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902,667	Anjem Choudary	1,172,463,096	Pakistani-British Islamist and political activist (born 1967)	[ "1967 births", "21st-century British criminals", "Alleged al-Qaeda recruiters", "Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital", "Alumni of the University of Southampton", "British Islamists", "British Muslim activists", "British Salafis", "British Sunni Muslims", "British activists", "British people of Pakistani descent", "British people of Punjabi descent", "British political activists", "British prisoners and detainees", "British solicitors", "Criminals from London", "Critics of the Catholic Church", "English people of Pakistani descent", "English people of Punjabi descent", "Individuals designated as terrorists by the United States government", "Inmates of HM Prison Belmarsh", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and the United Kingdom", "Islamic terrorism in England", "Living people", "Pakistani Islamists", "Pakistani Muslims", "Pakistani Salafis", "Pakistani Wahhabists", "People from Ilford", "People imprisoned on charges of terrorism", "Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales", "Punjabi people" ]	Anjem Choudary ([] Error: : no text (help), aka Abu Luqman; born 18 January 1967) is a Pakistani-British Islamist and a social and political activist who has been described as "the face" of militant Islamism or the "best known" Islamic extremist in Britain. Members of his group have been accused of being linked to between 25 and 40% of terrorist events in Britain up to 2015 (according to various researchers, journalists and others), and of inspiring more than 100 foreign fighters to fight in jihad (according to the UK government). After staying "just within the law" for many years (according to police), in summer of 2014 Choudary pledged allegiance to the Islamic State's "caliphate", and its "caliph" (Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi) by Skype. Two years later he was convicted under the Terrorism Act 2000 of inviting support for a proscribed organisation, namely the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. He was subsequently subject to sanctions by both the U.S. State Department and the U.N. Security Council freezing his assets. He has been denounced by mainstream Muslim groups and heavily criticised in the UK media. In 1996, Choudary, with Omar Bakri Muhammad, helped form the Islamist al-Muhajiroun organisation in Britain. The group organised several anti-Western demonstrations, including a banned protest march in London for which Choudary was summoned to appear in court. The UK government banned Al-Muhajiroun in 2010 and Choudary subsequently founded or helped found a series of organizations considered by many to be Al-Muhajiroun under new names—such as Al Guraba', Islam4UK, Sharia4UK, Sharia4Belgium. Among the controversial causes espoused and statements made by Choudary and the group include implementation of Sharia throughout the UK, "Europe, and the wider world"; the conversion of famous British landmarks (Buckingham Palace, Nelson's Column) into palaces for a caliph, minarets, and mosques; praise for those responsible for the 11 September 2001 and 7 July 2005 attacks; calling for the execution of the Pope for criticizing the Islamic prophet Muhammad; and declaring that Muslims reject the concepts of freedom of expression, democracy, and human rights. Following his conviction for inviting support for a proscribed organisation on 6 September 2016, Choudary was sentenced to five years and six months in prison, and released automatically on licence in October 2018 with restrictions on speaking in public or to the media. On 18 July 2021, Choudary's ban on speaking in public was lifted after his licence ended, and as of October 2021 he has reportedly resumed his online campaigns. ## Early life Anjem Choudary was born in Welling, Bexley in South East London on 18 January 1967 to Pakistani Muslim parents. The son of market trader, his parents were Punjabi Muslims who migrated to what became Pakistan from East Punjab during the Partition of India in 1947. He attended Mulgrave Primary School, in Woolwich. In 1996, Choudary married Rubana Akhtar (or Akhgar), who had recently joined al-Muhajiroun, which he led at the time. She later became the group's head of women. The couple have four children. He enrolled as a medical student at Barts Medical School. While attending university, he was reputed to have indulged in drink and drugs. Responding to claims that he was a "party animal" who joined his friends in "getting stoned", in 2014 Choudary commented "I admit that I wasn't always practising... I committed many mistakes in my life." He switched to law at the University of Southampton and spent his final year as a legal student (1990–1991) at Guildford, before moving to London to teach ESL. He found work at a legal firm and completed his legal qualifications to become a lawyer. In the early 1990s, he worked in his spare time as an organizer for preacher/scholar Omar Bakri Muhammad, who also supported the reestablishment of the Sunni caliphate. Choudary became the chairman of the Society of Muslim Lawyers, but was removed from the roll of solicitors (the official register of legal practitioners) in 2002. ## Jihadist military training in Britain On 7 November 1999, The Sunday Telegraph reported that Muslims were receiving weapons training at secret locations in Britain. Most of those who trained at these centres would then fight for Osama bin Laden's International Islamic Front in Chechnya, while others would fight in such places as Kosovo, Sudan, Somalia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kashmir. The report identified Anjem Choudary as a key figure in recruiting for these training centres. ## Organisations Choudary's first organization, Al-Muhajiroun, was established in Britain in 1996 and banned in 2010. Choudary was present at the launch of its intended successor, Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah, and after that he helped form Al Ghurabaa, which was banned in July 2006. Choudary then became the spokesman for Islam4UK until it was proscribed in 2010. (While some sources refer to the Al Guraba', Islam4UK, etc., as successors of Al-Muhajiroun, others