneous documents. Matthew III Csák, whom Andrew had made palatine in 1296, turned against Andrew at the end of 1297. Andrew's staunch supporter, Archbishop Lodomer, died around the same time. In early February 1298, Andrew visited Albert of Austria in Vienna and promised to support him against Adolf of Nassau, King of Germany. Andrew sent an auxiliary troop, and Albert of Austria routed King Adolf in the Battle of Göllheim on 2 July. ### Last years (1298–1301) Andrew held an assembly of the prelates, noblemen, Saxons, Székelys, and Cumans in Pest in the summer of 1298. The preamble to the decrees that were passed at the diet mentioned "the laxity of the lord king". The decrees authorized Andrew to destroy forts built without permission and ordered the punishment of those who had seized landed property with force, but also threatened Andrew with excommunication if he did not apply the decrees. At the gathering, he appointed his uncle, Albertino Morosini, Duke of Slavonia. After the close of the diet, Andrew entered into a formal alliance with five influential noblemen – Amadeus Aba, Stephen Ákos, Dominic Rátót, Demetrius Balassa and Paul Szécs – who stated that they were willing to support him against the Pope and the bishops. Gregory Bicskei, the archbishop-elect and apostolic administrator of Esztergom, forbade the prelates to participate at a new diet which was held in 1299. The prelates ignored the archbishop's order and Andrew deprived him of Esztergom County. A group of powerful lords—including the Šubići, Kőszegis and Csáks—urged Charles II of Naples to send his grandson, the 12-year-old Charles Robert, to Hungary in order to become king. The young Charles Robert disembarked in Split in August 1300. Most Croatian and Slavonian lords and all Dalmatian towns but Trogir recognized him as king before he marched to Zagreb. The Kőszegis and Matthew Csák, however, were shortly reconciled with Andrew, preventing Charles' success. Andrew's envoy to the Holy See noted that Pope Boniface VIII did not support Charles Robert's adventure, either. Andrew, who had been in poor health for a while, was planning to capture his opponent, but he died in Buda Castle on 14 January 1301. According to historians Attila Zsoldos and Gyula Kristó, the contemporaneous gossip suggesting that Andrew was poisoned cannot be proved. Andrew was buried in the Franciscan church in Buda. Years later, Palatine Stephen Ákos referred to Andrew as the "last golden branch" of the tree of King Saint Stephen's family, because with Andrew's death the House of Árpád, the first royal dynasty of Hungary, ended. A civil war between various claimants to the throne—Charles Robert, Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and Otto of Bavaria—followed Andrew's death and lasted for seven years. The civil war ended with Charles Robert's victory, but he was forced to continue fighting against the Kőszegis, the Abas, Matthew Csák, and other powerful lords up to the early 1320s. ## Family Andrew's first wife, Fenenna of Kuyavia (d. 1295), gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, in 1291 or 1292. Elizabeth became engaged to Wenceslaus, the heir to Wenceslaus II of Bohemia, in 1298, but the betrothal was broken in 1305. She joined the Dominican convent at Töss where she died a nun on 5 May 1338. She is now venerated as Blessed Elizabeth of Töss. Andrew's second wife, Agnes of Austria, was born in 1280. She survived her husband, but did not marry again; she died in the Königsfelden Monastery of the Poor Clares in 1364.
67,409,193	HMS Artois (1794)	1,166,749,499	Frigate of the Royal Navy, commissioned 1794 and wrecked 1797	[ "1794 ships", "Artois-class frigates", "Fifth-rate frigates of the Royal Navy", "Maritime incidents in 1797", "Ships built in Rotherhithe" ]	HMS Artois was a fifth-rate Artois-class frigate of the Royal Navy, designed by Sir John Henslow and launched in 1794 at Rotherhithe as the lead ship of her class. She served for the majority of her career in the English Channel under the command of Edmund Nagle in the squadrons of Edward Pellew and John Borlase Warren, notably taking part in the action of 21 October 1794 where she captured the 44-gun frigate La Révolutionnaire almost singlehandedly. She participated in a number of other actions and events including the attempted invasion of France in 1795. Artois continued to serve actively on the coast of France in blockade and patrolling roles, taking a large number of ships as prizes, until she was wrecked with no loss of life off Île de Ré on 31 July 1797 while attempting to reconnoitre the harbour of La Rochelle. ## Construction Artois was a 38-gun, 18-pounder, fifth-rate Artois-class frigate designed by Sir John Henslow. She and her class were ordered soon after the start of the French Revolutionary War to provide an influx of modern warships for the Royal Navy. Artois was the name-ship of her class and the first to be laid down; of the nine ships of the class seven, including Artois, were built of oak while the final two were built of fir. Artois was an improvement on the 18-pounder frigates of the American Revolutionary War which were found to be too small and that their battery placement made them unstable at sea. To counter this, Artois and her contemporaries built in the 1790s were lengthened forwards to make them faster and more stable. The extra space provided by this expansion made the ships faster but did not stop the issue of violent pitching, which would not be fixed until HMS Active was launched as an improvement to the Artois-class in 1799. Despite this, the class would go on to gain a reputation as 'crack frigates'. They were perfect for their assigned role as frigates on blockade duties, being large enough to fight any French frigate sent to attack them while on station but also fast enough and weatherly enough to be able to stay at their posts no matter the weather type. Artois was ordered on 28 March 1793 to be built at Rotherhithe by John and William Wells of Wells & Co. She was laid down in the same month and launched on 3 January 1794 with the following dimensions: 146 feet 3 inches (44.6 m) along the gun deck, 121 feet 9+3⁄4 inches (37.1 m) at the keel, with a beam of 39 feet 2+1⁄2 inches (12 m) and a depth in the hold of 13 feet 9 inches (4.2 m). She measured 9965⁄94 tons burthen. The fitting out process for Artois was completed at Deptford on 30 March. In January 1794 Captain Lord Charles Fitzgerald of Artois requested to the Admiralty that a bridle port, a square porthole in the bow that a gun could be placed in, be fitted to assist in chasing ships, however it was deemed unfeasible to fit one on a ship designed without it. On 19 November eight 32-pound carronades were added to the Artois-class ships by Admiralty Order, leading some to describe them as 44-gun frigates in the future. On 20 June 1796 another Admiralty Order saw the ship's crew complement increase from 270 to 284. ## Service ### 1794 Artois was commissioned under Captain Lord Charles Fitzgerald in December 1793 to serve on the Cork Station. After this Captain Edmund Nagle took command of Artois, but was absent at the beginning of her service, with two temporary captains standing in for him. In April 1794 Artois served at the siege of Bastia under the command of Captain Thomas Byam Martin, where the ships of Admiral Lord Hood's Mediterranean Fleet starved the French garrison out of Bastia. Artois then moved to the English Channel where she was to serve in the Brest blockade squadron of Commodore John Borlase Warren; for a brief period of time she was then commanded by Commander George Byng before Nagle returned to take command of Artois. She would spend the majority of her career stationed with the squadron in and around Audierne Bay. #### Le Volontaire On 23 August Artois took part in the destruction of the 36-gun frigate Le Volontaire on the Penmarks. The frigate was discovered early in the morning by Warren's squadron comprising Artois and the frigates HMS Arethusa, HMS Diamond, HMS Flora, HMS Diana, and HMS Santa Margarita. The British ships had left Falmouth on 7 August with the intent of hunting a squadron of French frigates known to be around the Isles of Scilly, but found Le Volontaire off Brittany instead. Le Volontaire was forced by the squadron to anchor off the coast to avoid wrecking, and the British ships attacked her to such a degree that she was forced to cut her cables in an attempt to change her positioning. In doing so La Volontaire was driven ashore and after her pumps failed to remove the incoming water her crew abandoned her. The frigate was unrecoverable and stayed there in its disabled state. The same British ships then discovered the 12-gun brig L'Alerte and 18-gun corvette Espion in the nearby Audierne Bay. The two French ships ran themselves aground under the cover of three batteries of guns. They were then boarded by boats from the squadron and fifty-two prisoners were brought off them; the ships also had a large number of men with injuries that made them unmovable, which meant that the British were not able to destroy the ships, instead leaving them and the wounded where they had grounded. The following night the French succeeded in rescuing Espion, but L'Alerte was lost. On 26 August the ships Queen and Donna Maria were recaptured by the squadron in the same area. The squadron continued its patrols, taking the cutter La Quartidi on 7 September and recapturing the Swedish brig Haesingeland on 16 September. #### La Révolutionnaire By October Artois was serving in the squadron of Edward Pellew. On 21 October the squadron, comprising Artois, Arethusa, Diamond, and the frigate HMS Galatea, encountered the French 44-gun frigate La Révolutionnaire sailing off Ushant. The squadron chased La Révolutionnaire which looked to avoid the force, but the superior sailing qualities of Artois allowed her to sail ahead of the rest of the squadron and come up with La Révolutionnaire before she could escape. The squadron then cut La Révolutionnaire off from the coast which she might have sailed towards for assistance, forcing the French frigate to engage Artois. The two frigates fought an engagement of forty minutes in which eight Frenchmen and three Britons were killed, including the lieutenant of marines. Diamond approached the action next and came up behind La Révolutionnaire, threatening to fire into her stern. La Révolutionnaire surrendered to Artois upon the approach of the rest of Pellew's squadron, as the frigate had been launched only a few weeks previously; the raw crew refused to continue fighting and forced the captain to surrender. Pellew reported that the intervention of the rest of the squadron had been unnecessary, and that Artois would have succeeded even if she had been completely unsupported. The French frigate was bought into the navy as HMS Révolutionnaire; Captain Nagle was knighted for his conduct against her and his first lieutenant, Robert Dudley Oliver, was promoted to commander. ### 1795 After this Artois returned to the command of Commodore Warren and his squadron. On 18 February 1795 the squadron of Artois, Galatea, Arethusa, and Warren's frigate HMS Pomone encountered a French convoy of twenty ships protected by the frigate Néréide off Oléron. The squadron pursued the convoy up the Pertuis d'Antioche towards Île-d'Aix; while the tide forced the British to halt the attack before they reached Aix, they captured one ship, three brigs, two luggers, one sloop, and an 8-gun schooner. As well as this ten brigs and a lugger were destroyed; the convoy had been carrying food and clothing for the French military. The squadron was very busy in February and March, and including those taken on 18 February the squadron took the ships Le Pierre, Le Petit Jean, Le Deux Freres, La Liberte, Le Adelaide, L'Aimable, La Coureause, L'Aimable Madelaine, La Pacquebot de Cayenne, and La Biche between 13 February and 2 March. A strange sail was sighted on 15 April by the squadron, and the signal to give chase given; Artois caught her first, proving it to be the 26-gun corvette Le Jean Bart. On 16 April Artois and Galatea similarly took the 16-gun sloop Expedition, which had previously been a British packet ship, and the ship Maria Francis Fidilla off Rochefort, and Artois on her own captured two sloops with cargoes of fish. Between June and October she participated in the failed French émigré invasion of France at Quiberon. As such Artois was present in the fleet at the Battle of Groix on 23 June, where she shared in the capture of the three French ships-of-the-line Alexander, Formidable, and Tigre, despite not participating directly in the action that occurred when the British and French fleets came upon one another while on separate missions. The British fleet under Lord Bridport had been convoying the invasion force to France, and Artois was part of a force of three ships-of-the-line and six frigates under Warren guarding the fifty-ship convoy conveying the Comte de Puisaye's émigré force of 2,500 men. The troops were successfully landed on 27 June and Warren's squadron went on to occupy Île d'Yeu, but after a series of reversals against French revolutionary soldiers the entire force was evacuated to England, with Artois and the other ships providing covering fire to the escaping Royalists. ### 1796 After the failure of this enterprise, Artois returned to her usual duties of blockade and patrols; on 6 March 1796 the ship Sultana was captured, and a day later Nancy also. On 20 March she was sailing with the frigates HMS Anson, Pomone, and Galatea off Pointe du Raz when they discovered a French convoy of seventy ships. The convoy was guarded by the frigates Prosperine, Unite, Coquille, and Tamise, and the corvette Cigogne. Artois and Pomone quickly took four of the convoy ships; one ship and three brigs. These were Illier, Don de Dieu, Paul Edward, and Felicite. The convoy turned away from the squadron, and as the British ships drew closer the French brought their warships together and passed the British in line as they went in the other direction, exchanging fire and heavily damaging Galatea. The British then began a concerted effort to follow the convoy and break through its ranks in a line of battle as it fled towards Brest but failed to bring it to action again, only taking the 28-gun armed store ship Etoile which had been at the rear of the convoy. The four French frigates and the corvette all escaped under the cover of night, while the majority of the convoy took shelter under the protection of some coastal gun batteries. Commodore Warren in Pomone was criticised for not doing more to press his advantage against the convoy, in all taking only six of the ships. The squadron took the ships La Marie, L'Union, La Bonne, and a brig between 7 and 13 April. Finding continued success, Artois took Pacific on 14 May, Lodoiska on 22 May, and Fantasie on 25 May, and the chasse-marées Charlotte and Veronique on 16 August. #### Andromaque On 22 August Artois was in company with the same squadron of ships and the brig-sloop HMS Sylph off the mouth of the river Gironde, when the French frigate Andromaque came into sight attempting to enter the river. Andromaque had been cruising in a squadron with two other frigates and a corvette, but had left their company after springing a leak. Galatea was closest to the enemy and began a chase of it, followed by Pomone and Anson, while Artois and Sylph were sent to investigate the appearance of two other strange sails. The chase continued through the night, and by 4 a.m. on 23 August Galatea and Andromaque were only one mile offshore. At day break Artois and Sylph came into sight, having ascertained that the strange sails were neutral American merchants, and at 5:30 a.m. Andromaque attempted to make her escape from the squadron, but at 6 a.m. she ran herself aground close to Arcachon, losing all her masts. Artois, Galatea, and Sylph sent their boats in to take control of the unresisting frigate; before they reached it many of the ship's crew jumped into the rough seas rather than be captured, while the rest were able to walk from the stranded frigate to the coast once the tide had gone out. In the evening of 23 August boats from Sylph set fire to Andromaque which then exploded. On 2 November Artois and Warren's squadron were in company with the fleet of Lord Bridport when she took the 12-gun privateer Le Franklin off Ushant after a chase alongside the frigate HMS Thalia. In December Artois began a string of successes, taking a brig and the chasse-marées Le Providence and La Maria Theresa on 11 December, a Spanish brig on 14 December, and another Spanish brig Divina Pastora on 17 December. ### 1797 The activity of Artois'''s squadron continued into 1797, taking Le Jean Amie on 15 February, Nordzee on 16 March, and recapturing the whaler Mary on 25 April. On 16 July a French convoy of fourteen ships guarded by the frigate La Calliope and two corvettes was discovered and chased by Warren's squadron, comprising the same ships as last noted and the cutter Dolly. The corvettes succeeded in escaping into Audierne Bay, but La Calliope was unable to run from the squadron and was made to engage it. In order to escape destruction La Calliope cut away her masts and ran herself aground on the Penmarks early in the morning of 17 July. To stop the French from removing the stores from La Calliope, Anson and Sylph bombarded the stranded ship while Artois and Pomone watched from further out to sea. La Calliope broke up on the rocks on 18 July. ## Fate On 31 July 1797 Artois was wrecked on a sandbank near the Ballieu rocks on the north-west coast of Île de Ré. She had been attempting to reconnoitre the harbour of La Rochelle; the entire crew was saved by Sylph. The pilot and master of Artois'' were condemned for their negligence in causing the wreck. ## Prizes
40,535,090	Hurricane Manuel	1,173,126,475	Category 1 Pacific hurricane in 2013	[ "2013 Pacific hurricane season", "2013 in Mexico", "Category 1 Pacific hurricanes", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Retired Pacific hurricanes", "Tropical cyclones in 2013" ]	Hurricane Manuel (/ˌmæn(j)uˈɛl, ˌmɑːn-/) brought widespread flooding across much of Mexico in September 2013, in conjunction with Hurricane Ingrid. The fifteenth named storm and seventh hurricane of the annual hurricane season, Manuel originated from a strong area of low pressure south of Acapulco on September 13. Within favorable conditions aloft, the storm intensified into a tropical storm as it tracked northward. The following day, Manuel curved westward and strengthened to a point just shy of hurricane intensity before making its first landfall at that intensity on September 15. Due to interaction with land, the tropical storm quickly weakened, and its center dissipated over western Mexico on September 16. However, the storm's remnants continued to track northwestward into the Gulf of California, where they reorganized into a tropical cyclone the next day. Manuel regained tropical storm status on September 18 as it began to curve northeastward. Shortly thereafter, Manuel attained Category 1 hurricane intensity, before making its final landfall just west of Culiacán at peak intensity. Over land, Manuel quickly weakened due to interaction with Mexico's high terrain, and the storm dissipated early on September 20. Due to the impending threat of Manuel, several Mexican municipalities were put under disaster alerts. Upon making its first landfall, Manuel caused extreme flooding in southern Mexico. Property and agricultural damage as a result of the system was widespread, and roughly one million people were estimated to have been directly affected. In Guerrero, 97 people perished, including 18 in Acapulco. Seventy-one others died due to a mudslide in La Pintada. In Guerrero alone, around 30,000 homes were damaged and 46 rivers overflowed their banks. There, 20,000 persons were evacuated to shelters. Statewide, repairs to damage from the storm totaled MXN\$3 billion (\$230 million USD). Other impacts from Manuel spread as far east as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where 300 families were displaced. In the region, at least 11,591 homes were destroyed by the floods. Meanwhile, the nation sustained additional impacts from Atlantic Hurricane Ingrid. After its second landfall, additional floods occurred in several towns, and in Sinaloa over 100,000 people were rendered homeless and four people died. As a result of Manuel's impacts, 107 municipalities were declared disaster regions. Damage in Sinaloa totaled MXN\$500 million (US\$37.9 million). The Mexican Army was dispatched in several locations to aid in post-tropical cyclone relief operations. Following the storm, looting in heavily impacted areas became commonplace, and as such government forces were also dispatched to prevent further looting. Overall, 169 people lost their lives in Mexico, while damage exceeded MXN\$55 billion (US\$4.2 billion). ## Meteorological history The origins of Manuel can be traced back to a tropical wave that left the African continent in late August. The wave entered the Caribbean Sea on September 5, although the northern portion of the wave axis later developed into Hurricane Ingrid. On September 10, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) remarked the potential for a low-pressure area to develop off the southwest coast of Mexico during the subsequent few days, provided the system remained offshore. The next day, a low formed while it was nearly stationary, accompanied by scattered convection. Strong wind shear and proximity to land were expected to limit development, although conditions became more favorable on September 12. On that day, the convection became better organized. At 1200 UTC on September 13, the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Thirteen-E, noting that the system had enough of a well-defined circulation and convection. By that time, wind shear had diminished and warm waters were expected to allow intensification, and the main inhibiting factors for development were proximity to land and association with the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Within a few hours of developing, the depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Manuel. By early on September 14, an eye feature developed as rainbands increased. However, Manuel was embedded within a broad weather system that extended from the eastern Pacific across Mexico, which included Hurricane Ingrid in the Bay of Campeche on the Gulf of Mexico coast. The broad system, including Manuel, moved generally northward. By early on September 15, Manuel had developed a central dense overcast, with a 17 mi (27 km) wide eye in the center. Based on the structure and satellite-intensity estimates, the NHC estimated Manuel attained secondary peak winds of 70 mph (115 km/h), just shy of hurricane status. The agency noted the potential for further strengthening into a hurricane, citing the warm waters, moist environment, and low shear. A break in the subtropical ridge to the north allowed the storm to initially continue generally to the north-northeast, soon peaking as a low-end Category 1 hurricane; however, after reaching its peak intensity, Manuel turned back to the northwest while accelerating. On September 15, Manuel made landfall near Aquila in Michoacán as a high-end tropical storm, though operationally, it was believed to have moved ashore near Manzanillo in Colima. Early on September 16, the storm weakened into a tropical depression after the circulation became disrupted, although it continued dropping heavy rainfall. Later that day, the surface center dissipated over western Mexico. The remnants of Manuel tracked northwest around a ridge situated over the southeastern United States, and late on September 16, emerged over open waters. Despite only marginally favorable conditions, convection soon increased over the center. At 1800 UTC on September 17 Manuel regenerated into a tropical depression after redeveloping a well-defined circulation. Furthermore, conditions favored additional strengthening as the system tracked slowly northwestward around a ridge, although the cyclone was expected to move onshore the Baja California Peninsula in a few days. Although the convection was initially ragged, Manuel re-intensified into a tropical storm on September 18. Later that day, an eye developed in the center of the increasingly organizing convection, and at 0000 UTC on September 19, Manuel became a hurricane. It thus became the first eastern North Pacific tropical cyclone since records began in 1949 to make landfall in mainland Mexico, and later redevelop into a hurricane. The storm shifted more to the north, resulting in land interaction earlier than anticipated. Around 1200 UTC on September 19, Manuel made landfall just west of Culiacán as a minimal hurricane. Moving over the high terrain of western Mexico, Manuel quickly weakened into a tropical storm. The storm's circulation dissipated at 0000 UTC on September 20, over the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range. ## Preparations On the afternoon of September 13, a tropical storm warning was issued from Acapulco to Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán. Thirty-six hours later, a hurricane warning was issued from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo as the system was expected to become a hurricane prior to landfall. Later on September 15, a tropical storm watch was declared north of the hurricane warning. By early the next day, all watches and warnings were no longer in effect. In addition to the aforementioned watches and warnings, an "orange" alert was issued in southern Michoacán, and "yellow" (moderate) alert was in place for the rest of Michoacán and Guerrero. Lower levels of alerts were issued in Nayarit, Colima, Jalisco, Oaxaca, and in the southern portion of Sinaloa. Twenty-five families were evacuated in Lázaro Cárdenas, and Arteaga, Michoacán. On September 17, all classes were suspended in Colima. After regenerating into a tropical cyclone in the Gulf of California, a tropical storm watch was issued just north of Mazatlán as well as the southwestern portion of the Baja California Peninsula The next day, a hurricane watch was issued for the area south of Topolobampo. At 2100 UTC on September 18, the hurricane watch was upgraded into a hurricane warning. Meanwhile, a tropical storm warning was designated south of the hurricane warning area to Mazatlán. On the evening of September 19, all watches and warnings were discontinued, as Manuel had moved inland. On September 18, when the cyclone first threatened the state, 13 municipalities were placed on alert in Sonora. Along the Baja California Peninsula, seven ports were closed. The ports of Mazatlán, Cabo San Lucas, and San José del Cabo were closed for small craft and night interests. A "yellow" alert was issued for southern Baja California Sur while a "green" alert was issued for the northern portion of the state. In Sinaloa, classes were suspended. Prior to landfall, 700 people were evacuated statewide, including 365 residents from two municipalities. Over 60 families were evacuated in Navolato. An "orange" alert was also activated for the state. ## Impact Around the same time as Manuel's first landfall, Hurricane Ingrid made landfall along the eastern coast of the nation; this marked the first time two tropical cyclones struck the nation within 24 hours since 1958. Overall, economic impact exceeded MXN\$55 billion (US\$4.2 billion). Damage to roads alone totaled to \$2 billion pesos (\$153 million 2013 USD). A total of 123 people were killed due to Hurricane Manuel, at least of 104 of which were direct. Roughly 59,000 people were evacuated, including 39,000 that sought shelter. Approximately 1 million people were directly affected by Manuel. Hurricane Manuel brought extremely heavy rains for eight days over much of Mexico, especially over mountainous terrain, although this precipitation was aided by Ingrid as well as large-scale southwesterly monsoonal flow. Numerous locations recorded more than 10 in (250 mm) of rain. A peak storm total of 43.6 in (1,110 mm) was measured in San Isidro, Guerrero. In nearby Acapulco, a secondary maximum of 17.8 in (450 mm) was recorded. Further north, in Michoacán, a statewide peak rainfall total of 22.11 in (562 mm) occurred. After making its second landfall, 18.52 in (470 mm) of precipitation fell in Culiacán and 15.32 in (389 mm) was observed in nearby Sanalona. ### Oaxaca In Jicayan, Manuel damaged 10 homes and flooded a school. Offshore, one boat was reportedly missing. Along the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 300 families were displaced from their homes. Roughly 5,000 animals were killed by the storm. A total of 200 ha (490 acres) of crop was destroyed in Oaxaca; however, damage in the state was considerably less than in Guerrero. Within Oaxaca, 19 communities were isolated. Four people were killed in the state. Overall, 77 municipalities or 10,000 people were directly affected by the floods. ### Guerrero At least 97 people were killed throughout Guerrero. Approximately 30,000 dwellings were damaged, including 11,591 houses sustained severe damage. Moreover, at least 11,000 homes were destroyed 20,000 people were evacuated to shelters. 12,000 of which were evacuated to 47 shelters. Overall, 24 rivers flooded, at least 32 roads sustained damage, and four bridges collapsed. In La Pintada, a remote fishing village of around 400 residents situated to the west of Acapulco, a mudslide occurred on September 14, which within a few minutes, swept through the center of town. As such, many residents initially wandered throughout town in a state of panic and confusion; it took two days for word of the mudslide to spread to the public. Throughout the village, 71 people were killed. Over half the town, including 20 homes, were demolished due to the mudslide. A total of 334 people were evacuated by police, though 30 elected to stay in the area until all the victims had been identified. Many surviving citizens of La Pintada were also hurt, including one seriously. In the municipality of Atlamajalcingo, a woman died after a collapse of a dwelling. In Chilpancingo, the capital of Guerrero, four people perished. Numerous trees were downed and power outages were reported. Additionally, the nearby Cerrito Rico dam nearly overflowed its banks. In the Tecpan municipality, four rivers overflowed their banks and six people died because of landslides. Many mountainous communities were isolated, thus making in difficult to receive aid. #### Acapulco The city of Acapulco sustained the worst damage from the storm; the damage in Acapulco was described by the National Broadcasting Company as the "worst storm damage to hit Mexico in years". There, 18 fatalities occurred, including one person that died when a wall collapsed. Nearby, six tourists perished in a car crash, including two minors. The crash also damaged two fences, a boat, and injured two people. Several homes were flooded in nearby neighborhoods of Acapulco when a nearby river overflowed its banks. Isolated incidents of vandalism were reported. Two mudslides were reported, resulting in the destruction of a home and the closure of a few roads. A family of six perished in Acapulco when a landslide demolished their home. At least 40,000 tourists who spent the Mexican Independence Day in Acapulco were stranded since the terminal of the airport was underwater. Furthermore, the main roads out of the city were blocked by landslides. Even though by September 19, the military had evacuated 10,000 people via 100 flights to Mexico City, this process was difficult because the radar was not functioning. Citywide, 13,516 dwellings were damaged. ### Colima Although flooding was minor in Colima, a peak rainfall total of 144 mm (5.7 in) was measured in Chanal. Many families were evacuated. Several dams statewide reached their maximum capacity while numerous roads that led to the Manzanillo airport were closed. In Ixtlahuacán, 50 families were evacuated when a river threatened to overflow its banks; thirty others were taken to shelter in the rest of the state. A bridge collapsed in Villa de Alvarez. One man was killed in the state when he unsuccessfully attempted to cross a river. Four trees were brought down. Around 15,000 ha (58 sq mi) of banana crop was wiped out. In all, the municipalities of Ixtlahuacán, Tecomán, Manzanillo, and Comala Coquimatlán sustained the worst effects from Manuel in the state. Manuel was considered the worst storm to hit the Mexican state since the 1959 Mexico hurricane. Damage in the state exceeded \$479 million pesos (\$36.8 million 2013 USD). ### Jalisco Further north, minor flooding was reported in Jalisco. Statewide, four people were killed. A 26-year-old man died after being swept away by in the village of Juanacatlan while a 12-year-old boy drowned after falling in a dam in the municipality of Teocuitatlan de Corona. Another man perished when he drove his car into a ravine in Cuautitlan de Garcia Barragan. Fifteen hundred people were evacuated from their homes. Classes were briefly cancelled in 588 schools, leaving over 40,000 pupils home. Bridges collapsed in the Jalisco towns of Zacoalco de Torres and Tamazula de Gordiano. The worst-hit areas in the state were the southern and coastal areas of the state, as well as the Guadalajara area, where flooding and landslides occurred in some neighborhoods. Through Jalisco, 56 municipalities sustained damage. ### Sinaloa Just before its second landfall, one fisherman was killed in Tepechitlán. Another casualty occurred when a person fell off a shrimp boat. A truck driver and a 5 year old also died, while the toddler's mother was considered missing. The towns of Escuinapa, El Rosario, and Mazatlán, as well as the municipalities of Angostura, Mocorito, Navolato, and Culiacán sustained flooded, resulting in modest damage. In Angostura, numerous people were trapped on the roofs of their houses. Coastal areas of Navolato were flooded while authorities reported 500 homeless; hundreds of threes were toppled and power lines were disconnected. Parts of Mocorito were isolated due to overflow of the Humaya channel. About 2 m (6.6 ft) of water and debris was reported in Mocorito. In Culiacán, minor flooding happened. Meanwhile, in Chinito, almost all roads were destroyed. Offshore, 24 boats were damaged. Throughout the state, 100,000 people were rendered as homeless. A total of 3,000 persons were evacuated to 62 shelters. In all, 70 communities were damaged by the tropical cyclone. Hurricane Manuel directly affected 146,000 persons in 10 municipalities in the state. Damage in Sinaloa totaled \$500 million pesos (\$37.9 million 2013 USD). ### Elsewhere Elsewhere, in Michoacán, flooding was reported; many people had to be rescued via air and two casualties were reported. In Durango, 42 homes were damaged, stranding 50 residents. While brushing the Baja California Peninsula, 2 ft (0.61 m) waves were measured in La Paz in addition to winds of 26 mph (42 km/h). In Sinaloa, a peak rainfall total of 415 mm (15 in) was recorded at Culiacán. After dissipating, the remnants of Manuel brought copious amounts of rainfall to a wide swath of Texas. The precipitation was further enhanced by deepening moisture from the Gulf of Mexico and an approaching cold front. In the Austin area, the rains resulted in localized flooding, forcing the closure of several low water crossings. A weather station in Camp Mabry recorded 2.92 in (74 mm) of rain on September 20, making it a daily record for the station. Elsewhere, radar estimates indicated that as much as 8 in (200 mm) may have fallen in localized areas in West Texas. In Kimble County, one road was closed due to flooding. Across central Arkansas, 2–4.5 in (51–114 mm) of rainfall was recorded. ## Aftermath During the aftermath of the storm, a state of emergency was declared for Acapulco; about 12,000 items were airlifted to the region. overall. In all, 662 donation centers were opened across Guerrero. Damages repairs to Guerrero totaled to \$3 billion MXN (\$123 million 2013 USD). The Minister of Economy granted an additional \$100 million pesos to the devastated state. Furthermore, the Finance Ministry declared it had \$12 billion pesos (US\$925.60 million) available in funds. In addition, the Mexican Red Cross collected and subsequently delivered cargo to the devastated area, especially Guerrero while also providing 400,079 tons of aid. Local authorities also provided 29,000 tons of personal and household items. The Médicos Sin Fronteras distributed 2,800 L (620 imp gal) of water, food, and medicines in five shelters. A total of 87 million Euros (US\$118 million), from the National Fund for Natural Disasters, were allocated to provide essential items such as food, mattresses, drinking water, and medicine. The Water Missions International provided water to about 20,000 persons. World Vision Mexico disturbed plastic tends to help cover roofs for 80 families. Furthermore, the organization donated mosquito nets for 76 families. Grocery items such as rice, oil, sardines, sugar, salt, cookies, and beans were also provided. ADRA Mexico was one of the first organizations to help victims, and by early October, had helped 8,000 people. In Oaxaca, 42 municipalities were declared disaster areas. Throughout the state of Guerrero, 56 municipalities were declared a disaster area while 9 municipalities in Michoacán were declared a disaster zone. In all, 428 municipalities were designated as disaster areas and 155 emergencies declarations were issued due to both Ingrid and Manuel. State of emergencies were declared in Michoacán and 21 municipalities in Jalisco, though by mid-October, they were lifted. Thirty-two damage assessment committees were installed to help estimate and analyze the cost of damage to public infrastructure. Subcommittees were established to help assess damage to schools, houses, and water supplies. Ten shelters were opened in both Chilpancingo and Acapulco. All survivors form the La Pintada mudslide were transported to a basketball gym in Acapulco, who were all provided with a US\$150 pension. Due to the closure of the commercial terminal of the Acapulco airport, special flights provided by Aeroméxico and Interjet were used to deliver aid. By September 18, power services had been restored to the state of Guerrero. That day, gas and water services were revived in Acapulco. Emergency declarations were requested in Angostura and Navolato. Within 12 hours after its second landfall, power was retrieved to 26,000 dwellings in Sinaloa. In La Pintada, the search process for victims was halted briefly due to the threat of another mudslide, but on September 20, 100 rescuers resumed searching, who frequently had to dig through mud to recover bodies. The Mexican government received criticism by the press for being under-prepared for both Manuel and Ingrid. One newspaper said that the authorities underestimated both storms, due to a combination of a "lack of coordination" and "the distraction of the weekend's independence-related festivities." Guerrero governor Angel Aguirre was criticized by many for attending a night-long party and drinking when the storm first threatened the state. However, Aguirre later acknowledged political corruption, as well as the construction of homes and hotels in unsafe areas in a televised speech. Consequently, the Mexican Senate requested an investigation in the amount of preparation that occurred. To cope with relief efforts, Mexican Army troops and marines forces helped families whose homes were flooded. Additionally, the military provided 60 tonnes (132,275 lb) of food supplies and 8,000 litres (1,760 imp gal) of water to the city. A military airbase was installed to transport aid via air. Authorities rushed to clean rocks and other debris from two highways in order to liberate Acapulco from isolation. The disaster also resulted in panic buying at supermarkets. Looters were spotted in Acapulco many angry victims robbed shops, homes, luxury hotels, and apartments. Marines were posted outside stores to prevent further theft. Mexico President Enrique Peña Nieto toured through most of the devastated areas, promising to rebuild La Pintada and Acapulco. On May 26, 2014, La Pintada was re-opened, with 125 new homes. Because of the severe damage caused by the storm in Mexico, the name Manuel was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization, and will never be used again for an Eastern Pacific hurricane. It was replaced with Mario for the 2019 Pacific hurricane season. ## See also - Tropical cyclones in 2013 - Other storms of the same name - List of Category 1 Pacific hurricanes - Hurricane Ismael (1995) - Hurricane Willa (2018)
10,406,554	Lois Lane (Smallville)	1,164,300,397	Fictional character from Smallville	[ "American female characters in television", "DC Comics martial artists", "Fictional reporters", "Fictional waiting staff", "Lois Lane", "Smallville characters", "Superman in other media", "Television characters introduced in 2004" ]	Lois Lane is a fictional character on the television series Smallville; she was portrayed continually by Erica Durance since her first appearance in the season four premier "Crusade" to the series finale. Durance began as a guest star in season four but was promoted to series regular status beginning in season five. The character of Lois Lane, first created for comic books by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in 1938 to be the love interest for Clark Kent and his alter-ego Superman, was adapted to television in 2001 by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar - this is the fourth time the character has been adapted into a live-action television series. In Smallville, Lois comes to town to investigate the apparent death of her cousin Chloe Sullivan at the start of the fourth season. After finding Chloe still alive, Lois is forced to enroll in Smallville High to complete the remaining credits of high school she failed to achieve. As the series progresses, her interest in journalism grows, first writing a couple of articles for the Smallville High Torch in season four, landing a job at the Inquisitor in season six, and finally being hired at the Daily Planet in season seven. Throughout seasons four, five, six and seven, Lois's relationship with Clark Kent is depicted more as a brother/sister relationship, with the two characters often butting heads. By season eight, Lois begins to realize that she is falling in love with Clark, and by season nine the two become an official couple. During season ten the relationship goes through several milestones and midseason the pair get engaged. It's not shown but sometime between the series finale and the Arrowverse crossover "Crisis on Infinite Earths" they officially get married and are happily married with two unnamed daughters. Series developers Gough and Millar had always envisioned bringing the character of Lois Lane to Smallville, but it was not until the end of season three that the creative team had the right storyline to bring her in. Erica Durance was hired to portray the iconic female reporter from the comic books. Smallville's interpretation of Lois was designed to embody similar traits to that of various leading female characters in the film. Described as "fiercely independent", critics have favorably compared this version of Lois Lane against the other live-action performances of the character in both film and television. ## Role in Smallville Lois Lane makes her first appearance in season four's "Crusade" when she comes to Smallville investigating the death of her cousin Chloe Sullivan (Allison Mack). While investigating Chloe's death with Clark Kent (Tom Welling) in "Gone", the pair uncover the truth that Chloe is still alive, but in witness protection until Lionel Luthor's trial, the man she is testifying against with evidence that he orchestrated the death of his own parents. Lionel (John Glover) discovers the truth and sends someone to kill her, but Lois and Clark stop the would-be killer, allowing Chloe to testify. Before Lois can leave Smallville, her father (Michael Ironside) informs her that she failed to achieve all of her high school credits and that he has enrolled her in Smallville High so that she can complete her twelfth-grade year. Staying with the Kents, Lois begins attending Smallville High. In "Faςade", Chloe convinces her to become a reporter for the Torch in an effort to help Lois earn some of her remaining credits. With Lex Luthor's (Michael Rosenbaum) help in the episode "Devoted", Clark manages to get Lois her remaining credits ahead of schedule so that she can attend Metropolis University, and vacate his bedroom. In season five's "Fanatic", Jonathan Kent (John Schneider), who is running for the state senate, asks Lois to be his campaign manager after witnessing her take charge against his former campaign manager, whom Jonathan fires when he published a statement that goes against Jonathan's values. In "Fragile", Lois continues her duties under Martha Kent (Annette O'Toole), who is requested by the Governor to take Jonathan's place after he suffers a fatal heart attack. In season six's "Sneeze", Lois discovers an interest in journalism after she is almost struck by a barn door that falls out of the sky while she is jogging. Her story is bought by the Inquisitor, a tabloid newspaper that gives her a job as a reporter. In "Wither", she begins a romantic relationship with billionaire Oliver Queen (Justin Hartley), who, unbeknown to her, masquerades at night as the vigilante Green Arrow. Queen's "job" as Green Arrow often gets in the way of their relationship. In "Hydro", Lois deduces that Oliver is Green Arrow, setting up an elaborate scheme to prove it. Clark and Oliver are wise to her plan, however, and Clark dresses up as Green Arrow to throw Lois off Oliver's trail. When Oliver is forced to leave Metropolis to track down all of Lex's experimental facilities, in the episode "Justice", his relationship with Lois comes to an end. In season six's "Prototype", Lois discovers that Lex has been doing experimental research on army soldiers, one of which was her best friend. As a result, Lois decides in "Phantom" to begin looking into Lex's LuthorCorp projects. In season seven's "Kara", while looking into Lex's research projects, Lois discovers an alien spaceship. Her attempt to craft a news story out of the situation lands her a job at the Daily Planet - in the basement alongside her cousin Chloe. While at the Daily Planet, Lois begins a new relationship with her editor Grant Gabriel (Michael Cassidy) in the episode "Wrath". Their relationship comes under scrutiny from Chloe and Lex in "Blue", with Chloe seeing it as a reason for co-workers to doubt Lois's true ability as a journalist, and Lex believing it will jeopardize the secret of Grant's true identity. In "Gemini", the two finally agree to part ways. In the season eight premiere, Lois believes that Lex is responsible for Chloe's arrest by the Department of Domestic Security, and goes to his mansion to search his files for her location. She eventually discovers Chloe's whereabouts and arrives, alongside Clark, to save her. In "Plastique", Lois takes Clark under her wing—teaching him how to be a reporter—after he accepts an internship at the Daily Planet, sitting at the desk directly across from Lois. Her feelings for Clark become stronger as the season progresses, admitting in the episode "Committed" that she is in love with Clark, and stating to Oliver in the episode "Bride" that she has never felt this way about someone before. In the same episode, she almost shares a kiss with Clark before being interrupted by the arrival of Clark's ex-girlfriend Lana Lang (Kristin Kreuk). In the season eight finale, Lois and Tess Mercer (Cassidy Freeman), Lex Luthor's handpicked successor to LuthorCorp, get into a physical fight at the Daily Planet. During the fight, Lois picks up a Legion ring that falls out of Clark's desk and is instantly transported to another time and place. In season nine, Lois returns from the future suffering from visions of Earth having been overrun by aliens, led by Zod (Callum Blue). This season, Lois and Clark officially begin a romantic relationship, while Lois also begins assisting "The Blur" in his heroic endeavors. Lois's trust in Clark is shaken when she thinks Clark is jealous of her relationship with "The Blur", and that he does not understand her need to find value in her own life's work. Ultimately, Lois deduces Clark's true identity as "The Blur" in the season nine finale. Lois and Clark's relationship reaches its peak in the tenth and final season. Clark finally confesses his secret to her in "Isis" and they begin their relationship again free of secrets. He proposed marriage in "Icarus". In the episode "Beacon", with Chloe's help, Lois rallies faithful fans of "The Blur" and repeals the Vigilante Registration Act (VRA), helping Clark and the Justice League preserve their secret identities. In "Masquerade" and "Booster", Lois convinces Clark to develop an alter-ego as a way of hiding his true identity as the heroic "Blur". In the episode "Prophecy", Lois is given Clark's powers for a day, as a wedding gift by his biological father Jor-El, and realizes that the devotion they have for each other is Clark's greatest weakness, and calls off the wedding. In the series finale, Clark convinces Lois that her being in his life makes him stronger, but the ceremony is interrupted by Darkseid's sudden invasion of the Earth. Lois convinces the US military not to bomb Darkseid's homeworld of Apokolips, allowing Clark to finally embrace his destiny and defeat Darkseid himself. ## Portrayal Series developer Al Gough contends that it was always the producer's intention to bring in the iconic Lois Lane, they just needed a good reason to do it—Chloe's supposed death at the end of season three appeared to be that reason. Gough explains that, when casting for the role, they looked to Margot Kidder—Lois Lane in the Superman film series—for inspiration. They wanted an actress who was "pretty", "smart", and who came with some "wit". Dozens of actresses auditioned for the role of Lois Lane, but it was not until a tape from Erica Durance showed up that everyone felt that they had found the right Lois. Executive producer Greg Beeman described Durance as tough, sexy and direct for her role. Another plus, according to Beeman, was the chemistry between Durance and Tom Welling. Durance came on set that first afternoon and the two hit it off, becoming friends and developing a brother/sister relationship on the set. The lateness of her casting forced Durance to start filming only three days after being hired, with no time to prepare for the role. Under the initial agreement, Durance was only to portray the character for a total of four episodes, but, after a discussion with Peter Roth over how they planned to use the character on the show—insisting that she and Clark would not be having a romantic relationship—the feature film division then cleared the character for more episodes. After the character was cleared for more episodes, the creative team decided to plant her in the Kent home so that she could provide a constant annoyance to Clark. To separate the physical appearance of Lana and Lois from each other, the producers had highlights added to Durance's hair, as she and Kristin Kreuk both shared a similar brunette coloring. ## Character development ### Storyline Series writer Brian Peterson discusses how the writing staff chose to develop the character: "In the Smallville pilot, Al and Miles established Lex and Clark as best friends, which is, to me, one of the best aspects of the show. So when you're introducing his future love interest, why not introduce her, not as an enemy, but as the one who is constantly going to butt heads with him, where they're not gonna like each other at all at first? I think that because we chose such a different take on her, it wasn't that intimidating. She could grow into the person that everybody sees on-screen later". For season six, the writers chose to start Lois down the path of investigative journalism, only in this version of the character she gets her start working for a tabloid newspaper. Writer Kelly Souders felt that if tabloid beginnings were good enough for Perry White—an additional character established in season three's "Perry"—then they are good enough for Lois Lane. It adds depth to the character by showing how she struggled before becoming "the reporter we all know and love". As Lois steps closer to her ultimate destiny at the Daily Planet, the writers have continued to evolve the character by having her grow out of the "black and white" mindset and have her begin seeing shades of gray. The writers wanted the character to realize that there is sometimes a middle road that has to be taken. In season eight, Durance sees Clark taking a job at the Daily Planet as a chance for her character to "step it up and be more involved". In this case, Lois is acting more mature, taking charge in being a mentor to Clark as he transitions into his new job. Durance describes the eighth season as a lesson in duality, with Clark realizing that he has to be two different people if he wants to have a life and save the day; Durance believes that the same applies to Lois. As Durance explains, "[Lois has] got her confidence as a journalist and on the inside, she's going oh my god I'm truly in love with [Clark], more in love than I've ever been with anyone". ### Characteristics When developing the characteristics of their version of Lois Lane, the writers took inspiration from other leading ladies in cinema, for example, Karen Allen's character Marion Ravenwood, from Raiders of the Lost Ark. Todd Slavkin describes the character as having a "sophisticated, worldly experience", and was considered to be more of an adult than the rest of the cast. Durance believes that she embodies many of the characteristics that the creative team wanted to show in their version of Lois, specifically the fact that Lois has a lot of "nervous energy" from trying to "find herself", the same nervous energy that Durance brings to the role. The actress also relates to Lois's sassy, and independent nature, but, conversely, she is not as extroverted as Lois. Gough describes the character as coming from the school of hard knocks; she is street smart, and a very capable woman. Durance believes her character is "fiercely independent", but at the same time she is not afraid to admit that she has flaws, and she is only human; Lois also does not feel sorry about having those flaws. She goes into further detail, identifying the character as more of a tomboy who is vulnerable, with Gough adding that she is also "slightly neurotic". BuddyTV's John Kubicek characterizes her as a fast-talking woman, who, though she whines over petty annoyances, can take care of herself. He goes on to further describe how she is not afraid of getting herself into trouble just so she can dig herself out. ### Relationships One of Lois's key relationships is with Clark, who is her husband in the comics. For Smallville, the characters' relationship is in constant development. Darren Swimmer describes the relationship between Lois and Clark in season five as "a bit of a melting of the ice". The two characters continue to "butt heads", but the audience can see where there is a growing attraction and that either would be there for the other in a time of need. According to Erica Durance, in season five it is not yet clear if either character realizes the attraction, but the joking between the two characters represents a foreshadowing of a greater relationship. Durance believes that because of Lois's self-imposed walls, even if she thought about Clark in a romantic notion for just an instant she would immediately make it out to be a joke because she is not ready for that type of closeness, yet. The actress sees season five as being too soon for the characters to be "in-love" because they are still getting to know each other. Writer Brian Peterson describes Lois's relationship with Oliver Queen in season six as a precursor to her future relationship with Clark. As Peterson sees it, it is the dynamic between her and Oliver, with her willingness to accept Oliver's secret identity as Green Arrow as mirroring the relationship she will have with Clark. As far as season six is concerned, the relationship between Lois and Clark is still undefined for the audience. As Durance describes it, neither character is willing to put an official label on their relationship. The pair has learned to deal with each other's "quirks", but there are still moments that both feel uncomfortable with. Instead at this point, Durance believes that Clark and Lois are satisfied with identifying with a "brother-sister friendship" label, than trying to discover how they both truly feel about each other. ## Reception Erica Durance has been nominated for two Saturn Award nominations in the Best Supporting Actress category for her performance as Lois Lane. The first came in 2005, after her first season with the show, and then again the following year. Before the end of Smallville's seventh season, IGN's Daniel Phillips compared the actresses who have portrayed the character of Lois Lane over the past three decades. Up against the most recognizable version of Lois Lane, Margot Kidder, the 2006 film incarnation played by Kate Bosworth, and the previous live-action television version portrayed by Teri Hatcher, Erica Durance was rated the highest. Although Phillips acknowledges that Kidder is the best representation of Lois' personality, he claims that Durance is the best overall embodiment of the character. Apart from her beauty, Phillips states that "Durance makes Lois intelligent, capable, funny and dangerously curious – exactly the type of woman Clark Kent would fall for". Mike Moody of TV Squad named Lois as one of five reasons to watch Smallville's eighth season. Moody believes that Durance's Lois is "one of the best versions of the character" because Durance plays her as "tough, brainy, sexy and catty", which makes her portrayal that much better than Kate Bosworth's Lois Lane in Superman Returns. BuddyTV's John Kubicek likens the actress's performance—her "stylized delivery of lines"—to that of actresses from the 1940s screwball comedy era. ## Other media appearances ### Comic books In 2012, the Smallville series was continued through the comic book medium with Smallville: Season 11. Written by Bryan Q. Miller, who also wrote for the television series, Lois's story continues as she lives her life with Clark, who has now become known to the world as "Superman". Her involvement with Clark also allows her to meet Gotham City's elusive vigilante Batman, and subsequently learn his secret identity and befriend Batman's partner Nightwing (Barbara Gordon). She also teams up with the Amazon Princess Diana Prince, and DEO's agent Steve Trevor was one of Lois's former boyfriends. When Lois accepts an assignment to Africa to investigate mysterious reports surrounding a vigilante, known as "Angel of the Plateau". She is caught in a terrorist attack after her arrival but is saved by Lana, who is revealed to be the superheroine Lois investigates. After they are acquainted, Lois learns that Lana has been using her abilities to protect children from people who would exploit them. However, Lois tries to keep the fact that Clark is now in the relationship with her from Lana. Both Lois and Lana also find themselves targeted by the latter's enemies, and they send John Corben to defeat Lana. Lois helps the powerless Lana in defeating Corben, and Lana reveals that she knows about her relationship with Clark as she saw the engagement ring before Lois hid it. Lois receives the blessing from Lana. After Oliver and Chloe's son Jonathan is born, they named Lois and Clark as the child's godparents. ### Arrowverse Durance reprised her role as Lois Lane in the 2019 Arrowverse crossover event, "Crisis on Infinite Earths". In the second episode of the crossover event, she appears after Earth-38 Lex Luthor retreats after failing to kill Clark. She thinks Clark is joking when he tells her about the looming destruction of the multiverse. Lois and Clark are now married with young daughters living on the Kent farm, and Clark gave up his powers for his family. Lois is also a facsimile to Alura, the Kryptonian mother of Kara Danvers in the television series Supergirl. Durance also reprised her role as Alura in the first part of the crossover.
18,258,915	Tree: A Life Story	1,130,622,250	2004 book by David Suzuki	[ "2004 non-fiction books", "Books by David Suzuki", "Individual pine trees", "Popular science books" ]	Tree: A Life Story (or Tree: A Biography in Australia) is a Canadian non-fiction book written by David Suzuki and Wayne Grady, and illustrated by Robert Bateman. The book profiles the life of a Douglas-fir tree, from seed to maturity to death. The story provides ecological context by describing interactions with other lifeforms in the forest and historical context through parallels with world events that occur during the tree's 700 years of life. Digressions from the biographical narrative, scattered throughout the book, provide background into related topics, such as the history of botany. Suzuki was inspired to write a biography of a tree when he noticed a Douglas-fir with an uncharacteristic curve in its trunk and speculated what caused it to grow into that shape. Suzuki studied the topic with the help of a research assistant and solicited Grady to help write the book. Vancouver publishers Greystone Books released the book in September 2004. In the Canadian market, it peaked at number three in the Maclean's and the National Post's non-fiction best seller lists and was nominated for several awards. In February 2005 it was published in Australia by Allen & Unwin. The premise and writing were well received by critics. While several reviewers found that the authors succeeded in using accessible language, others found it too technical. ## Background Inspiration for the book came from a Douglas-fir tree with a curve in its trunk. While sitting by the tree, at his home on Quadra Island, near Vancouver, David Suzuki realized that even though his family had played on it for years, he did not know how old it was or how its uncharacteristic curve had developed. Suzuki, a science writer and broadcaster, and former zoologist, speculated that the soil might have slid when the tree was young or that another plant might have blocked the sunlight. He thought that the tree must have endured much hardship throughout its life and made a connection between biographies of people and the story of this tree's life. It also reminded him of an idea he had for a children's book about interconnectivity of life, especially within plants. Along with a research assistant, he studied the topic. Suzuki started to write a draft but a busy schedule interfered so he sought a collaborator. Science writer and former Harrowsmith editor Wayne Grady agreed to participate. Suzuki provided the research, framework, and some original writing and Grady did most of the writing. Together, Grady in Ontario and Suzuki in Vancouver, went through five drafts. Wildlife artist Robert Bateman was brought into the project through social connections between the wives of Bateman and Suzuki. In creating the book, their intention was to illustrate the complexity and interconnectivity of this ecosystem by focusing on one tree's role over time. ## Synopsis The book consists of five chapters: "Birth", "Taking Root", "Growth", "Maturity", and "Death". The book opens with acknowledgments and an introduction, and closes with selected references and an index. In the introduction, Suzuki describes the tree at his home and the series of ideas and events that led to the writing of the book. Along with the narrative of the tree's life, the book includes digressions into related topics, such as the history of botany and animal life in the forest. The tree written about in the book is not any specific Douglas-fir, but rather a generic one. The first chapter, "Birth", begins with lightning starting a forest fire. The heat dries the Douglas-fir cones enough for their scales to spread and release winged seeds. Rain water transports one seed to a sunlit area with well-drained soil. Rodents and insectivores, whose food stashes were destroyed in the fire, eat truffles, which survived underground, and leave feces containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil. Following one dormant winter stage, the seed begins to germinate. In the second chapter, "Taking Root", the embryonic root emerges through a small opening in the seed coat and through cell division, aided by plant hormones, it grows downward. Water and nutrients enter the root by osmosis and are transported to the seedling. A symbiotic relationship develops between the roots and the truffles. The roots give its extra sugars to the truffles, which it uses for energy, and the truffles assist the roots' uptake of water and nutrients. From excess starches and nutrients gathered by the root, a stem similar to the root but surrounded with thin, grayish bark, grows upwards. As the starch reserves are exhausted, its first needles sprout and photosynthesis begins. The tree anchors itself with a deep taproot and a web of roots begin to grow laterally. Some roots develop symbiotic relationships with near-by red alders which excel at nitrogen-fixation but lack the storage capacity that the Douglas-fir can offer. In early April of every year, a new layer grows between the bark and wood. As this new layer takes over transportation of fluids throughout the tree, last year's layer of cells die and form a ring in the wood. After about 20 years, the tree begins to develop fertile cones. Buds form where auxins accumulate; these become either new needles or cones. The buds remain undifferentiated until July and continue to develop throughout the fall and winter. The next year, some buds will open in mid-May exposing a new set of needles. The cone buds on the lower end of the tree while other buds burst open in April releasing a mist of pollen. The cones at the top of the tree open their scales for wind-borne pollen to enter. Within the cone, the pollen fertilizes a seed which is released in September. The quantity and quality of seed production varies year-to-year but a particularly effective crop is produced about every 10 years. Less than 0.1% of seeds survive Douglas squirrels, dark-eyed juncos, and other seed-eating animals. Over the centuries, the tree grows thicker and taller as successive rings develop around its trunk and new buds grow on the branches. The tree becomes part of an old growth forest with a shaded and damp understory of broadleaf trees, shrubs, and ferns. In the canopy, a mat of dead needles and lichen accumulate on the wide upper branches. Exposed to light, air, and rain, the needles decompose and the mat becomes colonized by insects, fungus, and new plants. In the opening of the final chapter, "Death", the tree is 550 years old and stands 80 meters (260 feet) tall. Under the weight of too much snow accumulating on the canopy mat, a branch breaks off. Stresses from a long winter with a dry summer weaken the tree's immune system. The exposed area where the branch broke becomes infected with insects and fungus. Insect larvae eat the buds and the fungus spreads into the middle of the tree and down to the roots. With its vascular tissue system compromised, the tree diverts nutrients elsewhere, resulting in needles turning orange on the abandoned branches. Death takes years to occur as successive parts are slowly starved of nutrients. As a snag, it becomes home to a succession of animals, like woodpeckers, owls, squirrels, and bats. Eventually the roots rot enough that a rainstorm blows it down. Mosses and fungi grow on the deadfall, followed by colonies of termites, ants, and mites, which all help decompose the remaining wood. ## Genre and style Tree is a popular science book, intended to profile the life of single tree using terminology targeted at a general audience. The narrative provides ecological context, describing animals and plants that interact with the tree, as well as historical context. Parallels to the tree's age are made with historical events, like the tree taking root as empirical science was taking root in Europe during the life of 13th century philosopher Roger Bacon. The book is most commonly described, and marketed, as a "biography". One reviewer grouped it with the 2005 book The Golden Spruce as part of a new genre: an "arbobiography". The book is written in the third person, omniscient, style. Grady's writing moderates Suzuki's characteristic rhetoric to create writing that is accessible, with a tone described as "a breezy casualness that welcomes the reader". According to Suzuki, making the book accessible required telling the story from a human perspective, including some anthropomorphism of biological processes. ## Publication The book was published by Greystone Books, an imprint of Douglas & McIntyre based in Vancouver that specializes in nature, travel, and sports topics. They published the hardcover version of Tree in September 2004. The book is small, measuring only 19×14 cm (7.6×5.4 inches) with 190 pages. Suzuki and Grady promoted it through media interviews and book signing events across Canada. In February 2005, Allen & Unwin published it in Australia as Tree: A Biography. The Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic released the audio book in April 2006. Greystone Books published the trade paperback in February 2007. ## Reception In the Canadian market, the hardcover edition peaked at number three in the Maclean's and the National Post's non-fiction best seller lists. The magazine Science & Spirit published an excerpt in the January–February 2005 edition. It was nominated for the 2004 Canadian Science Writers' Association's Science in Society Journalism Award for 'General Audience Book', the 2005 B.C. Booksellers' Choice Award and the 2006 Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries' Annual Litereature Award for best 'General Interest' book. The French translation by Dominique Fortier was nominated for the 2006 Governor General's Awards for best English to French translation. The premise of a biography for a tree was well received. The writing was called engaging, lyrical, and compelling. Robert Wiersema wrote, "Tree is science writing at its finest. It's sweeping but focused, keenly aware of both the minutiae and the big picture. ... Although some of the concepts are complex, the writing is always accessible ... Scientific matters are explained in layman's terms, and the text never bogs down or bottlenecks." However, some reviewers found the language too technical. In the Montreal Gazette, Bronwyn Chester wrote that the scientific language "dilut[es] our feeling and concern for this tree through too much information". Robert Bateman's black and white illustrations, while skilled, were said to add little to the narrative.
31,376,690	Balbergbakken	1,094,999,868	Ski jumping hill	[ "1972 establishments in Norway", "Ski jumping venues in Norway", "Sports venues in Lillehammer" ]	Balbergbakken or Balbergbakkene was a ski jumping hill complex located at Fåberg in Lillehammer, Norway. The centerpiece consisted of a large hill with a construction point of 120 meters (390 ft) (K-120), in addition to three smaller K-40, K-25 and K-15 hills. The venue was opened in 1972, having cost slightly more than one million Norwegian krone (NOK) after significant cost overruns. Balbergbakken hosted three Norwegian Championships, in 1973, 1978 and 1983, and a FIS Ski Jumping World Cup in 1984. The hill record of 130.5 meters was set by Tom Levorstad in 1981. It was planned that the venue would be used for the 1994 Winter Olympics, but because of lack of infrastructure, the new Lysgårdsbakken was built instead. Balbergbakken was closed in 1992. ## History The old hill at Lysgård in Lillehammer was closed in 1964, and Lillehammer SK spent some time deciding where to build a new venue. Storhove, Vingrom and Kanthaugen were all considered as locations, although Balberg was eventually chosen. The municipal council passed the plans in May 1969. The original cost estimate was for NOK 347,065. The hill opened in 1972, having cost more than NOK 1 million to be built. In addition to the large K-120 hill, it consisted of three smaller training hills, at K-40, K-25 and K-15. The hills were owned by Lillehammer SK. The construction was controversial in Lillehammer, both amongst the general public and politicians. The chief of administration had doubted whether he should recommend construction. The original plans had called for both a large and normal hill, but lack of funding meant that the normal hill was never built, meaning that the number of competitions in the hill would be severely limited. The cost overruns were largely created by errors in the plans, which estimated too little earthwork to fill the hillside, and not enough blasting. To cut costs, a floodlighting system was taken out of the plans, so the venue could not be used during the evenings, limiting the amount of time the venue could be used. It was also a concern that very few locals were able to jump on such a large hill. Many politicians stated in 1972 that the money should have been spent instead on an indoor hall for handball. The first trial jump was made by Helge Nordstrand, while Jan Stenbekk is credited with the first hill record, at 110.5 meters. In Lillehammer's bids for the 1992 and 1994 Winter Olympics, Balbergbakken was the proposed site of ski jumping. Lillehammer was awarded the 1994 Olympics in 1988, but a year later the plans to use Balbergbanen were abandoned. The venue was regarded as unsuitable; for instance NOK 30 million would have to be spent on building a new access road. In addition, a new water and sewer system, new stands, participant facilities and a normal hill would have to be built. The available space at Balbergbakken was limited, and the organizers saw it as advantageous to have the ski stadium close to the ski jumping hills. ## Events The hill was used for 31 tournaments, of which six had to be cancelled because of wind or snow conditions. The tournaments included the Norwegian Championships in 1973, 1978 and 1983; the Norwegian champions in Balbergbakken were Nils-Per Skarseth (1973) and Per Bergerud (1978 and 1983). A FIS Ski Jumping World Cup race was held on 9 March 1984. It saw Pavel Ploc win ahead of Matti Nykänen and Ernst Vettori. The event drew 5,000 spectators. The World Cup race incurred a large loss, with the organizers only covering half of the NOK 260,000 it cost to host. The hill record was set by Tom Levorstad in 1981, who reached 130.5 meters. The final race was scheduled to be the 1992 Junior Norwegian Championships, but they were canceled because of lack of snow.
23,846,259	The Thin White Line (Millennium)	1,154,168,339	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "Millennium (season 1) episodes" ]	"'The Thin White Line" is the fourteenth episode of the first season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on February 14, 1997. The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong and directed by Thomas J. Wright. "The Thin White Line" featured guest appearances by Jeremy Roberts and Scott Heindl. When a spate of killings seems to echo that of a man currently incarcerated, Millennium Group consultant Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) must confront the specter of his past and face a murderer who nearly took a younger Black's life. "The Thin White Line" draws inspiration from real killers Herbert Mullin, Lawrence Bittaker and Roy Norris, and contains several references to Morgan and Wong's previous series Space: Above and Beyond. The episode was viewed by approximately 6.6 million households in its initial broadcast and has received positive reviews from critics. ## Plot Anne Rothenburg answers a knock on her front door. When she speaks to the man waiting there, he hears something else entirely; believing that she is giving her consent to be murdered, he attacks her. Millennium Group consultant Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) visits a Seattle hospital to pick up his wife Catherine (Megan Gallagher), who works there as a counsellor. Rothenburg is brought in on a stretcher by paramedics. Black notices a peculiar slash across her palm, and glances down at his own, which bears a scar matching the woman's cut exactly. Rothenburg then dies of her injuries. Black contacts Seattle Police Department detective Bob Bletcher (Bill Smitrovich) for information on Rothenburg. Her husband found her when he came home, assuming that she had surprised a burglar. Elsewhere, her attacker shoots the clerk in a liquor store, again hearing the victim give permission to be killed. Black and Bletcher review security camera footage of the crime, which leads to them discovering half a playing card—the Jack of Spades—at the scene. Rothenburg's home is searched and the other half is found there. Black tells Bletcher about Richard Alan Hance (Jeremy Roberts), a serial killer Black had helped to apprehend twenty years before. Hance was a disturbed Vietnam War veteran who marked his kills with half a playing card, a custom he picked up during his tours of duty. Black was one of a number of Federal Bureau of Investigation agents who responded to an anonymous tip, leading them to Hance's location—however, the tip was called in by Hance himself and the raid became an ambush. Three agents were killed, and Black was cornered by Hance, who cut open his palm and nearly took Black's life before the young Black was able to overpower and arrest him. In the present, Black realizes that the current murderer must be Hance's former cellmate Jacob Tyler (Scott Heindl). Black visits Hance in prison, and upon speaking to Hance, realizes that Tyler believes himself Hance's reincarnation, aspiring to follow his methods exactly. Meanwhile, Tyler calls the police and leaves an anonymous tip, telling them that the liquor store murderer is hiding in an abandoned building. Black accompanies a SWAT team encircling the building, but the officers come under sniper fire from a construction site across the street. Black and Bletcher separate as they search for Tyler, who gets the drop on Black. Black disarms Tyler, attempting to talk him into surrendering. Tyler empties a handgun at Black, but misses; when Bletcher confronts him, Tyler points the gun and Bletcher instinctively shoots and kills him. ## Production "The Thin White Line" was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong, and directed by Thomas J. Wright. "The Thin White Line" was the third episode of the series to have been written by Morgan and Wong, after "Dead Letters" and "522666". The duo would go on to pen a further twelve episodes over the series' run, and would take charge of the second season as co-executive producers. Wright would go on to direct twenty-six episodes across all three seasons, and would also direct "Millennium", the series' crossover episode with its sister show The X-Files. He had also previously worked with Morgan and Wong on their series Space: Above and Beyond. The relationship between the characters of Jacob Tyler and Richard Allen Hance seems to have been based on that of Lawrence Bittaker and Roy Norris, two convicts whose time in prison together formed the basis of a partnership that saw them torture and kill several young women in 1979. Tyler's delusional visions of his victims consenting to be murdered may stem from West German serial killer Waldemar Szczepinski, who chose his victims based on their response to him ringing their doorbells—those who answered he deemed to have given their permission to be killed and their houses burgled; those who did not were simply left alone. The character also draws inspiration from American serial killer Herbert Mullin, who likewise felt that his victims had offered him permission to kill them. Mullin claimed that their last words were often "I understand". Scott Heindl, who portrayed Jacob Tyler, would later return in an unrelated role in the second season episode "A Room with No View", and the third season episode "Antipas". The episode contains several references to Morgan and Wong's short-lived series Space: Above and Beyond, which had been cancelled prior to the pair joining Millennium. The phrase "expect no mercy" found on the playing cards is the motto of that series' United States Marine Corps squadron, while the individual cards used—the Jack of Spades, King of Clubs and Queen of Hearts—mirror the call signs used by individual marines. ## Broadcast and reception "The Thin White Line" was first broadcast on the Fox Network on February 14, 1997. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6.8 during its original broadcast, meaning that 6.8 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode. This represented 6.6 million households, and left the episode the seventy-second most-viewed broadcast that week. The episode received positive reviews from critics. The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff rated the episode an A−, finding that it showed the series to be "unafraid to be unapologetically weird". VanDerWerff felt that "The Thin White Line" introduced elements of mysticism and the supernatural to the character of Frank Black, which "presages the weirder direction Morgan and Wong took the show in season two, while still staying roughly consistent with the first season’s more realistic focus". Bill Gibron, writing for DVD Talk, rated the episode 4.5 out of 5, comparing it to the 1991 film The Silence of the Lambs. Gibron noted that "with a stellar final act and a closing scene that has a great deal of impact in a very restrained manner, this is an excellent installment [sic]". Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated "The Thin White Line" five stars out of five, noting that "it's a return to the serial killer format, but it's never been done before with as much verve as it had here". Shearman compared the episode to both The Silence of the Lambs and the works of film director Quentin Tarantino, and felt that the interrogation scene between Black and Hance was "maybe the single best scene in the whole season". Cinematographer Robert McLachlan received an American Society of Cinematographers award nomination in the category Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in a Regular Series for his work on "The Thin White Line". McLachlan lost to Marc Reshovsky for the 3rd Rock from the Sun episode "Nightmare on Dick Street".
1,824,987	Dead Celebrities	1,171,531,782	null	[ "Bangsian fantasy", "Beauty pageant parodies", "Cultural depictions of Michael Jackson", "South Park (season 13) episodes", "Ted Kennedy", "Television episodes about beauty pageants", "Television episodes about child abuse", "Television episodes about death", "Television episodes about ghosts", "Television episodes about spirit possession", "Television episodes about the afterlife", "Television episodes set in hell" ]	"Dead Celebrities" is the eighth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park. The 189th overall episode of the series, it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 7, 2009. In the episode, Ike is haunted by the ghosts of dead celebrities who died in the Summer of 2009 until Michael Jackson, who does not want to admit that he is dead, possesses him. The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker, and was rated TV-MA L in the United States (specifically for adults, with coarse language). "Dead Celebrities" included references to several actors, singers and famous people who died before or in the middle of summer of 2009, when South Park was on a mid-season hiatus. Among the celebrities featured in the episode were Jackson, Billy Mays, Ed McMahon, Farrah Fawcett, Patrick Swayze, Walter Cronkite, Dom DeLuise, Ted Kennedy, Natasha Richardson, Bea Arthur, David Carradine, DJ AM, Ricardo Montalbán, and Steve McNair. "Dead Celebrities" also parodied the films The Sixth Sense and Poltergeist. The reality series Ghost Hunters and its stars, Jason Hawes and Grant Wilson, were mocked in the episode. Hawes and Wilson said they loved the parody and encouraged fans to watch the show on their Twitter accounts. A subplot claimed food at the Chipotle Mexican Grill resulted in customers defecating blood, a claim which was disputed by the restaurant chain within days of the episode's broadcast. "Dead Celebrities" received generally mixed reviews. According to Nielsen ratings, "Dead Celebrities" was seen by 2.67 million overall households. ## Plot Ike is traumatized by his frequent encounters with the ghosts of celebrities who have died over the summer. He is haunted by people such as Farrah Fawcett, David Carradine, Ed McMahon, DJ AM, and especially Billy Mays, who repeatedly tries selling Ike products from the afterlife. Kyle is terrified when he finds out about the ghosts his brother is encountering and tells Stan, Cartman and Kenny about the encounters. An initially indifferent Cartman decides to help when Kyle mentions Billy Mays being one of the ghosts; Cartman then shows commercials that feature Mays on television, implying that he is an enthusiastic supporter of a product which Mays promoted while he was still alive, called "ChipotlAway", which cleans bloodstains from people's underwear caused by eating food from the Chipotle Mexican Grill. The boys call the team from the reality television series Ghost Hunters in to help, but they quickly, fearfully start ascribing supernatural meaning to random noises, before urinating and defecating on themselves, and finally running from the house. Eventually, Ike goes into a coma due to his multiple experiences with the ghosts, and is hospitalized. At the hospital, the boys seek help from Dr. Philips, a medium (a parody of Zelda Rubinstein's character in Poltergeist), who explains the celebrities are trapped in purgatory, which she compares to being stuck on a plane that isn't quite ready to take off. Dr. Philips manages to contact the spirits and tell them that they have passed on. Surprisingly to her, the celebrities are all too acceptant of the fact, with CBS News anchorman Walter Cronkite and actor Patrick Swayze revealing their trapped state's cause to be Michael Jackson's refusal to acknowledge his death. Some of the celebrities help Dr. Philips and the boys try to convince Jackson that he is dead, but the latter keeps denying it and insists that people are ignorant and he is not only alive, but also a little white child. His denial is so strong that he emits a powerful force that kills Dr. Philips. The annoyed ghosts of these celebrities are shown in purgatory, which indeed does look like the interior of an airplane, minus the plane itself, complete with seats, flight attendants and pilot voice-over announcements. After the energy disturbance, Jackson's spirit takes over Ike's body, causing Ike to sound and act like Jackson himself. The boys find from online research that the only way to make Jackson believe he is dead is to give him the acceptance he sought in life, so they take him to a child beauty pageant for young girls. Dressed like a little girl, Ike/Jackson impresses two of the male judges by singing a tune sounding similar to Jackson's "You Are Not Alone", but they are promptly arrested for masturbating while watching the children, leaving a single, unimpressed female judge (much to the shock of the boys, who were unaware of the men's lewd acts and considered them the best judges). When Cartman notices the judge eating Chipotle, he bribes her with knowledge about the ChipotlAway product, and she declares Ike/Jackson the winner as a result. One of the other contestants is physically beaten by her mother for losing. Having found his acceptance, Jackson leaves Ike's body, and Ike is extremely surprised and disgusted to find himself dressed like a little girl. Later on, Jackson and the other celebrities in purgatory are reunited and they are finally able to lift off. Initially happy, they are soon taken to Hell. To their annoyance, however, the flight attendant tells them that they must again wait as Hell is a tow-in gate. ## Production and theme "Dead Celebrities" was written and directed by series co-founder Trey Parker, and was rated TV-MA L in the United States. It first aired on October 7, 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central. The day after "Dead Celebrities" was originally broadcast, T-shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode were made available at South Park Studios, the official South Park website. It featured a frightened Ike standing above the phrase, "I see dead celebrities". "Dead Celebrities" includes references to several actors, singers and other celebrities who died in the middle of 2009, when the thirteenth season of South Park was on a mid-season hiatus. The episode serves not only to parody the celebrities themselves, but also to provide commentary on the tendency of American media to exploit, idolatrize and excessively report on the lives and deaths of celebrities. The most prominently featured of these celebrities is pop singer Michael Jackson, who died of multiple drug intoxication on June 25. Billy Mays, a television advertisement salesman, is the first dead celebrity featured in the episode, and plays a large role in the early part of the script. Mays' son, Billy Mays III, a self-proclaimed South Park fan, said he loved "Dead Celebrities", and found its portrayal of his late father tasteful and respectful. He said, "South Park gets a little edgy sometimes, but at their core, they're just social satire, you know? I think it was natural for them to do a dead celebrities episode with this whole summer and how it's been, and I think the way they did it was pretty tasteful for the most part." The spirit of David Carradine is shown half-naked in lingerie and with a noose around his neck, a nod to his June 3, 2009, death by autoerotic asphyxiation. Among the others featured in the episode were actress Farrah Fawcett, journalist Walter Cronkite, disc jockey Adam Goldstein (DJ AM), politician Ted Kennedy, actress Beatrice Arthur, television game show host Ed McMahon, actor Patrick Swayze, actress Natasha Richardson, hot dog magnate Oscar G. Mayer, Jr. and actor/professional chef Dom DeLuise. And similar to the spirit of Carradine mentioned above, the spirit of Richardson is shown wearing skiing attire, a nod to her March 18, 2009, death from a skiing accident. ## Cultural references "Dead Celebrities" makes frequent mention of the Chipotle Mexican Grill restaurant chain, describing the food as extremely tasty, but claiming it resulted in bloody stool. In the episode's commentary, Trey Parker and Matt Stone admitted that they loved Chipotle, but found it funnier to use a restaurant with a reputation of being healthier rather than typical fast food restaurants like McDonald's or Carl's Jr. Ike's ability to see the spirits of dead celebrities parodies the 1999 thriller film The Sixth Sense, which stars Haley Joel Osment as a young boy who can see ghosts. Ike's line, "I see dead celebrities", is a reference to that film's most famous line, "I see dead people." The old lady psychic with a very high-pitched voice is a reference to the character played by Zelda Rubinstein in the 1982 horror film, Poltergeist. Another film reference is made to The Exorcist when the medium is flung from the window. "Dead Celebrities" also mocks the Syfy reality television series Ghost Hunters by featuring the show's stars attempting to contact the celebrity spirits, only to be frightened and run away. Finally, the episode also parodies children's beauty pageants and the tendency of stage mothers to become unhealthily obsessed with their children winning such contests. ## Reception In its original American broadcast on October 7, 2009, "Dead Celebrities" was watched by 2.67 million overall households, according to Nielsen ratings. It received a 1.8 rating/3 share, and a 1.5 rating/4 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49. The episode received generally mixed reviews. Ramsley Isler of IGN called "Dead Celebrities" one of the best episodes of the season, adding the jokes at the expense of the deceased were not too tasteless. He praised the parodies of The Sixth Sense, Poltergeist and Ghost Hunters, but said some jokes, like the masturbating judges at the children's beauty contest, were offensive and unfunny. Jason Hawes and Grant Wilson, stars of Ghost Hunters, declared that "far from being offended or incensed [...] they loved being made fun of alongside Michael Jackson and Billy Mays. Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine said "Dead Celebrities" was an especially funny episode that also featured a "crapload of story" that was well-timed for the Halloween season. Josh Modell of The A.V. Club called it "a decent episode", but felt the dead celebrities were too obvious targets for South Park satire, adding, "It's easy to make the same jokes that the rest of the world already has." Modell said the Sixth Sense and Poltergeist references "fell a little flat", but he praised the Chipotle subplot, which he called "beautifully random [and] totally ridiculous". Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said the episode was in bad taste, but added, "I laughed until I choked". Tucker described the Michael Jackson impersonation as "first-rate" and felt the solution to freeing Jackson's spirit served as "a ruthless parody of child beauty pageants". Ingela Ratledge of TV Guide favorably described the episode as the exact opposite of award show segments that reverentially pay homage to the year's departed celebrities, calling it "a wonderfully tasteless farewell." Sue Bergerstein, an arts and celebrity writer with Examiner.com, called "Dead Celebrities" a "new low" for South Park, adding "It's not only tasteless but this episode just adds to the sadness currently experienced by all the mourning relatives." Newsweek writer Joshua Alston said few of the jokes in "Dead Celebrities" were funny, and so the mocking of celebrities "in the absence of laughs, felt tasteless and unnecessary". Alan Sepinwall, television journalist with The Star-Ledger, said many of the episodes seemed rehashed and predictable, especially those targeting Michael Jackson and children's beauty pageants. Sepinwall added he liked the Chipotle subplot, but commented, "Overall, 'Dead Celebrities' was a misfire." Mitch Norton of the SLC Cartoon Analysis found the episode to be extremely funny. "Genius is not only found in the reference to the deaths of celebrities, but creates a new way to view death as a way to live on. We can view death as the end, or a new beginning to something else." ## Home release "Dead Celebrities", along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park'''s thirteenth season, were released on a three-disc DVD set and two-disc Blu-ray set in the United States on March 16, 2010. The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode, a collection of deleted scenes, and a special mini-feature Inside Xbox: A Behind-the-Scenes Tour of South Park Studios, which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson. A deleted scene from this episode is included on the complete thirteenth season DVD and Blu-ray Disc sets. It shows the boys taking Michael Jackson (in Ike's body) to the South Park location of Forest Lawn Memorial-Parks & Mortuaries to prove he is dead. When they reach the grave, Jackson denies it and Kyle attempts to show him by taking a shovel and digging his grave. Stan at first opposes but he, with Cartman and Kenny take shovels and the scene ends with the boys digging Jackson's grave to show he is dead while Ike/Jackson dances. The reason this scene was cut was due to Jackson's grave inaccurately showing his date of death as July 25, 2009. ## See also - The Jeffersons, an episode of South Park in which Michael Jackson was parodied prior to Dead Celebrities''.
30,877,517	Mildred Lewis Rutherford	1,143,752,027	White supremacist, historian general of the United Daughters of the Confederacy	[ "1851 births", "1928 deaths", "19th-century American women", "American proslavery activists", "American women educators", "American women historians", "Educators from Georgia (U.S. state)", "Historians from Georgia (U.S. state)", "Members of the United Daughters of the Confederacy", "Women and education", "Writers from Athens, Georgia" ]	Mildred Lewis "Miss Millie" Rutherford (July 16, 1851 – August 15, 1928) was a prominent white supremacist speaker and author from Athens, Georgia. She served the Lucy Cobb Institute, as its head and in other capacities, for over forty years, and oversaw the addition of the Seney-Stovall Chapel to the school. Heavily involved in many organizations, she became the historian general of the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC), and a speech given for the UDC was the first by a woman to be recorded in the Congressional Record. She was a prolific non-fiction writer. Also known for her oratory, Rutherford was distinctive in dressing as a southern belle for her speeches. She held strong pro-Confederacy, proslavery views and opposed women's suffrage. ## Biography ### Family background Mildred Rutherford was born July 16, 1851, in Athens, Georgia; she was the daughter of Laura Cobb Rutherford (Howell and Thomas's sister) and Williams Rutherford, a professor of mathematics at the University of Georgia. Mildred Rutherford was the granddaughter of John Addison Cobb, whose involvement in agriculture (he owned a plantation with 209 slaves by 1840), the Georgia Railroad, and real estate made him "one of the area's wealthiest men". She was the niece of John's sons Howell Cobb, who served six terms as a Democratic Congressman and Speaker of the House for two years, and the lawyer Thomas R. R. Cobb, one of the founders of the University of Georgia School of Law – he "codified Georgia's state laws", "wrote the wartime state constitution of 1861", and was a prominent proslavery propagandist; T.R.R. Cobb founded the Lucy Cobb Institute in response to a letter that Laura Rutherford had sent anonymously to the local paper. ### Education and career Rutherford entered the Lucy Cobb Institute at the age of eight "in the school's first session". She was graduated from there at the age of sixteen in 1868. #### Educator After teaching in Atlanta for eight years, Rutherford served as the principal of the Lucy Cobb Institute in Athens from 1880 to 1895 and lived in a house directly across the street until it burned c. 1926, continuing to serve the school in various capacities for over forty years (including several years again at its head "with the title of 'president' signaling the school's college-level ambitions"). According to Sarah Case, > Rutherford took over a struggling institution and rebuilt it into one of the most prestigious schools for young women in Georgia. She immediately went to work improving its academic standards, beautifying the physical plant, and increasing enrollment. In agreeing to head the school, Rutherford had insisted that the all-male board of directors cede to her its control of the budget and power to hire and fire staff. She decided the students needed a chapel and had them write seeking funding for one. In 1881, Nellie Stovall wrote "a beautiful and girlish letter" to George I. Seney, who responded with \$10,000 in funding (and a challenge to the town for an additional \$4,000) for the structure, an octagonal red brick building called the Seney-Stovall Chapel. Case further describes Lucy Cobb under Rutherford's direction: > Rutherford's deep concern with propriety and feminine modesty should not obscure the fact that the school prepared women for more than traditional domestic roles. Lucy Cobb recognized that many of its alumnae would seek employment, and by teaching students marketable, and at the same time, respectable, skills, as well as genteel decorum and dress, Lucy Cobb created a new image of elite white single womanhood that combined aspects of the new woman and the southern belle, what I call the "new belle." As early as 1885, a Lucy Cobb commencement speaker argued that women ought to be allowed into more professions. #### Orator and historian Rutherford was an accomplished public speaker – she ofttimes dressed as a southern belle when orating – who addressed a great number of local organizations, including the YMCA, the Ladies Memorial Association (for which she served as president), and the Athens chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC), and in November 1912 addressed the national assembly of the UDC as their historian general. She "became perhaps the best-known amateur historian in the early twentieth century for her extensive writings and speeches, her historical journal, published from 1923 to 1927, and her promotion of historical work among the UDC as that organization's Historian General from 1911 to 1916". She gave "the first speech by a woman to be printed in the Congressional Record" in 1916 at a UDC convention. ## Death and legacy In 1927 Rutherford became seriously ill. Late on Christmas night, as she convalesced, her house suffered a devastating fire, consuming many of her personal papers and belongings, including "most of her private collection of Confederate artifacts". She died on August 15, 1928, and was interred in Oconee Hill Cemetery, in East Hill, one of the two original sections of the cemetery. Her great niece Mildred Seydell was named in her honor and became a well-known journalist, one of the first in Georgia, and a nationally syndicated columnist. Rutherford has a student dormitory named after her at the University of Georgia. ## Views Rutherford was Baptist with a strong faith and expressed a "deep preoccupation with propriety and morality" in her textbooks, criticizing "authors who openly portrayed sexuality or themselves lived in ways Rutherford found immoral". She lauded the works of Southern writers and female writers. According to University of Georgia historian Ann E. Marshall, she was a "tireless advocate of the 'Lost Cause' version of southern history" (referring to the Lost Cause of the Confederacy). Goals of her writing included "establishing the South's contribution to United States history, legitimizing secession, and idealizing the antebellum plantation", and she defended American slavery, thinking its only problem was the burden it put upon the white slaveholders. She viewed "true history" – the way she saw, defined, and proselytized it – as a potential common ground between North and South, and also believed it to be a potent political weapon in support of the causes she espoused. Specifically she fought to indoctrinate future generations by eliminating any books which did not support her views, writing to all schools and librarians, "Reject any book that says the South fought to hold her slaves". She was willing to alter the historical record to make her point—in a speech in Dallas in 1916 she claimed that "the negroes in the South were never called slaves. That term came in with the abolition crusade," even though her own state of Georgia used the word "slaves" in its official Declaration of Causes of Secession. Historian David W. Blight stated that she sought the vindication of the Confederacy "with a political fervor that would rival the ministry of propaganda in any twentieth-century dictatorship". In 1914, she joined the Georgia Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage and became a "vocal opponent" of women's suffrage and the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which was ratified on August 18, 1920. She viewed suffrage as "not a step toward equality, but rather a way of robbing women of the only power they truly held – that of feminine influence and persuasion within their families. Rutherford never reconciled this view with the fact that she herself was one of Georgia's most publicly active and well-known women of her time". Her opposition was "formidable": Dolly Blount Lamar and Rutherford headed the organization, and in 1919 this "conservative state" became the nation's first to reject the amendment. Case asserts that while "Rutherford reserved her strongest resistance for the suffrage amendment," she "opposed all constitutional amendments, including prohibition, despite her anti-alcohol sentiments, on the basis of limiting federal power". ## Selected writings Mildred Lewis Rutherford wrote 29 historically significant books and pamphlets, many printed at her own expense. They were widely read. Among them are: - at Internet Archive.
45,348,927	New Mexico Rattler	1,147,744,894	Roller coaster at Cliff's Amusement Park	[ "2002 establishments in New Mexico", "Buildings and structures in Albuquerque, New Mexico", "Roller coasters in New Mexico", "Roller coasters introduced in 2002", "Western (genre) amusement rides" ]	New Mexico Rattler is a wooden roller coaster located at Cliff's Amusement Park in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The roller coaster was designed and manufactured by Custom Coasters International (CCI); the park completed the attraction after CCI went bankrupt in July 2002. The New Mexico Rattler opened on September 28, 2002, having cost \$2 million. The roller coaster reaches a maximum height of 80 feet (24 m), with a maximum speed of 47 mph (76 km/h) and a total track length of 2,750 feet (840 m). The New Mexico Rattler spans the entire length of the park but only occupies one acre (0.40 ha) of land. Located in the southwest section, the roller coaster navigates over different attractions throughout the park. The New Mexico Rattler utilizes a steel support structure with a wooden track. The layout incorporates elements of an out and back and twister roller coaster. Upon opening, the roller coaster generally received positive reviews from guests and critics, and it received several awards. ## History A major roller coaster at the Cliff's Amusement Park had been proposed for ten years prior to its construction. The growing size of Albuquerque, New Mexico, was a contributing factor in constructing the roller coaster; by the early 2000s, the nearby population had grown enough that a large addition to the park was feasible. In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, park co-owner Gary Hays brought forward the construction of its conceived roller coaster by a year to help in the recovery of tourism. Then-mayor of Albuquerque Martin Chávez assisted in facilitating permits for the park to build the roller coaster in 2002; in part, facing some opposition from city hall. Hays contracted Custom Coasters International (CCI) to manufacture and build the roller coaster in January 2002, based on their reputation and deals offered. A month later, groundbreaking and construction of the roller coaster began. Park owners Gary and Linda Hays, as well as Chávez, announced the construction of the roller coaster at the Albuquerque city hall on February 20, 2002. The unnamed wooden roller coaster would cost \$2 million to construct and have a projected opening date for June 21. Park officials simultaneously announced a contest for the public to submit names through local Wendy's locations for the attraction. Park officials wanted to advertise the roller coaster to an adult demographic and would increase park admission prices. The construction of the roller coaster would result in "15 to 30 jobs" being added, with the park aiming for an increase in attendance for the 2003 season. Installation of concrete foundations began after the roller coaster's announcement. The contest ended in April 2002, with the name, "New Mexico Rattler", chosen from a 4-year-old's submission in May. The owners selected the name because of its likeness to the predator and state. In early May, steel supports began to be built, with construction of the wooden track taking place soon after. The roller coaster's anticipated opening date was set back in June due to construction delays; a new opening date scheduled for mid-July. A second set back to its opening date in July delayed the roller coaster's opening near the fall season, due to pending delivery of construction materials. In late July, manufacturer CCI filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, ending operation. At the time of the manufacturer's bankruptcy, the "roller coaster was 95% finished". Following CCI's closure, the park employed seventeen previous workers from manufacturer and another eight workers to finish the roller coaster. The delays caused additional costs to the \$2 million initially slated for its construction, and the bankruptcy was partially attributed by industry experts to the amusement market decline. The roller coaster was removed from advertising that had been intended to promote it until it opened. Final test runs for the roller coaster were conducted on September 27, 2002, and it opened the next day, September 28. ## Ride experience After leaving the station, the train dips to the right before ascending the 25.4-degree, 80-foot (24-meter) lift hill. Cresting the hill, the train descends the 52-degree, 75-foot (23-meter) right-banked drop, reaching its maximum speed of 47 mph (76 km/h). It then traverses a series of left-banked hills before descending into a drop. The train ascends to the left before dropping into a succession of curved hills; thereafter entering a right-banked hill. Following the banked turn, the train continually descends into the 125-foot (38-meter) tunnel, emerging in an upward right banked turn. The train continues downward into a right turn, ascending a few hills before banking into the left turn. Exiting the turn, the train goes slightly right into the final brake run before turning right to enter the station. One cycle of the roller coaster takes approximately a minute and fifteen seconds to complete. ## Characteristics The New Mexico Rattler was primarily designed, manufactured, and constructed by Custom Coasters International. Before the manufactuer's closure, there were around 25 people who worked on building the wooden roller coaster, both from the company and locally. Engineering plans for the roller coaster took a month to complete. The roller coaster spans the entirety of the amusement park. The roller coaster lies on one acre (0.40 ha) of land and is located in the southwest section of Cliff's Amusement Park. The park relocated several attractions as a result of New Mexico Rattler's construction. In addition, the roller coaster navigates over multiple rides and trees. The New Mexico Rattler was the first major roller coaster built in New Mexico. Contrasting from traditional wooden roller coasters, the New Mexico Rattler utilizes steel supports, which required less area to support the wooden track. The roller coaster combines features an out and back and twister layout. The roller coaster exerts a maximum of 3.1 g-forces to its riders. The roller coaster has a total track length of 2,750 feet (840 m), longer than the originally planned 2,620 feet (800 m). The New Mexico Rattler operates with one train, which has six cars that contain two rows of two seats, allowing a maximum capacity of 24 people. The train was built by Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters. Each seat contains a lap bar restraint system. ## Reception Upon opening, the New Mexico Rattler generally received positive reviews from guests and critics. Leanne Potts, a writer for the Albuquerque Journal, commented on the roller coaster's nonstop pacing, stating there were "no pauses in the ride, no slowing down". Potts also remarked that after the initial drop "the speed is unrelenting", relating the experience to that of falling "off a five-story building and living to tell about it". Potts recorded several guests reactions to the roller coaster, with one guest commenting on the different positive ride experiences in the front and back; another expressing their enthusiasm for the roller coaster, wanting to ride it again. ### Awards During the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) 2003 exposition, the park earned two Brass Rings in relation to its press kit and billboard advertisements for the New Mexico Rattler. The Cliff's Amusement Park owners also earned the "2003 best promotion award" for actualizing the wooden roller coaster and marketing efforts. The New Mexico Rattler received various placements on Amusement Today's Golden Ticket Awards as being one of the top wooden roller coasters.
18,373,132	The Revival (Tony! Toni! Toné! album)	1,173,073,833	null	[ "1990 albums", "Tony! Toni! Toné! albums", "Wing Records albums" ]	The Revival is the second studio album by American R&B band Tony! Toni! Toné!, released on May 8, 1990, by Wing Records. It was produced and arranged primarily by the band, although they were assisted on a few songs by the production duo Foster & McElroy, who had produced their first album, Who? (1988). The band recorded at several studios in California with the assistance of the Synclavier, an early music workstation. The album features R&B music that draws on funk and older soul influences. Its songs incorporate eccentric sounds and stylistic elements from jazz and hip hop, including improvisational sounds, conversational vocals, and digital samples. The group's lyrics exhibit contemporary hip hop attitudes and traditional soul themes, with songs about unruly women, low-key ballads, and more danceable tracks. The album was critically well received; reviewers applauded Tony! Toni! Toné!'s songwriting and appropriation of older sounds with contemporary R&B. Commercially, it charted for 64 weeks and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums. Four singles were released to promote the album, including the new jack swing hit "Feels Good". The Revival was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and, according to Nielsen SoundScan, had sold two million copies by 1992. ## Recording The Revival is the follow-up to Tony! Toni! Toné!'s 1988 debut album Who?, which was a modest success for the group and acquainted them with production and songwriting team Foster & McElroy. Originally friends from Oakland, the band moved to Sacramento after finishing Who? with Foster & McElroy and began to record The Revival. Recording sessions for the album took place at several studios in California—The Plant in San Francisco, Eve-Jims Studio and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles, Can-Am Studio in Tarzana, Live Oak Studio in Berkeley, and J-Jam Studio in Oakland. Tony! Toni! Toné! used the Synclavier, an early music workstation, to record the album. The band primarily produced and arranged The Revival, with additional production by Foster & McElroy for a few songs. They also worked with engineers Toby Wright and Gerry Brown, musician Keith Crouch, and singer Vanessa Williams, who sang on "Oakland Stroke". ## Music and lyrics The Revival features R&B music with elements from hip hop, funk, jazz, and pop styles. Musically and lyrically, it fuses older soul influences and contemporary hip hop attitudes, along with the latter genre's use of samples and digital rhythm tracks. Funk songs such as "The Blues", "Oakland Stroke", "Let's Have a Good Time", and "Feels Good" incorporate digital production technology. Janine McAdams of Spin finds most of the songs to be "embellished with an allusion, an imitation or an out-and-out sample", and writes that the group draws on "various musical influences—Parliament, Duke Ellington, Pointer Sisters, James Brown, among others." "Let's Have a Good Time" samples the Pointer Sisters' 1973 song "Yes We Can Can", and "Oakland Stroke", a paean to the group's hometown, has "Jungle Boogie"-like horn riffs. The "sardonic" song veers stylistically from hip hop to swing, incorporating a 1940s jazz break. According to McAdams, Tony! Toni! Toné!'s songwriting on The Revival disregarded "social commentary or political posturing" in favor of "the preservation of R&B's signature, the perpetuation of the soul tradition, and—on the lighter side—the glorification of barbeque, the boogaloo and the booty on a Saturday night." Described by the group as "Baptist shout music that makes you wanna dance", "Feels Good" incorporates a popular sample from James Brown's 1970 song "Funky Drummer" and gospel musical themes. "Don't Talk About Me" is a warning to a mouthy woman, while "The Blues" features the narrator's spiteful complaints about an ungrateful girlfriend. The latter song features aggressive bass, a funky break, doo-wop verses, a blues riff that the group's guitarist D'wayne Wiggins learned from his father, and ideas from pianist Vince Guaraldi's music for Peanuts television specials. The album's songs also feature offbeat sounds, improvisational elements, and conversational vocals derived from rap. The Revival begins with a directive from a grave voice: "Play this record as frequently as possible, Then, as it becomes easier for you, play the record once a day, or as needed." The album also features dialogue between an old lady who asks the group whether it will be like their last album, on which she was also featured; they respond to her question "No, ma'am". "All the Way" has a scrambling beat, whistle sounds, and the rhythmic call and response "What are we, what are we, what are we? ... Just a bunch of brothers having a party". The end of "Feels Good" features witty jazz keyboard playing behind a lively voice saying "it feels good ... in the hands, feet, bones, heart, and soul". Ed Hogan of Allmusic writes that "the last part sounds like a Sunday morning testimonial." After the first five songs, The Revival features songs at a calmer tempo and more conventional style, with ballads that are more relaxed and low-key. "It Never Rains (In Southern California)" was titled after an oft-repeated phrase from one of Tony! Toni! Toné!'s attorneys, who used it in response to the group wearing heavy coats after returning from visits on the East Coast. Group drummer Timothy Christian played most of the song's instruments, and bassist Raphael Wiggins wrote its lyrics about a man longing for a woman who was in southern California. The ballads are followed by "Those Were the Days", which features jouncing banjo, trumpet, and wistful lyrics reminiscing about simpler times "when a dollar was worth a dollar, and you didn't have to carry a gun when you left your house." Lyrics written by Raphael Wiggins,Elijah Baker ## Release and sales The album was released on May 8, 1990, by Wing Records. It charted for 64 weeks on the Billboard Top Pop Albums, peaking at number 34 on the chart. The album's second single "Feels Good" was released on June 19 and certified gold on November 13 after it had shipped 500,000 copies. The single topped the R&B chart for two weeks and reached number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 in the fall of 1990, going on to sell over one million copies. In late 1990, the album's third single "It Never Rains (In Southern California)" became a number-one R&B hit and also peaked at number 34 on the Hot 100. On January 28, 1991, The Revival was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipments of one million copies in the United States. By 1992, it had sold two million copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan, which began tracking sales data in 1991. ## Critical reception Reviewing the album for the Chicago Tribune in 1990, Greg Kot wrote that The Revival's "lull" adult contemporary ballads were redeemed by songs with "Sly Stone, Ray Charles, doo-wop and Motown influences". With its addition of "loopy humor", the album was rendered "a terrific '60s-meets-the-'90s recipe", in his opinion. In Entertainment Weekly, Greg Sandow applauded the band for "building momentum by adding new elements as the songs proceed" and "setting the course for whatever future the [R&B] genre is likely to have". Dennis Hunt of the Los Angeles Times said although their "offbeat R&B hybrids" are occasionally "too busy and intentionally oddball", "the Tonys' explorations ... are mostly successful". Orlando Sentinel writer Parry Gettelman said the dance-oriented tracks "have great grooves and a warmth, humor and vocal finesse sadly lacking in the Top 40", while Geoffrey Himes from The Washington Post viewed the album as a promising debut with "perfect party music". Janine McAdams from Spin said the band "transformed the simplest ditties into jammin' anthems that assault the ear and move the feet"; she continued to say: > Revival works as evidence of the wide-ranging continuum of R&B, the ability of sterling soul to remain fresh for the new generation. The Tonyies pull off the feat without obscuring their unique voice. Maybe some will be jolted by their barrage of remember-when musical references on Revival, but to the youthful crowd it's aimed at, much of this is brand-new. In retrospect, The Revival was viewed by Yahoo! Music's Scott Wilson as Tony! Toni! Toné!'s "breakthrough" because of how its series of hit singles and the group's exceptional songwriting and production "assured them their place in the musical hierarchy". AllMusic editor Alex Henderson said the group "managed to appeal to urban contemporary audiences while expressing a love of 1970s soul and funk" with artistic merit and distinction from the largely unambitious R&B records released in 1990. In the opinion of Jason Heller from The A.V. Club, The Revival was the "masterpiece" of the new jack swing subgenre, "an artistic triumph in a genre that generally coasted on impeccable craft". Sam Chennault from Rhapsody felt in spite of its new jack swing hit "Feels Good", most of the album embraced "Bay Area funk and hinted at the subsequent innovations of key member Raphael Saadiq". Robert Christgau was somewhat less enthusiastic and gave it a two-star honorable mention, indicating a "likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy". He singled out "Feels Good" and "Oakland Stroke" as highlights while summarizing Tony! Toni! Toné!'s performance as that of "a love band" that plays funk music. ## Track listing ## Personnel Credits are adapted from Allmusic. ### Tony! Toni! Toné! - Timothy Christian Riley – drums - D'Wayne Wiggins – guitar, vocals - Raphael Wiggins – bass, vocals - Carl Wheeler - keyboards,vocals - Elijah Baker - Bass,vocals - Antron Haile - synthesizer ### Additional personnel - Elijah Baker – keyboard,bass musician,vocals - Eric Baker – rhythm guitar - Gerry Brown – engineer, mixing - Joe Capers – engineer - Keith Crouch – synthesizer, bass - Ed Eckstine – executive producer - Dale Everingham – engineer - Denzil Foster – arranger, producer - Arne Frager – engineer - Jim Gardiner – engineer - Antron Haile – keyboards, musician - Fred Howard – engineer - Ken Kessie – engineer, mixing - Kelle Kutsugeras – creative director - LA B Company – artwork, design - L.A. Jae – turntables - Dean Landew – composer - Bonnie Lewis – photography - Bill Malina – engineer - Thomas McElroy – arranger, producer - Jeff Poe – engineer - Herb Powers – mastering - Tony! Toni! Toné! – arranger, producer, vocals - Rob Von Arx – post production - Carl Wheeler – arranger producer,Keyboards,vocals - Vanessa Williams – performer, vibraphone, vocals - Toby Wright – engineer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Singles
15,842,932	Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track	1,168,515,414	Bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track in Lillehammer, Norway	[ "1992 establishments in Norway", "Bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton tracks", "Olympic bobsleigh venues", "Olympic luge venues", "Sports venues in Lillehammer", "Sports venues in Norway", "Venues of the 1994 Winter Olympics", "Venues of the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics" ]	Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track (Norwegian: Lillehammer Olympiske Bob- og Akebane) is a bobsleigh, luge and skeleton track located at Hunderfossen in Lillehammer, Norway, 15 kilometers (9 mi) north of the town center of Lillehammer. It was completed in 1992 for the 1994 Winter Olympics, where it hosted the bobsleigh events and luge events. It has since also hosted the FIBT World Championships 1995 in skeleton and the FIL World Luge Championships 1995, and hosted 2016 Winter Youth Olympics. Original plans called for the track to be located at Fåberg. Later it was proposed moved to Kanthaugen in the town center and then Holmenkollen in Oslo, before Hunderfossen was decided upon. The track is 1,710 meters (5,610 ft), giving a competition length of 1,365 meters (4,478 ft) for bobsleigh and men's singles luge, and 1,185 meters (3,888 ft) for other luge competitions. The bobsleigh course has a vertical drop of 114 meters (374 ft), giving an 8.5 percent average grade. The track has been part of the proposed Oslo 2018 and 2022 Winter Olympics bids. ## History Prior to the Lillehammer Olympics, there was no bobsleigh and luge track in Norway. During the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Korketrekkeren had been built as a temporary venue, but it was made of snow and was not reused after the Olympics. In its bid for the 1994 Winter Olympics, Lillehammer had proposed placing the bobsleigh and luge track next to Balbergbakken in Fåberg. By May 1989, plans for most of the venues were being reshuffled and the track was then proposed located at Kanthaugen as part of an Olympic Park at Stampesletta. The Kanthaugen proposal was estimated to cost NOK 231 million. Lillehammer Municipal Council, Oppland County Council and the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage rejected the location because of the environmental impact. These institutions instead proposed that the track be built at Huseskogen at Hunderfossen. The Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee initially disapproved of the location and in 1990 started looking at the possibility of constructing the track at Holmenkollen in Oslo. Two routes were considered, one in the same route as Korketrekkeren and one which would run from Gratishaugen at Holmenkollbakken to Midtstuen. Internationally there was support from the International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation and the International Luge Federation to build Norway's track in the capital. Concerns about the environmental impact of a Hunderfossen location were raised, particularly regarding visual pollution. However, Hunderfossen was confirmed along with a grant issued by the Parliament of Norway on 24 August 1990. The designers of the tracks at Altenberg and Oberhof, East Germany, the Olympic tracks in La Plagne, France, and Calgary, Canada, were consulted during planning. Five companies bid for the concrete construction work, which was awarded to a joint venture between Aker Entreprenør and Veidekke for NOK 45 million. Also the construction of the buildings was awarded to the same group. The track was the first of the Olympic venues for the 1994 games for which construction started. After construction started, Minister of Culture Åse Kleveland (Labour Party) suggested in March 1991, in an attempt to reduce costs, that the 1994 Olympic bobsleigh and luge events be held at La Plagne, the site of the events for the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville. The French authorities were positive, given that Norway pay for part of the construction costs, but the idea was rejected by LOOC-president Gerhard Heiberg. Also fellow party members reacted, who emphasized that NOK 30 million had already been used on blasting the track route. Construction was undertaken by spraying 1,300 tonnes (1,300 long tons; 1,400 short tons) of shotcrete intertwined with 180 tonnes (180 long tons; 200 short tons) of reinforcement bars. It is the first track in the world to build the cooling pipes into an underground culvert. It consists of 31 reinforced concrete sections. The concrete work was completed on 31 October 1991. Representatives for the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature stated that they were satisfied with the result. It is the only artificially frozen bobsleigh and luge track in the Nordic Countries. The venue was completed on 1 October 1992 and cost NOK 201 million. After the Olympics, the ownership of the venue was transferred to Lillehammer Olympiapark, owned by Lillehammer Municipality. ## Specifications The track is 1,710 meters (5,610 ft) long, including braking distance. The competitive length—excluding braking distance—for bobsleigh, skeleton and luge men's singles it is 1,365 meters (4,478 ft) long and for luge men's doubles and women's singles it is 1,065 meters (3,494 ft) long. The track has 16 turns and contains 24 photocells for timekeeping. The track has a vertical drop of 112 meters (367 ft) for the entire course, with an average 8 percent and maximum 15 percent grade. The start is located at 384 meters (1,260 ft) above mean sea level. It allows for a maximum speed of 130 kilometres per hour (81 mph). The spectator capacity is 10,000. The refrigeration system contains 90 metric tons (89 long tons; 99 short tons) of ammonia circulating in 94 sections with a total length of 80 kilometers (50 mi) of pipe. This allows a capacity of 3,100 kilowatts of (10.6 million British thermal units or 880 short tons of refrigeration) cooling, which allows the track to be iced in outdoor temperatures up to 20 °C (68 °F). The facility produces 4.5 gigawatt hours per year of district heating, gaining the nickname "Norway's largest refrigerator". The venue is operated by Lillehammer Olympiapark, which also operates the four other Olympic venues within Lillehammer, Lysgårdsbakken, Birkebeineren Ski Stadium, Håkons Hall and Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena. The track is staffed with seven employees, in addition to up to 20 more people during large events. The venue both serves local sports clubs and more than 20 nations have sledding sports training in Lillehammer. In addition the track serves up to 10,000 tourists per year; during summer rides are provided on wheeled bobsleighs. The track is operated eleven months per year. As of 2004, the venue received subsidies of between NOK 1.5 to 2.0 million per year. The following table shows the physical statistics for the track for the various sports. It contains the competition length (start to finish, excluding braking length), the number of turns, the vertical drop and the average grade. ## Events ### Bobsleigh at the 1994 Winter Olympics Both two-man and four-man were competed during the 1994 Winter Olympics. Both were contested in four heats over two days: two-man took place on 19 and 20 February, while four-man took place on 26 and 27 February. ### Luge at the 1994 Winter Olympics Luge was contested in three events at the 1994 Winter Olympics. Singles was contested over four heats in two days, while doubles was contested in two heats on one day. Men's singles took place on 13 and 14 February, women's singles took place on 15 and 16 February, and men's doubles took place on 18 February. ### FIBT World Championships 1995 The FIBT World Championships 1995 was split between Altenburg and Lillehammer, with bobsleigh taking place in Altenburg and skeleton in Lillehammer. The skeleton events took place on 4 and 5 March. ### FIL World Luge Championships 1995 The FIL World Luge Championships 1995 was competed between 30 nations in four events. It was the second to take place in Norway, after the inaugural 1955 edition in Oslo. ### Future Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics, which is scheduled to take place between 12 February and 21 February. Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track is scheduled to host the bobsleigh, luge and skeleton events. Three Norwegian cities, Tromsø, Oslo and Trondheim, announced intentions to bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics. Oslo planned a joint bid with Lillehammer and planned to use the sliding center along with the Alpine skiing hills of Hafjell and Kvitfjell in their bid. Tromsø originally planned to build their own track, but later in the bidding process also Tromsø announced that they intended to bid using the Lillehammer track, despite a distance of 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) between Tromsø and Lillehammer. This was after the International Olympic Committee signaled that they wanted more moderation in venue construction costs and that they would prefer bid which used existing venues, even if it increased distances. This was backed by the International Luge Federation and the International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation, who both did not want additional tracks built in the world because of the difficulties funding their operation. The 2018 proposals were shelved, but a renewed Oslo bid process for the 2022 Olympics also calls for the use of Lillehammer. ## Track records The following is an incomplete list of track records; while including luge and women's skeleton, it excludes bobsleigh and men's skeleton. The list contains both start times and track times, as well, as the athlete and their nationality, and the date of the record.
300,814	East Finchley tube station	1,160,117,521	London Underground station	[ "Art Deco architecture in London", "Art Deco railway stations", "Charles Holden railway stations", "Former Great Northern Railway stations", "Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Barnet", "Grade II listed railway stations", "London Underground Night Tube stations", "Northern line stations", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1867", "Tube stations in the London Borough of Barnet" ]	East Finchley is a London Underground station in East Finchley in the London Borough of Barnet, north London. The station is on the High Barnet branch of the Northern line, between Finchley Central and Highgate stations, and is in Travelcard Zone 3. The station was opened on 22 August 1867, on the Great Northern Railway's line between Finsbury Park and Edgware stations. As part of London Underground's only partially completed Northern Heights plan, the station was completely rebuilt with additional tracks in the late 1930s. Northern line trains started serving the station on 3 July 1939 and main line passenger services ended on 2 March 1941. ## History ### Original station East Finchley station was built by the Edgware, Highgate and London Railway (EH&LR) on its line from Finsbury Park station to Edgware station. Before the line was opened, it was purchased in July 1867 by the larger Great Northern Railway (GNR), whose main line from King's Cross ran through Finsbury Park on its way to Potters Bar and the north. The station, originally named East End, Finchley, opened along with the railway to Edgware on 22 August that year. The station was given its current name either on 1 February 1887 or, alternatively, in 1886. As a result of the 1921 Railways Act, which created the "Big Four" railway companies, the GNR amalgamated with several other railways to create the London & North Eastern Railway (LNER) in 1923. At the start of the 1930s, the station had around 54 trains daily from High Barnet and a few through trains from Edgware. Services ran to Finsbury Park and then either King's Cross, Moorgate or Broad Street. ### Northern Heights project In 1935, the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) announced a proposal, which became known as the Northern Heights project. This was to take over the LNER lines from Finsbury Park to Edgware, High Barnet and Alexandra Palace, and link them to both the Northern line at East Finchley and to the Northern City line at Finsbury Park. The construction of the first phase of this project involved extending tube train services from the Northern line's existing terminus at Archway station, through a new section of paired tunnels under the LNER's Highgate station to emerge south-east of East Finchley station, where track connections to the LNER line were made. For the introduction of London Underground services, the original station was completely demolished and rebuilt. The station was provided with two additional platforms, giving four in total. The platforms comprise two parallel islands with tracks on both sides. This was necessary as the intention of the Northern Heights project was that trains would be able to run south from East Finchley to Highgate via both the surface and the underground routes. The inner pair of tracks served the surface route, whilst the outer pair serve the tunnel route. Northern line trains first served the station on 3 July 1939. After completion of the electrification of the line to High Barnet, Underground services were extended northwards on 14 April 1940. The station continued to be served by LNER steam trains from Highgate until 2 March 1941 when that service was discontinued. The inner platforms are now used only by northbound trains entering service or southbound trains terminating at East Finchley on their way to or from Highgate Wood depot south of the station. ### Post-war After the war, plans to complete the Northern Heights project were reviewed but no work was carried out. Maintenance works and reconstruction of war damage on the existing network had the greatest call on London Underground funds. Funds for new works were severely limited and priority was given to the completion of the western and eastern extensions of the Central line to West Ruislip, Epping and Hainault. Despite being shown as under construction on underground maps as late as 1950, work never restarted on the unimplemented parts of the Northern Heights project. British Rail (the successor to the LNER) freight trains continued to serve the station's goods yard until 1 October 1962, when it was closed. ## Description of the building The new station was constructed in an Art Deco/Streamline Moderne design by Charles Holden with L H Bucknell. Like Holden's other designs for London Underground in the 1930s, East Finchley station was inspired by European architecture (particularly Dutch) that Holden had seen on trips to the continent during that decade. The track here runs roughly north-west to south-east. The imposing station building, built on rising ground adjacent to the railway bridge over High Road (A1000), has three entrances. The two main entrances to the ticket hall are on the north side of the tracks facing High Road and the third, minor entrance, is on the south side. The entrances are linked by a passage under the tracks which provides access up to the platforms. A strong feature of the station is the semi-circular glazed stairways leading to the enclosed bridge over the tracks occupied by staff offices. Prominent from the platforms and dominating the main entrance façade is The Archer, a 10-foot-tall (3.0 m) statue by Eric Aumonier of a kneeling archer captured as if having just released an arrow. The archer is intended to commemorate Finchley's ancient association with hunting in the nearby Royal Forest of Enfield. The station is a Grade II listed building. ## Services and connections ### Services The station is in Travelcard Zone 3, between Finchley Central and Highgate stations. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 3–7 minutes between 05:40 and 01:01 northbound and 05:34 and 00:12 southbound (as of 2015). ### Connections London Buses routes 102, 143, 234, 263, 603 and H3 and night route N20 serve the station.
4,564,604	Royal Rumble (2007)	1,160,309,424	World Wrestling Entertainment pay-per-view event	[ "2007 WWE pay-per-view events", "2007 in Texas", "Events in San Antonio", "January 2007 events in the United States", "Professional wrestling in San Antonio", "Royal Rumble" ]	The 2007 Royal Rumble was the 20th annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW brand divisions. The event took place on January 28, 2007, at the AT&T Center in San Antonio, Texas. This marked the first time that the ECW brand participated at the Royal Rumble, which became WWE's third brand in mid-2006. As has been customary since 1993, the Royal Rumble match winner received a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For the 2007 event, the winner received their choice to challenge for either Raw's WWE Championship, SmackDown!'s World Heavyweight Championship, or the ECW World Championship at WrestleMania 23, marking the first time that three titles were an option. Five professional wrestling matches were featured on the event's supercard, a scheduling of more than one main event. The main event was the 2007 Royal Rumble match, which featured wrestlers from all three brands. SmackDown!'s The Undertaker, the thirtieth entrant, won the match by last eliminating Raw's Shawn Michaels, the twenty-third entrant. The primary match on the Raw brand was a Last Man Standing match for the WWE Championship between John Cena and Umaga. Cena won the match and retained the title after Umaga was unable to get to his feet before the referee counted to ten. The predominant match on the SmackDown! brand was Batista versus Mr. Kennedy for the World Heavyweight Championship, which Batista won by pinfall after executing a Batista Bomb. The featured match on the ECW brand was between Bobby Lashley and Test for the ECW World Championship, which Lashley won after Test was counted out. ## Production ### Background The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) produced every January by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) since 1988. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 2007 event was the 20th Royal Rumble and was scheduled to be held on January 28, 2007, at the AT&T Center in San Antonio, Texas. It featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW brands, which was the first Royal Rumble to include ECW, a relaunch of the former Extreme Championship Wrestling promotion that became WWE's third brand in May 2006. The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers and the winner traditionally earns a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For 2007, the winner could choose to challenge for either Raw's WWE Championship, SmackDown!'s World Heavyweight Championship, or the ECW World Championship at WrestleMania 23. This marked the first time that the ECW World Championship was a choice for the winner of the match, subsequently marking the first time that the winner had a choice between three world championships. ### Storylines The card consisted of six matches, as well as one dark match. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands, with storylines produced on their weekly television shows, Raw, SmackDown, and ECW. The main feud heading into the Royal Rumble on Raw was between WWE Champion John Cena and Umaga. At the previous pay-per-view event, New Year's Revolution, Cena defeated Umaga to end his undefeated streak and retain the WWE Championship. The night after on Raw, Armando Alejandro Estrada, Umaga's manager, asked for a rematch, which Cena agreed to. Later that night, during a match between Cena and The Great Khali, Umaga interfered and attacked Cena. The following week, the official contract signing for their rematch at the Royal Rumble took place. After it was announced that Estrada could choose the match type, Estrada chose the match to be a Last Man Standing match. Cena signed the contract and proceeded to attack both Umaga and Estrada. On the January 22 episode of Raw, after Cena was eliminated from a Battle Royal, Umaga attacked Cena, and injured his spleen, which was portrayed as real as part of their storyline. The predominant feud on the SmackDown! brand was between Batista and Mr. Kennedy, with the two battling over the World Heavyweight Championship. On the January 5 episode of SmackDown! a Beat the Clock Sprint began. Wrestlers competed in single matches, and the wrestler to win a match in the shortest amount of time would then become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship at the Royal Rumble. Mr. Kennedy, who defeated Chris Benoit in nearly five minutes, had the shortest time at the end of the show. The following week, the Sprint continued. In the final match, between The Undertaker and The Miz, Kennedy interfered by pulling The Miz out of the ring. After performing the Tombstone piledriver on The Miz, The Undertaker went for the pin attempt. Time, however, ran out and Kennedy became the winner of the Sprint. The following week after on SmackDown!, The Undertaker was put in a match with Kennedy, where if he won, he would be added to the title match at the Royal Rumble. During the match, after Kennedy attacked Batista, who was at ringside. Batista retaliated against Kennedy, causing The Undertaker to get disqualified. Thus, the match at the Royal Rumble remained a singles match between Batista and Kennedy. The main feud on the ECW brand was between Bobby Lashley and Test, with the two feuding over the ECW Championship. Rob Van Dam won an online poll against Test and Sabu to earn a title shot on the January 2 episode of ECW, which ended in no-contest. Van Dam was given another title match the next week. Test interfered in the match, and attacked both men. A Triple Threat match for the title occurred on the January 16 episode of ECW between Lashley, Van Dam, and Test. Lashley won, but was beaten down afterwards by Test. A title match between Lashley and Test was then made for the Royal Rumble. A week after that match was made, on the January 23 episode of ECW, Lashley defeated Test in another title match. ## Event Before the event went live on pay-per-view, JTG defeated Lance Cade in a dark match. ### Preliminary match The first match that aired was a tag team match between The Hardys (Matt and Jeff Hardy) and MNM (Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro). The match went back and forth until MNM took control by attacking Matt's injured jaw repeatedly. The Hardys gained the advantage briefly, but lost it when Nitro countered an aerial attack by Jeff. Jeff finally tagged Matt, who beat down both Mercury and Nitro. The finish came when Matt delivered a Twist of Fate and Jeff performed the Swanton Bomb on Nitro. Jeff then pinned Nitro for the victory. ### Main matches The second match was Bobby Lashley against Test for the ECW World Championship. Test used many illegal moves, and took control after driving Lashley's shoulder into the ringpost. He continued to attack the shoulder until Lashley fought back with several powerful moves. Test rolled out of the ring, allowing himself to be counted out. Lashley won, and retained his title. He came after Test, however, brought him back into the ring, and continued to beat him down. The third match was between World Heavyweight Champion Batista and Mr. Kennedy for the World Heavyweight Championship. Batista gained an early advantage by overpowering Kennedy until Kennedy injured Batista's knee by using the steel steps. Kennedy continued to attack Batista's knees, and applied various submission holds that target the knee. Batista fought back, still favoring the knee, until Kennedy pushed Batista into the referee and hit a low blow. Kennedy had Batista pinned for over a three-count, but the match went on due to the referee being knocked out. Kennedy brought the referee conscious but Batista performed a lariat and a Batista Bomb to retain the title. In the fourth match, Umaga faced John Cena for the WWE Championship in the Last Man Standing match. Umaga dominated Cena, gaining the advantage by using powerful moves, and attacking Cena's bandaged ribs. Cena tried to fight back using the steel steps, but Umaga quickly recovered, and continued the beat down. Cena managed to hit a low blow and delivered a bulldog onto the steel steps, a spin-out powerbomb onto the steel steps, and the Five Knuckle Shuffle all onto Umaga. Umaga regained control when Cena attempted an FU onto the steps, and collapsed, hitting his head on the steps. Cena avoided a running headbutt drop, and hit Umaga in the head with a television monitor. Umaga stood but missed a running splash through a broadcast table. Umaga got up again as his manager, Armando Alejandro Estrada, detached one of the turnbuckles for Umaga to use. Cena avoided the attack, executed an FU, and applied the STF on Umaga using the loose ring rope. Umaga failed to answer the referee's count of ten, and Cena retained the title. ### Main event match The final match was the Royal Rumble match. Kane, the tenth entrant, dominated the match upon entering, eliminating Tommy Dreamer and Sabu, by chokeslamming Sabu through a table Sabu had earlier set up. The Sandman, entering fifteen, used his signature Singapore Cane in the match before King Booker quickly eliminated him. Randy Orton and Edge worked together to eliminate the Hardys. After Booker was eliminated by Kane, he returned to the ring, eliminated Kane, and continued to beat him down. It took the combined effort of nine men to eliminate Viscera after Shawn Michaels performed a superkick on Viscera. The Great Khali, entering twenty-eighth, dominated upon entering the match, eliminating seven men quickly. The Great Khali tried to pose in front of the camera, but botched it by posing the wrong way. Shawn Michaels had to tell Khali which way to pose. The Undertaker entered last, who immediately fought with, and eliminated Khali, then Montel Vontavious Porter, leaving Edge, Orton, Michaels, and Undertaker as the final four. Orton executed an RKO on Michaels, causing him to roll out of the ring under the ropes and leaving Edge, Orton, and the Undertaker. Orton caught Edge trying to attack him, but the two soon reconciled, working together on The Undertaker. Michaels, outside the ring, came back in, eliminating both Orton and Edge. The remaining two exchanged attacks until the end, when The Undertaker chokeslammed Michaels, who retaliated with Sweet Chin Music. Michaels attempted another Sweet Chin Music but Undertaker avoided it, then eliminated Michaels to win the match. The Undertaker became the first competitor to win the Rumble match from \#30 (what is considered to be the "easiest" spot to win from, despite no one having done so in any previous match). ## Reception The AT&T Center has hosted many different events that have a variety of seating maximums. A basketball event, which has a smaller set-up than a wrestling event, can hold a maximum of 18,797 fans. Due to the Royal Rumble's production, the maximum standard was lowered and the event drew 13,500 fans and received 491,000 pay-per-view buys. WWE made \$15.8 million from pay-per-view revenues in their first quarter (which included the Royal Rumble, No Way Out, and WrestleMania) versus \$17.1 million in 2006 for the same events, a \$1.3 million difference. The 2006 Royal Rumble also resulted in 548,000 pay-per-view buys, 57,000 more than the 2007 Royal Rumble. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling sub website, Slam! Wrestling, rated the entire event 7.5 out of 10 points, due to the event not lasting its entire three hours and many mishaps that occurred during the Royal Rumble match, which they also rated a 7.5. The last man standing match between John Cena and Umaga was widely praised. The Royal Rumble 2007 was released on DVD on February 27, 2007 and was distributed by WWE. The DVD debuted on Billboards Top DVD sales chart at \#3 on March 24, 2007. The DVD remained on the chart for 13 consecutive weeks until June 16, 2007 when its final rank was at \#10. ## Aftermath The shows following the Royal Rumble surrounded The Undertaker's choice of which champion to face at WrestleMania 23. The Undertaker appeared on all three brands, and stared down the champions. Finally, on the February 5 episode of Raw, The Undertaker chose to face Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship, and hit him with a chokeslam, starting their rivalry. The Undertaker won the title at WrestleMania, improving his WrestleMania record to 15-0, and their feud continued until the May 11 episode of SmackDown!, when The Undertaker lost the title to Edge, who cashed in the Money in the Bank, that he won from Mr. Kennedy, earlier that week on Raw. After The Undertaker made his choice on February 5, Shawn Michaels, Edge, and Randy Orton all wanted to face Cena for his title at WrestleMania. A Triple Threat match was made between the three for the title shot, which Michaels won after pinning Orton. Cena successfully retained his title against Michaels at WrestleMania. They continued to feud over the title with the addition of Orton and Edge, but Cena remained champion. Soon after the Royal Rumble, Umaga and Bobby Lashley joined the feud between Mr. McMahon and Donald Trump in the "Battle of the Billionaires" as their representatives respectively for the Hair vs. Hair match at WrestleMania. His Royal Rumble match marked the start of Mr. Kennedy's push to main-event status. He went on to face Bobby Lashley for the ECW World Championship at No Way Out, which he won via disqualification, thus failing to win the title. Kennedy won the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania, which gave him a world title shot at any time of his choosing for the year following. Kennedy sustained an injury at a house show, however, that would leave him sidelined for five to seven months, and was booked to lose his title shot to Edge on the May 7 episode of Raw. Later results showed the injury to be much less severe, but Kennedy had already lost his title shot. He returned to mid-card status for the remainder of the year. This was the last Royal Rumble ever to be in 4:3 format until January 2008 when it went to high definition. ## Results ### Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations – Raw – SmackDown! – ECW – Winner' ## Other on-screen personnel
751,686	White House FBI files controversy	1,117,158,892	Political scandal of the Clinton administration	[ "1996 controversies in the United States", "1996 in American politics", "1996 scandals", "Clinton administration controversies", "Hillary Clinton controversies", "Presidential scandals in the United States" ]	The White House FBI files controversy of the Clinton Administration, often referred to as Filegate, arose in June 1996 around improper access in 1993 and 1994 to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, director of the White House's Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background reports concerning several hundred individuals without asking permission. The revelations provoked a strong political and press reaction because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations, including top presidential advisors. Under criticism, Livingstone resigned from his position. Allegations were made that senior White House figures, including First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, may have requested and read the files for political purposes, and that the First Lady had authorized the hiring of the underqualified Livingstone. The matter was investigated by the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee, the Senate Judiciary Committee, and the Whitewater Independent Counsel. In 1998, Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr exonerated President Bill Clinton as well as the First Lady of any involvement in the matter. In 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray issued his final report on Filegate, stating that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter and no credible evidence that senior White House figures or the First Lady had requested the files or had acted improperly or testified improperly regarding Livingstone's hiring. A separate lawsuit on the matter brought by Judicial Watch, a conservative watchdog group, lingered on for years and was dismissed by a federal judge in 2010. ## Improper use of files issue "Filegate" began on June 5, 1996, when Republican Pennsylvania Congressman William F. Clinger, Jr., chair of the House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, announced that the committee had found, during their ongoing "Travelgate" investigations, that FBI background reports on Travelgate figure Billy Dale had been delivered to the White House. The following day, the White House delivered to the committee hundreds of other such files related to White House employees of the Reagan Administration and George H. W. Bush Administration, for which Craig Livingstone, director of the White House's Office of Personnel Security, had improperly requested and received background reports from the FBI in 1993 and 1994, without asking permission of the subject individuals. Estimates ranged from 400 to 700 to 900 unauthorized file disclosures. The incident caused an intense burst of criticism because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations, including top figures such as James Baker, Brent Scowcroft, and Marlin Fitzwater. Initial White House explanations for what had happened varied, but generally characterized it as a series of mistakes made without bad intent and offered apologies to those affected. President Clinton said that, "It appears to have been a completely honest bureaucratic snafu." However, his Republican opponent in the ongoing 1996 presidential election, Senator Bob Dole, compared it to the enemies list kept by the Nixon administration. Republicans made other charges, including that the White House was trying to dig up damaging information about Republicans in general and that the file transfer was motivated by a desire to slander Dale and other White House Travel Office officials in order to justify their dismissal. On June 18, 1996, Attorney General Janet Reno asked the FBI to look into it; FBI Director Louis Freeh acknowledged that both the FBI and especially the White House had committed "egregious violations of privacy" (in some cases the background reports contained information about extramarital affairs, trangressions with the law, and medical issues). On June 21 Reno decided it was a conflict of interest for the U.S. Department of Justice to further investigate the matter, and thus recommended that it be folded into the overall umbrella of the Whitewater investigations, under charge of Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr. In any case, Starr had already begun looking into it. On June 26, 1996, Clinger's Government Reform and Oversight Committee held hearings on the matter. Livingstone, who announced his resignation at the start of his testimony that day, and his assistant, Anthony Marceca, insisted during the committee's hearings that the mishandled files were a result of a bureaucratic mixup and that no improper motivations were behind it. They said that when the George H. W. Bush administrative staff left the White House in January 1993, they had taken all the files of the Office of Personnel Security with them for use in the Bush Library, as they were permitted to do under law. The OPS staff were trying to rebuild these records to include those of permanent White House employees who remained to work in the Clinton administration; Marceca, a civilian investigator for the Army, had been hired for this task. In doing so, they received an outdated list from the Secret Service of White House employees, which included many names who were no longer employees. This list was then given to the FBI and the personnel background files returned as a result. Lisa Wetzl, another assistant, testified that she discovered the mistake in mid-1994 and destroyed the request list. Also called to testify were former White House counsel Bernard Nussbaum and former associate counsel William H. Kennedy III. Livingstone, Nussbaum, and Kennedy all offered apologies to those whose files had been obtained. On September 24, 1996, the Government Reform and Oversight Committee approved, on party lines, an interim report on the affair, blasting the Clinton Administration for a "cavalier approach" towards sensitive security procedures and saying that further investigation was necessary to determine if the events surrounding the files handling were "a blunder, the result of colossal incompetence, or whether they are established to be more serious or even criminal." The Committee does not seem to have ever issued a final report. The Senate Judiciary Committee was also involved in investigating the matter, holding hearings beginning June 29, 1996, and focussing on allegations that White House was engaged in a "dirty tricks" operation reminiscent of the Nixon administration. Looking into accusations that senior White House officials or the First Lady may have inappropriately perused the files, in October 1996, Republican committee chair Orrin Hatch requested that the FBI do a fingerprint analysis of them. On November 3, 1996, the FBI informed the committee that no fingerprints of either the First Lady or any other named senior official were on the files. ## Who hired Livingstone issue A secondary question of the Filegate controversy revolved around what the Office of Personnel Security was, who had authorized the hiring of Livingstone, and whether he was qualified for the job. The Office was not responsible for actual White House security, as that was the charge of the United States Secret Service, nor did it perform background checks on potential White House employees, a task done by the FBI, nor did it keep the regular personnel files of employees, which were held in a different office within the White House. Rather, its role was to keep track of who was employed by the White House, make sure their security clearances were up to date, and give security briefings to new hires. Nevertheless, Livingstone seemed to lack qualifications for even this position; he had worked on a number of Democratic Party campaigns and transitions, including being an advance man for the Clinton-Gore 1992 campaign, and his only prior job in the "security" field was that of a local bar bouncer at a Washington, D.C., night club. (At the congressional hearings, Livingstone objected to "false and unfair caricatures of who I am. [...] I have worked hard for little or no pay in political campaigns for candidates who I felt would make this country a better place to live.") Initially, White House officials could not explain why Livingstone was hired, nor who had hired him. After a week of uncertainty, Clinton aide George Stephanopoulos told ABC News that White House deputy counsel Vince Foster had initially hired Livingstone on a temporary basis, and that after Foster's death, associate counsel Kennedy had taken Livingstone on. An FBI document suggested that Livingstone had been given his position because First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton was a friend of Livingstone's mother and recommended him. Hillary Clinton stated that while she was once photographed with the mother in a large group, she did not know her. Hillary Clinton was briefly deposed at the White House by the Independent Counsel regarding this matter on January 14, 1998. (That same day, the same Office of the Independent Counsel staff were listening to taped conversations of Linda Tripp and Monica Lewinsky; the Lewinsky scandal was soon to break.) In 1999, Clinton gave a sworn statement that she had nothing to do with Livingstone's hiring. Livingstone also stated under oath there was no truth to the supposed hiring relationship. Hillary Clinton would later refer to the whole files matter as a "pseudoscandal". ## Official findings On November 19, 1998, Independent Counsel Starr testified before the House Judiciary Committee in connection with the Impeachment of Bill Clinton over charges related to the Lewinsky scandal. Here, for the first time, Starr exonerated both President Clinton and the First Lady of complicity in the FBI files matter, saying "while there are outstanding issues that we are attempting to resolve with respect to one individual [we] found no evidence that anyone higher [than Livingstone or Marceca] was in any way involved in ordering the files from the FBI. Second, we have found no evidence that information contained in the files of former officials was used for an improper purpose." (Starr also chose this occasion to clear President Clinton in the Travelgate matter, and to say that he had not committed impeachable wrongdoing in the Whitewater matter; Democrats on the committee immediately criticized Starr for withholding all these findings until after the 1998 Congressional elections.) In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray, Starr's successor, issued the office's final report on the matter, as part of a concerted effort to wrap up all Whitewater-related cases before the end of Bill Clinton's term. Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter. It attributed the improper collection of the files by Marceca due to his having an outdated Secret Service list of White House passes, as Marceca had originally claimed. It stated that even though Marceca's statements were sometimes "contradictory and misleading", they were "sufficiently transparent" and there was insufficient evidence to prove that Anthony Marceca had made false statements to Congress during his testimony. The report ascribed the FBI files matter to "a failure of process at many levels," saying that the Secret Service had provided critically erroneous data, and that this was compounded by the White House's informal process of requesting sensitive information by "inexperienced, untrained, and unsupervised personnel with backgrounds as political operatives." Based on an investigation that included the prior fingerprint analysis, the report further stated that: > there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official, or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, was involved in seeking confidential Federal Bureau of Investigation background reports of former White House staff from prior administrations of President Bush and President Reagan. Ray's report also concluded that there was no credible evidence that Bernard Nussbaum testified falsely about not having discussed Livingstone's hiring with the First Lady, and found as well that there was no personal relationship between the First Lady and Livingstone that had formed the basis for his hiring. ## Judicial Watch lawsuit Separately from the Independent Counsel investigation, Judicial Watch, a conservative watchdog group, engaged in long-running litigation over the White House personnel file controversy. It was initially filed in September 1996 and sought \$90 million in damages. Judicial Watch's Cara Leslie Alexander et al. vs. Federal Bureau of Investigation et al. class action lawsuit, filed on behalf of five low-level former members of the Reagan and George H. W. Bush Administrations, alleged that Livingstone, along with Anthony Marceca and William Kennedy, obtained the files and then rifled through them. Judicial Watch in particular alleged that Kennedy had abused the FBI background report process. Judicial Watch founder and Clintons antagonist suprême Larry Klayman attracted enough attention with the case to have the recurring Larry Claypool character modeled after him on the television series The West Wing. As late as January 2000, Judicial Watch was filing affidavits in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia under Judge Royce C. Lamberth related to the case. In December 2002 Judicial Watch obtained a ruling from Judge Lamberth that recently uncovered White House e-mails be searched for possible evidence in the lawsuit. Klayman said, "Hillary Clinton was the mastermind of Filegate. She will not escape justice." Klayman and Judicial Watch had a severe falling out in 2003, however, and several years went by with little or nothing happening in the lawsuit. On March 9, 2010, Judge Lamberth dismissed the case. The judge asserted that the plaintiffs, despite years of opportunity, had failed to provide any evidence that the affair was a grand conspiracy rather than a bureaucratic mistake, and said that "this court is left to conclude that with the lawsuit, to quote Gertrude Stein, 'there's no there there.'" Nussbaum, one of the defendants, derisively said "No kidding" when informed of the dismissal. Media reports concluded that, fourteen years after the initial events were set in motion, Filegate was finally over. In May 2010, Judicial Watch filed an appeal of the dismissal with the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, but the Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal on November 14, 2011, thereby bringing the case to an end.
410,375	Charles Rangel	1,172,954,811	American politician (born 1930)	[ "1930 births", "20th-century African-American lawyers", "20th-century American lawyers", "20th-century American politicians", "21st-century African-American lawyers", "21st-century American lawyers", "21st-century American memoirists", "21st-century American politicians", "African Americans in the Korean War", "African-American United States Army personnel", "African-American members of the United States House of Representatives", "African-American state legislators in New York (state)", "American autobiographers", "American politicians of Puerto Rican descent", "Assistant United States Attorneys", "Censured or reprimanded members of the United States House of Representatives", "DeWitt Clinton High School alumni", "Democratic Party members of the New York State Assembly", "Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)", "Lawyers from New York City", "Living people", "Military personnel from New York City", "New York University Stern School of Business alumni", "Politicians from Harlem", "St. John's University School of Law alumni", "United States Army personnel of the Korean War", "United States Army soldiers" ]	Charles Bernard Rangel (/ˈræŋɡəl/, RANG-gəl; born June 11, 1930) is an American politician who was a U.S. representative for districts in New York City from 1971 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the second-longest serving incumbent member of the House of Representatives at the time of his retirement, serving continuously since 1971. As its most senior member, he was also the Dean of New York's congressional delegation. Rangel was the first African American Chair of the influential House Ways and Means Committee. He is also a founding member of the Congressional Black Caucus. Rangel was born in Harlem in Upper Manhattan and lives there to this day. He earned a Purple Heart and a Bronze Star for his service in the U.S. Army during the Korean War, where he led a group of soldiers out of a deadly Chinese army encirclement during the Battle of Kunu-ri in 1950. Rangel graduated from New York University in 1957 and St. John's University School of Law in 1960. He worked as a private lawyer, assistant U.S. attorney, and legal counsel during the early-mid-1960s. He served two terms in the New York State Assembly from 1967 to 1971 and defeated long-time incumbent Congressman Adam Clayton Powell Jr. in a primary challenge on his way to being elected to the House of Representatives. Rangel rose rapidly in the Democratic ranks in the House, combining solidly liberal views with a pragmatic style towards finding political and legislative compromises. His long-time concerns with battling the importation and effects of illegal drugs led to his becoming chair of the House Select Committee on Narcotics, where he helped define national policy on the issue during the 1980s. As one of Harlem's "Gang of Four", he also became a leader in New York City and State politics. He played a significant role in the creation of the 1995 Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone Development Corporation and the national Empowerment Zone Act, which helped change the economic face of Harlem and other inner-city areas. Rangel is known both for his genial manner, with an ability to win over fellow legislators, and for his blunt speaking; he has long been outspoken about his views and has been arrested several times as part of political demonstrations. He was a strong opponent of the George W. Bush administration and the Iraq War, and he put forth proposals to reinstate the draft during the 2000s. Beginning in 2008, Rangel faced a series of personal legal issues focusing on ethics violations and allegations of failures to abide by the tax laws. The House Ethics Committee focused on whether Rangel improperly rented multiple rent-stabilized New York apartments, improperly used his office in raising money for the Rangel Center at the City College of New York, and failed to disclose rental income from his villa in the Dominican Republic. In March 2010, Rangel stepped aside as the Ways and Means Chair. In November 2010, the Ethics Committee found Rangel guilty of 11 counts of violating House ethics rules and on December 2, 2010, the full House approved a sanction of censure against him. As his district became more Hispanic, he faced two strong primary challengers during the 2012 and 2014 elections, but he nonetheless prevailed. He did not run for re-election in 2016 and left office in January 2017. ## Early life, military service, and education Rangel was born in Harlem in New York City on June 11, 1930. His father, Ralph Rangel, was from Puerto Rico and came to New York in 1914, while his African American mother, Blanche Mary Wharton Rangel, was from New York City and had family roots in Virginia. Charles was the second of three children, with an older brother Ralph Jr. and a younger sister Frances. Ralph Rangel sometimes worked as a laborer in a garage, but he was mostly a frequently absent, unemployed man who was abusive to his wife and who left the family when Charles was six years old. Charles was raised by his mother, who worked as a maid and as a seamstress in a factory in New York's Garment District, and by his maternal grandfather. Many summers were spent in Accomac, Virginia where his maternal family had roots. Charles was brought up as a Catholic. Rangel did well in elementary and middle school, and he began working at a neighborhood drug store at the age of eight. Rangel attended DeWitt Clinton High School, but he was often truant and was sometimes driven home by the police. His maternal grandfather, an early role model who worked in a courthouse and knew many judges and lawyers, kept him from getting into more serious trouble. Rangel dropped out at age 16 during his junior year and worked in various low-paying jobs including selling shoes. Rangel then enlisted in the United States Army and served from 1948 to 1952. During the Korean War he was an artillery operations specialist in the all-black 503rd Field Artillery Battalion in the 2nd Infantry Division, and equipped with the 155 mm Howitzer M1. (While President Harry S. Truman had signed the order to desegregate the military in 1948, little progress in doing so had been made during peacetime, and the large majority of units initially sent to Korea were still segregated.) Rangel's unit arrived in Pusan, South Korea in August 1950 and began moving north as U.N. forces advanced deep into North Korea. In late November 1950, after the Chinese intervention into the war his unit was caught in heavy fighting in North Korea as part of the U.N. forces retreat from the Yalu River. In the Battle of Kunu-ri, the 2nd Infantry was assigned to hold a road position near Kunu-ri while the rest of the Eighth Army retreated to Sunchon, 21 miles further south. On the night of November 29, the 2nd Infantry was attacked by gradually encircling forces of the Chinese Army, who set up a fireblock to cut off any U.S. retreat. The eerie blare of Chinese night-fighting bugle calls and communication flares piercing the freezing air led to what Rangel later described as a "waking nightmare, scene by scene, and we couldn't see any possible way out of the situation". During the day on November 30, the order came to withdraw the 2nd Infantry in phases, but the 503rd Artillery Battalion was sixth of eight in the order and could not get out in daylight when air cover was possible. On the night of November 30, Rangel was part of a retreating vehicle column that was trapped and attacked by Chinese forces. In the subzero cold Rangel was hit in the back by shrapnel from a Chinese shell. He later wrote that the blast threw him into a ditch, causing him to pray fervently to Jesus. Up and down the line of the retreat, unit cohesion disappeared under attack and officers lost contact with their men. There was screaming and moaning around him and some U.S. soldiers were being taken prisoner, but despite feeling overwhelming fear Rangel resolved to try to escape over an imposing mountain: "From the rim of that gully it just looked like everything had to be better on the other side of that damn mountain." Others nearby looked to Rangel, who though only a private first class had a reputation for leadership in the unit and had gained the nickname "Sarge". Rangel led some 40 men from his unit over the mountain during the night and out of the Chinese encirclement. Other groups were trying to do the same, but some men dropped from the severe conditions or got lost and were never heard from again. By midday on December 1, U.S. aircraft were dropping supplies and directions to Rangel's group and others, and had a raft ready to take them across the Taedong River; groups from the 503rd Artillery reached Sunchon that afternoon. Overall, no part of the 2nd Infantry suffered as many casualties as the artillery; it tried to save, but eventually lost, all its guns, and nearly half of the battalion was killed in the overall battle. Rangel was treated first at a field hospital, then moved to a general hospital well behind the lines in South Korea where he recuperated. He eventually returned to regular duty, then was rotated back to the U.S. in July 1951. Rangel was awarded a Purple Heart for his wounds, the Bronze Star with Valor for his actions in the face of death, and three battle stars. His Army unit was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation. In 2000, Rangel reflected on the experience in a CBS News interview: > Since Kunu Ri – and I mean it with all my heart, I have never, never had a bad day. After an honorable discharge from the Army in 1952 with the rank of staff sergeant, he returned home to headlines in The New York Amsterdam News. Rangel later viewed his time in the Army, away from the poverty of his youth, as a major turning point in his life: "When I was exposed to a different life, even if that life was just the Army, I knew damn well I couldn't get back to the same life I had left." Rangel finished high school, completing two years of studies in one year. Benefiting from the G.I. Bill Rangel received a Bachelor of Science degree from the New York University School of Commerce in 1957, where he made the dean's list. On full scholarship, he obtained his law degree from the St. John's University School of Law in 1960. Rangel is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. He is also a member of the fraternity's World Policy Council, a think tank whose purpose is to expand Alpha Phi Alpha's involvement in politics and social and current policy to encompass international concerns. ## Early career ### Legal After finishing law school Rangel passed the state bar exam and was hired by Weaver, Evans & Wingate, a prominent black law firm. Rangel made little money in private practice, but did build a positive reputation for providing legal assistance to black civil rights activists. In 1961, Rangel was appointed Assistant U.S. Attorney in the Southern District of New York by U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and worked under U.S. Attorney Robert M. Morgenthau. He stayed in the position for a year. Next Rangel was legal counsel to the New York Housing and Redevelopment Board, associate counsel to the Speaker of the New York State Assembly, a law clerk to pioneering Judge James L. Watson, and general counsel to the National Advisory Commission on Selective Service (1966), a presidential commission created to revise draft laws. His interest in politics grew. Rangel met Alma Carter, a social worker, in the mid-late-1950s while on the dance floor of the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem. They married on July 26, 1964. They have two children, Steven and Alicia, and three grandsons. ### Political He ran for party district leader and lost during an intense Democratic factional dispute in Harlem in 1963. In 1964, Rangel and the man who would become his political mentor, Assemblyman Percy Sutton, merged clubs as part of forming the John F. Kennedy Democratic Club in Harlem (which later became part of the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. Democratic Club). Rangel participated in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, marching for four days even though he had planned only a brief appearance. He developed what The New York Times would label his irrepressible energy and joking style of self-mockery during this time. Rangel was selected in September 1966 by Harlem Democrats to run in the 72nd District for the New York State Assembly, after the incumbent Percy Sutton had been elected by the New York City Council members from Manhattan as Manhattan Borough President to fill the vacancy caused by the appointment of Constance Baker Motley as a federal judge. Rangel was victorious, serving in the 177th and 178th New York State Legislatures until 1970. He emerged as a leader among the black legislators in the state and became politically friendly with Governor of New York Nelson Rockefeller, who arranged for Rangel to run on the Republican as well as Democratic ballot line during his 1968 re-election. Rangel supported legalization of the numbers game, saying "For the average Harlemite, playing numbers... is moral and a way of life." He also opposed harsher penalties on prostitutes, on grounds of ineffectiveness. He was strongly concerned by the effects of drugs on Harlem, advocated that drug pushers be held accountable for the crimes committed by their users, and in general believed the problem was at the level of a threat to national security. In 1969, Rangel ran for the Democratic nomination for New York City Council President. In a tumultuous race that featured sportswriter Jimmy Breslin as mayoral candidate Norman Mailer's running mate, Rangel came in last in a field of six candidates. In 1970, Rangel ran for election to the U.S. House of Representatives, challenging long-time incumbent Congressman Adam Clayton Powell Jr., in the Democratic primary in New York's 18th congressional district. Powell had been an iconic, charismatic, and flamboyant figure who had become embroiled in an ethics controversy in 1967, lost his seat, and then regained it in 1969 due to the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Powell v. McCormack. In a field with five candidates Rangel focused on criticizing Powell's frequent absences from Congress. In the June primary Rangel defeated Powell by 150 votes out of around 25,000 cast. Powell tried to take legal action to overturn the result claiming over 1,000 ballots were improper votes but was unsuccessful. Powell also failed to get on the ballot as an independent. With both Democratic and Republican backing, Rangel won the November 1970 general election–against a Liberal Party candidate and several others–with 88 percent of the vote. ## U.S. House of Representatives ### Districts, terms, and committees Initially the strongest electoral challenge to Rangel came during his first re-election bid, in 1972, when he faced a Democratic primary challenge from HARYOU-ACT director Livingston Wingate, who had the backing of the old Powell organization and the Congress of Racial Equality, a black nationalist group that Rangel publicly denounced. Rangel had the backing of the other Democratic power bases, however, and won the primary by a 3–to–1 margin and the general election easily. Rangel won re-election every two years until his retirement, usually with over 90 percent of the vote and often with more than 95 percent. In a number of elections Rangel received the backing of the Democratic Party, the Republican Party, and the Liberal Party of New York. Rangel's consistent appeal to his constituents has been due to the perception of him as a champion for justice not just in Harlem but elsewhere in the world. He did face a mid-career primary challenge in 1994 when two-term New York City Councilman Adam Clayton Powell IV was his opponent and held Rangel to 58 percent of the vote. Rangel then faced strong primary challenges from 2010 on during and after his ethics troubles. His district was numbered the Eighteenth District from 1971 to 1973; the Nineteenth District from 1973 to 1983; the Sixteenth District from 1983 to 1993; and the Fifteenth from 1993 to 2013. Early 1970s reapportionment led to the area Rangel represented being only 65 percent black, and by 1979 it was 50 percent black, 30 percent white, and 20 percent Puerto Rican. By 2000, only 3 in 10 district residents were black, while nearly half were Hispanic with many of the newcomers Dominican. Subsequently, numbered the Thirteenth, Rangel's area of representation showed a 2-to-1 preponderance of Hispanics over African Americans. Rangel was an original member when the Congressional Black Caucus was formed in 1971. In 1974 he was elected its chairman and he served in that role until 1976. He remained a member of the caucus for the duration of his time in office. Committee assignments - Committee on Ways and Means (1975–2017; Ranking member 1996–2006; Chair 2007–2010 [leave of absence for part of 2010]) - Joint Committee on Taxation (Chair 2007, 2009; Vice Chair 2008, 2010 [until left Ways and Means chair]) - Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control (1976–1993; Chair 1983–1993) - Select Committee on Crime (1971–1973) - Committee on the Judiciary (1971–1974) Caucus memberships - Congressional Black Caucus - Congressional Progressive Caucus - Congressional Arts Caucus - House Democratic Caucus - International Conservation Caucus ### 1970s: Rapid rise As a freshman representative Rangel focused on the issue of drugs and was a member of the House Select Committee on Crime. In February 1971, he criticized the Nixon administration for not taking stronger action against Turkey and France, the source and manufacture points for most of the heroin coming into the U.S. His proposal to halt foreign aid to countries not cooperating in the effort against international drug trafficking was unsuccessful, but led to a bill authorizing the president to reduce aid to those countries. Rangel created controversy in New York City by accusing some members of the New York Police Department of cooperating with drug pushers. On April 14, 1972, Rangel and Louis Farrakhan interfered in the investigation of the murder of New York Police Department patrolman Philip Cardillo, who was fatally shot in a Harlem Nation of Islam mosque where Malcolm X used to preach. Before a suspect could be taken into custody, Farrakhan and Rangel arrived at the scene, saying a riot would likely occur if the suspect and others were not released. Some police department officials also limited the investigation, including deputy commissioner for public affairs Benjamin Ward, who had ordered all white officers away from the scene in acquiescing to the demands of Farrakhan and Rangel. Despite an initial impression that Rangel was mostly concerned with the "ghetto problems" of drugs and welfare, Rangel focused on many other issues. He consistently backed Israel, including objecting to an anti-Israeli resolution adopted at the National Black Political Convention in 1972 and urging black Americans to support the civil rights of Soviet Jews in 1975. In other respects Rangel opposed foreign interventions and military spending, voting against bombing in Cambodia, and against funding for the B-1 bomber and supercarriers. In Congress one of Rangel's first committee assignments was on the House Judiciary Committee; during the Watergate scandal he participated in the 1974 impeachment process against Richard Nixon. Rangel received both national attention and respect for his well-informed questioning style during the hearings. Rangel was also prominent in questioning Governor Rockefeller on his role in handling the Attica Prison riot during Rockefeller's vice presidential confirmation hearing. Rangel rose rapidly in the House, due to his political skills, hard work, knowledge of legislative matters, and genial manner. In 1974, he became the first African American ever named to the House Committee on Ways and Means, a position he assumed in 1975 (and left the Judiciary Committee) and by 1979 had become the chairman of its important Subcommittee on Health. In 1976, he was named to the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control. By 1979, he was a member of the influential House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee. He combined his solidly liberal views–interest group ratings in 1978 indicated he was the most liberal member of the New York State congressional delegation–with a pragmatic approach towards finding political and legislative compromises. Rangel built alliances with others in Congress (collaborating for example with Michigan Republican Guy Vander Jagt on welfare reform measures), with people in governmental agencies, and with the Carter administration. In some cases Rangel was criticized for being too pragmatic, such as when he switched his position on natural gas deregulation; Rangel denied that he did so in exchange for the authorization of a new federal building in Harlem. Rangel said of himself, "I guess I'm practical, but you have to live with yourself and make sure you are not so practical that you sell out a part of yourself." Besides his increasing influence in Washington, by the late 1970s Rangel was New York City's leading black political figure. After initially endorsing Percy Sutton in the 1977 mayoral election, he endorsed Ed Koch over Mario Cuomo in the Democratic primary run-off. He attempted to mediate between Mayor Koch and some minority groups who thought the Koch administration racially insensitive. As Koch related, "He has told some blacks angry with me: 'You say Ed Koch is nasty to you? I want you to know he's nasty to everybody.' I thought that was rather nice." ### 1980s: Influential figure In 1981, Rangel became chairman of the Ways and Means Subcommittee on Oversight giving him power in attempting to oppose the Reagan administration's cuts in social spending. By 1983 he was the third-ranking member on Ways and Means, and worked well with its powerful chairman, Dan Rostenkowski. Rangel became a protégé of Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill who made him Deputy Majority Whip later that year. In the 1984 United States presidential election, Rangel supported former Vice President Walter Mondale rather than the primary campaign of Jesse Jackson. By that time Rangel was known as one of the "Gang of Four", who along with his old mentor Percy Sutton, city and state figure Basil Paterson, and future mayor David Dinkins were the most prominent politicians in Harlem. They broke racial barriers, attained offices once viewed as not possible for black Americans to achieve, and paved the way for many others around the nation. As power brokers they would dominate public life in Harlem for a generation. Rangel endorsed Koch for re-election in 1981; by 1983 his relationship with the mayor had fallen apart: "I don't know anybody in politics that I dislike enough that I would recommend that he sit down with the mayor." By 1984 Rangel was the most influential black politician in New York State. His position on Ways and Means allowed him to bring federal monies to the state and city for transit projects, industrial development, Medicare needs, low-income housing, and shelters for the homeless. Rangel was one of the city's most recognizable politicians and there was speculation that he would run for mayor in 1985, but Rangel preferred to remain in the House, with the goal of eventually becoming Ways and Means chairman and in the best case even House Speaker. Indeed, Rangel never showed any interest in a different political job other than being the Congressman from Harlem. In 1983, Rangel became chair of the Select Committee on Narcotics solidifying his position as a leading strategist on an issue perennially important to him. Rangel kept the committee going in the face of usual pressure to disband special committees. He battled against proposed cutbacks in the federal anti-drug budget, advocating for increased grants to states and cities for better shelters for the homeless. Rangel's amendments providing increased funding for state and local law enforcement and were included in the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986. He traveled to countries in Central and South America and other places to inspect the sources of drugs and the law enforcement efforts against them; Ebony magazine termed Rangel "a front-line general in the war against drugs." Rangel said "We need outrage!", making reference to the slow reaction by both government and religious leaders to the epidemics of crack cocaine, heroin, PCP, and other drugs that hit American streets during the 1980s. He believed that legalizing drugs would represent "moral and political suicide". He did not refrain from criticizing those most affected by drugs, saying that Hispanic and black teenagers had no sense of self-preservation, and that drug dealers were so stupid they had to eat in fast-food places because they could not read a menu. By 1988, Rangel was saying that President Ronald Reagan had not done enough in the war on drugs, but that First Lady Nancy Reagan's "Just Say No" campaign had been quite valuable. The narcotics committee itself was termed possibly the most important select committee of its time. The Washington Post said Rangel was "in a powerful position to shape policy on an issue at the top of the nation's agenda". He would remain as chair of the committee through 1993, when it was abolished along with other House select committees. Rangel was part of the House–Senate joint conference that worked on the Tax Reform Act of 1986, a simplifying overhaul that constituted the most sweeping reform of the U.S. tax code in 50 years. In the negotiations Rangel successfully argued for dropping more lower-income people from the tax rolls; the elimination of six million households from federal income taxation was hailed as a wise policy by both liberal and conservative groups. Rangel authored the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit portion of the bill, which increased affordable housing in the U.S. He also played a key role in preserving the deductibility of state and local income taxes. He asserted that while beneficiaries of tax reform were not well organized, business interests opposed to it were. When the conference threatened to break down,he stressed it was vital to reach an agreement. By late 1985 Rangel was in a six-person race to become the next House Majority Whip, the third-highest ranked position in the House and for the first time up for election by the members rather than appointment by the Speaker. In October 1986 the race was heating up, with Rangel as the underdog coming close to Representative Tony Coelho from California through use of his personal skills and Rangel arguing that the Democratic leadership needed better regional balance. However, in December 1986, Coelho defeated Rangel in the vote for whip, 167–78. Rangel attributed his loss to Coelho having funded the campaigns of many House members via his role as chairman of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, later saying, "I had never been so goddamn naive. I came to Washington as an experienced politician. How did I miss Coelho's contribution to members?" In December 1984, Rangel was arrested for participating in an anti-apartheid rally in front of the South African Consulate in New York. Rangel successfully pushed to have foreign tax credits removed for corporations doing business in that country, a 1987 act that became known as the "Rangel Amendment". A number of companies left South Africa as a result, and the amendment proved to be one of the more effective anti-apartheid sanctions. The bill won praise from Nelson Mandela and Rangel later said was one of his actions that he was most proud of. ### 1990s: Support and opposition During the 1991 Gulf War, Rangel demanded that Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Colin Powell investigate allegations of discrimination from black members of the New York Army National Guard regarding combat training and treatment. During the Clinton administration, Rangel battled with executive branch officials over budget items almost as much as he had during Republican administrations, and always resented when Clinton negotiated directly with Republicans while bypassing congressional Democrats. In 1993, however, Rangel was a key sponsor of increases to the Earned Income Tax Credit that passed. Rangel's dream of becoming chairman of Ways and Means took a tumble with the Republican Revolution of 1994, which took control of the House away from the Democrats for the first time in decades. He did become the ranking Democrat of the committee in 1996. Rangel was bitterly opposed to the Republican Contract With America, considering it an assault on America's poor, and strongly criticized Democrats such as President Bill Clinton and religious leaders such as John Cardinal O'Connor for perpetuating "the silence of good people" that he likened to what happened in Nazi Germany. When Rangel made a similar allusion directed at new Ways and Means chair Bill Archer in 1995, Archer refused to speak to him for several years except at public meetings. Rangel also strongly opposed the Welfare Reform Act of 1996, accusing Clinton of supporting it for political reasons and predicting its consequences would cast a million children into poverty. Opening up economic opportunities for minorities and the poor was a focus of Rangel's during the 1990s. His 1993 legislation created "empowerment zones", which provided tax incentives for investment and job creation in inner urban areas; it would eventually account for \$5 billion in federal spending across the nation's cities. Rangel played a specific role in the creation of the 1995 Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone Development Corporation, which led to a \$500 million spending of public and private monies towards changing the face of Harlem, including gentrification effects. Rangel served on the corporation's board, and the effort was credited with helping the resurgence of Harlem that took place during the 1990s. During the late 1990s, Rangel led an outreach effort on behalf of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee that sought to gain African American votes for white candidates in key swing districts. The project may have helped gain or keep several seats during the 1998 mid-term House elections. In late 1998, when long-time Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan of New York announced his retirement, Rangel was one of the first to advocate that First Lady Hillary Clinton move to New York and run for the seat. She did so successfully. On March 15, 1999, the congressman was arrested along with two other prominent African American leaders (civil rights activist Al Sharpton and former Mayor David Dinkins) for protesting the fatal shooting of Amadou Diallo, a 23-year-old immigrant to the United States from Guinea, by four white and Hispanic New York City police officers. The officers involved were later acquitted by a mixed-race jury. In October 1998, New York State Attorney General Dennis Vacco filed a lawsuit charging the directors of the foundation behind New York's Apollo Theater, including foundation chair Rangel, with failing to collect more than \$4 million owed it by a company controlled by Percy Sutton that produced the television program It's Showtime at the Apollo. The suit sought the removal of Rangel; after months of indecision, Rangel stepped down as chair but remained on the board. In October 1999, new Attorney General Eliot Spitzer dismissed the lawsuit and cleared Rangel and Sutton of any wrongdoing, saying that all monies properly owed had changed hands. Rangel expressed bitterness over the year-long episode, saying "I shouldn't have had to go through this." ### 2000–2007: Protest and power During the early 2000s Rangel advocated continued funding of anti-poverty efforts, including Temporary Assistance for Needy Families and Child care and development block grant. Rangel also had an unproductive relationship with Ways and Means chairman Bill Thomas, leading to an incident in which Thomas called the United States Capitol Police on Rangel for having his members read a bill in the library, an action for which Thomas apologized. Rangel sponsored the African Growth and Opportunity Act, passed in 2000, despite the opposition of labor unions, the textile industry, and the Congressional Black Caucus. For the first time incentives were provided for U.S. trade with sub-Saharan Africa. Indeed, Rangel became known for support of free trade agreements, in contrast to many House Democrats. Following the September 11 attacks, Rangel helped secure an extension to unemployment benefits. His intent was to help those in New York industries affected by the events. Motivated by seeing few African American diplomats on his trips abroad, he founded the Charles B. Rangel International Affairs Fellowship Program in 2002. The program is a collaboration between Howard University and the U.S. State Department that has significantly increased the number of minorities working in the U.S. Foreign Service. In July 2004, Rangel was the first of three sitting U.S. House members to be arrested on trespassing charges, for protesting human rights abuses in Sudan in front of the Sudanese Embassy in Washington (Bobby Rush and Joe Hoeffel would follow). Rangel said, "When human lives are in jeopardy, there should be outrage." Rangel was an adamant opponent of the George W. Bush administration and of the Iraq War. Feeling powerless to stop the latter in the Republican-controlled Congress, he said in 2007 that he had suffered from nightmares: "It was my lowest point ever in my 37 years in Congress ... It was a sad period where you saw lives being lost [in the war] and you couldn't do anything about it." In April 2006, Rangel and nine other representatives joined John Conyers' action against George W. Bush and others, alleging violations of the U.S. Constitution in the passing of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. Conyers v. Bush was dismissed later that year for lack of standing. Rangel has been long been opposed to the all-volunteer army and repeatedly called for the government to bring back the draft (military conscription). In 2003, Rangel said that "A disproportionate number of the poor and members of minority groups make up the enlisted ranks of the military, while the most privileged Americans are underrepresented or absent," and that a draft would make the military more representative of the American public at large. While some observers saw the logic in what Rangel was saying, his proposals attracted little organized support from either party or from antiwar organizations. During 2006 Rangel said that no soldier would be fighting in Iraq if they had decent career possibilities and stating: > There's no question in my mind that this president and this administration would never have invaded Iraq, especially on the flimsy evidence that was presented to the Congress, if indeed we had a draft and members of Congress and the administration thought that their kids from their communities would be placed in harm's way. Rangel introduced versions of his Universal National Service Act in the House in 2003, 2006, 2007, and 2010. Polls showed 70 percent of Americans opposed a reinstatement of the draft. Rangel emphasized that people could fulfill their draft obligations through non-military services, such as port and airline security. The one time the act came up for a vote in the full House, in 2004, it was defeated 2–402, with Rangel voting against his own bill in protest at the procedural handling of it. In June 2006, the House Appropriations Committee passed a \$3 million earmark to establish the Charles B. Rangel Center for Public Service at City College of New York. By 2007 the amount had been reduced to \$2 million, but the funding for the center, whose purpose was to bring more poor and minority students into politics, was the target of criticism from Representative John B. T. Campbell III of California and other Republicans as an abuse of the earmark process and as Rangel's "Monument to Me". City College said it was proud to house the center and Rangel said "I cannot think of anything I am more proud of." In August 2006, Rangel said he would resign his seat if the Democrats did not take the House that November, a statement that had real intent behind it, as at age 76 Rangel was feeling "the claustrophobia" of time. The Democrats did take control and in January 2007, Rangel's long wait to head the Ways and Means Committee was over. Not only was he the first African American to do so, but he was also the first New Yorker to chair the committee since Fernando Wood in the 1870s. As holder of one of the most powerful posts in Congress, he said the chairmanship "couldn't have come any later for me". Age was not otherwise a factor with Rangel, who worked a scheduled 16 hours a day and looked a good deal younger than he was. Ebony magazine termed Rangel's ascent to the chairmanship "a watershed moment for African-Americans, who historically have been shut out when it comes to deciding how to divvy up the trillions of dollars in the federal government's budget". Rangel was able to establish an effective working relationship with ranking member Jim McCrery. In April 2007, Rangel published his autobiography, ... And I Haven't Had a Bad Day Since: From the Streets of Harlem to the Halls of Congress, whose title reflected his experience in Korea. The New York Times gave it a favorable reviewing, saying it was "mercifully short on laundry lists [that some other political memoirs have], but long on sass and spirit". Rangel was an early and strong supporter of Hillary Clinton's 2008 presidential campaign for the Democratic nomination. His actions during 2007 included taking a shot at the marital histories of former Mayor of New York Rudy Giuliani, then the Republican front-runner, and his wife Judith Giuliani, resulted in Rangel issuing a no-excuses apology. As events in 2008 unwound, the Democratic primaries and caucuses turned into a historic battle between Clinton and Senator Barack Obama. Although Obama had a real chance of becoming the first African American president, a development that Rangel viewed with pride, and although some racially tinged comments entered the contest and Clinton's support among African Americans plunged, Rangel stayed loyal to her, saying "There's just no question in my mind that Hillary would be in a better position than a freshman senator. This ain't no time for a beginner." (Rangel's wife Alma, on the other hand, publicly supported Obama.) Rangel did endorse Obama once he finally clinched the nomination in early June 2008. ### 2008–2010: Ethics issues and censure #### Letterhead use and Rangel Center fundraising In July 2008, The Washington Post reported that Rangel was soliciting donations to the Charles B. Rangel Center for Public Service at City College of New York from corporations with business interests before his Ways and Means Committee, and was doing so using Congressional letterhead. The companies and individuals included AIG, Donald Trump, and Nabors Industries, and by this time Rangel's efforts had helped raise \$12 million of the \$30 million goal for the center. Government watchdog groups and ethics experts criticized Rangel's actions, with the dean of the George Washington University Graduate School of Political Management saying Rangel "has crossed the line". Rangel denied any wrongdoing and asked the U.S. House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct, commonly known as the House Ethics Committee, to determine if his use of Congressional letterhead while arranging meetings to solicit contributions for the center had violated any House rules. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi agreed to Rangel's request. #### Renting Harlem apartments at below-market rates The New York Times reported in July 2008 that Rangel rents four apartments at below-market rates in the Lenox Terrace complex in Harlem. It reported that Rangel paid \$3,894 monthly for all four apartments in 2007. In contrast, the landlord's going rate for similar apartments in the building was as high as \$8,125 monthly. Three adjacent apartments were combined to create his 2,500-square-foot (230 m<sup>2</sup>) home. A fourth unit is used as a campaign office, which violates city and state regulations that require rent-stabilized apartments to be used as a primary residence. Rangel received thousands of dollars in campaign contributions from one of the landlords, according to the paper. Rangel said his rent does not affect his representation of his constituents. Congressional ethics experts said the difference in rent between what Rangel was paying and market rates, an estimated \$30,000 per year, could be construed as a gift, exceeding the \$100 House of Representatives gift limit. In late July, the House voted 254–138 to table a resolution by Republican Minority Leader John Boehner that would have censured Rangel for having "dishonored himself and brought discredit to the House", by occupying the four apartments. #### House parking garage A September 2008 New York Post article reported that Rangel had been using a House parking garage as free storage space for his Mercedes-Benz for years, in apparent violation of Congressional rules. Under Internal Revenue Service regulations, free parking (here, worth \$290 a month) is considered imputed income, and must be declared on tax returns. In July 2010 the House Ethics Committee ruled that Rangel had committed no violation, since in practice the parking policy was only applied to Congressional staff and not to members themselves. #### Taxes on Dominican villa rental income Rangel was accused of failing to report income from his rental of a beachside villa he owns in Punta Cana in the Dominican Republic. A three-bedroom, three-bath unit, it has rented out for as much as \$1,100 per night in the busiest tourist season. Labor lawyer Theodore Kheel, a principal investor in the resort development company and frequent campaign contributor to Rangel, had encouraged him to purchase the villa. Rangel purchased it in 1988 for \$82,750. He financed \$53,737.50 of the purchase price for seven years at an interest rate of 10.5%, but was one of several early investors whose interest payments were waived in 1990. In September 2008, Rangel's attorney, Lanny Davis, disclosed that Rangel had failed to report on his tax returns or in congressional disclosure forms \$75,000 in income he had received for renting his Dominican villa. That month, Rangel paid \$10,800 to cover his liability for the related back taxes. He had owed back taxes for at least three years. The Ways and Means Committee writes the U.S. tax code, and as such his failure to pay taxes himself led to heavy criticism. A September 14, 2008, New York Times editorial called for Rangel to step down temporarily from his chairmanship of the Ways and Means Committee while his ethical problems were investigated. On September 24, 2008, the House Ethics Committee announced that it would investigate whether Rangel had violated its code of conduct or any law or other regulation related to his performance of his duties. On November 23, 2008, The New York Post reported that Rangel took a "homestead" tax break on his Washington, DC, house for years, while simultaneously occupying multiple New York City rent-stabilized apartments, "possibly violating laws and regulations in both cases". In January 2009, Republican Representative John R. Carter introduced the Rangel Rule Act of 2009 (H.R. 735), a tongue-in-cheek proposal that would have allowed all taxpayers to not pay penalties and interest on back taxes, in reference to Rangel not yet having paid his. #### Defense of tax shelter In November 2008, following reports by The New York Times, Republican Congressmen asked the House Ethics Committee to look into Rangel's defense of a tax shelter approved by his Ways and Means Committee. One of the four companies that benefited from the loophole was Nabors Industries, which opened headquarters in Bermuda as a foreign corporation. Under the loophole Nabors received tens of millions of dollars in tax breaks. In 2004, Rangel had led opposition to the tax breaks. Nabors donated \$1 million in 2006, and \$100,000 later, to the City College of New York school named after Rangel. Its CEO said the donations were unrelated to Rangel's February 2007 promise to oppose closing the loophole. He denied there was any quid pro quo, and called the article about it "malarkey". Rangel said The New York Times had ignored facts and explanations, and denied the charges. The House Ethics Committee voted in December 2008, to expand its investigation of Rangel to the matter. Eventually the Ethics Committee would not make a specific charge over this matter but did include it in the supporting documentation for the overall charge that Rangel had solicited Rangel Center donations from those with business before his committee. #### Unreported assets and income On September 15, 2008, it was disclosed that: (a) Rangel had omitted from his financial reports details regarding his sale of a Washington, DC home; (b) discrepancies existed in the values he listed for a property he owns in Sunny Isles, Florida (varying from \$50,000 to \$500,000); and (c) inconsistencies appeared in his investment fund reporting. He apologized, saying "I owed my colleagues and the public adherence to a higher standard of care, not only as a member of Congress, but even more as the chair of the House Ways and Means Committee." Republicans called for his removal as chair. Rangel said there was no justification for that, as the mistakes were errors of omission, that would not justify loss of his position. In August 2009, Rangel amended his 2007 financial disclosure form to report more than \$500,000 in previously unreported assets and income. That doubled his reported net worth. Unreported assets included a federal credit union checking account of between \$250,000 and \$500,000, several investment accounts, stock in Yum! Brands and PepsiCo, and property in Glassboro, New Jersey. Rangel also had not paid property taxes on two of his New Jersey properties which he was required by law to do. The ethics issues led by December 2008 to some loss of standing for Rangel, to Republicans trying to tie him to all Democrats, and to some Democrats privately saying it would be best if Rangel stepped down from his Ways and Means post. In late 2008 and again in September 2009, the government watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington named Rangel one of the 15 most corrupt members of Congress. Media pieces compared Rangel's woes with those unethical former Ways and Means chairs Wilbur Mills and Dan Rostenkowski. Pelosi, a long-time friend of Rangel's, withheld any possible action against Rangel pending the House Ethics Committee report. Rangel evinced impatience with that body, saying "I don't have a complaint now, except that it's taking too goddamn long to review this thing and report back." On September 3, 2009, The Washington Post called on Rangel to resign his chairmanship of the House Ways and Means Committee, given the ethical issues that had surfaced. Another Republican resolution was put forth to force him out of his chairmanship. However, Rangel stayed in place and mostly maintained his role in House leadership and policy discussions, including the Obama health care reform plan (opposition to which, he suggested, was partly due to racial prejudice against President Obama). Nevertheless, his influence was diminished by the questions surrounding him. #### Caribbean trips In May 2009, the non-profit National Legal and Policy Center filed an ethics complaint against Rangel and other members of Congress for trips, taken in 2007 and 2008 to Caribbean islands. The trips had been sponsored by Carib News Foundation, a New York non-profit funded by corporations with interests before Congress and the Ways and Means Committee. This combined with the duration of the trips seemed to violate House rules. The Ethics Committee agreed the following month to investigate the matter. On February 26, 2010, the Ethics Committee issued its report. It determined that Rangel had violated House gift rules, by accepting reimbursement for his travel to the conferences. The committee found that he had not known of the contributions, but concluded that he was still responsible for them and was required to repay their cost. Five other members were cleared of having violated rules, but were also required to repay their trips. Rangel disagreed with the committee's finding, saying: > Because they were my staff members who knew, one of whom has been discharged, [the committee has decided] that I should have known. Common sense dictates that members of Congress should not be held responsible for what could be the wrongdoing, or mistakes, or errors of staff. Pelosi said she would not take any action against Rangel pending further committee findings, as his staff had been more at fault and he had not broken any law. The Ethics Committee continued to investigate the charges against Rangel relating to obtaining rent-stabilized apartments, fundraising, and failure to disclose rental income from his Dominican villa. #### Stepping aside as House Ways and Means Chair After a February 2010 House Ethics Committee report criticizing him for taking sponsored Caribbean trips, the White House backed off its prior support of Rangel somewhat, and within days 14 Democratic members of Congress publicly called on Rangel to step aside as Ways and Means chair. Other Democrats were concerned that Rangel would impede Democrats' efforts to maintain their majority in the 2010 House elections, but did not say anything publicly out of respect and personal affection for Rangel. Momentum quickly built against Rangel, with 30 or more Democrats planning to oppose his continued chairmanship of the Ways and Means Committee, in a full House vote being pushed by Republicans. Democrat Paul Hodes of New Hampshire noted: > I think we're in a zero-tolerance atmosphere, and I think... Washington should be held to the highest ethical standards. I have the greatest admiration for Mr. Rangel's service to this country. He's been a great public servant. This is very, very unfortunate, but I think it's necessary. On March 3, 2010, Rangel said he would take a leave of absence as chair, pending issuance of the Ethics Committee's report. Pelosi granted his request, but whether such a leave was possible was unclear and the House Speaker pro Tempore said that a resignation had taken place and that Rangel was no longer chair. Observers opined that it was unlikely that Rangel would ever be able to regain the position. Several Democrats said they would return or donate to charity campaign contributions given to them by Rangel. Representative Sander M. Levin of Michigan took over as acting chair. #### House ethics committee charges On July 22, 2010, a bipartisan, four-member investigative subcommittee of the House Ethics Committee indicated it had "substantial reason to believe" that Rangel had violated a range of ethics rules relating to the other charges. The matter was referred to another, newly created, special subcommittee to rule on the findings. Majority Leader Steny Hoyer said the action indicated the "process is working as it should, while Minority Leader John Boehner called the announcement "a sad reminder" of Speaker Nancy Pelosi's "most glaring broken promise: to 'drain the swamp' in Washington". Rangel negotiated with the Ethics Committee. But participants in the talks characterized him as unwilling to admit wrongdoing in connection with several of the charges, and anxious about preserving his legacy. No settlement was reached. On July 29, 2010, Rangel was charged by the committee with 13 counts of violating House rules and federal laws. Rangel's lawyers continued to insist that he had not intentionally violated any law or regulation, had not handed out political favors, and had not misused his office for personal financial gain. Rangel somberly only said this on the day the charges were announced: Sixty years ago, I survived a Chinese attack in North Korea. And as a result I wrote a book that, having survived that, that I haven't had a bad day since. Today I have to reassess that. #### Re-election campaign of 2010 Rangel suggested that Andrew Cuomo's primary run in the 2010 gubernatorial election against incumbent David Paterson, who was the first African American governor of New York, would undo years of work that Cuomo spent rebuilding his standing in the state Democratic Party after his bruising 2002 gubernatorial primary contest against Carl McCall. At the time McCall was the highest-ranking African American and first major party candidate for governor in the state. Rangel had been a staunch supporter of McCall against Cuomo in 2002. For the upcoming 2010 gubernatorial race, Rangel suggested that for the white Cuomo to challenge the African American incumbent would not be "the moral decision". Rangel said, "There might be an inclination for racial polarization in a primary in the state of New York. Since we have most African Americans registered as Democrats, and since you would be making an appeal for Democrats, it would be devastating in my opinion." Paterson fared poorly in polls due to several scandals and later abandoned his campaign re-election. By this point Rangel's continuing difficulties, along with the death a few months prior of Percy Sutton and the failure of Paterson (Basil Paterson's son), marked the end of the era of Harlem's "Gang of Four". Rangel faced several Democratic primary challengers for his seat in 2010: Vincent Morgan, whose grassroots campaign bore many resemblances to Rangel's own against the scandal-plagued Adam Clayton Powell Jr., in 1970; Adam Clayton Powell IV, who had previously challenged Rangel in 1994; labor activist and past primary candidate for statewide office Jonathan Tasini; and former Obama campaign official Joyce Johnson. While Rangel's fund-raising was down from previous years, and he had paid nearly \$2 million in legal fees, he still had far more cash available for the campaign than any of his challengers. On September 14, 2010, Rangel prevailed in the primary election, gaining 51 percent of the vote against Powell's 23 percent and lesser amounts for the other contenders. He then won the November 2, 2010, general election easily, garnering 80 percent of the vote against Republican Michel Faulkner's 10 percent and smaller amounts for third-party candidates. #### House ethics trial and censure On November 15, 2010, Rangel's formal ethics trial began. He walked out of the hearing at the start, saying that he was unable to afford representation after having paid his previous lawyers over \$2 million, and arguing unsuccessfully that the proceeding should be delayed until he could arrange for a legal defense fund. On November 16, 2010, Rangel was found guilty on 11 of the 12 standing charges against him by the adjudicatory subcommittee of the House Ethics Committee. Two of the charges were focused on his actions with regards to soliciting funds and donations for the Rangel Center from those with business before the Ways and Means Committee; four were for improper use of Congressional letterhead and other House resources in those solicitations; one was for submitting incomplete and inaccurate financial disclosure statements; one was for using one of his Harlem apartments as an office when he had Congressional dealings with the landlord; one was for failing to pay taxes on his Dominican villa; and two reiterated these charges in describing general violations of House rules. Two days later, a near-tears Rangel pleaded for "fairness and mercy" and he had support from fellow Representative John Lewis. But it was to no avail; the full Committee voted 9–1 to recommend that the full House approve a sanction of censure upon Rangel. The committee stated: "Public office is a public trust [and Rangel] violated that trust." Censure is the strongest penalty the House can impose short of outright expulsion from Congress. The committee also said that Rangel should make restitution for any unpaid taxes. Supporters of Rangel argued that by comparison with previous cases, a reprimand would be a more fitting punishment for Rangel's trangressions than censure. Rangel repeatedly insisted, as he had all along, that nothing he had done was with the aim of enriching himself. It was to no avail. On December 2, 2010, a motion was made in the full House to censure Rangel. Ethics committee chair Zoe Lofgren emphasized that it was Rangel's "accumulation of actions" that warranted the stiffer penalty, and said that the treatment of Rangel should set a new precedent, not follow old ones. A motion to amend the resolution in favor of reprimand was voted down 267–146; most of Speaker Pelosi's allies rejected it and over 105 Democrats voted the resolution down. The House of Representatives then voted 333–79 to censure Rangel. Only two Republicans voted against censure, Peter T. King of Long Island and Don Young of Alaska. Per custom Rangel went to the well of the House to hear Speaker Pelosi solemnly read the formal measure of censure. It had been 27 years since the last such measure and Rangel was only the 23rd House member to be censured. Rangel asked to speak and said, "I know in my heart I am not going to be judged by this Congress. I'll be judged by my life in its entirety." ### 2011–2017: Final years in Congress Republicans took over control of the House as the 112th Congress began in January 2011, meaning Rangel would have lost his Ways and Means chair even without his ethics issues. He was not considered for the ranking member slot either, which after a contested election among the Democratic caucus had gone to former acting chair Sander Levin. His difficulties were not completely over; the National Legal and Policy Center filed a complaint with the Federal Election Commission alleging that he had improperly paid legal bills from a political action committee. To cover both ongoing and past legal expenses he established a legal defense fund (whose creation was approved by the House Ethics Committee). He was the first elected politician to use the now-defunct Visible Vote mobile app to interact directly with his constituents. During 2011 Rangel became the first member of Congress to declare support for the Occupy Wall Street movement and made several visits to their nearby demonstration site in Zuccotti Park. However the protesters themselves picketed Rangel's office, objecting to his free trade stance (in particular to agreements he supported with Panama and with South Korea that they said resulted in jobs being exported). In early 2012, Rangel was beset by a back injury and a serious viral infection; he was away from Congress for three months. Moreover, his district had been renumbered as the 13th District following the 2010 census, and its demographics had been changed significantly. He found himself in a district that stretched from Harlem to the Bronx and was now majority-Hispanic; it was 55 percent Hispanic and 27 percent African American. As a result, Rangel faced a serious primary challenge from State Senator Adriano Espaillat. Rangel struggled with fundraising, and he began receiving contributions from fellow members of Congress whom he had helped over the years. In the June 26 primary – the real contest in what was still an overwhelmingly Democratic district – Rangel defeated Espaillat by less than a thousand votes, with a result that took two weeks to fully resolve. He won the subsequent November general election easily. In April 2013, Rangel filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia against several members and staff of the House Ethics Committee, saying that they had engaged in "numerous, flagrant, knowing and intentional violations" in their investigation against him. The suit sought to overturn the measure of censure that had been taken against him. In December 2013, Judge John D. Bates dismissed the suit, saying that there were "insurmountable separation-of-powers barriers" against the courts becoming involved in House of Representatives internal actions. Rangel appealed the dismissal, but the judge's action was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in May 2015, saying the matter fell outside the jurisdiction of the courts. In October 2015, the United States Supreme Court declined to consider the case ending Rangel's legal bid. Rangel ran again in 2014, facing Espaillat once more in the Democratic primary as well as Reverend Michael Walrond from the First Corinthian Baptist Church. Rangel said that if he was re-elected, it would be his final term in the House. He lost some of his traditional endorsements, but retained others and campaigned hard even while turning 84 years of age. In the June 24 primary the voting was again close but Rangel prevailed over Espaillat. Rangel faced no Republican opposition in the November general election and won easily against a minor party candidate, saying as he voted on November 4, "Today was a historic day and a very emotional day [as] I cast my final vote as a candidate on the ballot..." After being strongly opposed to Benjamin Netanyahu's March 3, 2015, speech to Congress (in which, at the invitation of House Republicans, the Israeli Prime Minister spoke in opposition to the Obama administration's efforts to secure a comprehensive agreement on Iran's nuclear program) and saying he would be one of those Democrats not attending, Rangel changed his mind and did attend, attributing his reversal to the advice of friends and constituents and saying, "Enough damage has already been done... I don't want my absence to add to what is already a shattered type of relationship." Due to a large personal loan he made and his continuing struggles with fundraising, Rangel's 2014 re-election campaign debt stood at \$140,000 as of June 2015. He engaged in various fundraising efforts during 2015 in an effort to reduce this debt, which brought about some criticism from The Center for Public Integrity that these efforts were not fully transparent. He had planned to raise money towards paying off that debt at his 85th birthday celebration to be held at the Plaza Hotel that month. Guests included Lady Gaga, Tony Bennett, and Hillary Clinton, however Clinton took over Rangel's party as a "Hillary for America" event to raise money for her 2016 presidential campaign. As he had vowed two years earlier, Rangel did not run for re-election in the 2016 election. In the June 2016 Democratic primary election to effectively pick his successor, Rangel supported State Assemblyman Keith L. T. Wright expressing the hope that an African American would continue to represent the district. However Espaillat won a close victory over Wright in a large field of candidates. Underlining the demographic changes that had been taking place, after winning the general election in November Espaillat became the first non-African American to represent Harlem in the House since a series of Harlem-focused congressional districts were formed beginning in the 1940s. Rangel left office at the expiration of his term on January 3, 2017. ## Later years After his retirement, Rangel has been occasionally active in public life. He gave reflective interviews that also commented on the future course of Harlem. He endorsed Robert Jackson in his successful bid to unseat Marisol Alcantara in New York's 31st State Senate district in a 2018 race, and he endorsed Joe Biden during the 2020 Democratic presidential primaries. When asked in 2019 whether he had ever witnessed any racist comments made by Donald Trump prior to his presidency, Rangel said he had not: "I don't remember any remarks he ever made that was not sharing with me how much he thought about himself. It was always the same story." Rangel served as grand marshal of Harlem's African American Day Parade in 2019. He rode in the parade again in 2022, at age 92, when it resumed following COVID-19 cancellations. ## Political positions Various advocacy groups have given Rangel scores or grades as to how well his votes align with the positions of each group. Overall as of 2003, Rangel had an average lifetime 91 percent "liberal quotient" from Americans for Democratic Action.In contrast, the American Conservative Union assessed to Rangel a lifetime rating of less than 4 percent through 2009. National Journal rates congressional votes as liberal or conservative on the political spectrum, in three policy areas: economic, social, and foreign. For 2005–2006, Rangel's averages were as follows: economic rating 91 percent liberal and 6 percent conservative, social rating 94 percent liberal and 5 percent conservative, and foreign rating 84 percent liberal and 14 percent conservative. Project Vote Smart provides the ratings of many, many lesser known interest groups with respect to Rangel. Rangel typically had 100 ratings from NARAL Pro-Choice America and Planned Parenthood and, inversely, 0 ratings or close to that from the National Right to Life Committee. He has typically gotten very high ratings in the 90s or 100 from the American Civil Liberties Union, the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The League of Conservation Voters has usually given Rangel around a 90 rating. Taxpayers for Common Sense has given Rangel ratings in the middling 40–50 range, while the National Taxpayers Union has typically given Rangel very low ratings or an 'F' grade. ## Political image Rangel is known as an energetic, genial, and sociable politician, one who is able to gain friendship and influence by means of charm, humor, and candor. He was called "Charlie" by everyone in Congress from the highest-ranking members to the custodial employees. Of his political skills, 1980s Ways and Means chair Dan Rostenkowski said, "Charlie has the gifted knack of getting you to change your position, and you actually enjoy doing it. Compromising isn't so unusual in Congress. Enjoying it is." The New York congressman's ability to use humor to catch others off guard before making a political point has been called "Rangeling" by lobbyists and others on Capitol Hill. Many of his closest friends and allies in Congress have not been other African Americans, but white representatives from working class or rural districts. O'Neill aide Chris Matthews said these members were "tied emotionally and culturally to the people they represent". Rangel has been described as having a meticulous appearance. Long-time mentor Percy Sutton recalled, "In the beginning I called him Pretty Boy Rangel, to denigrate him, because he was one of those handsome types, hair pushed down and that mustache. But he had a way about him, with that great humor, an ability to influence people." Later The New York Times described him thusly: "After three decades in public life, the portly, gravel-voiced Mr. Rangel, who is very much the Old World-style gentleman yet sprinkles his sentences with mild profanity, still takes politics personally." In contrast, Rangel and his office have long been disorganized, with criticism even from supporters for taking on more things than he can keep track of. The congressman's life has been dominated by politics with no hobbies and few friendships outside of it. Loyalties to Rangel were severely tested when he was being investigated for possible ethics violations and a number of political figures bailed out on a lavish 80th birthday gala planned for Rangel at New York's Plaza Hotel. Rangel has been known for his blunt speaking and candor. When asked how he would like to be remembered, he paraphrased Rhett Butler in Gone with the Wind: , "Well, ... if I'm gone, quite frankly, I don't give a damn." In any case he has often made controversial remarks. Some have been linked to his caustic criticism of George W. Bush's administration. Speaking at a Congressional Black Caucus town meeting in September 2005, his frustration over the slow federal response to Hurricane Katrina led him to compare Bush to the Southern Democrat Bull Connor, a 1960s symbol of white opposition to the civil rights movement, saying: "George Bush is our Bull Connor." A few days later he said both figures had become focal points for American blacks to rally against. His first remark led to a public exchange with Vice President Dick Cheney who said, "I'm frankly surprised at his comments. It almost struck me — they were so out of line, it almost struck me that... Charlie was having some problem. Charlie is losing it, I guess." Rangel responded by saying, "The fact that he would make a crack at my age, he ought to be ashamed of himself... He should look so good at seventy-five." Rangel again expressed his displeasure with the vice president in October 2006 – after Cheney had said that "Charlie doesn't understand how the economy works" – by opining that Cheney is "a real son of a bitch" who "enjoys a confrontation" and suggesting that Cheney required professional treatment for mental defects. The White House said that the vice president did not take Rangel's comments personally and had a "big hearty laugh" over them. Rangel sometimes seems to find the other side; following the 2006 Hugo Chávez speech at the United Nations in which the Venezuelan leader implied that Bush was the devil, Rangel said, "I want President Chávez to please understand that even though many people in the United States are critical of our president that we resent the fact that he would come to the United States and criticize President Bush... you don't come into my country, you don't come into my congressional district and you don't condemn my president." Other remarks of Rangel's have revolved around Rangel's feelings about his home state and city, such as disparaging the state of Mississippi or suggesting that President Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama might be unsafe if they visited New York. In both cases apologies from the congressman followed. In certain instances, his remarks only exacerbated his existing problems. When his ethics issues were made public, Rangel remarked that Governor of Alaska and Republican vice presidential nominee Sarah Palin was "disabled". In 2013, he compared the Tea Party movement to segregationists who opposed the Civil Rights Movement and said they could be defeated the same way: "It is the same group we faced in the South with those white crackers and the dogs and the police. They didn't care about how they looked. It was just fierce indifference to human life that caused America to say enough is enough." ## Electoral history After defeating Adam Clayton Powell Jr. in the Democratic primary in 1970, Rangel won re-election to represent New York's 18th, 19th, 16th, 15th, 13th districts at different times. ## Awards and honors In 1986, the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation awarded Rangel with the William L. Dawson Award. Rangel was given the Jackie Robinson Foundation's Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005. In 2006, he received the Distinguished Service Award from the Washington International Trade Association. Rangel has received a number of honorary degrees, including ones from Hofstra University (1989), Syracuse University (2001), Suffolk University Law School (2002), and Bard College (2008). In 2006 he received a Presidential Medal from Baruch College. ## See also - List of African-American United States representatives - List of United States representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded - List of federal political scandals in the United States ## Explanatory notes ## Cited bibliography
5,092,753	Silent Hill: Origins	1,161,158,495	2007 video game	[ "2000s horror video games", "2007 video games", "Climax Group games", "Konami games", "PlayStation 2 games", "PlayStation Portable games", "Psychological horror games", "Silent Hill games", "Single-player video games", "Survival video games", "Video game prequels", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by Akira Yamaoka", "Video games set in Maine", "Video games set in psychiatric hospitals" ]	Silent Hill: Origins (stylized as Silent Hill: 0rigins) is a 2007 survival horror game developed by Climax Action and published by Konami Digital Entertainment. It was released worldwide in late 2007 for the PlayStation Portable, beginning in early November with the United Kingdom. A port for the PlayStation 2 was released worldwide in early 2008, beginning in March with North America. The fifth installment in the Silent Hill series, Origins is a prequel to the first game (1999). Set in the series' eponymous, fictional American town, Origins follows trucker Travis Grady as he searches for information about a girl whom he rescued from a fire. Along the way, he unlocks his repressed childhood memories. Gameplay uses a third-person perspective, and emphasizes combat, exploration, and puzzle-solving, similar to the previous installments. Origins was developed by the Portsmouth branch of the Climax Group, which was known as Climax Action at the time. It was transferred from the Los Angeles Climax branch, who closed down after facing issues with the game engine and the vision of the game; the script, monsters, and level design were redone, and aspects of Origins' atmosphere and gameplay intentionally replicated those of the first Silent Hill game. Origins was generally positively reviewed, although some reviewers wrote that it followed the formula of the series too closely and failed to add anything new. Its PlayStation 2 port received a lower aggregate score, with criticism directed towards its visuals. ## Gameplay The objective of Silent Hill: Origins is to guide player character, Travis Grady, as he searches the monster-filled town of Silent Hill for information about a girl he rescued from a burning house. The game uses a third-person perspective which it alternates with fixed camera angles. Following the gameplay formula of previous Silent Hill games, Origins primarily revolves around combat, exploration, and puzzle-solving. Typical gameplay of Origins consists of alternating between reality and its darker and dilapidated counterpart, the "Other World", to obtain keys and objects needed to solve a riddle. Travis carries a flashlight and indicates the direction of a nearby usable item, while his portable radio alerts the player to the presence of nearby monsters by emitting static. Often, actions performed in one dimension will affect the other; for example, raising a prop on the stage in the theater results in a similar reaction in the Other World. Once solved, the riddle leads to an encounter with a boss, whose defeat unlocks a new area. Completion of the game results in unlocking special items or alternative outfits for Travis depending on various accomplishments. For combat, in addition to using his fists (marking the first time unarmed combat is possible in a Silent Hill game), Travis accumulates a range of weapons throughout the town: firearms, melee weapons, and one-shot items usable in close combat; the latter two are breakable. Although one-shot items can be used to quickly kill some of the monsters encountered early on, Travis is vulnerable while performing this action to damage from quick enemies or those with long-ranged attacks. Origins also introduces the "grapple" system, a quick time event activated when a monster grabs him. Should he escape, no damage is done to either him or the monster. The status of his "health" is indicated in the inventory, since the game does not feature a heads-up display; however, when his health is critical, the edges of the screen throb red, and his heartbeat is heard. ## Synopsis ### Setting and characters A prequel to the first Silent Hill installment, Silent Hill: Origins takes place several years before the events of the first game. Origins is set in the eponymous, foggy, and rural small town located in the northeastern United States. The town is characterized by the "Other World", a supernatural location periodically encountered by the protagonists of the series. Most frequently assuming the form of the town, the Other World causes the characters to experience delusions and various symbols from their unconscious. Origins introduces Travis Grady, a trucker with a troubled past who suffers from nightmares. Returning characters from the first installment are Alessa Gilespie, a young girl who possesses supernatural powers; licensed practical nurse Lisa Garland, who has a drug addiction and dreams of being an actress instead of a nurse; physician Michael Kaufmann, who supplies Lisa with illegal drugs; and Alessa's mother, Dahlia Gillespie, a member of the town's cult which plans to bring its malevolent god into this world. ### Plot Driving past Silent Hill as a shortcut, Travis swerves his truck to avoid hitting a spirit manifestation of Alessa. While following the spirit manifestation, he stumbles upon a burning house and rescues the real Alessa, who was immolated in a ritual to impregnate her with the cult's god. Losing consciousness outside the house, he awakens in the town and resolves to learn if she survived. During his journey, Travis unlocks his repressed childhood memories and defeats monstrous forms of his parents: his mother had been committed to a local mental institution after attempting to kill him, and his father had killed himself, unable to live with the guilt of having his wife condemned. Additionally, Travis kills the Butcher, a monster that has been slaughtering other monsters. Travis continues following Alessa's spirit manifestation, which refuses to speak to him, and gradually collects pieces of an unknown pyramid-shaped object; after collecting all of the pieces, he assembles them to form the Flauros, an artifact which contains a trapped demon and can be used to amplify thought. Alessa's spirit manifestation uses the completed Flauros to increase her powers and free herself from Dahlia's spell, which had inhibited her abilities. Dahlia reveals that the cult plans to use Alessa to give birth to its god, before leaving to take part in the ritual. Travis heads to the cult's ritual grounds, and sees members of the cult, including Kaufmann, surrounding Alessa's burned body. Incapacitated by Kaufmann, Travis defeats and imprisons the demon within the Flauros in a dream-like state. Three endings are available. In the "Good" ending, Alessa uses the Flauros to manifest a baby with half of her soul, stopping the ritual, and her spirit manifestation carries the baby to the outskirts of the town, seeing Travis off as he returns to his truck and cheerfully drives away from Silent Hill. Dialogue follows to reveal that the protagonist of the first game, Harry Mason, and his wife find and adopt the baby, naming her Cheryl, while Dahlia and Kaufmann plan to cast a spell to draw the other half of Alessa's soul back to the town, setting the events of the first Silent Hill game in motion. In the "Bad" ending, Travis awakens strapped to a gurney and is injected with an unknown substance: he starts convulsing and has a series of visions in which he kills two people and his form is briefly replaced by that of the Butcher. The joke ending sees Travis leave with an alien and a dog in an unidentified flying object. ## Development At E3 2006, Origins was announced as in development by Climax Group's development team in Los Angeles, instead of by Konami's Team Silent who had developed previous installments. The first previews of the game featured a departure from the third-person view typical of the series to a Resident Evil 4-style camera angle, and an emphasis on action and combat to a greater degree than the previous installments in the series. In the previews, Travis had six weapons, divided equally between melee weapons and firearms. Additional changes included a laser sight for his pistol and an option for the player to barricade areas. At the time, the game was expected to be released in late 2006. Issues with the game's engine and "a confused high-level vision for the game" led to Climax shutting down their Los Angeles studio, and transferring the game's team to the Climax Action studio in the United Kingdom, to ensure the final product would be "a tighter, more focused game that will provide fans with the experience they want... a Silent Hill experience"; the release date was also pushed forward from winter 2006 to Q3/Q4 2007. The version of Origins that the United Kingdom development team received was intended to be a dark comedy inspired by the American television series Scrubs. Konami allowed the team to change the game, provided that the changes were done within the same budget and time frame; Origins's script, level design, and monsters were redone within a week by Sam Barlow. For Origins, the developers intentionally replicated aspects of gameplay and atmosphere from the first installment; for example, the monsters behave more aggressively than those in previous installments, as a throwback to the first game. Later previews showed that the game had changed significantly and contained gameplay more in line with that found in the previous titles in the series. The changes were well received by video game journalists. On 19 August 2007, a demo of the game was leaked to internet download sites; Climax promptly denied they were the source of the leaked content. Origins was released for the PlayStation Portable (PSP) on 6 November 2007 in North America, on 16 November in Europe, on 29 November in Australia, and on 6 December in Japan. The Japanese release carried the alternate title Silent Hill Zero. On 22 January 2008, Konami officially confirmed that a PlayStation 2 (PS2) port was in development. The PS2 port was released in North America on 5 March 2008, while the United Kingdom and Australian releases followed on 16 May 2008, and 23 May 2008, respectively. It became available on the PlayStation Network for Europe on 28 April 2014. ### Music Released as Silent Hill Zero Original Soundtracks, the musical score of Origins was composed by Akira Yamaoka, who had created the music of previous games in the series, and released in Japan on 25 January 2008, by Konami Music Entertainment, Inc. As Origins is a prequel, Yamaoka wished to imbue its music with the atmosphere of the first installment. Mary Elizabeth McGlynn provided vocals for four tracks, for which Joe Romersa wrote the lyrics. All three had previously worked together on the music of the fourth installment of the series (2004). ## Reception Most reviews for Silent Hill: Origins were positive; its original release on the PSP received a Metacritic aggregate score of 78 out of 100. GameDaily wrote that Origins "impressively brings all the elements we love about the Silent Hill franchise to a portable format that works wonderfully". Shane Bettenhausen of 1UP.com concluded: "Sure, it's predictable, conventional, and a little bit short, not to mention ill-suited for brief pick-up-and-play sessions on the bus, but we're encouraged to see developers making an original, console-quality experience for PSP". According to Kristan Reed of Eurogamer: "No doubt mindful of remaining faithful to the series' legacy, Climax pays such close attention to the ingredients of the first three Silent Hill games that it's basically an unapologetic homage to them". While stating that Origins would appeal to fans for its story that adds to the series' mythos, Game Informer added: "Unfortunately, the game has fallen into something like a rut in most other areas and less fanatical gamers won't be as forgiving of its faults". The storyline was met with generally mixed feelings from reviewers. According to Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot, the premise was unoriginal and unsuspenseful, detracting from Travis' appeal as a protagonist, although he felt that the game provided new material for fans to analyze. PALGN's Mat Keller wrote that the Origins' "blatantly obvious" subtext failed to affect the player, in contrast to the subtext of previous installments. 1UP.com stated that while Origins suffered from heavy foreshadowing and predictable plot twists and character development, it added to the backstory of the series. Conversely, Wesley Yin-Poole of VideoGamer.com described the storyline as "engrossing". Critics felt that the visual style was similar to those of the previous Silent Hill installments. Enjoying the visuals, Jeff Haynes of IGN wrote: "From the cluttered and junk strewn locations to the rusty, chaos filled doppelgangers of the alternate dimensions, everything feels like it's been stripped from one of the other titles and shrunk down to the handheld". Reviewers praised the graphics, the monster designs, the detailed environments, and atmosphere. However, some reviewers wrote that the character models could have been more detailed. Gameplay drew a variety of reactions from "immersive" and "intriguing", to formulaic. The puzzles were generally considered by critics as challenging and well-done. The duration of the game was considered short, and reviewers criticized the spacing of the save points and absence of checkpoints. The game's adherence to the formula of the Silent Hill series also drew criticism; the opening comment of GameSpot's review remarked that "this old fog needs to learn some new tricks", and further detailed that the game provided "an entirely conventional adventure that relies on eight-year-old franchise hallmarks at the expense of anything truly new". Some camera issues were noted, especially in tight corridors. Reviewers wrote that Origins had a greater emphasis on combat than previous installments, although reaction to the combat was generally negative. Some reviewers felt that the player was encouraged to avoid combat, due to a variety of gameplay factors, including the breakable melee weapons. On the other hand, GameSpy's David Chapman stated that the readily available weapons made Travis too powerful. The inclusion of quick time events was not well received by reviewers, who felt that it added nothing appealing to the game. Additionally, the soundtrack was frequently praised as frightening, and a part of the game's appeal. The PlayStation Official Magazine UK wrote: "Despite its small-screen setting, Origins even manages a few genuine scares, mostly thanks to the first-rate sound: this should only be played through headphones". The PS2 port was not as well received by reviewers, with a lower aggregate score of 70 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews". The graphics of the port were considered by reviewers to be not as good as the PSP release and other installments in the series for the PS2. Conversely, a reviewer for GameZone wrote that despite some technical issues with the graphics, the visuals of the port sufficed. Other issues with the port commented on by critics include the lack of manual camera control, the absence of a mini-map or overall map for the more challenging areas, and no new bonus material for the port.
517,891	Mersea Island	1,162,204,692	A tidal island in Essex, England	[ "Borough of Colchester", "Islands of Essex", "Mersea Island", "Populated coastal places in Essex", "Tidal islands of England" ]	Mersea Island /ˈmɜːrzi/ is an island in Essex, England, in the Blackwater and Colne estuaries to the south-east of Colchester. Its name comes from the Old English word meresig, meaning "island of the pool" and thus is tautological. The island is split into two main areas, West Mersea and East Mersea, and connected to the mainland by the Strood, a causeway that can flood at high tide. The island has been inhabited since pre-Roman times. It was used as a holiday destination in Roman Britain for occupants of Camulodunum (Colchester). Fishing has been a key industry on the island since then, particularly oysters, and along with tourism makes up a significant part of the island's economy. The Church of St Peter & St Paul in West Mersea is thought to have existed since the 7th century, while the Church of St Edmund in East Mersea dates from around the 12th or 13th century. The island became popular with smugglers from the 16th to the 19th century. It became a focal point for troops in both world wars, and a number of observation posts can still be found on the island. Tourism remains popular, and there are a number of beach huts and holiday parks on the island. A week-long festival of boat racing, Mersea Week, takes place every summer. ## Geography The island lies 9 miles (14 km) south of Colchester and 26 miles (42 km) east of the county town, Chelmsford. It is the most easterly inhabited and publicly accessible island in the United Kingdom and is one of 43 (unbridged) tidal islands which can be accessed on foot or by road from the British mainland. It is situated in the estuary area of the Blackwater and Colne rivers and has an area of around 7 square miles (18 km<sup>2</sup>). It is formed by the Pyefleet Channel to the north and the Strood Channel to the west, which connect the Blackwater to the Colne. The much smaller Ray Island lies adjacent to the north while the uninhabited Packing Marsh and Cobmarsh Islands lie to southwest. Most of the area immediately surrounding the island consists of saltmarsh and mudflats, and is an important sanctuary for wading and migratory birds. The island itself sits on a mix of London Clay, chalky boulder clay, sand and gravel. Internally, the island is split between West Mersea, which is the main inhabited area containing the jetty and marina, and East Mersea, which is predominantly farmland and includes Cudmore Grove County Park to the east. There is also a small hamlet at Barrow Hill to the north of West Mersea. The land immediately facing the Blackwater is known as the Mersea flats, which is mostly beach that dries at low tide. The former Bradwell Power Station can be seen on the other side. West Mersea can be further divided into three areas. The Old City in the southwest of West Mersea serves the fishing and yachting industries and contains a number of listed buildings. The centre contains the church of St Peter & St Paul, while the beach and esplanade are to the south. The name 'Mersea' is derived from the Old English word meresig meaning 'island of the pool'. It is mentioned in the Domesday Book as Meresai. The Strood is derived from strod, meaning 'marshy land'. ## Economy The main industries on Mersea are farming, fishing and servicing the leisure boating and yachting industry. Oysters have been harvested off the island since Roman times, and are shipped worldwide. The extensive history and association with the oyster trade attracts a significant number of tourists each year, though today the trade is predominantly with Pacific oysters that have been introduced to the area. The Essex oyster fishery is opened by the Mayor of Colchester every September. Many small shops and ice cream businesses serve the tourism on Mersea's seafront. The Two Sugars Cafe is sited on a former World War II pillbox near the beach. There are six camping and caravanning sites on the island, which help contribute towards the island's economy during the summer months. The largest is Cooper's Beach, which caters to 3,000 residents. ## History There is evidence of pre-Roman settlement on Mersea in the form of "red hills" that are the remains of Celtic salt workings. A large Romano-British round barrow near the Strood contained the remains of a cremated adult in a glass urn, within a lead casket, now in the local Mersea Museum. In 1730, a large mosaic floor was found underneath the Church of St Peter & St Paul at West Mersea and in 1764, Richard Gough discovered further evidence of Roman remains around the church. West Mersea was believed to be a holiday destination for Romans staying at Camulodunum (Colchester). Evidence has shown a number of fish traps exist around the island, which date from around the 7th century. The Anglo-Saxons established a large fish weir at Besom Fleet to the southwest of the island and built the church at West Mersea. It was damaged by Norse raiders in 894 and rebuilt afterwards. The west tower was added to the church around the 11th century, the south aisle in the 15th and various other rebuilds continued towards the end of the 18th century. The Strood causeway was also built by the Saxons; oak piles discovered in 1978 have been dated to between 684 and 702 using dendrochronology. By 950, there was a Benedictine priory at West Mersea and land here was granted to the Abbey of St Ouen in France by Edward the Confessor in 1046. The priory survived until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1542. The Parish Church of St Edmund in East Mersea dates from around the 12th or 13th century, with extensions in the late 15th or 16th. The church and hall are surrounded by a moat that is thought to be the remains of a Danish refuge after their defeat by King Alfred at Farnham. In 1547, King Henry VIII built a blockhouse or bulwark at East Mersea, an earthwork fort for up to six guns with a drawbridge. The keepers in the 1570s were two veteran soldiers Henry Jordan and Edmund Martyn. In the English Civil War, it was taken in 1648 by the Parliamentary Army, with the aim of blockading the River Colne during the siege of Colchester. Although described as ruinous in 1768, the earthworks were reused in 1798 as a gun battery for six 24-pounder long guns. The remains of this blockhouse are legally protected by Historic England as a scheduled monument. and are known as the Block House Stone. Fishing grew in importance on the island during this time, with numerous fish weirs being installed. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Dutch and French settlers arrived on the island. Some locals supplemented their income from the oyster trade by smuggling, which remained popular until the mid-19th century. Smugglers favoured the Peldon Rose, immediately north of the Strood, where they would store contraband in the pond alongside the inn. In the early 19th century, the increased demand for oysters despite a limited supply from the Strood and Pyefleet Channel led traders to get oysters from other places and pass them off as native to the island. By the end of the 19th century, the land around the island had been partially reclaimed, allowing easier access. A police officer for the island was appointed in 1844 and a school was opened in 1871. In the First World War, 320 soldiers came from Mersea Island, of which 50 lost their lives. They are commemorated at the War Memorial at the parish church. Troops were stationed at Mersea Island during the war. In 1916, a Zeppelin crash landed at nearby Great Wigborough to the northwest of the island. The survivors were stationed at Mersea before moving to prisoner-of-war camps. In 2013, the Mersea Island Tales Educational Trust obtained a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund to set up a First World War exhibition at Ivy Farm, which features a 1916 Sopwith Pup biplane and information about soldiers from Mersea who took part in the war. In 1926, West Mersea became a self-governing urban district, which allowed it to set up a self-contained water and sewer system. Unlike several other coastal resorts, the island did not immediately develop any holidaymaker facilities aside from the beach huts which now stretch along the Esplanade. At the outbreak of World War II, the island became part of the front line for invasion and was heavily fortified. Along with other coastal resorts, the island drew in evacuees from London, though as the war progressed, these were moved to safer settlements further inland. 2000 troops were stationed on the island to guard against invasion. A battery of 4.7 inch guns was installed along the beach along with a Battery Observation post and a number of searchlights and pillboxes. Several of these installations survived and can still be seen along the south coast of the island, one of which has been converted into a cafe. After the war, the island suffered from severe winter weather in 1947 which destroyed much of the oyster fishery, and from the flooding of 1953, where numerous beach huts were swept out to sea. In 1963, a lifeboat service was launched following an initiative by "Diggle" Hayward who had approached the Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) about a lifeboat capability on Mersea. The West Mersea Lifeboat Station operates an Atlantic 85 class lifeboat, the RNLB Just George B-879. Since the 1960s, the population has increased considerably, with the population of West Mersea rising from 3,140 in 1961 to 6,925 in 2001. Mersea Island has suffered less from the increased popularity of holidaying abroad when compared to nearby resorts such as Clacton and Southend, predominantly due to its isolated and rural atmosphere, and the continued popularity of sailing. In 2006, more than a thousand locals signed a petition against the proposed opening of a Tesco Express store on the island, expressing concern that it would take trade away from local businesses. Planning permission was granted the following year. On 4 June 2012, as part of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee celebrations, the island declared a mock independence from the UK for that day. Anyone travelling to the island across the Strood paid 50p for a "passport", the proceeds of which went towards the war veteran charity Help for Heroes. ## Education Mersea Island School is a foundation primary school in West Mersea with 450 pupils aged 4–11. The school has an additional nursery for 52 children aged 2–4. The school was built by Horace Darken in 1871–72, with additional classrooms added in 1897. There are no secondary schools on the island. The nearest are Thomas Lord Audley School in Colchester and Thurstable School in Tiptree. ## Transport The main access to the island is via a causeway known as the Strood, carrying the Mersea–Colchester road (B1025). The road can be covered for up to an hour at high tide, especially during spring tides. On average the causeway is flooded at high tide for a week per month. During the 1953 North Sea flood, the Strood was submerged under over 6 feet (2 m) of water, cutting off access to the mainland. In 2012, West Mersea Lifeboats complained to Essex County Council about the lack of adequate signage after 13 people had to be rescued from the Strood at high tide in less than 24 hours. A webcam provides a live view of access across the Strood, while a corresponding website lists upcoming high tides and the likelihood of obstructing the road. There has never been a railway to Mersea Island. During the railway mania of the mid-19th century, goods were transported by boat and barge. In 1911, local businessmen proposed a railway between Colchester and the island, which would have ended at a pier next to the Esplanade in the south, with an additional station in West Mersea on what is now East Road. The plans were abandoned due to the First World War. A regular bus service links West and East Mersea to Colchester via the Strood and Abberton. A foot ferry runs from East Mersea to Point Clear and Brightlingsea on the other side of the Colne estuary, including a scheduled service in the summer and a dial-on-demand service in the spring and autumn. ## Culture The island is used as a setting for several works by Margery Allingham, who spent childhood holidays on the island. These include her first novel, Blackkerchief Dick, published in 1923 when she was 19, and her 1930 novel Mystery Mile, although the plot disguises the location as being in Suffolk. Between 1870 and 1881 the Rector of East Mersea was the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould. Baring-Gould was the writer of the hymn "Onward, Christian Soldiers" and the author of the novel Mehalah: A Story of the Salt Marshes which was set in Mersea. East Mersea was a site in the Survey of English Dialects in the 1950s. The island retained some rhoticity, which had otherwise died out in eastern England. The Mersea Week is a week-long August festival of boat racing organised by the West Mersea Yacht Club and Dabchicks Sailing Club, established in 1973. During the week, starting on Monday, there are races for many boat classes in the Blackwater Estuary, from Optimist dinghies to large yachts. The most celebrated event is the Round-the-Island race, where dinghies attempt to sail round the island in either direction, helped over the Strood by volunteers. On Saturday, there is a regatta at West Mersea, followed by a selection of water sports and a firework display at dusk. One of the popular events on Saturday is walking a greasy pole rigged over the side of the hosting Thames sailing barge. The Mersea Island Food, Drink & Leisure Festival takes place in May in the Mersea Vineyard. It combines a food theatre showing various meals, particularly oysters, with local live music and storytelling. The island is home to Mersea Island F.C., who compete in the Essex and Suffolk Border Football League Division 1. There is a youth football team, Oyster F.C. There is a public library on the island, located in West Mersea, run by Essex County Council. ## See also - Osea Island and Northey Island, other islands in the Blackwater Estuary inaccessible at high tide
5,072,804	The Apartment (Seinfeld)	1,163,647,874	null	[ "1991 American television episodes", "Seinfeld (season 2) episodes" ]	"The Apartment" is the fifth episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and the show's tenth episode overall. In the episode, protagonist Jerry Seinfeld (Jerry Seinfeld) gets his ex-girlfriend Elaine Benes (Julia Louis-Dreyfus) an apartment above his, but regrets this after realizing it might be uncomfortable living so close together. Meanwhile, Jerry's friend George Costanza (Jason Alexander) wears a wedding ring to a party to see what effect it will have on women. The episode was written by Peter Mehlman and directed by Tom Cherones. Series co-creators Seinfeld and Larry David asked Mehlman to write an episode for the show after they read a few articles he wrote for newspapers and magazines. Mehlman originally had the idea of Elaine moving away from Jerry, but David and Seinfeld felt it would be funnier if Elaine moved closer to Jerry instead. "The Apartment" was first broadcast in the United States on April 4, 1991, on NBC (and was the first new episode of the series after the underwhelming reception of the previous episode, "The Phone Message" caused it to go on a two-month hiatus), and was watched in 15.7 million homes, making it the ninth most-watched program of the week it was broadcast. The episode gained mostly positive responses from critics. ## Plot While Elaine is depressed about the low quality of her apartment, Jerry overhears Harold (Glenn Shadix) and Manny (Tony Plana), the managers of his apartment building, discussing a death that makes an apartment available. Shocked by the low rent, Jerry tells Elaine that he will be able to get her the apartment above his. She is extremely excited to hear this, as she will be able to live near Jerry. Jerry belatedly realizes how intrusive Elaine might become and discusses his problem with George. They also talk about how women seem attracted to men wearing wedding rings. George borrows one from Kramer to test this hypothesis at a party. Harold and Manny inform Jerry that someone else has offered \$5,000 for the apartment, so they will give it to him unless Elaine matches his bid. Jerry sees this as a perfect escape, since Elaine cannot afford the higher rent. Kramer walks in on Jerry breaking the news to Elaine. Oblivious to Jerry's real feelings, he pressures him to lend Elaine the rent money. After she leaves, Jerry rebukes Kramer for his faux pas. Later, Elaine, Jerry and George go a party where Elaine asks Jerry if it would be uncomfortable for them to live so close to each other; Jerry says he's not worried about it but soon feels stupid for not telling her the truth. George's wedding ring plan backfires, as women who are otherwise attracted to him are unwilling to pursue a married man. To make up for his earlier mistake, Kramer finds somebody who is willing to pay \$10,000 for the apartment, a sum so large Elaine would not be willing to borrow it from Jerry. However, the new renter is a musician who constantly plays loud music, and Jerry ends up regretting not letting Elaine rent the apartment. ## Production "The Apartment" was written by Peter Mehlman and directed by Tom Cherones. Seinfeld and co-creator Larry David contacted Mehlman and asked him to write an episode for the show after reading a few articles Mehlman had written for The New York Times and Esquire. Mehlman noted that prior to Seinfeld he had "barely written any dialogue in [his] life." He first conceived the idea of an episode in which Elaine would move away from Manhattan and Jerry had to confront his feelings about her. He discussed the idea with Seinfeld, David and staff writer Larry Charles, who felt that it would be funnier if Elaine moved closer to Jerry instead. After their meeting, Mehlman was told to write the episode, which surprised him, describing it as "unlike any other show, where they would have given beat for beat for beat." As Mehlman was writing the script, he came up with the idea of George wearing a wedding ring to a party to see how women would react. Though the wedding ring idea was not included in the approved script, Seinfeld and David decided to keep it as it suited George well. The first table read of the episode was held on January 9, 1991. The episode was filmed in front of a live audience on January 15, 1991. Filming of the episode took place at the CBS Studio Center in Studio City, Los Angeles, California, where, starting with the season two premiere "The Ex-Girlfriend," filming of all the show's episodes took place. A few scenes were changed prior to the filming of the episode. The scene in which Jerry informs George he told Elaine about the apartment initially showed them standing in line for the movies, talking about sitting in the front of the theatre. George would tell Jerry that he once pretended to have a grotesque physical impairment while he was standing in line to get a ticket for The Exorcist, and people would let him go in front of them without saying anything. The location of this scene, however, was changed to Monk's Cafe, a regular hangout for the show's main characters, and George and Jerry's dialogue was shortened. In the original script, Jerry, instead of George, proclaimed himself "lord of the idiots," but this was changed during rehearsals. "The Apartment" featured the only appearance of Harold and Manny, the two building superintendents. Veteran actors Glenn Shadix and Tony Plana portrayed Harold and Manny, respectively. Their part in the episode was originally smaller, but they were written into the final scene. Harold was set to return in the season two episode "The Revenge," in which he would tell the show's central characters that Jerry's suicidal neighbor Newman jumped from the building, but an awning broke his fall. However, the Newman subplot in the episode was significantly reduced during production and Harold's part was cut. Theresa Randle, Patricia Ayame Thomson and Leslie Neale guest starred as women George unsuccessfully flirts with while wearing a wedding ring. Louis-Dreyfus' half-sister Lauren Bowles appeared as an extra at the party attended by George, Jerry and Elaine. Bowles would continue to appear regularly throughout the series' run, frequently as a waitress at Monk's Cafe. Additionally, David Blackwood, who appeared as a party guest, also continued to make small appearances on the show. Assistant director Joan Van Horn appeared as a woman feeding her baby at Monk's Cafe. The episode marks the first time Elaine does her trademark "Get Out!" shove; the catchphrase was not in the original script, but was added at Louis-Dreyfus' suggestion. It became one of the show's popular catchphrases. "The Apartment" is the first episode in which Jerry's apartment number is 5A; it had been changed a few times prior to the broadcast of this episode, but remained 5A until the end of the show. It is also contains one of the few references to Kramer's father, who remained unseen throughout the show's run. ## Reception The episode was first aired in the United States on NBC on April 4, 1991 as part of a Thursday night line-up that also included Cheers and L.A. Law. "The Apartment" gained a Nielsen rating of 16.9 and an audience share of 28, meaning that 16.9% of American households watched the episode, and that 28% of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it. Nielsen also estimated that 15.7 million homes were tuned into the episode, making Seinfeld the ninth most-watched show in the week the episode was broadcast, while 20.5 million homes tuned into Cheers. Seinfeld's ability to keep a large number of Cheers' audience eventually helped the show get a third season order. Ocala Star-Banner critic Jon Burlingame praised the episode for its "smart humor" and stated the show could be a perfect fit between Cheers and L.A. Law. Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling of Entertainment Weekly reacted very positively to the episode and praised Alexander's performance in particular, stating "George's profound self-hatred is now in full bloom ('Please, a little respect, for I am Costanza, Lord of the Idiots!'). Kramer's input, meanwhile, remains limited to off-the-wall, often annoying cameos. Which reminds us: Why in the world has Alexander been denied an Emmy, while Richards has scored two?" Schilling and Flaherty graded the episode with a B+. However, The Kitchener-Waterloo Record critic Bonnie Malleck gave the episode a particularly negative review; comparing Seinfeld to It's Garry Shandling's Show, she stated "Seinfeld isn't neurotic enough to be as funny as [Garry Shandling]. So, instead of being nervously funny, he's just nervously dull."
28,481,733	86th Street station (Second Avenue Subway)	1,171,061,730	New York City Subway station in Manhattan	[ "2010s in Manhattan", "2017 establishments in New York City", "IND Second Avenue Line stations", "New York City Subway stations in Manhattan", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 2017", "Second Avenue (Manhattan)", "Yorkville, Manhattan" ]	The 86th Street station is a station on the first phase of the Second Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of Second Avenue and 86th Street, in the Yorkville section of the Upper East Side in Manhattan, it opened on January 1, 2017. The station is served by the Q train at all times, limited southbound rush hour N trains, and one northbound A.M. rush hour R train. There are two tracks and an island platform. The station was part of the original Second Avenue Subway as outlined in the Program for Action in 1968. Construction on that project started in 1972, but stalled in 1975 due to lack of funding. In 2007, a separate measure authorized a first phase of the Second Avenue Line to be built between 65th and 105th Streets, with stations at 72nd, 86th, and 96th Streets. The station opened on January 1, 2017, as an intermediate station along Phase 1. Since opening, the presence of the Second Avenue Subway's three Phase 1 stations has improved real estate prices along the corridor. The 86th Street station was used by approximately 8.4 million passengers in 2019. The station, along with the other Phase 1 stations along the Second Avenue Subway, contains features not found in most New York City Subway stations. It is fully compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, containing two elevators for disabled access. Additionally, the station contains air conditioning and is waterproofed, a feature only found in newer stations. The artwork at 86th Street is Subway Portraits, a selection of twelve face portraits by painter Chuck Close. ## History ### Background The Second Avenue Line was originally proposed in 1919 as part of a massive expansion of what would become the Independent Subway System (IND). Work on the line never commenced, as the Great Depression crushed the economy. Numerous plans for the Second Avenue Subway appeared throughout the 20th century, but these were usually deferred due to lack of funds. In anticipation of the never-built new subway line, the Second and Third Avenue elevated lines were demolished in 1942 and 1955, respectively. The Second Avenue Elevated had one station at 86th Street and Second Avenue—right above the same intersection where the subway station is located—while the Third Avenue Elevated had two stops on nearby Third Avenue at 84th Street and 89th Street. ### Unrealized proposals The Metropolitan Transportation Authority proposed a full-length Second Avenue Subway as part of its 1968 Program for Action. The line was to be built in two phases—the first phase from 126th to 34th Streets, the second phase from 34th to Whitehall Streets. The line's planned stops in Manhattan, spaced farther apart than those on existing subway lines, proved controversial; the Second Avenue line was criticized as a "rich man's express, circumventing the Lower East Side with its complexes of high-rise low- and middle-income housing and slums in favor of a silk stocking route." There was to be a station at 86th Street, but the next station north would be at 106th Street and the next station south would be at 57th Street. In a planning report, a possible 86th Street station had already been confirmed. All Second Avenue Subway stations built under the Program for Action would have included escalators, high intensity lighting, improved audio systems, platform edge strips, and non-slip floors to accommodate the needs of the elderly and people with disabilities, but no elevators. Space at each station would have been used for ancillary facilities. The stations were to be made with brick walls and pavers alongside stainless steel, and would have relatively small dimensions, with 10-foot (3.0 m) mezzanine ceilings. Gruzen & Partners received a contract for the design of the 86th Street station. A combination of Federal and State funding was obtained, and despite the controversy over the number of stops and route, a groundbreaking ceremony was held on October 27, 1972 at Second Avenue and 103rd Street. Although work on the 86th Street station never commenced, three short segments of tunnel in East Harlem and Chinatown were built. However, the city soon experienced its most dire fiscal crisis yet, due to the stagnant economy of the early 1970s, combined with the massive outflow of city residents to the suburbs, and in September 1975, construction on the line stopped, and the tunnels were sealed. In 1999, the Regional Plan Association considered a full-length Second Avenue Subway, which include 86th Street as one of its planned 31 stations. The main station entrance would be at 86th Street to the north, with additional exits between 86th and 82nd Streets to the south. ### Construction In March 2007, the Second Avenue Subway was revived. The line's first phase, the "first major expansion" to the New York City Subway in more than a half-century, included three stations in total (at 72nd, 86th, and 96th Streets), which collectively cost \$4.45 to \$4.5 billion. Its construction site was designated as being from 105th Street and Second Avenue to 63rd Street and Third Avenue. The MTA awarded a \$337 million contract—one that included constructing the tunnels between 92nd and 63rd Streets, building a launch box for the tunnel boring machine (TBM) at 92nd to 95th Streets, and erecting access shafts at 69th and 72nd Streets—to Schiavone Construction, Skanska USA Civil, and J.F. Shea Construction. The line's construction commenced on April 15, 2007, though planning for the station was finalized in June 2007, when the station entrances' locations were confirmed. On September 15, 2011, the contract for building the station was awarded to the joint venture of Skanska USA and Traylor Bros Inc. As of January 17, 2013, the cavern stretching from 83rd to 87th Streets was 57% excavated. By July 2013, construction of the station was 53% complete. The final blast for the 86th Street station was completed for an escalator cavern on November 22, 2013. Skanska/Traylor were still installing waterproofing and steel reinforcement, as well as putting concrete around the cavern, entrances, and ancillaries. As of May 2014, entrances 1 and 2 were being built, and excavation was 100% complete; as of December 2014, the station shell was complete, bringing the total Second Avenue Subway project progress to three-fourths completion. The station was scheduled to be completed by May 16, 2016, but the estimated completion date was pushed back to October 2016. In October 2016, concerns arose that the station might not open on time because workers had only installed 10 of the station's 13 escalators. However, the 86th Street station passed all required systems testing by December 18, 2016. The station opened on January 1, 2017. ## Station layout The 86th Street station is served by Q trains at all times, some N trains during rush hours, and one northbound R train during the AM rush hours. The station is between 96th Street to the north and 72nd Street to the south. It has two tracks and an island platform. The station is built so that it is more wide open than most other underground stations in the system; its architecture, along with two other Second Avenue Subway stations, was compared to a Washington Metro station by Michael Horodniceanu, President of MTA Capital Construction. The platform is 93 feet (28 m) below ground. The platform for the 86th Street station, like the other Second Avenue Subway stations, is 27.8 feet (8.5 m) wide. The station has air-cooling systems to make it at least 10 °F (6 °C) cooler than other subway stations during the summer. This requires the station to have large ventilation and ancillary buildings, rather than traditional subway grates. The station is also compliant with current fire codes, whereas most existing stations are not. Additionally, the station is waterproofed with concrete liners and fully drained. In early plans, the Second Avenue Subway was supposed to have platform screen doors to assist with air-cooling, energy savings, ventilation, and track safety, but this plan was scrapped in 2012 as cost-prohibitive. According to an internal study prepared for the MTA in 2020, the 86th Street station could theoretically accommodate half-height platform edge doors. Full-height platform screen doors would be possible but would necessitate the installation of structural bracing and relocation of several mechanical systems. ### Artwork In 2009, MTA Arts & Design selected Chuck Close from a pool of 300 potential artists to create the artwork for the station. His work consists of a series of twelve portraits of the city's cultural figures, spread over 1,000 square feet (93 m<sup>2</sup>) of wall. Each 10-foot-high (3.0 m) piece is made with tiles that are painted to create a mosaic-like effect. The pieces cost \$1 million and were installed near the exits and in the mezzanines. Close's portraits at the station, titled Subway Portraits, fall into two main categories. The first category of portraits comprises artists whom Close is familiar with. The station contains portraits of composer Philip Glass in his youth; musician Lou Reed; photographer Cindy Sherman; painter Cecily Brown; artist Kara Walker; and painter Alex Katz. The second category is composed of portraits of younger, more ethnically diverse artists including Zhang Huan, Sienna Shields and Pozsi B. Kolor. In these portraits, Close aimed to highlight the cultural diversity of New York City. He also has two self-portraits within the station. ### Exits and ancillary buildings There are 3 entrances and exits, which comprise 10 escalators and one elevator. There are also two ancillary buildings that store station equipment: - Ancillary 1, NW corner of Second Avenue and 83rd Street - Ancillary 2, NW corner of Second Avenue and 86th Street Originally, Entrance 2's escalator entrance was to be located inside the Yorkshire Towers apartment building at 305 East 86th Street, on the northeast corner of Second Avenue and 86th Street. In 2009, a Finding Of No Significant Impact by the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) found this to be unfeasible, so the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) revised the plan to two separate sidewalk entrances in front of the building. During the planning process, it was determined that building a new entrance within the Yorkshire Towers would be too expensive and logistically unfeasible. The apartments directly above the entrance's location would have had to be structurally underpinned during construction, and the Food Emporium supermarket location would have had to close to make way for the new entrance. Of the three alternatives presented for moving the entrance, the MTA chose an alternative in which there would be two new escalator entrances on the north side of 86th Street, both flanking the semicircular driveway of Yorkshire Towers and facing away from the driveway. There was also a proposal to move the sidewalk escalator entrances to the south side of the street, as well as another proposal to build a new structure containing five elevators at the southeast corner of Second Avenue and 86th Street, in a manner similar to Entrance 3 of the adjacent 72nd Street station. Controversy emerged over Entrance 2's location in February 2011, when a lawsuit was filed by the Yorkshire Towers over the location of Entrance 2. The entrances, planned to service 3,600 people an hour, were alleged in the lawsuit to be destroying the quality of life for building tenants, if the entrances were to be built in the location. The lawsuit was later dismissed because the suit had been filed two years after the FTA's FONSI was published, which was past the statute of limitations. A new lawsuit was filed on March 15, 2013, after the MTA started construction on the entrances. In June 2013, that lawsuit was also dismissed. In May 2017, all three escalators in Entrance 1 were damaged by sprinklers activated by faulty sensors, causing the entire entrance to be temporarily closed. ## Effects Since 2013, construction of the station has caused the value of real estate in the area to rise. However, construction has temporarily made the prices of real estate decrease to "affordable" levels. Although the surrounding area's real estate prices had been declining since the 1990s, there had been increases in the purchases and leases of residential units around the area, causing real estate prices to rise again. Some businesses near the station's construction site had also lost profits. With the opening of the new station, business owners hoped to see an increase in patronage. ## Second Avenue Subway Community Information Center The Second Avenue Subway Community Information Center, which gave information about Phase I construction to community members, was located nearby, at 1628 Second Avenue between 84th and 85th Streets. It opened on July 25, 2013. On May 23, 2014, a new exhibit about the construction techniques used to build the Second Avenue Subway, titled En Route: The Techniques and Technologies Used to Build the Second Avenue Subway, was launched at the center. Throughout the process of construction, the MTA also gave intermittent tours of the construction site to Upper East Side residents with reservations. The center received over 20,000 visitors in three years. In 2017, the MTA opened a similar center outside the 125th Street station in East Harlem for Phase II. ## Nearby places - Carl Schurz Park and Gracie Mansion - Municipal Asphalt Plant
22,549,383	Wake low	1,117,639,307	Weather system	[ "Severe weather and convection", "Types of cyclone", "Vortices" ]	A wake low, or wake depression, is a mesoscale low-pressure area which trails the mesoscale high following a squall line. Due to the subsiding warm air associated with the system's formation, clearing skies are associated with the wake low. Once difficult to detect in surface weather observations due to their broad spacing, the formation of mesoscale weather station networks, or mesonets, has increased their detection. Severe weather, in the form of high winds, can be generated by the wake low when the pressure difference between the mesohigh preceding it and the wake low is intense enough. When the squall line is in the process of decay, heat bursts can be generated near the wake low. Once new thunderstorm activity along the squall line concludes, the wake low associated with it weakens in tandem. ## Formation Wake lows form due to adiabatic warming in the wake of mature squall lines at the back edge of their rain shields, where evaporative cooling is unable to offset warming due to atmospheric subsidence, or downward motion. They can be caused by gravity waves which duct through boundary layers which are deep and cold to the north of a weather front. As with mesoscale high-pressure areas behind a squall line, when new thunderstorm development stops along the squall line, the wake low will weaken as well. Clearing conditions will accompany the wake low, due to the descending warm air mass associated with the feature. Within the United States, these systems have been observed to form in the Mississippi river valley, Southeast, Florida, and Great Plains. A wake low producing strong northeasterly winds of 70 to 80 mph (110 to 130 km/h) and very rough seas was determined to be responsible for the capsizing of the Seacor Power lift boat (according to the National Weather Service) with 13 mariners drowned or missing. ## Detection Both direct and indirect ways have been found to indicate the presence of a wake depression. The most direct is through the use of surface observations. Prior to the development of mesoscale weather station networks, or mesonets, it was difficult to locate wake lows. With the advent of mesoscale networks, wake lows have become easier to detect. On weather satellite and weather radar imagery, wake lows and heat bursts normally occur on the rear side of a precipitation area. However, within larger precipitation areas, they can be located within the area showing a minimum of returns. When using velocity data from a WSR-88D doppler radar, high winds on the back edge of reflectivity data can give away the location of a wake low. ## Association with heat bursts Heat bursts are rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point (moisture). Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms. In association with wake lows, heat bursts are caused when rain evaporates (virga) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings. The parcel descends rapidly, warming due to compression, overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface, similar to a downburst. Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 90 °F (32 °C), sometimes rising by 20 °F (11 °C) or more within only a few minutes. More extreme events have also been documented, where temperatures have been reported to exceed 130 °F (54 °C), although such extreme events have never been officially verified. Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong, even damaging, winds. ## See also - Mesoscale convective vortex (MCV)
22,195,431	Paul Stephenson (civil rights campaigner)	1,165,098,947	British civil right activist (born 1937)	[ "1937 births", "20th-century Royal Air Force personnel", "Black British activists", "Black British history", "Black British politicians", "British civil rights activists", "English people of Nigerian descent", "English social workers", "Living people", "Military personnel from Essex", "Officers of the Order of the British Empire", "People from Rochford", "Royal Air Force airmen" ]	Paul Stephenson OBE (born 6 May 1937) is a community worker, activist and long-time campaigner for civil rights for the British African-Caribbean community in Bristol, England. As a young social worker, in 1963 Stephenson led a boycott of the Bristol Omnibus Company, protesting against its refusal to employ Black or Asian drivers or conductors. After a 60-day boycott supported by thousands of Bristolians, the company revoked its colour bar in August. In 1964 Stephenson achieved national fame when he refused to leave a public house until he was served, resulting in a trial on a charge of failing to leave a licensed premises. His campaigns were instrumental in paving the way for the first Race Relations Act, in 1965. Stephenson is a Freeman of the City of Bristol and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2009. ## Early life Stephenson was born in Rochford, Essex, in 1937 to a West African father and a British mother. His maternal grandmother Edie Johnson was a well known actress in the 1920s. At age 3 he was evacuated to a care home in Great Dunmow, Essex, where he stayed for seven years. He received his secondary education at Forest Gate Secondary School in London, where he was the only black child in the school. Service in the Royal Air Force followed from 1953 to 1960. Stephenson gained a Diploma in Youth and Community Work from Westhill College of Education, Birmingham, in 1962 and then moved to Bristol to work as a youth officer for Bristol City Council, becoming the city's first black social worker. ## Bus boycott In January 1955 the Passenger group, that is the section representing those working in Passenger Transport, of the local branch of the Transport and General Workers Union had passed a resolution that "coloured workers should not be employed as bus crews" by the Bristol Omnibus Company. The Bristol Evening Post ran a series of articles in 1961 exposing this colour bar. The union publicly denied the bar, but the company general manager, Ian Patey, did admit it. He attempted to justify the company policy by stating in a meeting with the city's Joint Transport Committee that he "had 'factual evidence' that the introduction of coloured crews in other cities downgraded the job, causing existing (white) staff to go elsewhere." Several members of the city's West Indian community set up an organisation, the West Indian Development Council, to fight discrimination of this sort, aided by Stephenson, who was the city's first black youth officer. In 1963 Stephenson established that the bus company was indeed operating a colour bar and inspired by the example of Rosa Parks' refusal to move off a "whites only" bus seat in Montgomery, Alabama, leading to the Montgomery bus boycott, a Bristol Bus Boycott was organised. As an articulate and university educated person, Stephenson became spokesman for the boycott, which soon attracted nationwide media interest and the campaign grew to receive support from Bristolians of all colours, Tony Benn, MP for Bristol East, and Harold Wilson, leader of the Labour opposition. After 60 days, on 28 August 1963 (the same day that Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech in Washington, DC), the bus company capitulated and in September Raghbir Singh became Bristol's first non-white bus conductor. In August 2014, a plaque was unveiled inside Bristol Bus Station commemorating the bus boycott. ## Further career In the following year Stephenson achieved national prominence when he refused to leave a public house, the Bay Horse pub in Bristol, without being served. The bar manager reportedly told Stephenson, "We don't want you black people in here – you are a nuisance." Stephenson was arrested and charged with failing to leave a licensed premises. The case attracted media attention, and the Bristol Evening Post ran the story with the headline "West Indian leader made a fool of himself." At his trial in a magistrate's court, prosecutors alleged that he had behaved aggressively, but witness accounts refuted this claim. The case was dismissed and the barman was dismissed by his employers. Following this, Stephenson left Bristol to work in Coventry as a Senior Community Relations Officer. In 1972 he went to London to work for the Commission for Racial Equality. While in London he worked with boxer Muhammad Ali setting up the Muhammad Ali Sports Development Association in Brixton, and also set up the Cleo Laine Schools' Music Awards from 1977 to 1982 with Cleo Laine and John Dankworth. In 1975 he was appointed to the Sports Council and campaigned prominently against sporting contacts with apartheid South Africa. Stephenson became honorary president of Bristol's West Indian Parents' Association in 1979 and in 1981 was appointed to the Press Council. On his return to live in Bristol in 1992, he helped set up the Bristol Black Archives Partnership (BBAP), which "protects and promotes the history of African-Caribbean people in Bristol." It was initiated when he placed his own personal archives with Bristol Record Office for safekeeping. ## Awards and honours/legacy In 1988 Stephenson received the Bristol City Council Community Award for Achievement and Services Rendered to the Black Community and the West Indian Community Publishers Award. Further awards include the Bristol West African and Caribbean Council Community Achievers' Award (1996), and the city council's One Person Can Make a Difference Award (2006). In 2007 Stephenson was granted the Freedom of the City of Bristol, being the first black person to be so honoured. The citation stated: "Paul Stephenson has devoted his life to improving race relations and encouraging community involvement and is a founder member of the Bristol Black Archives Project which has contributed greatly to an understanding of the history of the City and has helped to build closer relations between all the communities of Bristol." In 2009 he was given an OBE "for his services to equal opportunities and to community relations in Bristol". He received honorary degrees from the University of the West of England (Master of Education) in November 2009, "in recognition of his substantial contribution to pioneering work in race relations and the extension of opportunity to socially excluded young people", and the University of Bristol (Doctor of Law) in July 2014 "for his dedication to fighting for equality and civil rights across Bristol and around the world for over 60 years". In November 2017, Stephenson received a Pride of Britain Award for Lifetime Achievement, presented to him by Lenny Henry, who said: "It is a well-known saying that to achieve greatness you have to stand on the shoulders of giants. You really are a giant. So without you, there wouldn't be any black or Asian politicians." The judges' citation said: "Thanks to Paul's courage, principles and determination, Britain is a more open and tolerant place today. He has changed the way we all live for the better, and his story reminds us that the battle for civil rights was not confined to America." In June 2020, following the toppling of the Edward Colston statue in central Bristol by Black Lives Matter protestors, a campaign began to replace the statue with one of Paul Stephenson. On October 20, 2020, Great Western Railway named one of its Intercity Express Trains (800 036) in Stephenson's honour at a ceremony at Bristol Temple Meads. ## Archives and personal papers Photographs, newspaper cuttings, letters and other miscellaneous items relating to Paul Stephenson and the 40th anniversary commemorations of the Bristol Bus Boycott campaign are held by Bristol Archives (Ref. 42840) (online catalogue). The Bristol Black Archives Partnership collections are held at Bristol Archives (A Guide to African-Caribbean Sources at Bristol Record Office, multiple collections noted) ## Work cited - Madge Dresser, Black and White on the Buses, Bristol: Bristol Broadsides, 1986. .
66,277,695	United States v. One Solid Gold Object in Form of a Rooster	1,158,187,206	1962 US federal civil forfeiture case	[ "1962 in Nevada", "1962 in United States case law", "Chickens in popular culture", "Gold in the United States", "Gold sculptures in the United States", "Sculpture controversies", "Sculptures of birds in the United States", "Sparks, Nevada", "Statues in Nevada", "United States civil forfeiture case law", "United States in rem cases" ]	United States v. One Solid Gold Object in Form of a Rooster (208 F. Supp. 99 – Dist. Court, D. Nevada 1962) is a United States District Court for the District of Nevada civil forfeiture case between the United States and a solid gold statue of a rooster. As the rooster was made of solid gold, the United States Treasury seized it on the grounds that it was illegal under the Gold Reserve Act of 1934 which prohibited private ownership of more than 50 ozt (1.6 kg) of gold in the United States. The owner challenged the seizure in court and the jury found in favor of the statue. The form of the styling of this case – the defendant being an object, rather than a legal person – is because this is a jurisdiction in rem (power over objects) case, rather than the more familiar in personam (over persons) case. ## Background Dick Graves, who ran the Sparks Nugget casino in Sparks, Nevada, came up with the idea for the statue. He thought that having a solid gold statue of a rooster on display would help to bring in people into a restaurant at his casino. He made a wooden model and telephoned the United States Mint in Washington, D.C., to ask them to make it in gold, but the Mint replied they could not manufacture it as they felt it was illegal for any individual to own sufficient gold to make it under the Gold Reserve Act. He eventually had it made in California with permission of the San Francisco Mint to melt down 300 ounces of 18-karat gold to make the statue. The finished statue of 206.3 troy ounces (6,420 g) was installed in the casino in 1958. It was placed in the main dining room which became known as the "Golden Rooster Room". However, later in the year, the United States Secret Service told Graves the statue was illegal due to the gold in it. Graves hired Paul Laxalt, the future Governor of Nevada, as his attorney. Laxalt explained to the Treasury that they had been given permission to make the statue and the matter did not proceed. However, in 1960, United States Marshals raided the casino and seized the rooster statue. ## Case Before the case went to court, there was a pre-trial hearing regarding points of law. Two points raised were; "Did the United States need to prove intent to violate the Gold Reserve Act to gain a warrant for seizure?", and "did the United States need to prove their case beyond reasonable doubt?". On both points, the judge ruled that intent was irrelevant in terms of getting a warrant, and because this was a civil case and not a criminal one, the government only needed to show a preponderance of evidence. The rooster was then held in a federal bank vault until the case was heard as the judge refused to grant bail to it. Whilst the golden rooster statue was in federal custody, Graves responded to the denial of release by placing a bronze copy of the rooster dressed in a striped prison uniform in his casino in the meantime. The case was held in 1962 before a jury. Graves initially argued that the statue was art and was legal under the Gold Reserve Act. The government contested this, claiming that it was not a "customary use" for gold under Title 31 C.F.R. § 54.4(a)(9)(i) but eventually conceded it was art. However they argued because it was being used as an advertisement, it was actually a commercial instrument and made claims that, because it was more than 90 percent gold, it did not count as legally exempt "fabricated gold". Graves had art experts from New York and Denver testify to the artistic merits of the statue, with one saying that the rooster was "exquisite". The government argued that the rooster risked American economic security, citing the initial refusal of the mint to melt down the gold and Graves' evasive tactics in getting the authorization. They argued that if 1 in 180 Americans made similar gold objects, the United States would lose 25 percent of its gold reserves. Laxalt compared the case to a modern-day David and Goliath citing the government as Goliath making decisions without knowing what Nevadans experienced. He also stated that if the jury found against the statue, the rooster would have been melted down and placed in Fort Knox. The judge directed the jury to consider whether the creation of the statue was a customary artistic use for gold. The jury found in favor of the rooster and its owner Graves. The judge summarized the jury's decision as the rooster having been made in good faith as a piece of art, rather than any attempt to hoard the gold. In response, the government petitioned the judge for a judgment notwithstanding verdict to overrule the jury's decision. The government lawyers also moved for a retrial on the grounds of misdirection of the jury and failure to allow witnesses, arguing that the ruling could result in people making 200 ounce golden steers. The judge denied both petitions, on the grounds that the regulations under Title 31 were referring to gold in general and that a large statue made of gold would negate the assumption of good faith that was presumed by the jury in this case. The government also argued that the court ruling was against the legislative intent of the Gold Reserve Act. The court replied that it was up to Congress to make their intent clear and that the enacted text was too vague to specifically target the statue just because it was made of gold. ## Aftermath The statue was returned and remained at the casino until 2013 when the casino was sold. The statue was sold at an auction in 2014 for \$234,000.
2,083,806	Lily Cole	1,168,571,800	English model and actress (born 1987)	[ "1987 births", "21st-century English actresses", "Actors from Torquay", "Actresses from Devon", "Alumni of King's College, Cambridge", "English LGBT actors", "English LGBT models", "English female models", "English film actresses", "English stage actresses", "English television actresses", "IMG Models models", "Living people", "Mass media people from Torquay", "People educated at Latymer Upper School", "People educated at St Marylebone School", "Queer actresses", "Queer models" ]	Lily Luahana Cole (born 27 December 1987) is a British model, author, film director, actress and entrepreneur. Cole pursued a modelling career as a teenager and was listed in 2009 by Vogue Paris as one of the top 30 models of the 2000s. She was booked for her first British Vogue cover at age 16, named "Model of the Year" at the 2004 British Fashion Awards, and worked with many well-known brands, including Alexander McQueen, Chanel, Louis Vuitton, Jean Paul Gaultier and Moschino. Her advertising campaigns have included Longchamp, Anna Sui, Rimmel and Cacharel. In 2020, Lily published Who Cares Wins, a book about how our lives impact the planet and how we can respond to the climate emergency challenges we face. In 2021, the book was turned into a podcast in which Lily invites guests with different perspectives to explore critical issues - and their relationship to the environment - from technology, food, to mental health and capitalism. Cole's first leading role as an actress was as Valentina in the 2009 film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. Her other film work includes Passages, a short directed by Shekhar Kapur, and There Be Dragons directed by Roland Joffé. In 2013, Cole founded impossible.com, an innovation group and incubator (previously a gift economy social network, now renamed Impossible People). ## Early life and education Cole was born in Torquay, Devon, to Patience Owen, an artist and writer, and Chris Cole, a fisherman and boat builder. She has no contact with her father, who left home when she was a baby; she and her sister were raised by their Welsh mother in London. Cole attended Hallfield Primary School, the Sylvia Young Theatre School, and St Marylebone School. At Latymer Upper School, where she completed her sixth form studies, she achieved A grades in her A-levels in English, politics, and philosophy and ethics. She gained a place to read Social and Political Sciences at King's College, Cambridge in 2006, deferring entry twice. In 2008 she switched to history of art and graduated in 2011 with a double first. ## Modelling ### Magazines and fashion shows Cole was photographed in 2001 at age 13 by fashion photographer Mariano Vivanco. According to the Evening Standard in 2004, her modelling career began in 2003 when she was approached in the street by Benjamin Hart of Storm Models. She signed with Storm and in 2003 was photographed by Steven Meisel for Italian Vogue. Her distinctive red hair attracted significant media attention. At the 2004 British Fashion Awards, she was named "Model of the Year". Cole worked with many prominent photographers, including Craig McDean, Nick Knight, Juergen Teller, Arthur Elgort, Irving Penn and Tim Walker. She has appeared on the covers of Playboy in France, Vogue, Citizen K, and V, among others. She featured on Vogue's "best dressed" list in December 2005, and had cover appearances on Numéro and Interview. She modelled on the international runway circuit and at many fashion shows on behalf of Chanel, Shiatzy Chen, DKNY, Jean Paul Gaultier, Versace, Alexander McQueen, Jasper Conran, John Galliano and Louis Vuitton. She was nominated, for the second time, for the "Model of the Year" award at the 2007 British Fashion Awards. In December 2009 she was listed by Vogue Paris as one of the top 30 models of the 2000s. Cole made a cover appearance on the January 2010 issue of the Canadian Elle and opened Hermès's winter 2010/2011 collection at Paris Fashion Week in March. Towards the end of 2010, she featured in a documentary chronicling the career of Rolf Harris in which he painted her dressing up as Titania from A Midsummer Night's Dream. Cole has additionally graced the covers of Vogue (UK, Russia, Korea), Harper's Bazaar (UK, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Russia, Ukraine, Taiwan, Turkey) and i-D. During the Closing Ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics, Cole was one of the British models wearing fashions created by British designers specifically for the event. ### Advertising Cole has appeared in advertising campaigns for Chanel, Christian Lacroix, Hermès, Longchamp, Cacharel, Topshop and Anna Sui cosmetics, as well as being the face for Moschino's perfume "I Love Love". In September 2007, Cole was announced as the follow-up model for Accessorize, taking the place of Claudia Schiffer, also designing a line of handbags for the collection. Cole has been modelling for cosmetics company Rimmel London since October 2009, as well as featuring in advertisements for jewellers Tiffany & Co. Along with Twiggy and others, Cole became a "face" of Marks and Spencer clothes advertising campaign, making her the youngest model to become involved in a campaign for the line. She launched a campaign in June 2010 at Gatwick Airport for modelling agency, Storm Model Management. The campaign aims to find new modelling talent from people passing through the airport, with the agency hoping to re-create the discovery of Kate Moss, who was spotted at JFK Airport in 1988 by the agency's founder. In March 2012 The Body Shop launched its Beauty With Heart campaign, naming Cole as its first ambassador. ## Acting ### Films Cole made her acting debut as Polly in the 2007 comedy St Trinian's, a rework of the black and white films of the 1950s and '60s, alongside Rupert Everett, Colin Firth, Russell Brand, Jodie Whittaker and Stephen Fry. Her first leading role came in Terry Gilliam's 2009 fantasy film, The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, playing Valentina, the teenage daughter of Christopher Plummer's title character, Dr Parnassus, whom Parnassus has promised to the Devil (Tom Waits) upon her 16th birthday. Acting alongside Heath Ledger (who died before filming had finished), Cole, in an interview for the Daily Telegraph admitted that, at times, she felt out of her depth in the role — saying "I'd only done a couple of films and here I was surrounded by amazing actors like Christopher Plummer and Heath Ledger, and it was intimidating at times," also describing the role as "the biggest role I've ever done". Gilliam said of Cole: "She has an amazing look and grasps what is required so very quickly. If she wants a career as an actress, she has a brilliant future". According to Mark Olsen of The Los Angeles Times, writing as Parnassus was released in the United States, "Cole brings a surprising well of emotional tenderness to her part as Valentina", while Ryan Michael Painter wrote of the film on 'inthisweek.com' that "all of the performances are delightful, particularly Cole's as Valentina, proving that the haute couture model has more to offer this world than a pretty face". Cole appeared at the 34th Toronto International Film Festival in December 2009 to promote Parnassus. She was featured as herself in one episode of the online series T Takes, a series of short, improvised films published by The New York Times. Cole appeared as "Lettuce Leaf", a celebrity supermodel in the 2009 film, Rage, directed by Sally Potter. Cole also played "Aline" in the 2011 film There Be Dragons. In January 2010, Cole gave an interview to the Canadian edition of Elle in which she expressed her desire to focus more on acting than on her modelling career, saying she "wouldn't want to treat acting as a convenient thing to do now and again", going on to mention her roles in the upcoming films There Be Dragons and Phantasmagoria: The Visions of Lewis Carroll and saying of her modelling "I've been doing modelling for years and I feel like I've taken out of it what I need to and I'm ready for new things" and that "film asks for a much bigger emotional and intellectual commitment." Cole had a part in Mary Harron's The Moth Diaries, which was released in 2012. ### Other roles Cole made a minor appearance in the music video for the Girls Aloud and Sugababes cover of "Walk This Way" in aid of the British telethon charity Comic Relief, in which she struts up and down a catwalk in "hilarious ways", interspersed by the bands and several well-known British television personalities. Cole had another minor role in Primal Scream's 2008 video "Can't Go Back", in which she and other models featured in a horror-style video based on the films of Dario Argento. The models, including Cole, are graphically "murdered" and "meet their ends in rather striking ways" with the aim of looking "hot even when dead". Cole again starred in a music video for Sir Paul McCartney's song "Queenie Eye" featuring a number of actors and musicians including Gary Barlow, James Corden, Jude Law and Johnny Depp. It was reported in October 2009 that Cole would make her stage debut at the Old Vic Theatre in London's West End at the theatre's annual "24 Hour Plays" held in November, but "scheduling commitments" forced her to pull out. Cole ultimately made her stage début at the ADC Theatre in Cambridge, as Nina in a student production of The Seagull. She appeared in "The Curse of the Black Spot", the third episode of the sixth series of science fiction series Doctor Who, in May 2011. She played a Sea Siren. Cole stars in the music video for Yeah Yeah Yeahs' 2013 single "Sacrilege" as a woman burned alive by the many men and women with whom she has had affairs. In 2017, Cole starred in the title role in the three-part docu-drama miniseries Elizabeth I, which aired on Channel 5 from 9 to 23 May. ## Charity work ### Overview Cole supports a variety of humanitarian and environmental causes. She supports the charity WaterAid, speaking for the organisation's "End Water Poverty" campaign, and the Environmental Justice Foundation Cole has modelled a T-shirt with the slogan "Save the Future" to fight child labour in the fashion industry for the Environmental Justice Foundation. Most recently Cole put a plaster cast bust of her torso on the auction site eBay to raise money for British telethon charity Comic Relief. In December 2009, Cole attended a party, hosted by Elton John for which guests were asked to design their ideal bar with the designs then sold at auction in aid of the Elton John AIDS Foundation. In October 2010, she helped launch the World Land Trust's Emerald for Elephant Exhibition, which was designed to create awareness and raise important funds for the protection of the critically endangered Asian elephant. In August 2012, she was part of the judging panel at the Festival of Code, held at the culmination of Young Rewired State 2012. In 2013, PETA cited her efforts to make consumers aware of animal products in cosmetics and declared her to be one of the "Sexiest Vegetarians" of the year. For the bi-centenary of writer Emily Brontë, The Parsonage Museum, Haworth, has appointed Cole to be its "creative partner" to "commemorate the legacy of one of England's most important, and mysterious, writers". In 2016 Cole was appointed a Fellow of the Foundling Museum in London. In 2018 she co-wrote Balls, a short film exploring connections between the Foundling Hospital story and Emily Brontë’s much-loved novel Wuthering Heights. Balls is co-written by Lily Cole and Stacey Gregg, and produced by Kate Wilson at Fury Films. The film has been co-commissioned by the Foundling Museum, Brontë Parsonage Museum and Rapid Response Unit, with support from Arts Council England. ### Environmental campaigning In 2005 Cole announced she would no longer model for De Beers after being alerted to the situation of the Kalahari Bushmen being evicted from their lands in Botswana. Cole wrote the foreword for Tamsin Blanchard's 2007 book Green Is The New Black, a guide to being fashionable while remaining eco-friendly. In 2013 it was announced that Cole would receive the Doctor of Letters for her "outstanding contribution to humanitarian and environmental causes" from the chancellor of Glasgow Caledonian University, Professor Muhammad Yunus. Cole was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party's Caroline Lucas at the 2015 general election. ## Business activities Cole is the founder of Impossible.com, an innovation group and incubator. Cole is also part-owner of a London bookshop and an advisor to Wikitribune. Cole was involved in creating an environmentally friendly knitwear company, The North Circular, which launched in 2009. The North Circular products are hand knit in the UK with British yarns, from which 5% of all profits, and all of Cole's, are donated to the Environmental Justice Foundation. She launched a womenswear range for the company in February 2010. ## Personal life On 28 February 2015, Cole announced she was expecting her first child with boyfriend, Kwame Ferreira. Their daughter was born in September 2015 and named Wylde. In 2021, Cole came out as queer during an interview with The Sunday Times Style. Cole is a pescatarian but eats "mostly vegan". ## Filmography
614,291	Line 2 Bloor–Danforth	1,173,128,523	Subway line in Toronto, Ontario, Canada	[ "1966 establishments in Ontario", "4 ft 107⁄8 in gauge railways", "600 V DC railway electrification", "Railway lines opened in 1966", "Rapid transit lines in Canada", "Toronto rapid transit" ]	Line 2 Bloor–Danforth is a subway line in the Toronto subway system, operated by the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC). It has 31 stations and is 26.2 kilometres (16.3 mi) in length. It opened on February 26, 1966, and extensions at both ends were completed in 1968 and again in 1980. The line runs primarily a few metres north of Bloor Street from its western terminus at Kipling Avenue with a direct connection to the Kipling GO Station to the Prince Edward Viaduct east of Castle Frank Road, after which the street continues as Danforth Avenue and the line continues running a few metres north of Danforth Avenue until just east of Main Street, where it bends northeasterly and runs above-grade until just east of Warden station, where it continues underground to its eastern terminus, slightly east of Kennedy Road on Eglinton Avenue, which has a direct connection to the Kennedy GO Station. The subway line is closed nightly for maintenance, during which Blue Night Network bus routes provide service along the route. The most travelled part of the line is located in Toronto's midtown area known as Yorkville. In this area, the subway connects to Line 1 Yonge–University at Spadina, St. George and Yonge stations. Towards the east, where the line runs parallel to Danforth Avenue, it serves areas such as Greektown (also known as "the Danforth") and the East Danforth neighbourhood. It then runs through a very short stretch of East York to its eastern terminus in Scarborough, where it connects to Line 3 Scarborough. To the west of Yorkville, the line continues along Bloor Street serving many communities such as the Annex, Koreatown, Bloorcourt Village, Bloordale Village, Junction Triangle, Bloor West Village, a very short stretch in York, and the Kingsway and Islington–Etobicoke City Centre areas in Etobicoke, where it terminates at Kipling Avenue in Six Points. Construction of an extension to Sheppard Avenue and McCowan Road to replace Line 3 Scarborough began on June 23, 2021. ## Name When the Bloor–Danforth line, the second subway line in the city, opened in 1966, it necessitated renaming the first subway line to the Yonge line. Unofficially, the subway lines were already numbered, but in October 2013, the TTC announced plans to give the lines an official number to help riders and visitors to navigate the system. The new signage reflecting this change began being installed in March 2014, with Bloor–Yonge and St. George being the first two stations updated. The subway was formerly internally known as route 601. Since the mid-2010s, it is publicly referred to as "Line 2 Bloor–Danforth". ## History ### Pre-subway era The earliest mention of rapid transit along the Bloor–Danforth line's route was made in a 1910 report that was prepared by an American firm of transit consultants. This study had been commissioned by a special commission, which included City Controller Horatio Clarence Hocken and Mayor of Toronto Joseph Oliver. In their final report, the consultants suggested that the Prince Edward Viaduct, which spans the Don River Valley, should include a lower deck for a future subway. The lower deck was built, but the first plan for a line to use it was not made until June 15, 1933, when the TTC published a report which suggested construction of a subway and an expressway broadly following Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue. The estimated cost of the project was , but the plan was not implemented. Plans for a somewhat longer route, running east to west from Victoria Park Avenue to the Humber River, were proposed by the Toronto Planning Board in December 1943, although the report did not include costings. During the fall of 1911, the City of Toronto put out a tender for the construction of concrete tubes to carry a subway. However, when the cost of the subway was put to a referendum, the construction of the subway tunnels was rejected. Before the subway was built, the Bloor streetcar line operated along the route between Jane Street and Luttrell Avenue (located near Shoppers World Danforth). Paired PCC streetcars or multiple units (MUs) operated from 1950 to the opening of the subway line in 1966. The TTC favoured this route because the Prince Edward Viaduct made it easier to build a subway across the Don Valley, and the streetcar that ran along the route was filled with passengers travelling from East York and Scarborough. To provide relief to this streetcar line and to ease expansion into the suburbs, the line was built a few metres north of both Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue. ### Subway construction During the period after World War II, rapid development created a need for more public transit. A referendum on whether a subway should be constructed along Yonge Street was held on January 1, 1946, and this proposal received majority support. The opening of the Yonge subway in 1954 resulted in another plan by the TTC for a Bloor–Danforth line, this time without an expressway, costing \$146 million. The line was approved, but was not built. In the 1950s, there was intense debate over where the second Toronto subway line would run as it would affect how bus routes in Toronto's suburbs would operate. There were two main plans. While both shared the same route at the outer ends, the TTC favoured a route that continued eastwards from Christie station to Pape station. This plan was championed by the TTC chairman, Allan Lamport, and also included an extension of the Yonge line from Union station northwards to meet the new line at St. George station. The other plan, which was proposed by the city's planning department and endorsed by the Metro Toronto chairman, Fred Gardiner, had a large "U"-shaped diversion in the centre. From Christie station, it ran south to Queen Street West, and after following Queen Street eastwards to Pape Avenue, turned north to rejoin the east–west route at Pape station. The eastern routing is similar to the Relief Line subway proposal of the 2010s and its successor, the Ontario Line. In 1956, Toronto's midtown area was starting to experience growth. There was a public debate about the two schemes between the two chairmen and the municipalities that made up Metropolitan Toronto. The extension of the Yonge line along University Avenue, and the east–west Bloor–Danforth line extension were authorized on September 5, 1958 by the Ontario Municipal Board which sought a compromise between the involved communities. The financing of the project was controversial. For the first time, financing was to be split between the TTC and Metro Toronto, incurring a property tax increase. This was opposed by Etobicoke, Long Branch, Mimico, New Toronto and Scarborough, who wanted the project to be funded solely by the TTC. The battle to stop the project went to the Supreme Court of Canada. The University line opened in 1963, and the Bloor–Danforth line opened from Keele station in the west to Woodbine station in the east on February 26, 1966. Nine men died during its construction in several incidents. Most of the line was built underground using the cut-and-cover method, with some sections along University Avenue built using shield tunneling with manual excavation of the face – and even a short stretch using the Milan tunneling method ( the Icos–Veder method). Other parts of the line were built above ground in grade-separated rail corridors. The line was 12.9 kilometres (8.0 mi) long, and ran about 20 to 40 metres (66 to 131 ft) north of Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue. The cost of the initial section was \$200 million (\$Expression error: Unexpected / operator billion in dollars). Once the line started full operation, construction of extensions to the Bloor–Danforth line began. The extensions to Islington station in the west and Warden station in the east opened simultaneously on May 11, 1968. These were completed at a cost of \$77 million (\$ million in dollars). On November 21, 1980, the line was extended to the current terminal stations of Kipling station in the west and Kennedy station in the east at a further cost of \$110 million (\$ million in dollars). ### Subway operations Upon opening, the Bloor–Danforth line was well received: a survey taken four months later showed that the subway was used by 10,000 riders per hour. As a result, many bus and streetcar routes were either discontinued or shortened. Various bus and streetcar routes that connected to the subway stations allowed the line to continue to grow and become more sustainable. The line carries an average of 503,060 passengers on weekdays during the 2015 operating year. For the first six months of operation, the subway was operated as a single system, with trains from Eglinton station running through to either Keele or Woodbine station, while other trains connected the latter two points. However, the manoeuvre made operation of both lines more difficult, and the practice was abandoned after the initial trial period, leaving Lower Bay station abandoned. In 1971, Metro Council insisted that the zone fare system be removed to allow residents of the suburbs to travel anywhere with a single fare. Prior to this, stations west of Old Mill and east of Victoria Park were geographically part of Zone 2 for fare purposes, but the subway used a flat fare system, so they were treated as being part of zone 1. This created problems when transferring from the subway to the buses, which were in different zones at the same location. The solution was a change in political thinking, where the subway was seen as a subsidized public service, instead of a utility that needed to balance its books. On October 15, 1976, an arsonist lit a fire on a subway train at Christie station. The fire destroyed four subway cars and some wall tiles, and resulted in a section of the subway being closed for a few days. As a result, the middle section of Christie station has different-coloured trim tiles. On September 19, 2007, the station modernization program was started. This program would result in making the subway system more accessible, add new bus and streetcar platforms, and improve the connections to regional buses and GO trains. ## Stations Kipling station, the western terminus of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth, is located near Kipling Avenue and Dundas Street West. After going east for 12 kilometres (7.5 mi), it meets the University segment of Line 1 at both Spadina and St. George stations. It also meets the Yonge Street line at Yonge station. The route's eastern terminus is located at Kennedy station, which is also the southern terminus of Line 3 Scarborough. The line does not run under Bloor Street or Danforth Avenue, except at the Prince Edward Viaduct; otherwise, it is offset to the north. In some areas, it runs under parks and parking lots behind the businesses on the north side of the street, while other sections run under side streets. Most stations on the Bloor–Danforth line have side platforms. At the surface, some stations are designed to be a part of a shopping area, which are located above the subway. Other stations are large facilities on the surface that also contain bus and/or streetcar platforms to allow transfers to take place. ### Designs The pre-1980 subway stations of the Bloor–Danforth line follow a two-colour background and trim theme and use the unique Toronto Subway typeface on the stations' walls. The tiling theme was influenced by SEPTA's Broad Street Subway in Philadelphia and used a cycle that was similar to the design employed on the Yonge subway. This design consists of two colours for the tiles, one for main wall tiles and another for trim tiles near the ceiling of the stations. The station names on the main wall tiles use the colour of the trim tiles and vice versa, except that some of the station names of the trim tiles are white instead of the main wall tile colour for readability. This pattern is based on a design similar to the stations along the University line, which follow a regular pattern with some small variances, which are the result of multiple events. One of these tiling variances is located at Christie station, where some of the original tiles were replaced following the 1976 arson attack. The replacement trim tiles were differently coloured due to the lack of extra green trim tiles. Other variations to the pattern can be observed at Islington and Warden stations, as well as at the former bus bay of Victoria Park station, the three of which have a tricolour design. The current terminus stations of Kipling and Kennedy stations, upon initial opening in 1980, resemble the second version of Union subway station. When they opened, Kipling and Kennedy stations were the only Line 2 stations not to use the Toronto Subway typeface. However, in late 2017, Kipling station was redesigned to use the Toronto Subway typeface as well, leaving Kennedy station being the sole station on Line 2 not to use the typeface. ### Modernization program As the stations on the line have begun to show signs of aging, the TTC has initiated a station modernization program aimed at improving accessibility and appearances at several subway stations. These modernizations include new and updated wall finishes, signage, lighting and public art, as well as the installation of elevators for accessibility needs. Pape and Dufferin stations are the first slated for modernization under this project, and Islington will also be modernized under larger capital projects aimed at greater accessibility and reconstruction of bus loading platforms. Construction of a second access route at Broadview station was completed in 2007. This work provided direct access to bus platforms and a new streetcar platform, improving traffic control within the station. Victoria Park station's modernization project was completed between 2008 and 2011 to make the station more functional, attractive, better connected to the surrounding community, and fully accessible. The second exit program was also included in station modernization projects after a fire safety audit revealed several at-risk stations with only one means of access and egress from the subway platform level to the street. Some stations with only one entrance/exit received a second means of access/egress during major overhauls at stations such as Pape and Dufferin. Other stations such as Donlands and Greenwood are scheduled to receive second exits for egress only. Due to the potential for land expropriation and construction of the exit structures in residential neighbourhoods, this portion of the program has become controversial, as some houses need to be removed to accommodate these secondary exits. Plans to add a second exit for Donlands, Greenwood, and Woodbine stations were deferred in late February 2011 due to lack of funding. In September 2017, the addition of elevators and a second exit/automatic entrance were completed at Woodbine station, rendering it fully accessible. As of July 2020, modernization work for Donlands station is planned to begin in the fourth quarter of 2020. ## Fare collection All types of TTC fares are accepted at staffed subway station entrances. Presto cards can be purchased and loaded with money or digital monthly TTC passes at automatic fare vending machines, which also sell Presto 1-ride, 2-ride or day pass tickets. Presto cards and tickets are accepted at all TTC subway station entrances. On December 1, 2019, all subway station collector booths were permanently closed and replaced by roaming customer service attendants. While customers would still be able to pay their fares by senior or youth TTC tickets, tokens or day passes, these were no longer available for purchase at stations and no change will be given to customers who pay cash fares. All Line 2 stations except Chester connect to surface TTC bus or streetcar routes during regular operating hours. Some connections require proof-of-payment. Valid proof-of-payment includes paper transfers – free supplementary tickets obtained at the point of entering the transit system that allow the rider to transfer to another route on a one-way continuous direction with no stopovers or backtracking permitted – and Presto cards, which provide unlimited two-hour transfers in any direction across the TTC network. ## Service ### Frequency The frequency for this line is 2–3 minutes during peak periods and 4–5 minutes during off-peak periods. The Route 300 Bloor–Danforth bus provides late-night service to the area around the stations when the subway is not in operation. This service operates frequently along Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue between East/West Mall and Kennedy station via Danforth Road, Brimley Road, Eglinton Avenue East, North/South Service Road, Transway Crescent and Kennedy Road. On Sundays, these routes operate through the early morning hours, because the subway starts service at 8:00 a.m. instead of the usual 6:00 a.m. Frequency is 6–30 minutes. ### Capacity As of 2016, Line 2 was running at capacity with almost 26,000 peak-hour riders. Upgraded signalling would allow for more frequent trains and expand peak-hour capacity to almost 33,000 riders by 2031. ### Rolling stock The first trains to operate on Line 2 were the M1-series subway trains, which were among the first subway trains to be manufactured in Canada. At the time of construction, these subway cars were the longest in the world. As a result of camshaft propulsion controls, the increased speed provided by the M-series trains and the H-series trains allowed the Bloor–Danforth line to operate efficiently between Islington and Warden without the need for a larger subway fleet. As a result, the G-series subway trains were exclusively confined to the Yonge–University line. In the 1980s, as the H-series trains took over, the M-series trains were only used during rush hour as the trains were linked to be made up of vehicles of a single class. With the introduction of the T1-series subway trains (which had been used exclusively on the Yonge–University–Spadina line during their first years of service in the late 1990s), the M1-series trains were retired from service between 1998 and 1999. Due to the opening of the Bloor–Danforth line and the additional services that were required, a new set of trains were purchased from the Hawker Siddeley group. These trains, which were a part of the H series, were similar to the M1-series trains with newer features such as electrically operated doors. With the introduction of the T1-series subway trains, the H1 and H2 trains were retired from service, while the remaining H4 trains (along with some earlier T1 series trains) were shifted to the Bloor–Danforth line. Following the introduction of the Toronto Rocket subway trains on the Yonge–University and Sheppard lines, all of the T1-series trains were transferred to the Bloor–Danforth line, where they replaced the remaining H4- and H6-series subway trains. The T1s are now the only trains operating on the line. The remaining H4 trains were retired from revenue service throughout the fall of 2011, and the last cars were decommissioned on January 27, 2012. They were the last version of TTC trains that were not equipped with air-conditioning systems (but instead used ceiling fans); they were also the last of which to be outfitted with larger orange upholstered bench seating and were mainly used on weekdays, most often during rush hour several years before their retirement. The H4s also had a similar interior design based on the H2 subway cars. The H6-series trains (which had bright orange doors and panels, individual seats, along with light brown floors, cream walls and brown simulated wood grain panels) were retired from service between 2013 and 2014; the final run for the last H6-series train took place on June 20, 2014. In the summer of 2016, a few TR trains were used on Line 2 because of an air conditioning malfunction in numerous individual T1 cars, combined with a hotter than average summer. This was after Toronto Mayor John Tory accepted a challenge posted on Twitter to ride an overheated T1 train on Line 2 during a hot summer day. The TTC estimated that the T1 fleet's useful life would end in 2026. In 2017, the TTC planned to replace the T1 fleet with 62 new trains, possibly using the TR type from Bombardier to eliminate the time needed to prototype a different model. However, in March 2019, the TTC reversed its decision and planned to delay the purchase of new train sets by refurbishing the T1 fleet to extend its life by a decade. The cost of refurbishment was estimated at \$715 million, versus \$1.86 billion required to replace the T1 fleet. Refurbishment would not include installing automatic train control (ATC) equipment on the T1 fleet, while new train sets would have included this feature, and this choice will thus delay the implementation of ATC on Line 2 by ten years. It was concurrently revealed the TTC lacked the facilities to store and maintain a new fleet as a new Kipling carhouse, which was originally planned to open in the mid-2020s, was now scheduled to open in 2031. #### Procurement of new trains (2020s) On August 6, 2020, the TTC issued a request for information (RFI) to gather information from potential suppliers to identify those who would be interested in designing and supplying new subway trains (NST) to the TTC. The RFI closed on September 18, 2020, and the TTC hosted an information session date on May 4, 2021, with potential suppliers to discuss the background, industry engagement, procurement model, and technical overview with interested NST manufacturers. The TTC later issued a request for proposal (RFP) on October 13, 2022, to the prequalified proponents to submit proposals for delivering the NST. Prequalified rail vehicle manufacturers included Alstom Transport Canada, CRRC Qingdao Sifang, Hyundai Rotem, and Kawasaki Rail Car. #### Depot Most trains that serve the Bloor–Danforth line are stored at the Greenwood Yard, which opened with the first segment of the line. Before the yard was built, the land was occupied by a quarry and a garbage dump. Due to its location next to the Canadian National Railway (and GO Transit) tracks, it was possible for trains to be delivered directly to the subway. The CN rail tracks were converted to allow for the storage of more subway trains as the T1-series trains were shifted from Yonge–University–Spadina line to the Bloor–Danforth line. In addition to providing storage for subway trains, the Greenwood Yard is also used to maintain vehicles that operate on Line 3 Scarborough, as the McCowan Yard is only equipped for vehicle storage and to perform basic maintenance of vehicles. The Keele Yard (originally known as the Vincent Yard) is a small facility located between Keele station and Dundas West station. It provides for the storage and cleaning of subway trains but not for maintenance. Since June 18, 2017, the yard stores and services four trains overnight with the remaining yard capacity used to store work equipment. The TTC is planning to build a new subway yard on the site of a former CPR freight yard, southwest of Kipling station. When the TTC replaces the T1 subway fleet, it will need space to store the new trains as they are delivered as well as new shops to service them. The Greenwood Yard will be inadequate as it is completely full with no room to expand, and because its facilities are optimized for two-car train sets rather than the six-car train sets of the proposed new fleet. The estimated cost of the new yard was \$500 million, of which only \$7 million for planning work was included in the Capital Budget as of July 2017. As of March 2017, the TTC estimated that the Kipling Yard would open in 2031. ## Expansion plans ### Scarborough Subway Extension The Scarborough Subway Extension (SSE) will replace Line 3 Scarborough with an eastward extension of Line 2. #### Early history In 1983, there was discussion of a rapid transit extension from Kennedy to Scarborough City Centre. As multiple types of technologies were examined many politicians requested a subway extension instead of the then proposed streetcar line. Instead, a medium-capacity rail system, known as the Scarborough RT, was built. In 2005, Toronto City Council again proposed to extend the line northeastward as a replacement for the aging Scarborough RT. In 2006, this proposal was then altered when Scarborough councillors agreed to support plans to refurbish the existing line using other light-metro options for Scarborough. Using heavy-rail rapid transit like the rest of the Toronto subway in Scarborough was not yet examined. #### Light rail proposal (2007–2013) In 2007, mayor David Miller included the refurbishment of the Scarborough RT using modern light rail transit as part of his Transit City plan. The light rail line would have run between Kennedy station and Sheppard Avenue East via Scarborough Town Centre. The line would have used the right-of-way of the Scarborough RT, which would have been shut down for conversion to light rail, requiring bus substitution. Construction would have lasted 31⁄2 to 5 years and cost about \$2 billion plus an unknown cost to redesign the connection at Kennedy station. During his 2010 mayoralty campaign, Rob Ford denounced the idea of light rail transit and instead proposed to replace the Scarborough RT with an extension of the Bloor–Danforth line. However, on March 31, 2011, Ford agreed with the provincial government that the province's Metrolinx agency would replace the Scarborough RT with an elevated light rail line as part of a proposed Eglinton–Scarborough Crosstown line instead. In June 2012, the idea of a Scarborough subway extension was a key part of Toronto's proposed OneCity transit plan. This plan was later rejected by the provincial government and Mayor Rob Ford. #### Three-stop proposal (2013–2016) On September 4, 2013, the province of Ontario announced that it would fund two-thirds of the 6.4 kilometres (4.0 mi) extension of the Bloor–Danforth line from Kennedy to Scarborough City Centre at Scarborough Centre station. The federal government of Canada would fund the remaining one-third. Toronto City Council approved the extension by a vote of 24–20 on October 8, 2013. The subway route would extend eastward towards McCowan Road, via Eglinton Avenue and Danforth Road, and proceeding north towards the intersection of McCowan Road and Sheppard Avenue, via Scarborough City Centre. There would be three new stations at Lawrence Avenue East (serving the Scarborough General Hospital), Scarborough Town Centre and Sheppard Avenue East. The city would also raise property taxes annually over the next three years. Digging of the extension was expected to begin as early as 2018, with a completion within five years. In December 2014, Councillor Glenn De Baeremaeker, one of the city's deputy mayors, proposed a fourth stop along the Scarborough Subway Extension, at Danforth Road and Eglinton Avenue to reduce the station spacing between Kennedy station and the next stop from about 4 km (2.5 mi) to 2 km (1.2 mi). At that time, he was told the extra station would add \$100 million to \$150 million to the cost of the extension. However, a subsequent city staff report indicated that the proposed stations at Lawrence Avenue and at Sheppard Avenue had "little development potential" nearby and were too close to planned SmartTrack stations. In 2016, when this proposal was abandoned, about five percent of the design was complete, and the cost was estimated at between \$4.6 billion and \$6.9 billion. #### One-stop proposal (2016–2019) On January 20, 2016, city staff issued a proposal to eliminate two of the three stops on the planned Scarborough Subway Extension and to terminate Line 2 Bloor–Danforth at Scarborough Town Centre. The planned intermediate stop at Lawrence Avenue would be eliminated along with the proposed stretch to Sheppard Avenue. This revised plan would prevent the subway from competing for ridership with SmartTrack's branch to Markham. Also, the proposed change was to reduce the cost of the extension from \$3.5 billion to \$2.5 billion, where the \$1 billion saved would be used to extend Line 5 Eglinton east- and northwards to University of Toronto Scarborough. (However, most of the \$1 billion saved was subsequently diverted back to the SSE to cover additional estimated construction costs for the one-stop subway.) City planning staff estimated that the peak ridership of the one-stop extension to be 7,300 in the peak hour and peak direction, about half of the 15,000 peak ridership considered the low end to justify a subway. With the original three-stop extension, the peak ridership estimate was 9,500 to 14,000; however, that estimate was reduced to 7,300 because of competition from the proposed SmartTrack and by the elimination of two of the three original stops. Mayor John Tory and Scarborough Councillor Glenn De Baeremaeker say a peak ridership of 7,300 would have still been acceptable as it was still greater than the 6,000 peak at terminal station Kipling. However, a Toronto Star article points out there would be only one station within 6 kilometres of Scarborough Town Centre but more stations are within 6 kilometres of other terminal stations to boost ridership. The SSE would have carried an estimated 31,000 riders per day as compared to 66,355 riders from Kipling to Jane (five stations) and 96,660 riders from Finch to York Mills (four stations). The SSE would have performed better in ridership only against the terminal of the underperforming Sheppard line. In June 2016, the estimated cost of the one-stop SSE was revised from \$2 billion to \$2.9 billion because tunnels need to be deeper than expected in some places, with the new terminal station being 45 to 90 per cent deeper. An additional cost factor is that a high water table would require more concrete. There is also a \$300 million maintenance cost to keep Line 3 Scarborough operating until the SSE's opening resulting in a total project cost of \$3.2 billion. In February 2017, city staff reported that the estimated cost of the extension would increase by \$150 million to \$3.35 billion in order to build a 34-bay bus terminal at Scarborough Town Centre, which was to be the largest bus terminal of the TTC system. Also, the projection for new riders for the extension was revised downwards to 2,300 per day, down from the 4,500 new riders estimated in the summer of 2016. In March 2017, city staff estimated the extension would take six years to construct with an expected opening in the second quarter of 2026. The project was funded. On March 28, 2017, city council approved the design of the 6.2-kilometre (3.9 mi) extension via McCowan Road. According to transit advocate Steve Munro, the SSE would have been built to use only automatic train control (ATC). This would preclude the operation of T1 subway cars on the extension as it would have been too expensive to convert T1 cars to ATC. In April 2019, city staff revised estimates for the SSE project, by then known as the Line 2 East Extension (L2EE), to a total of \$3.87 billion with a completion date estimated for end of 2027 and a delayed opening date of 2030 for the bus terminal at Scarborough Centre. In addition, plans for the extension to run ATC upon opening were dropped and instead replaced with the inclusion of "enabling works" allowing for ATC to be implemented at a later date. #### Revised three-stop proposal (2019–present) In May 2018, Rob Ford's brother Doug Ford – during his campaign to become premier of Ontario – pledged to work on and pay for the three-stop proposal. In July 2018, the TTC was still focused on building the one-stop proposal. On April 10, 2019, Doug Ford, who had since become premier, announced that the province would revert the extension back to the three-stop proposal at an estimated cost of \$5.5 billion with an estimated completion date between 2029 and 2030. As with the three-stop proposal of 2013–2016, there would be three new stations located along McCowan Road at Lawrence Avenue, Scarborough Town Centre and Sheppard Avenue East. In February 2020, Metrolinx released a cost–benefit analysis showing that the \$5.5-billion project cost for the three-stop extension is double the estimated benefits of \$2.8 billion over 60 years. Benefits included reducing travel time and cars on the road. Metrolinx CEO Phil Verster said the estimate of benefits was conservative and Metrolinx may improve the benefits over time. ##### New stations The northern terminus of the extension will be at Sheppard Avenue East and McCowan Road; it will have an adjacent TTC bus terminal as well as a pick-up and drop-off area. The station entrance will be at Sheppard Avenue and McCowan Road. The station design will provide for future expansion of Line 4 Sheppard to terminate at this station, as well as further expansion of Line 2 north of the station. Besides TTC buses, the bus terminal will also serve Durham Region Transit and York Region Transit. The future Scarborough Centre station will be located on McCowan Road at a different location from the existing Scarborough Centre station, which will be decommissioned. The new station facilities will be on the north side of McCowan station (also to be decommissioned) and will occupy most of the block bounded by McCowan Road, Progress Avenue, Grangeway Avenue and Busby Drive. The main entrance will be near McCowan Road and Progress Avenue. The new station will have a new Scarborough Centre Bus Terminal serving TTC, GO Transit and Durham Region Transit buses. The bus terminal will be the western terminus of the planned Durham–Scarborough bus rapid transit corridor. The station will also have a pick-up and drop-off area. A third new, future Lawrence East station will be located beside the Scarborough General Hospital at the northwest corner of Lawrence Avenue East and McCowan Road in a different location from the existing Lawrence East station. There will be entrances at the northwest and southwest corners of Lawrence Avenue and McCowan Road. There will be a bus terminal on the south side of Lawrence Avenue between Valparaiso Avenue and McCowan Road. ##### Advance tunnel On March 10, 2020, Metrolinx and Infrastructure Ontario issued a request for qualifications (RFQ) related to advance tunnelling works. On August 20, 2020, Metrolinx issued a request for proposals to shortlisted proponents, including Acciona, East End Connectors (Dragados, Aecon and Ghella) and Strabag. A launch shaft would be constructed at the northeast corner of Sheppard Avenue East and McCowan Road, with an extraction shaft along Eglinton Avenue on the east side of Midland Avenue. On May 25, 2021, Strabag was selected to design, build and finance the tunnel. The scope of the advance tunnel contract included the following: - tunnelling works for the 7.8-kilometre (4.8 mi) subway extension, from Kennedy Station to McCowan Road / Sheppard Avenue - design and construction of launch and extraction shafts, tunnels, as well as headwalls for emergency exit buildings and stations - supply of tunnel boring machines and installation of segmental pre-cast concrete tunnel liners - activities necessary to build the tunnel (e.g. utility relocations, supports for shaft and headwalls, temporary power supply, lighting, ventilation, and drainage) Construction on the extension began on June 23, 2021. The SSE tunnel will contain two tracks within a single bore of 10.7 metres (35 ft) in diameter and will be the largest subway tunnel by diameter in Toronto. The tunnel boring machine (TBM) was built by Herrenknecht in Schwanau, Germany. Arriving in early 2022, the TBM was transported via sea in multiple shipments for reassembly at the launch site. By January 2023, the TBM (named "Diggy Scardust" after Ziggy Stardust, David Bowie's stage persona and fictional character) had started digging at a speed of 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) per day. It will dig 6.9 kilometres (4.3 mi) of the 7.8-kilometre (4.8 mi) tunnel. ##### Stations, rails and systems The stations, rails and systems (SRS) contract will be delivered using a progressive design–build delivery strategy. In September 2021, Metrolinx and Infrastructure Ontario released an RFQ to shortlist potential bidders. In February 2022, following the close of the RFQ process, Metrolinx and Infrastructure Ontario released an RFP to 3 shortlisted bidders: Dragados (including AECOM), KSX Integrated Design-Builders (Kiewit and SNC-Lavalin), and Scarborough Transit Connect (Aecon, FCC Construcción, and Mott MacDonald). In November 2022, Metrolinx and Infrastructure Ontario announced that Scarborough Transit Connect was the successful bidder and would work with the province over an 18- to 24-month development phase to finalize the scope, risk allocation, project costs and project schedule. Once the development phase had concluded, Metrolinx would have the option to execute the project agreement with the development partner to progress to construction, which would include agreements on detailed designs and the final negotiated price. The scope of the SRS contract included the following: - a 7.8-kilometre (4.8 mi) extension of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth subway - Tunnelling work for the length of the alignment - Three new stations: Lawrence Avenue and McCowan Road, Scarborough Centre, and a terminal station at McCowan Road and Sheppard Avenue - Emergency exit buildings, traction power substations, and modifications at Kennedy station - Transit connections to TTC Line 2 Bloor–Yonge, Line 5 Eglinton, GO train service (Stouffville line), and Durham Region Transit bus service - Operating systems for the extension ### West to Mississauga The TTC's Rapid Transit Expansion Study, published in 2001, identified three possible western extensions to the line. The first was a 3.2-kilometre (2.0 mi) link to Sherway Gardens, with a station added at the East Mall at a later date. The second included an additional 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) from Sherway Gardens to Dixie Road, while a further section from Dixie Road to Mississauga City Centre, which included three stations, was considered but rejected due to cost and planning considerations. This was replaced by a planned Dundas LRT run by MiWay going from Kipling station to Hurontario Street, linking to the Hurontario LRT as part of the MoveOntario 2020 transit plan. This plan was revived, along with the Jane LRT, the Finch West LRT extensions, the Waterfront LRTs, and others, by the Feeling Congested? report by the City of Toronto in 2013, as an "unfunded future rapid transit project".
15,853,026	Pillau-class cruiser	1,167,570,166	Class of light cruisers of the German Imperial Navy	[ "Cruiser classes", "Pillau-class cruisers", "World War I cruisers of Germany" ]	The Pillau class of light cruisers was a pair of ships built in Germany just before the start of World War I. The class consisted of SMS Pillau and Elbing. The ships were initially ordered for the Imperial Russian Navy in 1912, and were built by the Schichau-Werke shipyard in Danzig. After the outbreak of World War I, however, the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) confiscated the ships before they were completed. The ships were similar in design to other German light cruisers, although they lacked an armored belt. They were the first German light cruisers to be equipped with 15 cm SK L/45 guns, of which they carried eight. The two ships had a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). Pillau and Elbing saw extensive service with the German High Seas Fleet. Pillau participated in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915, and Elbing took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft in April 1916. The following month, both ships were heavily engaged in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May –1 June; there, Elbing scored the first hit of either side in the battle. Elbing was accidentally rammed and immobilized by the German battleship SMS Posen in the confused night fighting, and her crew were ultimately forced to scuttle her. Pillau continued to serve with the fleet until the end of the war. After the German defeat, she was ceded to Italy as a war prize and renamed Bari. She served in the Regia Marina (Royal Navy) until June 1943, when she was sunk in Livorno by USAAF bombers, and eventually broken up for scrap in 1948. ## Design In 1912, the Russian Navy sought builders for a pair of light cruisers; the Schichau-Werke shipyard in Danzig won the contract. The two ships were originally ordered by the Russian Navy as Maraviev Amurskyy and Admiral Nevelskoy from the Schichau-Werke that year. The two ships were laid down in 1913; Maraviev Amurskyy was launched on 11 April 1914, after which fitting-out work commenced. Both ships were requisitioned by the German Navy on 5 August 1914, and were renamed Pillau and Elbing, respectively. Elbing was launched on 21 November 1914. Pillau and Elbing were commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 14 December 1914 and 4 September 1915, respectively. ### General characteristics and machinery The Pillau class ships were 134.30 meters (440 ft 7 in) long at the waterline and 135.30 m (443 ft 11 in) long overall They had a beam of 13.60 m (44 ft 7 in) and a draft of 5.98 m (19 ft 7 in) forward and 5.31 m (17 ft 5 in) aft. They displaced 4,390 metric tons (4,320 long tons) as designed and 5,252 t (5,169 long tons) at full load. The ships' hulls were constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames. The hulls were divided into sixteen watertight compartments and had a double bottom that extended for 51 percent of the length of the hull. The ships had a crew of twenty-one officers and 421 enlisted men. They carried a number of smaller boats, including one picket boat, one barge, two yawls, and two dinghies. They were good sea boats, but were fairly stiff and suffered from severe roll. The cruisers were maneuverable, but were slow going into a turn. Steering was controlled by a single large rudder. They lost speed only slightly in a head sea, but lost up to sixty percent in hard turns. Their propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3.5-meter (11 ft) propellers. They were designed to give 30,000 shaft horsepower (22,400 kW). These were powered by six coal-fired Yarrow water-tube boilers, and four oil-fired Yarrow boilers, trunked into three funnels on the centerline. These gave the ships a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). The two ships carried 620 t (610 long tons) of coal, and an additional 580 t (570 long tons) of oil that gave them a range of approximately 4,300 nautical miles (8,000 km; 4,900 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). The two ships each had three turbo-generators that provided a combined electrical output of 360 kilowatts (480 hp) at 220 Volts. ### Armament and armor As designed, the ships would have mounted eight 13-centimeter (5.1 in) L/55 quick-firing guns and four 6.3 cm (2.5 in) L/38 guns of Russian design. After they were seized by the German Navy, the planned armament was revised to be standardized with new German cruisers. The standard 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/45 gun used on previous German cruisers was considered, but abandoned in favor of a larger weapon. As completed, the ships were armed with eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, four were located amidships, two on either side, and two were side by side aft. They were the first German light cruisers to mount the 15 cm gun. These guns had a range of 17,600 m (19,200 yd) and were supplied with a total of 1,024 rounds of ammunition. Pillau and Elbing also carried four 5.2 cm (2 in) SK L/55 anti-aircraft guns, though these were replaced with a pair of two 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns. They were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm (19.7 in) torpedo tubes mounted on the deck. The ships could also carry 120 mines. Since they had been ordered and designed for the Russian Navy, the ships did not possess a waterline armored belt like contemporary German designs. The conning tower had 75 mm (3 in) thick sides and a 50 mm (2 in) thick roof. The deck was covered with 80 mm (3.1 in) thick armor plate forward, which was reduced to 20 mm (0.79 in) aft. Sloping armor 40 mm (1.6 in) thick provided a measure of protection on the upper portion of the ships' sides. The main battery guns were equipped with 50 mm thick gun shields. ## Service history ### Pillau Pillau spent the majority of her career in II Scouting Group, and saw service in both the Baltic and North Seas. In August 1915, she participated in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga against the Russian Navy, and on 31 May – 1 June 1916, she saw significant action at the Battle of Jutland. She was hit by a large-caliber shell once in the engagement, but suffered only moderate damage. She assisted the badly damaged battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz reach port on 2 June after the conclusion of the battle. She also took part in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight, though was not damaged in the engagement. Pillau was assigned to the planned, final operation of the High Seas Fleet in the closing weeks of the war, but a large scale mutiny in the fleet forced it to be canceled. After the end of the war, Pillau was ceded to Italy as a war prize in 1920. Renamed Bari, she was commissioned in the Regia Marina (Royal Navy) in January 1924. She was modified and rebuilt several times over the next two decades. In the early years of World War II, she provided gunfire support to Italian troops in several engagements in the Mediterranean. In 1943, she was slated to become an anti-aircraft defense ship, but while awaiting conversion, she was sunk by USAAF bombers in Livorno in June 1943. The wreck was partially scrapped by the Germans in 1944, and ultimately raised for scrapping in January 1948. ### Elbing Elbing participated in only two major operations during her career. The first, the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft, occurred in April 1916; there, she briefly engaged the British Harwich Force. A month later, she took part in the Battle of Jutland, where she scored the first hit of the engagement. She was heavily engaged in the confused fighting on the night of 31 May – 1 June, and shortly after midnight she was accidentally rammed by the battleship Posen, which tore a hole in the ship's hull. Flooding disabled the ship's engines and electrical generators, rendering her immobilized and without power. At around 02:00, a German torpedo boat took off most of her crew, and an hour later the remaining men scuttled the ship; they escaped in the ship's cutter and were later picked up by a Dutch steamer.
2,750,041	Memento (film)	1,171,572,343	2000 film by Christopher Nolan	[ "2000 crime thriller films", "2000 films", "2000 independent films", "2000 psychological thriller films", "2000s American films", "2000s English-language films", "2000s mystery thriller films", "American crime thriller films", "American films about revenge", "American independent films", "American mystery thriller films", "American neo-noir films", "American nonlinear narrative films", "American psychological thriller films", "Edgar Award-winning works", "Fiction with unreliable narrators", "Films about amnesia", "Films about disability", "Films about photography", "Films about tattooing", "Films based on short fiction", "Films directed by Christopher Nolan", "Films partially in color", "Films produced by Suzanne Todd", "Films scored by David Julyan", "Films set in Los Angeles", "Films set in motels", "Films shot from the first-person perspective", "Films shot in Los Angeles", "Films with screenplays by Christopher Nolan", "Independent Spirit Award for Best Film winners", "Newmarket films", "Postmodern films", "Summit Entertainment films", "Sundance Film Festival award-winning films", "United States National Film Registry films", "Uxoricide in fiction" ]	Memento is a 2000 American neo-noir mystery psychological thriller film written and directed by Christopher Nolan, based on the short story "Memento Mori" by his brother Jonathan Nolan, which was later published in 2001. Starring Guy Pearce, Carrie-Anne Moss, and Joe Pantoliano, the film follows Leonard Shelby, a man who suffers from anterograde amnesia, resulting in short-term memory loss and the inability to form new memories. The film's non-linear narrative is presented as two different sequences of scenes interspersed during the film: a series in black-and-white that is shown chronologically, and a series of color sequences shown in reverse order (simulating for the audience the mental state of the protagonist). The two sequences meet at the end of the film, producing one complete and cohesive narrative. Memento premiered at the Venice Film Festival on September 5, 2000, and was theatrically released in the United States on March 16, 2001. It was acclaimed by critics, who praised its nonlinear structure and themes of memory, perception, grief, and self-deception. It was also a commercial success, earning \$40 million over its \$9 million budget and gained a cult following. Memento received many accolades, including the Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award at the Sundance Film Festival, and Academy Award nominations for Best Original Screenplay and Best Film Editing. In 2017, the United States Library of Congress deemed the film "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry. ## Plot The film starts with a Polaroid photograph of a dead man. As the sequence plays backward, the photo reverts to its undeveloped state, entering the camera before the man is shot in the head. The film then continues, alternating between black-and-white and color sequences. The black-and-white sequences begin with Leonard Shelby, a former insurance investigator, in a motel room speaking to an unseen and unknown caller. Leonard has anterograde amnesia and is unable to store recent memories, the result of an attack by two men. Leonard explains that he killed the attacker who raped and strangled his wife Catherine, but a second clubbed him and escaped. The police did not accept that there was a second attacker, but Leonard believes the attacker's name is "John G" or "James G". Leonard investigates using notes, Polaroid photos, and tattoos to keep track of the information he discovers. Leonard recalls Sammy Jankis, another anterograde amnesiac, from his insurance industry days. After tests confirmed Sammy's inability to learn tasks through repetition, Leonard believed that his condition was at best psychological (and perhaps faked) and turned down his insurance claim. Sammy's distraught wife repeatedly asked Sammy to administer her insulin shots for her diabetes, hoping he would remember having recently given her a shot and avoid giving her a fatal overdose. However, Sammy administered each injection, and his wife died. The color sequences are shown reverse-chronologically. In the story's chronology, Leonard self-directively gets a tattoo of John G's license plate. Finding a note in his clothes, he meets Natalie, a bartender who resents Leonard because he wears the clothes and drives the car of her boyfriend, Jimmy Grantz. After understanding Leonard's condition, she uses it to get Leonard to drive a man named Dodd out of town and offers to run the license plate as a favor through the Department of Motor Vehicle's database. Meanwhile, Leonard meets with a contact, Teddy, who helps with Dodd, but warns about Natalie. Leonard finds that he had previously annotated his Polaroid of Teddy, warning himself not to trust Teddy. Natalie provides Leonard with the driver's license for a John Edward Gammell, Teddy's full name. Confirming Leonard's information on "John G" and his warnings, Leonard drives Teddy to an abandoned building, leading to the opening where he shoots him. In the final black-and-white sequence, prompted by the caller, Leonard meets with Teddy, an undercover officer, who has found Leonard's "John G", Jimmy, and directs Leonard to the abandoned building. When Jimmy arrives, Leonard strangles him fatally and takes a Polaroid photo of the body. As the photo develops, the black-and-white transitions to the final color sequence. Leonard swaps clothes with Jimmy, hearing him whisper "Sammy". As Leonard has only told Sammy's story to those he has met, he suddenly doubts Jimmy's role in his wife's murder. Teddy arrives and asserts that Jimmy was John G, but when Leonard is undeterred, Teddy says that he helped him kill the real attacker a year ago, and Teddy has been using Leonard ever since. Teddy points out that since the name "John G" is common, Leonard will cyclically forget and begin his search again and that even Teddy himself has a "John G" name. Further, Teddy says that Sammy's story is Leonard's own story, a memory Leonard has repressed to escape feelings of guilt. After hearing Teddy confess all of this, Leonard burns the photograph of the dead Jimmy and the photo of himself right after killing the real attacker a year ago, pointing to his chest where he would get a tattoo to document his successful revenge. In a monologue, Leonard explains that he is willing to lie to himself in order to get justice against anyone who has wronged him. He, therefore, targets Teddy by ordering a tattoo of Teddy's license plate number and writing a note to himself that Teddy is not to be trusted so that he will mistake Teddy for John G and kill him. Leonard drives off in Jimmy's car, confident that, despite this lie, he will retain enough awareness of the world to know that his actions have consequences. ## Cast ## Film structure The film is structured with two timelines: color sequences are alternated with black-and-white sequences. The latter are put together in chronological order. The color ones, though shown forward (except for the first one, which is shown in reverse), are ordered in reverse. Chronologically, the black-and-white sequences come first, the color sequences come next. Using the numbering scheme suggested by Andy Klein—who took numbers from 1 to 22 for the black-and-white sequences and letters A–V for the color ones in his article for Salon magazine—the plotting of the film as presented is: Opening Credits (shown "backward"), 1, V, 2, U, 3, T, 4, S, ..., 22/A, Credits. There is a smooth transition from the black-and-white sequence 22 to color sequence A, which occurs during the development of a Polaroid photograph. The chronological order of the story can be viewed as a "hidden feature" on the 2-Disc Limited Edition Region 1 DVD and the 3-Disc special Edition Region 2 DVD. In this special feature, the chapters of the film are put together into the chronological order and is shown: Ending Credits (run in reverse), 1, 2, 3, ..., 22/A, B, ..., V, then the opening title runs "backward" to what was shown (the opening title sequence is run in reverse during the actual film, so it is shown forward in this version). Stefano Ghislotti wrote an article in Film Anthology which discusses how Nolan provides the viewer with the clues necessary to decode the plot as we watch and help us understand the chronology. The color sequences include a brief overlap to help clue the audience into the fact that they are being presented in reverse order. The purpose of the fragmented reverse sequencing is to force the audience into a sympathetic experience of Leonard's defective ability to create new long-term memories, where prior events are not recalled, since the audience has yet to see them. ## Production ### Development In July 1996, brothers Christopher and Jonathan Nolan took a cross-country road trip from Chicago to Los Angeles, as Christopher was relocating his home to the West Coast. During the drive, Jonathan pitched the story for the film to his brother, who responded enthusiastically to the idea. After they arrived in Los Angeles, Jonathan left for Washington, D.C., to finish college at Georgetown University. The mysterious killer character known only as "John G." was actually an homage to Jonathan's Georgetown University screenwriting professor at the time, John Glavin. Christopher repeatedly asked Jonathan to send him a first draft, and after a few months, Jonathan complied. Two months later, Christopher came up with the idea to tell the film backwards, and began to work on the screenplay. Jonathan wrote the short story simultaneously, and the brothers continued to correspond, sending each other subsequent revisions of their respective works. Christopher initially wrote the script as a linear story, and then would "go back and reorder it the way it is on screen to check the logic of it." Nolan was also influenced by the short story "Funes the Memorious" by Jorge Luis Borges. "I think Memento is a strange cousin to 'Funes the Memorious'—about a man who remembers everything, who can't forget anything. It's a bit of an inversion of that." Jonathan's short story, titled "Memento Mori", is radically different from Christopher's film, although it maintains the same essential elements. In Jonathan's version, Leonard is instead named Earl and is a patient at a mental institution. As in the film, his wife was killed by an anonymous man, and during the attack on his wife, Earl lost his ability to create new long-term memories. Like Leonard, Earl leaves notes to himself and has tattoos with information about the killer. However, in the short story, Earl convinces himself through his own written notes to escape the mental institution and murder his wife's killer. Unlike the film, there is no ambiguity that Earl finds and kills the anonymous man. In July 1997, Christopher Nolan's girlfriend (later wife) Emma Thomas showed his screenplay to Aaron Ryder, an executive for Newmarket Films. Ryder said the script was, "perhaps the most innovative script I had ever seen", and soon after, it was optioned by Newmarket and given a budget of \$9 million. Pre-production lasted seven weeks, during which the main shooting location changed from Montreal, Quebec to Los Angeles, California, to create a more realistic and noirish atmosphere for the film. ### Casting Brad Pitt was initially slated to play Leonard. Pitt was interested in the part, but passed due to scheduling conflicts. Other considered actors included Charlie Sheen, Alec Baldwin, Aaron Eckhart (who would later work with Nolan on The Dark Knight) and Thomas Jane, but the role went to Guy Pearce, who impressed Nolan the most. Pearce was chosen partly for his "lack of celebrity" (after Pitt passed, they "decided to eschew the pursuit of A-list stars and make the film for less money by using an affordable quality actor"), and his enthusiasm for the role, evidenced by a personal phone call Pearce made to Nolan to discuss the part. After being impressed by Carrie-Anne Moss's performance as Trinity in the 1999 science fiction film The Matrix, Jennifer Todd suggested her for the part of Natalie. While Mary McCormack lobbied for the role, Nolan decided to cast Moss as Natalie, saying, "She added an enormous amount to the role of Natalie that wasn't on the page". For the corrupt police officer Teddy, "comedian Denis Leary was mentioned, though proved unavailable". Moss suggested her co-star from The Matrix, Joe Pantoliano. Although there was a concern that Pantoliano might be too villainous for the part, he was still cast, and Nolan said he was surprised by the actor's subtlety in his performance. The rest of the film's characters were quickly cast after the three main leads were established. Stephen Tobolowsky and Harriet Sansom Harris play Sammy Jankis and his wife, respectively. Mark Boone Junior landed the role of Burt, the motel clerk, because Jennifer Todd liked his "look and attitude" for the part (as a result he has re-appeared in minor roles in other productions by Nolan). Tobolowsky said that he took the role of Sammy Jankis as he liked the script and also he knew the role was perfect for him as he had suffered from amnesia in real life. ### Filming Filming took place from September 7 to October 8, 1999, a 25-day shooting schedule. Pearce was on set every day during filming, although all three principal actors (including Pantoliano and Moss) performed together only on the first day, shooting exterior sequences outside Natalie's house. All of Moss' scenes were completed in the first week, including follow-up scenes at Natalie's home, Ferdy's bar, and the restaurant where she meets Leonard for the final time. Pantoliano returned to the set late in the second week to continue filming his scenes. On September 25, the crew shot the opening scene in which Leonard kills Teddy. Although the scene is in reverse motion, Nolan used forward-played sounds. For a shot of a shell casing flying upwards, the shell had to be dropped in front of the camera in forward motion, but it constantly rolled out of frame. Nolan was forced to blow the casing out of frame instead, but in the confusion, the crew shot it backwards. They then had to make an optical (a copy of the shot) and reverse the shot to make it go forward again. "That was the height of complexity in terms of the film", Nolan said. "An optical to make a backwards running shot forwards, and the forwards shot is a simulation of a backwards shot." The next day, on September 26, Larry Holden returned to shoot the sequence where Leonard attacks Jimmy. After filming was completed five days later, Pearce's voice-overs were recorded. For the black-and-white scenes, Pearce was given free rein to improvise his narrative, allowing for a documentary feel. The Travel Inn in Tujunga, California, was repainted and used as the interior of Leonard's and Dodd's motel rooms and the exterior of the film's Discount Inn. Scenes in Sammy Jankis' house were shot in a suburban home close to Pasadena, while Natalie's house was located in Burbank. The crew planned to shoot the derelict building set (where Leonard kills Teddy and Jimmy) in a Spanish-styled brick building owned by a train company. However, one week before shooting began, the company placed several dozen train carriages outside the building, making the exterior unfilmable. Since the interior of the building had already been built as a set, a new location had to be found. An oil refinery near Long Beach was used instead, and the scene where Leonard burns his wife's possessions was filmed on the other side of the refinery. ### Music David Julyan composed the film's synthesized score. Julyan acknowledges several synthesized soundtracks that inspired him, such as Vangelis's Blade Runner and Hans Zimmer's The Thin Red Line. While composing the score, Julyan created different, distinct sounds to differentiate between the color and black-and-white scenes: "brooding and classical" themes in the former, and "oppressive and rumbly noise" in the latter. Since he describes the entire score as "Leonard's theme", Julyan says, "The emotion I was aiming at with my music was yearning and loss. But a sense of loss you feel but at the same time you don't know what it is you have lost, a sense of being adrift." Initially, Nolan wanted to use Radiohead's "Paranoid Android" during the end credits, but he was unable to secure the rights. Instead, David Bowie's "Something in the Air" is used, although another of Radiohead's songs, an extended version of "Treefingers", is included on the film's soundtrack. ## Release The film gained substantial word-of-mouth press from the film festival circuit. It premiered at the 2000 Venice Film Festival, where it received a standing ovation, and afterwards played at Deauville American Film Festival and the Toronto International Film Festival. With the publicity from these events, Memento did not have trouble finding foreign distributors, opening in more than 20 countries worldwide. Its promotion tour ended at the Sundance Film Festival, where it played in January 2001. Finding American distributors proved more troublesome. Memento was screened for various studio heads (including Miramax chief Harvey Weinstein) in March 2000. Although most of the executives loved the film and praised Nolan's talent, all passed on distributing the picture, believing it was too confusing and would not attract a large audience. After famed independent film director Steven Soderbergh saw the film and learned it was not being distributed, he championed the film in interviews and public events, giving it even more publicity, although he did not secure a distributor. Newmarket, in a financially risky move, decided to distribute the film itself. After the first few weeks of distribution, Memento had reached more than 500 theaters and earned a domestic total of \$25 million in its box-office run. The film's success was surprising to those who passed on the film, so much so that Weinstein realized his mistake and tried to buy the film from Newmarket. ### Marketing Jonathan Nolan designed the film's official website. As with the marketing strategy of The Blair Witch Project, the website was intended to provide further clues and hints to introduce the story, while not providing any concrete information. After a short intro on the website, the viewer is shown a newspaper clipping detailing Leonard's murder of Teddy. Clicking on highlighted words in the article leads to more material describing the film, including Leonard's notes and photographs as well as police reports. The filmmakers employed another tactic by sending out Polaroid pictures to random people, depicting a bloody and shirtless Leonard pointing at an unmarked spot on his chest. Since Newmarket distributed the film themselves, Christopher Nolan edited the film's trailers himself. Sold to inexpensive cable channels like Bravo and A&E, and websites such as Yahoo and MSN, the trailers were key to the film gaining widespread public notice. ### Home media Memento was released on DVD and VHS in the United States and Canada on September 4, 2001, and in the United Kingdom on January 14, 2002. The UK edition contains a hidden feature that allows the viewer to watch the film in chronological order. The Canadian version does not have this feature but the film chapters are set up to do this manually or through DVD programming. The original US release does not have the chronological feature nor are the chapters set up correctly to do it. The film was later re-released in a limited edition DVD that features an audio commentary by Christopher Nolan, with four different endings; the original short story by Jonathan Nolan on which the film was based; and a Sundance Channel documentary on the making of the film. The limited edition DVD also contains a hidden feature that allows the viewer to watch the film in chronological order. The Limited Edition DVD is packaged to look like Leonard's case file from a mental institution, with notes scribbled by "doctors" and Leonard on the inside. The DVD menus are designed as a series of psychological tests; the viewer has to choose certain words, objects, and multiple choice answers to play the movie or access special features. Leonard's "notes" on the DVD case offer clues to navigating the DVD. Some of the "materials" seem designed to induce paranoia and uncertainty (a picture of one person whispering to another is captioned, "They know what you did"), alluding to Shelby's mental state. Memento was re-released in the UK on a 3-disc Special Edition DVD on December 27, 2004. This release contains all the special features that are on the two US releases in one package plus a couple of new interviews. The menus appear as tattoos on Leonard's body and are more straightforward than the US 2-disc limited edition DVD. Memento was released on Blu-ray on August 15, 2006. This release lacks the special features contained on the Limited Edition DVD, but does include the audio commentary by director Christopher Nolan. The single-layer disc features an MPEG-2 1080p transfer and PCM 5.1 surround audio. The film was also released on iTunes as a digital download. The film was re-released on the Blu-ray and DVD in the US on February 22, 2011, by Lionsgate following the 10th anniversary of the film. Both the Blu-ray and DVD have a new transfer that was also shown in theaters. Aside from the transfer, the Blu-ray contains a new special featurette by Nolan on the film's legacy. ## Reception ### Box office Memento was a box office success. In the United States, during its opening weekend, it was released in only 11 theaters, but by week 11 it was distributed to more than 500 theaters. It grossed over \$25 million in North America and \$14 million in other countries, combining for a total worldwide gross of \$40 million. During its theatrical run, it did not place higher than eighth in the list of highest-grossing movies for a single weekend. ### Critical response Memento was met with critical acclaim. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 93% based on 183 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Christopher Nolan skillfully guides the audience through Memento's fractured narrative, seeping his film in existential dread." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Film critic James Berardinelli gave the film four out of four stars, ranking it number one on his year-end Top Ten list and number sixty-three on his All-Time Top 100 films. In his review, he called it an "endlessly fascinating, wonderfully open-ended motion picture [that] will be remembered by many who see it as one of the best films of the year". Berardinelli praised the film's backwards narrative, saying that "what really distinguishes this film is its brilliant, innovative structure", and noted that Guy Pearce gives an "astounding ... tight, and thoroughly convincing performance". In 2009, Berardinelli chose Memento as his \#3 best movie of the decade. William Arnold of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer writes that Memento is a "delicious one-time treat", and emphasizes that director Christopher Nolan "not only makes Memento work as a non-linear puzzle film, but as a tense, atmospheric thriller". Rob Blackwelder noted that "Nolan has a crackerjack command over the intricacies of this story. He makes every single element of the film a clue to the larger picture ... as the story edges back toward the origins of [Leonard's] quest". Not all critics were impressed with the film's structure. Marjorie Baumgarten wrote, "In forward progression, the narrative would garner little interest, thus making the reverse storytelling a filmmaker's conceit." Sean Burns of the Philadelphia Weekly commented that "For all its formal wizardry, Memento is ultimately an ice-cold feat of intellectual gamesmanship. Once the visceral thrill of the puzzle structure begins to wear off, there's nothing left to hang onto. The film itself fades like one of Leonard's temporary memories." While Roger Ebert gave the film a favorable three out of four stars, he did not think it warranted multiple viewings. After watching Memento twice, he concluded that "Greater understanding helped on the plot level, but didn't enrich the viewing experience. Confusion is the state we are intended to be in." Jonathan Rosenbaum disliked the film, and commented in his review of Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind that Memento is a "gimmicky and unpoetic counterfeit" of Alain Resnais's 1968 film Je t'aime, je t'aime. In 2005, the Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay \#100 on its list of 101 Greatest Screenplays ever written. In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the fourteenth best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership. Memento was considered "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" by the US Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry in 2017, the first narrative feature of the 2000s to be honored. ### Scientific response Many medical experts have cited Memento as featuring one of the most realistic and accurate depictions of anterograde amnesia. Caltech neuroscientist Christof Koch called Memento "the most accurate portrayal of the different memory systems in the popular media", while physician Esther M. Sternberg, Director of the Integrative Neural Immune Program at the National Institute of Mental Health, identified the film as "close to a perfect exploration of the neurobiology of memory." Sternberg concludes: > This thought-provoking thriller is the kind of movie that keeps reverberating in the viewer's mind, and each iteration makes one examine preconceived notions in a different light. Memento is a movie for anyone interested in the workings of memory and, indeed, in what it is that makes our own reality. Clinical neuropsychologist Sallie Baxendale writes in The BMJ: > The overwhelming majority of amnesic characters in films bear little relation to any neurological or psychiatric realities of memory loss. Apparently inspired partly by the neuropsychological studies of the famous patient HM (who developed severe anterograde memory impairment after neurosurgery to control his epileptic seizures) and the temporal lobe amnesic syndrome, the film documents the difficulties faced by Leonard, who develops a severe anterograde amnesia after an attack in which his wife is killed. Unlike in most films in this genre, this amnesic character retains his identity, has little retrograde amnesia, and shows several of the severe everyday memory difficulties associated with the disorder. The fragmented, almost mosaic quality to the sequence of scenes in the film also reflects the 'perpetual present' nature of the syndrome. ### Interpretations and analysis Since its release, Memento has been a widely noted topic of film discussion, both for its unique narrative structure and themes. Those searching for explanations of the film's plot have either resorted to online forums, message boards or scholarly material, or have ignored the film's official website and forums to maintain their own personal hypotheses. On the same topic of self-deception, James Mooney of filmandphilosophy.com notes that the film suggests how "our memories deceive us, or rather, sometimes we deceive ourselves by 'choosing' to forget or by manipulating our memories of past events." This is much in line with a psychological analysis of the film, specifically the act of confabulation. Leonard's use of confabulation poses the dilemma, as explained by SUNY Downstate Medical Center Professor John Kubie for BrainFacts.org: "In Memento we are faced with the question of how much of Leonard's memory of the past is real and how much constructed from beliefs and wishes." Author Chuck Klosterman has written in-depth about Memento in his essay collection Sex, Drugs, and Cocoa Puffs: A Low Culture Manifesto, specifically on the diner scene with Leonard and Natalie. In an interview with Chuck Stephens for Filmmaker in 2001, Nolan also stated: > The most interesting part of that for me is that audiences seem very unwilling to believe the stuff that Teddy [Pantoliano] says at the end and yet why? I think it's because people have spent the entire film looking at Leonard's photograph of Teddy, with the caption: "Don't believe his lies." That image really stays in people's heads, and they still prefer to trust that image even after we make it very clear that Leonard's visual recollection is completely questionable. It was quite surprising, and it wasn't planned. What was always planned was that we don't ever step completely outside Leonard's head, and that we keep the audience in that interpretive mode of trying to analyze what they want to believe or not. For me, the crux of the movie is that the one guy who might actually be the authority on the truth of what happened is played by Joe Pantoliano ... who is so untrustworthy, especially given the baggage he carries in from his other movies: he's already seen by audiences as this character actor who's always unreliable. I find it very frightening, really, the level of uncertainty and malevolence Joe brings to the film. ### Best film list appearances ### Awards and accolades Because Jonathan Nolan's short story was not published before the film was released, it was nominated for Original Screenplay instead of Adapted Screenplay and both Christopher and Jonathan received a nomination. ## Remake AMBI Pictures announced in November 2015 that it plans to remake Memento, one of several film rights that AMBI acquired from its acquisition of Exclusive Media. Monika Bacardi, an executive for AMBI Pictures, stated that they plan to "stay true to Christopher Nolan's vision and deliver a memorable movie that is every bit as edgy, iconic and award-worthy as the original". As of April 2018, the film was still in the works. ## See also - Reverse chronology - "Memento Mori" (short story) - Ghajini (2005), Indian film, a Tamil language unofficial remake of Memento by AR Murugadoss. - Ghajini (2008), Indian Hindi film, remake of above 2005's film by same director. ## Note
19,007,833	Tropical Storm Julio (2008)	1,171,842,062	Pacific tropical storm in 2008	[ "2008 Pacific hurricane season", "2008 in Mexico", "Eastern Pacific tropical storms", "Hurricanes and tropical depressions of the Gulf of California", "Tropical cyclones in 2008" ]	Tropical Storm Julio was a tropical storm that made landfall on the southern tip of Baja California Sur in August 2008. The tenth named storm of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season, it developed from a tropical wave on August 23 off the coast of Mexico. It moved parallel to the coast, reaching peak winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) before moving ashore and weakening. On August 26 it dissipated in the Gulf of California. Julio was the third tropical cyclone to make landfall in the Pacific Ocean basin during the season, after Tropical Storm Alma, which struck Nicaragua in May, and Tropical Depression Five-E, which moved ashore along southwestern Mexico in July. The storm brought locally heavy rainfall to southern Baja California, killing one person and leaving several towns isolated. Moisture from Julio reached Arizona, producing thunderstorms, including one which damaged ten small planes in Chandler. ## Meteorological history On August 20, a tropical wave became discernible about 800 miles (1300 km) off the coast of Mexico, which in the next day developed a large area of convection, or thunderstorms. Initially, conditions were unfavorable for development, due to strong upper-level wind shear. Tracking northwestward parallel to the Mexican coast, the system became better organized on August 22, though later that day its structure deteriorated. On August 23, a strong area of convection developed and persisted near a circulation center, despite strong wind shear. With banding features becoming more prominent, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) classified the system as Tropical Depression Eleven-E about 345 miles (555 km) south-southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula. The tropical depression initially moved northwestward around the southwestern periphery of a ridge over Mexico. Convection continued to develop to the west of the center, and late on August 23, a ship report confirmed the depression intensified Tropical Storm Julio. Initially, the persistent shear left the center partially exposed from the thunderstorm activity, though upper level conditions gradually became more favorable for strengthening. On August 24, Tropical Storm Julio attained peak winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) as intense convection developed near the center. Shortly thereafter, the center became difficult to locate, and late on August 24 the storm moved ashore along the southwestern coast of the Baja California Peninsula. Tropical Storm Julio quickly weakened over land, although it initially maintained strong convection near its center. By early on August 26, however, the low-level and upper-level circulations separated, with the upper-circulation continuing quickly northeastward into mainland Mexico; the low-level circulation slowed as it entered the Gulf of California, after having been separated from its deep convection. Later in the day, the NHC discontinued advisories after the storm failed to maintain enough organized convection to be considered a tropical cyclone. The remnants of Julio were absorbed by a thermal low over the Mojave Desert on August 27. ## Preparations and impact Shortly before it was named, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch in the state of Baja California Sur, from Santa Fe on the Pacific coast around the peninsula to Buenavista along the Gulf of California. About 24 hours prior to landfall, the watch was replaced with a warning from Santa Fe to San Evaristo, and the tropical storm watch was extended along both sides of the peninsula. Prior to it making landfall, more than 2,500 families in susceptible areas left their homes. Officials opened several shelters in the area where the storm struck. As Julio made landfall, it produced lightning and locally heavy rainfall, which left more than a dozen communities isolated due to flooding. The flooding damaged several houses and killed two people. Winds were generally light, although strong enough to damage a few electrical poles and small buildings. In nearby Sinaloa, rainfall from the storm led to an emergency evacuation of 500 residents. Moisture from Julio developed thunderstorms across Arizona, including one near Chandler which produced winds of 75 mph (120 km/h); the storm damaged ten small planes at Chandler Municipal Airport, as well as a hangar. The damages at the airport were estimated at \$1 million (USD). The storms also dropped heavy rainfall, reaching over 1 inch (25 mm) in Gilbert, which caused flooding on Interstate 17. On August 25, 2008, moisture from the remnants of Julio caused minor flooding in parts of the south-western region of the United States. ## See also - List of Pacific hurricanes - Other tropical cyclones named Julio - Timeline of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season
28,355,026	Peter Trombino	1,094,206,443	Lacrosse player (born 1985)	[ "1985 births", "American lacrosse players", "Lacrosse forwards", "Living people", "Major League Lacrosse players", "Philadelphia Barrage players", "Princeton Tigers men's lacrosse players" ]	Peter Trombino is a retired lacrosse attackman who played professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse (MLL) from 2007 to 2008. He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men's lacrosse team from 2004 through 2007. He earned Ivy League Rookie of the Year honors, two United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (USILA) All-American honorable mention recognitions and three All-Ivy League selections (one first team and two second team). During his college career, Princeton earned two Ivy League championships and three NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship tournament invitations. In high school, he won a state championship in lacrosse and two league championships in American football. ## Background Born, September 23, 1985, Trombino is the son of Anthony and Cathleen Trombino. His brother Brian played lacrosse at Hofstra. He also has a younger brother Christopher and younger sister Elizabeth. Trombino attended St. Anthony's, which is a Roman Catholic college preparatory private high school, in South Huntington, New York on Long Island. He participated on both the lacrosse and American football teams in high school. Trombino also competed in the Empire State Games in lacrosse. He earned varsity letters in both lacrosse and American high school football for the St. Anthony's Friars. In American football, as a junior in high school, Trombino made a fourth quarter interception in the end zone to help St. Anthony's earn a Long Island Catholic High School Football League championship game in high school football. He played cornerback on the two-time league champions who went 22–1 during his career. In lacrosse, Trombino was an all-Long Island selection. He led his school to a 20–1 record and the Catholic League state championship during his senior year. Additionally, he was an Empire State Games gold medalist. ## College career Trombino attended Princeton University where he was a history major. He was also a lacrosse player for four years and is the only Princeton player to have at least 20 goals and 10 assists each year of a four-year career. Princeton qualified for the NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship in three of Trombino's four years (2004, 2006 & 2007). As a freshman, Trombino was expected to be a midfielder, but he surprisingly earned a spot in the first team attack unit. He became the first Princeton freshman to score at least one goal in all 15 of his games (the prior record had been a goal in 10 different games). Trombino was the 2004 Men's Ivy League Rookie of the Year. The team were Ivy League co-champions with Cornell. As a freshman in the 2004 NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship, he scored an overtime game-winning goal in a 9–8 quarterfinals victory over Maryland that was set up by Ryan Boyle. However, in the semifinals the following week against Navy, Trombino's shot was stopped with eight seconds left in the 8–7 loss. In 2005, Trombino was Princeton's leading scorer. He was a second team All-Ivy League selection. In March 2006, Trombino scored two goals and an assist in the defeat of Johns Hopkins that ended the defending national champion Blue Jays' 17-game winning streak and 37-game (38 was the NCAA record) home winning streak. In the game, he had to shift from attack to midfield in the second half when Mike Gaudio suffered a knee injury. The team finished the season as Ivy League co-champion with Cornell. He was a second team All-Ivy League selection that year as well as an honorable mention USILA All-American Team selection. In the 2006 NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship first round 11–8 victory over UMBC Trombino scored two goals and had two assists. In the quarterfinals, Princeton was eliminated by Maryland 11–6 in the subsequent game. Princeton qualified for the 2007 NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship, but was eliminated by Georgetown 9–8 in the first round. In 2007, Trombino was a first team All-Ivy League selection. He was an honorable mention USILA All-American Team selection. As a senior, Trombino served as co-captain of the 2007 team. He wrote his senior thesis on The Influence of Sir William Johnson Among the Iroquois Indians. ## Professional career He played with the Philadelphia Barrage during the 2007 and 2008 seasons. During the 2008 season with the Philadelphia Barrage, he once scored nine goals over a two-game stretch on the road (against the New Jersey Pride and Los Angeles Riptide). He only appeared in one game for Philadelphia in 2007. However, in 2008, he played in 10 games and scored fifteen goals, including one two-pointer, and had seven assists. He had a total of thirty-eight shot attempts in his career, all in 2008.
42,523,717	Elmer S. Dailey	1,054,584,853	Wooden barge by Willian H. Follette	[ "1915 ships", "Buildings and structures in Bridgeport, Connecticut", "Maritime incidents in 1974", "National Register of Historic Places in Fairfield County, Connecticut", "Shipwrecks on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut" ]	Elmer S. Dailey, originally known as the Claire B. Follette, is a wooden barge built by William H. Follette in 1915 at Tonawanda, New York, and rebuilt and renamed in 1928 by Brown Drydock on Staten Island, New York. It was used to transport materials from New York, New Jersey and Connecticut. It is the only known surviving Erie Canal boat and is one of a few remaining wooden-hulled canal boats. It sank in 1974 along with the Priscilla Dailey and the Berkshire No. 7 in the harbor of Bridgeport, Connecticut on the west side of the Pequonnock River. It has deteriorated to the point that a salvage operation could result in it breaking apart. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21, 1978. ## Description The barge is an Erie Canal boat that has two Fairbanks-Morse in-line six-cylinder diesel engines. It measures 105.2 feet (32.1 m) long with a 17.9 feet (5.5 m) beam. The depth of the hold is listed at 9.9 feet (3.0 m) and it had a listed capacity of 101 tons. Clouette describes the Elmer S. Dailey as having an "almost rectangular hull in section and plan, with bluntly rounded bow and stern...the bulwarks, perforated by scuppers, rise up to the stem which is slightly raked back. There are prominent strakes in the bow and topside along the sides of the vessel. A coaming about 2 feet (0.61 m) high frames the single large cargo opening which occupies about two-thirds of the boat's length". The cargo opening is covered by convex hatch covers. Towards the stern is a rectangular pilothouse and a low cabin with a companionway which has a protruding stack. ## History The Elmer S. Dailey was originally known as the Claire B. Follette when it was built by William H. Follette in 1915 at Tonawanda, New York. In 1928, the ship was rebuilt by Brown Drydock on Staten Island and acquired the name Elmer S. Dailey. Brown Drydock installed two Fairbanks-Morse in-line six-cylinder diesel engines and added the pilothouse and stack. At an unspecified later date, one engine was removed and a direct-drive engine, rated at 180 or 210 horsepower, operated on compressed air. In its final configuration, the vessel was manned by a three-man crew. The ship was owned by Stewart J. Dailey, a former mule driver on the Erie Canal who later became a partner in a Tonawanda shipbuilding company and afterwards opened his own business, S. J. Dailey Company. The barge was used to transport materials between ports in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut, and after the diesel engines were added, it was able to push another barge. It was in service between 1941 and 1972, and afterwards was moored in Bridgeport Harbor together with the Berkshire No. 7 and Priscilla Dailey, two other barges. In the spring of 1974, one of the barges began to take on water, dragging down the other two. No part of the barge is visible above water. Elmer S. Dailey is listed in the U.S. Registry as \#166315. ## Importance The Elmer S. Dailey is historically significant because it is the only known surviving Erie Canal boat and is one of a few remaining wooden-hulled canal boats. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21, 1978. It and the other two barges that sank with it are the only shipwrecks in Connecticut listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1998, the historic status of the barges was a concern for the Port Authority of Bridgeport Harbor, as the sunken ships interfered with a billion-dollar redevelopment project. Over the years, the barges had deteriorated so that an operation to salvage them would likely result in it breaking apart. No action had been taken by 2003, but a report noted that prior to any activity of the Elmer S. Dailey the Federal Transit Administration and/or the City of Bridgeport should document the barge with photos and a technical description. Specifics regarding the documentation based on the activity would be archived at the State Historic Preservation Office and the Mystic Seaport Museum. ## See also - National Register of Historic Places listings in Bridgeport, Connecticut
4,300,085	Verna Fields	1,171,946,396	American film editor and entertainment industry executive	[ "1918 births", "1982 deaths", "American film editors", "American sound editors", "Best Film Editing Academy Award winners", "Deaths from cancer in California", "Film people from Los Angeles", "People from St. Louis", "USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism alumni", "Women sound editors" ]	Verna Fields (née Hellman; March 21, 1918 – November 30, 1982) was an American film editor, film and television sound editor, educator, and entertainment industry executive. In the first phase of her career, from 1954 through to about 1970, Fields mostly worked on smaller projects that gained little recognition. She was the sound editor for several television shows in the 1950s. She worked on independent films including The Savage Eye (1959), on government-supported documentaries of the 1960s, and on some minor studio films such as Peter Bogdanovich's first film, Targets (1968). For several years in the late 1960s, she was a film instructor at the University of Southern California. Her one major studio film, El Cid (1961), led to her only industry recognition in this phase of her career, which was the 1962 Golden Reel award for sound editing. Fields came into prominence as a film editor and industry executive during the 'New Hollywood' era (1968–1982). She had established close ties with the directors Peter Bogdanovich, George Lucas, and Steven Spielberg early in their careers, and became known as their "mother cutter"; the term "cutter" is an informal variation of "film editor". The critical and commercial success of the films What's Up, Doc? (1972), American Graffiti (1973), and Jaws (1975) brought Fields a level of recognition that was unique among film editors at the time. Jaws in particular was enormously and unexpectedly profitable, and ushered in the era of the "summer blockbuster" film. Fields' contributions to this success were widely acknowledged. She received an Academy Award and an American Cinema Editors Award for best editing for the film. Within a year of the film's release, she had been appointed as Vice-President for Feature Production at Universal Pictures. She was thus among the first women to enter upper-level management in the entertainment industry. Her career as an executive at Universal continued until her death in 1982 at age 64. ## Early life, education, and training Verna Hellman was born in St. Louis, Missouri. She was the daughter of Selma (née Schwartz) and Samuel Hellman, who was then working as a journalist for the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the Saturday Evening Post. Sam Hellman subsequently moved his family to Hollywood, where he became a prolific screenwriter. Verna Hellman graduated from the University of Southern California with a B.A. in journalism. She then held several positions at 20th Century Fox, including being the assistant sound editor on Fritz Lang's film The Woman in the Window (1944). In 1946, she married the film editor Sam Fields and stopped working. The Fieldses had two sons; one of them, Richard Fields, became a film editor. In 1954, Sam Fields died of a heart attack at the age of 38. ## Career in sound editing After her husband died, Fields began a career as a television sound editor working on such shows as Death Valley Days and the children's programs Sky King and Fury. She installed a film editing lab in her home so that she could work at night while her children were young; she told them that she was the "Queen of Saturday morning". By 1956, she was working on films as well. Her first credit as a sound editor was for Fritz Lang's While the City Sleeps (1956). She worked on the experimental documentary The Savage Eye (1959); the co-directors Ben Maddow, Sidney Meyers, and Joseph Strick and the other connections she made on this film were important to her subsequent career. In 1962 Fields won the Motion Picture Sound Editors' Golden Reel Award for the film El Cid (directed by Anthony Mann). Following El Cid (1961), Fields was the sound editor on several lesser-known films, including the experimental film The Balcony (1963) with her Savage Eye colleagues Strick and Maddow. Peter Bogdanovich's first, low-budget film Targets (1968) was one of her last sound-editing projects, and represents her mature work. Bill Warren has described the scene in which the character Bobby starts sniping at freeway drivers from the top of a large oil storage tank: "The sound is mono, and brilliantly mixed – the entire sequence of Bobby shooting from the tanks was shot without sound. Verna Fields, then a sound editor, added all the sound effects. The result is seamlessly realistic, from the scrape of the guns on the metal of the tanks, to the crack of the rifles, to the little gasps Bobby makes just before firing." ## Film editing and teaching Fields' career as a film editor commenced when the director Irving Lerner recruited her to be the editor of the film Studs Lonigan (1960); Fields and Lerner had both worked on The Savage Eye. In 1963, she edited An Affair of the Skin, which was directed by Ben Maddow (another Savage Eye contact). Over the next five years, Fields edited several other independent films, but her best known work was on the Disney film The Legend of the Boy and the Eagle (1967). She also made documentaries funded by the United States government through the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), the United States Information Agency (USIA), and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW). Starting in the mid-1960s, Fields taught film editing at the University of Southern California (USC). Douglas Gomery wrote of her time at USC that: "Her greatest impact came when she began to teach film editing to a generation of students at the University of Southern California. She then operated on the fringes of the film business, for a time making documentaries for the Office of Economic Opportunity. The end of that Federal Agency pushed her back into mainstream Hollywood then being overrun by her former USC students." Fields' students had included Matthew Robbins, Willard Huyck, Gloria Katz, John Milius and George Lucas. Fields left no written lectures from her USC years, but a transcript exists from a 1975 seminar that she gave at the American Film Institute. In one characteristic excerpt she said that, "There's a feeling of movement in telling a story and there is a flow. A cut that is off-rhythm will be disturbing and you will feel it, unless you want it to be like that. On Jaws, each time I wanted to cut I didn't, so that it would have an anticipatory feeling — and it worked." In 1971, Peter Bogdanovich, with whom Fields had worked on Targets, recruited her to edit What's Up, Doc? (1972); Bogdanovich had edited his previous films himself. The film was very successful, and is now considered as the second of Bogdanovich's 'golden period' that commenced with The Last Picture Show (1971). What's Up, Doc? established Fields as an editor on studio films. She subsequently edited Bogdanovich's final golden period film, Paper Moon (1973), as well as his less successful film Daisy Miller (1974). ## George Lucas and American Graffiti In 1967, Fields had hired George Lucas to help edit Journey to the Pacific (1968), which was a documentary film written and directed by Gary Goldsmith for the USIA. She had also hired Marcia Griffin for the job, and introduced Griffin and George Lucas; the couple subsequently married. In 1972, Lucas was directing American Graffiti. While Lucas had intended that his wife would edit the film, Universal asked him to add Verna Fields to the editing team. Over the first ten weeks of post-production, George and Marcia Lucas, along with Fields and Walter Murch (as sound editor), pieced together the original, 165-minute version of the film. Each of more than 40 scenes in the film had a continuously playing background song that had been popular around 1962, when the film's story was set. Michael Sragow has characterized the effect as "using rock 'n roll as a Greek chorus with a beat". Fields then left American Graffiti. It took another six months of editing to create a shorter, 110-minute version of the film, but upon its release in 1973 American Graffiti was extremely successful both with critics and at the box office. Shortly after its release, Roger Greenspun described the film and its editing: "American Graffiti exists not so much in its individual stories as in its orchestration of many stories, its sense of time and place. Although it is full of the material of fashionable nostalgia, it never exploits nostalgia. In its feeling for movement and music and the vitality of the night—and even in its vision in white—it is oddly closer to some early Fellini than to the recent American past of, say, The Last Picture Show or Summer of '42." Verna Fields and Marcia Lucas were nominated for an Academy Award for Film Editing in 1974 for their work on American Graffiti; while the film won no Academy Awards, Marcia Lucas, Murch, and Fields all won Academy Awards for later work. ## Steven Spielberg and Jaws Fields edited Steven Spielberg's first major film, The Sugarland Express (1974). She became widely celebrated for her work as the film editor on Spielberg's next film, Jaws (1975), for which she won both the Academy Award for Film Editing and the American Cinema Editors Eddie Award in 1976. Leonard Maltin has characterized her editing as "sensational". Gerald Peary, who interviewed Fields in 1980, wrote that, "Jaws scared the world, brought in a fortune for Universal, and made Verna Fields, who won an Academy Award, about as famous 'overnight' as an editor ever gets." He then quoted Fields as saying that, "Steven told me it was because I had cut the first picture that was a monumental success in which you can really see the editing. And people discovered that it was a woman who edited Jaws." The editing of Jaws has been intensely studied for over thirty years. `In film editor Susan Korda's 2005 lecture, "We'll Fix It in the Edit!?", at the Berlinale Talent Campus, she broadly explained the contribution of editing to the film: "What is fascinating in Jaws is that the shark has a personality, the shark has an intelligence, indeed sometimes I think the shark has a sense of humor, morbid as it might be. And that was all achieved in the first two acts of the film before you see the shark. So the cutting was very essential for that." David Bordwell has used the second shark attack scene in Jaws as (literally) a textbook illustration of an editing innovation that occurred in the late 1960s. The innovation, which Fields herself named the "wipe by cut", can be used when a character is filmed from a distance using a telephoto lens. The cut to a different framing of the character occurs during the interruption by a figure who passes between the camera and the character. The cut thus masks itself, and avoids drawing the viewer's attention away from the narrative of the scene.` The critic David Edelstein's affectionate comments on Jaws and its editing are also a good indication of the film's lasting influence 30 years after its release: > Jaws is still one of my favorite movies. I didn't know I could be manipulated like that—so wittily, so teasingly, in a way that made me laugh at my own fear. (The only Hitchcock film I'd seen in a theater was Frenzy, which was too sick to appreciate in the same vein.) What clinched it was that unbelievably brilliant sequence that begins with a high-angle shot of Roy Scheider dropping fish entrails in the water as shark bait. He was resentful; he said to Shaw and Dreyfuss, "Why don't you guys come down here and shovel some of this shit?" And we started to laugh—he said "shit!" heh-heh—and then the head of the shark appeared in the water (no music, no foreshadowing), and I felt my mind detach from my body and my laugh turn into a shriek and merge into the collective shriek of everyone in that huge theater. I literally shook for the rest of the movie: Every cut by the late Verna Fields had me poised to leap out of my seat. (I really learned to appreciate editing from Jaws.) On a 2012 listing of the 75 best edited films of all time that was compiled by the Motion Picture Editors Guild, Jaws was listed eighth. ## Management for Universal Studios Shortly after the completion of Jaws in 1975, Fields was hired by Universal as an executive consultant. Some insight into Universal's reasons for hiring her can be gleaned from the fact that during the filming of Jaws, in addition to her editing, Fields had been "omnipresent...at Spielberg's beck and call by means of a walkie-talkie. Often she would shuttle back and forth on her bike between the producers in town and Spielberg at the dock for last-minute decisions". The producers of Jaws were David Brown and Richard D. Zanuck. Along with Brown, Zanuck, and Peter Benchley (the book's author), Fields helped promote Jaws on the "talk show circuit" in the eight months before its saturation release to 464 theaters on June 20, 1975. Fields had plainly earned the confidence of the producers and of the studio executives at Universal. Throughout her career, Fields had worked independently, but in 1976, and following the unexpected success of Jaws, she accepted a position as the Feature-Production Vice-President with Universal. She was thus among the first women to hold high executive positions with the major studios. In a 1982 interview, Fields was quoted as saying, "I got a lot of credit for Jaws, rightly or wrongly." Fields had come "up from the cutting room floor" and out of the customary, near-anonymity of film editors. Regarding this change in her career path, Fields told Peary in 1980 that "All these young filmmakers are possessive. They feel I belong to them, and they feel a certain resentment - that I went to the other side. In calmer moments, of course, they know it isn't true, that I can do more for them now." Of Fields' work at Universal, Joel Schumacher was quoted in 1982 as saying: "In the record business, you have Berry Gordy and Ahmet Ertegün. They're executives who actually made records. In the movie business, as an executive who's worked with film, you have only Verna. She saves Universal a fortune...every day." ## Later life and death In 1981, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry. Fields held her position as a vice president at Universal until her death in 1982. Jaws was the last film that she edited. There had apparently been some discussion that Fields might edit Spielberg's Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), but Michael Kahn took responsibility, and edited all but one of Spielberg's films for the next 30 years. After John D. Hancock, the initial director of Jaws 2, was sacked, it was suggested that Fields co-direct it with Joe Alves. Jeannot Szwarc, however, was hired to complete the film. Fields died of cancer in Los Angeles in 1982. In her honor, Universal named a building at its Universal City, California lot the Verna Fields Building; it lies immediately across from the Alfred Hitchcock Building. The Motion Picture Sound Editors (MPSE) sponsor an annual Verna Fields Award for Student Sound Editing. The Women in Film Foundation, which honored Fields with its Crystal Award in 1981, presently administers the Verna Fields Memorial Fellowship for women film students at UCLA. ## Selected filmography (editor)
29,463,562	Battle of Machias (1777)	1,084,677,546	1777 American Revolutionary War battle	[ "Battles in the Northern Coastal theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga", "Battles involving Great Britain", "Battles involving the United States", "Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Maine", "Conflicts in 1777", "Machias, Maine", "Military history of New England", "Military history of Nova Scotia" ]	The Battle of Machias (August 13–14, 1777) was an amphibious assault on the Massachusetts town of Machias (in present-day eastern Maine) by British forces during the American Revolutionary War. Local militia aided by Indian allies successfully prevented British troops from landing. The raid, led by Commodore Sir George Collier, was executed in an attempt to head off a planned second assault on Fort Cumberland, which had been besieged in November 1776. The British forces landed below Machias, seized a ship, and raided a storehouse. The result of the raid was disputed. Collier claimed the action was successful in destroying military stores for an attack on Fort Cumberland (although such stores had not been delivered to Machias), while the defenders claimed that they had successfully prevented the capture of Machias and driven off the British. ## Background The small community of Machias, located in the eastern district of Massachusetts that is now the state of Maine, was a persistent thorn in the side of British naval authorities since the start of the American Revolutionary War. In June 1775, its citizens rose up and seized a small naval vessel, and the community had ever since been a base for privateering. In 1777, John Allan, an expatriate Nova Scotian, was authorized by the Second Continental Congress to organize an expedition to establish a Patriot presence in the western part of Nova Scotia (present-day New Brunswick). Although Congress authorized him to recruit as many as three thousand men, the Massachusetts government was only prepared to give him a colonel's commission and authority to raise a regiment in eastern Massachusetts to establish a presence in the St. John River valley. Allan based his effort in Machias, and had by June landed some forty men in the area. However, British authorities in Halifax had received some intelligence of Allan's intended mission, and a larger British force arrived at the St. John River on June 23. Men that Allan had left at the settlements near the mouth of the river skirmished with the British but then withdrew upriver. Allan was forced to make a difficult overland journey back to Machias after his small force retreated up the river. He was joined on this journey by a number of sympathetic Maliseet Indians that he had persuaded to join the American cause. In early August the Massachusetts Provisional Congress voted to disband forces recruited for Allan's expedition because of the imminent threat posed by the army of General John Burgoyne in upstate New York. Papers documenting Allan's fairly elaborate plans, including a projected attack on Fort Cumberland, were taken during the conflict on the St. John River and fell into the hands of Captain Sir George Collier, second-in-command to Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot in the naval station at Halifax. This spurred Collier to act, since there had already been one attempt on Fort Cumberland the previous year. He therefore organized an assault on Machias, Allan's base of operations and the source of many of his recruits. Because Collier and the commander of land forces at Halifax, General Eyre Massey, did not get along, Collier decided to launch the expedition without taking on any British Army troops. He sailed from Halifax in late July in the frigate HMS Rainbow, accompanied by the brig HMS Blonde, planning to use the marines aboard those ships in ground operations. He was joined by the frigate HMS Mermaid and the sloop HMS Hope while making the passage to Machias. The defense of Machias consisted of local militia under the command of Colonel Jonathan Eddy, the leader of the 1776 attack on Fort Cumberland. He had been warned that the British were organizing an attack. The militia laid a log boom across the Machias River, and constructed several earthen redoubts further upriver, armed with cannons taken from local privateers. The defense was coincidentally reinforced by forty to fifty Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscots that Colonel Allan had called to Machias to explain what had gone wrong with his expedition. ## Battle Collier's fleet arrived at the mouth of the river early on August 13. He boarded 123 marines onto the Hope, and ordered her and the Blonde up the river. Word of this reached the militia, and thirty-five men mustered to oppose them. The ships reached the log boom, and a firefight began between the two forces. The militia resistance was sufficient to keep the British from attempting a landing that day. Early the next morning, under the cover of fog, the marines were landed. They cut the log boom, seized a sloop carrying lumber, and set fire to a storehouse, seizing stores of flour, rice, corn, shoes, and ammunition before returning to the ships. The two ships then moved further up the river until they reached the town itself. All along the way they were harassed by musket and cannon fire from the shore, as the militia and their Indian allies positioned themselves to dispute possible landing sites. When darkness set in, the Indians reportedly began chanting and shouting in an attempt to magnify their numbers. At this point, "To the great Surprise and Astonishment of every one[,] in Less than half an Hour after Coming to an Anchor, the Brig & Sloop Both Gote under way without firing a Gun" and "made down the River against the Tide of flood." The Hope, however, ran aground while making its way downstream in the twilight. The militia hauled a swivel gun to a nearby shore, and peppered her with shot the next morning before she was refloated by the tide and made her way into Machias Bay. ## Aftermath Colonel Allan ascribed the militia's success to British concerns that they might be entering a trap. He also grandiosely likened the encounter to another battle, writing "not an Action during the War Except Bunker Hill there was such a slaughter". American estimates of British casualties ran from forty to one hundred, while claiming their own casualties at one killed and one wounded. The British reported their losses as three killed and eighteen wounded, which were mainly incurred when the Hope grounded. After departing from Machias, Collier cruised the Maine coast, capturing smaller American ships, and raided communities on the Sheepscot River. There he captured a frigate laden with mast timbers destined for France. In his report Collier declared the mission a success and claimed to have successfully forestalled another invasion of Nova Scotia. He also believed that with another one hundred men "the destruction [of Machias] would have been compleat." General Massey, whose troops had been preparing to participate in the expedition but were excluded by Collier's abrupt departure from Halifax, wrote that Collier "wanted the whole honour of destroying Machias," and that he "stole out of Halifax, made a futile attack on Machias, was most shamefully drove from thence...." Machias was not attacked again during the war, although it became somewhat isolated when the British occupied Castine in 1779, establishing the colony of New Ireland. Collier returned to successfully defend New Ireland from the American patriot Penobscot Expedition. (Machias and other parts of eastern Maine were successfully occupied by British forces during the War of 1812, where again the British created the colony of New Ireland, but were returned to United States control after the war.) ## See also - Military history of Nova Scotia
49,004,270	The Proclamation of Dušan's Law Codex	1,152,444,486	Paintings by Paja Jovanović	[ "1900 paintings", "Cultural depictions of Serbian men", "Cultural depictions of kings", "History paintings", "Paintings in Serbia", "Paintings of people", "Paja Jovanović", "Serbian Empire", "Serbian paintings" ]	The Proclamation of Dušan's Law Codex (Serbian: Proglašenje Dušanovog zakonika, Serbian Cyrillic: Проглашење Душановог законика) is the name given to each of seven versions of a composition painted by Paja Jovanović which depict Dušan the Mighty introducing Serbia's earliest surviving law codex to his subjects in Skopje in 1349. The Royal Serbian Government commissioned the first version for 30,000 dinars in 1899, intending for it to be displayed at the following year's Exposition Universelle (world's fair) in Paris. When originally commissioned, the painting was intended to depict Dušan's 1346 coronation as Emperor of Serbia. After consulting with the politician and historian Stojan Novaković, Jovanović decided against painting a scene from Dušan's coronation, and opted to depict the proclamation of his law codex instead. Thus, the painting has often erroneously been described as depicting the coronation. Jovanović paid a great deal of attention to historical detail in preparation for the work, visiting several medieval Serbian Orthodox monasteries in Kosovo and Macedonia, studying medieval costumes and weaponry and consulting experts on the period. The first version was finished in time for the world's fair, where it received widespread critical acclaim and was awarded a gold medal by the fair's artistic committee. In the opinion of one art historian, the artistic committee's decision affirmed that the painting was on par with the works of the world's greatest visual artists. A number of historians and critics consider The Proclamation of Dušan's Law Codex to be one of Jovanović's finest works, and Jovanović himself felt the painting was his "most beautiful composition". ## Dušan's Code Stefan Dušan was one of Serbia's most powerful rulers. In the mid-14th century, he oversaw the establishment of a large Serbian state that stretched from the Danube to the Greek mainland. As a result of his achievements, in Serbian historiography he is referred to as Dušan the Mighty or Dušan the Lawgiver. The first suffix is in recognition of his expansion of Serbia's territory and the second in recognition of the law codex he introduced during his reign, commonly called Dušan's Code. In 1343, as King of Serbs and the Coast, Dušan added "King of the Romans" to his title. In late 1345, he began referring to himself as the Emperor (tsar) of Serbia. On Easter Day, 16 April 1346, Dušan convoked an assembly in Skopje, attended by the Serbian Archbishop Joanikije II, the Archbishop of Ochrid Nikolaj I, the Bulgarian Patriarch Simeon and various religious leaders from Mount Athos. The assembly then ceremonially performed the raising of the autocephalous Serbian Archbishopric to the status of Patriarchate. From then on, the Archbishop was titled the Serbian Patriarch, with his seat in Patriarchal Monastery of Peć. Dušan was subsequently crowned Emperor of Serbia by the new Patriarch, Joanikije. Dušan had ambitions of conquering all the Byzantine lands, including Constantinople, and proclaiming himself Byzantine Emperor. In order to achieve this goal, he knew that he needed to secure the loyalty of his Greek subjects. Thus, Dušan decreed that lands inhabited by Greeks were to have Greek governors and follow traditional Byzantine laws as opposed to Serbian customary law. This had the effect of reducing tensions between Serbs and Greeks and made it easier for the Serbs to occupy Greek lands without any considerable threat of revolt. In 1349, Dušan issued a national legal code from his capital, Skopje, one that applied only to the northern half of the empire where Serbs predominated. Dušan's Code is Serbia's earliest surviving legal code; it was influenced heavily by Byzantine law. It was also one of the most advanced legal texts of its time, and the first wide-ranging set of laws promulgated by the South Slavs. Because it only covers specific crimes, it was likely part of a three-part legal document that also included an abridgement of Matthew Blastares' Syntagma and the Law of Justinian. The third part, Dušan's Code itself, was thus probably intended to supplement the first two texts by touching upon issues not covered in them rather than serve as a stand-alone legal system. ## The painting ### Preparation and composition In the late 1890s, Serbia was invited to participate at the 1900 Exposition Universelle (world's fair) in Paris. In 1897, the Royal Serbian Government created a special committee to select which Serbs would go to France as representatives of their country; the committee was chaired by the politician Svetozar Gvozdić. It was decided that Serbia's contribution to the fair would predominantly consist of art, most of which was to be displayed at the Serbian Pavilion, a building in the Serbo-Byzantine style designed by the architect Milan Kapetanović. Other Serbian works were to be displayed at the Grand Palais. The rules of the fair's art exhibit held that each canvas had to measure 390 by 589 centimetres (154 by 232 in) and contain over seventy figures in various, often complex, positions. In Serbia, the period between 1889 and 1914 was marked by a spate of patriotic literature, theatre and visual art. Serbian artists competed with one another over who would produce the best depictions of Serbia's medieval history, and the best Serbian national romantic art was made during this time. One of the most prominent Serb artists of the day was the realist Paja Jovanović, who was known for his sprawling historical works. In 1899, the special committee hired him to compose a scene depicting Dušan's coronation to be displayed in Paris. In return for his services, he received an honorarium of 30,000 dinars. The government felt it was essential that Jovanović's work and those of other Serbian artists be well received. Given decades of political instability in the Balkans, the authorities sought to promote a positive image of their country abroad, especially by familiarizing Western Europeans with Serbian art. Hence, Jovanović was painting for a dual audience, both domestic and foreign. His foremost goal was to emphasize the legitimacy of Serbia's contemporary territorial claims before the Great Powers, especially with regard to Kosovo, Macedonia and the Sandžak (then divided between the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary), and counter any negative views of the Serbian state. For his domestic audience, Jovanović's goal was to remind his countrymen of Serbia's rich history and encourage patriotic sentiments. After consulting with the politician and historian Stojan Novaković, Jovanović decided against painting a scene from Dušan's coronation, and opted to depict the proclamation of Dušan's Code instead. As a result, the painting is sometimes mistakenly referred to as The Coronation of Tsar Dušan (Serbian: Krunisanje Cara Dušana). Jovanović began working on the painting in 1900. In keeping with his usual approach, he spent a significant amount of time researching Dušan's life. He read medieval accounts of the proclamation, consulted experts on that historical period, and examined medieval paintings and illuminated manuscripts for insight into the architecture and weaponry of 14th-century Serbia. Jovanović also visited the monasteries of Gračanica and Lesnovo, the Field of Kosovo, and the cities of Prizren and Skopje. Since the church where the proclamation took place had long since been destroyed, he was forced to find an alternative, ultimately deciding to model it after the Visoki Dečani monastery given the similarities in their design. By his own admission, the hardest task Jovanović faced was achieving authenticity with regard to clothing, weaponry and medieval heraldry. He found the medieval clothing particularly difficult to reproduce because Serbs did not have their own national costume at the time. Instead, medieval Serbs, especially royalty and the nobility, wore clothing that was greatly influenced by neighbouring cultures, particularly the Byzantines. Jovanović styled the clothes seen in the painting on frescoes from the medieval monasteries he visited, sketched them, and then requested that the head costume designer of the Vienna State Opera recreate them based on those sketches. Upon receiving the costumes, Jovanović placed them in his studio and used them as models for the painting. Dušan's German mercenaries, who are shown lining the church doors church as he exits, wear Venetian body armour. Jovanović based this detail on a medieval correspondence that Novaković had discovered in the Venetian archives where Dušan is recorded having ordered 300 units of plate armour from Venice. Knights' swords and other weaponry were based on depictions from medieval frescoes. The heraldry depicted on the shields and the insignia of the various figures is based on examples from a medieval book titled Armaila Illyricorum. Jovanović had found the book in a Viennese library. It had been removed from Herzegovina's Žitomislić monastery several decades prior and brought to the Austro-Hungarian capital. The Proclamation of Dušan's Law Codex was painted outdoors, en plein air. ### Description and history The painting depicts Dušan exiting a church with his wife, Jelena, and son, Uroš, shortly after announcing that the law codex would be put into force. At their side are Patriarch Joanikije and the magnate Jovan Oliver, as well as many other members of the clergy and nobility. The emperor and his entourage are watched by an admiring crowd of nobles, knights and commoners. The knights lower their swords at Dušan's feet as a sign of respect and submission. A festive atmosphere pervades the scene. The noble Gojko Mrnjavčević reads the proclamation before the crowd. Palman Bracht, a German mercenary who oversaw Dušan's personal bodyguard, stands at the far right among a row of other knights, and watches closely as the Emperor steps outside. The art historian Lilien Filipovitch-Robinson writes: > Technically, the artist brought together an accumulation of his considerable study and experience as a painter of history, portrait, and genre scenes. As was typical, his orderly composition and perfect one-point linear perspective, both of which are appropriate to the subject, are informed by the frescoes of the Renaissance. Every figure in the foreground and middle ground directs the eye steadily to the compositional vanishing point, Tsar Dušan. He is the epitome of control, dignity, and majesty. The brilliantly clothed entourage behind him frames his form as do the massive stone walls of the church. They not only lend compositional stability but intimate a durability shared by the God-inspired architecture and Dušan’s reign. Once complete, the painting was presented to the Royal Serbian Government. As part of his contract, Jovanović granted the government the right to print reproductions of the painting. Jovanović felt the painting was his "most beautiful composition", but was displeased that he had not been able to complete it the way it was originally envisaged. He had originally intended for the finished work to be painted on woven tapestry. The version that went on display in Paris was an oil on canvas that Jovanović had only meant to use as a model for the tapestry painting. He later recalled that King Alexander had gambled away the money he had promised to provide for the tapestry painting's completion. Disappointed, Jovanović pledged to repaint it to his own liking, though he did not begin work on a revision until 1925–26, by which time he was in his sixties. He went on to complete a total of seven different versions of the painting in his lifetime. The first version is in the possession of the National Museum of Serbia, in Belgrade. After a lengthy restoration process, it was unveiled to the public in February 2022. Another, measuring 190 by 126 centimetres (75 by 50 in), is on permanent display at the Belgrade City Museum. ## Critical reception and legacy The Proclamation of Dušan's Law Codex was well received by the Serbian public, and is said to have exceeded the expectations of all the government ministers. It was also well received in France, where Jovanović was named an Officer of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. The painting was met with critical acclaim at the world's fair, and the fair's artistic committee awarded Jovanović a gold medal for his work. By way of this decision, the art historian Jelena Milojković-Djurić asserts, the Paris committee recognized that the painting was on par with those of the world's best visual artists. Serbian painter and art critic Nadežda Petrović described Jovanović's compositions as the "crown of Serbian pictorial art", and lauded The Proclamation of Dušan's Law Codex as his best work. Filipovitch-Robinson ranks it among Jovanović's three best paintings, alongside The Takovo Uprising (1888) and Migration of the Serbs (1896). "By focusing on the famed reign of Tsar Dušan," she writes, "Jovanović was making a case for the respect with which Serbia should be regarded." The painting, she argues, is both a history lesson and a "patriotic declaration". For Serbian audiences in particular, she continues, it alluded to the greatness of Serbia's past and implied that the country's restoration as a free, modern nation was within reach. In her opinion, it is an inherently optimistic work. Tim Judah, a journalist specializing in the Balkans, compares Jovanović's contribution to Serbian art to Jacques-Louis David's contribution to French art, and draws parallels between The Proclamation of Dušan's Law Codex and The Coronation of Napoleon. Professor David A. Norris, a historian specializing in Serbian culture, describes the knights' armour as "highly stylized" and opines that, as a direct result, some of the figures resemble Hollywood actors more than medieval knights. "The picture shows excellent conception and solidity in its composition," art historian Radmila Antić contends. "The figures are well related, their attitudes conscientiously studied, the costumes represented with the greatest care for detail."
9,938,658	Blue Picardy Spaniel	1,106,295,623	null	[ "Dog breeds originating in France", "FCI breeds", "Gundogs", "Pointers", "Rare dog breeds", "Spaniels" ]	The Blue Picardy Spaniel (or Épagneul Bleu de Picardie) is a breed of Spaniel originating in France, from the area around the mouth of the River Somme, around the start of the 20th century. It is descended from Picardy Spaniels and English Setters, and is described as a quiet breed that requires much exercise due to its stamina. It is especially good with children. Similar to the Picardy Spaniel, it has a distinctive coloured coat. Recognised by only a handful of kennel associations, the breed is predominantly known in France and Canada. ## Description ### Appearance A Blue Picardy Spaniel on average is around 22–24 inches (56–61 cm) high at the withers and weighs 43–45 pounds (20–20 kg). Its coat is speckled grey black forming a bluish shade, with some black patches. The coat is flat or a little wavy with feathering on the ears, legs, underside and tail. It has long legs with some setter characteristics. It has a long broad nose and muzzle, with thick ears covered in silky hair that usually end around the tip of the muzzle. Its chest is of medium size that descends down to the same level as the elbows. Both the forequarters and the hindquarters are well muscled. Its tail typically does not extend beyond the hock and is normally straight. The breed has many similarities with the Picardy Spaniel due to the two breeds' recent history. The Blue Spaniel is described as being softer, as well as the obvious difference in coat color. The Picardy has a brown coat, whereas the Blue Picardy has a black and grey coat, which was brought into the breed by the introduction of English Setter blood. Similar in the modern era due to the close similarities of the two different breed standards. In addition, the Blue Picardy is a little faster, and has a slightly finer nose. ### Temperament It is a versatile hunting dog, used for its ability to locate and retrieve game in harsh and adverse terrain and conditions. It is not specialised to any one type of terrain, and tends to score well in field trials. The Blue Picardy is considered to be a quiet breed, but it requires a great deal of exercise, as it has a high level of stamina. It loves to play and is a responsive and obedient breed which thrives on human companionship. It is especially good with children. ## Health The breed has no known genetic health issues. Blue Picardy Spaniels can be prone to ear infections, which are common among dogs with pendulous ears, including Basset Hounds and other breeds of Spaniel. It has an average life expectancy of thirteen years. ## History At the turn of the 20th century the area around the mouth of the River Somme was considered a paradise for hunters interested in wildfowl. Because of quarantine restrictions in the United Kingdom, British shooters would board their dogs in the Picardy area, near the mouth of the Somme. This caused the infusion of English Setter blood into the local Spaniel population and developed the Blue Picardy Spaniel. While the first black, blue-grey Spaniel was recorded in 1875, it was not until 1904 when the Picardy Spaniel was first shown. This Spaniel was officially classified as a French Spaniel, and was shown at the Paris Canine Exposition. When the Picard Spaniel and Blue Picardy Spaniel Club was formed in 1907, the two different breeds of Picardy Spaniel were categorised. In France, the Blue Picardy was recognised as a separate breed in 1938. About 1,000 Blue Picardy Spaniel puppies are born in France each year. The first person to import the Blue Picardy Spaniel into Canada was Ronald Meunier of Saint-Julien, Quebec, around 1987, and the breed was then recognised by the Canadian Kennel Club effective 1 June 1995. The breed is recognised by the American Rare Breed Association, which uses the same standard as the Fédération Cynologique Internationale.
52,300,193	Vikram Vedha	1,173,405,717	2017 film directed by Pushkar–Gayathri	[ "2010s Tamil-language films", "2010s police procedural films", "2017 action thriller films", "2017 crime action films", "2017 crime thriller films", "2017 films", "Fictional portrayals of the Tamil Nadu Police", "Films about organised crime in India", "Films based on Indian folklore", "Films based on fairy tales", "Films based on fantasy works", "Films directed by Pushkar–Gayathri", "Films scored by Sam C. S.", "Films set in Chennai", "Films set in Mumbai", "Films shot in Chennai", "Indian action thriller films", "Indian crime action films", "Indian crime thriller films", "Indian films with live action and animation", "Indian gangster films", "Indian neo-noir films", "Indian nonlinear narrative films" ]	Vikram Vedha is a 2017 Indian Tamil-language neo-noir action thriller film written and directed by Pushkar–Gayathri and produced by S. Sashikanth under his banner YNOT Studios. The film stars R. Madhavan and Vijay Sethupathi as the titular anti-heroes, while Shraddha Srinath, Kathir, Varalaxmi Sarathkumar, Prem, Achyuth Kumar, Hareesh Peradi and Vivek Prasanna play supporting roles. Inspired by the Indian folktale Baital Pachisi, the film tells the story of Vikram, a police inspector who sets out to track down and kill Vedha, a gangster. After Vedha voluntarily surrenders himself, he tells Vikram three stories which change his perceptions of good and evil. In January 2015, Sashikanth revealed that he would be producing a film directed by the husband and wife duo, Pushkar and Gayathri. Following a year of development on the script throughout 2015, Madhavan and Sethupathi were selected to play the lead roles in February 2016. Principal photography began in November of the same year and was completed by January 2017. The film was shot mainly in North Chennai, with the area being used as its backdrop. Sam C. S. composed the soundtrack and score, P. S. Vinod performed the cinematography, and the film's editor was A. Richard Kevin. Vikram Vedha was released on 21 July 2017 to critical acclaim with critics praising its cast's performances (particularly Madhavan and Sethupathi), writing, narrative style and major technical aspects. Made on a budget of ₹110 million (about US\$1,661,631 in 2017), the film performed well at the box office, grossing ₹600 million (about US\$9,063,444 in 2017) worldwide despite experiencing difficulties due to the changes resulting from the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax. Vikram Vedha won four Filmfare, Vijay and Norway Tamil Film Festival awards each. Additionally, it received three Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards, two Techofes Awards and an Edison Award. In 2022, the film was remade in Hindi under the same title by the same directors. ## Plot Vikram is an honest police inspector who has a black-and-white sense of good and evil. Vedha is a dreaded gangster who understands the nuance in between. Vikram's best friend Simon leads an encounter unit formed to eliminate Vedha. In one encounter, the squad kills some of Vedha's henchmen, framing an unarmed criminal killed by Vikram to avoid further inquiry. As the unit plans another encounter, Vedha enters the police station and voluntarily surrenders. When Vikram interrogates Vedha, he offers to narrate a story to him. The first act relates about Vedha becoming a drug smuggler, who warns his younger brother Vignesh, nicknamed "Pulli" (skilled) due to his mathematical skills, to stay away from crime, but Pulli is forced by a rival gangster Ravi, to carry drugs. When Pulli and his friend Chandra are caught by the police, Pulli confesses and Ravi is arrested. On his boss Sangu's orders, Ravi assaults Pulli, leaving a permanent scar on his hand. Vedha asks Vikram if he should kill Ravi or Sangu. Vikram replies that Sangu was the real culprit, to which Vedha wholeheartedly agrees and implies that he killed Sangu. Vedha's lawyer, who turns out to be Vikram's wife Priya, intervenes and bails him out. Vikram realises that the unarmed criminal framed by them for avoiding inquiry was actually Pulli, based on the mark in his hand. Worried that Vedha might try to kill Simon, Vikram rushes to save Simon, but finds him and Chandra shot dead. SP Surendhar dismisses it as a botched encounter. Priya refuses to divulge Vedha's whereabouts to Vikram. Enraged by this, Vikram raids Vedha's tenements and manages to capture him. Vedha requests Vikram to listen to another story. The second story relates with Pulli, now grown-up, offering to launder Vedha's income by investing it in shares. Vedha's boss Cheta invests ₹5 crore (equivalent to ₹7.0 crore or US\$870,000 in 2023) in this venture. However, Chandra is supposedly kidnapped and the money is missing. Chandra returns and reveals that she stole the money to start a new life, but came back because she loves Pulli. Vedha returns the money to Cheta, who orders him to kill Chandra. Vedha asks Vikram if he should respect Cheta and carry out the order or disobey him and support Pulli and Chandra, thus inciting a gang war. Vikram replies that he should support Pulli, to which Vedha agrees. Realising Pulli's innocence causes Vikram to stumble momentarily, Vedha attacks and subdues him, telling him to investigate Simon and Pulli's deaths. Vikram begins his investigation with Simon's informant Kaattai who led them to Pulli's hideout, but finds that Kaattai has been killed. Vikram and his unit tries to find the killer, where he takes a moment to recollect and finds one of the members of the Kerala Quotation Gang from Vedha's story. Vikram apprehends and fights him only for the gang member to almost kill Vikram before getting shot and killed by his unit member Santhanam. Vikram searches his room, but finds a cigar and learns that the cigarette is filled with marijuana instead of tobacco. Vikram deduces that Ravi is behind the encounter and informs Vedha at his restaurant, who brings Ravi to an abandoned factory. Vikram arrives and meets Vedha, who tells the third and final act to Vikram. Vedha had sent Pulli and Chandra to Mumbai. He noticed that only his men, except Cheta's are being targeted and eliminated by the cops. On Ravi's confession, Vedha tells that Simon was bribed by Ravi to kill his men. Vedha asks Vikram if Simon was right, since he became corrupt to pay for his son's medical procedure. Vedha kills Ravi, leaving Vikram frustrated on finding out who had killed Simon. Surendhar and the unit arrive, where he castigates Vikram for letting Vedha escape again. Vikram slowly realises that the entire unit had also been bribed by Ravi. Surendhar reveals that Ravi paid them to kill Vedha and Chandra's abduction was intended to get Pulli out of Mumbai, which would lure Vedha out of hiding. However, a guilt-ridden Simon had gone to save Chandra, but the unit had killed them both. As the unit prepares to kill Vikram, Vedha reappears and saves him. A gunfight ensues, and Vikram disables all his colleagues with Vedha's help, but kills Surendhar. Vikram asks Vedha if he should let him go for saving his life or kill him since he is a criminal. The film ends with a standoff ensuing between them. ## Cast ### The Cops - R. Madhavan as Inspector Vikram - Prem Kumar as Simon - Achyuth Kumar as Surendhar - Manikandan as Santhanam - George Vijay as Prabhakar - Babu as Ansari - Vaaladi E. Karthik as Pandian - E. Ramdoss as Velraj - Satya as Hari - Gopi as Thiyagarajan ### The Gangsters - Vijay Sethupathi as Vedha - Hareesh Peradi as Cheta - Vivek Prasanna as Ravi - Augustine as Vellai - Kutta as Ganja - Amar as Sangu - Siva as Dilli - Sugunthan as Jijo - Babu as Gundu Babu - Vijay Muthu as Muni - Ashok as Kaattai ### The Families - Shraddha Srinath as Priya - Kathir as Vignesh (Pulli) - Varalaxmi Sarathkumar as Chandra - Gowrilakshmi G as Anitha - J. K. Abhay as Alex - Akash as young Pulli - Vaishnavi as young Chandra - Gaurav Kalai as Dilip ## Production ### Development After the release of Va (2010), the husband and wife director duo, Pushkar and Gayathri, took a break from filmmaking. They decided to explore other genres during this time as their earlier films, Oram Po (2007) and Va, were comedies. The duo planned to make their next project, which would be titled Vikram Vedha, with a more serious tone where emotions like anger, hatred, and pain drove the characters' motives. This led to their decision to develop characters whose actions are not entirely good or evil. The duo initially considered setting the film either in politics, business or journalism before finally deciding on a police-gangster background. The Indian folktale Baital Pachisi inspired the development of the story. The ghost-like being Vetala who posed morally ambiguous questions to King Vikramaditya, each of which could result in more than one answer, attracted them. The film's title and its characterisation of Vikram (Vikramaditya) and Vedha (Vetala) were also derived from the tale. In a January 2015 interview with journalist and film critic Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu, S. Sashikanth, the owner of production house YNOT Studios, confirmed that he would produce the project. Pushkar and Gayathri continued to develop the script throughout 2015, completing it in April 2016. Dhilip Subbarayan and P. S. Vinod were selected to be the stunt choreographer and cinematographer respectively. Richard Kevin also worked as an assistant director in addition to handling the film's editing. Manikandan was selected to write the dialogues after initially auditioning for and then playing the role of Santhanam. ### Casting > We were sure that Vedha would be perfect for Vijay Sethupathi. The way we had imagined Vedha, the way Vijay talks, the way he even draws analogy or shares anecdotes is very similar to Vedha. We, in fact, noticed this only after we had narrated the script [to Sethupathi]. Vikram was more suited for Madhavan because he had to play Vikram who is kind of straight forward. Maddy was perfect to play something like that. Vedha, on the other hand, does everything in a roundabout manner. Pushkar and Gayathri met R. Madhavan while working on the post-production phase of Sudha Kongara's Irudhi Suttru (2016). It was confirmed in February 2016 that Madhavan and Vijay Sethupathi would play the respective roles of an encounter specialist and a gangster. They agreed to do the project as both were intrigued by the idea of a film based on the Baital Pachisi tale. In addition to growing a beard for his role, Madhavan did not workout to lose weight. Instead, he followed a strict diet, including not eating anything after 6:00 pm and keeping a gap of five and a half hours after each meal. Sethupathi sported a salt and pepper beard for the role of Vedha. Kathir was cast in the role of Vedha's brother Pulli because Pushkar and Gayathri were impressed by his performance in Kirumi (2015). In October 2016, Shraddha Srinath was cast as Vikram's wife after her performance in U Turn (2016) made an impression on Pushkar and Gayathri. This was then officially finalised after her screen test. The same month, John Vijay was signed to play a gangster but later opted out due to scheduling conflicts with the Malayalam film Comrade in America (2017). ### Filming Vikram Vedha was made on a budget of ₹110 million (about US\$1,661,631 in 2017). Principal photography began on 16 November 2016 in Kasimedu, North Chennai with Varalaxmi Sarathkumar joining the team as the second female lead. The first schedule consisted of filming scenes featuring Sethupathi, Kathir and Varalaxmi for five days. The second schedule commenced on 28 November 2016 with additional scenes involving Sethupathi shot at Vyasarpadi. On 15 December 2016, Madhavan began shooting for his solo sequences and the portions where he appears alongside Sethupathi in the middle of the second schedule. The climax sequence was filmed over four days at Binny Mills. Production continued throughout December 2016, with Sethupathi finishing his work in early January 2017. Principal photography concluded later that month after sequences featuring Madhavan and Srinath were shot. The entire film was completed over a period of 53 days. ### Opening sequence Sandhya Prabhat and Jemma Jose designed the opening animation sequence which Nassar narrated. In an interview with S. Naagarajan of The New Indian Express, Prabhat said that Pushkar and Gayathri wanted her "to adapt the theme of the [Baital Pachisi] for the opening credits". After drafting the initial sketches of the animated characters, the duo then gave Prabhat "a scene-by-scene picturisation" of their perspective of the tale in addition to requesting she make the entire sequence "look aesthetic". Prabhat and Jose designed the sequence to synchronise with the track "Karuppu Vellai". According to Jose, the colouring for the sequence was mainly grey, black, and white and shades of red for Vetala's eyes, in keeping with the film's theme. Pushkar and Gayathri wanted Prabhat and Jose to use a "desaturated" palette with "strong and powerful" tones. The sequence was traditionally animated as Prabhat and Jose believed that "complex graphics and multi-layered effects" would distract the audience from understanding the film's main plot. The entire animation sequence, from storyboarding to animation took one and a half months to complete. ## Themes and influences As the film is inspired from Baital Pachisi, it consists of an animation sequence involving Vikramaditya and Vetala, on which the main characters Vikram and Vedha are formed. Gopi Prasanna, the title designer of the film, shared the film's poster title in Tamil (விக்ரம் வேதா) on Instagram, where the letter வி (Vi) in Vikram is stylized to resemble Vikramaditya's sword, and தா (Dha) in Vedha is stylized to resemble Vetala's tail. ## Music Sam C. S. composed the film's soundtrack and score and wrote the lyrics for the track "Pogatha Yennavittu" while Mohan Rajan, Muthamil and Vignesh Shivan provided the lyrics for the songs "Yaanji", "Tasakku Tasakku" and "Karuppu Vellai" respectively. Sam had worked previously for Pushkar and Gayathri on television commercials. They decided to recruit him after being impressed with his work on Puriyatha Puthir (2017). The audio rights are with Think Music. Before the release of the album on 19 June 2017, the tracks "Tasakku Tasakku" and "Yaanji" were released as singles on 5 June 2017 and 12 June 2017 respectively. Sharanya CR from The Times of India noted in her review that Sam "brings out the essence of the film’s plot" with "Karuppu Vellai", and used the term "stylish, yet flawless" to describe Anirudh's and Shakthisree Gopalan's rendition of "Yaanji". She felt "Pogatha Yennavittu" was "an impressive composition" and appreciated the "very peppy" beats in "Tasakku Tasakku", adding that it "can be reserved for parties". Sharanya concluded her review by stating that "the composer hits the high-note" with Vikram Vedha, writing further that "the film's narrative is sure to up the experience through music" with the instrumental tracks. ## Marketing The official Twitter handle of the film was launched on 30 December 2016. The film's official title poster was released on 2 February 2017. The official first look poster of the film was released on 24 February 2017. The teaser trailer was released on 13 March 2017, which features action sequences between Madhavan and Vijay Sethupathi. The teaser trailer crossed 10 million views within 24 hours of its release. The official trailer was released by actors Shah Rukh Khan and Sivakarthikeyan, through YouTube on 22 June 2017. ## Release ### Theatrical Vikram Vedha was initially given an "A" certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification due to the amount of violence present. The producers, however, successfully approached the censor board again to get a "U/A" certificate so it would have more appeal to family audiences. The film was scheduled to release on 7 July 2017, but was postponed due to the strike by the Tamil Film Producers Council over the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax in India and the removal of the Local Body Tax imposed by the Government of Tamil Nadu on the council. After the state government reached an agreement with the Producer's Council to set up a committee to look into the issue, screening of films at theatres resumed on 6 July. Vikram Vedha, along with Hiphop Tamizha's Meesaya Murukku, was subsequently released worldwide on 21 July 2017. R. Ravindran under his Trident Arts banner distributed the film in Tamil Nadu and released it to 350 screens across the state. ATMUS Entertainment handled distribution in the United States. ### Home media The film is available for streaming on ZEE5. ## Reception ### Box office Vikram Vedha grossed ₹170 million worldwide in the first weekend of its theatrical run, earning ₹100 million in Tamil Nadu alone. By the end of its second weekend, the total box office collections for the film in Tamil Nadu were ₹250 million. Within two weeks of its release, the film earned ₹400 million worldwide becoming, at the time of its release, the second-highest grossing Tamil film of the year after Baahubali 2: The Conclusion. The film also performed well in the United States, earning more than \$150,000 in its first three days. It collected \$366,000 by the end of the first week. Vikram Vedha completed a theatrical run of 100 days on 28 October. As of December 2017, the film has earned ₹600 million (about US\$9,063,444 in 2017) globally. The content of the film and its commercial success helped revive the box office prospects of the Tamil film industry, leading to many theatre owners and distributors like Abirami Ramanathan, owner of Abhirami Mega Mall, and K Meenakshisundaram, vice-president of Mayajaal, stating that people would come to watch films with good content irrespective of the Goods and Services Tax. ### Critical response Vikram Vedha opened to positive critical reviews with praise for all major aspects of the production. Writing for The Indian Express, Manoj Kumar R called it "the best film to release in Tamil this year". He felt that though both Madhavan and Sethupathi "have competed with each other" in providing performances that were "intense and convincing", it was Sethupathi who "manages to draw the applause and whistles from the audience for his natural performance". Karthik Kumar of the Hindustan Times labelled Madhavan's performance "good" and believed Sethupathi played Vedha with "unmatchable swag", adding he was "unarguably the best thing to have happened to the film". Srivatsan of India Today compared the interactions and mind games between Vikram and Vedha favourably to those of Batman and the Joker in The Dark Knight (2008); he termed the film a "smartly-written thriller, which has a texture, well-developed character arcs and filmmaking gimmickry". M Suganth, in his review for The Times of India, found Madhavan to be "stylish and serious" and Sethupathi as "all swag". Anupama Subramaniam of the Deccan Chronicle said that Sethupathi "oozes of charisma" and Madhavan gave "a whole-hearted" effort while making the audience relate to the character's emotions. Ragesh Gopinathan from Malayala Manorama thought the film "a work of sheer brilliance" with "the perfect blend of style and substance". Gopinathan also believed that Srinath, Varalaxmi and Peradi "offer a realistic portrayal of their characters." In his review for Firstpost, Sreedhar Pillai described the film as "a triumph of smart writing, superb characterisation and terrific performances by the lead actors Madhavan and Vijay Sethupathi who make it crackle". He also commended Varalaxmi's performance as Chandra, saying that she "lends the film some warmth" despite being cast in "an insignificant role". Film critic and journalist Baradwaj Rangan noted in his review for Film Companion that Sethupathi was "fantastic" and spoke "crowd-pleasing lines in the most casual fashion". He also found Chandra "the most convincingly written character". A reviewer from Sify pointed out that Madhavan's "subtle" and Sethupathi "inimitable" performances were the "real strength" of the film, adding that Srinath was "brilliant" and Varalaxmi appeared "audacious and innocent" throughout. The Quint's Vikram Venkateswaran called Madhavan's performance "flawless" adding that the actor "simply eats up the screen" with his presence. He however criticised Sethupathi, opining that he "has played himself for far too long" saying there is "so much more to him than just the fact that he’s as relatable as a friendly neighbourhood smart alec". Suganth noted that all the conversations between the characters, and even the opening sequence, were "carefully assembled puzzle pieces". However, he criticised the convoluted plot structure and the "lack of gravitas", which made the film seem "tiresome" and "laidback". Vishal Menon of The Hindu wrote the film was "a terrific exploration of good, evil and everything in between" but felt the second half took "the shape of an investigative thriller" which slowed down the film's pace. Karthik commended Pushkar and Gayathri's writing which "succeeds in piquing the intellect of audiences like no recent Tamil film". The Sify reviewer praised the directors' handling of human emotions, calling the characters' grey shades "a novel aspect". Furthermore, Priyanka Thirumurthy of The News Minute wrote that the directors' "intelligent screenplay takes you through a rollercoaster of twists and turns". Likewise, Sudhir Srinivasan, writing for The New Indian Express praised Pushkar and Gayathri's "beautifully written, incredibly well-made" contemporary adaptation of the Baital Pachisi. Mythily Ramachandran, in her review for Gulf News, believed the "powerful writing" of Puskhar and Gayathri's screenplay, the "well defined" characters and "flawless performances" from the entire cast, were the film's main highlights. Several critics found Vinod's past experiences in shooting gangster films such as Thiagarajan Kumararaja's Aaranya Kaandam (2011) a contributing factor towards the success of Vikram Vedha. Pillai and the Sify reviewer found Vinod's cinematography and camera angles helped create the appropriate "tension and mood" and perfectly capture the environment of North Chennai. Rangan compared the cinematography positively to the "light and shadow play" seen in film noir, concluding that "there isn't one uninteresting frame" and the film can be watched for the filming techniques alone. ### Accolades At the 65th Filmfare Awards South, Vikram Vedha received nominations in seven categories, including Best Film (Sashikanth) and Best Supporting Actress (Varalaxmi), winning four. Madhavan and Sethupathi received nominations in the Best Actor category with the latter winning the award; Madhavan in turn won the Critics Award. The other awards it received were for Best Director (Pushkar–Gayathri) and Best Male Playback Singer (Anirudh for "Yaanji"). The film won four of its fifteen nominations at the 10th Vijay Awards, including Best Director and Best Screenplay Writer (both received by Pushkar–Gayathri), Best Actor (Sethupathi) and Best Background Score (Sam). The film also won four Norway Tamil Film Festival Awards, three Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards, two Techofes Awards and an Edison Award. ## Remake In March 2018, Pushkar–Gayathri announced that they would direct the film's Hindi remake, to be produced again by YNOT Studios. The Hindi remake, also titled Vikram Vedha, was released on 30 September 2022. ## In popular culture The interrogation scene and theme music has been parodied in Tamizh Padam 2.
2,995,553	The Office (American TV series)	1,172,885,696	American sitcom broadcast on NBC	[ "2000s American mockumentary television series", "2000s American satirical television series", "2000s American single-camera sitcoms", "2000s American workplace comedy television series", "2005 American television series debuts", "2010s American mockumentary television series", "2010s American satirical television series", "2010s American single-camera sitcoms", "2010s American workplace comedy television series", "2013 American television series endings", "American television series based on British television series", "English-language television shows", "NBC original programming", "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners", "Peabody Award-winning television programs", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series winners", "Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series", "Scranton, Pennsylvania", "Super Bowl lead-out shows", "Television series by 3 Arts Entertainment", "Television series by Reveille Productions", "Television series by Universal Television", "Television series created by Greg Daniels", "Television shows adapted into video games", "Television shows filmed in Los Angeles", "Television shows set in Pennsylvania", "The Office (American TV series)" ]	The Office is an American mockumentary sitcom television series that depicts the everyday work lives of office employees at the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. It aired on NBC from March 24, 2005, to May 16, 2013, spanning a total of nine seasons. Based on the 2001–2003 BBC series of the same name created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, it was adapted for American television by Greg Daniels, a veteran writer for Saturday Night Live, King of the Hill, and The Simpsons. It was co-produced by Daniels' Deedle-Dee Productions and Reveille Productions (later Shine America), in association with Universal Television. The original executive producers were Daniels, Gervais, Merchant, Howard Klein, and Ben Silverman, with numerous others being promoted in later seasons. Like its British counterpart, the series was filmed in a single-camera setup without a studio audience or a laugh track to simulate the look of an actual documentary. The series debuted on NBC as a mid-season replacement and aired 201 episodes for its run. The Office originally featured Steve Carell, Rainn Wilson, John Krasinski, Jenna Fischer, and B. J. Novak as the main cast; however, the series experienced numerous changes to its ensemble cast during its run. Notable stars outside the original main cast include Ed Helms, Rashida Jones, Amy Ryan, Mindy Kaling, Craig Robinson, James Spader, Ellie Kemper, and Catherine Tate. The Office was met with mixed reviews during its short first season, but the following seasons, particularly Carell's performance, received significant acclaim from television critics as the show's characters, content, structure, and tone diverged considerably from the British version. These seasons were included on several critics' year-end top TV series lists, winning several awards such as a Peabody Award in 2006, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, a Golden Globe Award for Carell's performance, and four Primetime Emmy Awards, including one for Outstanding Comedy Series, in 2006. The eighth season was criticized for a decline in quality, with Carell's departure in season seven seen as a contributing factor. However, the ninth and final season ended the series with a generally positive response. The series finale, which originally aired on May 16, 2013, was viewed by an estimated 5.7 million viewers and garnered critical acclaim. In 2016, Rolling Stone named The Office one of the 100 greatest television shows of all time. ## Production ### Crew Greg Daniels developed the British Office series for American television and served as the showrunner for the first four seasons of the series. He then left the position when he co-created the comedy series Parks and Recreation with fellow Office writer Michael Schur and divided his time between both series. Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta were named the showrunners for the fifth season. Celotta left the series after the sixth season and Lieberstein stayed on as showrunner for the following two seasons. He left the showrunner spot after the eighth season for the potential Dwight Schrute spin-off, The Farm, which was eventually passed on by NBC. Daniels returned to the showrunner position for the ninth and final season. Other executive producers include cast members B. J. Novak and Mindy Kaling. Kaling, Novak, Daniels, Lieberstein and Schur made up the original team of writers. Kaling, Novak, and Lieberstein also served multiple roles on the series, as they played regular characters on the show, as well as wrote, directed, and produced episodes. Credited with twenty-four episodes, Kaling is the most prolific writer among the staff. Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, who created the original British series, are credited as executive producers and wrote both pilot and the third-season episode "The Convict". Merchant later directed the episode "Customer Survey", while Gervais appeared in the episodes "The Seminar" and "Search Committee", reprising his role as David Brent from the British series. Randall Einhorn is the most frequent director of the series, with 15 credited episodes. The series also had several guest directors, including Lost co-creator J. J. Abrams, Buffy the Vampire Slayer creator Joss Whedon, both of whom are fans of the series, and filmmakers Jon Favreau, Harold Ramis, Jason Reitman, and Marc Webb. Episodes have been directed by several of the actors on the show including Steve Carell, Rainn Wilson, John Krasinski, B. J. Novak, Ed Helms, Brian Baumgartner, Mindy Kaling and Paul Lieberstein. ### Development and writing Prior to the second episode airing, the writers spent time conducting research in offices. This process was used for Daniels' other series King of the Hill and Parks and Recreation. The pilot is a direct adaptation of the first episode of the original British series. Daniels chose to go this route because "completely starting from scratch would be a very risky thing to do" owing to the show being an adaptation. He had briefly considered using the idea for "The Dundies" as the pilot episode. After the writers knew who the cast was, they were allowed to write for the actors, which allowed the show to be more original for the following episode, "Diversity Day". Following the mixed reaction toward the first season, the writers attempted to make the series more "optimistic" and to make Michael Scott more likable. They also established the supporting characters of the series more, giving them relatable personalities. They also made the lights in the office brighter, which allowed the series to differentiate itself from the British series. A common problem with the scripts, according to Novak, is that they tended to run too long for the regular 22-minute time slot, leading to several cuts. For example, the script for the episode "Search Committee" was initially 75 pages, which was 10 pages too long. A complete script was written for each episode; however, actors were given opportunities to improvise during filming. Fischer said, "Our shows are 100 percent scripted. They put everything down on paper. But we get to play around a little bit, too. Steve and Rainn are brilliant improvisers.". These improvisations led to a large number of deleted scenes with almost every episode of The Office, all of which are considered part of the show's canon and storyline by Daniels. Deleted scenes have sometimes been restored in repeats to make episodes longer or draw back people who have seen the episode before to see the bonus footage. In an experiment, a deleted scene from "The Return" was made available over NBC.com and iTunes, explaining the absence of a character over the next several episodes. Daniels hoped that word of mouth among fans would spread the information, but he eventually considered the experiment a failure. ### Casting According to Jenna Fischer, the series used an unusual casting process that did not involve a script. The producers would ask the actors several questions and they would respond as the characters they were auditioning for. NBC programmer Kevin Reilly originally suggested Paul Giamatti to producer Ben Silverman for the role of Michael Scott, but the actor declined. Martin Short, Hank Azaria, and Bob Odenkirk were reported to be interested in the part. In January 2004 Variety reported that Steve Carell, of the Comedy Central program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, was in talks to play the role. At the time, he was already committed to another NBC midseason replacement comedy, Come to Papa, but the series was quickly canceled, allowing his full commitment to The Office. Carell later stated that he had only seen about half of the original pilot episode of the British series before he auditioned. He did not continue watching for fear that he would start copying Gervais' characterizations. Other people who were considered or auditioned for the role included Ben Falcone, Alan Tudyk, Jim Zulevic, and Paul F. Tompkins. Rainn Wilson was cast as power-hungry sycophant Dwight Schrute, and he watched every episode of the British series before he auditioned. Wilson had originally auditioned for Michael, a performance that he described as a "terrible Ricky Gervais impersonation"; however, the casting directors liked his audition as Dwight much more and hired him. Seth Rogen, Matt Besser, Patton Oswalt, and Judah Friedlander also auditioned for the role. Carell was later joined by his wife Nancy Carell when she was cast to play Carol Stills, a love interest of Michael Scott. When asked what it was like working with her husband, Carell said she was intimidated at first as she had retired from acting years prior, but they had so much fun together. John Krasinski and Jenna Fischer were cast in their respective roles as Jim and Pam, the main love interests. Krasinski had attended school with B. J. Novak, where the two were best friends. Before Krasinski landed the role, he considered quitting acting. He discussed on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert that he moved to New York City and gave himself two-to-three years for his acting career to take off or he would quit. He was not enjoying waiting tables and was struggling to find a role but his mom told him to wait it out until the end of the year. He booked his role The Office just three weeks later. Fischer prepared for her audition by looking as boring as possible, creating the original Pam hairstyle. In an interview on NPR's Fresh Air, Fischer recalled the last stages of the audition process for Pam and Jim, with the producers partnering the different potential Pams and Jims (four of each) together to gauge their chemistry. When Fischer finished her scene with Krasinski, he told her that she was his favorite Pam, to which she reciprocated that he was her favorite Jim. Adam Scott and John Cho both auditioned for the role of Jim, and Kathryn Hahn also auditioned for the role of Pam. The supporting cast includes actors known for their improv work: Angela Kinsey, Kate Flannery, Oscar Nunez, Leslie David Baker, Brian Baumgartner, Melora Hardin, and David Denman. Kinsey had originally auditioned for Pam. The producers thought she was "too feisty" for the character, but they called her back for the part of Angela Martin, which she won. Flannery first auditioned for the part of Jan Levinson-Gould, before landing the role of Meredith Palmer. Baumgartner originally auditioned for Stanley, but was eventually cast as Kevin. Ken Kwapis, the director of the pilot episode, liked the way Phyllis Smith, a casting associate, read with other actors auditioning so much that he cast her as Phyllis. At the beginning of the third season, Ed Helms and Rashida Jones joined the cast as members of Dunder Mifflin Stamford. While Jones would later leave the cast and end up in a role on Parks and Recreation, in February 2007, NBC announced that Helms was being promoted to a series regular. Four of the show's writers have also performed in front of the camera. B. J. Novak was the first person to be hired on the cast as the reluctant temp Ryan Howard after Daniels saw his stand-up act. Paul Lieberstein was cast as human resources director Toby Flenderson on Novak's suggestion after his cold readings of scripts. Greg Daniels was originally unsure where to use Mindy Kaling on-screen in the series until the opportunity came in the script for the second episode, "Diversity Day", where Michael needed to be slapped by a minority. "Since [that slap], I've been on the show" (as Kelly Kapoor), says Kaling. Michael Schur has also made several guest appearances as Dwight's cousin Mose, and consulting producer Larry Wilmore has played diversity trainer Mr. Brown. Plans were made for Mackenzie Crook, Martin Freeman, and Lucy Davis, from the British series, to appear in the third season, but those plans were scrapped due to scheduling conflicts; however, Ricky Gervais did make two appearances in the show's seventh season as David Brent. ### Filming The Office was filmed with a single-camera setup in cinéma vérité style to create the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track, allowing its "deadpan" and "absurd" humor to fully come across. The show's primary premise that a camera crew is filming Dunder Mifflin and its employees, seemingly around the clock. The presence of the camera is acknowledged by the characters, especially Michael Scott, who enthusiastically participates in the filming. The characters, especially Jim and Pam, also look towards the camera when Michael creates an awkward situation. The main action of the show is supplemented with talking-head interviews or "confessionals" in which characters speak one-on-one with the camera crew. Actor John Krasinski shot the footage of Scranton for the opening credits after he found out he was cast as Jim. He visited Scranton for research and interviewed employees at actual paper companies. In order to get the feel of an actual documentary, the producers hired cinematographer Randall Einhorn, who is known for directing episodes of Survivor, which allowed the show to have the feel of "rough and jumpy" like an actual documentary. This was facilitated by the open floor plan of the main set, which was purposely developed by showrunner Daniels, production designer Donald Lee Harris (Matt Flynn became production designer later), and director of the pilot Ken Kwapis to allow camera operators to catch characters "unaware". Unlike most TV sets, the office layout was built with immovable walls to emphasize its airless, claustrophobic atmosphere—trapping the documentary film crew in with the characters. According to producer Michael Schur, the producers to the series would follow the documentary format strictly. The producers and directors would have long discussions over whether a scene could work under the documentary format. For example, in the fourth-season episode "Did I Stutter?", a scene featured Michael going through a long process to go to the bathroom and not pass by Stanley. The producers debated whether that was possible and Einhorn walked through the whole scene in order to see if a camera operator could get to all the places in time to shoot the whole scene. Despite the strict nature in the early years of the series, later seasons seem to have loosened the rules on the format, with the camera crew often going into places that actual documentary crews would not, which also changed the writing and comedy style of the series. This inconsistency has received criticism from critics and fans. ### Music When it came to choosing the theme music for The Office, producer Greg Daniels had several tracks he was thinking of using: existing songs including "Better Things" by The Kinks, "Float On" by Modest Mouse, and "Mr. Blue Sky" by Electric Light Orchestra, and several original pieces artists contributed to the producers via a cattle call. Daniels decided that the cast would vote on what song to use and gave them four of the choices. Most of them wanted "Mr. Blue Sky", but that option turned out to be invalid as it was already used in the drama series LAX (2004–2005). Thus, the final choice was an original track written by Jay Ferguson and performed by The Scrantones. The theme is played over the title sequence, which features scenes of Scranton, various tasks around the office, and the main cast members. Some episodes of the series use a shortened version of the theme song. Starting with the fourth season, the theme song is played over the closing credits, which previously rolled in silence. Ferguson described his theme as "against type; it has this vulnerability, this yearning to it that soon explodes into this overdone optimism which then gets crushed - which is pretty much what the show is about." The mockumentary format of the show contains no laugh track, and most of the music is diegetic, with songs either sung or played by the characters or heard on radios, computers, or other devices; however, songs have been played during montages or the closing credits, such as "Tiny Dancer" by Elton John ("The Dundies") and "Islands in the Stream" by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton ("E-mail Surveillance"). Featured music tends to be well known, and often songs reflect the character, such as Michael's attempt to seem hip by using "Mambo No. 5" and later "My Humps" as his cell phone ringtone. Daniels has said that it does not count as film score as long as it already appeared in the episode. ## Characters The Office employs an ensemble cast. Many characters portrayed by The Office cast are based on the original British series. While these characters generally have the same attitude and perceptions as their British counterparts, the roles have been redesigned to fit the American show better. The show is known for its relatively large cast size, and many of its actors and actresses are known particularly for their improvisational work. Steve Carell stars as Michael Scott, regional manager of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton Branch. Loosely based on David Brent, Gervais' character in the British series, Scott is a well-intentioned man whose attempts at humor, while seemingly innocent to himself, often offend and annoy his peers and employees, and in some situations lead to reprimanding from his superiors. Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute, based upon Gareth Keenan, who is a salesman and the assistant to the regional manager, a fictional title created by Michael. John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert, a salesman and, in later seasons, assistant manager or co-manager who is known for his wittiness and his practical jokes on Dwight (often accompanied by Pam Beesly). Halpert is based upon Tim Canterbury and, at the start of the series, is known to have feelings for Pam, the receptionist, who is engaged to a fellow employee, Roy. Pam, played by Jenna Fischer, is based on Dawn Tinsley. She is shy, but in many cases a collaborator with Jim in his pranks on Dwight. B. J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard, who for the first two seasons is a temporary worker but is promoted to a sales representative in the third season. He later ascends to be the company's youngest vice president, North East Region, and director of new media until his innovations are exposed as corporate fraud, and he is fired. He then gets a job in a bowling alley and later briefly works for the Michael Scott Paper Company. After this and a stint in rehab, he again eventually ends up as a temporary worker at the Scranton branch. The accounting department includes Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey), an uptight and ultra-religious woman who likes to keep things orderly and make sure situations remain as businesslike as possible; Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner), a lovable but dim-witted man who revels in juvenile humor and frequently indulges in gambling; and Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nuñez), who is intelligent and cultured, but often patronizing, and whose homosexuality and Hispanic heritage made him a frequent target of Michael's unintentional off-color comments. Rounding out the office are the laconic salesman Stanley Hudson (Leslie David Baker), who cannot stand Michael's constant references to his Black American heritage (he also does not like to take part in time-wasting meetings and often solves crossword puzzles or sleeps during them); eccentric quality assurance representative Creed Bratton (Creed Bratton), who has a mysterious criminal history; the matronly saleswoman Phyllis Lapin (Phyllis Smith), who dates and then marries Bob Vance (Robert R. Shafer) from Vance Refrigeration, a company whose office is across the hall from Dunder Mifflin; Andy Bernard (Ed Helms), a salesman from the Stamford, Connecticut branch of Dunder Mifflin introduced in season three who transfers to the Scranton branch after the two offices merge; the shallow and talkative customer service representative Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling); the promiscuous alcoholic supply relations representative Meredith Palmer (Kate Flannery); human resources representative Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein), who is loathed, and often the target of abuse, by Michael; warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson); warehouse dock worker and Pam's fiancé Roy Anderson (David Denman), who is fired in the third season for attacking Jim; and the vice president for regional sales for Dunder Mifflin Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin), who later becomes Michael's love interest. Toward the end of season five, the bubbly and naive Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) is introduced as Pam's replacement at reception following Pam's short stint at the Michael Scott Paper Company and subsequent move to sales. A story arc at the end of season four has Holly Flax (Amy Ryan) transferred to the office as Toby's replacement. She becomes a love interest for Michael, as they share very similar personality traits. Jo Bennett (Kathy Bates) is the CEO of Sabre. This company takes over Dunder Mifflin, and Gabe Lewis (Zach Woods), introduced in the middle of season six, is a Sabre employee who is assigned to the Dunder Mifflin Scranton branch as the regional director of sales. In season seven, Bennett's friend Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) is interviewed to replace Scott and later serves as a replacement regional manager for Bernard in season eight after Robert California (James Spader) has become the new CEO of Sabre. In season nine, Clark Green (Clark Duke) and Pete Miller (Jake Lacy) join as new customer service representatives who attempt to catch up on the ignored customer service complaints that Kelly has neglected while working at Dunder Mifflin. Clark is later moved to sales. Initially the actors who portray the supporting office workers were credited as guest stars, but then were named series regulars during the second season. The show's large ensemble was mainly praised by critics and led to the series winning two Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series. Carell was reportedly paid \$175,000 per episode starting in the third season. Krasinski and Fischer were paid around \$20,000 at the beginning of the series, and around \$100,000 per episode by the fourth season. ## Season synopses A typical episode for a half-hour time slot runs 20+1⁄2 minutes. The final episode of season two introduced the first of what would be several "super-sized" episodes that had an approximately 28-minute running time for a 40-minute time slot. Season three introduced the first of occasional hour-long episodes (approximately 42-minute running time, also suitable for being shown as two separate normal episodes in reruns). ### Season 1 (2005) The first season consists of six episodes; the shortest season of the series. The series starts by introducing Dunder Mifflin's employees via a tour given by branch manager Michael Scott for both a documentary camera crew and first-day temp Ryan Howard. Salesman Jim Halpert has a crush on receptionist Pam Beesly, who helps him play pranks on co-worker Dwight Schrute, even though she is engaged to Roy Anderson, who works in the company's downstairs warehouse. Rumors spread throughout the office that Dunder Mifflin's corporate headquarters is planning to downsize an entire branch, leading to general anxiety. Still, Michael chooses to deny or downplay the realities of the situation to maintain employee morale. ### Season 2 (2005–2006) The second season is the series' first 22-episode season and has its first 28-minute "super-sized" episode. Many workers seen in the background of the first season are developed into secondary characters and romantic relationships begin to develop between some of them. Michael makes out with and then spends the night with his boss, Jan Levinson, but does not have sex with her. Dwight and Angela become romantically involved, but keep their relationship a secret. Kelly Kapoor develops a crush on Ryan, and they start dating off and on. When Roy finally agrees to set a date for his wedding to Pam, at a company booze cruise, Jim grows depressed and considers transferring to the Stamford, Connecticut branch, but tells Pam in the season finale that he is in love with her. Even though Pam insists she is with Roy, the two kiss, and Jim transfers to the Stamford branch soon after. The general threat of downsizing continues throughout the season as well. ### Season 3 (2006–2007) The third season consists of 17 half-hour episodes, four 40-minute "super-sized" episodes, and two one-hour episodes. The total number of episodes is 25. The season starts with a brief flashback to (and additional footage from) the last episode of season two, "Casino Night", when Jim kissed Pam and confessed his feelings for her. Jim briefly transfers to Dunder Mifflin's Stamford branch after Pam confirms her commitment to Roy. Corporate is later forced to merge the Stamford branch with the Scranton branch. Michael takes this merger very seriously. Transferred to the Scranton branch are saleswoman Karen Filippelli, whom Jim has begun dating, and the anger-prone preppy salesman Andy Bernard, along with other Stamford employees who all eventually quit within the first few episodes of being there. Pam is newly single after calling off her engagement to Roy, and Jim's unresolved feelings for her and his new relationship with Karen lead to shifting tensions between the three. Meanwhile, Michael and Jan's relationship escalates, which causes them to behave erratically on the job. On the other hand, Dwight and Angela continue their steamy secret relationship. In the season's finale, Jim, Karen, and Michael interview for a corporate position that turns out to be Jan's, who is fired for poor performance. Jim is offered the job but rejects it off-screen, opting instead to remain in Scranton without Karen and ask Pam out on a date, which she joyfully accepts. In the final scene, we learn Ryan has been awarded Jan's job. ### Season 4 (2007–2008) NBC ordered a fourth full season of thirty half-hour episodes but ended with only 19 due to a halt in production caused by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The season consists of nine half-hour and five hour-long episodes for a total of 19 episodes of material created. Karen has left the Scranton branch after her breakup with Jim and becomes the regional manager at the Utica branch. A self-employed Jan moves herself and her candle business into Michael's condo, until the dissolution of their relationship midway through the season during an intimate dinner party including Pam, Jim, Andy, Angela and Dwight. After Dwight's crude (though well-intentioned) method of euthanasia of Angela's ailing cat without her permission, she leaves him for Andy, leading Dwight into depression. Ryan, in his new corporate life in New York City, attempts to modernize Dunder Mifflin with a new website for online sales; he also learns that his boss, David Wallace, favors Jim, and thus Ryan attempts to sabotage Jim's career. Ryan is soon arrested and fired for misleading the shareholders and committing fraud related to the website's sales numbers. Toby announces he is moving to Costa Rica and is replaced by Holly Flax, who quickly shows a liking for Michael. Pam decides to follow her artistic interests and is accepted to attend a three-month graphic design course at the Pratt Institute in New York City. In the season finale, Jim almost proposes to Pam but is interrupted by Andy proposing to Angela, who reluctantly agrees. Phyllis then catches Dwight and Angela having sex in the office. ### Season 5 (2008–2009) The fifth season consists of 28 half-hours of material, divided into 24 half-hour episodes and two hour-long episodes, one of which aired after Super Bowl XLIII. Jim proposes to Pam at a gas station midway between Scranton and New York City, where they meet for a visit. Pam ultimately returns from New York to Scranton, where Jim has bought his parents' house for the two of them. Having avoided jail and only been sentenced to community service, Ryan bleaches his hair and starts working at a bowling alley. Michael initiates a romance with Holly until she is transferred to the Nashua, New Hampshire branch, and their relationship ends. When Andy is made aware of Dwight and Angela's continued affair, both men leave her. Newly hired Vice President Charles Miner implements a rigid managerial style over the branch that causes Michael to resign in protest. Michael opens the Michael Scott Paper Company in the same office building, enticing Pam and Ryan to join as salespeople, and though his business model is ultimately unsustainable, Dunder Mifflin's profits are immediately threatened. In a buyout of the Michael Scott Paper Company, the three are rehired with Pam promoted to sales and Ryan returning as a temp. During the chaos a new receptionist, Erin, is hired to fill the vacancy originally left by Pam. The season ends with a scene that subtly alludes to Pam's (unplanned) pregnancy. ### Season 6 (2009–2010) The sixth season consists of 26 half-hours of material, divided into 22 half-hour episodes and two hour-long episodes. Jim and Pam marry and have a baby named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Meanwhile, Andy and Erin develop an interest in each other, but find their inherent awkwardness inhibits his attempts to ask her out on a date during a murder-mystery game meant to distract the members of the office. Jim is promoted as co-manager. Rumors of bankruptcy begin to surround Dunder Mifflin, and by Christmas, Wallace announces to the branch that Dunder Mifflin has accepted a buyout from Sabre Corporation, a printer company. While Wallace and other executives are let go, the Scranton office survives due to its relative success within the company. Michael Scott is now the highest-level employee at Dunder Mifflin. In the season finale, Dwight buys the office park. Michael agrees to make an announcement to the press regarding a case of faulty printers. When Jo Bennett, Sabre CEO, asks how she can repay him, Michael responds that she could bring Holly back to the Scranton branch. ### Season 7 (2010–2011) The seventh season consists of 26 half-hours of material, divided into 21 half-hour episodes, one "super-sized" episode, and two hour-long episodes. This was the final season for Steve Carell, who plays Michael Scott, as NBC did not renew Carell's contract. Beginning with this season, Zach Woods, who portrays Gabe Lewis, was promoted to a series regular. Erin and Gabe have begun a relationship, much to Andy's chagrin, and Andy attempts to win Erin's affection back. Holly, Michael's former girlfriend, returns to Scranton to fill in for Toby, who is on jury duty for the "Scranton Strangler" trial. Michael and Holly eventually restart their relationship. After the two get engaged, Michael reveals he will be leaving Scranton to move to Colorado with Holly to support her elderly parents. Jim and Pam adjust to parenthood, while Angela starts dating state senator Robert Lipton and gets engaged off-screen in the season finale. After Michael's replacement Deangelo (Will Ferrell) is seriously injured on the job, Jo creates a search committee to interview candidates and choose a new manager for the office. In the meantime, Dwight Schrute, and later Creed Bratton, take over as acting manager. ### Season 8 (2011–2012) The eighth season consists of 24 episodes. James Spader joins the cast as Robert California, the new CEO of Dunder Mifflin/Sabre. Andy is then promoted to regional manager and works hard to make a good impression on Robert, asking Dwight to be his number two. Pam and Jim are expecting their second child, Phillip, at the start of the season, to coincide with Fischer's real-life pregnancy. Angela is also pregnant with her first son, also named Philip, with State Senator Robert Lipton (although it is implied that Dwight Schrute is actually the child's biological father). Darryl starts falling for new warehouse foreman, Val. Dwight is tasked with traveling to Tallahassee, Florida, to assist Sabre special projects manager Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) in launching a chain of retail stores, along with Jim, Ryan, Stanley, Erin, and new office temp Cathy Simms. Cathy is also revealed to have ulterior motives for the trip, as she intends to seduce Jim. Still, she fails. Robert later kills the retail store project, and Erin decides to stay in Florida as an elderly woman's live-in helper. Andy goes to Florida to win back Erin, allowing Nellie to claim the manager position as her own. Robert tells Andy that he has been demoted back to a salesman, but Andy refuses to accept the news, which causes him to be fired. Andy becomes motivated to begin a Dunder Mifflin comeback and joins with former CFO David Wallace to repurchase Dunder Mifflin from Sabre, putting Sabre completely out of business and giving Andy the manager position once again. ### Season 9 (2012–2013) The final season consists of 25 episodes. Andy, recently returning from Outward Bound manager training, reverts to his arrogant earlier season personality, abandoning both Erin and the office to travel around the Caribbean with his brother in their sailboat after his parents' relationship's demise. In his absence, Erin strikes up a romance with new customer service rep Pete, who, along with other new customer service rep Clark, replaces Kelly, leaving for Ohio with her new husband. (Ryan also moves to Ohio for "unrelated reasons.") Meanwhile, Jim receives an exciting opportunity from an old college friend who offers him a job at Athlead, a Philadelphia sports marketing company. Darryl also jumps on board, but the distance and dedication to Athlead hurt Jim's relationship with Pam. Angela must deal with her husband's infidelity with Oscar. She also deals with her lingering attraction to Dwight, who inherits his family's beet farm. Dwight receives more good news when David Wallace handpicks him to be the new manager after Andy quits to pursue an acting career, which quickly ends when he embarrasses himself at an American Idol-like a cappella singing competition that turns into a viral web sensation. Dwight later makes Jim his assistant to the regional manager, and the two officially end their grudge. After Jim reconciles with Pam, choosing to stay in Scranton over Philadelphia, Dwight professes his love for Angela and finally marries her. In the series finale, which takes place one year after the release of the documentary that has been shot during the entire series, the employees reunite for Dwight and Angela's wedding, for which Michael returns to serve as the best man (with help from Jim who was the person Dwight first asked to be best man). Kelly and Ryan run away together, Nellie now lives in Poland and "adopts" Ryan's abandoned baby, Erin meets her birth parents, Andy gets a job at Cornell, Stanley retires to Florida, Kevin and Toby are both fired—the former buying a bar, the latter moving to New York City to become an author, and Oscar runs for the State Senate. Jim and Pam, at her persuasion, move to Austin, Texas to open a new branch of Athleap (previously Athlead) with Darryl (Dwight "fires" them to give them both severance packages), and Creed is arrested for his many crimes. ## Product placement The Office has had product placement deals with Staples and Olympic balers, as well as mentioning in dialogue or displaying clear logos for products such as Sandals Resorts, HP, Apple, and Gateway computers, and Activision's Call of Duty video game series. In certain versions of "The Merger", Kevin Malone uses a Staples-branded shredding machine to shred a Staples-branded CD-R and many other nonpaper items, including a salad. Cisco Systems, a supplier of networking and telephone equipment, paid for product placement, which can be seen on close-up shots of the Cisco IP telephones. Some products have additional branding labels attached; this can be clearly seen with the HP photo printer on Toby's desk in season 6, and less noticeably with the Cisco phones. In "The Secret" Michael takes Jim to Hooters to discuss Jim's feelings for Pam. Many products featured are not part of product placement agreements, but rather inserted by writers as products the characters would use to create realism under the guise of a documentary. Chili's restaurants were used for filming in "The Dundies" and "The Client", as the writers believed they were realistic choices for a company party and business lunch. Though not an explicit product placement, the producers of the show had to allow Chili's to have final approval of the script before filming, causing a scene of "The Dundies" to be hastily rewritten when the chain objected to the original version. Wegmans, a supermarket chain based out of Rochester, New York has had a working relationship with the show since fall of 2007. Wegmans cereal, popcorn and cans of Wegmans soda have discreetly popped up in many episodes since then. Apple Inc. received over four minutes of publicity for the iPod when it was used as a much-desired gift in "Christmas Party", though the company did not pay for the placement. The travel website TripAdvisor was featured during Season 4 when after a visit to Dwight's "agritourism" bed and breakfast, Schrute Farms, Jim and Pam post an online review about their stay. The show reportedly approached the travel review website about using their name on the show and TripAdvisor set up a review page for the fictional B&B, which itself received hundreds of reviews. The appearance of Second Life in the episode "Local Ad" was rated eighth in the top ten most effective product placements of 2007. ## Reception and legacy ### Critical reviews and commentary Before the show aired, Ricky Gervais acknowledged that there were feelings of hesitation from certain viewers. The first season of The Office was met with a mixed response from critics with some of them comparing it to the short-lived NBC series Coupling, which was also based on a British version. The New York Daily News called it "so diluted there's little left but muddy water," and USA Today called it a "passable imitation of a miles-better BBC original." A Guardian Unlimited review panned its lack of originality, stating that Steve Carell "just seems to be trying too hard.... Maybe in later episodes when it deviates from Gervais and Merchant's script, he'll come into his own. But right now he's a pale imitation." Tom Shales of The Washington Post said it was "not the mishmash that [the Americanized version of Coupling] turned out to be, but again the quality of the original show causes the remake to look dim, like when the copying machine is just about to give out." The second season was better received. James Poniewozik of Time remarked, "Producer Greg Daniels created not a copy but an interpretation that sends up distinctly American work conventions ... with a tone that's more satiric and less mordant... The new boss is different from the old boss, and that's fine by me." He named it the second-best TV show of 2006 after Battlestar Galactica. Entertainment Weekly writer Mark Harris echoed these sentiments a week later, stating, "Thanks to the fearless Steve Carell, an ever-stronger supporting cast, and scripts that spew American corporate absurdist vernacular with perfect pitch, this undervalued remake does the near-impossible—it honors Ricky Gervais' original and works on its own terms." The A.V. Club reviewer Nathan Rabin expressed its views on the show's progression: "After a rocky start, The Office improved immeasurably, instantly becoming one of TV's funniest, sharpest shows. The casting of Steve Carell in the Gervais role proved to be a masterstroke. The American Office is that rarest of anomalies: a remake of a classic show that both does right by its source and carves out its own strong identity." The series has been included on several top TV series lists. The show placed \#61 on Entertainment Weekly's "New TV Classics" list. Time's James Poniewozik named it the second-best TV series of 2006, and the sixth-best returning series of 2007, out of ten TV series. He also included it on his "The 100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME" list. The show was also named the best show of 2006 by BuddyTV. while Paste named it the sixth-best sitcom of 2010. In 2013 the Writers Guild of America placed it at No. 66 on their list of 101 Best Written TV Series. In 2019, the series was ranked 32nd on The Guardian's list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century. The show has some superficial similarities to the comic strip Dilbert, which also features employees coping with an inept superior. John Spector, CEO of The Conference Board, says that they both show the impact a leader can have, for good or bad. Dilbert creator Scott Adams also touts the similarities: "The lesson from The Office and from Dilbert is that people are often dysfunctional, and no amount of training can fix it." A labor-affiliated group, American Rights at Work (ARAW), praised the second-season episode "Boys and Girls" for what it considered an unusually frank depiction of union busting on American television. Metacritic, a review aggregation website, graded only the first, third, sixth, and final seasons; however, it denoted that all four of them received "generally favorable reviews" from critics, awarding a 61, 85, 78, and 64 score—out of 100—to each of them, respectively. It later named it the thirteenth most mentioned series on "Best of Decade" top-ten lists. The last few seasons were criticized for a dip in quality. The sixth season received criticisms for a lack of stakes for the characters, particularly Jim and Pam. The Office co-creator Ricky Gervais wrote in his blog, referring to "Search Committee," particularly Warren Buffett's guest appearance, "If you're going to jump a shark, jump a big one," and compared the episode to the Chris Martin episode of Gervais' other series, Extras (although he later said on his website, "I fucking didn't [diss The Office], that's for sure"). Some critics said the series should have ended after the departure of Steve Carell. In an IAmA interview on Reddit, Rainn Wilson felt that the eighth season possessed some mistakes "creatively," such as the chemistry between Spader and Helms, which he called "a bit dark" and argued that the show should have gone for a "brighter and more energized" relationship. Despite this, there are later-series episodes that have received critical acclaim, including "Niagara", "Garage Sale", "Goodbye, Michael", "Dwight Christmas", "A.A.R.M.", and "Finale". ### Awards The series received 42 Primetime Emmy Awards nominations, with five wins. It won for Outstanding Comedy Series in season two, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series (Greg Daniels for "Gay Witch Hunt"), Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Jeffrey Blitz for "Stress Relief"), and Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series (David Rogers and Claire Scanlon for "Finale"). Many cast and crew members have expressed anger that Carell did not receive an Emmy award for his performance in the series. Despite this, Carell won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Comedy or Musical in 2006. The series was also named the best TV series by the American Film Institute in 2006 and 2008, won two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2006 and 2007 and won a Peabody Award in 2006. ### Ratings Premiering on Thursday, March 24, 2005, after an episode of The Apprentice on NBC, The Office brought in 11.2 million viewers in the U.S., winning its time slot. When NBC moved the series to its intended Tuesday night slot, it lost nearly half its audience with only 5.9 million viewers. The program averaged 5.4 million viewers, ranking it \#102 for the 2004–05 U.S. television season. "Hot Girl," the first season's finale, rated a 2.2 with a 10 audience measurement share. Episodes were also rerun on CNBC. As the second season started, the success of Carell's hit summer movie The 40-Year-Old Virgin and online sales of episodes at iTunes helped the show. The increase in viewership led NBC to move the series to the "Must See TV" Thursday night in January 2006, where ratings continued to grow. By the 2005–06 season, it placed \#67 (tied with 20/20). It averaged 8 million viewers with a 4.0/10 rating/share among viewers ages 18–49, and was up 80% in viewers from the year before and up 60% in viewers ages 18–49. The series ranked as NBC's highest rated scripted series during its run. The highest rated episode of the series was "Stress Relief," which was watched by 22.9 million viewers. This episode was aired right after Super Bowl XLIII. While later seasons dropped in the ratings, the show was still one of NBC's highest rated shows, and in October 2011 it was reported that it cost \$178,840 per 30-second commercial, the most for any NBC scripted series. The series was also the most streamed of 2020, with 57 billion minutes watched in the United States. #### Nielsen ratings ### Cultural impact The city of Scranton, long known mainly for its industrial past as a coal mining and rail center, has embraced, and ultimately has been redefined by the show. "We're really hip now," says the mayor's assistant. The Dunder Mifflin logo is on a lamppost banner in front of Scranton City Hall, as well as the pedestrian bridge to The Mall at Steamtown. The Pennsylvania Paper & Supply Company, whose tower is shown in the opening credits, plans to add it to the tower as well. Newspapers in other Northeastern cities have published travel guides to Scranton locations for tourists interested in visiting places mentioned in the show. Scranton has become identified with the show outside the United States as well. In a 2008 St. Patrick's Day speech in its suburb of Dickson City, former Taoiseach (the Irish Head of Government) Bertie Ahern identified the city as the home of Dunder Mifflin. The inaugural The Office convention was held downtown in October 2007. Notable landmarks, some of which have been settings for the show, that served as venues include the University of Scranton, the Radisson Lackawanna Station Hotel and the Mall at Steamtown. Cast appearances were made by B. J. Novak, Ed Helms, Oscar Nunez, Angela Kinsey, Brian Baumgartner, Leslie David Baker, Mindy Kaling, Craig Robinson, Melora Hardin, Phyllis Smith, Creed Bratton, Kate Flannery, Bobby Ray Shafer, and Andy Buckley. Besides Novak and Kaling, writer appearances were made by Greg Daniels, Michael Schur, Jennifer Celotta, Lee Eisenberg, Gene Stupnitsky, Justin Spitzer, Anthony Ferrell, Ryan Koh, Lester Lewis, and Jason Kessler. Not present were writer-actor Paul Lieberstein (who was originally going to make an appearance), Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, and Jenna Fischer. On an episode of The Daily Show, Republican presidential candidate John McCain, reportedly a devoted fan of the show, jokingly told Jon Stewart he might take Dwight Schrute as his running mate. Rainn Wilson later accepted on Dwight Schrute's behalf while on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. After the airing of "Garage Sale," where the character of Michael Scott decides to move to Colorado, Colorado governor John Hickenlooper issued a press release appointing Scott to the position of director of paper distribution in the Department of Natural Resources. The show is often paid tribute by the band Relient K. Frontman Matt Thiessen is a fan of The Office, and during concerts will often perform a self-described "love song" about the series, titled "The Ballad of Dunder Mifflin," followed by him and the band playing the show's opening theme. A parody musical, titled The Office! A Musical Parody, written by Bob McSmith, Tobly McSmith, and Assaf Gleizner, began performances at The Jerry Orbach Theatre on September 24, 2018, with an official opening on October 3, 2018. The show temporarily closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and resumed performances on April 9, 2021, becoming the first New York City stage musical to reopen following the pandemic. Cast members Jenna Fischer and Angela Kinsey attended a performance in May 2022. ## Other media ### Online releases Episodes from The Office were among the first shows available for download from the iTunes Store beginning in December 2005. In 2006, ten internet-exclusive webisodes featuring some of the characters on The Office aired on NBC.com. "Producer's Cuts" (containing approximately ten additional minutes of material) of the episodes "Branch Closing" and "The Return" were also made available on NBC.com. The Office also became available for download from Amazon.com's Unbox video downloads in 2006. Sales of new The Office episodes on iTunes ceased in 2007 due to a dispute between NBC and Apple ostensibly overpricing. As of September 9, 2008, The Office was put back on the iTunes Store and can be bought in HD and SD format. It is also available through all other major digital distribution sales platforms. Netflix also offered the show for online viewing by subscribers, in addition to traditional DVD rental. The series would become one of the most streamed shows on Netflix, with its availability on a streamer leading to the show's sustained popularity. The Office left Netflix on December 31, 2020, as NBCUniversal acquired the rights to the show for its streaming service Peacock, which joined the following day. Exclusive to Peacock are extended episodes which include deleted scenes and additional footage. The first five seasons previously stream for free but now are premium only, and seasons 6–9 are available to stream on its premium tier. When the show was in production, it was noted for its large amount of delayed viewing. Of the 12.4 million total viewings of "Fun Run," the fourth season's premiere, 2.7 million, or 22%, were on a computer via online streaming. "The Office," said The New York Times, "is on the leading edge of a sharp shift in entertainment viewing that was thought to be years away: watching television episodes on a computer screen is now a common activity for millions of consumers." It was particularly popular with online viewers, an NBC researcher said, because as an episode-driven sitcom without special effects it was easy to watch on smaller monitors such as those found on laptops and iPods. Between the online viewings and those who use digital video recorders, 25–50% of the show's viewers watched it after its scheduled airtime. The show's Internet success became an issue in the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Daniels and many of the cast members who double as writers posted a video to YouTube shortly after the strike began, pointing out how little if any, they received in residuals from online and DVD viewing. "You're watching this on the Internet, a thing that pays us zero dollars," Schur said. "We're supposed to get 11 cents for every two trillion downloads." The writers were particularly upset that they weren't compensated for the Daytime Emmy Award-winning summer webisodes "The Accountants", which NBC considered promotional material despite the embedded commercials. ### Other broadcasts Aside from NBC, The Office has gone into off-network syndication in the United States. It previously ran on local stations and TBS. On December 13, 2017, Comedy Central announced that they had acquired all nine seasons of the show from NBCUniversal in a non-exclusive deal, and some episodes are available to stream on Comedy Central's official website and mobile app on a rotating basis. Reruns of The Office began airing on Comedy Central on January 15, 2018. The deal between Viacom (who owns Comedy Central) and NBCUniversal (for rights for airing reruns of The Office) was extended throughout 2021. The series will then air in a non-exclusive window on Viacom Media Networks through 2025. The series aired on Cozi TV from January 1, 2019, to October 3, 2021. It also aired on Nick at Nite starting January 1, 2019, and later on Paramount Network, although Nick at Nite no longer airs the program as of May 5, 2019. The show then began airing on Freeform on January 1, 2022. In the United Kingdom, the show was named in listings magazines (but not onscreen) as The Office: An American Workplace when it originally aired there on ITV2. In Australia, all 9 seasons air on 10 Shake. ### Promotional The show's success has resulted in expansion outside of television. Characters have appeared in promotional materials for NBC, and a licensed video game—The Office—was released on November 28, 2007, by MumboJumbo from the development company Reveille. In 2008 two games were introduced via Pressman Toy Corp: The Office Trivia Board Game and The Office DVD Board Game. In 2009, The Office Clue was released, and The Office Monopoly was released in 2010. Other merchandise, from T-shirts and a bobblehead doll of Dwight Schrute to more office-specific items such as Dunder Mifflin copy paper and parodies of the Successories motivational poster series featuring the cast are available. Dunder Mifflin had two websites, and the cast members maintained blogs both as themselves and in character. ### Cast blogs Several members of the cast maintained blogs on MySpace, including Jenna Fischer, Angela Kinsey, and Brian Baumgartner, who posted regularly during the season. Rainn Wilson wrote in character as Dwight for the "Schrute Space" blog on NBC.com, which was updated periodically; however, he stopped writing the blog himself. It is unknown whether Creed Bratton authors "Creed Thoughts," the blog attributed to his character. ### Cast podcast On September 11, 2019, Jenna Fischer and Angela Kinsey announced their podcast called Office Ladies which premiered on October 16, 2019, on Earwolf. The podcast features Fischer and Kinsey watching episodes of The Office and offering behind-the-scenes details and answering fan questions. The theme song for the podcast, "Rubber Tree" is performed by Creed Bratton. In February 2021, Brian Baumgartner started a podcast called The Office Deep Dive with Brian Baumgartner in which he sits down with other actors, writers, and others that worked on the show and share behind the scenes stories about the show. The podcast introduction song, "Bubble and Squeek" is performed by Creed Bratton. ### Home media The complete series of The Office was released on Blu-ray from Universal Pictures Home Entertainment on November 10, 2020. ## Proposed spin-offs A spin-off to the series was proposed in 2008, with a pilot episode expected to debut as the Super Bowl lead-out program in 2009. The idea created by the writers was that a copy machine breaks in The Office and then it is recalled, fixed, and shipped to Pawnee, Indiana, the setting of Parks and Recreation. However, The Office's creative team instead decided to develop Parks and Recreation as a separate series. Also, actress Rashida Jones was to portray a different character in both, causing a problem for the potential spin-off. Another spin-off starring Rainn Wilson as Dwight Schrute running a bed-and-breakfast and beet farm, titled The Farm, was proposed in early 2012. In October 2012, however, NBC decided not to go forward with the series. A backdoor pilot episode was produced, and although the show was not picked up, it was modified and aired during the ninth season as "The Farm". In July 2020, Leslie David Baker launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund the production of a pilot for Uncle Stan, a proposed spin-off focusing on a now-engaged Stanley Hudson as "After several years of enjoying a relatively uneventful retirement lifestyle, Uncle Stan receives an urgent call for help from his favorite nephew, Lucky: a recent widower with two small children and a motorcycle repair/flower shop in Los Angeles. Soon Uncle Stan finds himself dishing out all the support and guidance he has to offer in his new California home." ## Possible reboot In September 2019, with the announcement of NBCUniversal's streaming service Peacock, Bonnie Hammer, Chairman of Direct-to-Consumer and Digital Enterprises at NBCU stated that it is her "hope and goal that we do an Office reboot". In March 2020, former showrunner Greg Daniels expressed doubts at a reboot being possible, and later that year, former NBC president of original content Bill McGoldrick stated that "a reboot has not come up specifically for Peacock".
63,663	Fly	1,172,267,587	Order of insects	[ "Anisian first appearances", "Diptera by classification", "Extant Middle Triassic first appearances", "Flies", "Insects in culture", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus", "Triassic animals of North America", "Triassic animals of South America", "Triassic insects" ]	Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 1,000,000 species including horse-flies, crane flies, hoverflies, mosquitoes and others, although only about 125,000 species have been described. Flies have a mobile head, with a pair of large compound eyes, and mouthparts designed for piercing and sucking (mosquitoes, black flies and robber flies), or for lapping and sucking in the other groups. Their wing arrangement gives them great maneuverability in flight, and claws and pads on their feet enable them to cling to smooth surfaces. Flies undergo complete metamorphosis; the eggs are often laid on the larval food-source and the larvae, which lack true limbs, develop in a protected environment, often inside their food source. Other species like Metopia argyrocephala are ovoviviparous, opportunistically depositing hatched or hatching maggots instead of eggs on carrion, dung, decaying material, or open wounds of mammals. The pupa is a tough capsule from which the adult emerges when ready to do so; flies mostly have short lives as adults. Diptera is one of the major insect orders and of considerable ecological and human importance. Flies are important pollinators, second only to the bees and their Hymenopteran relatives. Flies may have been among the evolutionarily earliest pollinators responsible for early plant pollination. Fruit flies are used as model organisms in research, but less benignly, mosquitoes are vectors for malaria, dengue, West Nile fever, yellow fever, encephalitis, and other infectious diseases; and houseflies, commensal with humans all over the world, spread food-borne illnesses. Flies can be annoyances especially in some parts of the world where they can occur in large numbers, buzzing and settling on the skin or eyes to bite or seek fluids. Larger flies such as tsetse flies and screwworms cause significant economic harm to cattle. Blowfly larvae, known as gentles, and other dipteran larvae, known more generally as maggots, are used as fishing bait and as food for carnivorous animals. They are also used in medicine in debridement to clean wounds. ## Taxonomy and phylogeny ### Relationships to other insects Dipterans are endopterygotes, insects that undergo radical metamorphosis. They belong to the Mecopterida, alongside the Mecoptera, Siphonaptera, Lepidoptera and Trichoptera. The possession of a single pair of wings distinguishes most true flies from other insects with "fly" in their names. However, some true flies such as Hippoboscidae (louse flies) have become secondarily wingless. The cladogram represents the current consensus view. ### Relationships between subgroups and families The first true dipterans known are from the Middle Triassic (around 240 million years ago), and they became widespread during the Middle and Late Triassic. Modern flowering plants did not appear until the Cretaceous (around 140 million years ago), so the original dipterans must have had a different source of nutrition other than nectar. Based on the attraction of many modern fly groups to shiny droplets, it has been suggested that they may have fed on honeydew produced by sap-sucking bugs which were abundant at the time, and dipteran mouthparts are well-adapted to softening and lapping up the crusted residues. The basal clades in the Diptera include the Deuterophlebiidae and the enigmatic Nymphomyiidae. Three episodes of evolutionary radiation are thought to have occurred based on the fossil record. Many new species of lower Diptera developed in the Triassic, about 220 million years ago. Many lower Brachycera appeared in the Jurassic, some 180 million years ago. A third radiation took place among the Schizophora at the start of the Paleogene, 66 million years ago. The phylogenetic position of Diptera has been controversial. The monophyly of holometabolous insects has long been accepted, with the main orders being established as Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, and it is the relationships between these groups which has caused difficulties. Diptera is widely thought to be a member of Mecopterida, along with Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Trichoptera (caddisflies), Siphonaptera (fleas), Mecoptera (scorpionflies) and possibly Strepsiptera (twisted-wing flies). Diptera has been grouped with Siphonaptera and Mecoptera in the Antliophora, but this has not been confirmed by molecular studies. Diptera were traditionally broken down into two suborders, Nematocera and Brachycera, distinguished by the differences in antennae. The Nematocera are identified by their elongated bodies and many-segmented, often feathery antennae as represented by mosquitoes and crane flies. The Brachycera have rounder bodies and much shorter antennae. Subsequent studies have identified the Nematocera as being non-monophyletic with modern phylogenies placing the Brachycera within grades of groups formerly placed in the Nematocera. The construction of a phylogenetic tree has been the subject of ongoing research. The following cladogram is based on the FLYTREE project. ### Diversity Flies are often abundant and are found in almost all terrestrial habitats in the world apart from Antarctica. They include many familiar insects such as house flies, blow flies, mosquitoes, gnats, black flies, midges and fruit flies. More than 150,000 have been formally described and the actual species diversity is much greater, with the flies from many parts of the world yet to be studied intensively. The suborder Nematocera include generally small, slender insects with long antennae such as mosquitoes, gnats, midges and crane-flies, while the Brachycera includes broader, more robust flies with short antennae. Many nematoceran larvae are aquatic. There are estimated to be a total of about 19,000 species of Diptera in Europe, 22,000 in the Nearctic region, 20,000 in the Afrotropical region, 23,000 in the Oriental region and 19,000 in the Australasian region. While most species have restricted distributions, a few like the housefly (Musca domestica) are cosmopolitan. Gauromydas heros (Asiloidea), with a length of up to 7 cm (2.8 in), is generally considered to be the largest fly in the world, while the smallest is Euryplatea nanaknihali, which at 0.4 mm (0.016 in) is smaller than a grain of salt. Brachycera are ecologically very diverse, with many being predatory at the larval stage and some being parasitic. Animals parasitised include molluscs, woodlice, millipedes, insects, mammals, and amphibians. Flies are the second largest group of pollinators after the Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and relatives). In wet and colder environments flies are significantly more important as pollinators. Compared to bees, they need less food as they do not need to provision their young. Many flowers that bear low nectar and those that have evolved trap pollination depend on flies. It is thought that some of the earliest pollinators of plants may have been flies. The greatest diversity of gall forming insects are found among the flies, principally in the family Cecidomyiidae (gall midges). Many flies (most importantly in the family Agromyzidae) lay their eggs in the mesophyll tissue of leaves with larvae feeding between the surfaces forming blisters and mines. Some families are mycophagous or fungus feeding. These include the cave dwelling Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) whose larvae are the only diptera with bioluminescence. The Sciaridae are also fungus feeders. Some plants are pollinated by fungus feeding flies that visit fungus infected male flowers. The larvae of Megaselia scalaris (Phoridae) are almost omnivorous and consume such substances as paint and shoe polish. The Exorista mella (Walker) fly are considered generalists and parasitoids of a variety of hosts. The larvae of the shore flies (Ephydridae) and some Chironomidae survive in extreme environments including glaciers (Diamesa sp., Chironomidae), hot springs, geysers, saline pools, sulphur pools, septic tanks and even crude oil (Helaeomyia petrolei). Adult hoverflies (Syrphidae) are well known for their mimicry and the larvae adopt diverse lifestyles including being inquiline scavengers inside the nests of social insects. Some brachycerans are agricultural pests, some bite animals and humans and suck their blood, and some transmit diseases. ## Anatomy and morphology Flies are adapted for aerial movement and typically have short and streamlined bodies. The first tagma of the fly, the head, bears the eyes, the antennae, and the mouthparts (the labrum, labium, mandible, and maxilla make up the mouthparts). The second tagma, the thorax, bears the wings and contains the flight muscles on the second segment, which is greatly enlarged; the first and third segments have been reduced to collar-like structures, and the third segment bears the halteres, which help to balance the insect during flight. The third tagma is the abdomen consisting of 11 segments, some of which may be fused, and with the 3 hindmost segments modified for reproduction. Some Dipterans are mimics and can only be distinguished from their models by very careful inspection. An example of this is Spilomyia longicornis, which is a fly but mimics a vespid wasp. Flies have a mobile head with a pair of large compound eyes on the sides of the head, and in most species, three small ocelli on the top. The compound eyes may be close together or widely separated, and in some instances are divided into a dorsal region and a ventral region, perhaps to assist in swarming behaviour. The antennae are well-developed but variable, being thread-like, feathery or comb-like in the different families. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking, as in the black flies, mosquitoes and robber flies, and for lapping and sucking as in many other groups. Female horse-flies use knife-like mandibles and maxillae to make a cross-shaped incision in the host's skin and then lap up the blood that flows. The gut includes large diverticulae, allowing the insect to store small quantities of liquid after a meal. For visual course control, flies' optic flow field is analyzed by a set of motion-sensitive neurons. A subset of these neurons is thought to be involved in using the optic flow to estimate the parameters of self-motion, such as yaw, roll, and sideward translation. Other neurons are thought to be involved in analyzing the content of the visual scene itself, such as separating figures from the ground using motion parallax. The H1 neuron is responsible for detecting horizontal motion across the entire visual field of the fly, allowing the fly to generate and guide stabilizing motor corrections midflight with respect to yaw. The ocelli are concerned in the detection of changes in light intensity, enabling the fly to react swiftly to the approach of an object. Like other insects, flies have chemoreceptors that detect smell and taste, and mechanoreceptors that respond to touch. The third segments of the antennae and the maxillary palps bear the main olfactory receptors, while the gustatory receptors are in the labium, pharynx, feet, wing margins and female genitalia, enabling flies to taste their food by walking on it. The taste receptors in females at the tip of the abdomen receive information on the suitability of a site for ovipositing. Flies that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to home in on their hosts, and many blood-sucking flies can detect the raised concentration of carbon dioxide that occurs near large animals. Some tachinid flies (Ormiinae) which are parasitoids of bush crickets, have sound receptors to help them locate their singing hosts. Diptera have one pair of fore wings on the mesothorax and a pair of halteres, or reduced hind wings, on the metathorax. A further adaptation for flight is the reduction in number of the neural ganglia, and concentration of nerve tissue in the thorax, a feature that is most extreme in the highly derived Muscomorpha infraorder. Some flies such as the ectoparasitic Nycteribiidae and Streblidae are exceptional in having lost their wings and become flightless. The only other order of insects bearing a single pair of true, functional wings, in addition to any form of halteres, are the Strepsiptera. In contrast to the flies, the Strepsiptera bear their halteres on the mesothorax and their flight wings on the metathorax. Each of the fly's six legs has a typical insect structure of coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus, with the tarsus in most instances being subdivided into five tarsomeres. At the tip of the limb is a pair of claws, and between these are cushion-like structures known as pulvilli which provide adhesion. The abdomen shows considerable variability among members of the order. It consists of eleven segments in primitive groups and ten segments in more derived groups, the tenth and eleventh segments having fused. The last two or three segments are adapted for reproduction. Each segment is made up of a dorsal and a ventral sclerite, connected by an elastic membrane. In some females, the sclerites are rolled into a flexible, telescopic ovipositor. ### Flight Flies are capable of great manoeuvrability during flight due to the presence of the halteres. These act as gyroscopic organs and are rapidly oscillated in time with the wings; they act as a balance and guidance system by providing rapid feedback to the wing-steering muscles, and flies deprived of their halteres are unable to fly. The wings and halteres move in synchrony but the amplitude of each wing beat is independent, allowing the fly to turn sideways. The wings of the fly are attached to two kinds of muscles, those used to power it and another set used for fine control. Flies tend to fly in a straight line then make a rapid change in direction before continuing on a different straight path. The directional changes are called saccades and typically involve an angle of 90°, being achieved in 50 milliseconds. They are initiated by visual stimuli as the fly observes an object, nerves then activate steering muscles in the thorax that cause a small change in wing stroke which generate sufficient torque to turn. Detecting this within four or five wingbeats, the halteres trigger a counter-turn and the fly heads off in a new direction. Flies have rapid reflexes that aid their escape from predators but their sustained flight speeds are low. Dolichopodid flies in the genus Condylostylus respond in less than 5 milliseconds to camera flashes by taking flight. In the past, the deer bot fly, Cephenemyia, was claimed to be one of the fastest insects on the basis of an estimate made visually by Charles Townsend in 1927. This claim, of speeds of 600 to 800 miles per hour, was regularly repeated until it was shown to be physically impossible as well as incorrect by Irving Langmuir. Langmuir suggested an estimated speed of 25 miles per hour. Although most flies live and fly close to the ground, a few are known to fly at heights and a few like Oscinella (Chloropidae) are known to be dispersed by winds at altitudes of up to 2000 ft and over long distances. Some hover flies like Metasyrphus corollae have been known to undertake long flights in response to aphid population spurts. Males of fly species such as Cuterebra, many hover flies, bee flies (Bombyliidae) and fruit flies (Tephritidae) maintain territories within which they engage in aerial pursuit to drive away intruding males and other species. While these territories may be held by individual males, some species, such as A. freeborni, form leks with many males aggregating in displays. Some flies maintain an airspace and still others form dense swarms that maintain a stationary location with respect to landmarks. Many flies mate in flight while swarming. ## Life cycle and development Diptera go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult. ### Larva In many flies, the larval stage is long and adults may have a short life. Most dipteran larvae develop in protected environments; many are aquatic and others are found in moist places such as carrion, fruit, vegetable matter, fungi and, in the case of parasitic species, inside their hosts. They tend to have thin cuticles and become desiccated if exposed to the air. Apart from the Brachycera, most dipteran larvae have sclerotised head capsules, which may be reduced to remnant mouth hooks; the Brachycera, however, have soft, gelatinized head capsules from which the sclerites are reduced or missing. Many of these larvae retract their heads into their thorax. The spiracles in the larva and pupa do not have any internal mechanical closing device. Some other anatomical distinction exists between the larvae of the Nematocera and the Brachycera. Especially in the Brachycera, little demarcation is seen between the thorax and abdomen, though the demarcation may be visible in many Nematocera, such as mosquitoes; in the Brachycera, the head of the larva is not clearly distinguishable from the rest of the body, and few, if any, sclerites are present. Informally, such brachyceran larvae are called maggots, but the term is not technical and often applied indifferently to fly larvae or insect larvae in general. The eyes and antennae of brachyceran larvae are reduced or absent, and the abdomen also lacks appendages such as cerci. This lack of features is an adaptation to food such as carrion, decaying detritus, or host tissues surrounding endoparasites. Nematoceran larvae generally have well-developed eyes and antennae, while those of Brachyceran larvae are reduced or modified. Dipteran larvae have no jointed, "true legs", but some dipteran larvae, such as species of Simuliidae, Tabanidae and Vermileonidae, have prolegs adapted to hold onto a substrate in flowing water, host tissues or prey. The majority of dipterans are oviparous and lay batches of eggs, but some species are ovoviviparous, where the larvae starting development inside the eggs before they hatch or viviparous, the larvae hatching and maturing in the body of the mother before being externally deposited. These are found especially in groups that have larvae dependent on food sources that are short-lived or are accessible for brief periods. This is widespread in some families such as the Sarcophagidae. In Hylemya strigosa (Anthomyiidae) the larva moults to the second instar before hatching, and in Termitoxenia (Phoridae) females have incubation pouches, and a full developed third instar larva is deposited by the adult and it almost immediately pupates with no freely feeding larval stage. The tsetse fly (as well as other Glossinidae, Hippoboscidae, Nycteribidae and Streblidae) exhibits adenotrophic viviparity; a single fertilised egg is retained in the oviduct and the developing larva feeds on glandular secretions. When fully grown, the female finds a spot with soft soil and the larva works its way out of the oviduct, buries itself and pupates. Some flies like Lundstroemia parthenogenetica (Chironomidae) reproduce by thelytokous parthenogenesis, and some gall midges have larvae that can produce eggs (paedogenesis). ### Pupa The pupae take various forms. In some groups, particularly the Nematocera, the pupa is intermediate between the larval and adult form; these pupae are described as "obtect", having the future appendages visible as structures that adhere to the pupal body. The outer surface of the pupa may be leathery and bear spines, respiratory features or locomotory paddles. In other groups, described as "coarctate", the appendages are not visible. In these, the outer surface is a puparium, formed from the last larval skin, and the actual pupa is concealed within. When the adult insect is ready to emerge from this tough, desiccation-resistant capsule, it inflates a balloon-like structure on its head, and forces its way out. ### Adult The adult stage is usually short, its function is only to mate and lay eggs. The genitalia of male flies are rotated to a varying degree from the position found in other insects. In some flies, this is a temporary rotation during mating, but in others, it is a permanent torsion of the organs that occurs during the pupal stage. This torsion may lead to the anus being below the genitals, or, in the case of 360° torsion, to the sperm duct being wrapped around the gut and the external organs being in their usual position. When flies mate, the male initially flies on top of the female, facing in the same direction, but then turns around to face in the opposite direction. This forces the male to lie on his back for his genitalia to remain engaged with those of the female, or the torsion of the male genitals allows the male to mate while remaining upright. This leads to flies having more reproduction abilities than most insects, and much quicker. Flies occur in large populations due to their ability to mate effectively and quickly during the mating season. More primitive groups mates in the air during swarming, but most of the more advanced species with a 360° torsion mate on a substrate. ## Ecology As ubiquitous insects, dipterans play an important role at various trophic levels both as consumers and as prey. In some groups the larvae complete their development without feeding, and in others the adults do not feed. The larvae can be herbivores, scavengers, decomposers, predators or parasites, with the consumption of decaying organic matter being one of the most prevalent feeding behaviours. The fruit or detritus is consumed along with the associated micro-organisms, a sieve-like filter in the pharynx being used to concentrate the particles, while flesh-eating larvae have mouth-hooks to help shred their food. The larvae of some groups feed on or in the living tissues of plants and fungi, and some of these are serious pests of agricultural crops. Some aquatic larvae consume the films of algae that form underwater on rocks and plants. Many of the parasitoid larvae grow inside and eventually kill other arthropods, while parasitic larvae may attack vertebrate hosts. Whereas many dipteran larvae are aquatic or live in enclosed terrestrial locations, the majority of adults live above ground and are capable of flight. Predominantly they feed on nectar or plant or animal exudates, such as honeydew, for which their lapping mouthparts are adapted. Some flies have functional mandibles that may be used for biting. The flies that feed on vertebrate blood have sharp stylets that pierce the skin, with some species having anticoagulant saliva that is regurgitated before absorbing the blood that flows; in this process, certain diseases can be transmitted. The bot flies (Oestridae) have evolved to parasitize mammals. Many species complete their life cycle inside the bodies of their hosts. The larvae of a few fly groups (Agromyzidae, Anthomyiidae, Cecidomyiidae) are capable of inducing plant galls. Some dipteran larvae are leaf-miners. The larvae of many brachyceran families are predaceous. In many dipteran groups, swarming is a feature of adult life, with clouds of insects gathering in certain locations; these insects are mostly males, and the swarm may serve the purpose of making their location more visible to females. Most adult diptera have their mouthparts modified to sponge up fluid. The adults of many species of flies (e.g. Anthomyia sp., Steganopsis melanogaster) that feed on liquid food will regurgitate fluid in a behaviour termed as "bubbling" which has been thought to help the insects evaporate water and concentrate food or possibly to cool by evaporation. Some adult diptera are known for kleptoparasitism such as members of the Sarcophagidae. The miltogramminae are known as "satellite flies" for their habit of following wasps and stealing their stung prey or laying their eggs into them. Phorids, milichids and the genus Bengalia are known to steal food carried by ants. Adults of Ephydra hians forage underwater, and have special hydrophobic hairs that trap a bubble of air that lets them breathe underwater. ### Anti-predator adaptations Flies are eaten by other animals at all stages of their development. The eggs and larvae are parasitised by other insects and are eaten by many creatures, some of which specialise in feeding on flies but most of which consume them as part of a mixed diet. Birds, bats, frogs, lizards, dragonflies and spiders are among the predators of flies. Many flies have evolved mimetic resemblances that aid their protection. Batesian mimicry is widespread with many hoverflies resembling bees and wasps, ants and some species of tephritid fruit fly resembling spiders. Some species of hoverfly are myrmecophilous—their young live and grow within the nests of ants. They are protected from the ants by imitating chemical odours given by ant colony members. Bombyliid bee flies such as Bombylius major are short-bodied, round, furry, and distinctly bee-like as they visit flowers for nectar, and are likely also Batesian mimics of bees. In contrast, Drosophila subobscura, a species of fly in the genus Drosophila, lacks a category of hemocytes that are present in other studied species of Drosophila, leading to an inability to defend against parasitic attacks, a form of innate immunodeficiency. ## Human interaction and cultural depictions ### Symbolism Flies play a variety of symbolic roles in different cultures. These include both positive and negative roles in religion. In the traditional Navajo religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being. In Christian demonology, Beelzebub is a demonic fly, the "Lord of the Flies", and a god of the Philistines. Flies have appeared in literature since ancient Sumer. In a Sumerian poem, a fly helps the goddess Inanna when her husband Dumuzid is being chased by galla demons. In the Mesopotamian versions of the flood myth, the dead corpses floating on the waters are compared to flies. Later, the gods are said to swarm "like flies" around the hero Utnapishtim's offering. Flies appear on Old Babylonian seals as symbols of Nergal, the god of death. Fly-shaped lapis lazuli beads were often worn in ancient Mesopotamia, along with other kinds of fly-jewellery. In a little-known Greek myth, a very chatty and talkative maiden named Myia (meaning "fly") enraged the moon-goddess Selene by attempting to seduce her lover, the sleeping Endymion, and was thus turned by the angry goddess into a fly, who now always deprives people of their sleep in memory of her past life. In Prometheus Bound, which is attributed to the Athenian tragic playwright Aeschylus, a gadfly sent by Zeus's wife Hera pursues and torments his mistress Io, who has been transformed into a cow and is watched constantly by the hundred eyes of the herdsman Argus: "Io: Ah! Hah! Again the prick, the stab of gadfly-sting! O earth, earth, hide, the hollow shape—Argus—that evil thing—the hundred-eyed." William Shakespeare, inspired by Aeschylus, has Tom o'Bedlam in King Lear, "Whom the foul fiend hath led through fire and through flame, through ford and whirlpool, o'er bog and quagmire", driven mad by the constant pursuit. In Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare similarly likens Cleopatra's hasty departure from the Actium battlefield to that of a cow chased by a gadfly. More recently, in 1962 the biologist Vincent Dethier wrote To Know a Fly, introducing the general reader to the behaviour and physiology of the fly. Musca depicta ("painted fly" in Latin) is a depiction of a fly as an inconspicuous element of various paintings. This feature was widespread in 15th and 16th centuries paintings and its presence may be explained by various reasons. Flies appear in popular culture in concepts such as fly-on-the-wall documentary-making in film and television production. The metaphoric name suggests that events are seen candidly, as a fly might see them. Flies have inspired the design of miniature flying robots. Steven Spielberg's 1993 film Jurassic Park relied on the idea that DNA could be preserved in the stomach contents of a blood-sucking fly fossilised in amber, though the mechanism has been discounted by scientists. ### Economic importance Dipterans are an important group of insects and have a considerable impact on the environment. Some leaf-miner flies (Agromyzidae), fruit flies (Tephritidae and Drosophilidae) and gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) are pests of agricultural crops; others such as tsetse flies, screwworm and botflies (Oestridae) attack livestock, causing wounds, spreading disease, and creating significant economic harm. See article: Parasitic flies of domestic animals. A few can even cause myiasis in humans. Still others such as mosquitoes (Culicidae), blackflies (Simuliidae) and drain flies (Psychodidae) impact human health, acting as vectors of major tropical diseases. Among these, Anopheles mosquitoes transmit malaria, filariasis, and arboviruses; Aedes aegypti mosquitoes carry dengue fever and the Zika virus; blackflies carry river blindness; sand flies carry leishmaniasis. Other dipterans are a nuisance to humans, especially when present in large numbers; these include houseflies, which contaminate food and spread food-borne illnesses; the biting midges and sandflies (Ceratopogonidae) and the houseflies and stable flies (Muscidae). In tropical regions, eye flies (Chloropidae) which visit the eye in search of fluids can be a nuisance in some seasons. Many dipterans serve roles that are useful to humans. Houseflies, blowflies and fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) are scavengers and aid in decomposition. Robber flies (Asilidae), tachinids (Tachinidae) and dagger flies and balloon flies (Empididae) are predators and parasitoids of other insects, helping to control a variety of pests. Many dipterans such as bee flies (Bombyliidae) and hoverflies (Syrphidae) are pollinators of crop plants. ### Uses Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, has long been used as a model organism in research because of the ease with which it can be bred and reared in the laboratory, its small genome, and the fact that many of its genes have counterparts in higher eukaryotes. A large number of genetic studies have been undertaken based on this species; these have had a profound impact on the study of gene expression, gene regulatory mechanisms and mutation. Other studies have investigated physiology, microbial pathogenesis and development among other research topics. The studies on dipteran relationships by Willi Hennig helped in the development of cladistics, techniques that he applied to morphological characters but now adapted for use with molecular sequences in phylogenetics. Maggots found on corpses are useful to forensic entomologists. Maggot species can be identified by their anatomical features and by matching their DNA. Maggots of different species of flies visit corpses and carcases at fairly well-defined times after the death of the victim, and so do their predators, such as beetles in the family Histeridae. Thus, the presence or absence of particular species provides evidence for the time since death, and sometimes other details such as the place of death, when species are confined to particular habitats such as woodland. Some species of maggots such as blowfly larvae (gentles) and bluebottle larvae (casters) are bred commercially; they are sold as bait in angling, and as food for carnivorous animals (kept as pets, in zoos, or for research) such as some mammals, fishes, reptiles, and birds. It has been suggested that fly larvae could be used at a large scale as food for farmed chickens, pigs, and fish. However, consumers are opposed to the inclusion of insects in their food, and the use of insects in animal feed remains illegal in areas such as the European Union. Fly larvae can be used as a biomedical tool for wound care and treatment. Maggot debridement therapy (MDT) is the use of blow fly larvae to remove the dead tissue from wounds, most commonly being amputations. Historically, this has been used for centuries, both intentional and unintentional, on battlefields and in early hospital settings. Removing the dead tissue promotes cell growth and healthy wound healing. The larvae also have biochemical properties such as antibacterial activity found in their secretions as they feed. These medicinal maggots are a safe and effective treatment for chronic wounds. The Sardinian cheese casu marzu is exposed to flies known as cheese skippers such as Piophila casei, members of the family Piophilidae. The digestive activities of the fly larvae soften the cheese and modify the aroma as part of the process of maturation. At one time European Union authorities banned sale of the cheese and it was becoming hard to find, but the ban has been lifted on the grounds that the cheese is a traditional local product made by traditional methods. ## Hazards Flies are a health hazard and are attracted to toilets because of their smell. The New Scientist magazine suggested a trap for these flies. A pipe acting as a chimney was fitted to the toilet which let in some light to attract these flies up to the end of this pipe where a gauze covering prevented escape to the air outside so that they were trapped and died. Toilets are generally dark inside particularly if the door is closed.
52,765,795	Frederick William von Kleist	1,170,817,710	German officer	[ "1724 births", "1767 deaths", "German military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession", "Kleist family", "Major generals of Prussia", "Military personnel from Potsdam", "Pomeranian nobility", "Prussian military personnel of the Seven Years' War", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)" ]	Friedrich Wilhelm Gottfried Arnd von Kleist, (29 August 1724 in Potsdam – 28 August 1767 in Jeschkendorf near Liegnitz) was a royal Prussian officer, who rose to the rank of major general. In the Seven Years' War, he organized and commanded the Freikorps Kleist. He was also known as Green Kleist for his command of the Green Hussar regiment, and to distinguish him from the 58 other members of the Kleist family who served in the war. He received the Order Pour le Mérite and is one of the 25 generals depicted on the Equestrian Statue of Frederick the Great. ## Family Friedrich Wilhelm Gottfried Arnd von Kleist came from the Kleist family. He was the fourth son of the royal Prussian colonel and heir to Schmenzin and Stavenow Andreas Joachim von Kleist (1678–1738) and Marie Elisabeth von Hake (1700–1758). He remained unmarried, but had fifteen siblings (ten brothers and five sisters), and appointed his youngest brother, Major General Hans Reimar von Kleist (1736–1806), as his heir. Many members of the Stavenow branch of the family, to which Kleist belonged, figured prominently in the military activities of Frederick William I and his son, Frederick II. The family had two major land owners, Andreas Joachim von Kleist and his son, Joachim Friedrich, who were both officers in the Prussian army, as were another eight of Andreas Joachim's 10 sons. In total, 58 officers with the name Kleist served in the Seven Years' War; twenty-three died. ## Military career Like many Prussian youngsters, Kleist's military career emulated that of other junker sons. Many junkers owned immense estates, especially in the north-eastern part of Prussia, specifically, the provinces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, West Prussia, East Prussia and Posen. The local government sent lists of young men aged between 12 and 18 to Berlin and the youngsters received orders to proceed to cadet academies (Kadettenhaus) or military academies in Berlin. Such service had been required since the ascension of Frederick William I, and firmly established the participation of the landed aristocracy in the Prussian military. Kleist began his 20-year military career at the gendarmes in Berlin, on garrison duty. In 1756, at the onset of the Seven Years' War, Frederick II transferred him to Hussar Regiment Szekely. On 26 August 1756, when the Prussian Army invaded Saxony, the regiment was part of the left column led by the Augustus William, Duke of Brunswick-Bevern. Initially concentrated in the area of Lübben, the column advanced through Lusatia via Hoyerswerda and Bautzen; by 8 September, the column had reached Hohenstein then marched toward the Elbe near Pirna. On 1 October, eight of its squadrons took part in the action at Lobositz, covering the left flank. It did not participate in the second attack against Browne's Austrians. In mid-April 1757, the regiment formed part of the army that invaded Bohemia. On 6 May, although in the region, the regiment did not take part to the Battle of Prague. Instead, it was deployed on the left bank of the Moldau near the Weissenberg as part of Field Marshal James Keith's corps. On 18 June, five squadrons of the regiment took part to the Battle of Kolin. They were deployed in the cavalry vanguard on the extreme left under General von Zieten. At the end of August, the regiment was part of the small Prussian army assembled at Dresden by Frederick II to head towards Thuringia and to offer battle to the Franco-Imperial army invading Saxony. On 14 September, when Frederick was forced to divide his army to contain the French in the region of Magdeburg and to secure the Prussian magazines in the area of Torgau, the regiment remained with Frederick at Erfurt to observe the Franco-Imperial army. On 15 September, the regiment was part of Seydlitz's force which occupied Gotha. On 19 September 1757, while patrolling with a Szekely battalion near Gotha, Kleist distinguished himself: the approaching imperial and French armies outnumbered the Prussians holding Erfurt and the Prussians evacuated the city before the Austrians arrived. The Prussian force, under the overall command of James Keith and locally by Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz, managed to retake Erfurt three days later. He received the Order Pour le Mérite. In 1759, Kleist became chief of Regiment Szekely, also called the Greens (due to the dominant color of their uniforms), a position he held until his death; henceforth he was also known as Green Kleist. In 1760, Kleist was promoted to the rank of colonel. On 15 August 1760, the Kleist Hussars played an essential role in the Battle of Leignitz. At a point when the outcome was in the balance, 14 full squadrons of Kleist cavalry hit the enemy cavalry; the latter fled and the Prussians took the battlefield. In early 1761, Kleist was appointed to lead a Freikorps, or an independent corps, with which he achieved some of his greatest successes. The Freikorps consisted of 22 squadrons of hussars and dragoons, including the so-called "Croatian Battalion", and a Fußjägerkorps (comparable to light infantry). With his Freikorps, he was dispatched again toward Erfurt, this time arriving on 24 February. The city's gates were closed and the citizens were on alert. Kleist appeared with 200 hussars, demanding entrance; another battalion arrived a short time later. Capitulation terms were arranged and the city paid 150,000 thalers to get rid of the invaders. Kleist took the money and pressed toward Gotha, then to Hunfeld and then to Fulda. The punitive and profitable expedition ended soon, though. As the Austrians began to consolidate their forces, the Prussians retired out of range. In 1762, Kleist was promoted to major general. ### Glorious Raid: 1762 By November 1762, part of the Imperial army garrisoned Dresden, with 13 battalions of infantry; the rest of the Imperial army remained at Altenberg. Frederick and his army began the winter in Leipzig. Neither group had any plans for further operations other than watching the enemy's lines of communication. At this point in the stalemate, Frederick's brother, Henry, unleashed a portion of Kleist's Freikorps on a Glorious Raid, with instructions to plunder and lay waste to the more affluent states of the Holy Roman Empire. Kleist was instructed to seize at least a half million thalers from the enemy countryside and towns; Henry planned to break the Imperial resistance. Kleist took full advantage of this order. He acquired hostages and shelled towns: Bamberg, Würzburg and Erlangen fell to him. Captives and contributions were sent to Leipzig, where Frederick was headquartered. In late November, Kleist and his hussars were chased out of Imperial territories, back to Leipzig. This situation did not last for long. In mid-December, the Austrians refused to parlay, leaving the Imperial territories vulnerable to Prussian incursion as long as Austria remained at war with Frederick. The Freikorps was disbanded in 1763 after the conclusion of the war. ### Last years and death Kleist spent the remaining years of his life between Berlin and his estate near Liegnitz, where he died on 28 August 1768, one day short of his 43rd birthday. Frederick memorialized Kleist with a plaque on the obelisk in his castle grounds of Rheinsberg; in 1851, the King's great-great nephew, Frederick William III memorialized Kleist on the base of the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin, next to the cavalry figure of Duke Ferdinand von Braunschweig.
26,957,274	Hello Goodbye (Ugly Betty)	1,151,030,967	null	[ "2010 American television episodes", "American television series finales", "Ugly Betty (season 4) episodes" ]	"Hello Goodbye" is the series finale of the television comedy-drama series, Ugly Betty. The episode serves as the 20th and final episode of the fourth season. It was written by series creator and executive producer Silvio Horta, and was directed by Victor Nelli, Jr. It first aired on ABC in the United States on April 14, 2010. Guest stars in this episode include Bryan Batt, Neal Bledsoe, Grant Bowler, Alec Mapa, Ryan McGinnis, Matt Newton and Adam Rodríguez. The episode focuses on Betty Suarez (America Ferrera) struggling to tell her friend and boss, Daniel Meade (Eric Mabius) about her new job in London. At the same time, Betty's sister, Hilda (Ana Ortiz) tries to keep their father from finding out she is moving to Manhattan. Wilhelmina Slater (Vanessa Williams) recovers from being shot by Tyler (Neal Bledsoe) and Amanda Tanen (Becki Newton) finally finds her father. "Hello Goodbye" has received critical acclaim from television critics. According to the Nielsen ratings system, the episode was watched by 5.43 million viewers during its original broadcast, which was a season high. It received a 1.8 rating/5 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic. ## Plot Betty Suarez worries about her boss Daniel Meade's reaction to the news that she is leaving fashion magazine MODE for a new job in London. Marc St. James (Michael Urie) overhears Betty talking about her new job and sends a mass text to everyone in the building, including Daniel. Daniel tells Betty that he is fine with her leaving, however, he later burns her contract release form, angered and saddened by her departure. He then offers Betty a promotion, which she turns down, and he does not come to her farewell party, where Marc gets back together with Troy (Matt Newton) and Amanda Tanen finds out that Spencer Cannon (Bryan Batt) is her father; he reveals that he knew she was his daughter when he hired her to be his stylist. Betty's sister Hilda Suarez and her husband Bobby (Adam Rodríguez) look for an apartment in Manhattan, but Hilda worries that their father Ignacio Suarez will be lonely without them, but Ignacio reassures them that he is happy to live alone. Meanwhile, MODE co-editor Wilhelmina Slater is in a coma after being shot by Tyler Meade-Hartley. When she wakes up, her boyfriend Connor Owens (Grant Bowler) visits her on a day release from prison and tells her that he cannot live without her. Tyler's mother Claire Meade (Judith Light) offers Wilhelmina a bribe to say Tyler did not shoot her, but Wilhelmina rejects it and plans to stake her claim on the company, prompting Marc to tell her she will never be happy. Wilhelmina holds a press conference, where she states that she accidentally shot herself. Claire thanks her and Wilhelmina tells her that they are now good. Daniel informs Wilhelmina that he is stepping down as co-editor of MODE, leaving her in charge and planning to start over. Wilhelmina promotes Marc to Creative Director and plots to get Connor's prison sentence reduced. After saying goodbye to her family, Betty is shown enjoying her new life in London. She meets Daniel in Trafalgar Square, where he apologizes to her for not saying goodbye, and asks her out to dinner. Betty jokingly asks if he needs something to do, she is looking for a new assistant and Daniel tells her that he might submit his resume. As Betty heads off to work across Trafalgar Square, the series title is superimposed onto the scene; after a moment, Ugly disappears. ## Production "Hello Goodbye" was written by Ugly Betty creator and executive producer Silvio Horta and directed by Victor Nelli Jr. The episode originally aired on April 14, 2010 on ABC as the twentieth episode of the series' fourth season and 85th overall. This episode marks the end of Ugly Betty. ABC announced in January 2010 that the series' fourth season was to be the last, following falling ratings. In a joint statement Silvio Horta and ABC Entertainment president Steve McPherson said "We've mutually come to the difficult decision to make this Ugly Betty's final season." The network cut the episode order from 22 to 20, but gave the writers enough time to create a satisfying conclusion that was to air on April 14. On what he was set out to accomplish with the series finale, Horta said "Primarily, I wanted it to be about Betty's journey, about Betty making it in her professional life, first and foremost, overcoming the obstacles in her past and really succeeding". Vanessa Williams said the cancellation of Ugly Betty was "devastating" for the cast. She said "Our cast was one of those rare opportunities where we love each other. It was a real shocker, and really devastating when it all ended". For the final scenes of the episode, the cast and crew travelled to London to film around a variety of the city's landmarks. This episode featured a guest appearance from former Mad Men star Bryan Batt, who continued his role as soap opera star Spencer Cannon from the previous episode. It was announced in March 2010 that Batt would star in the final season of Ugly Betty, as a potential love interest for Marc St. James (Michael Urie). Batt is the second Mad Men actor to appear in the final season of the series, following Rich Sommer's appearance in "Fire and Nice". ## Reception According to the Nielsen ratings, "Hello Goodbye" was viewed by 5.43 million viewers upon its original broadcast in the United States. This was an increase of 29 percent from the previous episode, "The Past Presents the Future", which was watched by 4.0 million American viewers. It earned a 1.8 rating/5 share in the 18–49 demographic. This means that it was seen by 1.8 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds and 5 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. "Hello Goodbye" became the highest viewed episode of the season and number one in its hour. Since airing, the episode has received critical acclaim. Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly praised the episode calling it "A super-sweet end to a super-sweet series!" Mrs. Northman of television website, TV Fanatic said "Overall, "Hello Goodbye" did wrap up each of our beloved characters lives in a nice pretty bow", they added "We wanted MORE!" However, some critics felt the ending of the episode was not enough. Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald gave the episode a mixed review saying it was "like one long hug with loved ones you don't want to leave," but added the conclusion was "unsatisfying". New York magazine said "The cast of Ugly Betty damn well earned a happy ending — and that's exactly what creator Silvio Horta gave them last night on the series finale". However, they also found the conclusion to be unsatisfying saying "The one-hour finale easily could have been longer, meaning some plotlines went unresolved." Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post said "Last night, Ugly Betty attempted to earn a place in TV history, but I fear their last episode will be quickly forgotten by the fans". Wieselman also added "On a show that always favored high drama and cool camp, I was saddened to see everyone get such an expected ending". Wieselman, however, did enjoy the final scene calling it "pitch-perfect".
65,964,518	Meatballs (advertisement)	1,162,588,376	2000 US presidential election campaign political commercial	[ "2000 United States presidential election", "2000 works", "2000s television commercials", "American television commercials", "Anti-immigration politics in the United States", "Hispanophobia", "Meatballs", "Pat Buchanan", "Political campaign advertisements", "Race-related controversies in advertising and marketing", "Race-related controversies in television", "Reform Party of the United States of America", "Television controversies in the United States" ]	Meatballs (also known as Meatball and For Spanish Press 1) was a political commercial aired during the 2000 United States presidential campaign in support of Reform Party candidate Pat Buchanan. The commercial, which was created by Houston-based agency Love Advertising, depicts a white man choking on a meatball while attempting to dial 9-1-1, but keeling over before the automated menu reaches the option for English. The ad highlighted Buchanan's support for making English the official language of the United States and his opposition to immigration policies of the time. Some analyses questioned the accuracy of the ad's claim that Buchanan's opponents were "writing off English for good". The ad aired in 22 states, with an emphasis by the campaign on border states like California and Arizona. The commercial drew criticism from several political figures and media outlets for its message, which some considered racist and xenophobic. Some critics praised the ad's humor and execution. The ad has been criticized in retrospect. ## Background In the 2000 United States presidential election, former Republican Pat Buchanan sought, and ultimately received, the nomination of Ross Perot’s Reform Party. Buchanan’s campaign themes included opposition to the North American Free Trade Agreement, illegal immigration, and abortion rights. Because of the Reform Party’s showing in the 1996 presidential election, with Perot garnering eight percent of the national popular vote, the party qualified for matching federal campaign funds in 2000. Following a court ruling, Buchanan was awarded \$12.6 million in such funds. A stated goal of the campaign was to again attain at least five percent of the national popular vote, so that the Reform Party would maintain its eligibility for matching funds in the 2004 election. During his campaign, Buchanan and his running-mate, educator and activist Ezola Foster, both frequently called for a reduction in the number of immigrants allowed into America each year, as well as increased assimilation (in both language and culture) of those who enter the country. In a May 2000 interview with National Public Radio, Buchanan claimed that immigration at then current rates was "rapidly changing the nature of the entire country; we speak 300 languages", while in August of that year, his campaign website called for a reduction of legal immigrants to between 250,000 and 300,000 annually, as well as for an implementation of an assimilation program to teach them the English language as well as American customs and history. Foster, meanwhile, had supported California's Proposition 187 in 1994, which sought to deny public services to illegal immigrants, and in her acceptance speech as Buchanan's running-mate in August, urged American immigration policy to "stop being stupid", claiming that illegal immigration had lowered educational quality at the school where she had taught. That month, President Bill Clinton also signed Executive Order 13166, ordering federal agencies to work to accommodate non-English-speaking citizens; the move was regarded as an inspiration for what would become Buchanan's first general-election commercial. For their first television commercial of the general election campaign, funded partly by the federal matching funds, Buchanan's campaign hired Love Advertising, an agency based in Houston, Texas. Its owner, Brenda Love, reported that her agency had been chosen because Buchanan "wanted a fresh approach" and an agency which would pursue an unconventional media and creative strategy. Buchanan's national campaign finance chairman connected the campaign to Love. The agency's creative director, David Harrison, oversaw the ad. The commercial itself was filmed by Houston-based production company VTTV. Both Love Advertising and VTTV received criticism from some of their clients and Houston commentators for their involvement in an ad perceived to have "anti-Hispanic overtones". ## Synopsis The 30-second TV spot opens with a middle-aged white man sitting in his kitchen, eating a meal of spaghetti and meatballs while watching the news on TV. A newscaster announces that an executive order "say[s] that English is no longer America’s national language". Upon hearing this, the man begins choking on his meatball. However, upon dialing 9-1-1, he has to wait through a recorded menu stating which number to dial for each language, including Spanish, Bengali, Swedish, and Swahili. A voice-over asks "Do you ever miss English? Immigration is out of control". The narrator adds that George W. Bush, the Republican presidential nominee, and Al Gore, the Democratic presidential nominee, "are writing off English for good." Before the recorded menu reaches the option for English, the choking man has fallen, "lifeless", to his kitchen floor. At the end of the ad, the viewer sees the man's dog standing on his stomach, licking the food off his face. ## Analysis The ad's "choking" plot has been interpreted as a metaphor for the idea that immigration will eventually "choke America to death". The Houston Press suggested that the subtext of the ad is that real Americans speak English. The ad's allusion to an executive order deeming English not to be America's official language was regarded as a reference to Executive Order 13166. Regarding the ad's message, Buchanan himself argued that one of the greatest threats to America was its potential to "dissolve" into demographic and cultural subgroups (such as race and language). He further alleged that the Democratic and Republican parties were unwilling to substantively discuss the issues of immigration and English, in spite of voters’ interest in the issue, out of interest in political correctness. The accuracy of the ad's central claim — that Bush and Gore were not committed to protecting the English language — was questioned in some analyses. In his book Winning Elections: Political Campaign Management, Strategy & Tactics, author John Franzen noted that neither Bush nor Gore had expressed support for removing English's status as America's national language. Franzen concluded that the ad was "very funny", but unethical. Similarly, CBS News deemed the claim that both Gore and Bush "are writing off English for good" to be "a stretch", although noting that both candidates had voiced their opposition to establishing English as the United States' official language. ## Release On October 9, 2000, the commercial began airing in 22 states, including California and Arizona, using a portion of the federal matching funds which the campaign received. It became the first general-election campaign TV ad released by any presidential candidate that year. The ad aired primarily on cable television and during, among other programs, WWF Smackdown. The ad was given particular emphasis in California, airing in every major media market in the state, with a focus on news programs. CBS News suggested that Buchanan targeted California and Arizona in particular because those two states included many voters who lived near illegal immigrants and supported more government action to combat illegal immigration. Buchanan indicated that he believed the issue would carry relevance for California voters, telling SFGate that, although the issue was not top of mind for many voters, it "still resonates", also citing Proposition 187 as evidence of the issue's continuing resonance. The ad was also aired in Maryland and Iowa media markets, particularly in areas with many immigrant workers. Although it was produced by a Houston-based advertising agency, and the Buchanan campaign ran radio ads in the Houston area, the commercial was not initially aired in any Texas media markets; it was suggested that the ad's perceived anti-Hispanic message would alienate voters in the state. ## Reception ### Political figures The commercial drew criticism from some political figures. California Democratic Party Chairman Art Torres attacked the ad as "pathetic" and called for its condemnation. Torres continued that "English will always be our national language and no amount of fear mongering or clicking of the heels will change that". A spokesman for the California Republican Party concurred, opining that the ad demonstrated Buchanan's lack of understanding of California communities and voters. The deputy vice chair for Latino advocacy organization National Council of La Raza, Lisa Navarrette, remarked that "There is a reason Pat Buchanan is getting 1% of the vote", while the national policy director for the League of United Latin American Citizens voiced concern that the ad could stoke anger and violence towards immigrants. In an interview with The Washington Post, Peter Fenn, a Democratic strategist, singled out Meatballs as his choice for the worst commercial of the 2000 campaign. A profile of Buchanan in the Washington Examiner deemed the ad "hyperbolic" and questioned the political saliency of illegal immigration as a campaign issue, citing a Gallup Poll indicating that the issue ranked twelfth in importance to voters. ### Critics Upon its release, the ad was reviewed by professional advertising critics at several media outlets. A review for Slate, published upon the ad's release as part of the publication's ongoing "Ad Report Card" feature, gave the commercial a letter grade of "D", criticizing its premise as "ludicrous" and highlighting a number of perceived non-sequiturs in the ad, such as the ad's use of a food — spaghetti — associated with immigrants. The review went on to note that if the man were actually choking, then he might not have been able to speak to a 9-1-1 operator even if he had reached the English option in time. Slate also proposed that another moral of the ad might be that "a foreign-food-loving social deviant got what was coming to him". A review by Dan Snierson, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the ad a letter grade of "B" for execution and "no comment" for its message. In response to the ad's claim that "immigration is out of control", Snierson quipped that "Yeah, that’s not the only thing". Writing for Ad Age, Bob Garfield deemed the ad "sort of funny, after a fashion" to its target audience, but also denounced the ad's message as being "inherently jingoistic, intolerant, divisive and [...] racist". Garfield also observed that, whereas "extremists" running for public office often attempt to hide behind a respectable facade and use code words to convey their ideas, Buchanan's ad does not. ## Aftermath The Globe and Mail described the Meatballs ad as the sole point in the campaign that Buchanan's campaign received attention, owing to the widespread backlash and condemnation directed at the spot. Prior to the release of the spot, Buchanan was polling at around one percent in most polls; by the end of the campaign, following the release of Meatballs and a string of other campaign ads, Buchanan was continuing to poll at one percent, far behind Ralph Nader, a fellow third-party candidate who had spent far less money on political advertising. Buchanan's later ads would continue to focus on issues of concern to local audiences, such as "Culture War – Boy Scouts", an ad aired in Vermont (where same-sex civil unions had recently been legalized) in which he defended the Boy Scouts for prohibiting openly gay men from being scout leaders. In 2001, The American Prospect columnist Dave Denison retrospectively deemed Meatballs one of the two "cheapest and sleaziest" political commercials of the 2000 campaign, while in 2015, Salon ranked the ad at number eight on its list of the "10 of the most fear-mongering political ads in American history", with writer Kali Holloway calling the ad "ridiculous." In a 2012 retrospective on "the greatest dystopian campaign ads of the last 50 years" for Slate, commentator David Weigel included "Meatballs" and gave it an "Apocalypse Rating" of 3 out of 10, commenting that "As stupid as the ad was, there’s still a constituency that fears this". ## See also - Pat Buchanan 2000 presidential campaign - 2000 United States presidential election - English-only movement - Fearmongering
542,803	Æthelhere of East Anglia	1,157,722,535	King of East Anglia (r. 653–655)	[ "655 deaths", "7th-century English monarchs", "Anglo-Saxon warriors", "Anglo-Saxons killed in battle", "East Anglian monarchs", "House of Wuffingas", "Monarchs killed in action", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Æthelhere (died 15 November 655) was King of East Anglia from 653 or 654 until his death. He was a member of the ruling Wuffingas dynasty and one of three sons of Eni to rule East Anglia as Christian kings. He was a nephew of Rædwald, who was the first of the Wuffingas of which more than a name is known. Rædwald and his son Eorpwald both ruled as pagans before being converted to Christianity. After Eorpwald's murder in around 627, the East Angles briefly reverted to heathenism, before Christianity was re-established by Sigeberht. Sigeberht eventually abdicated in favour of his co-ruler Ecgric, after which the East Angles were defeated in battle by the Mercians, led by their king Penda, during which both Ecgric and Sigeberht were slain. The monks at Cnobheresburg were driven out by Penda in 651 and Ecgric's successor Anna was forced into temporary exile. In 653 Penda once again attacked East Anglia and at the Battle of Bulcamp, Anna and his son were slain and the East Anglian army was defeated. Æthelhere then became king of the East Angles, possibly ruling jointly with his surviving brother, Æthelwold. During Æthelhere's brief reign, it is known that Botolph's monastery at Iken was built. In 655, Æthelhere was one of thirty noble warlords who joined with Penda in an invasion of Northumbria, laying siege to Oswiu and the much smaller Northumbrian army. The battle was fought on 15 November 655, near the Winwaed, an unidentified river. The Northumbrians were victorious and many of the Mercians and their allies were killed or drowned. In the battle, Penda and nearly all his warlords, including Æthelhere, were killed. ## Background After the end of Roman rule in Britain, the region now known as East Anglia was settled by a North Germanic group known as the Angles, although there is evidence of early settlement of the region by a minority of other peoples, for instance the Swabians, who settled in the area around the modern town of Swaffham. By 600, a number of kingdoms had begun to form in the territories of southern Britain conquered by the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians. The ruling dynasty of East Anglia was the Wuffingas, named from Wuffa, an early king. The first king known to have ruled is Rædwald, whose reign spanned a quarter of a century from about 599. Æthelhere was probably the second of the sons of Eni, the brother of Rædwald. Four sons are certainly known: Æthilric, the father of Ealdwulf, Anna, Æthelhere and Æthelwold, his successor. The brothers all appear to have been firmly committed to Christian rule: Æthilric married the Christian Hereswith, the great-niece of Edwin of Northumbria. Anna is described by Bede as almost a saintly figure and the father of a most religious family, who brought about the conversion of Cenwalh of Wessex, and Æthelwold was the sponsor of Swithelm of Essex during his baptism. Æthelhere witnessed the fortunes of his dynasty during the years of Rædwald's rule and afterwards. The East Angles under Rædwald had been converted to Christianity, but in around 627, during the reign of his son Eorpwald, they reverted to heathenism. This occurred after Eorpwald was killed by a pagan soon after his succession and baptism. The assassin, Ricberht, may then have ruled the kingdom for a few years, to be succeeded by Sigeberht, who re-established Christianity in the kingdom and became the first East Anglian king to act as a patron of the Church. ## Mercian destabilisation of the East Angles Sigeberht abdicated in favour of his co-ruler Ecgric and retired to lead a monastic life, but soon afterwards the East Angles were attacked by Mercian forces, led by their king, Penda. Ecgric and his army appealed to Sigeberht to lead them into battle against the Mercians, but he refused to participate. He was dragged from his monastery to the battlefield, where, still refusing to bear arms or fight, he and Ecgric were slain and the defeated East Anglian army was destroyed. Ecgric's successor, Anna, acted as a challenge to the increasing power of Penda throughout his reign. In 645, after Cenwalh of Wessex had renounced his wife, who was Penda's sister, Penda drove him from his kingdom and into exile. Anna was strong enough to offer protection to Cenwalh when he sought refuge at the East Anglian court: whilst there he was converted to Christianity, returning in 648 to rule Wessex as a Christian king. Anna probably provided military support for Cenwalh's return to his throne. During the late 640s, the Irish monk Fursey, having spent a year as a hermit, left East Anglia for Gaul. His monastery at Cnobheresburg (identified by some with Burgh Castle) was left in the hands of his half-brother, Foillan. In 651, shortly after his departure, the heathen threat he had foreseen became a reality, when Foillan and his community were driven out by Penda's forces and Anna, who encountered Penda at Cnobheresburg, was exiled. ## Reign In 653 or early 654, after Anna had returned from exile, Penda was able to direct a military assault upon the East Angles. The Mercian and East Anglian armies fought at Bulcamp (near Blythburgh in Suffolk), where Anna and his son were slain and the East Anglian army was slaughtered in large numbers. Æthelhere then succeeded his brother as Penda's client-king, although Barbara Yorke has suggested that Æthelhere and his surviving brother Æthelwold may have reigned jointly, as Bede separately refers to both men as Anna's successor. Æthelhere's short reign, during which Brigilsus remained bishop of the see of Dommoc, witnessed the construction of Botolph's monastery at Iken. The site lay within the sphere of Rendlesham and Sutton Hoo. Æthelhere would have arranged his brother's funeral, whose reputed burial-site was at Blythburgh. ## Battle of the Winwæd During 655, Æthelhere joined with Penda in an assault on Northumbria. Steven Plunkett asserts that Æthelhere's motive for changing sides was to deflect Penda's attention from East Anglia and the destruction of his kingdom that would have ensued. Penda invaded Northumbria with a force of thirty duces regii (or royal commanders) under his command that included a large contingent of Britons. He laid siege to Oswiu at Maes Gai, in the district of Loidis, which was probably at that time within the sphere of influence of the British kingdom of Rheged. Oswiu offered him a great ransom of treasure which, according to Bede, was refused (or according to the Historia Brittonum, was accepted and distributed) — in either case Penda resolved on battle and the destruction of the Northumbrians. Oswiu had a much smaller force, but in the event the Welsh armies of King Cadfæl of Gwynedd decamped on the eve of battle and Penda's ally Œthelwald of Deira stood aside to await the outcome. The "major setpiece battle", according to Barbara Yorke, was fought on 15 November 655, on the banks of the River Winwæd, the location of which has not been identified. The waters of the Winwæd were in spate owing to heavy rains and had flooded the land. The Northumbrians were victorious, the Mercian forces were slaughtered and many of them drowned in flight. Penda himself was killed, together with nearly all his allies, including Æthelhere of East Anglia, who was leading the East Anglian part of the forces ranged against Oswiu: > Among whom was Ethelhere, brother and successor to Anna, king of the East Angles. He had been the occasion of the war, and was now killed, having lost his army and auxiliaries. Although the passage from Bede suggests that Æthelhere was the cause of the war—auctor ipse belli—it has been argued that an issue of punctuation in later manuscripts confused Bede's meaning on this point, and that he in fact meant to refer to Penda as being responsible for the war. According to the 12th century Historia Anglorum, the deaths of five Anglo-Saxon kings were avenged: > > At the Winwed was avenged the slaughter of Anna, The slaughter of the kings Sigbert and Ecgric, The slaughter of the kings Oswald and Edwin.
37,825,049	Boletopsis nothofagi	1,068,338,982	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 2012", "Fungi of New Zealand", "Thelephorales" ]	Boletopsis nothofagi is a fungus in the family Bankeraceae. The fungus forms grey fruit bodies that grow in clusters. Like all species of Boletopsis, it has a porous spore-bearing surface on the underside of the cap, but differs from other species of Boletopsis by having characteristics such as elongated spores and a green discoloration when stained with potassium hydroxide. Boletopsis nothofagi is endemic to New Zealand and has a mycorrhizal association with red beech (Nothofagus fusca). It is unknown when exactly the fungus forms its fruit body, but it has so far been found solely in May, during autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. The first description of B. nothofagi was published in 2012 by Jerry A. Cooper and Patrick Leonard. DNA studies of the fungus suggest that it is a somewhat basal member of the genus Boletopsis. The fungus is most likely a native species of New Zealand and was present there before the arrival of Europeans. As it is very rare and possibly threatened, B. nothofagi is listed in the Red List of Threatened Species as an endangered species. ## Taxonomy In 2009, an unknown species of Boletopsis was discovered in the Ōrongorongo valley near Wellington, New Zealand. In 2010, the fungus was found again in the same place and also discovered on the South Island. Morphological comparisons and molecular analysis of other species of the genus suggested that the fungus could not be attributed to any known representative of the genus, and so it was described by mycologists Jerry A. Cooper and Patrick Leonard as a new species. The species description of Boletopsis nothofagi appeared in the journal MycoKeys in 2012. The two authors chose the epithet nothofagi based on the characteristic of the fungus as mycorrhizal symbiont of Nothofagus fusca. Swollen hyphae and smooth spores show that B. nothofagi is a member of the subgenus Boletopsis in the genus Boletopsis. Boletopsis nothofagi is a genetically clearly differentiated representative of the genus Boletopsis, which according to the investigations of Cooper and Leonard separated relatively early from the precursor of most other known species. Only a North American species, B. leucomelaena, branches off from their phylogenetic tree even earlier. However, the relationships between many of the species were not fully resolved in the study, so in the future, new species may be described. ## Description The fruit bodies of Boletopsis nothofagi usually grow in tufts and only rarely individually. They have a centrally stalked cap. The cap is convex, measuring 10–80 mm (0.4–3.1 in) wide and 5–22 mm (0.2–0.9 in) high. In young specimens, the cap's edge is slightly bent, whereas the cap of older fruit bodies often curl. The cap cuticle is gray in color, and its texture ranges from smooth to slightly fibrous. Pressure- or scrape-spots are stained darker and eventually blacken. The stipes are club-shaped to cylindrical, slightly tapering towards both base and cap, with a height of about 20–60 mm (0.8–2.4 in) and a thickness of 10–25 mm (0.4–1.0 in). The stipe is smooth and dry on the surface and has a firm texture on the inside. The stipes have a similar color as the cap and shows the same responses to damage. The white, porous hymenium has a thickness of 1–2 mm and turns brown when bruised. Per millimeter, there are two to three square pores. When dried, the hymenium's color becomes pinkish-brown. The hymenium extends slightly down the stipe, and is sharply defined. Dried tissue smells similar to fenugreek. The morphology of the mycorrhiza has not yet been described; however, as with all other types of Boletopsis it is likely to be ectomycorrhizal. ### Microscopic characteristics Boletopsis nothofagi has a monomitic hyphal structure, whereby all hyphae are generative hyphae, which serve the growth of the fungus. The cap, when viewed under a microscope, is clearly differentiated and consists of a cutis, a layer of oriented hyphae lying radially. They are up to 2 μm thick, pigmented brown and covered with small, irregularly shaped granules. They become green when stained with potassium hydroxide (KOH), a diagnostic characteristic of the genus. The subcutis consists of swollen hyphae up to 6 μm thick. These are thin-walled, filled with oil droplets and have clamp connections in the septa. The hymenial layer has porous cystidium structures measuring 4 by 80 μm. The basidia of B. nothofagi are pleurobasidia arising on the sides of the hyphae. They are cylindrical to club shaped, 5–10 by 20–30 μm in size, and clamped at the base. The basidia always have four sterigmata, on which light brown, thin spores are situated. The spores are uneven, with flattened ends and elongated in shape. On average, they measure 5.3 by 4.1 μm. ## Distribution The known range of Boletopsis nothofagi is limited to two narrowly defined areas of New Zealand, one on the North Island and the other on the South Island. These areas are in Rimutaka Forest Park near Wellington, and Saint Arnaud in the northern part of the South Island. These locations are relatively far away from each other and isolated, which, together with its absence in the rest of New Zealand, makes it unlikely that the species is a recent import. It is more likely that the species is native to New Zealand and has been overlooked in earlier surveys due to its rarity. Boletopsis nothofagi is the most southern member of the genus Boletopsis, and as of 2013 the sole known member of the genus in the Southern Hemisphere; its closest relatives are found in Asia and Costa Rica. ## Ecology The occurrence of Boletopsis nothofagi seems to be strongly connected to the occurrence of the southern beech Nothofagus fusca, a species of Fagales that is endemic to New Zealand. B. nothofagi has been found exclusively in N. fusca forests spread through New Zealand below 37° S. The fungus forms a mycorrhizal association with the trees of N. fusca, in which the hyphae of the fungal mycelium wrap around the roots of the tree and penetrate the cortex, but not its cells. Subsequently, B. nothofagi takes over the function of the root hair and directs water and soil nutrients to the tree. In return, the fungus can, through contact with the root tissue, access the products of the tree's photosynthesis. The fruit bodies of the species have so far always been found in May, the end of autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. Little is known about the habitat requirements – such as humidity, temperature, soil composition and water content – of B. nothofagi. However, as the species seems to only occur together with N. fusca, it should largely conform to their demands. The tree species prefers lowlands and hills along river valleys and usually grows on nutrient-rich, well-drained soil. The species is more likely to be found inland than in the coastal regions. ## Status According to Cooper and Leonard, the fact that Boletopsis nothofagi was only found 200 years after the European settlement of New Zealand illustrates the rarity of this species, although it is also possible that the late discovery was caused by rare or infrequent fructification. The authors assume that the species occurs very sparsely and that this cannot be attributed to human activity. Although no data on population trends or historical distribution of the fungus exists, Cooper and Leonard consider the species in accordance to the New Zealand Threat Classification System as "naturally uncommon".
32,672,405	Holly & Ivy	1,133,724,464	null	[ "1994 Christmas albums", "Albums produced by Michael Masser", "Albums produced by Tommy LiPuma", "Christmas albums by American artists", "Elektra Records albums", "Gospel Christmas albums", "Natalie Cole albums", "Rhythm and blues albums by American artists", "Warner Music Group albums" ]	Holly & Ivy is a 1994 Christmas album and 16th overall studio album by American singer Natalie Cole. Released on October 4, 1994, by Elektra, it is Cole's first album featuring Christmas music and serves as a follow-up to Take a Look (1993). Cole co-produced the album with American music producer Tommy LiPuma, with whom she had worked on Unforgettable... with Love (1991). Holly & Ivy consists of 12 tracks, including 11 covers of Christmas standards and carols and one original song written by Gerry Goffin and Michael Masser. Cole promoted the album as non-traditional in interviews and live performances. Upon release, critics gave generally positive reviews for Holly & Ivy, praising its composition and Cole's interpretations of the covered material. The album was certified gold by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on March 20, 1996, for 500,000 sales shipments; it peaked at number 36 on the Billboard 200 chart. Holly & Ivy spawned one single "No More Blue Christmas". In support of the album, Cole filmed a television special, "Natalie Cole's Untraditional Traditional Christmas", at State University of New York Performing Arts Center in Purchase, New York; it premiered on WNET on December 7, 1994. ## Background and recording In an interview with Clarence Waldron from Jet, Natalie Cole said the idea of recording a Christmas album started from a telephone call from producer and longtime friend Michael Masser. Cole had previously worked with Masser on the song "Someone That I Used to Love" from her 1980 album Don't Look Back and her 1989 single "Miss You Like Crazy". Cole described the telephone call as unexpected; during their conversation, Masser told her: "I've got this beautiful Christmas song I wrote just for you." When they met, Messer played "No More Blue Christmas"; after the session, they both agreed to record a Christmas album; the songs were recorded and produced in April 1994. Cole expressed hope that the album would remind her fans about "the true spirit of the holiday season". She wanted it to communicate Christmas as "a time for families to reflect and not just wait until the holidays to be a family." Cole's sister Timolin Cole said: "Christmas Eve has always been a magical time with Natalie" when she could connect with family over holiday traditions. One of the primary inspirations for Holly & Ivy came from her father's album The Magic of Christmas (1960). Cole called it one of "the nicest, warmest Christmas albums that I've heard", and described the original version of the 1945 track "The Christmas Song (Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire)" as "a darling sweet song" that has yet to be imitated by other original Christmas songs. In an interview with NPR, Cole said that: "it took 15 years into [her] career before [she] felt comfortable and confident enough to even attempt at singing my father's music." Holly & Ivy includes three cover version of Nat King Cole's songs: "Caroling, Caroling", "The First Noel", and "The Christmas Song (Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire)". They were each recorded as a tribute to him. Waldron said the album was "keeping the holiday spirit in the family". Cole would later re-record "The Christmas Song (Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire)" as a posthumous duet with her father on her 1999 Christmas album The Magic of Christmas. The song also appears on Cole's 2008 Christmas album (Caroling, Caroling: Christmas with Natalie Cole) and her 1995 collaborative Christmas live album with Plácido Domingo and José Carreras (A Celebration of Christmas). ## Composition Holly & Ivy is a Christmas album influenced by R&B and gospel elements. Cole said she choose to explore other genres, explaining: "she just likes to expand a little, every now and then." Staying true to her soulful roots, the singer described Holly & Ivy as a "non traditional album" and said, "Though we do 'Silent Night', 'Merry Christmas Baby', and a wonderful gospel version of 'Joy to the World', (featuring L.A.'s Friendly Baptist Church choir) we move around a lot". In its biography of Cole, Billboard identified the album and the following 1996 album Stardust as "continu[ing] Cole's exploration of American pop standards". The album's opening track is "Jingle Bells", which is reinvented with a "jazzy, sassy" sound. The second and third tracks are covers of Nat King Cole's "Caroling, Caroling" and "The First Noel" respectively. The fourth song is "No More Blue Christmas'"; Billboard called the song "a soulful, torch-like burner". "Christmas Medley" contains excerpts from "Jingle Bell Rock", "Winter Wonderland", "Little Drummer Boy", and "I'll Be Home for Christmas". A writer from Billboard picked out the "pure blues 'Merry Christmas Baby'" as a highlight of the album. Clarence Waldron described Cole's interpretation of the seventh track, "Joy to the World", as "tak[ing] listeners to church on her gospel flavored rendition", while a writer from Billboard called it "rollicking". The eighth and ninth tracks are covers of Vera Lynn's "The Little Boy That Santa Claus Forgot" and Ida Zecco's "A Song for Christmas" respectively. The tenth track is a cover of "Silent Night". "The Christmas Song (Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire)" is the third and final cover of Nat King Cole on the album; David Browne of Entertainment Weekly felt that the decision to cover "The Christmas Song" with no vocals from her father benefited the song, which he said worked better "alone, not as a duet with the dead". The album concludes with the title track "Holly and Ivy", which Waldron called a "touching Christmas ballad" and described Cole's vocal performance as belonging to "one of the sweetest songbirds". ## Release and promotion Holly & Ivy was first released by Elektra and the Warner Music Group on cassette and CD in the United States and Canada on October 25, 1994. It would later be made available as a digital download in both countries in 2010, sixteen years after its original release. Cole promoted the record by headlining a special edition of the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) series Great Performances, titled "Natalie Cole's Untraditional Traditional Christmas"; the program was directed by Patricia Birch and was filmed at the State University of New York Performing Arts Center in Purchase, New York. Cole wore subdued clothing for her performances to match the album's "untraditional" quality. It featured special appearances by the New York Restoration Choir and Sesame Street character Elmo. The show premiered on WNET on December 7, 1994, and was later was released on a VHS home video cassette that was distributed by Warner Music Vision. KCET-TV aired the program along with two other Christmas specials, "Perry Como's Irish Christmas" and "A Christmas Special With Luciano Pavarotti". It was Cole's first television special, and served as the album's primary promotional medium. "No More Blue Christmas'" was released as the lead single from the album, with Cole promoting it through a performance on the special. The program received a lukewarm reception from critics. Chris Willman from the Los Angeles Times said the program's title was misleading because "it's hard to find anything the slightest bit untraditional about [it]". Willman commended the 1960s influence reminiscent of her father's Christmas songs and said the special was "a good-enough live video counterpart" to the album with an obvious inclusion of 'The Christmas Song'". John J. O'Conner of The New York Times gave it a negative review, saying, "a couple of new songs are forgettable" and describing Cole's performance as "sweetly, and somewhat lifelessly", and the production as unable to leave a lasting impression on the viewers. O'Connor also said Cole's rendition of "The Christmas Song" was the highlight of the show and, "Ms. Cole once again dips in the repertory of her incomparable father". He compared the program to "Perry Como's Irish Christmas" and said both had "the same lulling level". Following Cole's death on December 31, 2015, PBS released a statement saying "we are grateful to have been able to capture [Cole's] extraordinary artistry for generations to come" through her Great Performances solo specials including her Christmas special. ## Critical reception Critical response to Holly & Ivy was primarily positive upon its release. Clarence Waldron referred to it as a "top favorite among music lovers this season". Describing the album as a "fine outing", AllMusic's Robert Taylor praised Cole's choice of holiday classics and lesser known songs such as "The Little Boy That Santa Claus Forgot" and "No More Blue Christmas". David Browne of Entertainment Weekly commended the singer's ability to make "the usual yuletide tunes brassy and bustling", and highlighted her interpretation of 'Winter Wonderland' as sounding "like Christmas Eve at the Copa". He described Cole's voice as "warm and toasty" even when the material is lowered "from overly gushy arrangements". A Billboard's review, edited by Paul Verna, Marilyn A. Gillen, and Peter Cronin, described the album as the "rarest of Christmas albums: an elegant set with appeal that could outlast the season". Holly & Ivy received some mixed reviews when compared to other Christmas albums. David Browne praised Cole's decision to stay away from traditionally Christmas images and sounds, instead "opt[ing] for a simple black evening dress on the cover" in comparison to Mariah Carey's Merry Christmas, released in the same year. While giving the album three stars out of five, Robert Taylor criticized it for "not hav[ing] the same 'classic' quality of her dad's 'The Christmas Album'". ## Commercial performance Holly & Ivy peaked on the Billboard 200 at number 36 and on Billboard's R&B Albums chart at number 20. It also reached at number 25 on Billboard's Catalog Albums chart on January 6, 1996. Holly & Ivy peaked on the U.S. Top Holiday Albums at number six, on February 27, 2013, roughly nineteen years after its release, becoming Cole's only Christmas album to appear on that chart. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of 500,000 copies. ## Track listing - Writing and production credits for the songs are taken from the booklet of Holly & Ivy. ## Personnel Musicians - Natalie Cole – vocals - Terry Trotter – acoustic piano (1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 12) - Robbie Buchanan – keyboards (4) - Alan Broadbent – acoustic piano (5) - Patrice Rushen – Fender Rhodes (5, 7, 8), Hammond B3 organ (7, 8), celeste (7, 8) - Cedar Walton – acoustic piano (6) - Charles Floyd – acoustic piano (7, 8) - George Gaffney – acoustic piano (11) - John Chiodini – guitar (1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12) - Paul Jackson Jr. – guitar (4) - Phil Upchurch – guitar (6), guitar solo (6) - Jim Hughart – bass (1, 2, 3, 5–12) - Neil Stubenhaus – bass (4, 5) - Harold Jones – drums (1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 11) - Mike Baird – drums (4) - Jeff Hamilton – drums (5, 7, 8) - Larry Bunker – percussion (1, 5–9, 12), drums (10) - Brent Fischer – percussion (5, 10) Arrangements - John Clayton Jr. – arrangements (1, 6, 9) - Alan Broadbent – arrangements (2, 3, 8, 12), orchestral arrangements (7) - Robbie Buchanan – rhythm and synth arrangements (4) - Lee Holdridge – orchestral arrangements (4) - André Fischer – arrangements (5) - Jerry Peters – arrangements (5) - Natalie Cole – chorale arrangements (7) - Charles Floyd – chorale and rhythm arrangements (7) - Clare Fischer – arrangements (10) - Johnny Mandel – arrangements (11) Children's choir on "Caroling, Caroling" - Hillary Bonine, Josh Breslow, Rachel Brook, Blake Ewing, Jessica Frank, Megan Joyce, Janine Kamwiine-Colquhoun, Alma Llra, Majorie Mejia, Arielle Ramos, Niki Rosenfield, Zan Tansey, Alberto Vazquez and Jason Yun - Richard P. Geere and Carole Keiser – choir directors Choir on "Joy to the World" - Catte Adams, Julie Delgado, Dorian Holley, Katrina Perkins, Sandy Simmons and Tony Warren Choir on "Silent Night" - Donna Davidson, Kevin Dorsey, Mary Hylan, Angie Jaree, Bob Joyce, David Joyce, Gary Jones, Gene Morford, Don Shelton, Sally Stevens, Terry Stilnell-Haraton and Jacke Ward-Smith Production - Natalie Cole – executive producer - Tommy LiPuma – executive producer, producer (1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12) - Michael Masser – producer (4) - André Fischer – producer (5, 7, 8, 10, 11) - Al Schmitt – recording, mixing - Les Cooper – additional recording - Bob Loftus – additional recording, assistant engineer - Dave Reitzas – additional recording - Jeffrey "Woody" Woodruff – additional recording - Noel Hazen – assistant engineer - John Hendrickson – assistant engineer - Richard Landers – assistant engineer - Mike Rider – assistant engineer - Al Sanders – assistant engineer - Doug Sax – mastering at The Mastering Lab (Hollywood, California) - Deborah Silverman-Kern – production assistant (1-3, 6, 9, 12) - Patty Nichols – production coordinator (5, 7, 8, 10, 11) - Shari Sutcliffe – project coordinator - Keith Petrie – personal assistant to Natalie Cole and André Fischer - Gabrielle Raumberger – art direction - Frank Chi – design - Dylan Tran – design - Khrystal Jade Hopper – illustration - Firooz Zahedi – photography - Cecille Parker – wardrobe stylist - Tara Posey – make-up - Janet Zeitoun – hair stylist - Dan Cleary – management ## Charts ## Certifications ## Release history The follow release history was adapted from Amazon and AllMusic.
1,566,768	Material properties of diamond	1,167,574,645	null	[ "Allotropes of carbon", "Diamond", "Native element minerals", "Superhard materials" ]	Diamond is the allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the specific type of cubic lattice called diamond cubic. It is a crystal that is transparent to opaque and which is generally isotropic (no or very weak birefringence). Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Yet, due to important structural brittleness, bulk diamond's toughness is only fair to good. The precise tensile strength of bulk diamond is little known; however, compressive strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and it could be as high as 90–100 GPa in the form of micro/nanometer-sized wires or needles (\~100–300 nm in diameter, micrometers long), with a corresponding maximum tensile elastic strain in excess of 9%. The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting. Diamond has a high refractive index (2.417) and moderate dispersion (0.044) properties that give cut diamonds their brilliance. Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present. Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond's crystal structure, and in some cases structural defects, are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond. Most diamonds are electrical insulators and extremely efficient thermal conductors. Unlike many other minerals, the specific gravity of diamond crystals (3.52) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond. ## Hardness and crystal structure Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας (adámas, 'proper, unalterable, unbreakable') and sometimes called adamant, diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material, and serves as the definition of 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond is extremely strong owing to its crystal structure, known as diamond cubic, in which each carbon atom has four neighbors covalently bonded to it. Bulk cubic boron nitride (c-BN) is nearly as hard as diamond. Diamond reacts with some materials, such as steel, and c-BN wears less when cutting or abrading such material. (Its zincblende structure is like the diamond cubic structure, but with alternating types of atoms.) A currently hypothetical material, beta carbon nitride (β-C<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>), may also be as hard or harder in one form. It has been shown that some diamond aggregates having nanometer grain size are harder and tougher than conventional large diamond crystals, thus they perform better as abrasive material. Owing to the use of those new ultra-hard materials for diamond testing, more accurate values are now known for diamond hardness. A surface perpendicular to the [111] crystallographic direction (that is the longest diagonal of a cube) of a pure (i.e., type IIa) diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa when scratched with a nanodiamond tip, while the nanodiamond sample itself has a value of 310 GPa when tested with another nanodiamond tip. Because the test only works properly with a tip made of harder material than the sample being tested, the true value for nanodiamond is likely somewhat lower than 310 GPa. The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown, though strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and theoretically it could be as high as 90–225 GPa depending on the sample volume/size, the perfection of diamond lattice and on its orientation: Tensile strength is the highest for the [100] crystal direction (normal to the cubic face), smaller for the [110] and the smallest for the [111] axis (along the longest cube diagonal). Diamond also has one of the smallest compressibilities of any material. Cubic diamonds have a perfect and easy octahedral cleavage, which means that they only have four planes—weak directions following the faces of the octahedron where there are fewer bonds—along which diamond can easily split upon blunt impact to leave a smooth surface. Similarly, diamond's hardness is markedly directional: the hardest direction is the diagonal on the cube face, 100 times harder than the softest direction, which is the dodecahedral plane. The octahedral plane is intermediate between the two extremes. The diamond cutting process relies heavily on this directional hardness, as without it a diamond would be nearly impossible to fashion. Cleavage also plays a helpful role, especially in large stones where the cutter wishes to remove flawed material or to produce more than one stone from the same piece of rough (e.g. Cullinan Diamond). Diamonds crystallize in the diamond cubic crystal system (space group Fdm) and consist of tetrahedrally, covalently bonded carbon atoms. A second form called lonsdaleite, with hexagonal symmetry, has also been found, but it is extremely rare and forms only in meteorites or in laboratory synthesis. The local environment of each atom is identical in the two structures. From theoretical considerations, lonsdaleite is expected to be harder than diamond, but the size and quality of the available stones are insufficient to test this hypothesis. In terms of crystal habit, diamonds occur most often as euhedral (well-formed) or rounded octahedra and twinned, flattened octahedra with a triangular outline. Other forms include dodecahedra and (rarely) cubes. There is evidence that nitrogen impurities play an important role in the formation of well-shaped euhedral crystals. The largest diamonds found, such as the Cullinan Diamond, were shapeless. These diamonds are pure (i.e. type II) and therefore contain little if any nitrogen. The faces of diamond octahedrons are highly lustrous owing to their hardness; triangular shaped growth defects (trigons) or etch pits are often present on the faces. A diamond's fracture is irregular. Diamonds which are nearly round, due to the formation of multiple steps on octahedral faces, are commonly coated in a gum-like skin (nyf). The combination of stepped faces, growth defects, and nyf produces a "scaly" or corrugated appearance. Many diamonds are so distorted that few crystal faces are discernible. Some diamonds found in Brazil and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are polycrystalline and occur as opaque, darkly colored, spherical, radial masses of tiny crystals; these are known as ballas and are important to industry as they lack the cleavage planes of single-crystal diamond. Carbonado is a similar opaque microcrystalline form which occurs in shapeless masses. Like ballas diamond, carbonado lacks cleavage planes and its specific gravity varies widely from 2.9 to 3.5. Bort diamonds, found in Brazil, Venezuela, and Guyana, are the most common type of industrial-grade diamond. They are also polycrystalline and often poorly crystallized; they are translucent and cleave easily. ### Hydrophobia and Lipophilia Due to great hardness and strong molecular bonding, a cut diamond's facets and facet edges appear the flattest and sharpest. A curious side effect of a natural diamond's surface perfection is hydrophobia combined with lipophilia. The former property means a drop of water placed on a diamond forms a coherent droplet, whereas in most other minerals the water would spread out to cover the surface. Additionally, diamond is unusually lipophilic, meaning grease and oil readily collect and spread on a diamond's surface, whereas in other minerals oil would form coherent drops. This property is exploited in the use of so-called "grease pens," which apply a line of grease to the surface of a suspect diamond simulant. Diamond surfaces are hydrophobic when the surface carbon atoms terminate with a hydrogen atom and hydrophilic when the surface atoms terminate with an oxygen atom or hydroxyl radical. Treatment with gases or plasmas containing the appropriate gas, at temperatures of 450 °C or higher, can change the surface property completely. Naturally occurring diamonds have a surface with less than a half monolayer coverage of oxygen, the balance being hydrogen and the behavior is moderately hydrophobic. This allows for separation from other minerals at the mine using the so-called "grease-belt". ## Toughness Unlike hardness, which denotes only resistance to scratching, diamond's toughness or tenacity is only fair to good. Toughness relates to the ability to resist breakage from falls or impacts. Because of diamond's perfect and easy cleavage, it is vulnerable to breakage. A diamond will shatter if hit with an ordinary hammer. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 2.0 MPa⋅m<sup>1/2</sup>, which is good compared to other gemstones like aquamarine (blue colored), but poor compared to most engineering materials. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting. Ballas and carbonado diamond are exceptional, as they are polycrystalline and therefore much tougher than single-crystal diamond; they are used for deep-drilling bits and other demanding industrial applications. Particular faceting shapes of diamonds are more prone to breakage and thus may be uninsurable by reputable insurance companies. The brilliant cut of gemstones is designed specifically to reduce the likelihood of breakage or splintering. Solid foreign crystals are commonly present in diamond. They are mostly minerals, such as olivine, garnets, ruby, and many others. These and other inclusions, such as internal fractures or "feathers", can compromise the structural integrity of a diamond. Cut diamonds that have been enhanced to improve their clarity via glass infilling of fractures or cavities are especially fragile, as the glass will not stand up to ultrasonic cleaning or the rigors of the jeweler's torch. Fracture-filled diamonds may shatter if treated improperly. ### Pressure resistance Used in so-called diamond anvil experiments to create high-pressure environments, diamonds are able to withstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals (6 million atmospheres). ## Optical properties ### Color and its causes Diamonds occur in various colors: black, brown, yellow, gray, white, blue, orange, purple to pink and red. Colored diamonds contain crystallographic defects, including substitutional impurities and structural defects, that cause the coloration. Theoretically, pure diamonds would be transparent and colorless. Diamonds are scientifically classed into two main types and several subtypes, according to the nature of defects present and how they affect light absorption: Type I diamond has nitrogen (N) atoms as the main impurity, at a concentration of up to 1%. If the N atoms are in pairs or larger aggregates, they do not affect the diamond's color; these are Type Ia. About 98% of gem diamonds are type Ia: these diamonds belong to the Cape series, named after the diamond-rich region formerly known as Cape Province in South Africa, whose deposits are largely Type Ia. If the nitrogen atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal in isolated sites (not paired or grouped), they give the stone an intense yellow or occasionally brown tint (type Ib); the rare canary diamonds belong to this type, which represents only \~0.1% of known natural diamonds. Synthetic diamond containing nitrogen is usually of type Ib. Type Ia and Ib diamonds absorb in both the infrared and ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum, from 320 nm. They also have a characteristic fluorescence and visible absorption spectrum (see Optical properties). Type II diamonds have very few if any nitrogen impurities. Pure (type IIa) diamond can be colored pink, red, or brown owing to structural anomalies arising through plastic deformation during crystal growth; these diamonds are rare (1.8% of gem diamonds), but constitute a large percentage of Australian diamonds. Type IIb diamonds, which account for \~0.1% of gem diamonds, are usually a steely blue or gray due to boron atoms scattered within the crystal matrix. These diamonds are also semiconductors, unlike other diamond types (see Electrical properties). Most blue-gray diamonds coming from the Argyle mine of Australia are not of type IIb, but of Ia type. Those diamonds contain large concentrations of defects and impurities (especially hydrogen and nitrogen) and the origin of their color is yet uncertain. Type II diamonds weakly absorb in a different region of the infrared (the absorption is due to the diamond lattice rather than impurities), and transmit in the ultraviolet below 225 nm, unlike type I diamonds. They also have differing fluorescence characteristics, but no discernible visible absorption spectrum. Certain diamond enhancement techniques are commonly used to artificially produce an array of colors, including blue, green, yellow, red, and black. Color enhancement techniques usually involve irradiation, including proton bombardment via cyclotrons; neutron bombardment in the piles of nuclear reactors; and electron bombardment by Van de Graaff generators. These high-energy particles physically alter the diamond's crystal lattice, knocking carbon atoms out of place and producing color centers. The depth of color penetration depends on the technique and its duration, and in some cases the diamond may be left radioactive to some degree. Some irradiated diamonds are completely natural; one famous example is the Dresden Green Diamond. In these natural stones the color is imparted by "radiation burns" (natural irradiation by alpha particles originating from uranium ore) in the form of small patches, usually only micrometers deep. Additionally, Type IIa diamonds can have their structural deformations "repaired" via a high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) process, removing much or all of the diamond's color. ### Luster The luster of a diamond is described as 'adamantine', which simply means diamond-like. Reflections on a properly cut diamond's facets are undistorted, due to their flatness. The refractive index of diamond (as measured via sodium light, 589.3 nm) is 2.417. Because it is cubic in structure, diamond is also isotropic. Its high dispersion of 0.044 (variation of refractive index across the visible spectrum) manifests in the perceptible fire of cut diamonds. This fire—flashes of prismatic colors seen in transparent stones—is perhaps diamond's most important optical property from a jewelry perspective. The prominence or amount of fire seen in a stone is heavily influenced by the choice of diamond cut and its associated proportions (particularly crown height), although the body color of fancy (i.e., unusual) diamonds may hide their fire to some degree. More than 20 other minerals have higher dispersion (that is difference in refractive index for blue and red light) than diamond, such as titanite 0.051, andradite 0.057, cassiterite 0.071, strontium titanate 0.109, sphalerite 0.156, synthetic rutile 0.330, cinnabar 0.4, etc. (see dispersion). However, the combination of dispersion with extreme hardness, wear and chemical resistivity, as well as clever marketing, determines the exceptional value of diamond as a gemstone. ### Fluorescence Diamonds exhibit fluorescence, that is, they emit light of various colors and intensities under long-wave ultraviolet light (365 nm): Cape series stones (type Ia) usually fluoresce blue, and these stones may also phosphoresce yellow, a unique property among gemstones. Other possible long-wave fluorescence colors are green (usually in brown stones), yellow, mauve, or red (in type IIb diamonds). In natural diamonds, there is typically little if any response to short-wave ultraviolet, but the reverse is true of synthetic diamonds. Some natural type IIb diamonds phosphoresce blue after exposure to short-wave ultraviolet. In natural diamonds, fluorescence under X-rays is generally bluish-white, yellowish or greenish. Some diamonds, particularly Canadian diamonds, show no fluorescence. The origin of the luminescence colors is often unclear and not unique. Blue emission from type IIa and IIb diamonds is reliably identified with dislocations by directly correlating the emission with dislocations in an electron microscope. However, blue emission in type Ia diamond could be either due to dislocations or the N3 defects (three nitrogen atoms bordering a vacancy). Green emission in natural diamond is usually due to the H3 center (two substitutional nitrogen atoms separated by a vacancy), whereas in synthetic diamond it usually originates from nickel used as a catalyst (see figure). Orange or red emission could be due to various reasons, one being the nitrogen-vacancy center which is present in sufficient quantities in all types of diamond, even type IIb. ### Optical absorption Cape series (Ia) diamonds have a visible absorption spectrum (as seen through a direct-vision spectroscope) consisting of a fine line in the violet at 415.5 nm; however, this line is often invisible until the diamond has been cooled to very low temperatures. Associated with this are weaker lines at 478 nm, 465 nm, 452 nm, 435 nm, and 423 nm. All those lines are labeled as N3 and N2 optical centers and associated with a defect consisting of three nitrogen atoms bordering a vacancy. Other stones show additional bands: brown, green, or yellow diamonds show a band in the green at 504 nm (H3 center, see above), sometimes accompanied by two additional weak bands at 537 nm and 495 nm (H4 center, a large complex presumably involving 4 substitutional nitrogen atoms and 2 lattice vacancies). Type IIb diamonds may absorb in the far red due to the substitutional boron, but otherwise show no observable visible absorption spectrum. Gemological laboratories make use of spectrophotometer machines that can distinguish natural, artificial, and color-enhanced diamonds. The spectrophotometers analyze the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet absorption and luminescence spectra of diamonds cooled with liquid nitrogen to detect tell-tale absorption lines that are not normally discernible. ## Electrical properties Diamond is a good electrical insulator, having a resistivity of 100 GΩ⋅m to 1 EΩ⋅m (1.0×10<sup>11</sup> – 1.0×10<sup>18</sup> Ω⋅m), and is famous for its wide bandgap of 5.47 eV. High carrier mobilities and high electric breakdown field at room temperature are also important characteristics of diamond. Those characteristics allow single crystalline diamond to be one of the promising materials for semiconductors. Its wide bandgap helps semiconductors to keep their quality because it secures high resistivity even in high temperature (High power supply). Semiconductors whose carrier mobilities are high such as diamond do not need high input voltage, which make it easier to utilize in the industry. High breakdown voltage avoids semiconductors from huge current suddenly occurs at a certain input voltage. Most natural blue diamonds are an exception and are semiconductors due to substitutional boron impurities replacing carbon atoms. Natural blue or blue-gray diamonds, common for the Argyle diamond mine in Australia, are rich in hydrogen; these diamonds are not semiconductors and it is unclear whether hydrogen is actually responsible for their blue-gray color. Natural blue diamonds containing boron and synthetic diamonds doped with boron are p-type semiconductors. N-type diamond films are reproducibly synthesized by phosphorus doping during chemical vapor deposition. Diode p-n junctions and UV light emitting diodes (LEDs, at 235 nm) have been produced by sequential deposition of p-type (boron-doped) and n-type (phosphorus-doped) layers. Diamond's electronic properties can be also modulated by strain engineering. Diamond transistors have been produced (for research purposes). FETs with SiN dielectric layers, and SC-FETs have been made. In April 2004, the journal Nature reported that below the superconducting transition temperature 4 K, boron-doped diamond synthesized at high temperature and high pressure is a bulk superconductor. Superconductivity was later observed in heavily boron-doped films grown by various chemical vapor deposition techniques, and the highest reported transition temperature (by 2009) is 11.4 K. (See also Covalent superconductor#Diamond) Uncommon magnetic properties (spin glass state) were observed in diamond nanocrystals intercalated with potassium. Unlike paramagnetic host material, magnetic susceptibility measurements of intercalated nanodiamond revealed distinct ferromagnetic behavior at 5 K. This is essentially different from results of potassium intercalation in graphite or C60 fullerene, and shows that sp3 bonding promotes magnetic ordering in carbon. The measurements presented first experimental evidence of intercalation-induced spin-glass state in a nanocrystalline diamond system. ## Thermal conductivity Unlike most electrical insulators, diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding and low phonon scattering. Thermal conductivity of natural diamond was measured to be about 2200 W/(m·K), which is five times more than silver, the most thermally conductive metal. Monocrystalline synthetic diamond enriched to 99.9% the isotope <sup>12</sup>C had the highest thermal conductivity of any known solid at room temperature: 3320 W/(m·K), though reports exist of superior thermal conductivity in both carbon nanotubes and graphene. Because diamond has such high thermal conductance it is already used in semiconductor manufacture to prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating. At lower temperatures conductivity becomes even better, and reaches 41000 W/(m·K) at 104 K (<sup>12</sup>C-enriched diamond). Diamond's high thermal conductivity is used by jewelers and gemologists who may employ an electronic thermal probe to distinguish diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about 2–3 seconds. However, older probes will be fooled by moissanite, a crystalline mineral form of silicon carbide introduced in 1998 as an alternative to diamonds, which has a similar thermal conductivity. Technologically, the high thermal conductivity of diamond is used for the efficient heat removal in high-end power electronics. Diamond is especially appealing in situations where electrical conductivity of the heat sinking material cannot be tolerated e.g. for the thermal management of high-power radio-frequency (RF) microcoils that are used to produce strong and local RF fields. ## Thermal stability If heated over 700 °C in air, diamond, being a form of carbon, oxidizes and its surface blackens, but can be recovered by re-polishing. In absence of oxygen, e.g. in a flow of high-purity argon gas, diamond can be heated up to about 1700 °C. At high pressure (\~20 GPa) diamond can be heated up to 2500 °C, and a report published in 2009 suggests that diamond can withstand temperatures of 3000 °C and above. Diamonds are carbon crystals that form under high temperatures and extreme pressures such as deep within the Earth. At surface air pressure (one atmosphere), diamonds are not as stable as graphite, and so the decay of diamond is thermodynamically favorable (δH = −2 kJ/mol). However, owing to a very large kinetic energy barrier, diamonds are metastable; they will not decay into graphite under normal conditions. ## See also - Chemical vapor deposition of diamond - Crystallographic defects in diamond - Nitrogen-vacancy center - Synthetic diamond
14,800,903	History of Edinburgh Zoo	1,130,727,762	History of zoo in Edinburgh, Scotland	[ "Articles needing infobox zoo", "Edinburgh Zoo", "History of Edinburgh", "History of zoology" ]	Edinburgh Zoo is a zoological park in Corstorphine, Edinburgh, Scotland which opened on 22 July 1913. Edinburgh had previously been home to a zoological garden which failed to thrive. The new zoo is owned and run by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland and initially opened as the Scottish National Zoological Park. Modern zoological methods allowed animals to survive in Edinburgh's cold climate. Edinburgh is the only zoo in the United Kingdom to be incorporated by royal charter, and was the first zoo in the world to house and breed penguins. The zoo's penguins have been famous throughout its history, and since the 1950s have performed a daily parade around the park. The zoo was largely unaffected by war, though some animals were euthanised for safety reasons during the Second World War. After the war the park housed a brown bear named Wojtek who had served with the Polish military. In 1972 one of the zoo's king penguins was adopted by the Norwegian military. In the 21st century Edinburgh Zoo was briefly forced to close by the 2001 foot-and-mouth outbreak, and in 2005 received threats from the Animal Liberation Front. In 2000 a plan for the complete redevelopment of the zoo was begun. ## Precursors Scotland's first zoo was called The Royal Edinburgh Zoological Gardens, and predated the modern Edinburgh Zoo by some 70 years. After the death of James Donaldson, a wealthy Scottish publisher and bookseller, the gardens of his country house, Broughton Hall (the area now covered by Bellevue) were converted into a zoological park. Occupying a 6-acre (2.4 ha) site, the park was situated about a mile to the north-east of Central Edinburgh, near East Claremont Street. Naturalist John Graham Dalyell was one of the original promoters of the project and eventually president of the board of directors. The Zoological Gardens opened in 1839 with a collection of stock zoo animals including lions, tigers, monkeys, bears and an elephant. At the time, animals in zoos were typically held in poor conditions in small, cramped cages, and the Zoological Gardens presented no exception. As a result, its animals were frequently afflicted by disease, and also suffered from the harsh easterly winds of the Edinburgh climate. Despite these setbacks, the menagerie attempted to maintain its popularity by putting on concerts, acrobatics shows and displays of fireworks and Montgolfier balloons. Children were carried around the park on the back of the zoo's elephant, giving it a rare opportunity for exercise. Even with these entertainments, the Zoological Gardens were eventually forced to admit defeat. The park was closed and the site developed as tenement flats in 1857. Nothing now remains of the house or its gardens. ## Foundation Edinburgh Zoo was created by Thomas Haining Gillespie, a solicitor from Dumfries who dreamed of establishing a zoological park in Scotland. At first he was told that tropical animals would never be able to live in a cold climate like Edinburgh's—a view that had to some extent been borne out by the failure of the Royal Zoological Gardens. In 1908, though, he was encouraged to read of the pioneering methods employed by Carl Hagenbeck, which were allowing tropical animals to thrive in the recently opened Tierpark Hagenbeck in Hamburg, Germany. In 1909, Gillespie and others founded a registered charity which was to become the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland. The Society's first president was lawyer and politician Edward Theodore Salvesen, son of the Norwegian merchant Christian Salveson—a connection which would prove significant in later years. A series of lectures given to the society by J. Arthur Thomson gave yet more momentum to the modern approach being spearheaded by Hagenbeck in Germany. All that remained was to find a suitable site for the new zoo. Gillespie hoped for a site with plenty of sun and with shelter from the north and east winds. He also intended the zoo to be cheaply and quickly accessible via public transport. The society secured an option to purchase the 75-acre (30 ha) Corstorphine Hill House estate for £17,000. The house had been built in 1793 as the home of Scottish accountant William Keith. Its current Scottish Baronial architecture is mostly thanks to remodelling by the Macmillan family in 1891. The zoological society found they were having difficulty gathering the necessary funds before the approaching expiry of the purchase option. Edinburgh City Council stepped in, purchasing the site outright in February 1913. The zoological society was granted full use of the estate in return for a 4 percent annual repayment of the cost. A further £8,000, raised with the help of the society's members, was set aside for the construction and stocking of the park. Initially the zoo occupied only the southernmost 27 acres (11 ha), while the land to the north was used as a golf course. The park was designed by town planner Patrick Geddes and his son-in-law Frank Mears. Following Gillespie's vision, they modeled the park after the open designs of zoos like the New York Zoological Park and Hagenbeck's zoo in Hamburg. These modern zoological parks promoted a more spacious and natural environment for the animals, and stood in stark contrast to the steel cages typical of the menageries built during the Victorian era. The Scottish National Zoological Park, as it was initially called, opened to the public with a large collection of donated and borrowed animals on 22 July 1913, after only 15 weeks of work. The zoo still occupies very much the same area of land today, though the park is being extensively redeveloped. ## Early history In its opening year the zoo was incorporated by royal charter—though it was not granted the use of the "Royal" title until 1948, following a visit by King George VI. As of June 2011 Edinburgh Zoo was the only zoo in Britain with a royal charter. The original charter defined the zoological society's mission as being "to promote, facilitate and encourage the study of zoology and kindred subjects and to foster and develop amongst the people an interest in and knowledge of animal life." Thanks to the zoological society's connection with the Salvesen family, some of the zoo's first animals were three king penguins, arriving from South Georgia with a Christian Salvesen whaling expedition that docked in Leith in early 1914. They were the first penguins to be seen anywhere in the world outside of the South Atlantic. The zoo successfully hatched the first ever captive king penguin chick in 1919. Penguins continued to arrive with whaling ships for years afterwards. Today, king penguins are perhaps the zoo's most famous animals. A tropical bird and reptile house was added in 1925, followed by an aquarium, paid for by a grant, in 1927, and an ape house in 1929. The now famous penguin pool was constructed in 1930—though it has since been rebuilt, in 1990, to include a new viewing area. It was in 1928 that the Corstorphine Golf Club finally evacuated the 47 acres (19 ha) to the north of the estate, allowing the zoo to expand significantly. This new area of the park was again designed by Mears, along with his partner Carus-Wilson, and was completed in 1937. Hagenbeck's modern zoo techniques proved effective, and Edinburgh quickly gained a reputation for its good animal conditions. 1934 saw the births in captivity of a sea lion and beaver, and in 1936 a baby chimpanzee followed. A litter of wolves was born in 1938, and soon afterwards the first orangutan to be born in Britain. ## War years Edinburgh Zoo was bombed twice during the Second World War, but remained mostly unharmed. One of the bombs, in around 1940, was reported to have killed a giraffe. Nevertheless, Edinburgh was, like all zoos in Britain, affected by the war. Since bombs could fall at any time, it was not considered safe to keep dangerous animals that might escape if their enclosures were damaged. In 1941 the recently born wolves had therefore to be euthanized, along with a collection of dangerous snakes, to guard against any possible danger to the public. Despite the war the zoo continued to grow, with land to the east being purchased in 1942 and construction of a lake beginning soon afterwards. ## Post-war era Gillespie retired from his post as director in 1950. In 1956 he was succeeded by Gilbert Fisher, who took over as director-secretary of the Zoological Society and effectively gained control of the zoo. It was around this time that Edinburgh Zoo's now famous Penguin Parade was established. A zookeeper accidentally left a gate to the penguin pool open, and was followed around the zoo by a train of penguins. Visitors were so delighted with the procession that it became a regular occurrence, and today around two-thirds of the zoo's penguins parade round the park every day. One of the zoo's famous inhabitants during the post-war period was Wojtek, a Syrian brown bear. Wojtek had been sold to a group of Polish soldiers during the war. He learned to help the soldiers by carrying crates of ammunition, and became an unofficial mascot. In 1944 the Polish II Corps sailed to Italy to join the British 8th Army. Wojtek had to be officially drafted into the Polish army in order to secure his passage on a British transport ship. In 1946 the II Corps were demobilised and settled in Scotland, at Winfield Camp near Hutton, Berwickshire. Wojtek retired to Edinburgh Zoo in 1947 and lived there until his death in 1963. During his time in the army the bear had developed a liking for cigarettes, and this may have contributed to his popularity as an attraction at the zoo. In 1972 the zoo gained yet more military credentials when king penguin Nils Olav was adopted by the Norwegian King's Guard. Norway's connection with Edinburgh's penguins began with the Salvesen family's links to the zoo, and renewed interest was sparked when a lieutenant called Nils Egelien visited the zoo with the King's Guard in 1961. On his return in 1972 Egelien arranged for the unit to adopt one of the penguins. Nils Olav was named after Egelien and in honour of King Olav V of Norway, and given the rank of lance corporal. A statue of the penguin now stands outside the zoo. Three-year-old polar bear Mercedes was given to the zoo in 1984, after she was rescued in Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. She had begun wandering into the town in search of food. Because of the danger she posed to residents, Mercedes was tagged with a number so she could be tracked. When she could not be persuaded to return to the wild, a decision was taken to shoot her. A member of the Edinburgh Zoological Society collaborated with a cousin in Canada and they were able to rescue Mercedes, finding her a new home at Edinburgh zoo. The bear would become one of the zoo's most popular attractions. In 1986, the society acquired the Highland Wildlife Park, a 259-acre (105 ha) safari park and zoo near Kingussie, 30 miles (48 km) south of Inverness. When opened in 1972 by Neil Macpherson, the Wildlife Park's goal was to showcase animals native to the Highlands of Scotland. Today its focus has changed and it primarily houses tundra species, including some animals which have been moved from Edinburgh Zoo itself. ## 21st century In October 1999 the zoo had begun to explore the possibility of relocating in order to improve its facilities. As of February 2000 the zoo had scrapped its plans to relocate, instead announcing a "masterplan" for the redevelopment of the entire site. The foot-and-mouth scare of 2001 forced the zoo to close to protect the animals from possible infection. Since the zoo could not welcome any visitors, it faced significant financial losses. Questions were posed about the zoo's future, though in the end the park was able to reopen after only five weeks. Further help came in the form of a £1.9 million donation from an anonymous former resident of the city in early April, just as the zoo reopened. In 2005 the new Budongo chimp house was unveiled, along with the Living Links to Human Evolution Centre, Britain's first primate behaviour research site. In a scientific breakthrough in 2006 chimpanzees at Edinburgh were found to use word-like vocal labels for food. In late 2005 the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) threatened action over the holding in captivity of Mercedes, then Britain's only polar bear. The zoo had initially planned to retire their polar bear exhibit after Mercedes died. When zoo officials announced plans to create a new attraction, citing their responsibility to ensure the survival of the species, the ALF threatened damage to zoo workers' property and other scare-tactics. Edinburgh's treatment of polar bears had often been subject to criticism, punctuated by incidents like the death in 1997 of Mercedes' partner Barney, who choked on a plastic child's toy thrown into his enclosure. In 2009 the zoo carried out their plans to create a new exhibit and improve conditions for Mercedes, moving her to the Highland Wildlife Park, where she was joined by a young male polar bear named Walker. Mercedes was euthanized on compassionate grounds in 2011, suffering from severe arthritis. ### 2007 council troubles In January 2006 the zoo put forward plans to sell off 15 acres (6.1 ha) of land in order to raise funds for the ongoing redevelopment. The plans were rejected by the council in October 2007 by a single vote, leaving the zoological society "extremely disappointed". In November the zoo announced that it planned to fight the council's decision. A rumor circulated later that month that the zoo was considering a move to Glasgow, though zoo officials insisted the rumor had no truth to it. Organised opposition to the sale resulted in the zoo being allowed to sell only a small portion of the originally proposed land.
34,101,742	Hurricane Odile (1984)	1,171,666,897	Category 2 Pacific hurricane in 1984	[ "1984 Pacific hurricane season", "1984 in Mexico", "Category 2 Pacific hurricanes", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Tropical cyclones in 1984" ]	Hurricane Odile was the second of three tropical storms to make landfall in Mexico during the 1984 Pacific hurricane season. The fifteenth named storm and twelfth hurricane of the active season, it developed from a tropical disturbance about 185 miles (298 km) south of Acapulco on September 17. Curving towards the northwest, Odile became a Category 1 hurricane on September 19. The tropical cyclone reached its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) two days later; however, Hurricane Odile began to weaken as moved erratically it encountered less favorable conditions and was downgraded to a tropical storm shortly before making landfall northwest of Zihuatanejo. Over land, the storm rapidly weakened, and dissipated on September 23. The storm caused significant rainfall accumulations of 24.73 inches (628 mm) in Southern Mexico, resulting in severe damage to tourism resorts. Flooding from Odile resulted in the evacuation of 7,000 people, 21 deaths, and the damage of about 900 homes. ## Meteorological history A tropical disturbance was first noted about 150 mi (240 km) south of Acapulco on September 16. After tracking over 84 °F (29 °C) waters, the disturbance began to strengthen, and became a depression at 18:00 UTC on September 17. The depression began to curve more towards the northwest beneath a narrow ridge located over southern Mexico and south of an upper-level low over northern Mexico. About 24 hours after developing into a tropical cyclone, the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Odile. At 00:00 UTC on September 20, Odile attained hurricane status while turning towards the east between the ridge and an upper-level low. Late on September 21, Hurricane Odile reached its peak intensity of 105 mph (169 km/h), which made it a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, as it approached Acapulco. Due to a combination of an upper level trough that moved southward over the Baja California Peninsula and the weakening of the ridge, the hurricane began to turn more northwestward. After maintaining peak intensity for 12 hours, Odile started to weaken, as the storm began to encounter cooler sea surface temperatures. The hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical storm status while approaching the coast of Mexico; within a six-hour period, the winds diminished from 100 to 60 mph (160 to 95 km/h). By late on September 22, Odile made landfall about 50 mi (80 km) northwest of Zihuatanejo, with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h). Less than six hours later, at 00:00 UTC on September 23, Odile ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone. While its surface circulation rapidly weakened over the mountains of western Mexico, the remnants of Odile moved northwest, passing east of Manzanillo before weakening as it re-curved towards Texas. ## Preparations and impact Due to the storm's slow motion, Odile dropped heavy rainfall over a prolonged period across Southern Mexico. Nation-wide, the maximum rainfall totals of 24.73 in (628 mm) occurred in Costa Azul and Acapulco. In all, Odile, in conjunction with a series of storms that affected the country in 1984, brought the heaviest rains to the region since 1978. Acapulco Mayor Alfonso Arugdin Alcaraz reported that flooding inundated 30 miles (50 km) of highways, damaged roughly 900 homes, and left 20,000 families without running water. According to press reports, flooding triggered an evacuation of 7,000 people across the city, and six people were killed, with two others reported missing. However, these reports were not confirmed because telephone circuits between Acapulco and Mexico City were down. Commercial flights in Acapulco were suspended on September 21, but were resumed on September 23, even though the airline terminal remained flooded by more than 3 ft (910 mm) of water. The city of Zihuatanejo was left without electricity since the hurricane had knocked down two high-tension towers. Throughout Guerrero, 80% of all crops were damaged. Across the Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo corridor, several dozen adobe and other poorly constructed huts had their walls damaged and roofs blown away by strong winds. Slight damage was reported in the area, although there were no reports of injuries or fatalities. Nevertheless, the tourism industry in Acapulco and Ixtapa-Zihuatenejo was severely affected by Odile and the preceding storms, with few foreign tourists visiting the area. Officials estimated that hotels were only 5% full in Acapulco. Overall, a total of 44 riverbanks and 30,000 residents were isolated due to flooding. There were a total of 21 confirmed fatalities from the storm after 18 passengers and 3 crewman drowned on the Atoyac River. As a result of Odile and a combination of other storms that hit the country in 1984, crop losses were estimated at US\$60 million, mostly from corn, beans, wheat, rice and sorghum. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Odile
1,678,965	Wicked (musical)	1,172,566,600	2003 musical by Stephen Schwartz	[ "2003 musicals", "Broadway musicals", "Fantasy theatre", "Fiction about witchcraft", "Laurence Olivier Award-winning musicals", "Musicals based on The Wizard of Oz", "Musicals based on novels", "Musicals by Stephen Schwartz", "Plays based on fairy tales", "The Wicked Years", "The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)", "Tony Award-winning musicals", "West End musicals" ]	Wicked is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Schwartz and book by Winnie Holzman. It is based on the 1995 Gregory Maguire novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West, in turn based on L. Frank Baum's 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and its 1939 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film adaptation. The show is told from the perspective of the witches of the Land of Oz. Its plot begins before and continues after Dorothy Gale arrives in Oz from Kansas. Wicked tells the story of two unlikely friends, Elphaba (the Wicked Witch of the West) and Galinda (later Glinda the Good Witch), whose relationship struggles through their opposing personalities and viewpoints, same love interest, reactions to the Wizard's corrupt government, and, ultimately, Elphaba's fall from grace. Produced by Universal Stage Productions, in coalition with Marc Platt, Jon B. Platt, and David Stone, with direction by Joe Mantello and choreography by Wayne Cilento, the original production of Wicked premiered on Broadway at the Gershwin Theatre in October 2003, after completing pre-Broadway tryouts at San Francisco's Curran Theatre in May and June of that year. Its original stars included Idina Menzel as Elphaba, Kristin Chenoweth as Glinda, and Joel Grey as the Wizard. The original Broadway production won three Tony Awards and seven Drama Desk Awards, while its original cast album received a Grammy Award. On April 11, 2023, with its 7,486th performance, it surpassed 'Cats ' to become Broadway's fourth-longest running show. A typical performance of the show takes about two hours and 30 minutes, including an intermission. The success of the Broadway production has spawned many productions worldwide, including a long-running West End production. Wicked has broken box-office records around the world, holding weekly-gross-takings records in Los Angeles, Chicago, St. Louis, and London. In the week ending January 2, 2011, the London, Broadway, and both North American touring productions simultaneously broke their respective records for the highest weekly gross. In the final week of 2013, the Broadway production broke this record again, earning \$3.2 million. In 2016, Wicked surpassed \$1 billion in total Broadway revenue, joining The Phantom of the Opera and The Lion King as the only Broadway shows to do so. In 2017, Wicked surpassed The Phantom of the Opera as Broadway's second-highest grossing musical, trailing only The Lion King. Wicked had performed in 16 different countries and is still going strong. A two-part film adaptation, directed by Jon M. Chu starring Cynthia Erivo as Elphaba, Ariana Grande as Glinda, Jeff Goldblum as the Wizard, and Jonathan Bailey as Fiyero is currently in the works. The first part is set for release on November 27, 2024, with the second part to follow a year later on November 26, 2025. ## Inception and development Composer and lyricist Stephen Schwartz discovered Maguire's 1995 novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West while on vacation, and saw its potential for a dramatic adaptation. However, Maguire had released the rights to Universal Pictures, which had planned to develop a live-action feature film. In 1998, Schwartz persuaded Maguire to release the rights to a stage production while also making what Schwartz himself called an "impassioned plea" to Universal producer Marc Platt to realize Schwartz's own intended adaptation. Persuaded, Platt signed on as joint producer of the project with Universal and David Stone. The novel, described as a political, social, and ethical commentary on the nature of good and evil, takes place in the Land of Oz, in the years surrounding Dorothy's arrival. The story centers on Elphaba, a misunderstood, smart, and fiery girl with emerald-green skin, who grows up to become the notorious Wicked Witch of the West and Galinda, the beautiful, blonde, popular girl who grows up to become Glinda the Good. The story is divided into five scenes based on the location and presents events, characters, and situations adapted from L Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) and its 1939 film adaptation in new ways. It is designed to set the reader thinking about what it really is to be "Wicked", and whether good intentions with bad results are the same as bad intentions with bad results. Schwartz considered how best to condense the novel's dense and complicated plot into a sensible script. To this end, he collaborated with Emmy Award-winning writer Winnie Holzman to develop the outline of the plot over the course of a year, while meeting with producer Marc Platt to refine the structural outline of the show, creating an original stage piece rather than a strict adaptation of Maguire's work. While the draft followed Maguire's idea of retelling the story of the 1939 film from the perspective of its main villain, the storyline of the stage adaptation "goes far afield" from the novel. Holzman observed in an interview with Playbill that: "It was [Maguire's] brilliant idea to take this hated figure and tell things from her point of view, and to have the two witches be roommates in college, but the way in which their friendship develops—and really the whole plot—is different onstage." Schwartz justified the deviation, saying: "Primarily we were interested in the relationship between Galinda—who becomes Glinda—and Elphaba... the friendship of these two women and how their characters lead them to completely different destinies." Other major plot modifications include Fiyero's appearance as the scarecrow, Elphaba's survival at the end, Nessarose using a wheelchair instead of being born without arms, Boq having a continuing love interest for Glinda and eventually becoming the Tin Woodman instead of Nick Chopper, cutting Elphaba's years in the Vinkus, the deletion of Liir's birth, Fiyero not having a wife and children, Doctor Dillamond being fired instead of being murdered, and Madame Morrible going to prison instead of dying. The book, lyrics, and score for the musical were developed through a series of readings. In these developmental workshops, Kristin Chenoweth, the Tony Award–winning actress whom Schwartz had in mind while composing the music for the character, joined the project as Glinda. Stephanie J. Block played Elphaba in the workshops (she played Elphaba in the first national tour and later as a Broadway cast replacement) before Idina Menzel was cast in the role in late 2000. Earlier that year, the creators recruited New York producer Stone, who began planning the Broadway production. Joe Mantello was engaged as director and Wayne Cilento as choreographer, while designer Eugene Lee created the set and visual style for the production inspired by W. W. Denslow's original illustrations for Baum's novels and Maguire's concept of the story being told through a giant clock. Costume designer Susan Hilferty created a "twisted Edwardian" style in building more than 200 costumes, while lighting designer Kenneth Posner used more than 800 lights to give each of the 54 distinct scenes and locations "its own mood". By April 2003, the show was in rehearsals. Following the out-of-town tryout in San Francisco in May and June 2003, which received mixed critical reception, the creative team made extensive changes before its transfer to Broadway. Holzman recalled: > Stephen [Schwartz] wisely had insisted on having three months to rewrite in between the time we closed in San Francisco and when we were to go back into rehearsals in New York. That was crucial; that was the thing that made the biggest difference in the life of the show. That time is what made the show work. Elements of the book were rewritten, while several songs underwent minor changes. "Which Way is the Party?", the introductory song to the character Fiyero, was replaced by "Dancing Through Life". Concern existed that Menzel's Elphaba "got a little overshadowed" by Chenoweth's Glinda, with San Francisco Chronicle critic Robert Hurwitt writing, "Menzel's brightly intense Elphaba the Wicked Witch [needs] a chance of holding her own alongside Chenoweth's gloriously, insidiously bubbly Glinda." As a result, the creative team set about making Elphaba "more prominent". In making the Broadway revisions, Schwartz recalled, "It was clear there was work to be done and revisions to be made in the book and the score. The critical community was, frankly, very helpful to us." ## Synopsis ### Act I Wicked starts with a celebration in Oz, following the death of Elphaba, the Wicked Witch of the West. Glinda the Good reveals Elphaba's past: her mother had an affair with a traveling salesman while her father, the governor of Munchkinland, was away. She gave birth to a girl with green skin, whom her father rejected at birth, cursing her with a troubled childhood ("No One Mourns the Wicked"). When an Ozian asks Glinda if she was the Witch's friend, she begins to reminice about her past. Years earlier, Elphaba arrives at Shiz University ("Dear Old Shiz") with her sister, Nessarose, who is confined a wheelchair. The headmistress, Madame Morrible, makes the nerdy Elphaba and the popular Galinda roommates. Elphaba, anxious, uses magic to pull Nessarose's wheelchair back after Morrible attempts to depart with her. Morrible recognizes her power and decides to teach Elphaba sorcery. She tells Elphaba her powers might allow her to one day work with the Wonderful Wizard of Oz, something Elphaba has dreamed of her whole life ("The Wizard and I"). All of this does little to endear Elphaba to Galinda and the feeling is mutual ("What Is This Feeling?"). They clash constantly, even in their classes, such as their history class with Doctor Dillamond. Dr. Dillamond is the only Animal professor at the university and is beginning to suffer from discrimination, even from the students. He tells Elphaba about a conspiracy to stop animals from speaking, and she wants to let the Wizard know since he could stop it ("Something Bad"). Meanwhile, a roguish prince, Fiyero, has arrived at Shiz. Galinda is charmed when Fiyero shares his life philosophy. They all decide to have a party that evening. Boq, a Munchkin that has developed a crush on Galinda, tries to invite her to the party, but she convinces him instead to ask Nessarose out of pity, leaving her free to go with Fiyero. Nessa becomes enamored with Boq and convinces Elphaba to find a way to thank Galinda for her "help". At the party, Madame Morrible tells Galinda she can join her sorcery class, at Elphaba's request, and gives her a wand. Elphaba arrives wearing a hat Galinda gave her as a practical joke, only to find the other students laughing and staring while she dances alone. Galinda has a change of heart and decides to dance with her, and soon everyone joins them, allowing both girls to finally bond ("Dancing Through Life"). In their room, Galinda decides to give Elphaba a makeover ("Popular"). The next day, Dr. Dillamond tells the class that he is leaving -- he is no longer permitted to teach. Elphaba wants to help, but no one will stand up for him with her. Afterward, the students are introduced to the technical advantages of "the cage", which will prevent any animal from speaking. Elphaba's anger cannot be contained, and, in the ensuing chaos, she escapes alongside Fiyero, taking with them the lion cub that was imprisoned within the cage. The two of them share a private moment before Fiyero has to leave. Elphaba, alone, laments that she can never be loved by Fiyero as Galinda is ("I'm Not That Girl"). Madame Morrible arrives and tells Elphaba that the Wizard will meet her. Nessa, Fiyero, and Galinda see her off at the train station. Galinda tries to impress Fiyero by changing her name to Dr. Dillamond's pronunciation of her name, "Glinda", in solidarity with him, but Fiyero barely notices and says goodbye to Elphaba. Elphaba invites Glinda to the Emerald City with her and they leave together ("One Short Day"). Elphaba and Glinda meet the Wizard of Oz, who is not as scary as they thought ("A Sentimental Man"). He promises to grant Elphaba her request if she proves herself. Madame Morrible appears as the Wizard's new "press secretary". She gives Elphaba a book of spells, the Grimmerie, which only the magically gifted can read. Elphaba is asked to perform a levitation spell on the Wizard's monkey servant, Chistery. Her attempt allows him to fly, but only by making him sprout wings painfully. She discovers that the Wizard is behind the suppression of the Animals, and that he is a fraud who uses simple parlor tricks and lies so that he can continue on in power. She flees the Wizard's chamber, and Morrible warns all of Oz that Elphaba is a "wicked witch". Glinda meets Elphaba and advises her to go back and apologize, but Elphaba refuses, declaring she must go off to do what's right for her. She repeats the levitation spell on a broom and flies away from the Emerald City, leaving Glinda behind ("Defying Gravity"). ### Act II There has been a time skip, and Elphaba is now known as "The Wicked Witch of the West". The Wizard has given Glinda the title "Glinda the Good" and a public status as the nation's defender against Elphaba. Fiyero has become captain of the guard and tries to find Elphaba. He reluctantly agrees to marry Glinda to keep up appearances. A press conference to celebrate their engagement is hijacked by the crowd's panicked rumors about Elphaba, one claiming that she can be melted by water. Glinda maintains a cheerful front for the press, but secretly regrets her decisions ("Thank Goodness"). Elphaba visits Nessarose, now the governor of Munchkinland after the death of their father. Nessa has taken away the Munchkins' rights so that Boq can't leave her. Elphaba tries to convince her sister to join her against the Wizard, but she is consumed by her own problems. Elphaba tries to help by enchanting her shoes, allowing her to walk; Nessa now thinks Boq will love her, but he sees this as proof that she no longer needs him, and wants to tell Glinda of his love for her before she marries Fiyero. Nessa takes the Grimmerie in order to cast a spell on Boq to make him fall in love with her. She pronounces the incantation wrong and accidentally shrinks Boq's heart. She cries to Elphaba to save him and prevent her from having to "live a life of loneliness" ("The Wicked Witch of the East"). Elphaba works another spell to save Boq's life, transforming him into a Tin Man who doesn't need a heart to live. Horrified, Boq flees in shock, and Nessa blames Elphaba. Elphaba returns to the Emerald City to free the monkey servants and comes across the Wizard himself. He tries once again to convince her to work with him, telling her that he's not evil, but a mediocre man who came into his position by chance, and was led to stay by the reverence of the Ozians ("Wonderful"). She is almost won over, until she discovers Dr. Dillamond who has lost the power of speech. She vows to fight the Wizard to the end. Fiyero and the Guards enter, followed by Glinda. Fiyero helps Elphaba escape, and decides to escape with her and leave Glinda behind. Brokenhearted, Glinda tells the Wizard and Madame Morrible that they can capture Elphaba by convincing her that her sister is in trouble, so that she comes to her rescue. She laments that Fiyero doesn't love her ("I'm Not That Girl (Reprise)"). Hidden away in nature, Elphaba and Fiyero express their love for each other ("As Long As You're Mine"). Their happiness is interrupted by a sudden change in the weather. Elphaba and Glinda reunite at the scene where Nessa has been crushed by a house with a girl named Dorothy inside. After a fight between the two witches, the Wizard's guards arrive. Fiyero holds Glinda hostage as Elphaba flees. Glinda pleads for the guards not to harm him, but they don't listen. At Kiamo Ko castle, Elphaba casts a spell to make Fiyero invincible to any weapon, but is crestfallen by the limitations of her power. She finally accepts her reputation ("No Good Deed"). Meanwhile, the citizens of Oz, led by Madame Morrible and Boq the Tin Man, set off to capture Elphaba. Glinda realizes that Madame Morrible was responsible for Nessa's death and that the situation and rumors have already gone too far. When she confronts Madame Morrible, however, Madame Morrible tells her that there is also blood on her hands, and advises her to smile and wave. She flees in horror as the crowd below call for the Witch's death ("March of the Witch Hunters"). Elphaba captures Dorothy, refusing to release her until she relinquishes Nessa's magic shoes, the only thing left of her deceased sister. Glinda arrives to warn Elphaba of the danger and persuades her to let Dorothy go. Although Elphaba refuses, the two women forgive each other. Elphaba gives the Grimmerie to Glinda, and they embrace for a final time before saying goodbye forever, realizing how much they've changed because they knew each other ("For Good"). Elphaba forces Glinda to hide, and Glinda watches from the shadows as Dorothy throws a bucket of water on Elphaba, melting her. The only remains of her are her pointy hat and the Green Elixir she had slept with under her pillow. Back at the Emerald City, Glinda confronts the Wizard with Elphaba's bottle, which he recognizes as his own; he was Elphaba's biological father and the elixir was the cause of her green skin. Glinda banishes the Wizard from Oz and throws Morrible into prison for murdering Nessarose and accusing Elphaba of being a wicked witch. Meanwhile, Dorothy's friend, Fiyero, now a scarecrow because of the lifesaving spell, arrives at the spot where Elphaba melted. He knocks on the floor; Elphaba steps out from a trapdoor, apparently having faked her death, and they embrace. Elphaba regrets that she will never see Glinda again. Back outside the Wizard's palace, Glinda informs the People of Oz that the Wicked Witch is dead and that she will earn her title as "Glinda the Good". As the people celebrate and Glinda mourns quietly, Elphaba and Fiyero leave Oz ("Finale"). ## Casts ### Original casts ### Notable replacements #### Broadway (2003–) - Elphaba: Shoshana Bean, Eden Espinosa, Ana Gasteyer, Julia Murney, Stephanie J. Block, Kerry Ellis, Marcie Dodd, Nicole Parker, Dee Roscioli, Mandy Gonzalez, Teal Wicks, Jackie Burns, Willemijn Verkaik, Lindsay Mendez, Caroline Bowman, Rachel Tucker, Jennifer DiNoia, Jessica Vosk, Lindsay Pearce, Alyssa Fox, Saycon Sengbloh (s/b), Lisa Brescia (s/b), Donna Vivino (s/b), Lilli Cooper (s/b), Kristy Cates (u/s), Caissie Levy (u/s), Vicki Noon (u/s), Brandi Chavonne Massey (u/s), Carla Stickler (u/s), Desi Oakley (u/s) - Glinda: Jennifer Laura Thompson, Megan Hilty, Kate Reinders, Kendra Kassebaum, Annaleigh Ashford, Alli Mauzey, Erin Mackey, Katie Rose Clarke, Chandra Lee Schwartz, Jenni Barber, Kara Lindsay, Patti Murin, Amanda Jane Cooper, McKenzie Kurtz, Laura Bell Bundy (s/b), Kate Fahrner (s/b), Allie Trimm (s/b), Melissa Fahn (u/s), Megan Sikora (u/s) - Fiyero: Kristoffer Cusick, Taye Diggs, Joey McIntyre, Sebastian Arcelus, Aaron Tveit, Kevin Kern, Andy Karl, Kyle Dean Massey, Richard H. Blake, Derek Klena, Justin Guarini, Ashley Parker Angel, Curt Hansen, Ryan McCartan - The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: George Hearn, Ben Vereen, David Garrison, Lenny Wolpe, Tom McGowan, Fred Applegate, Peter Scolari, Kevin Chamberlin, Michael McCormick, Cleavant Derricks, John Dossett, Sean McCourt (u/s), Eddie Korbich (u/s) - Madame Morrible: Rue McClanahan, Carol Kane, Jayne Houdyshell, Miriam Margolyes, Rondi Reed, Mary Testa, Michele Lee, Judy Kaye, Sheryl Lee Ralph, Isabel Keating, Nancy Opel, Alexandra Billings, Michele Pawk - Nessarose: Jenna Leigh Green, Catherine Charlebois, Kelli Barrett, Arielle Jacobs, Eden Espinosa (u/s), Megan Sikora (u/s), Carla Stickler (u/s), Desi Oakley (u/s) - Boq: Randy Harrison, Robb Sapp, Alex Brightman, Taylor Trensch, Robin de Jesús, Clyde Alves (u/s) - Doctor Dillamond: Sean McCourt, Timothy Britten Parker, K. Todd Freeman, Michael Genet, Martin Moran, Jamie Jackson, Clifton Davis, Eddie Korbich (u/s) #### 1st & 2nd US National Tours (2005–) - Elphaba: Kristy Cates, Julia Murney, Shoshana Bean, Dee Roscioli, Victoria Matlock, Carmen Cusack, Caissie Levy, Teal Wicks, Lisa Brescia, Donna Vivino, Vicki Noon, Eden Espinosa, Marcie Dodd, Jackie Burns, Nicole Parker, Alison Luff, Jennifer DiNoia, Jessica Vosk, Coleen Sexton (s/b), Carrie Manolakos (s/b), Carla Stickler (s/b), Emmy Raver-Lampman (s/b), Lilli Cooper (s/b), Jenna Leigh Green (u/s) - Glinda: Erin Mackey, Katie Rose Clarke, Kate Fahrner, Annaleigh Ashford, Chandra Lee Schwartz, Alli Mauzey, Amanda Jane Cooper, Patti Murin, Jennifer Gambatese, Hayley Podschun, Gina Beck, Kara Lindsay, Melissa Fahn (u/s), Rachel Potter (u/s), Lauren Zakrin (u/s) - Fiyero: Kristoffer Cusick, Sebastian Arcelus, Richard H. Blake, Colin Hanlon, Kyle Dean Massey, Curt Hansen, Nick Adams, Ashley Parker Angel, Adam Lambert (u/s) - The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Ben Vereen, Lee Wilkof, Lenny Wolpe, Richard Kline, Don Amendolia, Tom McGowan, Mark Jacoby, Paul Kreppel, John Davidson, Tim Kazurinsky, Stuart Zagnit, Fred Applegate, Jason Graae, Cleavant Derricks, John Bolton, Matthew Stocke (u/s), Tim Talman (u/s) - Madame Morrible: Carole Shelley, Alma Cuervo, Barbara Robertson, Jo Anne Worley, Patty Duke, Jayne Houdyshell, Kim Zimmer, Alison Fraser, Isabel Keating, Judy Kaye, Lisa Howard, Brooke Elliott (u/s) - Nessarose: Deedee Magno Hall, Summer Naomi Smart, Marcie Dodd, Catherine Charlebois, Carla Stickler (u/s) - Boq: Alex Wyse, Andy Mientus, Robin de Jesús - Doctor Dillamond: K. Todd Freeman, William Youmans, Martin Moran, Clifton Davis, Michael Genet, Matthew Stocke (u/s), Tim Talman (u/s) #### West End (2006–) - Elphaba: Kerry Ellis, Alexia Khadime, Rachel Tucker, Louise Dearman, Willemijn Verkaik, Jennifer DiNoia, Emma Hatton, Alice Fearn, Lucie Jones, Cassidy Janson (s/b), Ashleigh Gray (s/b), Katie Rowley Jones (u/s), Natalie McQueen (u/s) - Glinda: Dianne Pilkington, Louise Dearman, Gina Beck, Savannah Stevenson, Suzie Mathers, Sophie Evans, Lucy St. Louis, Sarah Earnshaw (s/b), Caroline Keiff (u/s) - Fiyero: Oliver Tompsett, Lee Mead, Mark Evans, Matt Willis, Ben Freeman, Bradley Jaden, David Witts, Alistair Brammer, Antony Hansen (u/s) - The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Desmond Barrit, Clive Carter, Sam Kelly, Tom McGowan, Mark Curry, Martin Ball, Andy Hockley, Gary Wilmot, Chris Jarman (u/s) - Madame Morrible: Susie Blake, Harriet Thorpe, Julie Legrand, Louise Plowright, Liza Sadovy, Anita Dobson, Kim Ismay, Sophie-Louise Dann - Nessarose: Caroline Keiff, Natalie Anderson, Cassidy Janson (u/s), Sarah Earnshaw (u/s), Natalie McQueen (u/s) - Doctor Dillamond: Paul Clarkson, Steven Pinder, Chris Jarman #### Melbourne/Australian Tour (2008–2015) - Elphaba: Jemma Rix, Pippa Grandison, Carmen Cusack (s/b) - Glinda: Suzie Mathers - Fiyero: David Harris - The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Bert Newton, Reg Livermore, Simon Gallaher - Madame Morrible: Geraldine Turner #### 1st, 2nd, & 3rd UK/Ireland National Tours (2013–) - Elphaba: Nikki Davis-Jones, Ashleigh Gray, Amy Ross, Laura Pick - Glinda: Emily Tierney, Helen Woolf - Fyerio: Liam Doyle, Aaron Sidwell, Carl Man - The Wonderful Wizard of Oz/Doctor Dillamond: Dale Rapley, Steven Pinder, Simeon Truby - Madame Morrible: Marilyn Cutts, Kim Ismay - Nessarose: Carina Gillespie, Emily Shaw - Boq: George Ure, Iddon Jones ## Musical numbers Act I - "No One Mourns the Wicked" — Glinda and Citizens of Oz - "Dear Old Shiz" — Students - "The Wizard and I" — Madame Morrible and Elphaba - "What Is This Feeling?" — Glinda, Elphaba and Students - "Something Bad" — Doctor Dillamond and Elphaba - "Dancing Through Life" — Fiyero, Glinda, Boq, Nessarose, Elphaba and Students - "Popular" — Glinda - "I'm Not That Girl" — Elphaba - "One Short Day" — Elphaba, Glinda and Ozians - "A Sentimental Man" — The Wizard - "Defying Gravity" — Elphaba, Glinda and Ozians Act II - "Thank Goodness" — Glinda, Madame Morrible and Citizens of Oz - "The Wicked Witch of the East" — Elphaba, Nessarose and Boq - "Wonderful" — The Wizard and Elphaba - "I'm Not That Girl" (Reprise) — Glinda - "As Long As You're Mine" — Elphaba and Fiyero - "No Good Deed" — Elphaba - "March of the Witch Hunters" — Boq and Ozians - "For Good" — Elphaba and Glinda - "Finale" — Glinda, Elphaba and Ozians Note: "The Wicked Witch of the East" is the only major piece not to be featured on the cast recording, as the producers felt "the song included too much dialogue and would give some of the plot away to people who have not seen the show." ## Music and recordings ### Music analysis The score of Wicked is heavily thematic, bearing in some senses more resemblance to a film score than a traditional musical score. While many musical scores employ new motifs and melodies for each song with little overlap, Schwartz integrated a handful of leitmotifs throughout the production. Some of these motifs indicate irony – for example, when Glinda presents Elphaba with a "ghastly" hat in "Dancing Through Life", the score reprises a theme from "What Is This Feeling?" a few scenes earlier. Two musical themes in Wicked run throughout the score. Although Schwartz rarely reuses motifs or melodies from earlier works, the first – Elphaba's theme – came from The Survival of St. Joan, on which he worked as musical director. "I always liked this tune a lot and I never could figure out what to do with it," he remarked in an interview in 2004. The chord progression that he first penned in 1971 became a major theme of the show's orchestration. By changing the instruments that carry the motif in each instance, Schwartz enables the same melody to convey different moods. In the overture, the tune is carried by the orchestra's brass section, with heavy percussion. The result is, in Schwartz' own words, "like a giant shadow terrorizing you." When played by the piano with some electric bass in "As Long As You're Mine", however, the same chord progression becomes the basis for a romantic duet. And with new lyrics and an altered bridge, the theme forms the core of the song "No One Mourns the Wicked" and its reprises. Schwartz uses the "Unlimited" theme as the second major motif running through the score. Although not included as a titled song, the theme appears as an interlude in several of the musical numbers. In a tribute to Harold Arlen, who wrote the score for the 1939 film adaptation, the "Unlimited" melody incorporates the first seven notes of the song "Over the Rainbow". Schwartz included it as an inside joke as, "according to copyright law, when you get to the eighth note, then people can come and say, 'Oh you stole our tune.' And of course obviously it's also disguised in that it's completely different rhythmically. And it's also harmonized completely differently.... It's over a different chord and so on, but still it's the first seven notes of 'Somewhere Over the Rainbow'." Schwartz further obscured the motif's origin by setting it in a minor key in most instances. This also creates contrast in the songs in which it forms a part, for example in "Defying Gravity", which is written primarily in the key of D-flat major. In the song "The Wicked Witch of the East", however, when Elphaba finally uses her powers to let her sister walk, the "Unlimited" theme is played in a major key. ### Recordings A cast recording of the original Broadway production was released on December 16, 2003, by Universal Music. All of the songs featured on stage are present on the recording with the exception of "The Wizard and I (Reprise)", "A Sentimental Man (Reprise)" and "The Wicked Witch of the East". The short reprise of "No One Mourns the Wicked" that opens Act II is attached to the beginning of "Thank Goodness". The music was arranged by Stephen Oremus, who was also the conductor and musical director, and James Lynn Abbott, with orchestrations by William David Brohn. The recording received the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album in 2005 and was certified platinum by the RIAA on November 30, 2006. The album was certified double platinum on November 8, 2010. A fifth-anniversary special edition of the original Broadway cast recording was released on October 28, 2008, with a bonus CD including tracks from the Japanese and German cast recordings, "Making Good" – a song later replaced by "The Wizard and I" – sung by Stephanie J. Block with Schwartz at the piano, "I'm Not That Girl" by Kerry Ellis (featuring Brian May on guitar), Menzel's dance mix of "Defying Gravity" and "For Good" sung by LeAnn Rimes and Delta Goodrem. A German recording of the Stuttgart production was released on December 7, 2007, featuring a track listing and arrangements identical to those of the Broadway recording. The Japanese cast recording was released on July 23, 2008, featuring the original Tokyo cast. It is notable for being the first (and so far the only) Cast Album of the show that includes Glinda's Finale dialogue. ## Productions ### Original Broadway production (2003-present) Wicked officially opened on June 10, 2003 at the Curran Theatre in San Francisco, after previews began on May 28, in a pre-Broadway tryout presented by SHN. The cast included Kristin Chenoweth as Glinda, Idina Menzel as Elphaba, Robert Morse as the Wizard, Norbert Leo Butz as Fiyero, Michelle Federer as Nessarose, Carole Shelley as Madame Morrible, John Horton as Doctor Dillamond, and Kirk McDonald as Boq. Stephanie J. Block, who originally read the role of Elphaba in workshop development, was Menzel's standby during tryouts, but left before the show moved to Broadway to take a role in The Boy from Oz but she would then lead the 1st National Tour opposite Kendra Kassebaum as Glinda. The tryout closed on June 29, 2003, and after extensive retooling, the musical began previews on Broadway at the Gershwin Theatre on October 8, 2003, and made its official premiere on October 30. Most of the original production team and cast members remained with the show. Principal casting changes included Joel Grey as the Wizard, William Youmans as Doctor Dillamond and Christopher Fitzgerald as Boq. On March 12, 2020, the show temporarily suspended production due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Performances resumed on September 14, 2021 with Lindsay Pearce as Elphaba and Ginna Claire Mason as Glinda. Chenoweth made a pre-curtain speech before the grand reopening of the show. ### North American productions (2005-present) In 2005, the first national tour of Wicked (called the "Emerald City Tour" by the producers) started in Toronto, Ontario, and went on to visit numerous cities throughout the United States and Canada. Previews began on March 8, and officially opened on March 31. The original touring cast included Kendra Kassebaum as Glinda, Stephanie J. Block as Elphaba, Derrick Williams as Fiyero, Jenna Leigh Green as Nessarose, Carol Kane as Madame Morrible, Timothy Britten Parker as Doctor Dillamond, Logan Lipton as Boq, and David Garrison as the Wizard. The tour concluded at the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles on March 15, 2015 with Jennifer DiNoia as Elphaba and Chandra Lee Schwartz as Glinda Following a limited engagement of the first national tour from April 29 to June 12, 2005, a sit-down production opened at the Oriental Theatre in Chicago immediately following the tour as the original tour set was left in Chicago so the Chicago sit-down could happen. The cast included Ana Gasteyer as Elphaba, Kate Reinders as Glinda, Rondi Reed as Madame Morrible, Kristoffer Cusick as Fiyero, Telly Leung as Boq, Heidi Kettenring as Nessarose and Gene Weygandt as the Wizard. The production closed on January 25, 2009 with Dee Roscioli as Elphaba and Annaleigh Ashford as Glinda. The tour returned to Chicago in 2010, 2013, 2018, and 2022. An open-ended production also appeared in Los Angeles, California, at the Pantages Theatre. Performances began on February 10, 2007, with an official opening on February 21. The cast included Megan Hilty as Glinda, Eden Espinosa as Elphaba, Carol Kane as Madame Morrible, Timothy Britten Parker as Doctor Dillamond, Jenna Leigh Green as Nessarose, Adam Wylie as Boq, Kristoffer Cusick as Fiyero, and John Rubinstein as the Wizard. The production closed on January 11, 2009 with Hilty and Espinosa, after 791 performances and 12 previews. A San Francisco production of Wicked officially opened February 6, 2009, at SHN's Orpheum Theatre, following previews from January 27. The cast included Teal Wicks as Elphaba, Kendra Kassebaum as Glinda, Nicolas Dromard as Fiyero, Carol Kane as Madame Morrible, David Garrison as the Wizard, Deedee Magno Hall as Nessarose, Tom Flynn as Doctor Dillamond, and Eddy Rioseco as Boq. The production closed on September 5, 2010 with Marcie Dodd as Elphaba and Alli Mauzey as Glinda, after 660 performances and 12 previews. The second national tour of Wicked (called the "Munchkinland Tour") began in 2009 with previews on March 7 and official opening night on March 12 at the Barbara B. Mann Performing Arts Hall in Fort Myers, Florida. The original cast starred Marcie Dodd as Elphaba, Heléne Yorke as Glinda, Colin Donnell as Fiyero, and Tom McGowan as the Wizard. The production was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It resumed performances on August 3, 2021 with Talia Suskauer as Elphaba, Allison Bailey as Glinda and Curt Hanson as Fiyero. The production celebrated its 5,000th performance on July 30, 2022. ### London (2006-present) A London production began previews at the Apollo Victoria Theatre from September 7, and with an opening night on September 27, 2006. It celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2016 with a special curtain call featuring former West End cast members. The production was tailored slightly for a British audience, including minor creative changes to dialogue, choreography and special effects. A majority of them were later incorporated into all productions of Wicked, including the Broadway production and the two national tours. The West End production reunited the show's original creative team. Original London cast members included the return of Menzel as Elphaba, Helen Dallimore as Glinda, Miriam Margolyes as Madame Morrible, Adam Garcia as Fiyero, Martin Ball as Doctor Dillamond, James Gillan as Boq, Katie Rowley Jones as Nessarose and Nigel Planer as the Wizard. After her limited engagement, which ended on December 30, 2006, Menzel was succeeded on January 1, 2007 by Kerry Ellis, who became the first British woman to play Elphaba. The production suspended performances on March 16, 2020, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. It resumed performances on September 15, 2021, in time for the production's 15th anniversary. Sophie Evans, who was a maternity cover for Helen Woolf and Laura Pick, reopened the show and left when the cast changed on January 30, 2022. Woolf returned from maternity leave and Lucie Jones took over as Elphaba. The show, which is already the 9th longest-running West End musical in history, celebrated its 6,000th performance on July 7, 2022. ### UK/Ireland tours (2013-present) The show began its first UK/Ireland tour on September 12, 2013 at the Palace Theatre in Manchester, where it is played to November 16. It then toured the UK and Ireland before concluding in Salford on July 25, 2015. A second UK/Ireland tour began in December 2017 and ended in January 2019. The cast included Amy Ross as Elphaba, Helen Woolf as Glinda, Aaron Sidwell as Fiyero, and Steven Pinder as the Wizard/Dillamond. A third UK/Ireland tour begins on 7 December 2023 at the Edinburgh Playhouse, in Edinburgh where it's playing to 14 January 2024. It then tours the UK and Ireland before flying into its final location at the Manchester Palace Theatre in Manchester on 3 December 2024 and concluding on 12 January 2025. Laura Pick will return to lead the tour as Elphaba and Carl Man as Fiyero. Simeon Truby will play the Wizard/Dillamond with further casting to be announced. ### International tour (2016-2018) Wicked'''s international tour opened on July 13, 2016 at the Alhambra Theatre in Bradford, England. Jacqueline Hughes starred as Elphaba, with Carly Anderson as Glinda and Bradley Jaden as Fiyero. Alongside them are Steven Pinder as the Wizard and Dillamond, Kim Ismay as Madame Morrible, Emily Shaw as Nessarose, and Iddon Jones as Boq. ### German productions (2007-2011;2021-2022) Renamed Wicked: Die Hexen von Oz (Wicked: The Witches of Oz), the German production of Wicked began previews on November 1, 2007 and opened on November 15, at the Palladium Theater in Stuttgart. Willemijn Verkaik played Elphaba, Lucy Scherer played Glinda. The production was produced by Stage Entertainment and closed on January 29, 2010, and transferred to Oberhausen where previews began at the Metronom Theater am CentrO on March 5, 2010, with an opening night of March 8. The show closed on September 2, 2011. On September 5, 2021 a brand new non-replica production opened at the Neue Flora Theatre in Hamburg, produced by Stage Entertainment, which previously had presented the show in Stuttgart, Oberhausen, and The Hague. Vajèn van den Bosch and Jeannine Wacker have been cast as Elphaba and Glinda respectively. ### Australian productions An Australian production officially opened on July 12, 2008, with previews commencing June 27 at the Regent Theatre in Melbourne. Amanda Harrison was originally cast as Elphaba, with Lucy Durack as Glinda. The original cast consisted of Rob Mills as Fiyero, Anthony Callea as Boq, Rob Guest as the Wizard, Maggie Kirkpatrick as Madame Morrible, Penny McNamee as Nessarose and Rodney Dobson as Doctor Dillamond. Guest unexpectedly died of a stroke months into the Melbourne season, with the role being taken up by Bert Newton. Closing in Melbourne August 9, 2009, the show transferred to Sydney's Capitol Theatre. Previews began on September 5, 2009, with the official opening on September 12. Shortly into the run, Harrison was forced to leave the role of Elphaba due to an illness, so current standby Jemma Rix and Australian theatre veteran Pippa Grandison began to share the role, each appearing in four shows per week. Eventually, it was confirmed that she would not be returning to the cast. Closing in Sydney September 26, 2010, the production embarked on a national Australian tour which began at the QPAC Lyric Theatre in Brisbane. After a two-week delay due to the Queensland floods, performances began January 25, 2011, and ran until April 2. Rix became the sole lead Elphaba with David Harris joining as the new Fiyero. The touring production then moved to the Festival Centre in Adelaide, running from April 14 until June 4, 2011, with the final leg of the tour playing the Burswood Theatre in Perth, from June 19 to September 11, 2011, wrapping up more than three years of performances in Australia. An Asian tour began at Singapore's Grand Theater in Marina Bay from December 6, 2011 with Suzie Mathers taking over as Glinda opposite Rix. After the Singapore engagement of the tour closed April 22, 2012, performances began in Seoul, Korea from May 31 through October 6, 2012. The show then made its premiere in New Zealand, with previews taking place on September 17, 2013, and the official opening night on September 21. The Auckland run concluded on November 24, 2013, where it played the Civic Theatre. The cast then moved on to the Main Theater of the Cultural Center of the Philippines in Manila on a limited run from January 22 through March 9, 2014 after having been extended from its original closing date. At the time of the Wicked's 10th Anniversary on Broadway, the show announced it would return to Australia for a commemorative national tour, beginning in Melbourne on May 10, 2014. Durack returned as Glinda, with Rix continuing as Elphaba. The final cast included Mathers (who had returned once Durack announced her pregnancy) as Glinda, Steve Danielsen as Fiyero, Simon Gallaher as the Wizard, Edward Grey as Boq, Emily Cascarino as Nessarose, Glen Hogstrom as Doctor Dillamond and original cast members Rix as Elphaba and Kirkpatrick as Madame Morrible. After seven years and close to 2,000 performances across 8 different cities internationally, Wicked closed indefinitely at the Burswood Theatre in Perth on June 28, 2015. At the time of the show's 20th anniversary on Broadway, Wicked will return to Australia in 2023 with an exclusive season in at the Sydney Lyric Theatre in August. Sheridan Adams and Courtney Monsma will play Elphaba and Glinda. Liam Head will play Fyerio, Shewit Belay will play Nessarose, Todd McKenney will play The Wizard, Robyn Nevin will play Madame Morrible, Kurtis Papadins will play Boq and Adam Murphy will play Doctor Dillamond. ### Subsequent international productions A condensed thirty-minute version of the musical played at Universal Studios Japan in Osaka, Japan. Rix was part of the original cast, alternating the role of Elphaba with Jillian Giaachi and Taylor Jordan. The show, which opened on July 12, 2006, featured the preliminary storyline of Act 1 but Fiyero, Madame Morrible, Boq, Nessarose and Doctor Dillamond were absent and there were considerable changes in sets and costumes. The final performance took place on January 11, 2011. A Japanese production by the Shiki Theatre Company opened in Tokyo, Japan, on June 17, 2007, and subsequently moved to Osaka, Fukoka and Nagoya, before closing in Sapporo on November 6, 2016. Another production, which was notable for the first production to not being a replica of the original Broadway staging, opened at the City Theatre in Helsinki, Finland on August 26, 2010 after a preview performance took place on August 24 of that year. Directed by Hans Berndtsson, the cast includes Maria Ylipää as Elphaba, with Tuukka Leppanen as Fiyero. The second non-replicated production ran in Copenhagen, Denmark from January 12 until May 29, 2011, and was presented by Det Ny Teater. A Dutch-language production began previews at the Circustheater in The Hague, The Netherlands on October 26, 2011 and was produced by Joop van den Ende Theaterproducties/Stage Entertainment. The official opening took place on November 6. Verkaik reprised her role of Elphaba from the German productions, becoming the first actress to play the role in two different languages. The first Spanish-language production opened in Mexico City, Mexico on October 17, 2013, following previews from October 10. Produced by OCESA Teatro, the replica production played at the Teatro Telcel and closed on January 18, 2015. The first Korean-language production began performances in Seoul on November 22, 2013 and is an all-new replica production. This production, located at the Charlotte Theater in Seoul, ran from November 22, 2013, to October 5, 2014. In November 2015, the company "Time For Fun", a leading company in the entertainment market in Latin America, announced the adaptation of the musical in Brazil, which debuted in March 2016 at the Renault Theatre in São Paulo. It is the largest stage that the musical has been mounted on yet. Despite the production closing on December 18, 2016, on November 12, 2018, a Brazilian revival production of the show was announced, this time in Rio de Janeiro's entertainment center Cidade das Artes. Though it was expected to begin performances in mid-2019, after the announcement no news was released, and the production was never realized. It wouldn't be until 4 years later that Wicked would return to Brazil. At the end of 2020, while all Wicked productions worldwide were halted due to the outbreak of the Covid-19 virus, a third Korean replica production of the show was announced on November 14. The show started previews in Seoul's Blue Square Theater 3 months later on February 12, 2021, which was the first Wicked performance after the Covid-19 shutdown. The production opened 4 days later on February 16, 2021, and played until May 2, 2021. It then transferred to Busan's Dream Theater, where it ran from May 20, 2021, until its closing date on June 27, 2021. On June 30, 2022, the Shiki Theatre Company announced that a Japanese revival of the show is scheduled to start performances in October 2023. Not even half a year later, on October 7, it was announced that Wicked will return to Australia for an exclusive 20th-anniversary run, with performances starting in August 2023 at the Sydney Lyric Theatre. They will be the first replica sit-down productions to open after Wicked reopened its main three productions (Broadway, the North American Tour, and West End) post-covid in 2021. Casts for both productions are yet to be announced. On October 19, 2022, it was announced that Wicked would get a non-replica revival in Brazil through a limited run, starting March 9, 2023, at the Santander Theater, in São Paulo, produced by Atelier de Cultura. Lead actresses from the 2016 run Myra Ruiz and Fabi Bang were announced reprising their roles as Elphaba and Glinda, respectively. Their co-stars include Tiago Barbosa as Fiyero, Marcelo Médici as The Wizard, Diva Menner as Madame Morrible, Cleto Baccic as Doctor Dillamond, Nayara Venancio as Nessarose and Dante Paccola as Boq. ## Response ### Awards and nominations The original Broadway production of Wicked was nominated for ten Tony Awards in 2004, including Best Musical, Book, Orchestrations, Original Score, Choreography, Costume Design, Lighting Design, Scenic Design while receiving two nominations for Best Actress – for Menzel and Chenoweth. Menzel won the Best Actress award, and the show also won the Tony Awards for Best Scenic Design and Best Costume Design, notably losing Best Book, Original Score and ultimately Best Musical to Avenue Q. The same year, the show won 6 Drama Desk Awards out of 11 nominations, including Outstanding Musical, Book, Director, and Costume Design. Subsequent productions have received awards and nominations as well. The West End production received five Laurence Olivier Award nominations and later won the Audience Award for Most Popular Show at the 2010 award ceremony. The original Australian production received six Helpmann Awards out of 12 nominations, including Best Musical. Wicked was named the Best Musical of the Decade by Entertainment Weekly magazine and hailed "a cultural phenomenon" by Variety magazine. While not technically an "award", the character of Elphaba was named 79th on Entertainment Weekly's list of The 100 Greatest Characters of the Past 20 Years. ### Critical reception In its out-of-town tryout in San Francisco, audience reaction was generally positive, and although critics tended to compliment the aesthetic and spectacle of the show, they disparaged the state of its book, score, and choreography. Dennis Harvey of Variety praised the production as "sleekly directed", "snazzily designed", and "smartly cast", but disliked its "mediocre" book, "trite" lyrics, and "largely generic" music. Karen D'Souza of the San Jose Mercury News wrote that "style over substance is the real theme in this Emerald City". The Broadway production opened on October 30, 2003, to mixed reviews. However, Chenoweth and Menzel received acclaim. Richard Zoglin of Time wrote: "If every musical had a brain, a heart and the courage of Wicked, Broadway really would be a magical place." Elysa Gardner of USA Today described it as "the most complete, and completely satisfying, new musical I've come across in a long time". Conversely, Ben Brantley in the New York Times loved the production but panned the show itself, calling it a "sermon" that "so overplays its hand that it seriously dilutes its power", with a "generic" score. He noted that Glinda is such a showy role that the audience ends up rooting for her rather than the "surprisingly colorless" Elphaba, who is "nominally" the hero. Despite these mixed reviews, interest in Wicked spread quickly by word-of-mouth, leading to record-breaking success at the box office. Speaking to The Arizona Republic in 2006, Schwartz said, "What can I say? Reviews are reviews.... I know we divided the critics. We didn't divide the audience, and that's what counts." International productions have opened to different critical receptions. The West End production opened to a slightly more upbeat response. The majority of critics have appreciated the spectacle of the lavish production, and the "powerhouse" performances of actors in the roles of the two witches. However, contemporaries have characterized the production as overblown, occasionally preachy, and suffering from more hype than heart. Although Charles Spencer of The Daily Telegraph described it as "at times... a bit of a mess," he praised Holzman's script, described Kenneth Posner's lighting design as "magical" and lauded Menzel's Elphaba and Helen Dallimore's Glinda. Michael Billington of The Guardian gave it three out of five stars and remarked on the competence of all the lead actors; however, he complained that Wicked was "all too typical of the modern Broadway musical: efficient, knowing and highly professional but more like a piece of industrial product than something that genuinely touches the heart or mind." Paul Taylor of The Independent called the topical political allegory "well-meaning but also melodramatic, incoherent and dreadfully superficial" and criticized the acting, songs and book, concluding that "the production manages to feel at once overblown and empty". The Japanese version of Wicked by the Shiki Theatre Company (劇団四季) won acclaim in Tokyo, Osaka, Sapporo, and Nagoya. The original Wicked has toured in China with great popularity. A Chinese review by Harvard scholar Hansong Li appeared in the Shanghai Review of Books. ### Commercial reception Since its opening in 2003, the original Broadway production of Wicked has broken the house record at the Gershwin Theatre twenty times. It regularly grosses in excess of \$1.6 million each week, making it one of the most lucrative productions on Broadway. With a \$14 million capitalization, the Broadway production took 15 months to break even, earning back its initial investment by December 21, 2004. In its first year, it grossed more than \$56 million. In the week ending January 1, 2006, Wicked broke the record, previously held by the musical The Producers, for the highest weekly box office gross in Broadway history, earning \$1,610,934. It has gone on to break its own record numerous times, reaching \$1,715,155 in November 2006, \$1,839,950, during the 2007 Christmas week, \$2,086,135 for the week ending November 29, 2009, \$2,125,740 just a few weeks later for the eight performances ending January 3, 2010, and over \$2.2 million in the week ending January 2, 2011. In the first week of 2012, the Broadway production broke a record again, earning \$2.7 million. Wicked once again broke this record in the final week of 2012 when it grossed \$2.9 million. In the final weekend of 2013, Wicked became the first musical to gross \$3 million in one week. Wicked's productions across North America and abroad have been equally financially successful. The Los Angeles production took the local weekly gross record, again from a performance of The Producers, bringing in \$1,786,110 in the week ending March 4, 2007. The production joined its Broadway counterpart in setting a new record over Christmas 2007 with \$1,949,968, with records also set in Chicago (\$1,418,363), and St Louis (\$2,291,608), to bring the collective gross of the seven worldwide productions to a world record-breaking \$11.2 million. A new suite of records were set over Christmas 2010, with house records broken in San Francisco (\$1,485,692), Providence (\$1,793,764) and Schenectady (\$1,657,139) as well as Broadway, bringing the musical's one-week gross in North America alone to \$7,062,335. Wicked played to more than 2 million visitors in Chicago with a gross of over \$200 million, making it the highest-grossing show in Chicago history by June 2007. With an opening-week gross of \$1,400,000, it continually set records and became the longest-running Broadway musical in Chicago history. Producer David Stone told Variety, "we thought it [the Chicago production] would run 18 months, then we'd spend a year in Los Angeles and six months in San Francisco... but sales stayed so strong that the producers created another road show and kept the show running in Chicago." In addition, over 2.2 million saw the touring production in its first two years, which grossed over \$155 million The Los Angeles production grossed over \$145 million and was seen by more than 1.8 million patrons. Over the 672 performances of the San Francisco production, Wicked sold over 1 million tickets with a cumulative gross of over \$75 million. While the Broadway production of Wicked welcomed its 5 millionth audience member on September 29, 2010. Although West End theatres do not publish audited weekly grosses, the West End production of Wicked said it had set the record for highest one-week gross in December 2006, taking £761,000 in the week ending December 30. On June 23, 2008, the producers reported that over 1.4 million people had seen the London production, and grosses had topped £50 million. The same reports stated that the show had consistently been one of the two highest-grossing shows in the West End. For the week commencing December 27, 2010, the London production grossed £1,002,885, the highest single-week gross in West End theatre history, with over 20,000 people attending the nine performances of Wicked that week. The Melbourne production broke Australian box-office records, selling 24,750 tickets in three hours during pre-sales and grossing over \$1.3 million on the first business day after its official opening. On April 27, 2009, the production passed the milestone of 500,000 patrons. When it transferred to Sydney, the production broke "all previous weekly box office records for a musical at the Capitol Theatre, grossing \$1,473,775.70 in one week during October 2009. In the week ending October 17, 2010, Wicked became only the third musical in Broadway history to exceed \$500 million in total gross. By seats sold on Broadway, it ranks tenth of all time. As of September 2011, Wicked's North American and international companies have cumulatively grossed nearly \$2.5 billion and have been seen by nearly 30 million people worldwide. The original production still runs today and currently stands as the fourth longest-running Broadway show in history. Wicked celebrated its 1,000th performance on Broadway on March 23, 2006. Several other productions have also reached the 1,000th performance milestone, including the first North American touring company on August 15, 2007, the Chicago company on November 14, 2007, the West End company on February 14, 2009, the Australian company on May 7, 2011 and the second North American touring company on August 4, 2011. ### Marketing and promotion The success of the Broadway production has led to the development of an auxiliary show for purposes of marketing and promotion titled Behind the Emerald Curtain. It was created by Sean McCourt—an original Broadway production cast member who played the Witch's Father—and Anthony Galde, who was a long-running swing in the Broadway company from 2004 to 2012. The tour features a ninety-minute behind-the-scenes look at the props, masks, costumes and sets used in the show, and includes a question-and-answer session with the cast members. The Broadway tour is currently led by McCourt and long-running ensemble member, Lindsay K. Northen. The tour also featured in the Los Angeles, San Francisco and Chicago sit-down productions, and were each run by different long-serving cast members of the show. The tour provides a behind-the-scenes look at what goes into putting on the show every day. Participants get a first-hand account of what it is like to be a part of the massive production that Wicked is. To create Elphaba's green skin, 40 pots of the commercially available MAC Chromacake landscape green make-up are used per year. It is water-based for easy removal. As of 2021, it cost \$800,000 a week to run the Broadway production. ## Legacy and anniversary tributes ### Two-part film adaptation A film adaptation of Wicked had been discussed since 2004. In July 2010, it was reported that J. J. Abrams, James Mangold, Ryan Murphy, and Rob Marshall were under consideration to direct a potential film adaptation. By July 2012, Universal Studios was reported to be producing the film, with Stephen Daldry as director and Winnie Holzman, who wrote the musical's book, to pen the screenplay. Universal announced in 2016 that the film would be released in theaters on December 20, 2019, with Daldry still attached to direct, and the script to be co-written by the musical's creators, Holzman and Schwartz. In May 2017, Schwartz stated that the film would feature "at least two" new songs. On August 31, 2018, Universal put the film on hold, due to production scheduling, and gave the film adaptation of Cats, which became a box office bomb, the release date formerly held by the film. On February 8, 2019, Universal announced a new release date of December 22, 2021, for the Wicked film. On April 1, 2020, Universal put the film on hold once again due to Universal shifting release dates amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, and gave Sing 2 the 2021 release date. On October 20, 2020, it was announced that Daldry had left the production due to scheduling conflicts. In February 2021, Deadline reported that Jon M. Chu had signed on to direct the film adaptation. In July 2021, Schwartz stated that filming would begin in fall 2021 in Georgia, but filming was later postponed to March 2022 and again to June 2022. In November 2021, Ariana Grande and Cynthia Erivo were cast as Glinda and Elphaba respectively, with production originally set to begin in summer 2022 in the United Kingdom. In April 2022, it was announced the film would be released in two parts, the first one on November 27, 2024 and the second one on November 26, 2025. Jon M. Chu explained why: > As we prepared the production over the last year, it became impossible to wrestle the story of 'Wicked' into a single film without doing some real damage to it ... As we tried to cut songs or trim characters, those decisions began to feel like fatal compromises to the source material that has entertained us all for so many years. We decided to give ourselves a bigger canvas and make not just one 'Wicked' movie but two! With more space, we can tell the story of 'Wicked' as it was meant to be told while bringing even more depth and surprise to the journeys for these beloved characters. In June 2022, Stephen Schwartz added, while confirming that a new song will be written for one of the two films: > "We found it very difficult to get past 'Defying Gravity' without a break ... That song is written specifically to bring a curtain down, and whatever scene to follow it without a break just seemed hugely anti-climactic ... Even as a very long single movie, it required us cutting or omitting things that we wanted to include and that we think fans of the show and the story will appreciate. What we have discussed is that changes need to be 'additive,' to use (producer) Marc Platt's term. They need to add something to the story or the characters. They can't just be changes to do something different. I feel confident that by the time the movie is made, if we all continue to have the same degree of input, I could have a conversation with anyone who has a question about any of the changes made from the stage show and justify why I think it's better for the movie." On July 18, 2022, it was revealed that with the filming process settled at the newly-built Sky Studios in Elstree, England, rehearsals will begin in August with principal photography beginning in November. By September 2022, Jonathan Bailey was confirmed to have been cast as Fiyero. The following month, Jeff Goldblum was reported to be in final talks to play the Wizard. In November 2022, Schwartz revealed that Part 2 of the movie will include two new songs "to meet the demands of the storytelling." Then, on December 7, 2022, it was revealed that Ethan Slater will be playing Boq. On December 8, 2022, it was announced that Michelle Yeoh will be playing Madame Morrible, and Goldblum was confirmed to be playing the Wizard. On December 9, 2022, it was reported that Keala Settle, Bowen Yang, Bronwyn James, Aaron Teoh, Colin Michael Carmichael, and Marissa Bode had also joined the cast as Miss Coddle, Pfannee, ShenShen, Avaric, Nikidik, and Nessarose, respectively. Bode's casting as Nessarose makes her the first wheelchair-assisted actor to play the part. On December 9, 2022, Chu confirmed on Twitter that filming had begun. ### 15th anniversary tribute special In October 2018, an NBC broadcast, A Very Wicked Halloween: Celebrating 15 Years on Broadway, was hosted by Menzel and Chenoweth and featured Ariana Grande, Pentatonix, Adam Lambert, Ledisi, the current Broadway company of the musical and others, singing many of the musical numbers from Wicked to a live studio audience at the Marquis Theatre in New York. The concert special was directed by Glenn Weiss. ### PBS Special On August 29, 2021, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) network aired a Wicked concert special, which was also hosted by Chenoweth and Menzel and featured Rita Moreno, Cynthia Erivo, Ariana DeBose, Gavin Creel, Ali Stroker, Amber Riley, Mario Cantone, Jennifer Nettles, Stephanie Hsu, Alex Newell, Isaac Cole Powell and Gabrielle Ruiz performing many of the musical numbers. ## In popular culture The success of Wicked has made several of the show's songs popular and has resulted in references to the show, characters, and songs in popular culture. The Broadway production has been featured in episodes of television programs, including Brothers & Sisters and The War at Home. For filming purposes, the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles doubled for the Gershwin Theatre on Broadway in Ugly Betty in an episode titled "Something Wicked This Way Comes" in which Betty, the show's protagonist, goes to see Wicked on a date and accidentally stops the show. In the previous episode "Brothers", Betty gets tickets to see Wicked and discusses with a friend how much she relates to Elphaba's outcast status in a popularity and beauty-oriented environment. Entertainer John Barrowman sang a version of "The Wizard and I" (retitled "The Doctor and I") on his 2008 tour of the UK, with adapted lyrics referring to his Doctor Who and Torchwood character Jack showing affection for The Doctor. Kerry Ellis, who played Elphaba in the West End and on Broadway, recorded "I'm Not That Girl" for the fifth anniversary edition of the original Broadway cast recording. She also recorded her own rock version of "Defying Gravity". Both songs were produced by British musician Brian May and were featured on her extended play Wicked in Rock (2008) and debut album Anthems (2010). She performed her version of "Defying Gravity" at the 2008 Royal Variety Performance, alongside May on guitar. A dance remix of her rock version of "Defying Gravity" was later released in 2011. Louise Dearman, who has played both Elphaba and Glinda in the West End, released an acoustic version of "Defying Gravity" for the Wicked edition of her album Here Comes the Sun. Her former co-star and London Elphaba Rachel Tucker also covered "Defying Gravity" on her debut album The Reason (2013). Rapper Drake and singer Mika both sampled the musical's song in their songs "Popular" and "Popular Song" respectively. The closing song of Act I, Defying Gravity, is featured in the Glee episode Wheels, where Rachel (Lea Michele) and Kurt (Chris Colfer) sing it separately in a competition for the lead solo from the first season. It was featured again in the season five episode 100, the hundredth episode in the series, this time sung by the characters from the series, Rachel, Kurt and Mercedes (Amber Riley). Media as diverse as the anime series Red Garden, the daytime drama Passions and the Buffy the Vampire Slayer graphic novels have all parodied Wicked's songs and characters. The end of the song "Killer Instinct" in Bring It On the Musical parodies the closing notes of "No One Mourns the Wicked". The Oscar-winning song "Let It Go" from the successful 2013 Disney computer-animated musical feature film Frozen, that also won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, had been compared to "Defying Gravity" due to its similar theme and similar singing style, and was sung by the original Elphaba Idina Menzel. Willemijn Verkaik voiced the Dutch and German versions of the role of Elsa in Frozen and sang "Let It Go" in these two languages. This became another role originally played by Menzel that Verkaik played, following her success in the German, Dutch and English language productions of Wicked. When Frozen'' came to Broadway, the song "Monster" (sung by Caissie Levy, who also played Elphaba) was compared to "No Good Deed" In Lego Dimensions, when Unikitty interacts with the Wicked Witch, she says "If you spent more time singing, then maybe you wouldn't be so 'wicked', witch."
3,171,720	Battle of Solachon	1,140,981,623	Battle between Byzantine and Sasanian empires	[ "580s", "580s conflicts", "580s in the Byzantine Empire", "586", "6th century in Iran", "Battles involving the Byzantine Empire", "Battles involving the Sasanian Empire", "Battles of the Roman–Sasanian Wars" ]	The Battle of Solachon was fought in 586 CE in northern Mesopotamia between the East Roman (Byzantine) forces, led by Philippicus, and the Sassanid Persians under Kardarigan. The engagement was part of the long and inconclusive Byzantine–Sassanid War of 572–591. The Battle of Solachon ended in a major Byzantine victory which improved the Byzantine position in Mesopotamia, but it was not in the end decisive. The war dragged on until 591, when it ended with a negotiated settlement between Maurice and the Persian shah Khosrau II (r. 590–628). In the days before the battle, Philippicus, newly assigned to the Persian front, moved to intercept an anticipated Persian invasion. He chose to deploy his army at Solachon, controlling the various routes of the Mesopotamian plain, and especially access to the main local watering source, the Arzamon River. Kardarigan, confident of victory, advanced against the Byzantines, but they had been warned and were deployed in battle order when Kardarigan reached Solachon. The Persians deployed as well and attacked, gaining the upper hand in the centre, but the Byzantine right wing broke through the Persian left flank. The successful Byzantine wing was thrown into disarray as its men headed off to loot the Persian camp, but Philippicus was able to restore order. Then, while the Byzantine centre was forced to form a shield wall to withstand the Persian pressure, the Byzantine left flank also managed to turn the Persians' right. Under threat of a double envelopment, the Persian army collapsed and fled, with many dying in the desert of thirst or from water poisoning. Kardarigan himself survived and, with a part of his army, held out against Byzantine attacks on a hillock for several days before the Byzantines withdrew. ## Background In 572 the Byzantine ruler Justin II (reigned 565–578) refused to renew the annual payments to Sassanid Persia that had been part of the peace agreement concluded by his uncle, Justinian I (r. 527–565) and the Persian shah Khosrau I (r. 531–579) in 562. This marked the culmination of the progressive deterioration of Byzantine–Persian relations over the previous years, which manifested itself in diplomatic and military manoeuvring in their geopolitical periphery. Thus the Byzantines initiated contacts with the Central Asian Göktürks for a joint effort against Persia, while the Persians intervened in Yemen against the Christian Axumites, allies of Byzantium. Justin furthermore regarded the annual tribute as an indignity unworthy of Romans, and used the outbreak of a major revolt in Persian Armenia in 571–572 as a pretext for refusing to prolong the payments. Justin's refusal was tantamount to a declaration of war, the fourth fought between the two great powers of Late Antiquity in the 6th century. After initial Persian successes such as the capture of Dara, the conflict proved inconclusive and became a drawn-out affair, with Byzantine victories followed by Persian successes, intermittent negotiations, and temporary truces. In 582, Maurice (r. 582–602), who had served as a general in the war, ascended to the Byzantine throne at Constantinople; by that time, the Persians had gained the upper hand in Mesopotamia through their capture of Dara in 574, while the Byzantines prevailed in Arzanene. ## Initial moves and dispositions Following the failure of another round of peace negotiations, about which little is known, Maurice appointed his brother-in-law Philippicus as the commander-in-chief for the Mesopotamian front (magister militum per Orientem) in 584. Philippicus raided the region around the major Persian fortress of Nisibis in 584, while in 585 he raided in Arzanene. The Persian commander, Kardarigan—"black hawk", an honorific title rather than a proper name—responded with an unsuccessful siege of Philippicus' main base, Monokarton. In spring 586 Maurice rejected new Persian proposals involving the conclusion of peace in exchange for renewed payments in gold. The contemporary historian Theophylact Simocatta reports that Philippicus' army was eager to confront the Persians in battle, and the Byzantine commander marched south from his base at Amida, crossed the Arzamon River (modern Zergan in south-east Turkey and north-east Syria) to its eastern bank and advanced some 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) east to the plain of Solachon, where he pitched his camp. This position, south of the fortresses of Mardes and Dara, allowed Philippicus' army to control the passage of the Arzamon River and forced the Persian army under Kardarigan to advance across the waterless plain, away from their supply routes, before meeting the Byzantine force. On the Persian side, Kardarigan was also eager to fight and confident of victory. He arranged to be escorted by many camels carrying water for his troops in case the Byzantines refused to engage but continued to block access to the Arzamon, and had allegedly prepared iron bars and chains for the prisoners he would take. His movements, however, were detected when the Byzantines' Arab foederati captured a few of his men, allowing Philippicus to counter his forces. This early warning was of particular importance since Kardarigan intended to attack on Sunday, a day of rest for the Christian Byzantines. ## Battle Both armies appear to have been composed exclusively of cavalry, comprising a mix of lancers and horse-archers, possibly with a few cataphract units included. When Philippicus' scouts reported the Persians' approach, he positioned his men on elevated ground facing the direction from which the Persian army advanced, with his left flank protected by the foothills of Mount Izalas. The Byzantines appear to have been arranged in a single battle line with three divisions. The left division was commanded by Eiliphredas, the dux of Phoenice Libanensis, and included a Hunnic contingent of horse-archers under Apsich. The centre was commanded by the general Heraclius the Elder, later Exarch of Africa and father of future Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641), while the right wing was commanded by the taxiarchos Vitalius. This arrangement was also adopted by the Persians as soon as they came into view of the Byzantine army. On the Persian side, the right division was under Mebodes, the centre under Kardarigan himself, and the left wing under Kardarigan's nephew, Aphraates. Unlike the Persian general, Philippicus remained with a small force at some distance behind the main battle line, directing the battle. After a short halt to leave their baggage train behind and form a battle line the Persian army quickly advanced on the Byzantines, shooting arrows as they approached. The Byzantines responded in kind and then sallied forth to meet the oncoming enemy. On the Byzantine right Vitalius was quickly victorious, his heavy cavalry breaking through the Persian flank and pushing his opponents to the left behind their own main line. At this point, however, disaster threatened as many of Vitalius' troopers broke formation and headed towards the enemy camp, intending to loot it. Philippicus, however, saw what had happened and reacted quickly. He gave his distinctive helmet to one of his bodyguards, Theodore Ilibinus, and sent him to rally the cavalry on pain of punishment by the army commander himself. The ruse worked: the men recognized the helmet and returned to order just in time to stop the Persians, who had regrouped in the centre and were pushing the numerically inferior Byzantines back. To counter this, Philippicus ordered the men of the central division to dismount and form a shield-wall with their lances projecting from it (the fulcum formation). It is not clear what happened next, but apparently the Byzantine archers shot at the Persians' horses, breaking their momentum. At the same time, the Byzantine left managed to launch a successful counter-thrust which drove back the opposing Persian right in disarray. Soon the Persian right broke and fled, pursued by the Byzantines. With both wings having disintegrated, the Persian centre was now subjected to an attack from the reformed Byzantine right, which drove them towards the area once occupied by the Persian right. Outnumbered and attacked from several sides, the Persians soon began to break and flee. The defeated army suffered greatly, not only from the Byzantine pursuit, but also due to lack of water: before the battle, Kardarigan had ordered the water supplies poured on the ground, trying to make his men fight harder to break through the Byzantine army and reach the Arzamon. In addition, the surviving Persians were refused entry into Dara since, according to Simocatta, Persian custom forbade entrance to fugitives. Simocatta also narrates that many Persians died of thirst or from water poisoning when they drank too much water from wells after their ordeal. Kardarigan himself had managed to find refuge on a nearby hilltop with a small detachment and withstood several Byzantine attacks. Finally, after three or four days, the Byzantines, not aware that the enemy commander was there, abandoned the effort. Kardarigan thus escaped, although his men suffered further casualties in the process, up to a thousand according to Simocatta, from Byzantine patrols. ## Aftermath Following the battle, Philippicus rewarded the soldiers who had distinguished themselves and divided the spoils of the defeated Persians among them. He then proceeded to invade Arzanene again. However, his attempt to capture the fortress of Chlomaron was thwarted when Kardarigan arrived with reinforcements. The Byzantine army retreated to the fortress of Aphumon, fighting rear-guard actions with the shadowing Persians. The victory of Solachon allowed the Byzantines to regain the upper hand in the region of the Tur Abdin and, in its aftermath, they began to re-establish their control over the region around Dara. The war continued for a few years without a decision until the revolt of Bahram Chobin caused the rightful Persian shah, Khosrau II (r. 590–628), to find refuge in Byzantine territory. A joint expedition restored him to his throne and a peace treaty was concluded in 591 that left most of Armenia in Byzantine hands.
1,153,480	Carol Kaye	1,171,571,112	American bass guitarist	[ "1935 births", "20th-century American bass guitarists", "20th-century American guitarists", "20th-century American women guitarists", "21st-century American guitarists", "21st-century American women guitarists", "American rock bass guitarists", "American session musicians", "American women music educators", "Converts to Judaism from Baptist denominations", "Crest Records artists", "Guitarists from Washington (state)", "Jewish American musicians", "Jewish rock musicians", "Living people", "People from Everett, Washington", "People from Wilmington, Los Angeles", "The Wrecking Crew (music) members", "Women bass guitarists" ]	Carol Kaye (née Smith; born March 24, 1935) is an American musician. She is one of the most prolific recorded bass guitarists in rock and pop music, playing on an estimated 10,000 recordings in a career spanning over 65 years. Kaye began playing guitar in her early teens and after some time as a guitar teacher, began to perform regularly on the Los Angeles jazz and big band circuit. She started session work in 1957, and through a connection at Gold Star Studios began working for producers Phil Spector and Brian Wilson. After a bassist failed to turn up to a session in 1963, she switched to that instrument, quickly making a name for herself as one of the most in-demand session players of the 1960s, playing on numerous hits. She moved into playing on film soundtracks in the late 1960s, particularly for Quincy Jones and Lalo Schifrin, and began to release a series of tutoring books such as How To Play The Electric Bass. Kaye became less active towards the end of the 1970s, but has continued her career and attracted praise from other musicians. During the peak of her years of session work, she became part of a stable of Los Angeles-based musicians which went by a variety of informal names, but has since become known as "The Wrecking Crew". Her work with the collective led to her prominent role in the 2008 documentary film titled The Wrecking Crew. ## Early life Kaye was born in Everett, Washington, to professional musicians Clyde and Dot Smith. Her father was a jazz trombonist who played in big bands. In 1942, he sold a piano in order to finance a move to Wilmington, California. She later said her father was violent towards her, and she persuaded her mother to separate from him, but music was the one thing that could unite the family. At age 13, Kaye received a steel string guitar from her mother, and began teaching professionally the following year. She began playing sessions in jazz clubs around Los Angeles. During the 1950s, Kaye played bebop jazz guitar with several groups on the Los Angeles club circuit, including Bob Neal's group, Jack Sheldon backing Lenny Bruce, Teddy Edwards and Billy Higgins. She played with the Henry Busse Orchestra in the mid-1950s, and toured the US with them. ## Career ### Pop sessions In 1957, Kaye was playing a gig at the Beverly Cavern, Hollywood, when producer Robert "Bumps" Blackwell invited her to a recording session for Sam Cooke's arrangement of "Summertime". She realised she could make significantly more money with session work than playing in jazz clubs, so took it up as a full-time career. In 1958, she played acoustic rhythm guitar on Ritchie Valens' "La Bamba", recorded at Gold Star Studios, Hollywood. Through Gold Star, she began to work with producer Phil Spector, playing electric guitar on Bob B. Soxx & the Blue Jeans' "Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah" and The Crystals' "Then He Kissed Me", and acoustic guitar on The Righteous Brothers' "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'". Along with several other musicians including drummer Hal Blaine and guitarist Glen Campbell, her work with Spector attracted the attention of other record producers and she found herself in demand as a regular session player. In 1963, when a bass player failed to show for a session at Capitol Records in Hollywood, she was asked to fill in on the instrument. She quickly discovered she preferred playing bass, and found it was a key component of a backing track and allowed her to play more inventively than the relatively simpler guitar parts she had been playing until then. From a pragmatic viewpoint, it was easier to carry a single bass to sessions instead of swapping between three or four guitars depending on the song. After bassist Ray Pohlman left studio work to become a musical director, Kaye became the most in-demand session bassist in Los Angeles. Kaye continued to play guitar on numerous other hit songs in the 1960s and 1970s, including the twelve-string electric guitar on several Sonny & Cher songs. She also played twelve-string on Frank Zappa's album Freak Out! At the time, it was unusual for women to be experienced session players; nevertheless Kaye remembered sessions being generally good-humoured and united by the music. Kaye was the sole regular female member of The Wrecking Crew (though she has said the collective were never known by this name, which was later invented by Hal Blaine), a collective of studio musicians who played on a large number of hit records from Los Angeles in the 1960s. Throughout the decade, while at the time unknown to the public, Kaye played bass on a substantial number of records that appeared on the Billboard Hot 100. According to the New York Times, she played on 10,000 recording sessions. She appeared on sessions by Frank Sinatra, Simon & Garfunkel, Stevie Wonder, Barbra Streisand, The Supremes, The Temptations, the Four Tops and The Monkees. She played electric bass on Nancy Sinatra's "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'", while Chuck Berghofer played double bass. She also came up with the introduction on fellow session player Glen Campbell's hit "Wichita Lineman". Kaye later said that during the 1960s, she would sometimes play three or four sessions per day, and was pleased that so many of them created hit records. Through her work with Spector, Kaye caught the attention of The Beach Boys' Brian Wilson, who used her on several sessions, including the albums Beach Boys Today, Summer Days (and Summer Nights!!), Pet Sounds and Smile. Unlike other sessions, where she was free to work out her own bass lines, Wilson always came in with a very specific idea of what she should play. By Pet Sounds, Wilson was asking musicians such as Kaye to play far more takes than typical sessions, often running over ten passes of a song, with sessions stretching well into the night. ### Soundtracks, tutoring and later work By 1969, Kaye was exhausted and had become disillusioned from doing session work, saying that the music had "started to sound like cardboard". At the same time, many newer rock bands disapproved of using session players, preferring to play the instruments themselves. She decided to make a change so her career evolved from playing primarily pop music to performing mostly soundtrack work, as well as writing and teaching. She wrote How To Play The Electric Bass, the first in a series of tutoring books and instructional video courses. Her soundtrack sessions from this time included playing on the themes to M.A.S.H., The Streets of San Francisco and Across 110th Street. Kaye had already performed on a number of soundtracks and had worked closely with Lalo Schifrin, playing on the theme to Mission: Impossible and the soundtrack for Bullitt. She regularly collaborated with Quincy Jones, later saying that he "wrote some of the most beautiful themes I've ever heard in my life". Kaye was also a part of Jones' orchestra at the 43rd Academy Awards. In the early 1970s, she toured with Joe Pass and Hampton Hawes, and continued to do sessions. In 1973, she played on Barbra Streisand's single "The Way We Were", which was cut live, and was told off by producer Marvin Hamlisch for improvising bass lines. In 1976, she was involved in a car accident, and semi-retired from music. She continued to play sporadically, appearing on J. J. Cale's 1981 album Shades. In 1994, Kaye underwent corrective surgery to fix injuries stemming from the accident, and resumed playing and recording. She collaborated with Fender to produce a lighter version of the Precision Bass that reduced strain on her back and made it more comfortable to play. In 1997, she collaborated with Brian Wilson again, playing on his daughters' album, The Wilsons, while in 2006, Frank Black asked her to play on his album Fast Man Raider Man alongside fellow session stalwart, drummer Jim Keltner. She was featured in the 2008 film The Wrecking Crew along with a cast of other studio musicians. In one interview segment, she said that she believed at the peak of her session activity she was making more money than the US president. ## Style and equipment Kaye's main instrument during the 1960s was the Fender Precision Bass, though she also used the Danelectro bass on occasion. During the 1970s, she sometimes used the Gibson Ripper Bass, and in the 21st century she has used an Ibanez SRX700 bass. She uses Thomastik-Infeld JF344 flatwound strings with a high action and preferred to use guitar amplifiers in the studio when playing bass, including the Fender Super Reverb and the Versatone Pan-O-Flex. Kaye primarily uses a pick, or plectrum, on both guitar and bass, rather than plucking the strings with her fingers. She also typically muted her bass using a piece of felt on top of the strings in front of the bridge, thus reducing unwanted overtones and undertones. Later she said, "for 25 cents, you could get the best sound in town". Kaye preferred to play melodic and syncopated lines on the bass, rather than simply covering a straightforward part. In the studio, she particularly liked to use the upper register on her bass, while a stand-up double bass would be used to cover the low end. ## Legacy Kaye has achieved critical acclaim as one of the best session bassists of all time. Michael Molenda, writing in Bass Player magazine, said that Kaye could listen to other musicians and instantly work out a memorable bass line that would fit with the song, such as her additions to Sonny & Cher's "The Beat Goes On". Paul McCartney has said that his bass playing on the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band was inspired by her work on Pet Sounds. Alison Richter, writing in Bass Guitar magazine, has called Kaye the "First Lady" of bass playing, adding "her style and influence are in your musical DNA." Kaye's solo bass line in Spector's production of "River Deep, Mountain High", was a key part to the song's "Wall of Sound" production. The recording is now in the Grammy Hall of Fame. Quincy Jones said in his 2001 autobiography Q that "... women like... Fender bass player Carol Kaye... could do anything and leave men in the dust." Brian Wilson has said that Kaye's playing on the "Good Vibrations" sessions was a key part of the arrangement he wanted. "Carol played bass with a pick that clicked real good. It worked out really well. It gave it a hard sound." Dr. John has said that Kaye "is a sweetheart as well as a kick-ass bass player". Despite being admired as one of the studio greats, Kaye never expected to be well-remembered. At the time of the sessions, most of the players thought pop music would not last longer than ten years, and she is surprised that people still listen to tracks on which she played. Although the Amazon hit series The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel paid homage to Kaye and her career with the character of Carole Keen, introduced in season three and played by Liza Weil, Kaye described the character as "having nothing to do with me or my history. They took a few things out of my book and created a character that's not even me at all." In 2020, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Kaye number five in its list of the 50 greatest bassists of all time. ## Personal life Kaye was raised a Baptist, but practiced Judaism in the early 1960s. She has been married three times and has two living children. At age 13, Kaye took guitar lessons from Horace Hatchett (1909–1985), an esteemed instructor and graduate of the Eastman School of Music who eventually set her up with gigs playing bebop in L.A. nightclubs. At age 16, Kaye gave birth to their child. Two years later, she married musician Al Kaye and they had one son together. However, Al Kaye, 22 years her senior, had a drinking problem and they would divorce soon after. Kaye’s second husband didn’t approve of her job’s late hours, and he didn’t like it when she was playing with musicians. They had one daughter together. Kaye divorced him, got a live-in nanny, and went back to working again. Kaye's third husband was jazz drummer and session musician Spider Webb. They cofounded a jazz/funk group Spiders Webb, which went on to record the album I Don't Know What's on Your Mind, for Fantasy Records in 1976. Kaye self-published an autobiography, "Studio Musician: Carol Kaye, 60's No. 1 Hit Bassist, Guitarist", in 2016. ## Selected discography
499,754	North Carolina Secretary of State	1,159,276,158	Political office in North Carolina, United States	[ "1665 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies", "Secretaries of State of North Carolina" ]	The North Carolina Secretary of State is an elected constitutional officer in the executive branch of the government of the U.S. state of North Carolina, and is fourth in the line of succession to the office of Governor of North Carolina. The secretary maintains the official journal of the North Carolina General Assembly and is responsible for overseeing land records, chartering corporations, and administering some commercial regulations. The incumbent is Elaine Marshall, a Democrat and the first woman elected to the office. The office traces its origins to the office of the Colonial Secretary of Carolina, created in 1665, and was formally created as an office in 1776. Since 1868, the secretary has been popularly elected every four years. The office's responsibilities—determined by statute—have varied over its existence. Historically weaker than their contemporaries around the United States, the secretary does not oversee elections in the state. They lead the Department of Secretary of State and sit on the North Carolina Council of State. ## History of the office In 1665, the Lord Proprietors of the Province of Carolina created the office of the Colonial Secretary of Carolina. The inaugural secretary, Richard Cobthrop, never travelled to America, but most of the subsequent 23 secretaries came to Carolina. In 1675, the secretary became responsible to the King of England, and was largely tasked with clerical duties relating to land ownership. Following the United States Declaration of Independence, North Carolina created a constitution in 1776 which provided for the North Carolina General Assembly to "triennially appoint a secretary for this State." The Assembly appointed James Glasgow to the office in December and reappointed him the following year. He held the office for over 20 years before resigning due to allegations that he had issued fraudulent land warrants. William Hill served as secretary from 1811 to 1857, setting the record tenure for the office until the 20th century. When the North Carolina State House caught fire in 1831, he saved many of the office's records. In 1868, North Carolina created a new constitution, which provided for the popular election of the secretary of state with four-year terms and no term limits. Thad A. Eure held the office from 1936 to 1989, setting the latest record tenure. Most secretaries of the state have come from eastern North Carolina. Rufus L. Edmisten, sworn-in in 1989, was the first one to come from the western portion of the state. Janice H. Faulkner, appointed by the Governor of North Carolina in 1996 to fill the vacancy created by Edmisten's resignation, became the first woman to hold the office. Elaine Marshall, who assumed the office in 1997, was the first woman ever elected to a North Carolina statewide executive office. Since the passage of the Executive Reorganization Act of 1971, the secretary's agency has been the Department of Secretary of State. The office's responsibilities—determined by statute—have varied over its existence. The secretariat managed the issuance of land grants from its colonial creation until 1957. In 1831, the secretary was briefly designated state librarian. In 1868, a Bureau of Statistics, Agriculture, and Immigration was placed within the office and remained there until a separate Department of Agriculture was created in 1877. The office has also at times been responsible for insurance regulation, vehicle registration, and collection of the state gas tax. Until the General Assembly was moved to the State Legislative Building and given a professional staff in the 1960s, the secretary was responsible for assisting it in several matters, including seating assignment in the legislative chambers, enrolling acts and resolutions before their ratification, and indexing and printing the session laws. A 1968 constitutional study commission recommended making the governor responsible for the selection of the secretary to reduce voters' burden by shortening the ballot, but this proposal was disregarded by the General Assembly when it revised the state constitution in 1971. The State Board of Elections briefly operated under the secretary from 1971 to 1972. ## Powers, duties, and structure The secretary of state is a constitutional officer. Article III, Section 7, of the Constitution of North Carolina stipulates the popular election of the secretary of state every four years. The office holder is not subject to term limits. In the event of a vacancy in the office, the Governor of North Carolina has the authority to appoint a successor until a candidate is elected at the next general election for members of the General Assembly. Per Article III, Section 8 of the constitution, the secretary sits on the Council of State. They maintain the schedule and agenda of council meetings. They are ex officio a member of the Local Government Commission and Capital Planning Commission. They are fourth in line of succession to the governor. Historically, the North Carolina Secretary of State has been weaker than their contemporaries around the United States. Unlike in other states, where the secretary of state serves as the chief elections officer, in North Carolina the State Board of Elections administers elections independently of other agencies. With regards to elections, the secretary is responsible for storing official copies of election results sent to them by the State Board of Elections and arranging the meeting of North Carolina's presidential electors every four years. The secretary is charged with attending sessions of the General Assembly to obtain possession of laws passed by it, and maintains the official journals of each house. They also administer the North Carolina Securities Act and the Uniform Commercial Code, charter corporations, register trademarks, manage land records, and register legislative lobbyists. They are empowered to investigate violations of lobbying laws and impose civil fines not exceeding \$5,000 for infractions. The secretary commissions notary publics in the state, and they are empowered to administer oaths of office to public officials and law enforcement officers. They attend the ceremonies in which an outgoing governor turns over the Great Seal of North Carolina to their successor. The Department of Secretary of State has several divisions and sections: corporations division, publications division, securities division, trademarks section, Uniform Commercial Code section, authentications section, charitable solicitation licensing section, land records section, lobbyist compliance division, and notary public section. As of December 2022, the department has 163 employees retained under the terms of the State Human Resources Act. As with all Council of State officers, the secretary of state's salary is fixed by the General Assembly and cannot be reduced during their term of office. In 2022, the secretary's annual salary was \$146,421. ## List of secretaries of state
6,175,296	Body and Soul (Joe Jackson album)	1,168,107,335	null	[ "1984 albums", "A&M Records albums", "Albums produced by David Kershenbaum", "Joe Jackson (musician) albums" ]	Body and Soul is the seventh studio album by English singer-songwriter Joe Jackson, released on 14 March 1984 by A&M Records. Jackson's first fully digital project, it peaked at No. 14 in the UK, while in the US it reached No. 20. Described by one reviewer as a sophisti-pop album, the tracks are a mix of pop, jazz and Latin music, showcasing the hit single "You Can't Get What You Want (Till You Know What You Want)". Two other singles fared well, with "Happy Ending" charting in five countries, and "Be My Number Two" enjoying moderate success in the UK. The album artwork emulated the smoky jazz style of Sonny Rollins, Vol. 2 (1957). Musically, critics commended Jackson's introspective lyrics and dynamic arrangements, but one reviewer felt that Jackson and producer David Kershenbaum were not successful in their sonic goal of true-to-life minimalism. Jackson toured through August 1984 to promote the album, commenting afterward that he was exhausted from so much time on the road. ## Background and production Producer David Kershenbaum met with Jackson about the project, first discussing it in mid-1983. Kershenbaum had "discovered" Jackson in 1978, and helped him produce 1979's Look Sharp! and I'm the Man albums. At the time of their meeting, Jackson was working to finish the soundtrack of Mike's Murder, and he told Kershenbaum he was weary of the artificiality of much modern music, recorded piecewise in dead acoustic isolation. He wished for a return to classic musicianship, with a well-rehearsed band playing together in the same space. Agreeing with him, Kershenbaum expressed a desire to move Jackson into the modern digital age, embracing the recent debut of the compact disc. The soundtrack to Mike's Murder was released in September 1983, but the associated film was delayed because of a dispute between the director and the studio. Despite this setback, in December 1983 the soundtrack's single "Memphis" rose to No. 85 on the Hot 100, and the instrumental track "Breakdown" was nominated for a Grammy Award, the winner to be announced in late February 1984. While this was happening in late 1983, Jackson and Kershenbaum scouted potential locations for the Body and Soul recording sessions. Their aim was to find a reverberant performance space that was not "sterile" or lifeless. Jackson also began evaluating the album's material by performing the songs with his band in small clubs in New York, Pennsylvania and Connecticut. Kershenbaum and Jackson found the appropriate acoustics in Manhattan's Masonic Hall, which was next door to Vanguard Studios, and used by Vanguard for classical recordings. The hall's reverberant acoustics were captured by a matched stereo pair of expensive Neumann M50 microphones. Kershenbaum and Jackson set the band up to play together, with each instrument close-miked for individual focus as needed. To update Vanguard's equipment for a fully digital recording path, Kershenbaum oversaw the assembly of a new control room in an existing office at Vanguard, with wiring to connect to the Masonic. The initial tracking of the voices and instruments was laid down on a recently developed 3M 32-channel digital recording system. Most of the basic tracks were captured with the full band performing simultaneously, but for some songs the piano or the horn section was recorded separately, to get a cleaner mix. All the vocal parts were recorded separately, with Jackson backed by himself, Ellen Foley and Elaine Caswell; Caswell and Jackson sang as a duet on "Happy Ending". The musicians were at the Masonic for three weeks, then Jackson, Kershenbaum and Rik Pekkonen mixed the songs for a week at Atlantic Studios, and the completed master tapes were delivered by Bernie Grundman on 7 February 1984. Kershenbaum said that he and Jackson had intended to finish the project faster, but getting the digital gear together took extra time, and a total of five weeks for the album was "a step in the right direction" after earlier excesses. ## Artwork In a nod to its jazz standards influence, the front and rear cover art imitated that of the 1957 saxophone album Sonny Rollins, Vol. 2, and the album's title was lifted from Coleman Hawkins' 1939 saxophone recording of "Body and Soul". Photographer Charles Reilly snapped the monochrome cover portrait of Jackson, he also framed a colourful two-shot of Jackson arm-in-arm with Caswell for the single release "Happy Ending", and he captured more monochrome images of Jackson used for the releases of "You Can't Get What You Want (Till You Know What You Want)" and "Be My Number Two". ## Tour Jackson embarked on a world tour to support the album. Starting in April 1984, he and his band spent five weeks travelling through Ireland, England, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany and France. Vocalist Elaine Caswell accompanied Jackson for this European leg, but the tour continued without her in the US, starting in mid-May and running for six weeks. Canadian journalist Ethlie Ann Vare caught the show at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles, reporting that Jackson was "in an impish mood" on stage, refusing to play his older hits to satisfy repeated requests from some of the 6,000 attendees, and instead delivering an impromptu rendition of the pop classic "As Time Goes By" while the band watched. Vare praised Jackson's interpretations of songs from his last three albums, including "Memphis" from Mike's Murder which spotlighted drummer Gary Burke, and several songs from Night and Day (1982). One of the few older songs was "Is She Really Going Out with Him?" – Jackson's debut single – delivered surprisingly on accordion, piccolo and violin. The final encore was "Jumpin' Jive" from 1981. The band rested briefly for a week, then the schedule resumed in July–August with concerts in Belgium, Italy, Australia and Japan. At the end of this, Jackson took a lengthy break. The tour had been, he later wrote, "the hardest I ever did; it came too soon after the last one, and by the end of it I was so burned out I swore I'd never tour again". ## Musical style The album contains original pop songs written by Jackson, half of which were composed and arranged with a Latin flair. Latin elements heard on the album include salsa, cha-cha-chá, bolero, and instrumental canción. The musicians obtained Latin percussion sounds the same way they did live on stage, with Gary Burke emulating timbales on his normal drum kit, augmented by Ed Roynesdal on güiro and Tony Aiello on claves. Jazz elements are also found on the album, including instrumental solos such as Michael Morreale's haunting flugelhorn solo on "Not Here, Not Now", and Vinnie Zummo's bebop-style jazz guitar in "You Can't Get What You Want (Till You Know What You Want)", which followed a funk bass solo by Graham Maby. Soaring above Jackson's piano, Aiello played alto saxophone and Morreale played trumpet on the smoky jazz theme to "Loisaida", an instrumental tune evoking the nightlife of New York's Lower East Side. Stereo Review described "Loisaida" as "a mournful theme for sax and trumpet, which plumb the deepest lamplit sorrows while Jackson's piano chords flicker above like a starry night." Other styles on the album include post-disco on "You Can't Get What You Want", "Go For It"'s Motown-flavoured production, and the 1960s pop sound of "Happy Ending", modernised for the 1980s with Elaine Caswell singing the lyric "It's '84 now." The first song on the album, "The Verdict", was inspired by the 1982 film The Verdict, featuring Paul Newman as an alcoholic attorney making good. Three tracks on the album showed Jackson's affinity for film music: "The Verdict", the atmospheric instrumental "Loisaida", and the closing cut "Heart of Ice" – the latter starting as an instrumental, building slowly in intensity, and joined by harmony voices in the final affirmation of acceptance and hope. Writer Iain Munn wrote that Body and Soul was representative of a string of sophisti-pop albums that followed the Style Council's first release in 1983: Introducing The Style Council. Munn said that Jackson joined artists such as Simply Red, Sade and Everything but the Girl in releasing "jazz-soul"–flavoured pop songs in the wake of the Style Council's influential hit single "Long Hot Summer". ## Release and reception Body and Soul was released in vinyl LP format on 14 March 1984. The compact disc was delayed until October; it carried the SPARS code "DDD" signifying an album that had been recorded, mixed and mastered digitally, without an intermediate analogue conversion. On 25 May, the LP peaked in the US at No. 20 on the Billboard 200, whereas in the UK the album rose higher sooner, peaking at No. 14 on 7 April, staying on the chart for 14 weeks. Three singles from the album charted in the UK: First "Happy Ending" hit No. 58 in April 1984, then "Be My Number Two" peaked at No. 70 in June, followed by "You Can't Get What You Want (Till You Know What You Want)" reaching No. 77 in September. In the US, "You Can't Get What You Want" hit higher at No. 15 in June, with "Happy Ending" trailing at No. 57 in August. Rolling Stone's Don Shewey reviewed the album in May 1984, giving it four out of five stars. Shewey said the album demonstrated a maturation of Jackson's musicality, comparing him to Paul Simon and Randy Newman who shared an interest in "bridging the gap between pop music and serious music". Shewey was unhappy with the Motown-derivative song "Go For It", which he likened to an Elvis Costello track from the album Get Happy!! (1980). Shewey praised Jackson's hit song, "You Can't Get What You Want (Till You Know What You Want)", as "a bracing, sophisticated tune that successfully incorporates pop lyricism, a tight funk band and jazz compositional structures". Stereo Review published a positive review characterizing the album as "intelligent romantic ballads that legitimize naked emotions." The reviewer noted Jackson's "affecting vocals, flickering piano chords, [and] honest lyrics". The instrumental tracks were praised for their arrangements, observing that some Latin jazz elements were carried forward from Jackson's 1982 album Night and Day. In a negative review, audiophile magazine The Absolute Sound called the album a sonic "disappointment" despite Jackson's flair for "acute lyrics and classy, dynamic arrangements." The writer focussed on the "failure" of Kershenbaum and Jackson in their quest to use minimal microphone techniques to highlight the natural acoustic space. In retrospective reviews, AllMusic first assigned the album three stars out of five, publishing in the 2002 book All Music Guide to Rock. Chris Woodstra called out the song "Be My Number Two" as "beautiful". After AllMusic moved online, Mike DeGagne re-appraised the album at 3.5 stars in a 2008 review, describing it as "Jackson at his smoothest", delivering an album dedicated to exploring aspects of jazz. ## Track listing All songs written and arranged by Joe Jackson. Produced by Joe Jackson and David Kershenbaum. ## Personnel Musicians - Joe Jackson – vocals, acoustic piano, saxophone - Ed Roynesdal – keyboards, violin, güiro - Vinnie Zummo – guitars - Graham Maby – bass - Gary Burke – drums - Tony Aiello – saxophones, flute, claves - Michael Morreale – trumpet, flugelhorn - Ellen Foley – backing vocals - Elaine Caswell – backing vocals, duet on "Happy Ending" Production - Joe Jackson – arrangements, producer - David Kershenbaum – producer - Rik Pekkonen – engineer - Dan Nash – mixdown assistant - Frank Dickinson – digital recording system - Bernie Grundman – mastering at A&M Studios (Hollywood, California) - Jeremy Darby – production coordinator - Quantum – layout, artwork - Charles Reilly – photography - John Telfer – management ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Sales and certifications
842,612	Datalore	1,158,356,697	null	[ "1988 American television episodes", "Star Trek: The Next Generation (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes written by Gene Roddenberry" ]	"Datalore" is the thirteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, originally aired on January 18, 1988, in broadcast syndication. The story was created by Robert Lewin and Maurice Hurley, and turned into a script by Lewin and the creator of the show, Gene Roddenberry. It was Roddenberry's final script credit on a Star Trek series. The director was originally to be Joseph L. Scanlan, but following delays in pre-production caused by script re-writes, it was reassigned to Rob Bowman. Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise-D. In this episode, the Enterprise crew discover and reassemble Data's "brother", Lore (both Brent Spiner), who is in league with the entity that destroyed the colony on his home world. The story underwent significant changes prior to filming, with it originally meant to be a romance episode for Data with a female android. It was then altered to an "evil twin" plot at the suggestion of Spiner and elements of Data's origin were introduced, first as an alien creation and then at the hands of Dr. Noonien Soong. Soong was named by Roddenberry after a friend in the Second World War. Edits to the script continued to be made during filming, and while the look of the episode was praised by cast and crew, the characterisations in the script were not. Ratings for the episode came in at 10.3 million for the first broadcast, which was lower than both the previous and subsequent episodes. Critical reception has been mixed, with criticism directed mostly at the quality of the script and Spiner praised for his dual role. The visuals for the Crystalline Entity were some of the first computer generated graphics on the television show. ## Casting In this episode, Brent Spiner plays not only Data, but also the reoccurring character Lore. ## Plot While on the way to Starbase Armus IX for computer maintenance, the Enterprise arrives at the planet Omicron Theta, the site of a vanished colony where the starship Tripoli originally found the android Data (Brent Spiner). An away team travels to the surface and finds that what had been farmland is now barren with no trace of life in the soil. The team also finds a lab which they discover is where Dr. Noonien Soong, a formerly prominent but now discredited robotics designer, built Data. The team also find a disassembled android nearly identical to Data and return with it to the ship. As the course to the Starbase is resumed, the crew reassemble and reactivate Data's "brother" (also played by Brent Spiner) in sickbay. He refers to himself as Lore, and explains that Data was built first and he himself is the more perfect model. He feigns naiveté to the crew, but shows signs of being more intelligent than he is letting on. Later, in private, he tells Data that they were actually created in the opposite order, as the colonists became envious of his own perfection. He also explains that a crystalline space entity capable of stripping away all life force from a world was responsible for the colony's demise. Lore then incapacitates Data, revealing that he plans to offer the ship's crew to the entity. When a signal transmission is detected from Data's quarters, Wesley Crusher (Wil Wheaton) arrives to investigate. He finds Lore, now impersonating Data, who explains that he had to incapacitate his brother after being attacked. Wesley is doubtful, but pretends to accept the explanation. Soon after, the same crystalline entity that had attacked the colony approaches the ship. Lore, still pretending to be Data, enters the bridge as the object hovers before the Enterprise and explains that he incapacitated his brother by turning him off, causing Doctor Beverly Crusher (Gates McFadden) to be suspicious, since Data had previously treated the existence of such a feature as a closely guarded secret. Lore then explains that he can communicate with the crystalline entity and suggests to Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) that he should show a demonstration of force by beaming an object toward the entity and then destroying it with the ship's phasers. Lore's attempts to imitate Data are imperfect, though, arousing Picard's suspicion, especially when Lore does not recognize Picard's usual command to "make it so". Although Picard sends a security detachment to tail him, Lore overpowers Lt. Worf (Michael Dorn) and evades pursuit. Meanwhile, the suspicious Dr. Crusher and her son, Wesley, reactivate the unconscious Data, and the three of them race to the cargo hold to find Lore plotting with the entity to defeat the Enterprise. When Lore discovers them, he threatens Wesley with a phaser and orders Dr. Crusher to leave. Data quickly rushes Lore and a brawl ensues. Data manages to knock Lore onto the transporter platform, and Wesley activates it, beaming Lore into space. With its conspirator no longer aboard, the crystalline entity departs, and the Enterprise resumes its journey to the starbase. ## Production The original story for this episode featured a non-lookalike female android who was intended to be a love interest for Data. The new android was intended to have been created as something that could be deployed into dangerous or hazardous situations, described in the premise as something along the lines of a female android version of Red Adair, the fire fighter. The "evil twin" story was suggested by Brent Spiner, instead, and was originally developed to include the creation of Data by an alien race. This was instead dropped and Dr. Noonien Soong was introduced. Soong was named by Gene Roddenberry after his Second World War friend, Kim Noonien Singh, for whom the character Khan Noonien Singh was also named. It would be Roddenberry's final script credit on a Star Trek series. The script made mention of Isaac Asimov and the Laws of Robotics, something which had been suggested should be included at some point in the show as a spoken credit in a memo dated October 28, 1986 from executive producer Bob Justman. The episode suffered delays during pre-production caused by re-writes to the script, resulting in the script being switched with "The Big Goodbye", which meant that director Joseph L. Scanlan went on to direct that episode instead. Rob Bowman, who had previously been told by Justman that he was going to direct "The Big Goodbye" after his work on "Too Short a Season", was instead assigned to direct "Datalore". He took the new episode on as a challenge, in the belief that the producers did not think the episode would work well, which caused him to become determined to put out a good episode. He had numerous discussions with Brent Spiner, Justman, and Rick Berman on aspects of the episode, and the technical requirements and effects required an additional day of filming. Bowman credited Spiner for making the episode work, giving one example, "He did the one scene in his own office with Brent sitting down and Lore discussing what it's like to be human. He did one side, we shot through a double, then turned around, read it the other way and shot the other half of it. Those two characters in those scenes are different people... he really painted those characters differently." Edits were still being made to the script during filming, as the writers wanted to introduce a new element to Data, in order to further distinguish him from Lore: an inability to use contractions. Data had used contractions during earlier episodes, and Spiner refused to shoot the scene until a final decision was reached; production stopped while there was a meeting on this subject between Gene Roddenberry, the producers, and the writers, in the middle of the bridge set. The music for the episode was composed by Ron Jones, and was later released on the second disc of the album Star Trek: The Next Generation: The Ron Jones Project. For this episode, Jones created a six-note theme to represent Lore. The crystalline entity was given a theme of three notes which played through two pieces entitled Crystal Entity and Crystal Attacks. The music played when the away team explore Omicron Theta was similar to that created by Jerry Goldsmith for the 1979 film Alien. Jones acknowledged that link saying that, "I was playing with the stuff like Jerry's music at the beginning of Alien, Bowman was like our Ridley Scott—he was like Ridley Scott Jr. and I was Jerry Goldsmith Jr." Executive producer Maurice Hurley was pleased with the outcome of the episode, saying "The sets, the design of it and the look of that show was brilliant, I thought that might have been the best-looking show of the first season". However, he felt that the characterisations were not quite right. This was the same opinion as that put forward by actor Brent Spiner, who portrayed both Data and Lore, who thought that Data's actions were not in line with his expectations of the character. This episode was the second and last appearance of Biff Yeager as Chief Engineer Argyle. He was the only one of the Chief Engineers introduced during the first season to appear twice, with Geordi La Forge (LeVar Burton) gaining the role in season two. Wil Wheaton later recalled that the stand-in actor used in this episode really irritated Spiner, and was never used again. He described the stand-in as looking like "a break dancer doing the Robot" whenever he had to portray Data or Lore, and said that "I think the guy was really into playing an android, and his enthusiasm got cranked up to eleven, but by the end of the week, pretty much everyone wanted to deactivate him and sell him to the nearest Jawa." The events of the episode would be followed up in later seasons, with the crystalline entity returning in the fifth-season episode "Silicon Avatar". Brent Spiner reprised the role of Lore in the episodes "Brothers" and "Descent". ### Special effects The presentation of the Crystalline Entity alien this episode was re-created in computer generated graphics for the HD release on Blu-ray discs of Star Trek: The Next Generation. The original standard definition Crystalline Entity effect was also computer generated, and it was one of the first uses of CGI graphics on the show. ## Reception "Datalore" was first broadcast on January 18, 1988, in broadcast syndication. The episode received Nielsen ratings of 10.3 million on the first broadcast, which was a dip between "The Big Goodbye" which received ratings of 11.5 in the previous week, and "Angel One" which gained ratings of 11.4 million in the next week. Several reviewers re-watched the episode after the end of the series. Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in June 2011. He summed up, "While it's important in the grand scheme of things in what it establishes about Data's background, the episode itself is horrendously bad, from the clumsy script to the embarrassingly inept body-double work." He thought the ending was anticlimactic, that the characters all acted "as dumb as posts", and that Spiner's performance as Lore was scenery chewing. DeCandido gave "Datalore" a score of four out of ten. Cast member Wil Wheaton watched the episode for AOL TV in December 2007. While he credited the art direction of the episode, he criticised the story, saying that "it comes down to lazy writing that has things happen because they're supposed to happen, rather than having them happen organically. The characters are credulous when they should be skeptical, the audience is not surprised by anything after the second act, and there are story problems that should have never gotten past the first draft." He remembered really enjoying the episode as a child, but felt that it did not hold up on repeat watchings as an adult, and stated that Spiner's "fantastic job creating distinctly different characters in Data and Lore" was not enough to remedy the other faults in the episode. He gave it a D grade. Michelle Erica Green, who reviewed the episode for TrekNation in May 2007, thought she might be more forgiving in hindsight as she knows that the follow-ups to "Datalore" were great episodes. She praised Spiner's "lovely, subtle performances as both Data and Lore", but felt that Lore's motivations and goals were unclear, and that the crew came off as stupid by their inaction to the Lore threat. She thought that transporting the villain into space was shocking (as the show generally presents androids as having personhood) and inconsistent (as Lore had just told the entity to attack when the shields drop following a transporter activation). Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website "Jammer's Reviews" valued the episode for providing backstory to Data, but agreed that the crew's inability to recognize Lore's threat and unwillingness to listen to Wesley made them seem stupid. He gave the episode a score of three out of four. Zack Handlen watched "Datalore" for The A.V. Club in April 2010. He noted that Data's origins had significant plotholes, such as that the ship which found Data did not investigate the planet. He thought that Lore was a well-conceived villain who works well with Spiner's strengths as an actor, but that the story only scratched the surface of the character's potential. He considered the contraction issue a problem, as despite saying that Data could not use them, he uses them throughout the episode, including immediately after Lore was beamed off the ship, which "punishes you for paying attention, because now you'll be half-convinced that the wrong robot was beamed away, and that Lore somehow won out in the end." He disliked the response of the crew to Wesley and thought that he was being mistreated, and gave the episode an overall grade of B−. The Crystalline Entity was noted by Space.com among the one of more exotic aliens in the Star Trek franchise; they note its snowflake like appearance—beautiful but deadly. In 2016, Empire ranked this the 38th best out of the top 50 episodes of the more than 700 Star Trek television episodes. In 2020, Space.com recommended watching this episode as background for Star Trek: Picard. In 2020, GameSpot noted this episode as one of the most bizarre episodes of the series. In 2020, SyFy Wire recommended this episode for binge watching, noting how it explores Data's origins and relationships. ## Home media and theatrical release The episode was released as part of the season one Blu-ray set on July 24, 2012. In order to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Star Trek: The Next Generation and promote the release of the first season on Blu-ray, the episodes "Datalore" and "Where No One Has Gone Before" received a theatrical release in the United States on July 23, 2012, in nearly 500 cinemas. "Datalore" was chosen by Star Trek experts Mike and Denise Okuda because of the fan favourite status of Brent Spiner. Episodes from "Encounter at Farpoint" to "Datalore" were released in Japan on LaserDisc on June 10, 1995, as part of First Season Part.1. This included half the first-season episodes with a total runtime of 638 minutes on 12-inch optical video discs. ## See also - "Silicon Avatar", episode revealing that the deadly crystalline entity was lured to the planet Omicron Theta by Lore - "Inheritance", in which Data learns why he was given the memories of the colonists of Omicron Theta - Galactus, a Marvel Comics character who consumes the life force of planets.
8,963,852	Maryland Route 300	1,124,095,084	Highway in Maryland	[ "Roads in Queen Anne's County, Maryland", "State highways in Maryland" ]	Maryland Route 300 (MD 300) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. Known for most of its length as Sudlersville Road, the highway runs 13.55 miles (21.81 km) from MD 213 in Church Hill east through Sudlersville to the Delaware state line, where the highway continues as Delaware Route 300 (DE 300). MD 300 forms part of an east–west connection between U.S. Route 301 (US 301) in northern Queen Anne's County and Dover, Delaware. MD 300 between Church Hill and Dudley Corners was one of the original state roads marked for improvement in 1909, but the county constructed the highway with state aid in the mid- to late-1910s from Church Hill to Sudlersville. The highway from Sudlersville to the state line was built in the late 1920s and early 1930s. MD 300 was widened over its entire length around 1950 and extended west to US 213's bypass of Church Hill (now MD 213) around 1970. MD 300 was officially split in two when its superstreet intersection with US 301 was built in 2005. ## Route description MD 300 begins at an intersection with MD 213 (Church Hill Road) in the northern part of the town of Church Hill. The highway heads east as two-lane undivided Sudlersville Road and crosses MD 19 (Main Street) before leaving the town. The state highway heads northeast and intersects US 301 (Blue Star Memorial Highway) at a superstreet intersection next to a park and ride lot in the southwest quadrant. Traffic on MD 300 is required to turn right onto US 301, perform a U-turn, then turn right again to continue on MD 300. The highway curves east at Dudley Corners, where the route crosses Red Lion Branch and meets the southern end of MD 290 (Dudley Corner Road) and the north end of Benton Corners Road, which leads to the historic Dudley's Chapel. MD 300 continues east to the town of Sudlersville, through which the highway follows Main Street. The highway intersects the southern terminus of MD 837 (Church Circle) and MD 313 (Church Street) before crossing the Centreville Branch of the Northern Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad at-grade. Upon leaving Sudlersville, the route becomes Sudlersville Road again. East of Sudlersville, MD 300 passes to the south of the historic John Embert Farm, crosses Unicorn Branch, and passes through the hamlets of Duhamel Corners and Peters Corners. MD 300 crosses Andover Branch and curves to the northeast at Busic Church Road to its eastern terminus at the Delaware state line, where Sudlersville Road continues east as DE 300 toward the town of Smyrna. A short distance east of the state line at Everetts Corner, the highway intersects the western terminus of DE 44, which connects with DE 8, which leads to the city of Dover. MD 300 is officially separated into two sections by the US 301 superstreet intersection; MD 300 runs east of US 301 and MD 300A is the portion west of the U.S. Highway. The portion of the highway from US 301 to the Delaware state line is a part of the main National Highway System and that federal system's connection between US 301 and Dover also via DE 300, DE 44, and DE 8. ## History In 1909, the Maryland State Roads Commission designated the Church Hill–Dudley Corners road as one of the original state roads to be constructed by the commission, as part of a connection to Crumpton. However, by 1915 this route was no longer considered a necessary part of the statewide road system. Queen Anne's County constructed with state aid two segments of 9-foot-wide (2.7 m) macadam road west from Sudlersville, both of which were widened to 15 feet (4.6 m) between 1924 and 1926. The first segment, between Sudlersville and Dudley Corners, was completed by 1915. The county also constructed a state-aided concrete road from Main Street in Church Hill east to the west end of the second macadam section in 1919 and 1920. The state paved Sudlersville's Main Street in 1926. MD 300 from Sudlersville to the Delaware state line was constructed as a concrete road in four segments. The first segment to Duhamel Corners was completed in 1928. The second segment was built in 1929, and the third segment through Peters Corners was completed in 1930. The fourth section was started in 1930 and completed to the Delaware state line by 1933. MD 300 was widened to 22 feet (6.7 m) and resurfaced with bituminous concrete in two concurrent projects, from US 213 in Church Hill through Sudlersville and from Sudlersville to the state line, in 1950 and 1951. The highway was extended west to its current terminus as part of the project to build the Church Hill bypass in 1969 and 1970. The MD 300–US 301 intersection was transformed into a superstreet intersection in 2005, resulting in the designation of MD 300A west of the junction. ## Junction list ## See also
2,847,596	Washington Bridge	1,161,585,797	Bridge between Manhattan and the Bronx, New York	[ "Bridges completed in 1888", "Bridges in Manhattan", "Bridges in the Bronx", "Bridges of the United States Numbered Highway System", "Bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City", "Bridges over the Harlem River", "Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "Morris Heights, Bronx", "National Register of Historic Places in the Bronx", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in the Bronx", "Open-spandrel deck arch bridges in the United States", "Road bridges in New York City", "Road bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)", "Steel bridges in the United States", "Truss arch bridges in the United States", "U.S. Route 1", "Washington Heights, Manhattan" ]	The Washington Bridge is a 2,375-foot (724 m)-long arch bridge over the Harlem River in New York City between the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx. The crossing, opened in 1888, connects 181st Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Washington Heights, Manhattan, with University Avenue in Morris Heights, Bronx. It carries six lanes of traffic, as well as sidewalks on both sides. Ramps at either end of the bridge connect to the Trans-Manhattan Expressway and the Cross Bronx Expressway. The two-hinged arch bridge was designed by Charles C. Schneider and Wilhelm Hildenbrand, with modifications to the design made by the Union Bridge Company, William J. McAlpine, Theodore Cooper, and DeLemos & Cordes, with Edward H. Kendall as consulting architect. The bridge features steel-arch construction with two 510-foot (160 m) main arches and masonry approaches. The bridge is operated and maintained by the New York City Department of Transportation. It once carried U.S. Route 1, which since 1963 has traveled over the Alexander Hamilton Bridge. The Washington Bridge is designated as a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Washington Bridge had been planned since the 1860s, but progress was delayed for two decades due to various disputes. The final plan was chosen and modified after an architectural design competition in 1885, and work began in July 1886. Pedestrians with passes could use the bridge by December 1888, and the Washington Bridge was being used for regular travel by the next year, though an official opening ceremony never took place. At the Washington Bridge's completion, it was widely praised as an architectural accomplishment of New York City. Automobiles were able to use the bridge after 1906. After the George Washington Bridge across the Hudson River, connecting to New Jersey in the west, was completed in 1931, the Harlem River crossing served as a connector for traffic between New Jersey and the Bronx. The Alexander Hamilton Bridge was completed in 1963, diverting traffic from the Washington Bridge. After a period of deterioration, the Washington Bridge underwent reconstruction from 1989 to 1993. ## Description The Washington Bridge is an arch bridge over the Harlem River composed two large steel arches flanked at either end by masonry viaducts. Its total length, including approaches, is 2,375 feet (724 m). It connects West 181st Street in Washington Heights, Manhattan, with University Avenue in Morris Heights, Bronx. Within the bridge's vicinity, the Harlem River is in a valley between Manhattan to the west and the Bronx to the east; the terrain on the Manhattan side is steeper than on the Bronx side. The bridge was designed by Charles C. Schneider and Wilhelm Hildenbrand, with Edward H. Kendall as consulting architect. Modifications to the design were made by the Union Bridge Company, chief engineer William J. McAlpine, consulting engineer Theodore Cooper, and cornice architect DeLemos & Cordes. Alfred Noble and John Bogart served as resident engineers while Frank A. Leers was engineer for the construction contractors. The construction of the bridge was subcontracted to steel contractor Passaic Rolling Mill Company and masonry contractor Myles Tierney. Work was subcontracted to Anderson and Barr for caissons, John Peirce for granite, Barber Asphalt Paving Company for the roadway, and Spang Steel Works and Union Mills for the steel production. The granite was from Maine, while the light gray gneiss ashlar was from Connecticut. Gneiss from nearby quarries and excavations was also used, as was Rosendale cement. Over 8,000 short tons (7,100 long tons; 7,300 t) of steel was used for the bridge's arches. The bridge carries six lanes of traffic and a sidewalk on each side. The roadway was originally made of granite, subsequently repaved in asphalt, while the sidewalks were made of bluestone. As built, the bridge deck was 80 feet (24 m) wide, with a roadway of 50 feet (15 m) and sidewalks of 15 feet (4.6 m). The modern crossing contains sidewalks of 6 feet (1.8 m), as well as two 30-foot-wide (9.1 m) roadways separated by a median. The Washington Bridge carries the bus routes, operated by New York City Bus. In 2016, the New York City Department of Transportation, which operates and maintains the bridge, reported an average daily traffic volume in both directions of 57,647. The peak ADT over the Washington Bridge was 68,075 vehicles in 2000. ### Over-river span The two main steel arches of the bridge are each 510 feet (160 m) long. The western arch traverses the Harlem River as well as Bridge Park on the Bronx shore. The eastern arch crosses the Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line and the Major Deegan Expressway (carrying Interstate 87). The arches provide 134 feet (41 m) of vertical clearance at mean high water. #### Arches Each of the arches consists of six large girders made of riveted steel beams, with heavy chords at the top and bottom. The ribs are 13 feet (4.0 m) thick, with minor variations because of the varying thicknesses of the plates that were used in the beams. The ribs run parallel to each other and are spaced 14 feet (4.3 m) apart. The ribs are riveted together with both diagonal and perpendicular bracing. This made the Washington Bridge the first in the United States where the ribs of the arch were made of plate girders. Because the ribs were riveted, the bridge was classified by architectural writer Carl W. Condit as a two-hinged arch bridge. Unusually for arch bridges of the time, the deck lacks diagonal bracing, instead being supported by beams running horizontally and vertically. The beams, spaced about 15 feet (4.6 m) apart, are built of plates and angles. Posts extend from the extrados of the ribs, supporting the floor beams. The posts are rigidly attached to the ribs' flanges and the horizontal and vertical beams; they are connected and braced transversely. The sides of the deck are flanked by cornices with denticulation and modillions. There are shield and branch motifs below the cornice, as well as decorative balustrade poles with shell and seahorse motifs above each shield. The balustrade contains egg-and-dart motifs on their top rails, as well as alternating Ionic columns and decorative torch-and-scroll medallions between each decorative pole. Chain-link fences run atop the original barricades. #### Piers The arches sit between three main piers: one on either end, adjacent to the masonry approach viaducts, as well as one between the arches on the eastern bank of the Harlem River. At the skewbacks, from which the arches rise, the main piers are 40 feet (12 m) wide and 98 feet (30 m) long. The sections of piers above each skewback are made of vertical "cells" and rise nearly 100 feet (30 m) to the bottom of the bridge deck. The interiors of the piers are made of rubble masonry, although the center and eastern piers also contain concrete. The sections of piers below each skewback are solid, made of concrete, and clad with ashlar. A balustrade of solid granite sits atop each of the piers, surrounding balconies that protrude from either sidewalk. The balconies atop each pier once supported illuminated seating areas with lampposts made of cast bronze. ### Approaches The masonry approach viaducts at either end both contain three semicircular concrete arches, clad in granite and gneiss ashlar. There is a seventh, elliptical arch over Undercliff Avenue on the Bronx side of the bridge. The centers for all seven arches were all erected simultaneously to provide structural stability. There are voussoirs running along the tops of these arches, with keystones at the center of each arch. Each of the semicircular arches are 60 feet (18 m) wide and are carried by piers that are 13 feet (4.0 m) thick. The tops of the viaducts contain granite balustrades with circular openings, which rest atop short granite cornices with brackets. When the bridge opened, the circular openings of these balustrades included fleur-de-lis ornaments made in bronze. The approach viaducts also originally contained lampposts made of cast bronze. At the western end of the Washington Bridge, there are ramps to and from the Trans-Manhattan Expressway, carrying Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 9. The approach viaduct crosses Harlem River Drive, which runs along the western shore of the Harlem River. The bridge's main roadway continues west to the intersection of 181st Street and Amsterdam Avenue (formerly Tenth Avenue), adjacent to Highbridge Park. The distance between the end of the masonry approach and the intersection with Amsterdam Avenue is 200 feet (61 m). The intersection is 27 feet (8.2 m) higher than the bridge deck, necessitating a 3.5 percent upward slope. The entrance to the northern sidewalk is in McNally Plaza, slightly northeast of the intersection of 181st Street and Amsterdam Avenue. The entrance to the southern sidewalk is from the southeastern corner of the intersection. The Bronx approach viaduct contains three semicircular arches, as well as an elliptical arch with a width of 56 feet (17 m). Along this approach, a grass median strip once separated the westbound and eastbound lanes. In the original design, there was a granite staircase with bluestone steps, which led to Boscobel Place just south of the bridge. At the eastern end of the bridge, the westbound and eastbound lanes diverge from each other and merge with the Cross Bronx Expressway (I-95 and US 1). A pair of entrance and exit ramps lead to an interchange with University Avenue; the eastbound exit also provides access to Edward L. Grant Highway, which diverges from University Avenue to the south. The entrance and exit ramps to University Avenue also carry the northern and southern sidewalks; the southern sidewalk abuts Bridge Playground. There was a 3.5 percent downward slope from the deck to the original bridge terminus at Aqueduct Avenue. The distance between the end of the masonry approach and the intersection with Aqueduct Avenue was 300 feet (91 m). ## History ### Planning #### Early plans Planning for a bridge carrying pedestrians and transit between the West Bronx and Washington Heights, in Upper Manhattan, dates to the 1860s. The nearby High Bridge, which had been completed in the 1840s, carried the Croton Aqueduct. A crossing slightly north of the High Bridge was first proposed by Andrew Haswell Green, a member of Central Park's board of commissioners. The board had been tasked, in 1868, with laying out streets in Upper Manhattan. Green had suggested constructing bridges and tunnels across the Harlem River between Manhattan and the Bronx, the latter of which was then in Westchester County. He specifically desired a suspension bridge to be built about 1⁄4 mile (0.40 km) north of the High Bridge, with a deck slightly higher than the High Bridge's. That crossing was authorized by the New York State Legislature in 1869, and the New York City Department of Public Parks received authority to plan and build bridges across the Harlem River the next year. No further progress was made for several years. The city contemplated widening the High Bridge so that horse-drawn carriages could use that bridge, but ultimately decided against it. The New York Supreme Court appointed a group of commissioners in February 1876 to acquire land for the bridge. The commissioners condemned a strip of land 100 feet (30 m) wide between Tenth Avenue in Manhattan and Aqueduct Avenue in Westchester. Two years later, several prominent men signed a memorial urging the construction of a suspension bridge slightly north of the High Bridge, which if built would help alleviate the growing traffic between Manhattan and Westchester. In February 1881, Department of Public Parks chief engineer William J. McAlpine presented four alternative bridge designs: a suspension bridge with half-suspension approaches, a suspension bridge with masonry approaches, an iron cantilever bridge, and a masonry-arch viaduct. In each of these plans, the deck was to be 50 feet (15 m) wide, with two sidewalks flanking a 35-foot-wide (11 m) carriageway. The masonry-arch design was recommended as more monumental and durable, but no further progress was made on that plan. The Parks Department received other plans for cantilever and arch bridges in 1883. #### Bridge commission and design competition As the Parks Department had made no progress on the Harlem River bridge in fifteen years, Andrew Green requested that another agency be tasked with the bridge's construction. The New York State Legislature finally transferred authority to a new Harlem River Bridge Commission in June 1885 under Chapter 487 of the Laws of 1885. The bill called for the appointment of three commissioners, although mayor William Russell Grace delayed the selection of these commissioners for a month, believing the bridge's cost to be excessive. Vernon H. Brown, Jacob Lorillard, and David James King were named as the commissioners in July, while McAlpine was named as the chief engineer that September. The commissioners decided to host an architectural design competition for the new bridge, which they hoped would rival the then-new Brooklyn Bridge in stature. The competition was advertised in October 1885. The submissions were required to include an over-river crossing at least 400 feet (120 m) long, a metal superstructure, masonry piers, and an 80-foot-wide (24 m) deck. In December 1885, the commissioners received 17 designs, selecting four for further examination. The Union Bridge Company presented plans for a bridge with three granite-faced arches, each 208 feet (63 m) long. The Commission had wished to accept the proposal, but the company withdrew it when the Commission questioned the legality under the provisions of the 1885 legislation of using “artificial stone” for the bridge’s structural elements. The Commission nonetheless believed it would be satisfactory, but neither side wished to undertake the expense and delay of a formal legal determination. The commissioners also rejected the idea of an all-masonry bridge, instead choosing a metal and stone hybrid. A board of experts were appointed to select the competition's winners. The first prize was awarded in March 1886 to Charles Conrad Schneider and the second prize to Wilhelm Hildenbrand. Schneider's plan was deemed too costly; the proposal, assessed at \$3 million (equivalent to \$ million in ), brought criticism from the New-York Tribune. McAlpine requested Julius W. Adams to prepare a plan for a bridge of masonry, although it would fail to meet the terms of the competition. The Union Bridge Company presented a modified plan combining Schneider's and Hildenbrand's proposals, with steel ribs made of solid webs, although it was also rejected by the commission. The company then submitted a plan that used steel plate girders, which the commission accepted after McAlpine and Cooper modified it. ### Construction In April 1886, the commissioners received bids for the masonry and metalwork. The commissioners wished for one contractor to oversee all work, so all the bids by specialist contractors were rejected. On July 14, 1886, the commissioners awarded a general construction contract to steel contractor Passaic Rolling Mill Company and masonry contractor Myles Tierney. The same month construction began, McAlpine resigned as chief engineer and William Rich Hutton was appointed in his place. After work was begun, the plans were changed to include a cornice made by Jackson Architectural Iron Works, designed by DeLemos & Cordes. The project involved over 500 workers in total. During construction, the crossing was known as the Manhattan Bridge; it was also known during planning as the New Harlem Bridge or the Boscobel Bridge, the latter after a landowner on the Manhattan side. The builders leased land on both banks of the Harlem River so material could be delivered and stored. Because the western bank of the river contains a sharp bluff, the materials for the western bank were delivered in small quantities or stored on the eastern bank. A wharf with derricks and tracks was built, and a single-track inclined plane was constructed from the wharf to the western end of the approach viaduct. A hoisting engine, at the top of the incline, lifted materials to the work site, where derricks moved material from the truck directly into place. Another wharf was built on the east bank of the river, and a 12-foot-deep (3.7 m) channel from both wharves was dredged 1,500 feet (460 m) south to the High Bridge. Material from the east wharf was initially hauled to its place by wagons. In early 1886, a trestle platform with tracks was installed between the eastern wharf and Sedgwick Avenue, which runs close to the coastline. The layer of bedrock under the Harlem River Manhattan Bridge's westernmost large pier was close to the ground, and it was ready for masonry by October 1886. The foundation of the central pier was built upon a timber caisson, to be sunk by compressed air; work on the caisson began in September 1886. The caisson was sunk to the underlying bedrock, which ranged between 17 and 40 feet (5.2 and 12.2 m) beneath mean high water. The caisson was sunk starting in November 1886 and had reached its final depth six months later, after which masonry work began. A similar caisson was sunk for the eastern pier, near Sedgwick Avenue, and masonry work on that pier began in October 1886. Work progressed with little interruption, other than a one-day work stoppage, as well as cold weather in early 1887 that delayed work on the superstructure. By mid-1887, the piers were nearly completed and more than half the required steel had been cast. The arches were constructed on falsework. Construction on the frames of the masonry arches was commenced in September 1887 and they were all enclosed by early 1888. The eastern metal arch across the railroad tracks was fabricated from September to December 1887 and installed in January 1888. This was followed two months later by the installation of the western arch above the river. On average, two hundred men were involved in the installation of the main arches between September 1887 and May 1888. Both the main arches and the approaches required extensive scaffolding. The rubble-masonry interior walls of the approach viaducts were installed between April and July 1888. By the beginning of that July, the deck was nearly completed. The roadway and sidewalks were laid from August to November of the same year. Overall, the bridge cost \$2.85 million to construct, . ### Use #### Opening and early years Work on the Harlem River Manhattan Bridge was substantially completed in December 1888, and pedestrians with special passes were allowed to informally use it. The crossing was turned over to the Harlem River Bridge Commission, which voted to name it after president George Washington in February 1889 in honor of his birthday and the centennial of his inauguration. The Washington Bridge's new name also reflected the fact that the nearby Washington Heights and Fort Washington were also named after him. The proposed opening date in February was postponed because of bad weather. That March, a horse and buggy became the first vehicle to cross the bridge, although it did so without permission, since only pedestrians were allowed to cross at that time. The Hudson River Bridge Commission took ownership of the completed bridge the same month, although the bridge remained closed due to legal disputes. By the first week of May 1889, the Evening World reported that pedestrians and vehicles had been using the Washington Bridge for a week. Ultimately, the bridge never formally opened because of disagreement between the city and the bridge commission. In December 1889, members of the public decided to tear down the barricades that had barred access to the bridge. When the first person jumped to his death from the Washington Bridge in August 1890, The New York Times reported that the bridge had been in use for eighteen months. However, as late as 1891, the bridge was still recorded as being "unopened" because of disputes over maintenance. The Interborough Railway Company announced plans in 1902 to operate a network of streetcar lines in the Bronx, including a line across the Washington Bridge and 181st Street. After some dispute, the company received a franchise for a 181st Street streetcar line in 1904. The Washington Bridge was opened to automobile and streetcar traffic two years later on May 31, 1906, with two tracks for the Interborough Railway Company. The tracks were ultimately used by four Bronx streetcar routes: the Ogden Avenue, 167th Street, 181st Street, and University Avenue routes (now respectively the Bx13, Bx35, Bx36, and Bx3 buses). By the 1910s, West 181st Street in Manhattan was seeing rapid growth because of the streetcar routes over the bridge, as well as because of the opening of the New York City Subway's 181st Street station. #### Crosstown connector Vehicular traffic along the Washington Bridge grew over the years and, by 1928, the city's Department of Plant and Structures was studying a plan to reduce the width of the sidewalks to make space for additional vehicular lanes. The next year, the department requested \$300,000 to widen the bridge (equivalent to \$ million in ) in conjunction with the construction of a suspension bridge over the Hudson River from the west side of Manhattan to New Jersey. A contract for the work was awarded to Poirier and McLane in November 1929, which entailed widening the roadway by 14 feet (4.3 m) and moving the trolley tracks. The work was expected to take about one year. The crossing of the Hudson River was subsequently named the George Washington Bridge, prompting concern that the bridges could be confused. The chairman of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which controlled the George Washington Bridge, defended the decision by saying that the Washington Bridge over the Harlem River was often called the 181st Street Bridge. After the George Washington Bridge opened in late 1931, traffic between New Jersey and the Bronx used local streets between the two bridges until the 178th Street Tunnel opened from Amsterdam Avenue to the George Washington Bridge in 1940. The Washington Bridge over the Harlem River was signed as part of U.S. Route 1 in New York in mid-December 1934. Most streetcar service was withdrawn from the Washington Bridge in October 1947 and replaced by bus service, with only the 167th Street streetcar remaining. That route was replaced with bus service the following July. Work on a widening of the Washington Bridge began in June 1949. The streetcar tracks were removed, and a median barrier was built between the two directions of traffic, creating two 30-foot-wide (9.1 m) granite roadways with three lanes. To make way for the widened roadways, the granite sidewalks were narrowed. Work also began on the 179th Street Tunnel, paralleling the congested 178th Street Tunnel, as well as on the Highbridge Interchange, which included direct ramps from the Harlem River Washington Bridge to the 178th–179th Street Tunnels. The widening was finished by 1950, and the tunnel and interchange opened on May 5, 1952. #### Later modifications The Harlem River Washington Bridge continued to be a bottleneck for crosstown traffic. In 1955, city planner Robert Moses conducted the Joint Study of Arterial Facilities, which recommended additional highways to relieve traffic across New York City, including a bridge parallel to the Washington Bridge. Accordingly, the Alexander Hamilton Bridge and Trans-Manhattan Expressway were respectively planned as bypasses for the Washington Bridge and the 178th–179th Street Tunnels. These projects would connect the Bronx and New Jersey directly via the Interstate Highway System, accommodating increased traffic in construction with the addition of a lower level to the George Washington Bridge. The expressway and bridge's lower deck opened in 1962. The completion of the Alexander Hamilton Bridge in April 1963 resulted in traffic decreases on the Washington Bridge. U.S. 1 was rerouted to the Alexander Hamilton Bridge. Mayor John Lindsay proposed enacting tolls along the University Heights Bridge, as well as all other free bridges across the East and Harlem rivers, in 1971. The proposal failed in 1977 after the United States Congress moved to ban tolls on these bridges. The Washington Bridge was designated a New York City landmark on September 14, 1982, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 22, 1983. Throughout that decade, the bridge deteriorated. By 1988, the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) estimated that it would cost \$25 million to fix the Washington Bridge. At the time, the deck contained several holes and four of six lanes were closed. The centennial of the bridge's opening was celebrated on April 29, 1989. The Washington Bridge underwent a \$33 million reconstruction starting that October, which included replacing the deck, steel, sidewalk, and railings. During the work, some lanes were kept open for traffic. The work was completed in 1993. Further bridge rehabilitation was undertaken in early 2022. That November, the NYCDOT proposed converting the outermost lane on the Bronx-bound roadway into a bus lane, and it proposed converting the outermost Manhattan-bound lane into a two-way bike lane that was physically separated from vehicular traffic. These would connect to existing bike and bus lanes on either side of the bridge. ## Critical reception At the Washington Bridge's completion it was widely praised as an architectural accomplishment of New York City. Cosmopolitan, Scientific American, and The New York Sun respectively called the bridge an "adornment", an "ornament", and "a great work worthy of the city". Architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler characterized the bridge as "an admirable and exemplary work" in 1900, although he had a minor concern about the masonry approaches, which he called "less than adequate architecturally for want of the emphasis". Schuyler subsequently wrote that, although the arch had been modified to appear as though it was a conventional design, "neither is there any question of the attractiveness [...] of the Washington and the old High Bridge". Charles Evan Fowler, an engineer, wrote in 1929 that he thought the Washington Bridge to be "in many respects one of the finest pieces of bridge architecture in the world". Furthermore, Ernest Lawson depicted the bridge as the main subject of his 1913 painting Spring Night. ## Name confusion After the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River opened, there was some confusion between the two bridges, which intensified over time as the Hudson River bridge became better known. David W. Dunlap wrote for The New York Times in 1985, "Just the existence of another prominent bridge by that name surprises even native New Yorkers, some of whom have wondered for years why the Hudson River crossing insistently carries the extra burden of 'George.'" ## See also - List of crossings of the Harlem River - List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New York (state) - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan above 110th Street - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in the Bronx - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan above 110th Street - National Register of Historic Places listings in the Bronx
335,693	M22 Locust	1,170,340,715	null	[ "Airborne tanks", "History of the tank", "Light tanks of the United States", "Military vehicles introduced from 1940 to 1944", "World War II tanks of the United States" ]	The M22 Locust, officially Light Tank (Airborne), M22, was an American-designed airborne light tank which was produced during World War II. The Locust began development in 1941 after the British War Office requested that the American government design a purpose-built airborne light tank which could be transported by glider into battle to support British airborne forces. The War Office had originally selected the Light Tank Mark VII Tetrarch light tank for use by the airborne forces, but it had not been designed with that exact purpose in mind so the War Office believed that a purpose-built tank would be required to replace it. The United States Army Ordnance Department was asked to produce this replacement, which in turn selected Marmon-Herrington to design and build a prototype airborne tank in May 1941. The prototype was designated the Light Tank T9 (Airborne), and was designed so that it could be transported underneath a Douglas C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft, although its dimensions also allowed it to fit inside a General Aircraft Hamilcar glider. After a series of modifications were made to the initial prototype, production of the T9 began in April 1943. It was significantly delayed, however, when several faults were found with the tank's design. Marmon-Herrington only began to produce significant numbers of the T9 in late 1943 and early 1944, and by then the design was considered to be obsolete; only 830 were built by the time production ended in February 1945. As a result, the Ordnance Department gave the tank the specification number M22 but no combat units were equipped with it. However, the War Office believed that the tank would perform adequately despite its faults, so the tank was given the title of "Locust" and 260 were shipped to Great Britain under the Lend-Lease Act. Seventeen Locusts were received by the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment in late 1943, but mechanical problems led to the tanks being withdrawn in favor of the Tetrarchs previously used by the regiment. In October 1944 however, the remaining Tetrarchs of the regiment were replaced by Locusts and eight were used during Operation Varsity in March 1945. The tanks did not perform well in action; several were damaged during the landing process and one was knocked out by a German self-propelled gun. Only two Locusts were able to reach their planned rendezvous point and go into action, occupying a piece of high ground along with an infantry company. The tanks were forced to withdraw from the position after several hours however, because they attracted artillery fire that caused the infantry to suffer heavy casualties. The Locust never saw active service with the British Army again and was classified as obsolete in 1946. A number of Locusts were used by foreign militaries in the post-war period however; the Belgian Army used Locusts as command tanks for their M4 Sherman tank regiments, and the Egyptian Army used several company-sized units of Locusts during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. ## Development history ### Background The Light Tank (Airborne) M22, also known as the Locust, began development in late 1941 in response to a request by the British military earlier in the year for an airmobile light tank which could be transported onto a battlefield by glider. At the time the request was made, the War Office considered using the equipment in Britain's fledgling airborne forces, which had been formed in June 1940 by order of the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. When officials at the War Office examined the equipment that would be required for a British airborne division, they decided that gliders would be an integral component of such a force. These gliders would be used to transport troops and heavy equipment, which by 1941 was to include artillery and some form of tank. Plans to transport an airborne tank went through a number of revisions, but by May 1941 it was considered feasible for a tank weighing 5.4 long tons (5.5 t) to be carried for 300 to 350 mi (480 to 560 km) in a glider, although the latter would have to be specifically designed for the task. In a conference held on January 16, 1941, it was decided that the General Aircraft Hamilcar, under development at the time, would be used to transport a single tank or two Universal Carriers. A decision had recently been made by the War Office that light tanks were no longer to be generally used in the British Army; on the whole they had performed poorly during the Battle of France and were considered to be a liability. As a result, the Vickers-Armstrong Light Tank Mk VII Tetrarch light tank was now considered obsolete. This made it available for use by the airborne forces and it was chosen by the War Office as the tank to be transported by glider. However, it had not been designed specifically as an airborne tank or to be airmobile, and it also possessed several faults. Its size limited the possible crew to three—a driver in the hull and a gunner and commander in the turret—which was found to be too few crew members to operate the Tetrarch effectively. The gunner or commander, in addition to his own duties, had to act as loader for the 2-pounder, which caused delays in combat; a report on the tank written in January 1941 stated that since the commander had both to fight and control the tank, controlling a troop of Tetrarchs during combat would be almost impossible. The War Office was also aware that the tank had a faulty cooling system that made the Tetrarch unsuitable for service in hotter climates, such as the Middle East and North Africa. A purpose-built airborne light tank was therefore required to replace the Tetrarch, but the decision was taken by the War Office not to produce the tank in Britain due to a lack of production capacity. Instead the American government was approached with a request that it produce a replacement for the Tetrarch. This request was made by the British Air Commission in Washington, D.C., with a proposal calling for a tank of between 9 t (8.9 long tons) and 10 t (9.8 long tons) to be developed, this being the maximum weight the War Office had decided could be carried by current glider technology. The proposed tank was to have a primary armament of a 37-millimetre (1.5 in) main gun and secondary armament of a .30-06 Browning M1919A4, and a crew of three. The specification also called for a maximum speed of 40 mph (64 km/h) and an operational radius of 200 miles (320 km). The turret and front of the hull were to have an armour thickness of between 40 millimetres (1.6 in) and 50 millimetres (2.0 in), and the sides of the tank a thickness of 30 millimetres (1.2 in). The United States Ordnance Department was given the task of developing the proposed tank, and in turn requested designs from three American companies: General Motors, J. Walter Christie and Marmon-Herrington. The design offered by Christie in mid-1941 was rejected as it failed to meet the specified size requirements, as was a modified design the company produced in November. At a conference in May 1941, the Ordnance Department chose the Marmon-Herrington design and requested that the company produce a prototype tank, which was completed in late 1941; it was designated the Light Tank T9 (Airborne) by the company and the Ordnance Department. ### Development The T9 had a crew of three and weighed 6.7 metric tons (7.4 short tons). It was armed with a 37-millimetre (1.5 in) main gun and a coaxial .30-06 Browning M1919A4 machine-gun, as well as two further machine-guns on the right-hand side of the bow. The main gun and coaxial machine-gun were mounted in a powered turret, which also had a gun stabilizer installed to allow the gun to be fired when the tank was moving. The T9 was powered by a 162 horse-power six-cylinder, air-cooled Lycoming engine, and the thickness of the armor varied; the front, rear and sides of the hull had a thickness of 12.5 millimetres (0.49 in) while the sloped portions of the hull had a thickness of 9.5 millimetres (0.37 in). The tank's engine was able to give it a maximum speed of 40 mph (64 km/h). The T9 was not primarily designed to be transported by glider, a significant change from the original request, but instead was to be carried under the belly of a Douglas C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft, using four lifting brackets welded onto each side of the hull of the tank. The turret was designed to be removable so that it could be detached and transported inside the C-54 and reattached once on the battlefield. The loading took six men about twenty-five minutes, the unloading ten minutes. On top of this the aircraft required a proper airfield on which to land. However, the T9 was of the correct shape, weight and size to be carried inside a Hamilcar glider, suggesting that these dimensions had been chosen deliberately so that the tank could be transported inside a glider if required. A number of changes were made to the prototype during testing. The main change was the addition of supporting steel beams to improve and strengthen the suspension of the tank, which increased the weight to 7.05 metric tons (7.77 short tons), the maximum weight that could be carried by a Hamilcar glider. Two new prototypes were ordered by the Ordnance Department in January 1942 and were delivered by Marmon-Herrington in November 1942. They were both designated T9E1. The new tanks incorporated a number of requested changes. The turret was altered in shape; it was lightened by the removal of the power traverse mechanism and the gyro stabilizer for the main armament. The front of the hull was altered from a stepped appearance to a more sloped profile, which would provide for a better ballistic shape; the two .30-06 machine-guns were removed from the bow of the tank and the suspension was altered to try and reduce the weight of the design. However, contrary to normal practice, the Ordnance Department had placed an order for the original T9 design in April 1942, before the T9E1 models were delivered in November 1942; 500 were ordered in April and this order rapidly increased to a total of 1900, with deliveries to begin in November. However, production difficulties and design changes caused this date to be delayed several times, and it was not until April 1943 that production of the T9 actually began. Production of the T9 peaked at 100 tanks produced per month between August 1943 and January 1944; however, this number rapidly declined when the results of the British and American testing programmes were reported to the Ordnance Department, and only 830 T9s were ever produced. The faults discovered with the design led to the Ordnance Department giving it the specification number M22, but classing it as 'limited standard'. No American combat units were equipped with the tank, although some of those produced were used for training purposes and two experimental units were formed and equipped with Locusts. The 151st Airborne Tank Company was formed on 15 August 1943, despite concerns that there would be insufficient transport aircraft to deliver the unit into battle, and the 28th Airborne Tank Battalion was also formed in December of the same year. However, neither unit saw combat, due to the US Army's lack of interest in using them in an airborne capacity. The 151st Airborne Tank Company remained in the United States, shuttling from base to base throughout the war, and the 28th Airborne Tank Battalion was refitted with conventional tanks in October 1944. Some 25 Locusts were ordered in April 1944 for use in the European Theater of Operations, and delivered by September; although a small number were sent to the United States Sixth Army Group in Alsace, France, for testing, they were never used in combat. However, the British still required the M22 as a replacement for the Tetrarch and the first prototype Locust was shipped to Britain in May 1942 for testing, followed by the second prototype T9E1 in July 1943. Although they were of the opinion that the M22 possessed a number of faults, the War Office believed it would perform adequately as an airborne tank. Thus the tank received the official title of "Locust" and 260 were shipped to Britain under the Lend-Lease Act. The majority of the Locusts ended up placed in tank parks until they were scrapped at the end of the conflict, and only eight ever saw action with British airborne forces. ### Faults Extensive testing of the M22 occurred in 1943 and 1944, and was conducted by both the Ordnance Department and the British Armoured Fighting Vehicle (AFV) Gunnery School at Lulworth Ranges. These tests uncovered a number of faults and problems with the Locust. The AFV School noted that the process of loading the M22 into a C-54 transport aircraft took considerable time and involved the use of complex equipment. Overall the process took six untrained men 24 minutes, although it was believed this could be shortened with sufficient training. Unloading was also a long process, taking approximately ten minutes; it was noted that the time it took to unload the M22 from a C-54 on the battlefield meant that both the tank and aircraft would make excellent targets for enemy fire. Operational use of the tank would therefore be restricted to the availability of airfields large enough to accommodate a fully laden C-54, which might not be in the right geographical location or might even have to be captured in advance of a planned airborne operation. A heavy transport aircraft, the Fairchild C-82 Packet, was developed to specifically carry the M22 inside its fuselage and unload it through a set of clam-shell doors, but it did not enter service until after the war had ended. The US Army Armored Board released a critical report on the Locust in September 1943, stating that it was inadequate in the areas of reliability and durability, and indicating that it would not be able to be successfully used during airborne operations. By 1944 it was also realized that the design of the tank was actually obsolete. The armor of the M22 in several areas was found to be so thin that it was incapable of even resisting the armor-piercing ammunition of a .50 caliber machine-gun. Complaints were also made about the 37mm main armament, which was not powerful enough to penetrate the armor of most tanks used by the Axis powers. Similarly a report made on March 13, 1944, by elements of the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment complained that when a high-explosive shell was fired from the gun, the resulting shell-burst was so weak that observers had difficulty in seeing where it impacted. There were also mechanical problems with the design, which caused it to be unreliable; the engine was also found to be underpowered, possibly due to problems with the torque characteristics of the engine or an inefficient transmission system. ## Operational history ### World War II #### Initial service By late 1941, several new British units had been raised specifically trained to conduct airborne operations. The largest such unit was the newly formed 1st Airborne Division, and on 19 January 1942 the War Office took the decision that a light tank detachment would be amongst the support units attached to the division. Designated the Light Tank Squadron, this unit was to be formed of nineteen light tanks and would operate to the fore of the division, using their speed to capture objectives and hold them until relieved by other units. The unit chosen for conversion into the Light Tank Squadron was 'C' Special Services Squadron, which had seen service as an independent tank unit during Operation Ironclad, the invasion of Madagascar in mid-1942. The squadron was also equipped with Tetrarchs, which had recently been re-designated as an airborne tank by the War Office. 'C' Squadron was officially transferred to the 1st Airborne Division on 24 June 1942, bringing with it seven Tetrarchs amongst the other vehicles it was equipped with. The unit immediately began training, but did not stay attached to the 1st Airborne Division for very long; during mid-1943, the division was transported to the Middle East, where it would eventually participate in Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of the island of Sicily. 'C' Squadron remained in Britain however, as not enough Hamilcar gliders had yet been built to transport and deploy all of their Tetrarchs. The squadron was transferred to the division with which it would spend the rest of the war; the 6th Airborne Division, raised in April 1943. The squadron continued to train as an air-portable unit and participated in a number of exercises intended to familiarize it with the duties it would perform, including reconnaissance of enemy positions and performing counter-attacks against enemy infantry and armor. In mid-July an American pilot was sent to Britain to illustrate that the tank could fit inside a Hamilcar and be landed, and then on October 25 the Light Tank Squadron received a shipment of seventeen Locusts. During November the new tanks were issued to the squadron, replacing a majority of the Tetrarchs; however a small number of Tetrarchs fitted with a 3 inch (76.2 mm) infantry support howitzer, which were designated as Tetrarch 1 CS (Close Support), were retained. Several of the Locusts also were fitted with Littlejohn adaptors to increase the range and penetration power of their main armament, although it is not clear how many were fitted or if they were fitted at manufacture or after they reached the squadron. The squadron was expanded into the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment in December 1943, and as late as March 1944, plans were made for the regiment to be equipped with seventeen Locusts and three Tetrarchs when it took part in Operation Tonga, the British airborne landings in Normandy. However, records indicate that by April the Hamilcar gliders of the regiment were being refitted to only carry Tetrarchs, and by late March the Locusts appear to have been completely replaced. This seems to have been due to mechanical and gunnery problems with the Locusts, as well as specific problems with the design of the Locust's gearbox. The regiment took part in Operation Tonga as part of 6th Airlanding Brigade in June 1944, equipped with twenty Tetrarchs. However, due to their thin armor and underpowered armament they proved to be completely outclassed by the tanks and self-propelled guns deployed by German forces, such as the Panzer IV and the Sturmgeschütz III. By August, in preparation for the 6th Airborne Division's participation in the planned breakout from the Normandy bridgehead, the majority of Tetrarchs in 'A' Squadron were replaced with Cromwell fast cruiser tanks; only three Tetrarchs were retained, remaining with the Headquarters troop of 'A' Squadron. In September the division returned to Britain and in the first week of October 1944, the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment underwent an extensive reorganization. The regiment was completely restructured and retired all the remaining Tetrarch tanks it was equipped with, replacing them with Locusts. #### Operation Varsity In March 1945, the 6th Airborne Division was informed that it would be participating in Operation Varsity, an airborne operation in support of 21st Army Group crossing the River Rhine during Operation Plunder. On March 24 the division, in conjunction with the American United States 17th Airborne Division, would be dropped by parachute and glider near the city of Wesel, where it would capture the strategically important village of Hamminkeln, several important bridges over the River IJssel and the southern portion of a major forest, the Diersfordter Wald. Eight Locusts from the regiment, divided into two troops of four, would land with the 6th Airlanding Brigade in landing-zone 'P' east of the Diersfordter Wald and west of Hamminkeln, acting as a divisional reserve; the rest of the regiment would arrive by road after crossing the Rhine with 21st Army Group. The eight Locusts were loaded into separate Hamilcar gliders between 17 and 20 March, and on the morning of 24 March were towed from the airfield by Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers to join the rest of the gliders and transport aircraft carrying the two airborne divisions. Weather conditions for the operation were excellent, with clear visibility, and all eight gliders arrived in the vicinity of the landing zone without incident. During their attempts to land, however, the small force was severely depleted; one glider broke away from the Halifax towing it and disintegrated, apparently as a result of structural failure, with the Locust inside it falling to the ground. Three more gliders came under heavy German anti-aircraft fire and crashed as they landed; one tank survived with a damaged machine gun, another crashed through a house which put its wireless radio set and main armament out of action, and the third broke loose of the glider as it landed and was flipped over onto its turret, rendering it useless. Six Locusts landed intact on the landing zone, including several with significant damage, but two of these tanks did not reach the rendezvous point chosen for the regiment. One undamaged tank came to the aid of a group of American paratroopers who were under fire from a German self-propelled gun but was rapidly knocked out by the German vehicle, wounding two crewmembers. A second tank broke down as it attempted to tow a jeep out of a crashed glider, although the crew remained with the tank and supported British airborne troops in the area. Of the four Locusts that reached the rendezvous point, only two were undamaged and fully fit for action; these two were immediately deployed to the high ground east of the Diersfordter Wald, while being covered by the two damaged tanks. Upon arrival they were engaged by German troops and had to be supported by an infantry company, and soon their presence began attracting a great deal of artillery and anti-tank fire. Although neither of the tanks were hit, a number of infantrymen were killed or wounded and after several hours the tanks were forced to withdraw. The four tanks and remaining infantry formed a small force that repelled several German attacks on their position, and were eventually relieved at 10:30 by a tank squadron from the 44th Royal Tank Regiment and elements of the rest of the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment. ### Post-war Operation Varsity was the only time the Locust was used in action with the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment or the British Army as a whole. A report issued at the end of a conference held by the Director (Air) of the War Office in January 1946 confirmed that the Locust design was considered obsolete; any light tanks to be used in post-war airborne formations would be made from completely new designs. The British Army disposed of a small number of Locusts by transferring them to foreign militaries. Several had their main armaments removed and were used by the Belgian Army as command tanks for their M4 Sherman regiments, and a few Locusts even found their way back to the U.S., where they had their turrets removed and served as agricultural tractors. The June 3, 1946 issue of Life magazine has a five-photo article about Kamiel Dupre, an Illinois farmer who bought two surplus Locusts for \$100 each from the Rock Island arsenal. Intending to use one as a farm tractor and one for spare parts, Dupre found the vehicles to be in poor condition and difficult to use and maintain. A larger number of Locusts served with the Egyptian Army, replacing a number of older tank models, such as the Vickers-Armstrong Mark V light tank, that the Egyptian military had acquired during the interwar period. Several company-sized units of Locusts were used by the Egyptians during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. ## Operators - Belgium - Egypt - United Kingdom - United States ## Survivors Today 16 tanks are known to survive in various conditions: - One vehicle at the Bovington Tank Museum, England. - One tank is owned by the Dutch National Military Museum, Soesterberg, where it is on display. - One vehicle is owned by the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces, Brussels (Belgium). It is a runner and regularly participates in reenactment events. - One example is a static display in Negba, Israel. - One tank is displayed at the Armoured Corps Museum, Ahmednagar, India. - One Locust is displayed at the Museum of American Armor on Long Island. - One example is currently stored at Fort Lee, USA and will be part of the new US Army Ordnance Museum when it opens. - One vehicle with a turret reproduction is currently stored at Fort Benning, USA, and will be part of the new National Armor and Cavalry Museum when it opens. - One tank is displayed at the Rock Island Arsenal Museum, USA. - One running vehicle is owned by Roberts Armory World War II Museum in Rochell, USA. The turret of this vehicle is a reproduction. - One tank is displayed at the American Heritage Museum, Stow, Massachusetts, USA. - One running vehicle is owned by the World War II US Military Vehicle Museum, San Rafael, USA. The turret seems to be a reproduction. - One unrestored hull is currently owned by Hugh Movie Supplies in England. The owner also has a turret cast reproduction and an engine, but is missing the original tracks (the original tracks and sprockets can be replaced by M5 Stuart ones). - One M22 Locust hull, which had been converted by the British for use as a personnel carrier, is stored in an unrestored condition at the Museum of American Armor on Long Island. - Two vehicles are owned by Kevin Wheatcroft in England. - One tank is displayed at the Institute of Military Technology in Titusville, Florida. Unrestored condition with a LVT-3 Turret installed. The Hull serial number is 49. - One tank undergoing restoration is located in Georgetown, Texas
68,691,548	Episode 5675	1,068,335,050	2021 episode of Hollyoaks	[ "2021 British television episodes", "Hollyoaks episodes" ]	"Episode 5675" is an episode of the British television soap opera Hollyoaks. The episode focuses on a birthday party for Walter Deveraux (Trevor A. Toussaint) and features an exclusively Black cast. The episode was produced, written and directed by Black creatives – the first of its kind for a British soap opera. The episode formed part of broadcaster Channel 4's Black to Front movement, a day where solely Black-fronted programming was shown. Plans for the episode were initially announced in August 2020 as a response to the protest movement arising from the murder of George Floyd. The episode premiered as a first-look on E4 on 9 September 2021, with its mainstream broadcast following a day later on Channel 4. On 25 July 2021, the soap announced that production on the episode had commenced, with Thabo Mhlatshwa writing for the episode and Patrick Robinson directing; this marked Robinson's directorial debut for a continuing drama. Clothing for the episode was sourced from local Black-owned businesses and Black musicians were used for the score on the episode, with the production team incorporating both original scores and existing songs. It was also announced that the soap had cast five new Black cast members for the episode, all of whom would appear as series regulars from after the episode had aired. The characters were later confirmed to be Nate Denby (Chris Charles), Pearl Anderson (Dawn Hope), Olivia Bradshaw (Emily Burnett) and DeMarcus Westwood (Tomi Ade), as well as returning character Prince McQueen (Malique Thompson-Dwyer). Jamelia and DJ Target also guest starred in the episode. ## Plot Martine Deveraux (Kéllé Bryan) receives a text from the hospital stating that she will receive the results from her recent MRI scan that day. She heads off to the party she is hosting for her father Walter (Trevor A. Toussaint). Unbeknownst to Martine, her daughter Celeste Faroe (Andrea Ali) has invited her father Felix Westwood (Richard Blackwood) in a bid to reunite her parents. When Felix arrives at the party, he explains that Walter demanded that he left Martine. Felix's estranged son DeMarcus (Tomi Ade) also arrives at the party and is asked to stay in the village by Felix. Stressed out from family drama, Martine goes canoeing in the river by the party. Felix follows her, but is followed by DeMarcus, who crashes his boat into Felix's and sends him underwater. He almost drowns, but is saved by Martine. The two later agree to reconcile their relationship. Pearl Anderson (Dawn Hope) speaks with Walter about his dead brother Wilfed, who killed himself due to facing persecution for being gay. Pearl informs a guilt-ridden Walter that while he can learn from the past, he should live in the present. Ripley Lennox (Ki Griffin) meets with Brooke Hathaway (Tylan Grant), where the two confess their romantic feelings for each other. Brooke states that they would not kiss Ripley until the pair had been on at least three dates, so Ripley asks Brooke on three dates within the day. After the third date, the pair kiss. After Goldie McQueen (Chelsee Healey) learns that her son Prince (Malique Thompson-Dwyer) has become a vegan and wants to take Olivia Bradshaw's (Emily Burnett) surname after they get married, she feels he is ashamed of the McQueen family. Olivia then finds Prince eating a meat burger and he reveals that he has changed himself to appeal to her. In response, Olivia enlists Goldie's help to give her a makeover in order to look like a McQueen. While alone, Nate Denby (Chris Charles) lays out printed cards of numerous residents' social media profiles and picks up Felix's. ## Production In August 2020, Hollyoaks's broadcaster, Channel 4, expressed their plan to host a Black Takeover Day, which was later renamed to Black to Front. For the day, Channel 4's flagship programming aired episodes starring and created by Black talent. The purpose of the initiative was to "amplify the conversations around representation and diversity" a year after the protest movement arising from the murder of George Floyd. The broadcaster worked with the Sir Lenny Henry Centre for Media Diversity for Black to Front. The centre stated that if the initiative were to be handled incorrectly, it would risk people believing that Channel 4 are attempting to capitalise on Black Lives Matter. Alongside programmes including The Big Breakfast, Countdown and Celebrity Gogglebox, it was confirmed that Hollyoaks would be included in the initiative. It was confirmed that the episode would have an extended runtime of 60 minutes and would solely feature Black cast members, as well as a predominantly Black production team. The clothing worn by cast members was also sourced from local Black-owned businesses. Grant, who portrays Brooke, commented that it was their favourite costumes to date. All of the music featured was performed by Black musicians, some suggested by cast members. On 25 July 2021, it was confirmed by The Guardian that filming was underway. They revealed that the episode would be centred around Walter's birthday and that it would feature both new and existing Black characters. They also revealed that actor Patrick Robinson would be making his directorial debut on a continuing drama by directing. Bryan acted as a script consultant, alongside starring as Martine. In an interview with The Guardian, Hollyoaks's executive producer Lucy Allan stated that the team were prepared to receive criticism following the episode. However, Allan said that negative comments from viewers would not matter to her or the team and that people who do not understand the concept are "all the more reason" to execute it. Blackwood, who portrays Felix, was interviewed by Stephen Patterson of the Metro about the episode. He felt that since Black people are "not really on the screen", it was important to show equality onscreen. Blackwood added: "we live in a multicultural society and it needs to be represented". A week before the episode aired, it was confirmed that a stunt involving Felix would take place. The production team hinted that the stunt could result in Felix's death. The stunt involved Blackwood's character almost drowning and being resurfaced from the water. Blackwood said that he enjoyed filming the stunt but that he found it difficult to put his head completely underwater. He wished that he could have performed the full stunt himself, feeling that seeing a stunt double film "takes away from the magic of being involved". As well as immersing himself underwater, Blackwood also found it difficult to act unconscious. He said that since breathing is the first instinct when emerging from water, it was hard to act like he had passed out, especially due to not being able to train for such a performance. Ade, who made his debut appearance as DeMarcus in the episode, found filming the stunt "crazy", owing his nervousness during the stunt to the fact that he cannot swim in real life. He was scared to be on the lake but confirmed that everyone involved in the production of the stunt was cautious and followed safety precautions. Due to the cold weather and water during the filming of the stunt, cast members who were involved had to wear wetsuits. Griffin, who portrays Ripley, said that the theme of the episode is love, and that it involves Ripley and Brooke realising that they may have a romantic connection. The couple's plot centres on Ripley continuously messing up their dates, but Brooke seeing an endearing quality in Ripley's efforts to make them work. Griffin was happy to be featured in the episode and praised director Robinson for "created an amazing environment for [them] to work in". Ali, who portrays Celeste, felt honoured to appear, describing the episode as "history". Ali said that it would have "a lot of highs, a lot of lows, and a lot of drama" but stated that ultimately, the episode is focused on bringing the Deveraux family together. She hoped that it would show a variety of Black characterisation and that they should not be typecast. Like co-star Griffin, Ali also praised Robinson for his involvement. She explained that due to his acting background, Robinson could sympathise with the cast members and give individual notes to all of them. She liked being able to get his opinion and to see his perspective, as she felt it was helpful and beneficial. For the episode, numerous Black cast members made their first appearance and it was confirmed that they would continue to appear in Hollyoaks as series regulars. They also hinted that two Black guest stars would appear in it. These characters were later confirmed to be Nate, Olivia, Pearl, DeMarcus and returning character Prince. Thompson-Dwyer voiced his excitement to reprise his role as Prince for the episode since he felt that the episode would raise awareness that he felt is needed on television. The guest stars were later confirmed to be Jamelia and DJ Target. Jamelia appeared in the episode as Sharon Bailey, the daughter of Pearl. She described the filming process as "the most fantastic experience". Jamelia felt like she had been around family during the filming of the episode and described the process as joyous. ## Reception The E4 broadcast of the episode received 450,000 viewers. Patterson (Metro) wrote that the "highly-anticipated" episode did not disappoint and that it played a "pivotal role" in Channel 4's Black to Front initiative. He felt that the episode was ground-breaking and that it provided numerous memorable moments for the viewers of Hollyoaks. He listed Martine saving Felix's life in the lake as one of the "greatest scenes" from the episode. Patterson also gave a nod to Bryan, describing her performance during the episode as incredible. Valentino Vecchietti of Diva also felt that the episode was ground-breaking and a historic moment in British television. Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap billed Hollyoaks as the soap at the forefront of "pushing soap boundaries" due to the episode.
12,510,950	Jake Seamer	1,156,293,053	English amateur cricketer (1913–2006)	[ "1913 births", "2006 deaths", "Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford", "Cricketers from Somerset", "English cricketers", "Free Foresters cricketers", "Oxford University cricketers", "People educated at Marlborough College", "Somerset cricket captains", "Sudan Political Service officers", "Wiltshire cricketers" ]	John Wemyss "Jake" Seamer (23 June 1913 – 16 April 2006) was an amateur cricketer who played for Oxford University and Somerset either side of the Second World War. A bespectacled cricketer, Seamer was a right-handed batsman who played with a defensive streak to his game which was rarely seen among amateur batsmen of his time. He was described as a leg break googly bowler, but in truth he rarely bowled at all, and claimed just four first-class wickets. Seamer played the best of his cricket while at Oxford University. All four of his first-class centuries were made for the university side, and his average for Oxford was 35.30, significantly higher than his career average of 20.35. He made his highest score against Free Foresters in his second year, during which he accrued 858 runs, more than double he managed in any other season. On completion of his studies at Oxford, Seamer joined the Sudan Political Service, which limited his first-class cricket appearances to periods of leave. He was named as one of three amateurs to captain Somerset in 1948, leading the team during June and July. That season was his last for Somerset, and he made only one further first-class appearance. He became a district commissioner in the Sudan, and after leaving the service, he taught at Marlborough College and was twice mayor of Marlborough. ## Early life Jake Seamer was born in Shapwick, Somerset on 23 June 1913. The son of a vicar, Seamer had two secret career wishes in his youth; he wanted to be either an actor or, failing that, a county cricketer. He attended Marlborough College in Wiltshire, and played for the school's cricket team from 1930 to 1932. In the winter terms, Marlborough also ran rugby union and hockey teams – rugby in the term before Christmas and hockey in the term between Christmas and Easter. Seamer was a member of the rugby team in 1930 and 1931 first as a wing forward, then as a prop forward. He also played hockey for the Marlborough first team. As a cricketer, his performances for his school led to his selection for "Lord's Schools" in a match against "The Rest" at Lord's Cricket Ground, in which he scored 33 runs in the first innings and 3 runs in the second, remaining not out on both occasions. Following that match he also appeared for a representative Public Schools side against the Army at Lord's, but his batting was less successful, failing to reach double figures in either innings. During the summer between graduating from Marlborough College and going up to Oxford University, Seamer made his county cricket debut, playing three matches for Somerset County Cricket Club. In his first match for Somerset, played against Derbyshire, he played as a specialist batsman at number eight in the batting order. He came in to bat when Somerset had lost six wickets for the addition of 88 runs, and together with his captain, Reggie Ingle, helped Somerset to recover. The pair put on a partnership of 104 runs, and Seamer scored 70 runs in his debut innings. In both his other matches for the county that season, Seamer batted as part of the top order, and though he reached double figures in each of his innings, he did not achieve another half-century. ## University years ### University cricket Following his graduation from Marlborough College, Seamer attended Brasenose College, Oxford. Seamer played just one first-class match for the university in his first year, appearing against Worcestershire at The Parks. He scored 33 before being run out in his only innings, and also bowled six overs, though without claiming a wicket. He appeared eleven times for Somerset that year, but despite regular scores of 20 or more, he did not score a half-century, and averaged 13.06 runs. In his second year at Oxford, Seamer played as part of a strong batting line-up for the university: Fredrick de Saram passed 1,000 runs for the side, while Mandy Mitchell-Innes fell just two runs short of the landmark. Seamer, despite scoring over three hundred runs less than either, finished second in the batting averages for the year with 51.76. He scored three centuries for the university, passing one hundred runs against the Free Foresters, the Minor Counties and the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). His score of 194, made against the Free Foresters was the highest first-class total of Seamer's career, and the three centuries he scored during 1934 were remarkable for the fact that he only scored one other first-class century during his career. Seamer earned his cricketing Blue in 1934, appearing in the University match against Cambridge University. He was dismissed for a duck in the first innings, but batted with resolve in the second. He remained at the crease with the tail for over two hours, eventually being not out on 24, to help Oxford force a draw. Seamer found batting more difficult in the County Championship: in thirteen innings for Somerset in 1934, he passed 50 once, against Kent, and averaged 16.81, significantly lower than his total for Oxford. Seamer scored the last of his four first-class centuries in 1935, his third year at Oxford and his fourth of ten seasons of first-class cricket. The hundred, like all his previous ones, was scored for the university; he reached 113 runs in the second innings of a defeat to Surrey. Seamer struggled for runs in his other matches for the university that year, and in the contest against Cambridge, he scored four and three in a game which Cambridge won easily. In nine innings for Somerset that season, he never scored more than 17 runs and averaged 7.11. Seamer graduated in 1935, but returned to Oxford for a further year to study Arabic. In his final year of cricket at Oxford, he only appeared in three matches: he was not required to bat in either innings against the Free Foresters, and only batted once against Leicestershire, scoring 5 runs. Out of form and not required for the university team, he went off to play for Somerset in the match against Cambridge University and scored 68. He followed that with a further game for Somerset in which he was not successful and travelled with the Somerset side for the next match against Glamorgan at Llanelli, but Mitchell-Innes, as Oxford captain, called him up as cover for the injured Roger Kimpton; on the morning of the match, The Times reported that Kimpton was likely to play and Seamer would be stood down. In the event, Kimpton failed his fitness test and Seamer's final match for the university team was the university match against Cambridge, and as in the previous year, Oxford suffered a heavy defeat. Seamer scored 11 runs in the first innings, and then when Oxford were asked to follow on, he batted tenaciously to reach 43 runs, which forced Cambridge to bat again. Requiring 17 runs to win, Cambridge chased the total down in 5.4 overs with eight wickets to spare. In total, Seamer played 21 matches for Oxford, scoring 1,059 runs at an average of 35.30. ### Hockey at Oxford While Seamer won three Blues for cricket, he was even more successful as a field hockey player, appearing in the university hockey match four times. In his first year at the university, he was a late call-up to the team for the big match when the regular right wing-half, M. Martin Harvey, was ill. For the 1933–34 season, when he was secretary of the hockey club, he moved to right-back and won a second Blue. For the 1934/35 season, Seamer was captain of hockey at Oxford. The university match in February 1935, in which Seamer again played at right-back, was a goal-less draw in which defences proved too strong for the forwards on either side. Seamer's reappearance in Oxford for his Arabic course after graduation meant that he was available for the university hockey team in the 1935/36 season as well: the 1936 university match, due to be played at Beckenham on 15 February, had to be postponed because of dense fog on the day. The match was played a week later on a pitch that was, according to the report in The Times, pretty much waterlogged, and Seamer and his fellow back Leeming were credited with enabling Oxford to emerge with a 1–1 draw: Seamer set up the attack that led to the Oxford goal and overall "Oxford owed much to their backs, J. W. Seamer and J. A. Leeming, whose defence, although becoming a trifle wild in the second half, was the saving of the side". ## County cricket On the completion of his extra year learning Arabic at Oxford, Seamer joined the Sudan Political Service. He continued to play cricket for Somerset during his periods of leave, but it dramatically reduced his availability for the county. During his time at Oxford, Seamer had become good friends with Mitchell-Innes; the pair both attended the same college, and played together for both the university and Somerset. When Mitchell-Innes graduated from Oxford the year after Seamer, he joined his friend in the Sudan, where the pair often organised cricket matches, despite the extreme heat. Seamer's duties prevented him from playing for Somerset at all during 1937, but he appeared eight times the following year through May and early June. His average that season was the highest he achieved after leaving university, recording 20.78 from his 14 innings, though his highest score was 47 runs, scored against Derbyshire. In 1939, the last season of first-class county cricket in England before the Second World War, Seamer played seven times for Somerset. However, unlike his appearances the previous year, in which he had generally batted as part of the top order, Seamer predominantly appeared in the middle order for the county in 1939, and his highest score was 28. After the conclusion of the war, county cricket resumed in 1946, during which year Seamer played two matches with little success. He did not appear in first-class cricket in 1947, but was named as one of three captains of Somerset in 1948. Jack Meyer had reluctantly captained the side in 1947, but stepped down at the end of the season: he was having problems with his sight, and required daily painkillers for lumbago. There was no obvious replacement for Meyer; like many counties Somerset would not consider having a professional captain, and finding an amateur with the time and money to lead the side was proving troublesome. So, with no single candidate suitable, the Somerset committee announced that the club would be captained first by Mitchell-Innes during his leave from the Sudan, then Seamer during his own leave. Once both of these had returned to their duties, George Woodhouse would take over. In his history of Somerset County Cricket Club, Peter Roebuck describes the situation as a "remarkable state of affairs", while David Foot suggests that the true number of captains was closer to seven. During his time as captain, Seamer carried an old train board saying "To Tonbridge" in his cricket bag, claiming that it brought good luck to the team. In the eleven matches that Somerset played under his captaincy though, only one resulted in a victory. Seamer claimed that some of his best friends at the club were among the professionals, who he praised for their team spirit, despite the strained leadership changes. His friendship with the professionals was in contrast to the attitudes of both the club's committee, and its captain for the previous season. Meyer had been unpopular with the professionals due to his attitude to the game, and the manner in which he utilised them, while the club's committee felt that the professional players deserved little recognition when successful, claiming that this was what they were paid for. Seamer's batting was no longer strong enough to support his inclusion in the team, and he played low in the middle order. He failed to reach double figures in any of his first seven innings that season, but recorded a half-century against Kent in his final match for Somerset, his first since 1936 in first-class cricket. Seamer did not appear again for Somerset after his period as captain in 1948. In total for the county, he scored 1,405 runs at an average of 15.61. He made his final first-class appearance the following season, appearing for the Free Foresters against Oxford University. He later made three Minor Counties Championship appearances for Wiltshire in 1956, though without much success. ## Later life Seamer married Letice Dorothy Lee, and had two children, Katherine Judith and Mary. By 1948 Seamer had risen to be the district commissioner for Khartoum North. When he left the Sudan Political Service in 1950, he returned to England and took up a teaching position at his old school, Marlborough College. In addition to teaching Latin, English and history, he became a housemaster, before his retirement in 1973. He served as mayor of Marlborough twice, and as a justice of the peace, and was awarded Freedom of the City in 2001. He died, following an illness on 16 April 2006, aged 92. ## Personality and style A personable man, Seamer was a popular captain of Somerset. He had some quirks to his personality, and Roebuck goes as far as describing him as an eccentric. During his childhood he would often cycle from his home in Shapwick to Taunton, a distance of over 15 miles, to watch Somerset play cricket. When he began playing for the county, prior to starting at Oxford University, a number of his childhood heroes were still in the side. In one match, Seamer had been dismissed, and passed one of these heroes, Jack White coming to the wicket. White asked what kind of bowler Jim Cornford was, as he had not seen him play before. Seamer, unsure, bluffed and stated that he bowled outswingers. Shortly afterwards, White returned to the dressing room, irate, and declared "the fellow bowls bloody inswingers." Bespectacled, Seamer dressed smartly and was proud of his Somerset heritage, often putting on a broad accent when he was in London. Unlike most amateurs of the time, Seamer prioritised defensive play when batting; he watched the ball and minimised the risks, valuing his own wicket. This careful style was exemplified by his innings in the university match of 1934, when he helped Oxford salvage a draw by batting for two hours with the tail, during which time he scored 24 runs. Despite his circumspect batting technique, Seamer enjoyed his cricket, and in a more relaxed setting he once scored a century before lunch: playing in the Sudan, the match started at seven in the morning to avoid the worst of the heat. Before their opponent's innings, Seamer and his team-mates got them drunk to improve their chances of a win.
73,863,747	A (For 100 Cars)	1,172,878,296	2017 minimalist composition by Ryoji Ikeda	[ "2017 compositions", "Minimalistic compositions", "Music of Los Angeles" ]	A [For 100 Cars] is a minimalist composition by Ryoji Ikeda. It was written in 2017 and performed on 15 October as part of a Red Bull Music Academy festival held in Los Angeles. The piece is written for an "orchestra" of 100 cars, which produce sound using sine wave synthesisers. Each synthesiser is tuned to a different pitch that has been associated with the note A throughout history. The synthesisers were created by Tatsuya Takahashi and Masimillian Rest. ## Composition Ryoji Ikeda is a Japanese audiovisual artist and composer. His earliest solo installation is A, which he created because he was curious about the various frequencies associated with the musical note A. Concert pitch A has been used as tuning standard throughout history but was associated with many different frequencies before being standardised to 440 Hz in 1975 by the International Organization for Standardization. Since starting the project in 2000, Ikeda has exhibited serveral versions of A at various venues including the Hayward Gallery (2000), Minnesota Street Project (2018) and Centre Pompidou (2018). Ikeda composed a new version of the project, A [For 100 Cars], as part of a Red Bull Music Academy (RBMA) festival held in Los Angeles. The use of cars in the composition was conceptualised six months prior to its performance, during a conversation between Ikeda and the co-founder of the RBMA, Torsten Schmidt. While talking about cars, they considered making an "automobile orchestra". They decided to use synthesisers to create the sounds emitted by the cars. The synthesisers used for the performance at the festival were designed by Tatsuya Takahashi, the synthesiser designer who formerly worked as chief engineer at Korg. The project was the first design Takahashi had made since leaving Korg. Takahashi partnered with Masimillian Rest of E-RM, a Berlin-based musical instrument maker, to create the synthesisers over a period of around three months. Ikeda views the composition as a collaboration between himself and the car drivers. When asked by LA Weekly, he was reluctant to take credit for the piece, saying: ### LA: Cars + Music As part of the project's creation, a short film titled LA: Cars + Music was made by Van Alpert and Estevan Oriol, a Los Angeles-based photographer, in collaboration with the Red Bull Music Academy. The film includes interviews with Oriol; Bella Doña, a Los Angeles car club; Guadalupe Rosales, a visual artist interested in Los Angeles' car culture; Rod Emory, a creator of "Outlaw Porshes" at Emory Motersports, and Dorian Valenzuela, a former Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineer who refurbishes Alfa Romeos. The film documented the influence of music in the city's car culture: each interviewee was asked what type of music they listen to while driving. ## Music A [For 100 Cars] is performed by a group of 100 cars. This arrangement was called "the world's largest synth orchestra" by Mixmag and Vice. A full performance of the piece lasts for around 27–28 minutes. Each car has a sine wave synthesiser connected to its sound system which constantly outputs a drone at a frequency that has been associated with concert pitch A at some point in history, from 1361 to 1936. The frequencies range from 376.3 to 506.9 Hz. Some frequencies chosen by Ikeda include: - 376.3 Hz – used by the organ of l'Hospice Comtesse (dated c. 1700) in Lille - 419.6 Hz – used by the organ of Seville Cathedral - 422.7 Hz – used by the tuning fork of John Broadwood and Sons, London (17th century) - 427 Hz – used by the Paris Grand Opera (1811) - 430 Hz – used by the tuning fork of Henry Lemoine (1810) - 457.2 Hz – used by the tuning fork of Steinway and Sons (1879) ## Performance As the piece is loud (reaching almost 160 dB), a safety test was completed in Cologne before the performance in Los Angeles. To make sure that it was a safe experience for the driver, Ikeda personally took part in the test. In the performance, all drivers were given a pair of headphones. The performance of A [For 100 Cars] took place on 15 October 2017 at a multi-storey car park at 131 South Olive Street, Los Angeles. This location is opposite the Walt Disney Concert Hall. The 100 cars used for the performance were lined up in rows on top of the car park. The performance began at dusk at 6:17 pm in front of an audience of around 1000 people. At the start of the performance, the drivers started their engines and created a grumbling sound by revving them: a sound some likened to an orchestra tuning. The performers were from Los Angeles and were chosen by Ikeda for their car's modified stereos. Some performers were members of Los Angeles-based car clubs, but no performer was a professional musician. The car's designs were varied and included sedans, SUVs and Los Angeles' signature lowriders. Each performer was given a coloured score to read which dictated when to play the synthesiser, as well as the volume and octave (from A1 to A8). During the performance, some cars used their horns and headlights or had open doors. The performers included some notable residents of the area including Estevan Oriol, who was driving his Chevrolet Impala SS. ## Reception A [For 100 Cars] received a mixed reception from reporters and audiences. It was widely seen as unusual: Selim Bulut of Dazed commented that the sound produced was an "unusual but calming ambient tone". Writing in Vice, Emily Manning agreed, saying that "the A notes sounded a bit like what you might expect to hear when UFOs land, but more peaceful, almost like a field of humming June bugs". In the Los Angeles Times, Randall Roberts wrote that the performance "felt like a feat not only of bringing imagination to life, but of organization and community". Jon Caramanica wrote in The New York Times that A [For 100 Cars] "turned negative space in the center of downtown Los Angeles into a sublime womb [and] felt like a meditation". Mixmag put the event on their list of the best performances of the festival, and praised the "depth of thinking and originality behind the piece [which] made it a breathtaking experience for those in attendance". Other listeners were not as impressed. In Autoweek, Mark Vaughn wrote that "most of it sounded, frankly, kind of bland" but conceded that "it was kind of cool to experience".
33,994,299	Venues of the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics	1,093,290,139	Venues of the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics	[ "Lists of Winter Olympic venues", "Lists of sports venues in Norway", "Venues of the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics" ]	The 2016 Winter Youth Olympics in and around Lillehammer, Norway, between 12 February and 21 February 2016. Nine competition and twelve non-competition venues are to be used; all except the Youth Olympic Village in Lillehammer and a training ice rink being are existing venues. All the competition venues and some of the non-competition venues were built ahead of the 1994 Winter Olympics. The games be held in four municipalities: Lillehammer, Hamar, Gjøvik and Øyer. Lillehammer has five competition venues, Birkebeineren Ski Stadium, Kristins Hall, Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena, Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track and the Lysgårdsbakken ski jumping hill. In addition, the Olympic Village, the ceremonies stadium Stampesletta, the media center and various cultural venues, such as Lillehammer Art Museum and Maihaugen, are located in Lillehammer. Two skating halls, Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre and Vikingskipet, are located in Hamar, along with a hotel used as a sub-site Olympic Village. Alpine skiing take place at Hafjell in Øyer and short-track speed skating take place at Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall. ## Background Originally proposed in 1981, Lillehammer's bid for the 1992 Winter Olympics was unsuccessful and lost to Albertville, France. Lillehammer then made a new bid for the 1994 Olympics, which it won on 15 September 1988. Venue construction ran from spring 1990 to December 1993, with all the competition and most of the non-competition venues purpose-built for the games. For the first time in Olympic history, environmental and sustainability issues were considered in venue construction. Two venues, Kristins Hall and Hafjell, were built before Lillehammer had been awarded the Olympics, although the former was only used for training during the Olympics. Lillehammer's incumbent ski jumping hill, Balbergbakken, was found to be unsuitable and Lysgårdsbakken was built instead. In the bid, the speed skating events were to be held at Stampesletta, an outdoor track and field stadium in Lillehammer. Only after Lillehammer had been awarded the 1994 Winter Olympics was it decided that an indoor venue would have to be built for the games. This started a debate about the location of the various ice rinks and resulted in the neighboring towns of Hamar and Gjøvik also receiving venues. Lillehammer failed at its bid to host the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics, losing to Innsbruck, Austria, but was awarded the 2016 edition as the only bidder. The bid was based on reuse of the heritage and venues from the 1994 Olympics. Beyond the construction of an Olympic Village, the only major upgrade to the venues is the addition of a curling rink in Kristins Hall. ## Competition venues In Lillehammer, the twin ski jumping hill of Lysgårdsbakken has a spectator capacity of 35,000. The large hill has a hill size of 138 and a K-point of 120, while the normal hill has a hill size of 100 and a K-point of 90. Birkebeineren Ski Stadium will host cross-country skiing, biathlon and Nordic combined. The stadium has a capacity for 31,000 spectators during cross-country skiing and 13,500 during biathlon. Spectators can also watch from along the tracks. Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena has a capacity for 15,000 spectators and will host freestyle skiing and half-pipe snowboarding. Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track is located at Hunderfossen and is the only bobsleigh, luge and skeleton track in the Nordic countries. Kristins Hall will host ice hockey and curling. Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall is located in a man-made cave and will feature the short-track speed skating events. In Hamar, Vikingskipet will host long track speed skating and Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre will host figure skating. Alpine skiing and slopestyle snowboarding will take place at Hafjell in Øyer. All the competition venues were built ahead of the 1994 Winter Olympics. Kristins Hall was the only venue not used during those games, while Håkons Hall and Kvitfjell were used, but will not be used for the Youth Olympics. The area has hosted world cup or world championship-level competitions in the majority of the events since the 1994 Olympics. The main international access point to the games is Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, located 145 kilometers (90 mi) south of Lillehammer. It is connected to Lillehammer via the Dovre Line and European Road E6. The following list contains the nine venues scheduled to be used during the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics. They are listed by their name, as well as containing the sports held at the venue, the municipality where they are located and the spectator capacity. ## Non-competition venues Stampesletta, a multi-sports complex next to Kristins Hall, will host the opening and closing ceremonies. The medal ceremonies will take place in the town plaza. There are five designated cultural venues in Lillehammer: Kulturhuset Banken, Lillehammer Art Museum, Lillehammer University College, Maihaugen and the Nansen Academy. The Main Media Centre will be located at Mesna Upper Secondary School, which is adjacent to Stampesletta. Athlete and leader accommodation will be provided at two Olympic Villages, one in Lillehammer for the Lillehammer and Øyer-based events, and one in Hamar for the Hamar and Gjøvik-based events. The Olympic Village in Hamar will make use of the 239-room Hotel Scandic Hamar, located between the two venues. It will serve as a village for all skating sports (long-track, short-track and figure), which take place in Hamar and Gjøvik. Travel distance from Hamar to Gjøvik is 50 kilometers (30 mi). The Youth Olympic Village in Lillehammer will be the only facilities of any size constructed for the Youth Olympics and is located at Stampesletta, 600 meters (2,000 ft) from the town center. This allows the village to be within walking distance from three of the competition venues: Kristins Hall, Lysgårdsbakken and Kanthaugen. The village will consist of the existing Birkebeineren Hotel & Apartments plus new residential buildings. The complex will have 1,786 beds. Dining will take place at Håkons Hall. Construction of the new residential areas are the responsibility of the Student Welfare Organisation in Oppland and Lillehammer Cooperative Housing Association. Travel distance to the event venues ranges from walking distance to 18 kilometers (11 mi). The following list contains the twelve non-competition venues scheduled to be used during the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics. They are listed with their function, location and capacity.
31,778,247	Death of Charlotte Shaw	1,167,371,856	null	[ "2007 deaths", "2007 in the United Kingdom", "Deaths by person in England", "March 2007 events in the United Kingdom" ]	Charlotte Shaw was a fourteen-year-old British schoolgirl who drowned while crossing a swollen stream on Dartmoor during training for Ten Tors in 2007. Her death, the first to occur in connection with Ten Tors or one of its training expeditions, made national news headlines in the United Kingdom. She was with a group of students from Edgehill College trekking the route of Ten Tors in training for the main event when the group got into difficulties crossing a stream. Shaw slipped into the water and was washed downstream. She was located 20 minutes later by a Royal Navy search and rescue helicopter and airlifted to Derriford Hospital in Plymouth, where she died in the early hours of the next morning. A police investigation concluded that nobody should be held criminally responsible for Shaw's death. The investigation was later criticised by the coroner, who adjourned the inquest and recommended that the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) reconsider the possibility of criminal charges. Three months later, however, the CPS reported that there was insufficient evidence to press charges and the inquest was resumed. After hearing testimony from eyewitnesses, including other members of Shaw's group, the inquest concluded with a narrative verdict in October 2010. In addition to the verdict, the coroner gave several recommendations for future activities of a similar nature. Among the recommendations were suggestions that both participants and the adult "team leaders" should receive better training. On the same day Shaw died, 26 other participants had to be airlifted from the moor. The British Army, which organises Ten Tors, initially stated that the 2007 event would proceed as planned. However, in the light of severe weather and Shaw's death, it was abandoned halfway through. The rules for the event were modified before the 2007 event to allow teams to carry a mobile telephone for use in case of an emergency. ## Background Ten Tors is an annual event organised by the British Army in which groups of young people, between the ages of 14 and 20, trek a route of 35, 45 or 55 miles (depending on the age of the participant) across Dartmoor. The event started in 1960 with just over 200 teenagers taking part and has grown to include 2,400 teenagers from schools and youth organisations, mostly from the United Kingdom. The number of participants is capped at 2,400—400 groups of six—to minimise damage to the environment caused by the event. Participants start from the British Army training camp at Okehampton and are required to carry all their supplies for the trek and spend one night in a tent on the moor. Shaw's group, on a training expedition with dozens of other groups ahead of the main event, was accompanied by a teacher from Edgehill College designated the "team manager". All team managers undergo compulsory training, run by the Army and the Dartmoor Rescue Group, which involves trekking the route themselves. Charlotte Shaw was a 14-year-old from Frithelstock, near Great Torrington, Devon. She was a student at Edgehill College, Bideford (after a merger in 2009, now Kingsley School, Bideford), where she was involved in various sporting activities run by the school, including captaining its netball and gymnastics teams. Shortly after Shaw's death was announced, the school released a statement in which it said "We are all shocked by the tragedy. [Shaw] was a delightful member of our school community". Shaw was part of a group of 10 students from Edgehill who, along with 84 other groups, were training on 4 March 2007 for Ten Tors, which is held every May. Her death is believed to be the first to occur during, or training for, Ten Tors. Dartmoor is notorious for its rapidly changeable weather. There had been heavy rain in the 12 hours prior to the accident, causing rivers and streams on Dartmoor to swell much higher than their normal levels. On the same day, 26 other teenagers had to be airlifted from the moor due to the adverse weather. ## Death During the training expedition, Shaw's group came to Walla Brook at a crossing near Watern Tor in the north-east of Dartmoor. According to evidence given at Shaw's inquest in 2009, the group believed they had to cross because the alternative route would add at least four miles to the trek. Another member of the group got into difficulties crossing the stream, which, due to heavy rain, had swollen to approximately five times its normal size. The other group member removed her rucksack and passed it to Shaw. As Shaw, the last member of the group on her side of the stream, was throwing the rucksack across, she slipped and fell into the water. Shaw was knocked unconscious and swept downstream. A third member of the group raised the alarm by mobile telephone by 14:05 (GMT), less than five minutes after Shaw had been swept away, and Devon and Cornwall Police, a Royal Navy helicopter and the Dartmoor Rescue Group were mobilised to search for Shaw. Believing that the weather conditions may be too bad for the helicopter to fly, members of the Dartmoor Rescue Group—a volunteer organisation which co-ordinates the four separate charities who undertake search and rescue operations on Dartmoor—set out on foot in an attempt to reach the scene of the accident. Shaw was found by the Royal Navy helicopter, approximately 20 minutes after the alarm was raised, 150 metres downstream from where she had fallen in. Due to poor visibility as a result of heavy rain, the other members of her group had been unable to see her from where they were standing. There were two adults in the group. A member of the helicopter crew explained: "There were two people waving their jackets and pointing into the river. Initially we thought 'Why are they not in the water helping?' what looked like a child face down in the water. Seeing the fast-flowing river, and how dangerous it would have been for them, there was no alternative for them to wait for us to arrive." The helicopter, from RNAS Culdrose, airlifted Shaw to Derriford Hospital in Plymouth, but she died in the early of hours of 5 March. The cause of death was later established as cardiac arrest as a result of drowning. ## Aftermath Devon and Cornwall Police launched an investigation into the accident, saying in a statement, "There is absolutely no suggestion at all of wrongdoing. The police are here to fully investigate the circumstances and report them to the coroner." An inquest was opened and, three weeks later, the police investigation concluded that nobody should face criminal charges as a result of the accident. Shaw's funeral was held in Bideford Methodist Church on 21 March 2007 and was attended by hundreds of mourners. The Army said in a statement that it had no plans to cancel the 2007 Ten Tors event; however, the event was abandoned halfway through due to "deteriorating weather conditions". A spokesman for the Dartmoor Rescue Group said that Shaw's death, which occurred in similar conditions, was a factor in the decision. For the first time, participants were allowed to carry one mobile telephone per group for use in an emergency. The Edgehill College team had been given special dispensation to enter a larger-than-normal team for the event in order to allow all the participants of the expedition on which Shaw died to take part. In light of Shaw's death, the North Dartmoor Search and Rescue Team, one of four teams working under the umbrella organisation Dartmoor Rescue Group, developed a capability to conduct rescues from fast-flowing water, known as "swift-water" rescues. ## Inquest An inquest into Shaw's death commenced in Exeter shortly after her death was reported to the coroner. The inquest heard evidence in late 2009, among which was eyewitness testimony that the team manager, a teacher from Edgehill College, had met with the group the morning of Shaw's death. During the meeting, the group asked to end the training hike early, but they were instructed by the teacher to carry on. However, the group's navigator gave evidence that she and Shaw had been happy to continue the expedition. The possibility was also raised by other group members that the group was under-prepared for the conditions they faced. The group member whose bag Shaw had been attempting to throw across the stream told the coroner "We were not told how to cross swollen rivers. We were told how to check how deep it was but we were never told how to cross them. Nobody ever talked to us about using ropes". The inquest was adjourned in December 2010, as the coroner, Elizabeth Earland, recommended that the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) reconsider criminal charges in the case. The CPS completed its review in April 2010 and concluded that there was insufficient evidence to pursue a criminal case. Devon and Cornwall Police were criticised by the coroner for their handling of the investigation, particularly regarding contradictory testimony by eyewitnesses. The force voluntarily referred the case to the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) after the coroner's comments in December 2009, but, in January 2010, the IPCC decided not to open its own inquiry. A solicitor representing Shaw's family said in a statement that "No-one wanted criminal proceedings", but indicated that the family planned to take civil proceedings against Edgehill College for negligence. The inquest concluded in October 2010. Earland, the Exeter and Greater Devon Coroner, recorded a narrative verdict and came up with several recommendations. Among the recommendations were that Ten Tors participants should undergo more than two training expeditions prior to the main event, that the team managers attain recognised qualifications and that the Health and Safety Executive ensure that independent schools adhere to the same safety standards as state schools. She went on to say that "It would be a tragedy if [Ten Tors] was to stop but the public need to be satisfied it is as safe as it reasonably can be, bearing in mind it is what it says, a challenge, not a survival exercise." After the inquest, Shaw's mother stated that she had been helped by the inquest, saying "I have found out the facts and I'm grateful for that but I am still looking for accountability and some kind of apology and acknowledgement". Charlotte Shaw's mother subsequently sued Edgehill College and the teacher leading the expedition for negligence. The judgement given on 28 June 2012 found that the teacher had given clear instructions that the group should not attempt to cross Walla Brook but should instead go round it. It further found that the intervention of a passerby, who suggested that the group could cross the brook, had meant that the school could not be held responsible for the accident. It said that the failure of two teachers to meet up with the group as planned was not incompetence. The judge therefore rejected the claim. In April 2013, Shaw's mother lost her appeal for damages against the school. There is now a statue in her former school commemorating her.
2,507,601	The Best of George Harrison	1,168,567,838	null	[ "1976 greatest hits albums", "Albums produced by George Harrison", "Albums produced by Phil Spector", "Albums recorded at A&M Studios", "Albums recorded at Apple Studios", "Albums recorded at FPSHOT", "Albums recorded at Trident Studios", "George Harrison compilation albums", "Parlophone compilation albums", "The Beatles compilation albums" ]	The Best of George Harrison is a 1976 compilation album by English musician George Harrison, released following the expiration of his EMI-affiliated Apple Records contract. Uniquely among all of the four Beatles' solo releases, apart from posthumous compilations, it mixes a selection of the artist's songs recorded with the Beatles on one side, and later hits recorded under his own name on the other. The song selection caused some controversy, since it underplayed Harrison's solo achievements during the 1970–75 period, for much of which he had been viewed as the most successful ex-Beatle, artistically and commercially. Music critics have also noted the compilation's failure to provide a faithful picture of Harrison's contribution to the Beatles' work, due to the omission of any of his Indian music compositions. In a calculated move by EMI and its American subsidiary, Capitol Records, the compilation was issued during the same month as Harrison's debut on his Warner-distributed Dark Horse label, Thirty Three & 1⁄3. In the United States, The Best of George Harrison peaked at number 31 on Billboard's albums chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in February 1977. The album failed to place on Britain's top 60 chart. It is the first of three hits-oriented Harrison compilation albums, and was followed by Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989 and the posthumously released Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison. The album was issued on CD in 1987 featuring the cover artwork from the original British release, rather than the design created in-house by Capitol and used in the majority of territories internationally in 1976. The compilation has yet to be remastered since this 1987 release. ## Background Ray Coleman of Melody Maker observed in December 1976 that it was "somehow ironic" that EMI, having made "millions of pounds" from the Beatles' recordings, should put out The Best of George Harrison within days of George Harrison's debut release on Warner Bros.-distributed Dark Horse Records. The compilation was instigated by EMI's US counterpart, Capitol Records, a company with which Harrison had grown disaffected since August 1971, due to what author Alan Clayson describes as its "avaricious dithering" over the release of the Concert for Bangladesh album. In a final effort to force Capitol to distribute that live album at cost price, to generate much-needed funds for the refugees from East Pakistan, Harrison had gone public with the issue and embarrassed the label. On 26 January 1976, all the former Beatles' contracts with EMI/Capitol expired, and only Paul McCartney had chosen to re-sign with Capitol. The two record companies were now free to license releases featuring songs from the band's back catalogue and the individual members' solo work (except for McCartney's), without the need for artist's approval. Following EMI's reissue of the entire Beatles UK singles catalogue in February that year, Capitol's first venture under the new arrangement was to release a double album compilation, Rock 'n' Roll Music, along with accompanying singles. Issued in June 1976, Rock 'n' Roll Music contained 28 previously released tracks from throughout the Beatles' career. John Lennon and Ringo Starr both expressed dissatisfaction with the compilation's running order, the reversion to a pre-1967 royalty rate for the band, and what Starr termed Capitol's "craphouse" packaging. After the record company had promised "the largest selling campaign in the history of the music business", the album was a commercial success. Late in 1975, EMI/Capitol had issued greatest-hits collections on the Apple Records imprint for Lennon and Starr – Shaved Fish and Blast from Your Past, respectively. Since Lennon and Starr were still nominally Apple artists, they each had input into the content and packaging of their solo compilation, and Lennon, in particular, was active in promoting his album. Shaved Fish and Blast from Your Past sold reasonably well, in America, but their sales failed to match record-company expectations. For Harrison, there had been long delays between releases following the international success of his All Things Must Pass triple album in 1970–71, due first to his commitment to the Bangladesh humanitarian aid project and later to his production work for Dark Horse Records acts Splinter and Ravi Shankar. Harrison issued his final studio album for Apple in the autumn of 1975, Extra Texture (Read All About It). As a result, by the time that Capitol came to prepare a compilation of his solo work the following year, he had effectively surrendered all artistic control over its content. In the second half of 1976, thanks to the success of both Rock 'n' Roll Music and McCartney's world tour with his band Wings, the public's nostalgia for the Beatles was at a peak. Examples of this heightened interest included the increasingly generous offers from rival promoters Bill Sargent and Sid Bernstein for a one-off Beatles reunion concert; 20th Century Fox's musical documentary All This and World War II, for which, as with the 1974 stage play John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert, Harrison would refuse permission for any of his songs to appear; and Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel having a top-ten hit in the UK with a cover of Harrison's composition "Here Comes the Sun". The planned Harrison greatest-hits compilation then became an experiment by Capitol whereby Beatles tracks were mixed with solo hits on the one album. Harrison immediately disavowed the venture, he being the least attached to the band's legacy of all the former Beatles. ## Song selection To fill one side of the LP, Capitol selected Harrison-written songs that had been released by the Beatles between 1965 and 1970. A risk-free approach prevailed, commentators have noted, both with the unimaginative album title and with the predictable selection of songs. Nowhere was Indian music represented, a musical genre with which Harrison was synonymous via his long association with Ravi Shankar, and which various authors, and Shankar himself, credit Harrison with introducing to Western popular music. In this way, what McCartney has termed Harrison's "landmark" Indian compositions, "Within You, Without You" and "The Inner Light", were overlooked while "Taxman" received its second album release in six months (having been issued on Rock 'n' Roll Music). "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", "Here Comes the Sun" and "Something" were also among the tracks selected, even though they had all appeared on the 1973 Beatles compilation 1967–1970. Side two was made up of Harrison's biggest solo hits: "My Sweet Lord" and "What Is Life" from All Things Must Pass (1970), "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" from Living in the Material World (1973), the title track from Dark Horse (1974), and "You" from Extra Texture (1975). The sixth solo song was the non-album single "Bangla Desh", released in 1971. Aside from the financial benefits of repackaging Beatles-era songs, part of the reason for Capitol reducing Harrison's mostly successful solo years thus far to six album tracks was due to the "lackluster" commercial fate of the Lennon and Starr compilations, author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977. Another factor was Harrison's tendency to limit his single releases to a minimum: he had been reluctant to issue any single from All Things Must Pass originally, and the scheduled second single from Material World, "Don't Let Me Wait Too Long" – a "certain \#1", in biographer Simon Leng's opinion – was cancelled altogether. In addition, authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter write, a potentially offensive reference to the Catholic Church in "Awaiting on You All", from All Things Must Pass, prevented that song from "being the hit single it could have been otherwise". The big-hits requirement was not applied to the Beatles selections, only one of which, "Something", had been issued as the A-side of a single. In November 1976, while promoting his new album, Thirty Three & 1⁄3, Harrison claimed that Capitol had ignored his suggested track list and alternative title for the collection. He compared the format unfavourably with the Starr and Lennon compilations, saying that "a lot of good songs" from his solo career could have appeared, rather than "digging into Beatles records". Among the notable omissions from The Best of George Harrison, in author Robert Rodriguez's opinion, were "Isn't It a Pity" – one half of the double A-side single with "My Sweet Lord", and a number 1 hit in Canada in its own right – and "Ding Dong, Ding Dong", which charted just inside the top 40 in the main markets of America and Britain but was a top ten hit in Europe. In comparison, Shaved Fish had contained "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)", "Mother" and "Woman Is the Nigger of the World", singles which, on the US Billboard Hot 100, respectively: did not chart at all; peaked at number 43; and reached number 57. On Blast from Your Past, the non-album B-side "Early 1970" was included, as were "I'm the Greatest" (an album track never released as a single) and "Beaucoups of Blues", which peaked at number 87 in the United States. On those terms, Harrison had the popular 1971 B-sides "Apple Scruffs" and "Deep Blue"; "Ding Dong", which peaked at number 36 on Billboard; and highly regarded album tracks such as "All Things Must Pass", "Beware of Darkness" and "Living in the Material World". Commentators have remarked also on the brevity of Starr's album, at just 30 minutes in length, whereas Capitol felt the need to achieve a running time of 45 minutes for the Harrison compilation. ## Album artwork The North American and British versions of the album were released with different covers. In the United States and Canada, the front and back cover had small black-and-white pictures of Harrison against an image of the cosmos; Roy Kohara of Capitol was responsible for art design, as he had been for Extra Texture and the Lennon and Starr compilations, while the illustrations were the work of Michael Bryan. Rodriguez describes this choice of sleeve as "bizarre" and notes the use of an outdated, "rather dour-looking" image of Harrison. The UK edition contained Bob Cato's colour photo of Harrison sitting in front of an antique car, with art direction for the package being credited to Cream designs. The international CD release of the album uses the latter cover. The inner sleeve of the original LP in Britain contained a picture by Michael Putland, showing Harrison on a wintry beach in Cannes, where he was attending the Midem music-industry trade fair in January 1976. A third front-cover option came with MFP's budget reissue during the 1980s, which reproduced Harrison's 1968 White Album portrait. ## Release Capitol Records released The Best of George Harrison on 8 November 1976 in America, with the catalogue number Capitol ST 11578. The UK issue, as PAS 10011 on EMI's Parlophone label, followed on 20 November. Among Beatles-related releases at the time, the compilation's arrival coincided not only with that of Thirty Three & 1⁄3, but also with McCartney's Wings over America triple live album; in addition, EMI belatedly issued the Beatles' 1967 Capitol release Magical Mystery Tour in December 1976, after that album had long proved a popular import in Britain. Writing in the NME in November, Bob Woffinden commented that sales of Thirty Three & 1⁄3 were sure to be "adversely affected by the almost simultaneous release – next week in fact – of [The Best of George Harrison]". According to author Peter Doggett, this calculated scheduling by Capitol/EMI meant that Harrison "would remain a staunch opponent" of the record companies in the concurrent litigation between Apple and its former manager, Allen Klein. In the US, with Harrison actively promoting Thirty Three & 1⁄3 and enjoying some of his best reviews in years, the compilation reached number 31 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tape chart. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 15 February 1977, for sales of over 500,000 units. By the end of 1977, it was the only one of the three former Beatles' compilation albums to have received gold certification by the RIAA. Like Starr's 1975 compilation, The Best of George Harrison failed to place on the UK's Top 60 Albums Chart. EMI, in an attempt to capitalise on recent publicity from the ruling on Bright Tunes' plagiarism suit against Harrison, reissued "My Sweet Lord" (backed with "What Is Life") as a single on 24 December 1976. ### CD release and demand following Harrison's death Together with All Things Must Pass, The Best of George Harrison was among the first of Harrison's albums to be issued on compact disc, in 1987. According to Madinger and Easter, the UK edition of the CD was sonically superior to the US issue, due to the application of No-Noise processing on the remasters for the American market. Following Harrison's death in November 2001 – and with little of his back catalogue readily available apart from the recently issued All Things Must Pass: 30th Anniversary Edition – the compilation became highly sought-after by fans of the artist. In America, it peaked at number 9 on Billboard's Top Pop Catalog listings, on 29 December 2001, and number 15 on the magazine's Top Internet Albums. It also belatedly placed on the UK Albums Chart, at number 100, in January 2002. Despite the 2009 compilation Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison and the 2005 reissue of the Concert for Bangladesh live album, The Best of George Harrison remained the only CD release featuring pop's first-ever charity single, "Bangla Desh", until 2014. In September that year, the song appeared as a bonus track on the Apple Years 1968–75 reissue of Living in the Material World. ## Critical reception ### Contemporary reviews On release, Billboard's reviewer welcomed the compilation, writing: "Harrison's remarkable emergence to full artistic recognition after starting off as the most anonymous Beatle is documented right on this album of memorably beautiful hits." In Melody Maker, on the same page as his mixed review of Wings over America (which featured live versions of five of McCartney's Beatles-era songs), Ray Coleman provided another favourable assessment: "[Harrison is] a highly individual artist who always keeps creative musical company; it's a good album, essential for Harrison students who may not have all the records ..." Writing in Swank magazine, Michael Gross recognised Capitol Records' "slick marketing ploy" but admired the music, the "final treat" being the availability of "Bangla Desh" for the first time on an album. In a review subtitled "All I Want for Christmas is No. 11578" (referring to the Capitol catalogue number), Larry Rohter of The Washington Post described the collection as "an absolute delight". Although the album was generally well received, its content drew criticism from fans, who felt the overall effect diminished the significance of Harrison's solo career. In the 1977 edition of their book The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, Roy Carr and Tony Tyler summed up the implication: "George's 'Best Of'. Half Beatle, half Harisongs. But will there be a Volume II?" Nicholas Schaffner observed a couple of minor positives on this "half-baked" collection: "The Best of George Harrison does confirm that George's big production numbers from All Things Must Pass more than hold their own alongside the seven featured Beatles tunes ... And the album is undeniably better looking than Rock 'n' Roll Music." Bob Woffinden similarly found that Harrison's solo recordings matched the standard of the Beatles' tracks while noting that "Capitol's half-and-half arrangement ... made it look as though he was the only one of the four [former Beatles] with insufficient clout to warrant a 'Greatest Hits' comprised entirely of his own work." In his 1981 book Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies, Robert Christgau said the first side of "impressive" Beatles songs nonetheless revealed how Harrison's "voice begins to betray its weaknesses after a while", and he deemed the solo side "remarkably shoddy". ### Retrospective assessment and legacy Reviewing the compilation for AllMusic in 2001, Bruce Eder described it as "a good but routine collection", while three years later Mac Randall wrote in The Rolling Stone Album Guide: "The Best of George Harrison takes half its contents from Beatles albums, which is a little insulting." In his April 2004 article on Harrison's solo releases, for Blender magazine, Paul Du Noyer said of the compilation: "Hard to fault so far as it goes and a good place to get the fine 1971 single 'Bangla Desh'." Although compromises to the hits-only formula had been permitted on the Lennon and Starr albums, AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments on the controversial choice of tracks: "But all this is down to a matter of timing and circumstance: Harrison needed to have a hits collection out in 1976, he didn't have enough big hits to fill out 13 tracks (even if he certainly had enough great album tracks to do so), and so the Fabs were brought in to fill in the cracks." Erlewine adds that "The result might be a little underwhelming in retrospect, but it's undeniably entertaining." Writing for Rough Guides in 2006, Chris Ingham said Harrison was "rightly annoyed" with his former record company. Ingham added that, with the "excellent Volume II" (Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989) no longer in print, The Best of George Harrison was therefore the artist's only available compilation album and "hardly a satisfying one-stop sampler". Reviewing Let It Roll for the music website Popdose, in 2009, Jon Cummings wrote that "the compilation gods have never been kind to [Harrison]" and described the 1976 album as "downright insulting". In her role as compiler of Let It Roll, Harrison's widow Olivia said of The Best of George Harrison: "That album always bothered me ... I just thought that is really not fair and I think we have to put something in that place, and that's really what this [2009 compilation] is." In a 2018 review for Uncut, Peter Watts described the 1976 album as "pretty good listening, containing a stack of classic songs and demonstrating a seamless transition from Beatles to solo work (something that works best on the original vinyl) with no diminished quality across the whole". While commenting that it pales against the "stunning posthumous collections" subsequently issued by the Harrison estate, Watts recognises "deliberate sabotage" on EMI/Capitol's part in their timing the release to coincide with that of Thirty Three & 1⁄3 as well as Wings Over America and the UK release of the Beatles' Magical Mystery Tour LP. Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley is scathing in his opinion of The Best of George Harrison, writing: "Had EMI [and Capitol] forgotten the great songs on All Things Must Pass?" The inclusion of Beatles material was a "completely unnecessary public humiliation" for Harrison, Huntley continues, giving the impression that Starr and Lennon's solo careers up to the end of 1975 had been more successful than his – "when, in reality, the opposite was the case". In his book Fab Four FAQ 2.0, Robert Rodriguez likewise bemoans what he saw as EMI/Capitol's attempt to humiliate Harrison with a compilation that failed to reflect his standing as the most accomplished ex-Beatle during 1970–73. Rodriguez describes the company's efforts to "effectively sabotag[e]" Harrison's Thirty Three & 1⁄3 chart run as "a final touch worthy of Allen Klein". ## Track listing All songs written by George Harrison. Side one All tracks performed by the Beatles and produced by George Martin, except track 6, which was produced by Phil Spector. Side two All tracks performed by George Harrison and produced either by himself or with Phil Spector. ## Charts and certifications ### Chart positions Original release Posthumous chart appearances ### Certifications
1,535,704	Chris Evans (actor)	1,173,223,327	American actor (born 1981)	[ "1981 births", "21st-century American male actors", "American Buddhists", "American LGBT rights activists", "American male film actors", "American male television actors", "American male video game actors", "American male voice actors", "American people of British descent", "American people of German descent", "American people of Irish descent", "American people of Italian descent", "Converts to Buddhism from Roman Catholicism", "Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni", "Lincoln-Sudbury Regional High School alumni", "Living people", "Male actors from Boston", "Massachusetts Democrats", "Pantheists", "People from Sudbury, Massachusetts" ]	Christopher Robert Evans (born June 13, 1981) is an American actor. He began his career with roles in television series such as Opposite Sex in 2000. Following appearances in several teen films, including 2001's Not Another Teen Movie, he gained attention for his portrayal of Marvel Comics character the Human Torch in Fantastic Four (2005) and Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007). Evans made further appearances in film adaptations of comic books and graphic novels: TMNT (2007), Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010), and Snowpiercer (2013). Evans gained wider recognition for portraying Captain America in various Marvel Cinematic Universe films, from Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) to Avengers: Endgame (2019). His work in the franchise established him as one of the world's highest-paid actors. Aside from comic book roles, Evans has starred in the drama Gifted (2017), the mystery film Knives Out (2019), the television miniseries Defending Jacob (2020), and the action film The Gray Man (2022). He also voiced Buzz Lightyear in the Pixar's Toy Story spin-off film Lightyear (2022). Evans made his directorial debut in 2014 with the romantic drama Before We Go, which he also produced and starred in. Evans made his Broadway debut in the 2018 revival of Kenneth Lonergan's play Lobby Hero, which earned him a Drama League Award nomination. ## Early life Christopher Robert Evans was born on June 13, 1981, in Boston, Massachusetts, and grew up in the nearby town of Sudbury. His mother, Lisa (née Capuano), is an artistic director at the Concord Youth Theater, and his father, Bob, is a dentist. His father is of Irish descent, while his mother is of half Irish and half Italian descent. His parents divorced in 1999. Evans has two sisters, Carly and Shanna, and a brother, actor Scott Evans. He and his siblings were raised Catholic. Their uncle, Mike Capuano, served as mayor of Somerville from 1990 to 1999, and as a U.S. Representative from 1999 to 2019. He enjoyed musical theater as a child, and attended acting camp. He played Randolph MacAfee in the musical Bye Bye Birdie. He and siblings also performed in front of relatives during Christmases, recalling that being onstage "felt like home." Before starting his senior year of high school, Evans spent the summer in New York City, and took classes at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute. Evans graduated from Lincoln-Sudbury Regional High School in 1999. He was a schoolmate of Jeremy Strong. ## Career ### 1997–2004: Early roles Evans's first credited appearance was in a short educational film titled Biodiversity: Wild About Life! in 1997. In 1999, Evans was the model for "Tyler" in Hasbro's board game Mystery Date. The special edition of the game included an electronic phone, which Evans is shown speaking into on the game box. In September 2000, he moved to Los Angeles and lived in Oakwood Apartments in Toluca Lake, a complex where he met fellow young actors. When he recalled of his experience during this time, he said, "You make a lot of strange connections with a lot of thirsty people, but you kind of are one of the thirsty people, too. It was a great time. It really was. It's like the L.A. welcoming committee". In the same year, Evans made his screen debut in a television film, The Newcomers; a family drama in which he plays a boy called Judd who falls in love with a girl (Kate Bosworth). Evans also had a lead role in the television series Opposite Sex which lasted for eight episodes. Lastly, Evans acted in an episode of The Fugitive named ''Guilt''. In 2001, he starred in Not Another Teen Movie, a parody of teen movies, in which he plays a high school footballer. The film garnered mainly negative reviews, but grossed \$38 million domestically and \$28 million overseas for a worldwide \$66 million. In 2004, he had a lead role in The Perfect Score, a teen heist-comedy about a group of students who break into an office to steal answers to the SAT exam. The film was critically panned; Matthew Leyland of the BBC thought Evans' performance was "bland", and the cast had "little chemistry". Also that year, he co-starred in the action-thriller Cellular, with Jason Statham, Kim Basinger and William H. Macy. Evans plays college student Ryan, who must save a kidnapped woman (Basinger), after randomly receiving a phone call from her. Although the feature received a mixed response, Slant Magazine's review opined that "Evans proves himself a sufficiently charismatic leading man". In a retrospective interview, Evans remarked that some of his early films were "really terrible". ### 2005–2010: Breakthrough In 2005, Evans starred in the independent drama Fierce People, an adaptation of Dirk Wittenborn's 2002 novel of the same name. He also starred in London (2005), a romantic drama, in which he played a drug user with relationship problems. London was negatively received by critics; Variety magazine described it as "noxious", and thought Evans' character was the worst, and film critic Roger Ebert called the film "dreck". For his first comic book role, he portrayed superhero Johnny Storm / Human Torch in Fantastic Four (2005), based on the Marvel Comic of the same name. Upon release, the film was a commercial success despite a divided reception. In his mixed review, Joe Leydon of Variety praised the cast for their efforts and thought Evans gave a "charismatic breakout performance". Two years later, he reprised the role of Johnny Storm / Human Torch in the sequel Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007). Toronto Star's Rob Salem thought the film was a "significant improvement" from the first, and the critic from Chicago Reader thought the cast were "amusing enough" to carry the sequel. In 2016, reflecting on his experience of the Fantastic Four films, Evans said they left him "a little uneasy – because the movies weren't exactly the way I'd envisioned them". He voiced the character Casey Jones in the animation TMNT (2007), based on the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comic book series. The film was released by Warner Bros. Pictures and The Weinstein Company, to mixed reviews from critics but was a commercial success, grossing \$95 million worldwide. Next, he starred in Danny Boyle's science fiction thriller Sunshine (2007), about a group of astronauts on a dangerous mission to reignite the dying sun. It garnered generally favorable reviews; Roger Ebert wrote the cast were "effective ... they almost all play professional astronaut/scientists, and not action-movie heroes". He also had a role in the comedy drama The Nanny Diaries (2007), in which he plays the love interest to Scarlett Johansson's character. His final release of 2007 was Battle for Terra, another science fiction animation, about a peaceful alien planet which faces destruction from colonization by a displaced remainder of the human race. It premiered at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival, followed by a wider theatrical release in 2009. Critical reception was largely mixed; review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 49% based on 95 critics. In 2008, Evans appeared as Detective Paul Diskant in the thriller Street Kings, with co-stars Keanu Reeves, Forest Whitaker, and Hugh Laurie. He was cast in The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond, co-starring Bryce Dallas Howard and Ellen Burstyn. It is a romantic drama based on Tennessee Williams' 1957 screenplay. The feature received negative reviews, and The Village Voice critic called Evans' performance "catatonic". The following year he appeared in the science fiction thriller Push, with Dakota Fanning and Camilla Belle. The film follows a group of people born with various superhuman abilities who unite to take down a secret agency that is genetically transforming normal citizens into an army of super soldiers. Principal photography was held in Hong Kong, where Evans suffered bruises from doing his own fight scenes. The film's response was generally negative; Claudia Puig of USA Today described it as "silly" and "convoluted", while Mick LaSelle of San Francisco Chronicle criticized the story which "makes no sense", and predicted that Evans, "one of these days he's going to make a good movie". In 2010, Evans appeared in Sylvain White's The Losers, an adaptation of the comic book series of the same name from the DC Comics imprint Vertigo. Evans was drawn to playing Captain Jake Jensen because the character "doesn't take things too seriously. He's the one that kind of loves life and he's always looking for a joke". Although the film gained mixed reviews, The Guardian's critic praised the cast for their "breezy charm" and for Evans' comic relief. Evans appeared in another comic book adaptation, Edgar Wright's Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010), in which he portrayed Lucas Lee, one of Ramona Flowers' seven evil exes. The film was a box-office bomb but received positive reviews from critics and found a second life as a cult film. He starred in Mark Kassen and Adam Kassen's drama, Puncture, which was filmed in Houston, Texas. The film premiered at the 2011 Tribeca Film Festival as one of the spotlight projects for the 10th anniversary of the festival. Evans portrays Mike Weiss, who was a real-life young lawyer and drug addict. Upon release, critical reception was divided; Lou Lumenick of the New York Post praised the "solid" performances despite noting weaknesses in the dialogue and subplots. The A.V. Club critic thought the film "rarely manages to focus on [Weiss]". Next, Evans was cast in the romantic comedy What's Your Number? (2011) opposite Anna Faris, an adaptation of Karyn Bosnak's book 20 Times a Lady. Critic Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club gave the film a grade C+, and opined that Evans' and Faris' chemistry was "frisky". ### 2011–2017: Captain America and directorial debut In 2010, Evans signed on for a multi-film deal with Marvel Studios, to portray Marvel Comics character Steve Rogers / Captain America. Evans initially turned down the part, but he consulted with Robert Downey Jr., who encouraged him to take the role. At Marvel's persistence, Evans accepted, and he went to see a therapist afterwards. He found the character fun to portray, and added, "I think Marvel is doing a lot of good things right now". The first film to be released was Captain America: The First Avenger (2011). The story follows the protagonist who is transformed into the super-soldier Captain America and must stop the Red Skull from using the Tesseract as an energy-source for world domination. The film was a critical and commercial success, earning over \$370 million worldwide box office. In their positive review, The Sydney Morning Herald thought the film was a "fresh twist on 20th-century history", and praised Evans' "confident-but-subtle treatment" displayed in his role. A year later, he reprised the character in The Avengers, with a large ensemble cast that included Robert Downey Jr., Mark Ruffalo, Chris Hemsworth, Scarlett Johansson, and Jeremy Renner. The feature was another commercial success; it grossed \$1.519 billion and became one of the highest-grossing films of all time. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 92% based on more than 350 reviews. The Avengers received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects and a British Academy Film Award (BAFTA) nomination for Best Special Visual Effects. For his last release of 2012, he played hitman Robert Pronge in the biographical film The Iceman, about the murderer Richard Kuklinski. Evans' role was originally intended for James Franco, but he dropped out before filming began. In order to look the part, Evans wore a wig and grew a beard. Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, David Rooney complimented Evans' versatile performance, which was unlike his Captain America persona. Returning to the science fiction genre, Evans was cast in Bong Joon-ho's Snowpiercer (2013), which is based on the French graphic novel Le Transperceneige. Bong was initially reluctant to cast him, but changed his mind after seeing Evans' performances in Sunshine and Puncture, which showed a "sensitive" side. The story takes place aboard the Snowpiercer train as it travels around the globe, carrying the last members of humanity after a failed attempt at climate engineering to stop global warming. The film was critically acclaimed, with the critic from Salon magazine describing the cast performances as "sensational". Snowpiercer appeared in several lists of best films of 2014, including The Guardian's classics of modern South Korean cinema. In 2014, Evans starred in Captain America: The Winter Soldier, the sequel to Captain America: The First Avenger. In the film, Captain America joins forces with Black Widow and Falcon to uncover a conspiracy within the spy agency S.H.I.E.L.D. while facing an assassin known as the Winter Soldier. Principal photography began in August 2013; Evans prepared by undertaking three months of strength training and learning all the fight sequences. Similarly to the first film, it was well received and a commercial success, grossing \$714 million worldwide. Peter Howell of Toronto Star thought Evans was "impressive" for bringing the comic book character to life, despite the plot being "a little too complicated". Evans has said The Winter Soldier was his favorite Marvel film because he started to understand his character, and enjoyed working with directors Anthony and Joe Russo. In March 2014, Evans said he may consider doing less acting so that he can focus on directing. In the same year, he made his directorial debut in the romantic comedy Before We Go, in which he also starred, opposite Alice Eve. The film tells the story of two strangers who meet at Grand Central Terminal, and form an unlikely bond overnight. It premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival; The New York Times critic, Ben Keninsberg, opined that it was a moderate effort and the actors' chemistry made it watchable. In the same year, he starred in another romantic comedy, opposite Michelle Monaghan in Playing It Cool. The following year, he played Captain America again in Avengers: Age of Ultron, the sequel to 2012's The Avengers. In 2016, he reprised the role in Captain America: Civil War, the sequel to Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Both of these films were box office hits, grossing \$1.4 billion and \$1.1 billion worldwide, respectively. The Hollywood Reporter later learned that his salary for Civil War was \$15 million. Evans starred in the family drama Gifted in 2017, about an intellectually gifted seven-year-old who becomes the subject of a custody battle between her uncle (Evans) and grandmother (Lindsay Duncan). Although set in Florida, filming took place in Georgia to take advantage of the state's financial incentive of \$3 million. The film received a favorable response; Empire magazine opined that Evans played his part with "conviction" despite a predictable plot. In the same year, he was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. ### 2018–present: Post-Avengers work In 2018, he starred in the sequel Avengers: Infinity War, and in spring 2019, the fourth sequel Avengers: Endgame. Both of these were directed by Anthony and Joe Russo; they had intended to film them simultaneously but scrapped the idea due to complexities. Evans admitted that he and Scarlett Johansson did not see the full script to Avengers: Infinity War before filming, saying, "We had to fight to get an actual paper script. There were giving us either pages or bits on an iPad. It's been tricky." While USA Today opined that Evans and co-star Chris Hemsworth were a "blast to watch" in Avengers: Infinity War, the reviewer from Time magazine criticized the film for its lack of pacing and substance. When Avengers: Endgame completed filming in October 2018, Evans explained that it was emotional: "For the last month of filming I was letting myself go to work every day and be a little overwhelmed and a little nostalgic and grateful. By the last day, I was bawling. I cry pretty easy, but I was definitely bawling." The fourth sequel grossed \$2.7 billion worldwide, and the filmmakers were praised by The Telegraph's Robbie Collin for creating one of the most entertaining films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Evans made his Broadway debut in the play Lobby Hero, directed by Trip Cullman, which opened in March 2018 at the Helen Hayes Theatre as a part of Second Stage Theatre's first Broadway season. Ben Brantley of The New York Times labeled it a "terrific Broadway debut" and found his performance to be a "marvel of smooth calculation and bluster". Evans was nominated for a Drama League Award. In 2019, Evans played an Israeli Mossad agent in the Netflix thriller The Red Sea Diving Resort, loosely based on the events of Operation Moses and Operation Joshua in 1984–85. Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a mixed review; he thought Evans gave a "sincere" performance, despite observing weaknesses in the film's pacing and tone. Later that year, he starred as Ransom Drysdale, a spoiled playboy, in Rian Johnson's mystery film Knives Out, which received critical acclaim and grossed \$309 million worldwide. In NPR, Linda Holmes wrote of Evans's performance: "it's a special treat to see him tear right into this rich-brat bit, both preternaturally handsome and cheerfully obnoxious, a one-man cable-knit charm offensive." In 2020, Evans starred in Defending Jacob, an Apple TV+ crime drama miniseries based on the novel of the same name. He played Andy Barber, an assistant district attorney whose son is accused of murder. Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter praised Evans's performance, stating that he "is sturdy and conveys the right measure of empathy and fear". He had a cameo in Adam McKay's Netflix comedy, Don't Look Up, which featured an ensemble cast. In 2022, Evans voiced the titular character in the Disney/Pixar animation Lightyear, which gained mostly favorable reviews, and starred in the Netflix thriller The Gray Man, an adaptation of the 2009 novel of the same name directed by Anthony and Joe Russo. The Gray Man received mixed reviews. Evans starred alongside Ana de Armas in the Apple TV+ action comedy film Ghosted, from director Dexter Fletcher. Benjamin Lee of The Guardian panned the film and the lack of chemistry between de Armas and Evans. He will next star in the action comedy Red One, as well in David Yates's Pain Hustlers starring Emily Blunt for Netflix. ## Personal life Evans is a follower of Buddhism. He is a fan of the New England Patriots, and narrated the documentary series America's Game: The Story of the 2014 New England Patriots and America's Game: 2016 Patriots. While filming Gifted in 2015, Evans adopted a dog named Dodger from a local animal shelter. In 2022, he was named the "Sexiest Man Alive" by People magazine. ### Political views Evans affirmed his support for same-sex marriage in 2012, stating, "It's insane that civil rights are being denied people in this day and age. It's embarrassing, and it's heartbreaking. It goes without saying that I'm completely in support of gay marriage. In ten years we'll be ashamed that this was an issue." In August 2016, he supported Massachusetts Attorney General Maura Healey's continued enforcement of the state's ban on assault weapons. Evans endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election, and was critical of Donald Trump's presidency. After Alabama enacted the Human Life Protection Act in May 2019, which imposes a near-total ban on abortions in the state, Evans called the bill "absolutely unbelievable" and continued by writing, "If you're not worried about Roe v. Wade, you're not paying attention." In July 2020, he launched A Starting Point, a website that publishes short interviews of American elected officials on political issues, with a goal of presenting "both the Democratic and Republican point of view on dozens of issues across the political landscape." In October 2020, Evans took part in a virtual fundraising event in support of Joe Biden in his 2020 presidential campaign. He endorsed Maya Wiley in the 2021 New York City Democratic mayoral primary. ### Philanthropy Evans is a supporter of Christopher's Haven, a charity providing housing to families affected by childhood cancer, and has taken part in fundraisers to benefit the organization. In 2015, he and actor Chris Pratt visited patients in the Seattle Children's Hospital after the two made a bet that eventually raised donations for the hospital as well as Christopher's Haven. In May 2020, Evans organized a virtual fundraiser involving his Avengers co-stars to benefit the organizations Feeding America, Meals on Wheels, World Central Kitchen, and No Kid Hungry. The following year, he won \$80,000 for Christopher's Haven by placing third in a charity fantasy football tournament with his Avengers co-stars. ## Awards and nominations
10,112,260	Rück's blue flycatcher	1,172,736,410	Species of bird from Indonesia	[ "Birds described in 1881", "Birds of Sumatra", "Critically endangered fauna of Asia", "Cyornis", "Endemic birds of Sumatra" ]	Rück's blue flycatcher (Cyornis ruckii) is a passerine bird in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae. It is known from only four specimens and is endemic to a small area in northeast Sumatra, Indonesia, inhabiting primary lowland forest. Although all specimens share common characteristics, such as a black bill, brown iris, and black feet, two of the collected specimens show some physical discrepancy with the other two. They were initially described as Cyornis vanheysti before being accepted as specimens of C. ruckii. Rück's blue flycatcher has also been compared to other species of Cyornis. The species is listed as "Critically Endangered" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as it has not been recorded since 1918. It has been protected by Indonesian law since 1972. It also might have been affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. ## Taxonomy Rück's blue flycatcher was first described by the French zoologist Émile Oustalet in 1881, who studied two specimens (adult male and female) in the French National Museum of Natural History. The specimens were sent by Monsieur Rück from a trading port in modern-day Malacca, Malaysia, in 1880. Oustalet named the species after Rück and gave it the binomial name Cyornis ruckii. The binomial is sometimes emended to the Cyornis rueckii, but this is regarded as an incorrect spelling. Other common names for the species include Rueck's blue flycatcher and Rueck's niltava. A further two specimens (adult male and immature male) were collected by A. van Heyst in 1917 and 1918 near Medan, where they were subsequently described as a new species (Cyornis vanheysti) by the British zoologists Herbert Robinson and Cecil Kloss in 1919. They also noted their similarity to the specimens described by Oustalet, eventually synonymizing C. vanheysti with C. ruckii. The specimens reside in the American Museum of Natural History. The specimens have also been considered as being an aberrant form of the pale blue flycatcher (Cyornis unicolor). However, comparisons show that the pale blue flycatcher is different in both color and . Rück's blue flycatcher is monotypic. ## Description Rück's blue flycatcher is 17 cm (6.7 in) in length, with a black bill, brown iris and black feet. Differences between the specimens described by Oustalet and Robinson & Kloss exist. In the Oustalet specimens, the male has dark blue plumage, a blue belly, and a shining blue rump. There is also a small amount of grey coloring on disrupted feathers around the legs. The female has rufous-brown plumage, strong rufous lores, orange-rufous breast and a whitish belly. In the Robinson & Kloss specimens, the immature male has brown-spotted buff plumage with a rufous breast and a whitish center on underparts. The adult male shows some discrepancy with the adult male specimen described by Oustalet; the belly and tail coverts are whitish grey, while the flanks are bluish grey. Additionally, the Robinson & Kloss specimens have slightly larger bills. These differences could be caused by individual variation or due to the specimens being of different subspecies. ## Distribution and habitat Rück's blue flycatcher is endemic to Sumatra, Indonesia, around Medan, and presumably has a low population density. The specimens collected by Rück were from primary lowland forest, while the ones collected by van Heyst are thought to be from exploited forest, which might show possible tolerance against habitat degradation, although this is disputed. ## Conservation Last recorded in 1918, and due to ongoing habitat loss, poor surveying, and its small population and limited range, Rück's blue flycatcher is evaluated as "Critically Endangered" on the IUCN Red List. It is listed in Appendix II of CITES and has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972. In 2013 and 2014, observations in Jambi, Sumatra, revealed a pair of unidentified flycatchers that resembled Rück's blue flycatcher, but the possibility of them being white-tailed flycatchers (Cyornis concretus) could not be eliminated. Rück's blue flycatcher might have been affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, and is also predicted to be extinct with 80% confidence.
3,716,473	Ven Conmigo (album)	1,170,583,951	null	[ "1990 albums", "Albums produced by A.B. Quintanilla", "EMI Latin albums", "Selena albums", "United States National Recording Registry albums", "United States National Recording Registry recordings" ]	Ven Conmigo (English: Come with Me) is the second studio album by American singer Selena, released on November 12, 1990, by EMI Latin. The singer's brother, A.B. Quintanilla III remained her principal record producer and songwriter after her debut album's moderate success. Selena's Los Dinos band composed and arranged seven of the album's ten tracks; local songwriter Johnny Herrera also provided songs for Selena to record. Ven Conmigo contains half cumbias and half rancheras, though the album includes other genres. Its musical compositions are varied and demonstrate an evolving maturity in Selena's basic Tejano sound. The album's structure and track organization were unconventional compared with other Tejano music albums. The songs on Ven Conmigo are mostly love songs or songs following a woman's struggles after many failed relationships. After Ven Conmigo's release, the band hired guitarist Chris Pérez who introduced his hard rock sound to the band's music and performances, and further diversified Selena's repertoire. Her promotional tour for the album attracted upwards of 60,000 attendees to her shows, and critics praised the singer's stage presence. The album's single, "Baila Esta Cumbia" was the most played song on local Tejano music radio stations for over a month and helped Selena to tour in Mexico. Ven Conmigo peaked at number three on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart, her then-highest peaking album. It received critical acclaim, bringing Selena recognition as a Tejano singer and establishing her as a commercial threat. In October 1991, Ven Conmigo went gold for sales exceeding 50,000 units, making Selena the first female Tejano singer to receive the honor. The event dissolved the male hierarchy in the Tejano music industry, which saw women as commercially inferior. Ven Conmigo received a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Album of the Year – Orchestra at the 1992 annual event. The album peaked at number 22 on the US Billboard Top Pop Catalog Albums chart after it was ineligible to chart on the Billboard 200 following her shooting death in 1995. In October 2017, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album triple platinum, denoting 300,000 album-equivalent units sold in the United States. In 2019, the album was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". ## Production and development In March 1989, Selena signed with EMI Latin, which had opened a Latin music division with José Behar as president. Though EMI marketed her as a solo artist, her Los Dinos band continued to tour with her. Initially, Behar and Stephen Finfer asked Selena for a crossover album. After recording three demos for the heads of EMI Records' pop division, Charles Koppelman rejected them and suggested Selena perform songs that appealed to her fan base. Before her debut album with the company, her brother A.B. Quintanilla III had fought to remain the singer's principal producer and songwriter. Feeling they were "gambling" in the Latin music market, EMI Latin entered into an agreement with Quintanilla III that if he failed to produce a successful record he would be replaced by a Grammy Award-winning producer and songwriter. Selena's debut album outperformed other recordings by contemporaneous female Tejano singers and enjoyed moderate success. A.B. was allowed to continue as the singer's producer and songwriter for Ven Conmigo. ## Recording and composition Ven Conmigo was recorded at record producer Joey Lopez' Zaz Studios in San Antonio. The band entered the studio "with more musical firepower than ever before". Quintanilla III arranged the album and chose what would be included on it, "carefully select[ing] the songs [that would] jumpstart [Selena's] transition into a larger Latino market". Keyboardist Ricky Vela programmed the entire project, while band members contributed to the recording by composing seven of the album's ten songs. Ven Conmigo contains half cumbias and half rancheras. It includes musical influences from: salsa, rock and roll, rap and soul music, traditional Mexican music, Mexican folk, polka, country, and Colombian music. Abraham Quintanilla Jr.—the group's manager and Selena's father—suggested the idea of having a variety of genres on the album: "I always felt that the buyer, the listener, would enjoy this and would not get bored hearing just one particular style of music." The compositions for the album were musically varied— more "broader-based and more adventurous than any mainstream Tejano act" according to biographer Joe Nick Patoski. Selena and her band were "evolving a rhythmic style that demonstrated its prowess for catchy cumbias". Ven Conmigo scrapped the conventional styles and track organization of the typical Tejano album of "a two-sided single sandwiched between a bunch of polkas and oldie-but-goodie [songs]". On "Yo Te Amo", the band decided to go with a bridge–interlude format rather than a typical chord progression they had recycled; "[W]e were growing, we were evolving" as Vela later put it. It was "neither Texan nor Mexican" in its form, but a representation of international Spanish music "under the guise of a slow cumbia". Similarly, "Yo Me Voy" has the same qualities as "Yo Te Amo". Vela enjoyed Rocío Dúrcal's 1987 version of "Yo Me Voy", a Juan Gabriel song. He wanted Selena to record it and played Dúrcal's recording to A.B. who agreed that the song would suit Ven Conmigo. A.B. collaborated on the arrangement with Vela. Local songwriter, Johnny Herrera, wrote "Aunque No Salga el Sol", which was originally written for Lisa Lopez as a follow-up to her 1982 number-one single "Si Quieres Verme Llorar". Lopez had rejected the song, finding it weaker than other recordings that were provided to her. Patoski thought the song was "one of the most poetic works ever written by a Texas composer". It was given to Selena to record in 1985 for Bob Grever's record label; she later re-recorded it for Ven Conmigo. Vela used "more percussion and sequencing" than similar pop ballads. Quintanilla III worked with Pete Astudillo on a concept melody he had thought of while the band was resting following a concert in West Texas. Called "Baila Esta Cumbia" it was recorded for Ven Conmigo. Beginning with this album, Selena started experimenting with vocal arrangements during recording sessions. She added an outro to "Baila Esta Cumbia", her first attempt at adding "counter melodies [sic]" to finished projects; "she would often change vocal [notes] to suit her and what she thought [sounded] better" recalled Chris Pérez. "Baila Esta Cumbia" echoed works by Fito Olivares, and became a hit single in Mexico, "opening the doors" for the group in that country. Astudillo co-wrote the title track, "Ven Conmigo", with A.B. using the same stylistic sounds found in música norteña recordings. Vela and A.B. traveled to Poteet, Texas, and hired David Lee Garza, his brother, and father to play and record the accordion, drums, and bajo sexto, respectively for the track that gave it "a Tejano flavor". After discovering that Behar invited high-profile pop music executives to the 1990 Tejano Music Awards, Abraham argued that a hip-hop-esque song could impress them and solidify a crossover deal. A.B., Astudillo, and Vela worked on the idea through the night at a Motel 6 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, using eight keyboards, a mixing console, and monitor systems. "[B]ack then we didn't have the fancy computers with all the sequencing" A.B. recalled during a retrospect interview. They created a Spanish-language translation of "Is It the Beat?", an English language demo track she had recorded the previous year, entitled "Enamorada de Ti", a freestyle dance-pop track that drummer Suzette Quintanilla compared to a Top 40 recording that illustrated Selena's "soul side". Selena recorded the track before the Tejano Music Awards on March 9, 1990, and rehearsed a routine with backup dancers for the event. Quintanilla Jr. suggested the idea of reworking the popular Cuban song "Guantanamera" into a house music track. Quintanilla III created an instrumental. Quintanilla Jr. liked it and encouraged Quintanilla III to write lyrics for it, resulting in "No Quiero Saber". Astudillo recalled how he worked with Quintanilla III on the track, noting that "No Quiero Saber" was lyrically different from their repertoire of love songs and the heartache of failed relationships. ## Promotion The night before the photo shoot for the album, Selena cut and dyed her hair jet black and stained a small patch of skin behind her ear. She insisted on a black-and-white photograph of her posing with a mohawk to distract from the stain. EMI Latin was adamantly opposed to the singer shortening her hair and its styling. They wanted to market her based on beauty standards at that time, and believed the style would have a negative impact on Selena's "good girl" image. Roger Garcia, the band's lead guitarist, got married before Ven Conmigo was released. Quintanilla III discovered 17-year old Pérez, who was the guitarist for Shelly Lares. He auditioned to be part of the group. Quintanilla III's music production style was Pérez' inspiration to become part of Selena y Los Dinos. At first, Quintanilla Jr. dismissed Pérez, seeing him as more of a rocker, feeling he was ill-equipped for a Tejano band. Betty Cortina, editor-at-large for People magazine, wrote that Pérez was the antithesis of Quintanilla Jr.'s "clean-cut good kids" image. Quintanilla III persuaded Abraham that Pérez was capable of performing Tejano music, adding that his rocker image was harmless. Pérez was hired as the band's guitarist after the band finished recording Ven Conmigo. Critics felt Pérez' hard rock style combined with Selena's basic Tejano sound, added to her already diverse musical repertoire. Selena's concerts began to attract upwards of 60,000 attendees. She shared a Houston venue with La Mafia and Emilio Navaira that drew 9,000 spectators in the summer of 1991. She later shared another venue with Ramón Ayala, Olivares, and Pandora at the ninth annual Hispanic State Fair in San Antonio. Selena was invited to the Johnny Canales Show in 1991, her third appearance. The show introduced Pérez as the band's new guitarist. He seemed "unsure of himself as he practiced his Temptations-style dance steps in time to the music". Author Joe Nick Patoski described Pérez's choreography on the show as "tentative", however, "the rock licks he played on his guitar were like spitfire, bringing a hard edge to the band that it had previously lacked." Vilma Maldonado of The Monitor wrote that Selena can "sing [and] improvises [her] dances" calling her "unpredictable, attractive, and talented" after an April 1991 concert. The Fort Worth Star-Telegram described Selena's performance at a Cinco de Mayo celebration as "electrifying". Selena performed the title track as a duet with A.B. which was called "one of the highlights of the performance". Three singles were released from the album including "Ya Ves", "Baila Esta Cumbia", and "La Tracalera". "Baila Esta Cumbia" was the most played song on local Tejano music radio stations for a month and a half, leading to the band touring Mexico for the first time. It was later certified six times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for 360,000 digital sales. Promotional single, "Ya Ves" was the most played song on KTXZ-AM for five consecutive weeks, beginning on October 25, 1990. While promotional singles "Yo Te Amo" reached number six, and "Yo Me Voy" reached number eight. ## Critical reception Following the album's release, Selena was called the Gloria Estefan, Janet Jackson, and Madonna of Tejano music. Selena responded to these comparisons saying she did not like to be stereotyped. She explained: "I think it's good to be different, and if you're first at it, it's even better." Selena's popularity "surged" following Ven Conmigo's release. It was the first album to bring her recognition within her field of music, and established her name on the Tejano music scene "as a true artist to be reckoned with". The album expanded Selena's "vocal talents", and made her "unstoppable". Ven Conmigo was nominated for the Tejano Music Award for Album of the Year – Orchestra, while its single "Baila Esta Cumbia" was nominated for Single of the Year and Song of the Year. The single "Yo Te Amo" was nominated for Vocal Duo of the Year at the 1992 Tejano Music Awards. Selena received her third consecutive win for Female Vocalist of the Year and Female Entertainer of the Year. Ven Conmigo debuted at number eight on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart the week ending November 3, 1990. It was the highest debut album of that week, and surpassed Selena as her highest debuting album on the chart at the time. The following week, the album fell to number ten. It reached number six on the Regional Mexican Albums chart in its sixth week, surpassing Selena as her highest charting album, before peaking at number three. Ven Conmigo remained in the top ten on the Regional Mexican Albums chart for 16 consecutive weeks before falling into the top 15. It surpassed the record for most weeks on the chart for a female Tejano album—56 weeks. At the same time "Baila Esta Cumbia" reached number eight on local Tejano radio stations' list of the most requested songs for that week. Ven Conmigo ended 1991 as the fourth best-selling Regional Mexican Album. In October 1991, Ven Conmigo went gold for sales exceeding 50,000 units, the first Tejano album by a woman to receive a gold certification. This dissolved the male hierarchy in the Tejano music industry where women were seen as commercially inferior. It also ended the long-standing view that a female performer could not draw comparable audiences to a man. Selena later said in an interview: "[T]he more doors they shut on us, the more determined we became. We've just started seeing a change." She credited the gold certification to EMI Latin's marketing team, and felt it inspired other women in the field to believe they were capable of producing gold records. Following the album's certification, Selena performed at a 2,000-seat McAllen, Texas venue owned by Nano Ramírez who had denied her the opportunity to play there earlier in her career. On March 31, 1995, Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar, her friend and former manager of her boutiques. The resulting media attention helped increase sales of Ven Conmigo. It debuted at number 24 on the US Billboard Top Pop Catalog Albums chart. It was ineligible to chart on the Billboard 200 following a revision that excluded titles older than 18 months appearing on it. The following week, Ven Conmigo peaked at number 22, while her 17 Super Éxitos (1993) compilation album spent its second week at number one. In 1995, catalog titles made up nearly 50% of the music consumed in the United States. Ven Conmigo and 17 Super Éxitos contributed to the \$5 billion revenue reported that year by the music industry. The RIAA certified the album platinum for shipments of 200,000 units in the United States; her fifth platinum record. In October 2017, the RIAA updated the certification to triple platinum, denoting 300,000 album-equivalent units sold. ## Track listing ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Ven Conmigo. - Selena – vocals, background vocals - Pete Astudillo – background vocals, duet with Selena on "Yo Te Amo" - A.B. Quintanilla – background vocals, arranger, bass guitar, record producer - Juan Gabriel – composer - Ricky Vela – arranger, keyboards, sequencer - Suzette Quintanilla – drums - David Lee Garza – accordion - Johnny Herrera – composer - Joe Ojeda – arranger, keyboards - Adam Garza – drums - Roger Garcia – guitar - Gilbert Velasquez – mixer, music engineer, guitar - Robert Lopez – art direction ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## See also - 1990 in Latin music - Billboard Regional Mexican Albums Year-end Chart, 1990s - Selena albums discography - Latin American music in the United States - Women in Latin music
5,326,977	Phil Hughes (baseball)	1,166,144,234	American baseball player (born 1986)	[ "1986 births", "American League All-Stars", "Baseball players from Mission Viejo, California", "Charleston RiverDogs players", "Foothill High School (Santa Ana, California) alumni", "Gulf Coast Yankees players", "Living people", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Minnesota Twins players", "New York Yankees players", "Peoria Javelinas players", "San Diego Padres players", "Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees players", "Staten Island Yankees players", "Tampa Yankees players", "Trenton Thunder players" ]	Philip Joseph Hughes (born June 24, 1986) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the New York Yankees, Minnesota Twins, and San Diego Padres from 2007 through 2018. He stands 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m) tall and weighs 240 pounds (110 kg). He was the Yankees' first-round pick in the 2004 MLB draft. During his time in the Yankees' minor-league system, Hughes was one of the most highly anticipated prospects in baseball, but his major league career was marked by inconsistency. He debuted in the major leagues in 2007 as a starting pitcher and quickly demonstrated his potential with a bid for a no-hitter in only his second MLB start. However, injury cut short his outing, as well as significant portions of his 2007 and 2008 seasons. Hughes began 2009 in the minors but later returned to the major leagues, eventually converting to a relief pitcher in June; pitching as a setup man for Mariano Rivera, Hughes excelled in the new role during the regular season. Despite his struggles in the postseason, Hughes won a championship with the Yankees in the 2009 World Series over the Philadelphia Phillies. Upon returning to the starting rotation in 2010, he won 18 games and earned his first All-Star selection. Arm fatigue cost Hughes nearly half of the season in 2011, but the following year, he stayed healthy for the entire season, winning 16 games as the Yankees' third starter. In 2013, he had his worst season, posting a 4–14 win–loss record and 5.19 earned run average, a performance that led to his removal from the rotation. The following year, Hughes had a turnaround season with the Twins, where he went 16–10 with an ERA of 3.52 that resulted in him placing 7th in the American League Cy Young Award voting. ## Early life Hughes was born in Mission Viejo, California on June 24, 1986, and attended Foothill High School in North Tustin, California, where he was a first-team High School All-American pitcher and had one perfect game. In his junior year (2003), he had a 12–0 record and posted an 0.78 earned run average (ERA) while striking out 85 batters in 72 innings. In his senior year (2004), he had an 0.69 ERA and a 9–1 record. In 61 innings, he gave up 41 hits and three walks while striking out 83 batters. Hughes first committed to Santa Clara University, but he chose to sign with the New York Yankees when they selected him in the first round, with the 23rd overall selection, of the 2004 Major League Baseball draft. The Yankees were awarded this pick as compensation when free agent pitcher Andy Pettitte signed with the Houston Astros. ## Professional baseball career ### Minor leagues In 2004, Hughes pitched five scoreless innings for the rookie Gulf Coast League Yankees, striking out eight hitters. He spent 2005, his first full professional year, between the Class A Charleston RiverDogs and the Advanced A Tampa Yankees. He had a 9–2 record and a 1.24 ERA, and in 85+1⁄3 innings he gave up 54 hits while striking out 93. After attending spring training with the Yankees in 2006, Hughes began the season with Tampa. He was promoted to the Double-A Trenton Thunder of the Eastern League at the beginning of May after he had a 2–3 record and a 1.80 ERA with Tampa while striking out 30 batters in 30 innings. On June 13, Hughes took a no-hitter into the sixth inning and threw a one-hitter through seven innings in a 3–0 victory over the New Hampshire Fisher Cats. Ten days later, he put forth another dominant start, taking a no-hitter into the eighth inning and pitching eight shutout innings in a 4–0 win over the Connecticut Defenders. With Trenton, Hughes had a 10–3 record, a 2.25 ERA, and 138 strikeouts in 116 innings. He made one appearance in the Eastern League playoffs, earning a no-decision after pitching six innings of 1-run ball with 13 strikeouts. The game was the only postseason victory for the Thunder that year. After the season, he won the Kevin Lawn "Pitcher of the Year" Award as the top Yankees' minor league pitcher. Entering 2007, Baseball America rated Hughes the Yankees' \#1 prospect, said he had the best curveball and best control in the Yankee system, and called him "arguably the best pitching prospect in the minors." Baseball America also named him the fourth-best prospect in baseball. MiLB.com named Hughes the top right-handed starting pitching prospect in the AL East farm systems. In January 2007, the Yankees announced that Hughes was being invited to spring training. According to Bryan Hoch of MLB.com, scouts believed that Hughes was ready for the major leagues, but Yankees' general manager Brian Cashman said it was "unlikely" that Hughes would play for the Yankees in April. Hughes began 2007 pitching for the Triple-A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees of the International League (IL). ### New York Yankees #### 2007 Following injuries to several Yankees' starters in 2007, Hughes was called up in April. Hughes made his major league debut on April 26 against the Toronto Blue Jays. In 4+1⁄3 innings, he allowed four runs on seven hits, earning his first career loss. In his second major league start on May 1 against the Texas Rangers, he was maintaining a no-hitter through 6+1⁄3 innings before pulling his left hamstring while facing his future teammate Mark Teixeira. Mike Myers later allowed a hit, but Hughes earned his first career win. After the game, he was placed on the disabled list (DL). He returned on August 4 against the Kansas City Royals, allowing six runs in 4+2⁄3 innings and earning a no-decision in a 16–8 victory. In his final start of the year, on September 27 against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, he allowed one run in a season-high seven innings and earned the win in a 3–1 victory. In 17 starts for the Yankees, Hughes had a 5–3 record, a 4.46 ERA, and 58 strikeouts in 72+2⁄3 innings pitched. He was the second-youngest American League (AL) player in 2007. Hughes was included on the Yankees' postseason roster as a long reliever. He made his first postseason appearance in 2007 against the Cleveland Indians in the AL Division Series (ALDS), giving up one run in two innings in Game 1, a 12–3 loss. In Game 3, Hughes (the youngest player on the Yankees' roster) relieved an injured Roger Clemens (the oldest player on the roster) in the third inning and pitched 3+2⁄3 scoreless innings. He struck out four and earned his first playoff win. The Yankees were eliminated in four games in the series. #### 2008 Prior to the 2008 season, it was reported by numerous news sources that the Yankees were thinking of including Hughes in a trade to the Minnesota Twins for Johan Santana. The trade never happened; Santana was traded to the New York Mets instead. Hughes began the 2008 season as the third starter in the Yankees' rotation. In his first six starts, he had an 0–4 record and a 9.00 ERA. On April 30, he was placed on the disabled list with a strained oblique and cracked rib. On a May 2 visit to an optometrist, Hughes was found to be slightly nearsighted. After recovering from the rib injury, Hughes pitched for Scranton/Wilkes-Barre; he helped them win the 2008 International League title, earning the win after striking out 12 batters in the clinching game. On September 13, a day after the IL playoffs, Hughes was recalled by the Yankees. On September 17, Hughes made his first start since April 29, giving up one earned run over four innings and earning a no-decision in a 5–1 victory over the Chicago White Sox. In his final start of the season, on September 24, he gave up two runs in eight innings and received a no-decision in a ten-inning, 6–2 victory over Toronto. He finished the season with an 0–4 record, a 6.62 ERA, 23 strikeouts, and 34 innings pitched in eight starts. Because injuries severely limited his workload during the season, the Yankees sent Hughes to the Arizona Fall League after the season to pitch more innings. #### 2009 Although he had a solid performance in spring training, Hughes began the 2009 season in Triple-A. He was called up to the majors in April after Chien-Ming Wang was placed on the disabled list. Hughes made his first start of the season on April 28 against the Detroit Tigers and pitched six scoreless innings, earning his first win since 2007 in an 11–0 victory. On May 25, Hughes threw eight scoreless innings, earning the win in an 11–1 victory over the Rangers. After he posted a 3–2 record and a 5.45 ERA in seven starts, Hughes was moved to the bullpen when Wang returned to the rotation in early June. Hughes pitched well, becoming the primary setup man to Mariano Rivera in July due to injuries to Brian Bruney and Dámaso Marte. Despite his success as a reliever, Cashman maintained that Hughes would be a starter over the long-term. Hughes's first regular season win in relief came on July 17, when he threw two scoreless innings in a 5–3 victory over Detroit. On July 23, he recorded his first career save after a 6–3 Yankees victory over the Oakland Athletics. He relieved CC Sabathia in the eighth inning and pitched two perfect innings. From June 10 through July 3, he had a 25+1⁄3 inning scoreless streak, the longest by a Yankee reliever since Rivera had a 30+2⁄3 inning scoreless streak in 1999. In 44 games as a relief pitcher in 2009, Hughes posted a 1.40 ERA; he had 65 strikeouts in 51+1⁄3 innings. Hughes pitched in all three games of the ALDS against the Minnesota Twins, posting a 9.00 ERA. In Game 5 of the AL Championship Series (ALCS) against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, he suffered a loss when he gave up a run and also allowed an inherited runner to score in the 7–6 defeat. He had scoreless outings in Games 2 and 3 as the Yankees won the series in six games. He had a 16.20 ERA in the World Series, but he won his first World Series ring as the Yankees defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. #### 2010 On March 25, 2010, Hughes was named the Yankees' fifth starter. Throughout the season, the Yankees occasionally had Hughes skip starts to limit his innings, in hopes that this would help him stay healthy. On April 21, Hughes carried a no-hitter into the eighth inning against the Athletics before allowing a leadoff single to Eric Chavez; he faced two more hitters prior to being relieved, having struck out 10 batters. He won his first five decisions, a streak snapped May 22 by the New York Mets. He followed with another five-game win streak, the last coming against the Mets on June 19. After missing a start, he saw this win streak come to an end June 29 against the Seattle Mariners. Hughes was named to the AL All-Star Team, Sunday, July 4. Five days after his first selection to the midsummer classic, Hughes threw seven innings and gave up one run to beat the Mariners 6–1. His next outing, the All-Star Game, did not go well. Hughes, after retiring the first batter he faced in the seventh inning, allowed a pair of singles to Scott Rolen and Matt Holliday before yielding to Matt Thornton; Rolen and Holliday scored the tying and go-ahead runs on Brian McCann's three-run double that proved decisive in the NL's 3–1 victory. On August 14, Hughes allowed three runs in six innings, earning the win in an 8–3 victory over the Kansas City Royals. It was the 50th start of Hughes's career, making him at 24 years and 51 days old the youngest Yankee to make his 50th start since Al Downing made his 50th start at 23 years and 61 days old in 1964. Hughes had 18 wins (tied for fourth in the AL with Trevor Cahill and Justin Verlander behind Sabathia, who had 21, and Jon Lester and David Price, who both had 19), only 8 losses, and a 4.19 ERA while striking out 146 batters in 176+1⁄3 innings of work. His run support of 6.48 runs per game was the highest in the major leagues. Hughes made his first postseason start in Game 3 of the ALDS against the Twins. He threw seven shutout innings to earn the win in the clinching game of the series as the Yankees beat the Twins 6–1. Game 2 of the ALCS against the Rangers did not go as well for Hughes, who allowed seven runs in four innings and earned the loss as the Yankees were defeated 7–2. He allowed four runs in 4+2⁄3 innings in Game 6 and earned another loss as the Yankees lost 6–1 and were eliminated from the postseason. #### 2011 Hughes began the 2011 season as the third starter in the Yankees rotation. He suffered from a dip in velocity, with his four-seam fastball decreasing to 89–92 miles per hour (143–148 km/h), compared to his previous 92–95 miles per hour (148–153 km/h). After opening the season 0–1 with a 13.94 ERA in three starts, Hughes was placed on the DL due to a dead arm syndrome. It was later revealed that Hughes had been suffering from shoulder inflammation. He underwent an arm strength rehabilitation program for several weeks. On July 6, he made his first start in nearly 3 months, pitching five innings, allowing two earned runs, striking out and walking two batters, in a 5–3 loss to the Cleveland Indians. On August 2, in a rain-shortened game, Hughes threw his first career shutout as the Yankees defeated the White Sox 6–0 in six innings. Late in September, Hughes was moved to the bullpen after back stiffness caused him to miss a start. In 17 games (14 starts), Hughes had a 5–5 record, a 5.79 ERA, and 47 strikeouts in 74+2⁄3 innings pitched. Hughes was included on the Yankees' postseason roster as a relief pitcher. He had scoreless outings in Games 4 and 5 of the ALDS as the Yankees were defeated by the Detroit Tigers in five games. #### 2012 On January 16, 2012, Hughes signed a one-year deal worth \$3.25 million that included incentives, effectively avoiding arbitration. His deal was a \$500,000 raise from his 2011 season. Hughes was the Yankees' third starter in 2012. He started the season averaging only four innings in his first four starts while posting a 1–3 record and a 7.88 ERA. From May to the end of the season, however, Hughes had a 15–10 record and a 3.90 ERA. He had a season-high four-game winning streak from May 22 through June 15. Hughes threw a complete game on June 3, allowing one run in a 5–1 win against the Tigers. On June 26, he threw eight shutout innings and earned the win in a 6–4 victory over Cleveland. He threw 7+1⁄3 shutout innings and earned the win on September 13 in a 2–0 victory over the Boston Red Sox. In 32 starts, Hughes had a 4.19 ERA and 165 strikeouts in 191+1⁄3 innings pitched. He was tied for sixth in the AL in wins (16, with Max Scherzer, Yu Darvish, and Hiroki Kuroda), but he also tied for eighth in the league in losses (13, with Dan Haren and Ervin Santana). In Game 4 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles, Hughes allowed one run in 6+2⁄3 innings but received a no-decision in a 13-inning, 2–1 loss. The Yankees won the series in five games. In Game 3 of the ALCS against Detroit, Hughes allowed one run in three innings before exiting with back stiffness; he took the loss as the Yankees lost 2–1. The Tigers swept the Yankees in four games. #### 2013 Hughes began the 2013 season on the DL with a bulging disc in his back. He returned from the DL on April 6, allowing four runs (three earned) in four plus innings and earning the loss as Detroit won 8–4. On May 15 against the Seattle Mariners, Hughes only lasted 2⁄3 of an inning after giving up seven runs, six hits, two walks, including a grand slam to former Yankee Raúl Ibañez in a 12–2 Yankee loss. It was the shortest start of his career and at the time the shortest non-injury start by a Yankee at the new Yankee Stadium. After pitching to a 4–13 record and a 4.86 ERA, with a 5.71 ERA in the second half, the Yankees removed Hughes from the rotation on September 4, replacing him with David Huff. Hughes went 1–10 in home starts in 2013, making him just the second MLB pitcher to win fewer than two games when making at least 15 home starts in a season; the other being Phil Huffman of the Toronto Blue Jays in 1979. He has the third-highest ERA in Yankee history among pitchers with at least 500 innings pitched. ### Minnesota Twins #### 2014 Hughes agreed to a three-year contract worth \$24 million with the Minnesota Twins on November 30, 2013. The deal was confirmed by the Twins on December 5, 2013. His first start for the Twins came against the White Sox in Chicago on April 3. Hughes threw five innings, giving up four earned runs and striking out seven. He received a no-decision as the Twins won the game 10-9. His first win in a Twins uniform came in his fourth start, where he limited the Kansas City Royals to three earned runs over six innings in an 8-3 victory on April 20. This win started a successful run of starts for Hughes, who notched eleven consecutive outings of at least six innings pitched. Over this stretch (April 20–June 17), Hughes went 7-2 while posting a 2.27 ERA and a 0.982 WHIP in 75+1⁄3 innings. He allowed three earned runs or less in all but one of these starts and gave up just three walks against 61 strikeouts. On June 1, Hughes faced the Yankees for the first time in his career, pitching at Yankees Stadium for the first time since signing with the Twins during the offseason. Despite his career struggles pitching in New York while he was in pinstripes (29-24 with a 4.96 ERA in the Bronx overall, and 28-21 with a 4.82 ERA and 71 home runs allowed (1.79 HR/9) at the new stadium), Hughes delivered his best outing of the season yet, giving up just two earned runs on three hits across eight innings and earning the win in a 7-2 victory. Three starts later, he pitched his first complete game in over two years, throwing eight innings of two-run ball in a tough loss against the Red Sox in Boston. Hughes would struggle in his final five starts before the All-Star break, despite a decent 3-2 record and throwing 31+1⁄3 innings, as he posted a 6.32 ERA and opponents hit .344 against him. Nonetheless, his 10 wins in the first half of the season made him one of eleven AL pitchers with double digit wins prior to the All-Star break. Hughes started the second half of the season taking the loss in his first three starts, resulting in his ERA rising above 4.00 for the first time since early May. His first win since the All-Star break came on August 5 in San Diego against the Padres, where he struck out nine batters and allowed just one run in six innings of work. Hughes then went on another roll, winning his next three starts, the first time he earned the win in four consecutive starts since winning four straight from June 2–19, 2010. Following his win in San Diego, Hughes also emerged by throwing at least seven innings in each of his nine outings over the rest of the season. Compiling a 5-2 record over this period, he also posted a 2.45 ERA and a 0.879 WHIP in 66 innings, with 59 strikeouts against just two walks and holding batters to a .221 average. In five of these nine starts, Hughes allowed one earned run or less, and recorded quality starts (three earned runs or less) in all but one of them. On September 13, Hughes struck out a career-high 11 batters over seven plus innings in a 5-1 loss to the White Sox, becoming the first Twins pitcher to strike out 10 or more batters in a single game in over two years (the last time being Francisco Liriano on July 12, 2012, a 379 game span). In his final start of the season on September 24, Hughes pitched eight innings of one-run ball with five strikeouts in his final start of the season, a 2-1 over the Diamondbacks. He ultimately ended the season setting a new record for the best strikeout-to-walk ratio posted by a starting pitcher in a single season in MLB history (11.625), breaking the previous record of 11.000 set by Bret Saberhagen 20 years earlier. Hughes closed his first season in Minnesota with a superb second half, pitching 88 innings across 13 starts and posting a 2.97 ERA (despite an average record of 6-5). Hughes finished the 2014 season with a win–loss record of 16–10 alongside a career-best 3.52 ERA and 1.13 WHIP. He topped the 200 inning threshold for the first time in his career, pitching 209+2⁄3 innings (10th-most in the AL) in 32 starts, which included 26 outings at least six innings thrown (20 of which were quality). He gave up 221 hits (fifth in the AL), but struck out a career-high 186 batters to go against a measly 16 walks, the fewest ever for a pitcher with more than 200 innings. In addition to establishing an overall career-best season, Hughes was seen as a Cy Young candidate by some baseball writers in large part due to his newly established record. Beyond leading all other major league starters in strikeout-to-walk ratio by over 4 points (as well posting as a personal best K/9 rate of 7.98), Hughes' BB/9 rate of 0.687 was the third-lowest mark ever posted by a starting pitcher in the Modern Era (behind Saberhagen and Carlos Silva). Furthermore, given that Hughes only gave up as many home runs (16) as he did walks during the 2014 season (thus posting an identical mark of 0.687 home runs per 9 innings, also a career-low), his 2.65 Fielding Independent Pitching (FIP) (a defense independent pitching statistic measuring a pitchers effectiveness to limit walks, homers and hits and accumulate strikeouts) showed off his incredible finesse (Hughes allowed no more than one walk in 30 of his 32 starts) and command of the strike zone (out of 3,046 pitches thrown, 2,224 of them (73.0%) landed in the strike zone, the best rate among all major league pitchers by a landslide) throughout the season. Hughes received both of the Twins most prestigious player awards (the Joseph W. Haynes Pitcher of the Year Award and the Calvin R. Griffith MVP Award) for his outstanding performance throughout the season on an otherwise disappointing Twins team, who finished 22 games under .500 and last in the AL Central. He also finished seventh in the voting for the American League Cy Young Award behind David Price, Max Scherzer, Jon Lester, Chris Sale, Félix Hernández and winner Corey Kluber, receiving one fourth-place vote and four fifth-place votes for a total of six points. It marked the highest Cy Young voting finish for a Twins pitcher since Johan Santana won the award unanimously in 2006. On December 22, 2014, Hughes and the Twins agreed on a three-year extension worth \$42 million. #### 2015 Looking to build on the success of his 2014 season, Hughes went into the 2015 season as the Twins ace. He started 25 times while appearing two times out of the bullpen. Despite going 11–9, his ERA was 4.40 and allowed 29 home runs in 155+1⁄3 innings, the most across the majors. #### 2016 On June 9, 2016, Hughes was struck in the left knee off a line drive from J. T. Realmuto and left the game. The next day, he was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to left knee contusion. On June 11, it was revealed that there was a non-displaced fracture of the femur in the left knee. He was ruled out for 6–8 weeks. On June 12, he was transferred to the 60-day disabled list. On June 28, Hughes' season was declared over as he was set to undergo season ending surgery for thoracic outlet syndrome. He finished the 2016 season with a 1–7 record for the Twins with a 5.95 ERA. #### 2017 For the 2017 season, Hughes began the season as the Twins fourth starter. He went on the disabled list at the end of May due to biceps tendinitis. Upon his return from the disabled list, due to not being able to regain his complete stamina, Hughes agreed to head to the bullpen to build up strength. On July 18, Hughes was declared out for the season due to recurring symptoms due to the thoracic syndrome. #### 2018 Hughes was in the rotation at the beginning of the month but after two starts, he landed on the disabled list. Upon returning, he was sent to the bullpen. Hughes was designated for assignment by the Twins on May 22, 2018. Hughes ended his five year tenure with the Twins compiling a 32–29 record and a 4.43 ERA. ### San Diego Padres On May 27, 2018, the Twins traded Hughes, along with cash and the 74th pick in the 2018 MLB draft, to the San Diego Padres in exchange for minor-league catcher Janigson Villalobos. Upon being acquired, he was put in the bullpen. Hughes pitched to a 6.10 ERA in 20+2⁄3 innings. The Padres designated Hughes for assignment on August 10 and released him on August 16. In the 2018 season, batters facing Hughes accrued the highest percentage of barreled-balls per plate appearance and highest average exit velocity of any other pitcher in the major leagues. On January 3, 2021, Hughes officially announced his retirement from professional baseball on his Twitter account. ## Personal life As a child, Hughes was a Boston Red Sox fan. He had a poster of Nomar Garciaparra with the slogan "Reverse the Curse" on his bedroom wall. Hughes is a Christian. His baseball glove has the reference for the Bible verse Philippians 4:13 on it, and Hughes has the entire verse ("I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.") tattooed on his left arm. He enjoys watching the Food Network and is a fan of Alton Brown. He became a fan of the Tampa Bay Lightning in 2005, after he began training at the Yankees' facility in Tampa. Hughes and his wife, Sarah, were married in November 2016. They welcomed their first child, a baby boy named Harrison, in the fall of 2019. Hughes is an avid sports card collector. Since September 2019, he has recorded and published videos of himself opening packs to YouTube under the channel name Phil’s Pulls. ## Scouting report Hughes's pitch repertoire has varied over the years, although his main pitch has consistently been a four-seam fastball at 92–95 mph, and he has also relied on a spike curveball in the range of 73–77 mph. He has also developed a mid-80s Vulcan changeup against left-handed hitters, and in mid-2012, he developed a low-80s slider to right-handers. Hughes added a cut fastball in the high 80s as a weapon against right-handers in the 2008 season, and he used the pitch 16% of the time in the 2009 and 2010 seasons: > It was something I was messing around with in rehab and figured could be a good equalizing pitch in fastball counts. It was basically a way to get some cheap outs. It was also a pitch that was easier for me to control than a slider. It's just a fastball grip with a little alteration, so it was easier for me to throw strikes with it. That was kind of the purpose to adding it in. By early 2011, Hughes's velocity on his fastball was down several mph; John Harper of the New York Daily News speculated that Hughes's overuse of the cutter was to blame, not a dead arm. Hughes continued to use the cutter into the start of the 2012 season; he posted a 7.88 ERA in April, throwing the cutter about 12% of the time in this span. In early May, Hughes dropped the cutter from his repertoire, using it only 1.2% of the time for the rest of the year. Hughes throws a disproportionate number of his pitches high in the strike zone and above the zone. Hughes asserts that the hamstring injury he suffered in his rookie year has permanently altered his pitching mechanics: "My stride, and things like that, have never quite been the same." ## Awards and honors - 2004 – 1st team High School All-American P - 2006 – New York Yankees Minor League Player of the Year - 2007 – AL East Division Top Prospects (Right-handed starting pitcher) - 2007 – Baseball America's Top 100 prospects: \#4. - 2009 – World Series champion - 2010 – American League All-Star ## See also - List of Major League Baseball single-inning strikeout leaders
49,661,217	2015–2016 Spanish government formation	1,171,829,047	Government formation process in Spain following the 2015 general election	[ "2015 in Spain", "2016 in Spain", "Cabinet formation", "Government of Spain" ]	Attempts to form a government in Spain followed the inconclusive Spanish general election of 20 December 2015, which failed to deliver an overall majority for any political party. As a result, the previous People's Party (PP) cabinet headed by Mariano Rajoy was forced to remain in a caretaker capacity until the election of a new government. After a series of inconclusive inter-party negotiations, leader of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) Pedro Sánchez tried and failed to pass an investiture vote on 2–4 March. Subsequently, a political impasse set in as King Felipe VI could not find a new candidate to nominate with sufficient parliamentary support. As a result, a snap election was held on 26 June. The second election also proved inconclusive, and a failed investiture attempt by Rajoy on 31 August raised the prospect of a third election. On 1 October, a party rebellion resulted in Sánchez being ousted as leader of the PSOE and the latter voting to allow the formation of a PP minority government. This materialized on 29 October when the PSOE abstained in Rajoy's second investiture bid, thus ending the political deadlock after days without an operational government. ## Legal provisions The procedure for government formation in Spain was outlined in Article 99 of the 1978 Constitution: > 1\. After renewal of the Congress of Deputies, and in other cases provided under the Constitution, the King, after consultation with the representatives appointed by the political groups with parliamentary representation, and through the president of the Congress, shall nominate a candidate for prime minister. > 2. The candidate nominate in accordance with the provisions of the foregoing paragraph shall submit to the Congress of Deputies the political programme of the Government that he intends to form and shall seek the confidence of the Houses. > 3. If the Congress of Deputies, by vote of the absolute majority of its members, invests said candidate with its confidence, the King shall appoint him President. If an absolute majority is not obtained, the same proposal shall be submitted for a new vote forty-eight hours after the previous vote, and it shall be considered that confidence has been secured if it passes by a simple majority. > 4. If, after this vote, confidence for the investiture has not been obtained, successive proposals shall be voted upon in the manner provided in the foregoing paragraphs. > 5. If within two months after the first vote for investiture no candidate has obtained the confidence of Congress, the King shall dissolve Congress and call new elections, following endorsement by the Speaker of Congress. ## First formation round (December 2015 – April 2016) ### Post-2015 election developments #### Initial positions As the 2015 Spanish general election produced a very fragmented parliament, a multi-party agreement was expected to be required in order for a stable government to be formed. Caretaker prime minister and People's Party (PP) leader Mariano Rajoy said that he would try to form an administration, whereas opposition and Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) leader Pedro Sánchez advocated for a change in government. Two possible coalitions based on the left–right political spectrum, the right-wing (PP with Citizens (C's))—and the left-wing (PSOE with Podemos), were both short of an overall majority—set at 176 seats—by themselves. There was speculation around four outcomes: - A grand coalition of PP and PSOE, an unprecedented phenomenon in Spanish politics but the only feasible two-party deal that would be able to reach an absolute majority, with 213 seats. - A PSOE, Podemos and C's alliance, comprising 199 seats. - A PSOE, Podemos and United Left (IU) coalition—comprising 161 seats—together with smaller regional parties. - Parliamentary deadlock lasting for two months from a first failed investiture ballot, resulting in a new general election to be held at some point throughout 2016. As a result of the arithmetical infeasibility of an alliance with C's, Rajoy intended for reaching out to the PSOE to at least secure their abstention in his investiture, even suggesting giving them out some additional posts in the Congress bureau. This possibility was not contemplated by Sánchez, but he and his party avoided making any comments on the formation of an alternative left-wing government that included Podemos and its regional alliances. Some within the party—such as president of Castilla–La Mancha Emiliano García-Page—pointed out that, even if the PSOE obtained Podemos's support, it would not muster a majority without that of other parties as well and advocated for the party to remain in opposition. Podemos leader Pablo Iglesias laid out stiff terms in order to consider starting negotiations with any party, including the protection of rights within the Constitution, electoral reform, the introduction of recall elections and a new territorial agreement that recognized Spain as a plurinational state and allowed the celebration of a self-determination referendum in Catalonia. The party's policy secretary, Íñigo Errejón, also expressed their initial refusal to support Sánchez as a prospective candidate for prime minister, suggesting instead to look for "an independent candidate, above parties". C's leader Albert Rivera had promised during the campaign that he would not be actively supporting either a PP or a PSOE-led government, but that his party could consider an abstention to allow the formation of a minority PP cabinet and that it would oppose any alliance in which Podemos was involved. #### PSOE's stance As a consequence of the election, the PSOE was placed in a kingmaker position. Several regional PSOE leaders rallied around Andalusian president Susana Díaz and warned Sánchez against any agreement with Podemos, seeing the conditions put forward by Pablo Iglesias in the election aftermath as "unaffordable". Some regional premiers from the party—such as García-Page, Valencian president Ximo Puig, Asturias's Javier Fernández or Extremadura's Guillermo Fernández Vara—favoured letting the PP try to form a government on its own. After a meeting with Rajoy on 23 December, Sánchez opposed any deals with the PP and voiced his preference to probe alternative alliances instead, while also rejecting a previous proposal from Albert Rivera of a deal between PP, PSOE and C's—explicitly excluding Podemos—that promoted "the regeneration policy reforms that Spain needed". Sánchez also faced criticism from within his own party in light of his election result—the worst in the PSOE's recent history up to that point—as his critics aimed for a party congress to be held in February to vote on a new leadership. Díaz—who had become the leading figure of the PSOE's internal opposition to Sánchez—sought to become the new party leader and to eventually lead the PSOE into a new general election, wanting to limit Sánchez's pact policy through the resolutions of the party's federal committee. This was accomplished on 28 December, when the party determined that, should Podemos not withdraw its red line condition to hold a referendum in Catalonia, the party would not discuss any pacts with them, requiring Sánchez to avoid becoming prime minister "at any price". Concurrently and in spite of his strong contestation within the party, Sánchez suggested delaying the PSOE leadership election until a new government was formed or a new election was held, with critics claiming that the election should be held "when it is due". In order to force Sánchez into the negotiating table, PP, Podemos, and C's took advantage of the growing rebellion within the PSOE. Pablo Iglesias questioned that people within the PSOE "wouldn't allow Pedro be prime minister", noting that Sánchez "does not control" the party, while warning of the dangers of a hypothetical "three-way grand coalition" between PP, PSOE and C's that Podemos would oppose. Rivera pointed out that his party was waiting "for [the PSOE] to solve its internal affairs", whereas the PP reaffirmed its claim to lead the next Spanish government by seeking a multy-party pact with PSOE and C's. PSOE's spokesperson Antonio Hernando confirmed on 5 January that the PSOE would reject the PP's proposal of a grand coalition. On 30 January, amid discussions between the different party factions on the party congress's date—with those supporting Sánchez seeking to delay it until June and his critics wishing to hold it sooner, in April—an agreement was reached for a new leadership to be elected through a party primary election on 8 May, with Sánchez announcing his will to seek re-election. The party congress to ratify the result of the primaries was scheduled for 20–22 May. #### PP scandals As negotiations for the formation of a new government stagnated, corruption scandals shook Rajoy's party and made it harder for him to secure support for an investiture vote. Two weeks before the election, it was unveiled that PP deputy Pedro Gómez de la Serna had been paid kickbacks worth millions of euros through a business he shared with another PP member, Spain's ambassador to India Gustavo de Arístegui, who resigned shortly thereafter. Gómez de la Serna, who was re-elected as deputy in the 20 December election, refused to vacate his seat, resulting in him being expelled from the PP and forced into the Mixed Group in Congress. On 22 January 2016, the PP became the first party to ever be judicially charged in a corruption case—a legal figure passed into law by Rajoy's cabinet itself in 2015—after being accused of destroying former treasurer Luis Bárcenas's hard drives in 2013, allegedly containing information related to the party's illegal funding. The same day, a member of deputy prime minister Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría's staff was forced to resign from office after it the unveiling of his involvement in a case of fraudulent awarding of public contracts. In early February, an illegal financing network was uncovered affecting the Valencian branch of the PP, with dozens of party officials and city councillors either indicted or arrested. Judicial investigation also pointed to former long-time mayor of Valencia and one of the PP's most lauded figures, Rita Barberá, as a participant in the scandal. On 11 February, evidence suggesting that the kickbacks-for-contracts scheme of the Púnica scandal could also involve an illegal financing of the Madrilenian PP led to the resignation of party's regional leader Esperanza Aguirre three days later. Further scandals affecting the party were unveiled throughout April. The Spanish National Police Corps were sent to register the town hall of Granada—the fourth largest city of Andalusia and nineteenth of Spain—after the city mayor and his government—from the PP—were accused of having been involved in an urban planning corruption scandal. Concurrently, the Spanish Treasury fined former prime minister José María Aznar for evading tax payments through a secret society. Finally on 15 April, interim industry minister José Manuel Soria was found to be involved in the Panama Papers scandal, owing to the leaking of information earlier that week revealing that he and his family had maintained several offshore societies on tax havens during the previous decades. Soria initially claimed the falsehood of such claims, but during the ensuing days reports kept leaking that contradicted his initial clarifications. After it was revealed that he had owned one of such societies on Jersey until 2002 during his term as mayor of Las Palmas, he was put in a critical political position over his confusing and changing explanations on the issue, which ultimately led to his renounce. ### Candidate Pedro Sánchez (PSOE) #### Rajoy's withdrawal On 12 January, PSOE and C's reached an agreement to elect former lehendakari Patxi López as new president of the Congress, leading the PP to reluctantly withdraw its candidate over his lack of support and cast blank ballots instead, whereas Podemos proposed Carolina Bescansa for the post with the support of United Left–Popular Unity (IU–UPeC). The next week, King Felipe VI started a round of talks with the different political parties in order to nominate a candidate for prime minister, but privately acknowledged to party representatives that he thought that a Rajoy's investiture was unlikely. Rajoy initially showed his willingness at attempting an investiture run despite not having any support other than that of his own party, whereas Albert Rivera sought to mediate an agreement between PP and PSOE. As the round of talks drew to a close on 22 January, Iglesias made a surprise announcement by offering Sánchez to form a coalition government with himself as his deputy, while also laying out a proposal for the future's cabinet composition. Sánchez welcomed the offer but refused to give a formal answer to it, having insisted earlier that "times should be respected" and that Rajoy "should have the first shot", while noting that "policies should come first, then the government's composition". Upon knowing of Iglesias's offer to Sánchez, Rajoy turned down Felipe VI's nomination as candidate on the grounds that there was now "a verified majority against him", arguing that he would not be running "just to let the times die out". After Rajoy's withdrawal, a new round of talks was announced with Sánchez as the most likely nominee. The PSOE—which had intended for Rajoy to go through a failed investiture in Congress—suddenly found itself obliged to either accept or reject Iglesias's offer, which some PSOE high-ranking members regarded as being aimed at "humiliating" and destabilizing them. Pablo Iglesias celebrated that his proposal had caused Rajoy to step back and urged Sánchez to "rise to the challenge" by accepting it. On the other hand, the PSOE attacked Rajoy and dubbed his decision as "irresponsible" while regarding Podemos's offer as "blackmail". Subsequently, Sánchez also declined to go to an investiture vote until Rajoy made his try or, alternatively, stepped back definitively, though he would later add that he would accept the King's nomination should the PP reject it again. On 2 February, Felipe VI formally tasked him with forming a government, which he accepted. Sánchez announced that he would try to muster parliamentary support for a successful investiture vote and gave himself a negotiation period of "three weeks to one month". The investiture debate was set to start on 1 March, with the first ballot being scheduled for 2 March and the date of a hypothetical new election being automatically set for 26 June. Rajoy warned against a possible PSOE–Podemos alliance and expressed his wish for Sánchez to fail in his attempt so that he could explore a three-way "moderate" alliance with PSOE and C's to be led by himself. It was reported that the PP favoured going into an early election as the party confirmed that it would vote against any candidate other than Rajoy. #### Negotiations and PSOE–C's alliance After Sánchez's nomination, Podemos and C's expressed their intention to vote against any pact that included each other. Pablo Iglesias asked Sánchez to not seek "impossible pacts" including both of them while insisting on his own offer, whereas Albert Rivera did not rule out the possibility of a PSOE–C's agreement and voiced his wish for the PP to not vote against Sánchez. PSOE started talks with C's, seeking to turn the latter's intended abstention into a "yes" vote, with Rivera not rejecting an eventual incorporation into a PSOE-led government as negotiations progressed. A PSOE–C's pact would have still required further support as it only mustered 130 out of 350 seats, with it being opposed by all three Podemos, Compromís and IU, with whom the PSOE was yet to start talks. Talks between the PSOE and several minor parties led to an agreement with Canarian Coalition (CCa) on 19 February, with a decision still pending on whether this would materialize in a support vote or in an abstention. Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Democracy and Freedom (DiL) announced that they would oppose a PSOE-led government unless it recognized Catalonia's sovereignty by allowing an independence referendum to be held, something the PSOE rejected. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) had already discarded supporting Rajoy and conditioned a support for Sánchez on a new political status being granted for the Basque Country. In January, EH Bildu had hinted at being willing to "get involved in the investiture process" if there was "a real offer of change". The PSOE was said to have offered a cabinet post for IU leader Alberto Garzón in a meeting on 8 February; IU was reported as having rejected the offer, being more concerned about programmatic measures and in preventing "a government of the right-wing", as well as in reaching an understanding with other similarly aligned forces. On 15 February—and without any formal talks between the two parties having started yet—Podemos publicly outlined a detailed government programme to the PSOE, which included a proposal for a self-determination referendum to be held in Catalonia. Sánchez criticized Iglesias for not having informed him of such proposal first and for "wanting to negotiate through press briefings", rejecting Podemos's document. Iglesias replied by demanding a meeting with Sánchez to tell him what the PSOE wanted to negotiate, with the latter answering that he would only meet Pablo Iglesias "to sign an agreement". Both Iglesias and Mònica Oltra—from Compromís—stated that if PSOE leaders sought to govern alone "they should openly say so", but that "[Sánchez's government] will be a plural one or it won't be". During a European summit on 18 February, Rajoy was recorded telling British prime minister David Cameron that he expected the government formation process to result in a fresh election, noting that he thought that Sánchez would probably lose the vote on 2–4 March. Through Alberto Garzón's mediation, several meetings were finally agreed between PSOE, Podemos, Compromís and IU, starting on 22 February. Concurrently with those talks, PSOE and C's secretly kept their negotiations ongoing, with a final agreement said to be expected within 24–48 hours. The four-way meeting between the left-aligned parties ended with the most troubling matters being postponed for the next day, but all four were reportedly hopeful of an overall agreement being reached. However, while Podemos reluctantly accepted the PSOE keeping its negotiations with C's, it refused to support Sánchez's investiture if he reached a government agreement with this party. On the late night of 23 February, PSOE and C's struck a government deal, which was unveiled the next day under the name of "Agreement for a Reformist and Progressive Government" (Spanish: Acuerdo para un Gobierno reformista y de progreso)—and informally dubbed as the "Pact of El Abrazo" or "The Hug Agreement" (Spanish: Pacto del Abrazo), in reference to it being signed in the Constitutional Room of the Congress, presided over by a large picture by Juan Genovés named as "El Abrazo"—and which saw both Sánchez and Rivera inviting all other parties "from the left and the right" to join it. It was presented as an "ambitious" programme that comprised constitutional, electoral, social, tax and labour reforms, anti-fraud and anti-corruption measures or a "democratic regeneration" plan—including the enforcement of compulsory party primaries—among others. However, the signed document—which did not clarify whether C's would be entering the government if successful—was revealed to include many points that were contrary to Podemos's election manifesto, such as the absence of a specific repealing of the labour reforms of 2010 and 2012, the explicit opposition to any self-determination referendum in Catalonia and the negation of many of the tax hikes proposed by Podemos, little public investment, a lack of prohibition of the so-called "revolving doors", etc. As a result, all three Podemos, Compromís and IU broke off negotiations with the PSOE on 24 February, amid accusations to the latter of "dishonesty" and putting all talks on hold until after Sánchez's investiture vote. Concurrently, Rajoy said that the pact between PSOE and C's was "useless", noting the shortage of parliamentary support for the alliance and reiterating that the PP would vote against Sánchez's investiture regardless of his choice of partners. Despite these hostilities, the PSOE was still hoping to lure the PNV into the agreement. On 26–27 February, the PSOE submitted its agreement with C's to the vote of its membership, which approved it by a wide margin (79%–21%), albeit on a 51.7% turnout. The vote received wide criticism for the question's wording, as it was regarded as generic and did not explicitly name either C's or the specific document agreed with them. The result was widely interpreted as an effort from party members to avoid disavowing Sánchez just days ahead of his investiture attempt, rather than genuine support for the pact with C's. Both signatories soon clashed on the document's interpretation. In an effort to court Podemos, the PSOE claimed that the pact did provide for the repealing of several controversial laws passed during Rajoy's tenure, a claim rejected by C's on the grounds that the written document only mentioned limited modifications on specific issues. Rivera said that he "could not prevent Pedro Sánchez from saying what the accord doesn't state", later adding that his compromise was with the signed document, which initially only provided for C's support to Sánchez's investiture on 2–4 March. C's was said as being willing to probe the possibility of an alternative pact with the PP if Sánchez "crashed" in his attempt. On 29 February, hours before the start of Sánchez's investiture debate, the PSOE sent a last-minute offer to Podemos and the other left-wing parties to collect their support, but Podemos leaders rejected it and accused the PSOE of sending a "copy-paste" of the PSOE–C's document with minor modifications and of ignoring almost all of their demands. C's also questioned Sánchez for trying to unilaterally change their alliance's terms in order to desperately obtain the support of other parties, stating that their pledged support was "for the signed deal only" and that "any changes would have to be reviewed so as to see what stance is adopted by the party". #### First investiture attempt Sánchez's investiture debate was scheduled to start at 16:30 CET (UTC+1) on 1 March with Sánchez's speech, to be followed by the replies of all other parties and a first round of voting on 2 March, with a second and final balloting on 4 March if required. The PNV decided against supporting Sánchez previous to the debate's start, following mutual disagreements over the previous weekend on an alleged PSOE counter-offer—whose precise content was not disclosed—which PNV spokesman Aitor Esteban said to be "so unacceptable" that his party had chosen to arrange it as if no answer had been received. CCa spokeswoman Ana Oramas also announced that she would be opting to abstain on the basis that "there is no credible or viable majority to govern". In his speech on 1 March, Sánchez outlined a government programme limited to most of the proposals contained in his accord with C's, asking for Podemos to vote for "a government of change", attacking the PP and thanking Rivera's party for their support. He stated that, even if he did not get enough votes for being elected prime minister, he was "proud to have helped unlock the political situation". In his rejoinder the next day, in what was reported as one of his "harshest" speeches ever, Rajoy resorted to sarcasm and aggressive irony and ridiculed the PSOE–C's accord—dubbing it as a "most solemn agreement without the slightest relevance", "a farce", "imposture", "a theatrical representation" or "a vaudeville"—while accusing Sánchez of "trying to stage a personal promotion campaign" ahead of a hypothetical new election and of not having been willing to discuss anything with him, leading to the engagement turning into a mutual exchange of accusations where both Rajoy and Sánchez blamed each other for not allowing the formation of a government. The debate also showed the PSOE and Podemos delving into their differences, with Pablo Iglesias accusing Sánchez and his party of "betraying the Socialist principles" and of "capitulating" to C's. Albert Rivera defended his alliance with the PSOE "despite their mutual differences", addressing the PP's benches—from where several shouts of "traitor" were uttered—and urging them to "have the courage and bravery" to "set aside" Rajoy's era. With only 131 voting in favour and 219 opposing in the second round of voting, Sánchez's investiture became the first one ever to result in a defeat for the nominee, with his candidacy failing to obtain the required majorities in both ballots. The PSOE had hoped to persuade Podemos into either supporting or abstaining in the second ballot, but gave up on their attempt after the harsh debate between Sánchez and Iglesias. The party did try for others to abstain on the 4 March vote so as to reduce the large number of "no" votes, but only managed to sway CCa into voting for Sánchez as a political gesture with no practical effects whatsoever in the final result. ### Road to a new election #### Investiture aftermath After Sánchez's failure, King Felipe VI opted to put any further attempts on hold until a workable government proposal was presented to him. Both PSOE and C's showed their willingness to maintain their alliance ahead of future negotiations, announcing that those would be done with both parties simultaneously on the basis of their agreed document, whereas Podemos and IU rejected resuming talks with the PSOE as long as its deal with C's was maintained. The PSOE increasingly saw any kind of agreement with Podemos as "nigh to impossible"—or even desirable—and began readying itself for the hypothesis of a new election. Previously on 5 March, Rajoy had staged what was regarded as his first pre-election rally, asking Sánchez to abstain and let his party govern "as the most-voted one", but acknowledging that the PSOE was unwilling to "come to terms" with him and that he had lost the key support from C's. As a result, political pundits started to point out that the PP was gearing up itself for a new election campaign. The PSOE suggested that they could withdraw their support from Podemos-held local councils as a way of pressure, to which Iglesias replied that trying to threaten them was "the wrong way to go" and reminding the Socialists that they were also dependent on Podemos's support in several autonomous communities. Concurrently, Rajoy stated on 7 March that he would be calling Sánchez and Rivera to meet them and re-state his idea of a grand coalition. Two days later and pressured by C's, the PSOE agreed to hold a meeting with the PP—a change from their previous approach of refusing to sit down with the PP to negotiate anything—but announced that they would not negotiate the accord's contents and aimed for an unconditional PP's acceptance of them. As a result, the PP rejected the projected meeting over its unwilligness to consent to a PSOE–C's government. Between 7 and 9 March, Podemos saw the resignations of several members in its Madrilenian regional branch, amid accusations to the party's national leadership of exerting excessive power. Podemos accused the PSOE of attempting to magnify their crisis to pressure them into supporting Sánchez, but the situation aggravated on 15 March after Iglesias unilaterally dismissed Sergio Pascual—the party's organization secretary and close ally to the party's second-in-command Íñigo Errejón. Pascual's dismissal was justified by Iglesias over an alleged "lack of neutrality" in his territorial management, but the move forced Errejón out of public view for two weeks, leading many to speculate about an internal "purge" and a possible power struggle within Podemos between both leaders over the party's stance to Sánchez's investiture, which Errejón was said to favour in order to avoid a new election. After physicist Pablo Echenique was appointed as Pascual's replacement on 2 April, and with Errejón reappearing on 29 March to explain that—despite existing differences—his allegiance to Podemos's project and Iglesias was total, the crisis seemed to alleviate. The dormant rebellion within the PSOE resumed after Sánchez failed investiture. Some sectors within the party favourable to Sánchez sought to delay the congress that had been scheduled for 8 May as Susana Díaz had allegedly confessed to her close aides that she was determined to dispute the party's leadership. As party members—including Díaz herself—did not see it as desirable to open the issue of succession amid ongoing inter-party negotiations and with a new election looming for 26 June, as decision was taken on 2 April to indefinitely delay the leadership race "until the formation of a new government". #### New round of negotiations Podemos sought to avoid being singled out as responsible for the triggering of a new election by adopting a strategy of rapprochement and reconciliation with the PSOE, with a brief meeting with Sánchez on 30 March leading Iglesias to announce that he was willing to give up the post of deputy prime minister in any prospective PSOE–Podemos coalition government as a way to ease relations between the two parties. Podemos also accepted three-way talks with C's, although the PSOE and Podemos still differed on their visions of the role that Rivera's party should be playing: Podemos still refused to enter or support any government in which C's was directly involved but accepted that they could work together on specific issues, whereas the PSOE maintained its wish for a "broad spectrum government" with the support of all three parties, although without clarifying what kind of government was being sought or which ones of the parties would be part of it. The three parties agreed to hold a meeting on 7 April to start talks. In the run up to the three-way meeting, C's repeatedly warned that it would terminate its alliance with the PSOE if the latter tried to negotiate with Podemos on its own. Further, the former was seen as distancing itself from the PSOE after abstaining during a parliamentary voting on 5 April involving the paralyzation of the enforcement of Rajoy's education law (the LOMCE), a key issue which had been included within the PSOE–C's agreement. This had seen Pablo Iglesias highlighting the similarities between his party's programme and that of the PSOE while commenting that the two parties' differences with C's made any prospective three-way alliance very difficult. On the day before the meeting, a harsh confrontation between Iglesias and Rivera during a Congress plenary—in which the former told the latter that "it is difficult to agree a progressive government with intolerant people"—evidenced the tense relationship existing between their two parties. On 5 April, C's demanded being given cabinet posts within a PSOE-led government—the first time it did so—and demanded an unconditional Podemos's support to it, in a move seen as a provocation to the latter so that they rejected any agreement with them. Negotiations came to a standstill after the three-way meeting on 7 April, as PSOE and C's unsuccessfully tried to persuade Podemos to subscribe their accord. C's stated that forming a pact with Podemos was "impossible and unworkable", while the PSOE said that they would not be renouncing their alliance with Rivera's party, pointing to the differences between Podemos and C's as the main obstacle for reaching an agreement. The next day, Pablo Iglesias revealed that it had been C's the one refusing the concessions that Podemos had made in the meeting and that they had been unwilling to accept any kind of involvement from Podemos in any prospective government, also adding that Sánchez had been effectively "kidnapped" by Rivera's party and was unable to negotiate on his own. As a result, Iglesias announced that the PSOE–C's pact would be put to a vote among Podemos's membership on 14–16 April. Subsequently, on 11 April, the PSOE put down any further talks with Podemos on the grounds of a "mistrust" on Iglesias, not seeing any chances for a successful agreement to be reached. Commentators noted in the wake of the three-way negotiation failure that a PP–PSOE grand coalition was the only viable—even if highly unlikely—option left. Rajoy insisted on his proposal of a coalition based on the existing German model to be led by himself while again rejecting the PSOE–C's accord. The PP also commented on C's arithmetic irrelevance, with contacts between both parties having remained cold-tempered following Rivera's alliance with the PSOE and the harsh Rajoy–Rivera debate during Sánchez's failed investiture. Sánchez expressed a willingness in entering talks with the PP only for the latter to subscribe his pact with C's, stating that the PSOE would "never" support a PP-led government. Sectors within the PP deflected making any offer until Sánchez's acceptance to enter into formal talks, while hinting at him not being the best PSOE "interlocutor" and preferring another person to negotiate with Rajoy so as to "stop the recreation, theaters and games", though it was said that Rajoy would have been willing to have Sánchez as his deputy in a grand coalition scenario. On 11 April, PSOE's spokesperson Antonio Hernando replied to this that "Mr. Rajoy can save any offer for himself, if he had planned in making one". C's leaders congratulated themselves for "having thwarted a populist government in Spain"—in reference to Podemos's presence within any prospective cabinet—with Albert Rivera reiterating his idea of "an alliance between the main constitutionalist parties". C's started probing a possible pact with the PP, not discarding the possibility of supporting a candidate other than Rajoy, who—under Rivera's view—"was not able to lead a corruption and blackmail-free cabinet" because of his ties to disgraced PP members such as Luis Bárcenas or Rita Barberá—then under investigation for fraud and money laundering. He also warned that his agreement with the PSOE would be "void" in the event of a new election being triggered. #### Final positions Felipe VI had announced a new and final round of talks for 25–26 April to check whether a candidate would be able to muster enough support to be elected. If no nominee emerged, then he would let the deadline expire on 2 May, dissolve the Cortes Generales and call a fresh election for 26 June. Concurrently, Podemos leaders hoped to use the membership vote on the PSOE—C's pact as a way to pressure the PSOE into coming to terms with them, with the unexpectedly high turnout attracting media attention as it exceeded the one in the PSOE's 27 February vote. The vote saw a rejection of the PSOE–C's accord with an 88–12% result and a support to a PSOE–Podemos–Compromís–IU alliance by 92% to 8%. The landslide result of the vote put down any option for an in extremis agreement, as it showed that neither PSOE nor Podemos were willing to yield to the other's demands. On 21 April, C's leader Albert Rivera called for PP and PSOE leaders to step back and support an independent candidate as prime minister, to which Rajoy replied that Rivera "should do it himself first"—stepping back—while revealing that he would inform the King on his own lack of support because of Sánchez rejection of his grand coalition proposal. On 22 April, economy minister Luis de Guindos was recorded as saying to Eurogroup president Jeroen Dijsselbloem that a new election was all but certain, with the PP hoping that a similar result to December would see "common sense" prevailing and the PSOE reluctantly agreeing to an alliance with them after the summer. Two days later, Rajoy remarked that his party was "ready" for a new electoral campaign and blamed both PSOE and C's for the election repetition, accusing both of "having made [any agreement] impossible". On 25 April, the King's round of talks turned into a mere formality to certify the failure in negotiations and the triggering of a new election for 26 June. Congress speaker Patxi López had the Cortes's dissolution protocols prepared already from the day the King announced the final round of talks on 12 April, with the dissolution decree having been prepared since at least three days before such round. #### Last effort and deadline On 26 April, Compromís made a last-ditch effort to force left-wing parties into coming to terms, sending PSOE, Podemos and IU a proposal comprising 30-condition agreement "reviewable every six months". The PSOE accepted most of the points but turned down the idea of a coalition, suggesting instead a two-year cabinet headed by Sánchez and including independent members. Compromís leader Mónica Oltra—one of the main promoters of the agreement—replied to the PSOE that their counter-offer was "insulting" because of attempting to buy them into supporting a minority Sánchez cabinet "having just 90 deputies", despite her party having offered "a perfectly-acceptable deal" to "all parties committed to change". Sánchez conceded that he would not be running for investiture under these conditions and acknowledged that Spain was "doomed to a new election", while putting the blame for it on both PP and Podemos. Pablo Iglesias said that he would have accepted Compromís's offer and that his party had made "enough concessions already", blaming Sánchez for his "unwillingness to negotiate". Rajoy argued that it was better to have a new election rather than seeing any of Sánchez's government attempts succeed. Rivera commented on the proposal that he would not get his party "into last-hour trouble", and that "a three page-long agreement for a four-year government" that was to be formed "by six different parties" was "not even worth looking at". Later that day, Patxi López announced that the King would not be nominating anyone, thus confirming that the Cortes Generales would be dissolved on 2 May. On 30 April, C's announced that its alliance with the PSOE expired as a result of a new election being called. As a result, some within the PSOE—such as Aragonese president Javier Lambán—urged the party to "abandon" the accord with C's on the eve of the new election once it had proven to be fruitless and counterproductive. The deadline was reached on 2 May, the 11th Legislature of Spain—the shortest in democracy—came to a close and the Cortes Generales were dissolved by the King the following day. ## Second formation round (June–October 2016) ### Post-2016 election developments #### Election aftermath The June 2016 election resulted in a strengthened PP at the cost of all other national parties, with both the PSOE and C's losing ground—going down from a combined total of 130 seats to 117—and the newly formed Unidos Podemos alliance failing to materialize opinion polling's projections of a second-place score ahead of the PSOE, retaining the same 71 seats obtained by both Podemos and IU separately in December 2015. Overall, the PP's growth allowed for the PP–C's bloc to climb from 163 to 169 seats, whereas the PSOE–Podemos–IU bloc was reduced from 161 to 156; still both blocs remained short of an absolute majority, with the PSOE retaining the same kingmaker position as before. Mariano Rajoy had expected to resume office and hoped that a government could be formed quickly, adding that "It would be nonsense to lose time for several more months". In order to court them in, he made an offer for starting coalition negotiations with both PSOE and C's which the former rejected. With the PSOE in the opposition camp, a hypothetical PP and C's alliance would require the complicated support of regional parties, which C's leader Albert Rivera was unwilling to accept as he stressed that his preferred choice was forming a coalition government with both PP and PSOE without Rajoy at its helm. As this proposal went unheeded, Rivera acknowledged its failure on 4 July and added that his party would go into opposition, forcing the PP to seek out the PSOE's abstention in order to form a minority cabinet. The PSOE ruled out trying to lead government negotiations again and rejected an invitation from Unidos Podemos to do so, with some members instead favouring the party to abstain in Rajoy's investiture in exchange of a series of conditions, with the ultimate goal of preventing a third election in a row. Among those supporting this was former prime minister Felipe González, who nonetheless rejected a grand coalition between both parties and stated that the PSOE had to "take its place as a responsible opposition" and focus on "rebuilding its own project as an alternative". The PSOE leadership disregarding González's statements stated that the party's stance would be to vote against Rajoy's investiture, despite the PP having offered to reach a "minimum deal" to unlock the situation rather than a full-fledged accord. #### First contacts The PP immediately started probing political parties in search of support for Rajoy's investiture. CCa did not rule out supporting a Rajoy-led cabinet, whereas the PNV demanded a number of conditions such as further devolution for the Basque Country, the recognition of Spain's national diversity and the rehabilitation and reintegration of ETA prisoners, moves which would have meant drastic changes in PP policy. After a meeting with Rajoy on 6 July to discuss this offer, PNV spokesperson Aitor Esteban claimed that they were both "absolutely away" and confirmed that his party would be voting against Rajoy unless a "change of attitude" was perceived. On 9 July, Sánchez announced that his party would be voting against Rajoy's investiture, asking the prime minister to look for a parliamentary majority without the PSOE. Unidos Podemos sought to ease the chances for the formation of an alternative government to Rajoy and sought PSOE's support to it but this possibility was rejected by Sánchez, who preferred to go into opposition. Several PSOE leaders proposed that other parties participate in a "joint abstention" in Rajoy's investiture, appealing to the "collective responsibility of all parties" for the institutional impasse—with the goal of preventing a third general election but, at the same time, avoiding their party bearing the brunt of the responsibility for allowing Rajoy's election—but Unidos Podemos quickly dismissed this proposal as "cowardice". As Rajoy clashed with the PSOE's harsher-than-expected stance towards him, he scheduled a meeting with Sánchez for 13 July, where the former warned the Socialists that either they gave up and allowed a PP minority government or a third election would be the only way out. Unidos Podemos and C's leaders Pablo Iglesias and Albert Rivera met Rajoy on 12 July as part of the latter's contacts with political parties. Rivera hinted at being willing to abstain in Rajoy's investiture—initially expected to be held at some point in late July or early August—as an attempt to pressure the PSOE into doing likewise and allowing for a government to be formed, in what was seen as a change in the party's main election pledge not to allow Rajoy to remain in office. The next day, C's confirmed its change of position and announced that it would be voting against Rajoy in the first ballot of investiture but would abstain in the second ballot, in which Rajoy would only require of a simple majority to be elected. On the other hand, Iglesias noted Rajoy on Podemos's political project incompatibility with that of the PP and that Rajoy should expect nothing but the frontal opposition of his party to the investiture, while once again urging Sánchez to take the initiative and try to form an alternative government himself as the PSOE had to choose "between Rajoy, a leftist alternative or a new election". On 18 July, PP and C's reached an agreement for electing the Congress bureau and having Patxi López replaced by development minister Ana Pastor as the Speaker, whereas Unidos Podemos planned to have En Comú Podem's spokesperson Xavier Domènech run for the post. As a result, Pastor was elected as new president of the Congress in the second ballot, in which Unidos Podemos's deputies voted for López as a political gesture, and owing to the regionalist and nationalist parties in the chamber having chosen to cast blank ballots rather than supporting any one of the main candidates. The election of the Congress bureau—which was conducted through secret ballot—would see some controversy as a result of the composition designed by PP and Cs being supported by an additional 10 votes of unknown origin, which resulted in the PP's candidate for the Congress's third vice presidency, Rosa Romero, being elected over Podemos's candidate Gloria Elizo. As PSOE and Podemos had each voted for their own candidates without any missing ballots, both parties accused the PDeCAT and PNV from having surreptitiously lent their votes to the PP to ensure that Elizo was not elected. ### Candidate Mariano Rajoy (PP) #### Rajoy's acceptance On 28 July, the King tasked Rajoy with forming a government, which the latter accepted without clarifying whether he would actually submit himself to an investiture vote. The PSOE, PDeCAT and PNV, which were in the spotlight because of them being the likeliest arithmetical choices for allowing a minority PP government, announced their intention to oppose Rajoy's investiture. C's leader Albert Rivera, who had initially shown an unwillingness to move from his party's position of abstaining, announced on 9 August that he would be willing to consider negotiating a "Yes" in Rajoy's investiture in exchange of a number of conditions, one immediate—that a date was set for the investiture to take place—and other six that were to be enforced in the first three months of government, namely: that those accused of political corruption were separated from public offices, the approval of a legal reform removing immunities from public officers, electoral reform, the suppression of pardons in cases of political corruption, that a two-term limit was set for the prime minister and that a parliamentary committee was set up to investigate the ongoing PP corruption scandals. Earlier, PP officials had stated that they were willing to offer "anything" but Rajoy's permanence to C's in exchange for their support in the investiture and welcomed Rivera's new stance. Rajoy himself stated that his party would study Rivera's conditions and would give an answer after a meeting of the PP executive committee the following week. On 17 August, Rajoy announced his willingness to hold negotiation talks with C's but initially ignored Rivera's conditions, instead scheduling a meeting between the two leaders the following day to discuss them. This ultimately led to Rajoy accepting all seven conditions and in both parties agreeing to start negotiations, but warning that even with the support of both of them and CCa—with whom the PP was maintaining talks—the 170 votes they would muster would still not be enough to overcome the predicted 180 negative votes from all other parties combined. The investiture debate was set to start on 30 August, with the first and second rounds of voting scheduled for 31 August and 2 September; this would mean that, in the event of Rajoy failing to secure the required support to be elected, the parliament's dissolution date would be automatically set for 31 October and a new election scheduled for Christmas Day, 25 December 2016. Both PP and C's tried to use the possibility of a third election as leverage to increase political pressure on Pedro Sánchez, calling for him to choose whether he wanted people to "go out to vote on 25 December" or to choose "a responsible abstention that allows government formation". #### Negotiations and PP–C's pact Negotiations between the PP and C's started on 22 August with early advances on economic issues, but the PP's initial aim to try to persuade C's into a government coalition failed over the latter's reluctance, disagreements in labour affairs and the little time left before the investiture debate. C's came under criticism after it transpired that the party had accepted redefining the crime of political corruption by limiting it to cases of illegal personal enrichment or irregular funding, in what was seen as a major concession from Rivera's party at a time when many PP members were involved in a number of corruption scandals and the party itself was placed under judicial investigation. On 24 August, C's members recognized that negotiations were tough and that they were "worried" in what they perceived as "a lack of political will [from the PP] to undertake reforms". The next day, C's announced a 48-hour ultimatum to the PP for an agreement to be reached as negotiations had come to a standstill, demanding the PP commit itself to specific reforms and to clarify spending figures. From that point, negotiations between the two parties resumed, even if "insufficient at times" according to C's. On 28 August, a deal was struck between PP and C's, with separate negotiations between PP and CCa also leading to the latter to support Rajoy's investiture. The PP–C's accord contained 150 programmatic measures to be applied on the condition that Rajoy was re-elected as prime minister, which included a number of social measures (such as the equalization and extension of parental leaves, a guaranteed salary commitment for families with lower incomes, increased spending on Education, Health and Dependency and a €5.68 billion plan against child poverty); recovery of lost money through the 2012 fiscal amnesty by raising the tax payment from the final 3% to the initially scheduled 10%—resulting in a predicted gain worth €2.8 billion; a new labour reform providing for three types of contracts (one indefinite, one "of increasing protection" for coverage of fixed-term jobs and another for employees "in training"); depoliticization of the judiciary through the direct election of 12 out of 20 members in the CGPJ by judges and magistrates; reduction of spending for provincial deputations and the Senate; an unspecified reform of the electoral municipal law to directly elect mayors; a number of compromises on taxes (such as not raising PIT, a lowering of culture VAT limited to live entertainment, a reform of the corporate tax to remove deductions to large companies and removal of the 'Sun Tax', applied to systems that used batteries to store the sun's power). The accord also included 100 proposals that had been present in the defunct PSOE–C's deal in an attempt to court the Socialists into allowing the investiture to pass, but this was to be of little avail as Sánchez's stance remained unchanged. Podemos criticized the accord and accused Rivera of "selling himself out for free" to Rajoy, claiming the PP was using C's "like chewing gum to plug their holes". On the other hand, the PNV assured their stance would remain opposite to Rajoy's election, both before and after the Basque regional election scheduled for 25 September; whereas the PDeCAT saw the signed accord as "anti-Catalan" and maintained its opposition as well, noting to both PP and C's that they still lacked the votes to pass the investiture. Rajoy stated that he would "keep trying" despite acknowledging that the ultimate choice on whether he would end up becoming prime minister was dependent on the PSOE. #### Second investiture attempt Mariano Rajoy's investiture debate started on 30 August at 16:00 CEST (UTC+2) with Rajoy's speech, to be followed the next day by the replies of all other parties and the first round of voting; if necessary, a second and final round was scheduled for 2 September. Sánchez kept his opposition to allowing the PP into government in a debate which, nonetheless, revolved on the ongoing discussions within the PSOE on what its stance would be following Rajoy's failed investiture attempt. In a reversal of the roles in Sánchez's failed investiture in March, the PSOE leader wanted to convey a harsh stance to Rajoy's election by assuring he would never allow it to happen, without clarifying whether he would try to explore an alternative himself. Rajoy mockingly undervalued Sánchez's reasons to vote against him before asking Sánchez to just "let him govern", dismissing any possible alternative government to his as unworkable. Pablo Iglesias called out for Sánchez to "make up his mind" and to agree on exploring a joint government "despite the enormous differences, grievances and mutual mistrust between the PSOE and Podemos", as Podemos would be "a trustworthy partner against the PP"—pointing out to C's having abandoned him to support Rajoy—but also told him that "if [his] personal bet is on a third election, [he] should openly say so". Albert Rivera defended his pact out of the convenience to unlock the parliamentary deadlock while warning Rajoy that his party "still did not trust him", but that it would rather "demand, enforce and oversee the doings of those who have to govern" and called out for Sánchez to not being an obstacle for the country's governability, inviting him to "enforce laws from opposition". Neither Rivera nor Rajoy did an enthusiastic defense of their accord—with the latter even claiming that it would not "go down in history"—rather defending it out of the need to have a fully functional government as soon as possible. With 170 votes in favour and 180 against, Rajoy became the first caretaker prime minister to be defeated in an investiture ballot on 31 August, and again with the same result in the second round on 2 September. PP and C's clashed after Rivera suggested to end their accord if the PP did not propose "another, more electable candidate" instead of Rajoy, with Rajoy's party recriminating Rivera that "we do not sign agreements for 15 minutes". Meanwhile, Sánchez ambiguously hinted that he could attempt to lead an alternative government himself without clarifying how would he set it up. After the failed investiture, the parties refrained from any new negotiation attempts until after the Basque and Galician elections scheduled for 25 September, with the King not holding any new round of talks until after that date in order to avoid interfering with the electoral campaigns. #### PSOE crisis and Sánchez's ouster Internal criticism of PSOE secretary-general Pedro Sánchez for his hardline stance on Rajoy's investiture—said to be a contributing factor to the political deadlock—had been kept at bay by the party's performances in the 2015 and 2016 general elections, where despite securing its two worst election results since 1977 the party held its own against Podemos's push, averting the threats from Sánchez's critics—who had hoped to hold him to account for a hypothetical electoral collapse—from materializing. However, the poor party showing in the 25 September Basque and Galician regional elections provided the pretext for dissenters—led by Susana Díaz—to call for Sánchez's immediate resignation the next day, to which the latter replied by surprisingly announcing a primary election for October and daring any challenger to come out and dispute the post to him. The internal movements within the PSOE were seen positively by Rajoy, who was said to be "waiting for the PSOE to kill off Sánchez" in the hopes that a new leadership could lead the party to reconsider its abstention in a new investiture voting. On 27 September, signs of a breakdown in party discipline became evident: Susana Díaz publicly voiced her willingness at becoming the party's new secretary-general, with a majority of members within the party's parliamentary group in the Congress of Deputies voicing their opposition to Sánchez's plans of holding an express leadership election amid the ongoing government formation process and with a general election looming for December. Former Socialist prime minister Felipe González added to the pressure by declaring that he felt "deceived" by Sánchez because of the latter having allegedly promised him to abstain in Rajoy's investiture. This led to the resignation of 17 out of the 35 members from the party's executive committee on 28 September, in a move aimed at triggering Sánchez's own resignation. Sánchez refused to resign, prompting the party to descend into chaos. Sánchez barricaded himself within the party's headquarters in Madrid and accused rebels of "staging a coup", whereas his critics proclaimed that they were now in control and demanded a caretaker committee to lead the party in the interim. Susana Díaz criticized Sánchez's record and accused him of seeking a congress "out of personal interest", offering herself to unite the party and hold a leadership election "in due course" once the political deadlock in Spain had been resolved. Further chaos ensued within a meeting of the party's federal committee on 1 October, as disagreements between the two factions on the assembly's agenda and voting census delayed its start by several hours. Sánchez repeatedly blocked Díaz's attempts to hold a vote on his post as the two sides failed to agree on the committee's purpose, with him trying to force a secret ballot on his proposal for a party congress that was suspended amid accusations of vote rigging by critics because of the ballot box being "hidden" and "unsupervised". This action was said to have cost Sánchez the support of some of his allies, and in a subsequent voting on Sánchez's proposal turned into a vote of confidence on him—this time by a show of hands—he lost it by 132 to 107, prompting him to resign as PSOE secretary-general and allowing Díaz's supporters to take over the shattered party. Reactions to Sánchez's resignation were mixed. Pablo Iglesias commented that "supporters of a PP government have gained the upper hand within the PSOE" and called for opponents to Sánchez's ouster to rally behind Podemos as the only remaining leftist alternative in Spain to a Rajoy-led government, whereas Albert Rivera praised Susana Díaz's move and called for the PSOE to "help form a government". With the rebel faction taking over the party, political relations with Podemos were expected to strain, as Sánchez's critics had considered an abstention in a potential forthcoming vote on Rajoy's investiture as the only way out of the deadlock and to avoid a third general election in a row. Concurrently, the party's fracture shutted down any possibility of an alternative government to the PP's one being formed, and left it at the mercy of Mariano Rajoy, who subsequently began to push for conditions himself in exchange for avoiding a third election which the PSOE could not afford in its current state. ##### Split on investiture President of Asturias Javier Fernández was appointed to chair the caretaker committee that would lead the party in the ensuing months. He acknowledged that the PSOE had to decide whether to abstain on Rajoy's investiture or risk a third election being held, aware that a revolt could break out within the party's parliamentary group if they opted to allow Rajoy to govern. Despite internal discontent from a number of MPs who refused to be held responsible for the formation of a new PP government, as well as threats from the Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC)—PSOE's sister party in Catalonia—to break party discipline, Fernández maintained that deputies would not be allowed a free vote, whereas Susana Díaz's PSOE–A called for the parliamentary group to vote as a bloc according to the decision taken in a new federal committee that was scheduled for 23 October, suggesting that MPs refusing to abide by such decision should resign their seats. As opinion polls conducted after the party crisis indicated a fall in support for PSOE, advocates of abstention argued that the question was no longer whether Rajoy would become prime minister again, but whether he would be elected "now" or after a third election predicted to result in a landslide win for the PP. The party's caretaker leadership was confident of being able to win the argument in favour of abstention, but they were also concerned that this move would widen the existing divisions within the party. Finally, the party's federal committee voted on 23 October to abstain unconditionally once the Congress considered Rajoy's candidacy for a second time, but some deputies declared that they would not abide by the committee's decision and would oppose Rajoy's investiture nonetheless. King Felipe VI scheduled a new round of talks for 24 and 25 October, ahead of 31 October deadline, with a new investiture hearing set for 26–29 October upon confirmation that Rajoy had sufficient support to win the vote. Calls from some PSOE members for Fernández to allow a "minimum abstention" of just eleven MPs were rejected by the party's interim leadership, as a growing dispute between the PSOE and the PSC over the issue endangered the political alliance existing between the two parties since 1978, as the former also threatened any rebels with outright expulsion from the parliamentary group. Still, and despite threats of retaliation, a total of 18 MPs had indicated by 25 October that they were willing to vote against Rajoy regardless of any consequences, with a further three considering it "because of the threats made by the management committee's". The PSC formally ratified their intention to vote against Rajoy's investiture later that day, to which the PSOE replied by warning that such a decision would represent "a unilateral breach" of the relationship between the two parties. #### Third investiture attempt A new investiture session began on 26 October at 18:00 CEST (UTC+2) with the speech from Mariano Rajoy in the Congress of Deputies, to be followed on 27 October by the replies from the other parties, a first round of voting later that day and, if necessary, a second round scheduled for 29 October. Rajoy's speech praised the PSOE's new stance on his investiture and called on them to maintain their "responsibility" ahead of future agreement between the two parties that ensured political stability. Antonio Hernando, PSOE's spokesperson in Congress, justified their abstention by citing the country's need for a government after months of deadlock, but reiterating that his party still did not trust Rajoy and promising to provide a strong opposition to his policies regardless. Pablo Iglesias harshly condemned the PSOE's decision to allow Rajoy's investiture, suggesting that it heralded the effective end of the two-party system that had dominated Spanish politics since the adoption of the 1978 Constitution and accusing Rajoy of having sacrificed turnismo—in reference to the historical rotation of PP and PSOE in power—by "bumping off" the PSOE and relegating it to a mere PP "crutch" in order to save himself and his party. Iglesias also declared that Unidos Podemos would be the main force of opposition against the alleged "triple alliance" of PP, PSOE and C's that supported Rajoy. Concurrently, and despite having announced the end of his pact with PP after the previous investiture debate in early September, Albert Rivera pledged to repeat his party's affirmative vote for Rajoy's investiture in exchange for the agreed reforms and to put an end to the political deadlock, while also condemning Iglesias's support of the street protests taking place outside the Congress in protest against the PSOE's abstention. The debate was also notable for being the first public appearance of Pedro Sánchez since his resignation as the PSOE's secretary-general, as he kept his seat in Congress and attended the investiture session; asked about his stance in the two rounds of voting, he confirmed that he would be voting "no" in Thursday's ballot—in which the PSOE was expected to symbolically oppose Rajoy—but did not disclose his intentions ahead of Saturday's ballot, when his party would abstain. Sánchez and his supporters within the Socialist parliamentary group did not applaud Hernando's speech, describing it as "disappointing", whereas some of those critical of the PSOE's new direction commented that they risked losing the leadership of the opposition to Podemos following Iglesias's speech. As scheduled, Rajoy lost the first ballot on 27 October by 180 to 170, with the PSOE abstention having been inconsequential at that time since an absolute majority was required to succeed in the ballot. Attention then turned to Saturday's second and final ballot; of particular interest were the extent of the PSOE's parliamentary schism and Sánchez's final voting position, with close aides suggesting that he would not abstain. Ultimately, a visibly emotional Sánchez announced his resignation as deputy a few hours ahead of the scheduled vote, arguing that he could neither abstain—which would have meant breaking his electoral pledge of opposing a PP government—or, as a former PSOE leader, set a negative precedent by disobeying the decision of the highest party governing body, the federal committee, while hinting at the possibility of that he may run in a future party leadership election. On 29 October, Rajoy succeeded in his investiture attempt with the support of 170 MPs to 111 against and 68 abstentions, thus ending the 10-month political deadlock. Fifteen PSOE deputies chose to break party discipline and vote against Rajoy in spite of the possible consequences threatened by the party's interim leadership. During the investiture debate, thousands gathered outside Congress to protest against what they described as a "coup", shouting slogans against both PP and PSOE, with some protestors describing the new government as "illegitimate" in view of it being born out of a political U-turn. Rajoy reiterated his wish for "a government that was able to govern", calling for those parties facilitating his election—PSOE and C's—to ensure the parliamentary stability of his cabinet through confidence and supply, whereas Iglesias attacked the Socialists for their "capitulation" and claimed for himself and his party the "hegemony of opposition" to the PP government. ## Aftermath Spain's -day political stalemate ended with Rajoy's election as prime minister, after a period which saw some of the most dramatic political upheaval since the country's return to democracy: two inconclusive general elections, two failed investiture attempts, Podemos and IU teaming up together, Pedro Sánchez's ouster as PSOE leader and his party torn apart by internal strife as it allowed the formation of a right-wing government for the first time in its history. Following the successful investiture and on the eve of the establishment of the second government of Mariano Rajoy, in an exclusive interview for laSexta's Salvados news show, Sánchez publicly accused his party's apparatus—led by Susana Díaz—and "financial powers", including media outlet El País, of having coerced him into avoiding a left-wing pact with Podemos and nationalist parties throughout the entire government formation process, revealing they triggered the internal revolt within PSOE to oust him once he considered a serious attempt at forming such a government and after repeatedly opposing to allow a PP government to form. Rajoy's election would later be regarded by political analysts as a tactical solution to overcome the impasse and not as a true expression of parliamentary confidence. Without an overall majority in a hostile parliament and relying on a traumatic abstention from the main opposition party, Rajoy's government would remain in place for as long as the PSOE and the remaining parties did not come together to add their votes. This proved true in June 2018 when—with the publication of the court ruling on the Gürtel case as a trigger—Mariano Rajoy was expelled from office in the first successful motion of no confidence in Spain since the country's transition to democracy, allowing Pedro Sánchez (who had been re-elected at the helm of the PSOE's leadership in June 2017) to become prime minister.
23,846,147	Dead Letters (Millennium)	1,126,891,279	null	[ "1996 American television episodes", "Millennium (season 1) episodes" ]	"'Dead Letters" is the third episode of the first season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on November 8, 1996. The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong, and directed by Thomas J. Wright. "Dead Letters" featured guest appearances by Chris Ellis, Ron Halder and James Morrison. Millennium Group consultant Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) is sent to evaluate a prospective member of the group, who perform private investigative work and liaise with law enforcement. Meeting this hopeful member, Jim Horn (Morrison), Black is drawn to investigate a serial killer operating in the area; while Horn begins to unravel under the strain of the case. Several of the cast and crew made their first contributions to the series in "Dead Letters", with Wright, Morgan, Wong and Ellis all returning for future episodes. Production of "Dead Letters" impressed other series regulars—series writer Chip Johannessen praised the script's attention to detail, while producer John Peter Kousaskis called positive attention to its physical and make-up effects. ## Plot Jordan Black (Brittany Tiplady) is awakened by a nightmare, and is comforted by her father Frank Black (Lance Henriksen). However, Black is soon called to investigate the body of a woman at a dog pound in Portland, Oregon. Black works for the Millennium Group, an organisation which offers private investigation services and consults with law enforcement on certain types of cases. He is asked by Group member Jim Penseyres (Chris Ellis) to help a local detective on the murder case, as he is being considered as prospective member of the Millennium Group. Black believes the murder to be the work of a serial killer, and is convinced there will be a message from him on the bodies. Black meets up with the detective, Jim Horn (James Morrison), and sees that he is a competent and experienced investigator, although his recent separation from his wife has left him distracted and on edge. The killer murders another woman, disposing of the body in a post office's dead letter office. Investigating, Black finds a human hair with a message etched into it—"hair today, gone tomorrow"—which he takes as an indication that the murderer is lashing out at a world that he feels has treated him as insignificant. Horn's mental condition seems to deteriorate, and he begins to take the case personally, leading Black to doubt his ability. A third victim turns up, with another message—"nothing ventured, nothing gained". A lens from the killer's glasses is also recovered. Black organises a press release in an attempt to draw out the killer, taunting his intelligence by including a falsified profile describing him as uneducated. Black and Horn feel this will tempt the killer to show up at the latest victim's memorial service. Horn attacks an innocent man at the service, believing him to be the killer; although a cross found at the memorial with "ventured" etched upon it proves the killer did attend. Surveillance footage of the service yields two leads—a local optician recognizes the suspect as a customer having a glasses lens replaced, and the killer's vehicle is identified. Black and Horn realize that the killer will have chosen the optician as his next victim, and agree to set another trap with her as the bait. Horn, more and more unhinged throughout the case, begins imagining the killer and his van at every turn. As he and Black wait for the killer to make an attempt on the optician's life, Horn admits that he cannot trust himself to be there, and is told to go home. However, he parks his car on the route towards the trap, feigning a flat tyre. When the killer's van attempts to pass, Horn attacks him, but the police arrive in time to stop him beating the killer to death. The attack renders any evidence found in the van inadmissible in court, although Black tells him enough evidence was found at the killer's home to secure a conviction. Later, Horn asks Black how he can deal with cases like this on a regular basis. Black does not answer, but later comforts his daughter after another bad dream. ## Production "Dead Letters" is the first episode of Millennium to be written by James Wong and Glen Morgan, who would go on to write another fourteen episodes across the first and second seasons. The episode is also the first not to have been written by series creator Chris Carter, who had penned both of the preceding episodes, "Pilot" and "Gehenna". "Dead Letters" also marked the first time Thomas J. Wright had directed an episode of the series. Wright would go on to direct twenty-six episodes across all three seasons, as well as directing "Millennium", the series' crossover episode with its sister show The X-Files. He had also previously worked with Morgan and Wong on their series Space: Above and Beyond. The episode marked the second of three appearances by Chris Ellis as Millennium Group member Jim Penseyres; Ellis had previously appeared in "Gehenna", and would reappear in the next episode, "The Judge". Guest star James Morrison, who portrayed the troubled Jim Horn, had also previously appeared as a main character in Morgan and Wong's Space: Above and Beyond, playing Tyrus Cassius McQueen; his character's son in this episode is named TC as a reference to this. Lisa Vultaggio, who played the optician used to bait the killer, had previously worked with Morgan and Wong in The X-Files, appearing in the first season episode "Beyond the Sea". Producer and writer Chip Johannessen felt that the scene in this episode in which a human hair is discovered with a message inscribed upon it was a "perfect" moment, in that it "told you everything about this guy [the killer] ... but you had no idea what he was or what he was going to do next ... you know what kind of crazy motherfucker would do that, but where he is or what he's going to do next, who knows". The episode's opening nightmare sequence, in which Jordan Black (Brittany Tiplady) is terrified by a clown crawling along the ceiling, was inspired by the childhood nightmares of Morgan and Wong, and left Tiplady suffering from bad dreams herself for several nights after filming. Producer John Peter Kousakis recalls having visited the episode's set late during production, having felt that make-up effects supervisor Toby Lindala had been doing "fabulous" work on the series' prosthetic body parts. Walking on set to find Lindala's recreation of a quartered corpse, Kousakis remarked "we're doing something special here, but we're also doing something really outrageous". Lance Henriksen also found this scene too graphic to film all at once, taking time between shots to compose himself. ## Reception "Dead Letters" was first broadcast on the Fox Network on November 8, 1996; and earned a Nielsen rating of 8, meaning that roughly 8 percent of all television-equipped households were tuned in to the episode. "Dead Letters" earned positive reviews from critics. Writing for The A.V. Club, Zack Handlen rated the episode a B+. Handlen felt that the episode is "not art, not yet, but it is deeply personal", and praised the opening dream sequence, describing it as "flat-out Lynchian nightmare territory". However, he noted that the episode's dialogue felt too "flat" and "expository", adding that it serves to draw "attention to themes that were already plastered across the screen in blinding red and black". Bill Gibron, writing for DVD Talk, rated the episode 4 out of 5, describing it as being "one of the more horrifying episodes in Season 1". Gibron added that "seeing Jim Horn go through his mental breakdown gives us insight into where Frank Black is coming from", although he felt that the lack of real insight into the killer's personality let the episode down. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode four stars out of five, describing it as a "gripping and sincere portrait of human ugliness at its most banal". Shearman and Pearson praised guest star James Morrison's acting, noting that he was "the very humanity that the show is crying out for".
3,671,168	Jack Hinton	1,140,872,816	New Zealand soldier (1909–1997)	[ "1909 births", "1997 deaths", "Burials at Ruru Lawn Cemetery", "New Zealand Army personnel", "New Zealand World War II recipients of the Victoria Cross", "New Zealand military personnel of World War II", "New Zealand prisoners of war in World War II", "New Zealand rugby league players", "People from Southland, New Zealand", "World War II prisoners of war held by Germany" ]	John Daniel Hinton, VC (17 September 1909 – 28 June 1997) was a New Zealand soldier who served during the Second World War. He was awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces, for his actions at Kalamata on 29 April 1941 during the Battle of Greece. Born in 1909, Hinton was a foreman at the Public Works Department when the Second World War began. He volunteered for service abroad with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force and was posted to the 20th Battalion. Wounded during the fighting at Kalamata, he was made a prisoner of war and made several escape attempts from camps in Germany. He was freed in April 1945 by advancing American forces. After the war, he managed several hotels and was also involved in horse racing industry until his retirement in 1980. He died in 1997 at the age of 87. ## Early life John Hinton, known as Jack, was born in Colac Bay in Southland, New Zealand, on 17 September 1909, one of seven children of Harry Hinton, a railway man, and Elizabeth Mary. He was educated at local schools and on most days, before starting lessons, would milk a herd of 40 cows. When he was 12, he ran away from home after an argument with his father. He found a job at a grocer's in a nearby town but after a year signed on as a galleyhand aboard a Norwegian whaling ship, which spent the 1921/1922 whaling season in the Southern Ocean. On his return, and after reconciling with his parents, he started working as a shepherd. He soon tired of this and began the life of a swagman, working from town to town as he travelled around the South Island. Hinton spent most of the next several years on the West Coast working in railway construction, mining for gold, picking fruit, hauling coal, and saw milling. Sport was a passion; he boxed as a lightweight and also ran foot races and played rugby for Hokitika. In the 1930s, Hinton found regular employment in the Public Works Department, which was building bridges and roads throughout the West Coast. He gained respect for his honesty and hard-working nature and became a foreman in the department. In 1937, he invested his earnings into a pub for which his future wife, Eunice Henriksen, had the lease. ## World War II At the outbreak of war, Hinton enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF), which was being raised for service abroad. He was posted to the 20th Battalion, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Howard Kippenberger, and based at Burnham Military Camp. One of the older volunteers of the battalion, he was soon promoted to the rank of corporal, and not long after was made a sergeant. The battalion embarked for the Middle East as part of the 4th Infantry Brigade, 2nd New Zealand Division, in January 1940. Hinton was not always respectful of military authority. Shortly after the New Zealanders arrived in Egypt, he was commanding a squad practising on a rifle range when visited by the division's commander, Major General Bernard Freyberg, who asked him how the men were shooting. "How would you expect them to bloody well shoot?", replied Hinton, "not enough bloody rations, stinking heat and sand". Freyberg asked him to repeat the comment, which he did word for word. Freyberg took note of Hinton's name and instructed him to carry on. There was a subsequent increase in rations, while Hinton was advised by his company commander on how best to speak to senior officers. ### Battle of Greece In March 1941, the 2nd New Zealand Division was one of several Allied units deployed to Greece to help prepare for an expected invasion by Italian and German troops. When the invasion began on 6 April 1941, the 20th Battalion briefly saw action at Thermopylae before being withdrawn, but Hinton missed this fighting as he was with the division's reinforcement battalion, which was initially based in Athens before it moved to the port of Kalamata. It had been decided that the Allied forces would abandon Greece; at Kalamata, the reinforcement battalion, along with several thousand other, mainly Australian, troops, was awaiting evacuation. On 28 April, the New Zealanders were waiting for transport when advance units of the German 5th Panzer Division began to attack the town with machine-gun fire and self-propelled 6-inch guns. Hearing gunfire in the distance, Hinton, wanting to assist in the defence of the Allied positions, went to the headquarters of Brigadier Leonard Parrington, the officer in command of the evacuation. Hinton vehemently protested, in strong language, an order from Parrington to surrender. On being threatened with a court-martial for speaking to a senior officer in such a manner, he issued his own threat of proceedings against Parrington for defeatist talk and then left to determine for himself the situation. Other men of the reinforcement battalion were making preparations to move into the town and face the Germans. In the meantime, Hinton had collected his own party of 12 soldiers and led them into the town but came under fire. Ignoring an order from a nearby officer to retreat, he rushed forward to the nearest enemy gun and, hurling two grenades, killed the crew. He continued towards the town's waterfront, clearing out two light machine-gun nests and a mortar with grenades, then dealt with the garrison of a house where some of the enemy were sheltering. He then assisted in the capture of an artillery piece, but shortly after was shot in the stomach, immobilised and captured, one of about 6,000 Allied soldiers made a prisoner of war (POW). Officially listed as missing in action until August 1941, Hinton spent several weeks in a hospital near Athens until he was well enough to be transferred to a POW camp in Germany. In the meantime, a recommendation for the Victoria Cross (VC) for Hinton was dispatched by Major George Thomson, a medical officer who had witnessed his actions in Kalamata. After an investigation, a decision was made to award Hinton the VC, which was duly gazetted on 14 October 1941. The citation read as follows: > On the night of 28th–29th April, 1941, during the fighting in Greece, a column of German armoured forces entered Kalamata; this column, which contained several armoured cars, 2" guns, and 3" mortars, and two 6" guns, rapidly converged on a large force of British and New Zealand troops awaiting embarkation on the beach. When the order to retreat to cover was given, Serjeant Hinton, shouting "to Hell with this, who'll come with me," ran to within several yards of the nearest gun; the gun fired, missing him, and he hurled two grenades which completely wiped out the crew. He then came on with the bayonet followed by a crowd of New Zealanders. German troops abandoned the first 6" gun and retreated into two houses. Serjeant Hinton smashed the window and then the door of the first house and dealt with the garrison with the bayonet. He repeated the performance in the second house and as a result, until overwhelming German forces arrived, the New Zealanders held the guns. Serjeant Hinton then fell with a bullet wound through the lower abdomen and was taken prisoner. ### Prisoner of war The announcement of Hinton's VC was made within a week of Lieutenant Charles Upham, another member of the 20th Battalion, being awarded a VC for his actions during the fighting in the Battle of Crete. This prompted a joke that circulated within the battalion: "Join the 20th and get a VC." While a prisoner of war at Stalag IX-C, Hinton made several escape attempts. He was being punished with solitary confinement for one such attempt when his VC was gazetted. He was paraded before his fellow prisoners and presented with a VC ribbon by the camp's commandant before being returned to his cell to complete his punishment. In 1944, even though a prisoner of war, Hinton was contacted by the International Red Cross to pass on a request from the Labour Party. It asked him to consider standing as their candidate in a by-election in Awarua. He had previously signaled his interest in pursuing a career in politics. However, he was unable to confirm his candidacy in time. By April 1945, the Allied advance into Germany threatened Hinton's POW camp. The Germans evacuated the camp but Hinton, feigning sickness, remained behind. Once the guards had left, he was able to find keys to the gates and let himself out. He soon made contact with soldiers of the United States 6th Armored Division. Dressed in civilian clothes, he was initially treated with suspicion but soon convinced the Americans of his identity. He borrowed an American uniform and went forward to the frontline with the 44th Infantry Division and assisted in the capture of three villages and rounding up of German POWs. Senior American officers soon found out about Hinton's presence with their troops and sent him to England, where he arrived on 12 April 1945. Hinton remained in England for over three months, awaiting repatriation to New Zealand. During this time, on 11 May 1945, he received his VC from King George VI at an investiture held at Buckingham Palace. Charles Upham, his comrade from the 20th Battalion, received a bar to his VC at the same ceremony. Transport finally available, Hinton departed for New Zealand in early July and arrived on 4 August 1945. ## Later life and legacy After returning home, Hinton initially was indecisive about what to do with his life. Like many of his fellow soldiers who had returned home, he struggled to adapt to civilian life. He was also extremely uncomfortable with the public attention he received because of his status as a VC recipient. He eventually found work managing hotels on behalf of Dominion Breweries. He was initially based at the Thistle Hotel, a notorious drinking establishment in Auckland, for three years, during which he received a belated mention in despatches for his escape attempts while a POW. In December 1949 he moved to Hamilton to manage the Hamilton East Hotel. This was the first of many moves up and down the country to manage hotels. During his time as a hotelier, Hinton made several overseas trips, the first of which was to attend the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. He also regularly attended VC and George Cross celebrations, including the VC centenary in 1956. In 1963, Eunice, whom Jack had married following the death of her first husband in the 1950s, died from a heart attack. In 1968, he was married again, to Molly Schumacher, a barmaid at the Onehunga Hotel in Auckland, which Hinton was running at the time. While in Auckland, he was heavily involved in the horse racing industry and acted as a steward at the Auckland Trotting Club. Hinton retired in 1980, and he and Molly moved to Ashburton in the South Island. He spent much of his retirement fishing, and in 1990 shifted to Christchurch to be nearer to Molly's relatives. He died on 28 June 1997, and was honoured with a military funeral, attended by 800 people. The Chief of General Staff, Major General Piers Reid, delivered a eulogy. The New Zealand Parliament honoured him with a minute's silence at a sitting on 1 July 1997. He was survived by his second wife; he had no children from either of his marriages. He is buried in Christchurch, in the Returned Servicemen's Association section of the Ruru Lawn Cemetery. He is remembered with a plaque in his birthplace of Colac Bay, and the restaurant at the Christchurch Returned Servicemen's Association is named for him. Hinton's VC was loaned by his family to the Army Museum New Zealand at Waiouru, where it is on display. On 2 December 2007, it was one of nine VCs among a hundred medals stolen from the museum. On 16 February 2008, New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ\$ 300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess.
189,963	USS New Hampshire (BB-25)	1,137,238,480	Pre-dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy	[ "1906 ships", "Connecticut-class battleships", "Ships built by New York Shipbuilding Corporation", "World War I battleships of the United States" ]	New Hampshire (BB-25) was the sixth and final Connecticut-class pre-dreadnought battleship, the last vessel of that type built for the United States Navy. Like most contemporary battleships, she was armed with an offensive armament that consisted of four large-caliber 12-inch (305 mm) guns and several medium-caliber 7 and 8-inch (178 and 203 mm) guns. The ship was laid down in May 1905, launched in June 1906, and commissioned in March 1908, a little over a year after the revolutionary all-big-gun HMS Dreadnought rendered ships like New Hampshire obsolescent. Despite being rapidly surpassed by new American dreadnoughts, New Hampshire had an active career. She made two trips to Europe in 1910 and 1911, and she sank the old battleship USS Texas, which had been converted into a target ship. New Hampshire was particularly active in the Caribbean during this period, as several countries, including Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Mexico devolved into internal political conflicts. These actions included the United States occupation of Veracruz, during which the ship's commander was awarded the Medal of Honor. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, the ship was used primarily to train gunners and engine room personnel, as the US Navy had expanded significantly to combat the German U-boat campaign. She escorted convoys in late 1918, and after the war ended she took part in the effort to bring American soldiers back from France. New Hampshire remained in service for only a few years after the war, as the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty significantly reduced the navies of the signatories; as a result, the ship was sold for scrap in November 1923. ## Design The Connecticut class followed the Virginia-class battleships, but corrected some of the most significant deficiencies in the earlier design, most notably the superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns. A heavier tertiary battery of 7 in (178 mm) guns replaced the 6 in (152 mm) guns that had been used on all previous US designs. Despite the improvements, the ships were rendered obsolescent by the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought, completed before most of the members of the Connecticut class. New Hampshire was 456 ft 4 in (139 m) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 10 in (23 m) and a draft of 24 ft 6 in (7 m). She displaced 16,000 long tons (16,000 t) as designed and up to 17,666 long tons (17,949 t) at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 16,500 indicated horsepower (12,300 kW), with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers ducted into three funnels. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909. She had a crew of 827 officers and men, though this increased to 881 and later to 896. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch /45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8-inch (203 mm) /45 guns and twelve 7-inch (178 mm) /45 guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twenty 3-inch (76 mm) /50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3-pounder guns. She also carried four 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, New Hampshire carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. New Hampshire's main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick over the magazines and the propulsion machinery spaces and 6 in (152 mm) elsewhere. The main battery gun turrets had 12-inch (305 mm) thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in (254 mm) of armor plating. The secondary turrets had 7 in of frontal armor. The conning tower had 9 in (229 mm) thick sides. ## Service history New Hampshire was laid down on 1 May 1905 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 30 June 1906. The ship was commissioned into the US Navy on 19 March 1908; her first commander was Captain Cameron Winslow. After completing final fitting-out work, New Hampshire transported a Marine Expeditionary Regiment to Colón, Panama on 20 June, arriving six days later. She then made a series of visits to ports on the eastern coast of North America, including Portsmouth, New York, and Bridgeport, along with a stop in the Canadian province of Quebec. The ship was then overhauled in New York, followed by training exercises in the Caribbean Sea. On 22 February 1909, she participated in a Naval Review for President Theodore Roosevelt to greet the return of the Great White Fleet in Hampton Roads, Virginia. During this period, Ernest King, later the Chief of Naval Operations during World War II, served aboard the ship in the engine room. New Hampshire conducted training exercises in the Atlantic and Caribbean through late 1910. On 1 November that year, she steamed out of Hampton Roads with the Second Battleship Division for a visit to Europe. There, the ships stopped in Cherbourg, France and Weymouth, the United Kingdom. The Division departed Weymouth on 30 December and returned to the Caribbean for training, before proceeding to Norfolk on 10 March 1911. On 21–22 March, New Hampshire conducted gunnery training with the target ship San Marcos—the old battleship Texas—in Tangier Sound in Chesapeake Bay. Over the course of the two days of firing, New Hampshire inflicted severe damage to the old ship, sinking her in shallow water. A cursory inspection of the wreck noted that the interior of the ship above the waterline was destroyed and that she had been holed multiple times below the waterline. She then prepared for another trip to Europe. This time the ships cruised into the Baltic Sea, stopping in several ports in Germany, Russia, and Scandinavia, before returning to New England on 13 July. New Hampshire spent the next three years training midshipmen on summer cruises and patrolling the Caribbean. In December 1912, she steamed off the island of Hispaniola during unrest in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. From 14 June to 29 December 1913, she patrolled the Caribbean coast of Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. The following year, she took part in the occupation of Veracruz in Mexico, starting on 15 April. During the operations, the ship's commander, Edwin Anderson, Jr., led a landing party that came under fire from the Heroica Escuela Naval Militar academy (Heroic Naval Military School), though gunfire from cruisers in the harbor silenced the Mexican snipers. Anderson and several others were awarded the Medal of Honor for the action. New Hampshire departed the area on 21 April for an overhaul in Norfolk. Exercises off the east coast of the United States followed before the ship returned to Veracruz in August 1915. ### World War I The ship was back in Norfolk on 30 September and remained in American waters late 1916. On 2 December, she steamed to Santo Domingo, the capital of the Dominican Republic, where the United States had instituted a military government under Rear Admiral Harry Knapp in an attempt to put an end to the political instability there. New Hampshire's captain was involved in the government while the ship was in the country. In February 1917, she returned to Norfolk for an overhaul; this work was still ongoing when the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April. Over the course of the next eighteen months, the ship was occupied with training gunners and engine room personnel for the rapidly expanding wartime fleet. During training on 1 June 1918, the crews for three of the 7-inch guns aboard New Hampshire accidentally began firing at one of the submarine chasers present; they fired several salvos before they received the order to cease fire. One of the shells struck the nearby battleship USS Louisiana, killing one man and wounding several more. While the ships stopped to regain control of the situation, a lookout reported a periscope from a U-boat; New Hampshire and the battleship USS Ohio opened fire with their 6-inch guns to no effect. The submarine chasers could not find a U-boat in the area. In September 1918, she was assigned to convoy escort duty, with the first such mission on 6 September. The ship departed with the battleship USS Kansas and the dreadnought USS South Carolina to protect a fast HX troopship convoy. On 16 September, the three battleships left the convoy in the Atlantic and steamed back to the United States, while other escorts brought the convoy into port. On the 17th, South Carolina's starboard propeller fell off, which forced her to reduce speed to 11 knots (20 km/h; 13 mph) using only the port shaft. New Hampshire and Kansas remained with South Carolina to escort her back to port. This duty did not last long, as the Germans signed the Armistice that ended the war on 11 November. On 24 December, New Hampshire began the first of four trips to bring soldiers back from the battlefields of Europe. On the first trip, she steamed with Louisiana, the two ships arriving in Brest, France on 5 January 1919. Between the two of them, they returned 2,169 men, including eight civilians. ### Postwar career By 1919, the ship had had all of her 7-inch guns and eight of the 3-inch guns removed, and a pair of 3-inch anti-aircraft guns had been installed. On 22 June 1919, the ship went into drydock in Philadelphia for an overhaul. A year later, on 5 June 1920, she began a training cruise for midshipmen to the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal. The cruise took the ship to Hawaii and several cities on the western coast of the United States. She was back in Philadelphia by 11 September. From 18 October to 12 January 1921, New Hampshire served as the flagship for a mission to Haiti. On 25 January she crossed the Atlantic to Europe for the final time to carry the remains of August Ekengren, the Swedish envoy to the United States. She arrived in Stockholm on 14 February; on the return voyage, she also stopped in Kiel, Germany, and Gravesend, United Kingdom. The ship reached Philadelphia on 24 March, where she was decommissioned on 21 May. According to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty, New Hampshire was sold on 1 November 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap.
1,568,158	USS Balch (DD-50)	1,134,932,397	Aylwin-class destroyer	[ "1912 ships", "Aylwin-class destroyers", "Ships built by William Cramp & Sons", "World War I destroyers of the United States" ]	USS Balch (Destroyer No. 50/DD-50) was an Aylwin-class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the first U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of George Beale Balch, a US Navy officer who served in the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War, and as Superintendent of the United States Naval Academy. Balch was laid down by William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia in May 1912 and launched in December. The ship was a little more than 305 ft (93 m) in length, just over 31 ft (9.4 m) abeam, and had a standard displacement of 1,036 long tons (1,053 t). She was armed with four 4 in (100 mm) guns and had eight 18 inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes. Balch was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29.5 kn (33.9 mph; 54.6 km/h). After her March 1914 commissioning, she participated in a Presidential Fleet Review at New York City in May. After a period in reserve, Balch served on Neutrality Patrol duty. As a part of that duty in October 1916, she was one of several US destroyers sent to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U-53 off the Lightship Nantucket. She picked up passengers and crew from a British ocean liner before the U-boat sank it. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Balch was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown, Ireland. Balch made several unsuccessful attacks on U-boats. In October 1918, US destroyer Paulding collided with Balch, sending her into Queenstown for two weeks of repairs. Upon returning to the United States after the war in January 1919, Balch was placed in reduced commission. After alternating periods of activity and time in reserve, Balch was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922. In November 1933 she dropped her name, becoming known only as DD-50. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1935 and ordered scrapped in April. ## Design and construction Balch was authorized in March 1911 as the last of four ships of the Aylwin class, which was almost identical to the Cassin-class destroyers authorized at the same time. Construction of the vessel—like her three sister ships—was awarded to William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia which laid down her keel on 7 May 1912. On 21 December, Balch was launched by sponsor Miss Grace Balch, daughter of the ship's namesake, George Beale Balch. The ship was the first U.S. Navy ship named for Balch, a US Navy officer who served in the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War and, as a rear admiral, served as Superintendent of United States Naval Academy from 1879 to 1881. As built, the destroyer was 305 ft 3 in (93.04 m) in length, 31 feet 2 inches (9.50 m) abeam, and drew 10 ft 6 in (3.20 m). The ship had a standard displacement of 1,036 long tons (1,053 t) and displaced 1,235 long tons (1,255 t) when fully loaded. Balch had two steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers, and an additional pair triple-expansion steam engines, each connected to one of the propeller shafts, for cruising purposes. Four oil-burning boilers powered the engines, which could generate 16,000 shp (12,000 kW), moving the ship at up to 29.5 knots (54.6 km/h). Balch's main battery consisted of four 4 in (100 mm)/50 caliber Mark 9 guns, with each gun weighing in excess of 6,100 lb (2,800 kg). The guns fired 33 lb (15 kg) armor-piercing projectiles at 2,900 ft/s (880 m/s). At an elevation of 20°, the guns had a range of 15,920 yd (14,560 m). Balch was also equipped with four twin 18-inch (457 mm) torpedo tubes. ## Pre-World War I Balch was commissioned into the United States Navy on 26 March 1914 under the command of Lieutenant Commander David C. Hanrahan. Balch served briefly with the Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet, carrying out torpedo firing practice off the Virginia Capes before participating in a Presidential Fleet Review for President Woodrow Wilson at New York City on 7 May. Following fleet maneuvers with the Submarine Flotilla out of New London, Connecticut, the Torpedo Flotilla joined the battleship squadrons in Narragansett Bay for maneuvers organized by the Naval War College. Returning to the New York Navy Yard that summer, Balch was placed in reserve commission on 24 July 1914. The destroyer was placed in full commission again on 17 December 1914 and rejoined the Atlantic Fleet. In June 1915, one of Balch's 21 ft (6.4 m), 1,350 lb (610 kg) torpedoes was unloaded at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, loaded on a horse-drawn truck, and hauled across the Brooklyn Bridge to the Astor Hotel in Manhattan. There, the weapon was on display – along with a shell from a 14 in (360 mm) naval gun—for two days at the "Peace and Preparation" conference of the National Security League. A year later, Balch served as the US Navy's observation platform during the inter-club cruise after the Seawanhaka-Corinthian Yacht Club's annual June regatta. Balch was sent to examine which of the powerboats entered into the cruise—reported by The New York Times as about half of the 200 entries—might be suitable for use as naval auxiliaries. Prior to the entrance of the United States into World War I, she served on Neutrality Patrol duty, trying to protect American and neutral-flagged merchant ships from interference by British or German warships and U-boats. In the course of performing those duties, Balch was at Newport, Rhode Island, in early October 1916. At 0530 on 8 October, wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket, off the eastern end of Long Island. After an SOS from the British steamer West Point was received at about 1230, Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered Balch and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors. The American destroyers arrived on the scene about 1700 when the U-boat, U-53 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose, was in the process of stopping the Holland-America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk. Shortly after, U-53 stopped the British passenger ship Stephano. As Rose had done with three other ships U-53 had sunk earlier in the day, he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships before sinking the pair. At one point, Rose signaled Balch requesting that she move out of the way to allow Stephano to be torpedoed, much to the later chagrin of Lord Beresford, who denounced Balch's compliance as "aiding and abetting" the Germans in a speech in the House of Lords. In total, 226 survivors from U-53's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla. Balch picked up the crew of Stephano and a number of passengers, later transferring them to destroyer Jenkins for return to Newport. ## World War I When the United States entered World War I on 6 April 1917, Balch fitted out—installing depth charge racks and other wartime gear—in preparation for foreign service. Sailing for European waters on 25 October, Balch arrived at Queenstown, Ireland on 17 November and reported for duty with the Queenstown Force Commander. The destroyer began convoy escort duties on 24 November, which generally meant shepherding merchant ships through the "submarine danger zone" in the western approaches to the United Kingdom and France. While this duty was relatively uneventful, Balch did twice encounter German submarines. On 29 January 1918, while steaming off Liverpool, she dropped two depth charges over a diving U-boat, without effect. Then, on 12 May, the destroyer joined other escorts in depth-charging a U-boat spotted near convoy HS 60, with Balch dropping 12 depth charges that helped drive off the submarine. There were other perils at sea, however, most notably on 20 October 1918 when Paulding collided with Balch during convoy escort operations. The collision knocked Balch's port depth charge overboard, but Boatswain's Mate Second Class Albert Cerveny, Coxswain Frank Sekowski, and Gunner's Mate Second Class Frank H. Sumner—all of whom received letters of commendation from the US Navy—recognized that a collision was imminent and set the depth charges to "safe". Balch did suffer steering gear damage which required two weeks of repair at Queenstown. Then, on 5 November, while escorting a convoy in the English Channel, the Balch helped American destroyer Sterett rescue 29 survivors of the foundering merchant ship Dipton, returning the survivors to Queenstown. ## Inter-war period Following the signing of the Armistice on 11 November which ended all fighting, Balch received orders to sail for home and she departed Ireland on 16 November. She arrived at Norfolk, Virginia, via Ponta Delgada, Azores, on 1 January 1919 and was placed in ordinary. Returned to commission in early April, the destroyer sailed to the West Indies for three weeks of maneuvers out of Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. Balch then returned to Norfolk on 28 April for an overhaul. In July 1920, she was assigned the hull code of DD-50 under the US Navy's alphanumeric classification system. Postwar funding shortages kept the destroyer in port until late 1921, when Balch briefly cruised with the Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet, before financial considerations led to her inactivation. Balch was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 20 June 1922. On 1 November 1933, she dropped the name Balch to free it for a new destroyer of the same name, becoming known only as DD-50. The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 8 March 1935, and, on 23 April, was ordered scrapped at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.
64,661,255	HMS Liberty (1913)	1,145,948,868	Early 20th-century Royal Navy destroyer	[ "1913 ships", "Laforey-class destroyers (1913)", "Ships built on the Isle of Wight", "World War I destroyers of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Liberty was a Laforey-class destroyer that served with the Royal Navy during the First World War. Launched on 15 September 1913 as HMS Rosalind, the ship was renamed on 30 September under an Admiralty order to become one of the first alphabetical class destroyers. On commissioning, the vessel joined the Third Destroyer Flotilla and operated as part of the Harwich Force. During Battle of Heligoland Bight, Liberty engaged with the German torpedo boats G194 and G196, and scored two hits on the cruiser Mainz. On 8 February 1917, the destroyer rammed and sank the German submarine UC-46. The vessel also played a minor role in the battles of Dogger Bank, Dover Strait and Jutland, as well as acting as a convoy escort and patrolling the Dover Barrage. With the cessation of hostilities, the ship was placed in reserve and sold to be broken up on 5 November 1921. ## Design and development Liberty was one of twenty-two L- or Laforey-class destroyers built for the Royal Navy. The design followed the preceding Acasta-class but with improved seakeeping properties and armament, including twice the number of torpedo tubes. The vessel was one of the last pre-war destroyers built by J Samuel White for the British Admiralty, constructed alongside the similar Laurel. The destroyer had a length overall of 268 feet 8 inches (82 m), a beam of 27 feet 8 inches (8 m) and a draught of 10 feet 6 inches (3 m). Displacement was 965 long tons (980 t) normal and 1,150 long tons (1,170 t) deep load. Power was provided by three White-Forster boilers feeding two Parsons steam turbines rated at 24,500 shaft horsepower (18,300 kW) and driving two shafts, to give a design speed of 29 knots (54 km/h; 33 mph). Two funnels were fitted. A total of 268 long tons (272 t) of oil was carried, giving a design range of 1,720 nautical miles (3,190 km; 1,980 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Fuel consumption was 51.33 long tons (52.15 t) of oil in 24 hours during test. The ship's complement was 73 officers and ratings. Armament consisted of three QF 4 in (102 mm) Mk IV guns on the ship's centreline, with one on the forecastle, one aft and one between the funnels. The guns could fire a shell weighing 31 pounds (14 kg) at a muzzle velocity of 2,177 feet per second (664 m/s). One single 7.7 mm (0.3 in) Maxim gun was carried. A single 2-pounder 40 mm (2 in) "pom-pom" anti-aircraft gun was later added. Torpedo armament consisted of two twin mounts for 21 in (533 mm) torpedoes mounted aft. Capacity to lay four Vickers Elia Mk.4 mines was included, but the facility was never used. ## Construction and career Liberty was laid down by J. Samuel White at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight on 31 August 1912 with the yard number 1391. The ship was launched on 15 September 1913. Originally named Rosalind in honour of the heroine of the play As You Like It, Liberty was renamed by Admiralty order on 30 September 1913. Built under the 1912–1913 Programme as part of a class named after characters in Shakespeare's plays and the Waverley novels by Sir Walter Scott, the destroyer joined what was to be the first alphabetical class, with each successive class of destroyers named after a letter of the alphabet. On commissioning, Liberty joined the Third Destroyer Flotilla as part of the Harwich Force. After the British declaration of war and the start of the First World War on 4 August 1914, the flotilla was tasked with harassing the Imperial German Navy and on 26 August was ordered to attack German torpedo boats on their patrol as part of a large Royal Navy fleet in what was to be the Battle of Heligoland Bight. The following day, Liberty was part of the Fourth Division, which included fellow L-class destroyers Laertes, Laurel and Lysander, when the German torpedo boat G194 was sighted. The destroyers set off at speed in pursuit, engaging with G194 and G196, and soon encountering the German 5th Flotilla. Liberty was second in the line when their pursuit brought them to the light cruiser Mainz and almost immediately took a hit from the larger vessel that destroyed the bridge and killed the ship's commander, Nigel K. W. Barttelot. The destroyer, in turn, claimed two hits against the German ship. Damaged, the destroyer took no further part in the action, but watched as the British forces overwhelmed the German cruiser. However, at the end, after the wounded were transferred to other ships in the British fleet, Liberty was able to return to Harwich without assistance and was soon repaired. After returning to service, the destroyer remained stationed at Harwich defending the Strait of Dover. On 23 January 1915, the destroyer led the Second Division of the Third Flotilla during the Battle of Dogger Bank. The Flotilla was incapable of keeping sufficient speed to engage in the battle, which was left to newer and faster M-class destroyers. The ship did, however, rescue the destroyer that led into the fray, Meteor, which had been heavily damaged attacking the German armoured cruiser Blücher, towing the vessel back to Britain. For the remainder of the year, and into the next, the vessel remained at Harwich. On 31 May 1916, as part of the Ninth Destroyer Flotilla, Liberty was one of a small contingent from the Harwich Force that took part in the Battle of Jutland. The destroyer, along with sisterships Landrail, Laurel and Lydiard, were to provide cover to the British battlecruisers of the First Battlecruiser Squadron. In this case, the flotilla was in the centre of the action but again failed to engage the German battle fleet in the confusion of the battle, with Liberty failing even to spot the enemy ships. Later that year, on 26 October, the destroyer was part of a four ship flotilla sent to defend the Dover Barrage in the Battle of Dover Strait, but saw no action at the time. The destroyer had more success on 8 February the following year. While patrolling the Barrage, shortly after 03:00, Liberty spotted the German minelaying submarine UC-46 surface ahead. The destroyer swiftly opened fire and sped forward, ramming the German ship ahead of the conning tower at 24 kn (44 km/h; 28 mph). The German vessel sank with no survivors. In addition to these actions, Liberty was also deployed as an occasional convoy escort. The ship was subsequently redeployed to the Fourth Destroyer Flotilla based at Devonport. After the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the war, the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of strength and both the number of ships and the amount of personnel needed to be reduced to save money. Liberty was initially placed in reserve at the Nore alongside over sixty other destroyers. On 5 November 1921, the vessel was sold and broken up for scrap. ## Pennant numbers
19,408,814	Sonny with a Chance	1,167,100,788	2009 American Disney Channel sitcom	[ "2000s American sketch comedy television series", "2000s American teen sitcoms", "2009 American television series debuts", "2010s American sketch comedy television series", "2010s American teen sitcoms", "2011 American television series endings", "Disney Channel original programming", "English-language television shows", "Sonny with a Chance", "Television series about television", "Television series by It's a Laugh Productions", "Television series created by Steve Marmel", "Television shows set in Los Angeles" ]	Sonny with a Chance is an American teen sitcom created by Steve Marmel that aired on Disney Channel for two seasons between February 2009 and January 2011. The series centers on Sonny Munroe, portrayed by Demi Lovato, a teenage comedian from Wisconsin who joins the cast of a sketch comedy television series titled So Random! after moving to Hollywood, Los Angeles. Episodes deal with Sonny's attempts to develop relationships with her castmates and establish her role within the group, focusing on her life working on the show's set, as well as coming to terms with her newfound fame. The main themes depicted include the focus on friendships and adolescence. The series also stars Tiffany Thornton, Sterling Knight, Brandon Mychal Smith, Doug Brochu and Allisyn Ashley Arm. Sonny with a Chance also contains fully-produced comedy sketches from the show-within-a-show. These elements draw inspiration from the Nickelodeon series All That, which executive producers Brian Robbins and Sharla Sumpter Bridgett previously worked on, as well as 30 Rock. The Walt Disney Company commissioned the series to follow its successful comedy programs of the 2000s, including Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place, starring Miley Cyrus and Selena Gomez respectively. Lovato was cast to continue her affiliation with the network after her role in the television film Camp Rock (2008) and the release of music through Disney-owned label Hollywood Records. This cross-promotion was intended to mirror that of Cyrus and Gomez. Varsity Pictures and It's a Laugh Productions produced the program, and it premiered on Disney Channel on February 8, 2009. Sonny with a Chance experienced high viewership in the United States on broadcast television. The series did not receive wide critical coverage. It last aired on January 2, 2011; both seasons have been distributed through digital download and on the Disney+ streaming service. Initially renewed for a third season, the series' future became uncertain when Lovato underwent treatment for personal struggles in November 2010 and was unable to continue filming for the show. The season entered production without Lovato, with a focus on the elements of the show-within-a-show (sketches, musical performances, and guest stars) as a temporary solution until her return. After it was reported that Lovato would not return to the series in April 2011, the episodes which had been produced were rebranded as the spin-off series So Random!, which aired for one season from 2011 to 2012. ## Premise Sonny Munroe is a cheerful and ambitious fifteen-year-old from Wisconsin who has experienced success by uploading comedic videos to the internet. After she is discovered in a nationwide casting call, she moves to Hollywood, Los Angeles, to join the cast of a popular sketch comedy series for teenagers titled So Random!. The series centers on Sonny's life working on the program as well as her home life. She comes to terms with the difficulties of working on a television set alongside her castmates, in particular the self-centered Tawni Hart, who is unkind to Sonny. The So Random! cast also includes the suave Nico Harris and his best friend Grady Mitchell, as well as the cunning Zora Lancaster. Comedy sketches from So Random! are included within the series. The cast of So Random! work at the same television studio as their rival television program, Mackenzie Falls, a drama series which stars the teen idol Chad Dylan Cooper. Sonny with a Chance explores the portrayal of a teenager with an ambitious dream, in the same style as other teen series such as Hannah Montana and iCarly. The theme of following dreams is recognized as a prominent attribute of shows produced by Disney Channel. ## Characters - Sonny Munroe (Demi Lovato), a friendly and well-intentioned fifteen-year-old from Wisconsin with a passion for comedy and writing music. She joins the cast of So Random!. - Tawni Hart (Tiffany Thornton), a self-absorbed cast member of So Random!, who is known as a diva and is unkind toward Sonny - Chad Dylan Cooper (Sterling Knight), a teen idol who stars on Mackenzie Falls—the rival series of So Random!—who is arrogant and egotistical but ultimately develops a romantic relationship with Sonny - Nico Harris (Brandon Mychal Smith), a suave cast member of So Random! and the best friend of Grady - Grady Mitchell (Doug Brochu), a brainless and funny cast member of So Random! and the best friend of Nico - Zora Lancaster (Allisyn Ashley Arm), the youngest cast member of So Random!, who is intelligent and cunning Credits adapted from D23. ## Production ### Development The series was officially announced in May 2008 as a half-hour live-action comedy entitled Welcome to Mollywood, in which the title character would be called Molly. It was set to premiere during the 2008–09 television season. Gary Marsh, the president of Disney Channels Worldwide, identified the idea of "following your dream" as a core attribute of Disney Channel which would be present in the series. He described the series as a "hybrid show"; fully produced comedy sketches from the show-within-a-show So Random! would also appear. Another working title for the series was Welcome to Holliwood. The Los Angeles Times's Robert Lloyd speculated that the final title, Sonny with a Chance, makes reference to the phrase "chance of rain". Sonny with a Chance was created by Steve Marmel, who had previously written for and produced cartoons. Brian Robbins served as an executive producer on the series; he was the co-creator of the Nickelodeon sketch comedy series All That. Sharla Sumpter Bridgett, who also worked on All That, joined the series as an executive producer; Robbins and Bridgett's joint production company, Varsity Pictures, produced the program alongside It's a Laugh Productions in association with the network. Michael Feldman was an executive producer. The premise of the show was also influenced by 30 Rock. ### Casting Demi Lovato portrays the central character of Sonny Munroe; the character was originally named Molly, and later Holli. Lovato's affiliation with the network began with her lead role in the series As the Bell Rings and continued with her breakout role in the musical television film Camp Rock, which debuted in 2008 and was originally designed as a vehicle for the Jonas Brothers. Lovato had auditioned for both Camp Rock and Sonny with a Chance simultaneously in the summer of 2007 and secured both roles; Marsh described her as a "gifted comedian". Lovato's work in the company continued with her debut album Don't Forget, released by the Disney-owned label Hollywood Records in 2008. She also filmed the television film Princess Protection Program alongside fellow Disney Channel star Selena Gomez, and she toured with the Jonas Brothers before Sonny with a Chance premiered. Lovato's cross-promotion within the network followed that of predecessors Miley Cyrus and Gomez, but it differed in that her movie and album came before her leading role in a sitcom. Lovato sings the series' theme song, "So Far So Great". Fellow Disney actor Bridgit Mendler had also auditioned for the role of Sonny before Lovato won the role. The remaining main cast members were revealed in May 2008: Tiffany Thornton as Tawni Hart, Brandon Mychal Smith as Nico Harris, Doug Brochu as Grady Mitchell and Allisyn Ashley Arm as Zora Lancaster. The series also stars Sterling Knight as Chad Dylan Cooper. Nancy McKeon, who had been a teenage actor herself, recurs as Sonny's mother, Connie Munroe. ### Writing and filming Production began in September 2008. Marmel and Feldman wrote the original, unaired pilot, which was directed by Lee Shallat Chemel. The series debuted on February 8, 2009. Sonny with a Chance was renewed for a second season on June 1, 2009. Marsh stated that the episodes would include more comedy and the addition of music. ### Lovato's departure and So Random! In November 2010, Disney Channel indicated that production on the third season, which was scheduled to begin in January 2011, would be dependent on Lovato, who was reported to be experiencing "mental health issues". This followed her withdrawing from a Jonas Brothers tour and entering a treatment facility for "emotional and physical issues". Later that month, the network made public their plan to begin production on the season without Lovato, reworking the premise to focus on the So Random! sketches. The writers planned for the third season to feature sketch comedy, musical performances, and guest stars as a temporary solution until Lovato returned. Standalone So Random! episodes had been tried during the show's second season, and network executives were pleased with the performance of these episodes, which led to the decision to rework the program for its third season. Months into the season's production, in April 2011, People reported that Lovato would not be returning to Sonny with a Chance and that So Random! would continue. Lovato stated that she would be focusing on her music career as well as her recovery; the network supported the decision. The episodes which had been produced during this time formed the first season of the spin-off So Random!, which premiered in June 2011, and it aired until March 2012. ## Series overview ## Reception ### Critical reception Sonny with a Chance did not receive wide critical coverage. Lloyd stated that the show-within-a-show So Random! possesses an authenticity which Sonny with a Chance does not achieve. He described the set as "violently designed" and with "riots of colour"; Natalie Finn of E! referred to the colour palette of the show as "eye-popping". Finn described the actors' performances as exaggerated, while Lloyd praised Lovato's acting ability as "very good". Kelvin Cedeno from DVDizzy.com said that the series has an "outrageous tone" and feels more like a Nickelodeon show, rather than a product of Disney Channel. He wrote that the series does not feature a lesson in each episode and that it is not funny. Emily Ashby wrote for Common Sense Media that the series does not attempt to promote lessons or positive messages. However, she continued that Sonny's confidence and leadership qualities make her a worthwhile role model. ### U.S. television ratings \\| link2 = Sonny with a Chance (season 2) \\| episodes2 = 26 \\| start2 = March 14, 2010 (2010-03-14) \\| end2 = January 2, 2011 (2011-01-02) \\| startrating2 = 6.3 \\| endrating2 = \\| viewers2 = 4.09 }} ### Awards and nominations ## Other media Walt Disney Records released a soundtrack album for the series on October 5, 2010, including songs from, and inspired by, the series. Disney Interactive Studios released a video game based on the series for the Nintendo DS, Sonny with a Chance, in 2010. The video game is composed of over 40 minigames inspired by the plots of episodes and So Random! sketches. Characters and locations from the series are also featured. A DVD compilation entitled Sonny's Big Break was released on August 25, 2009. The release contains four previously aired episodes, one unreleased episode and bonus features including a clip from Mackenzie Falls.

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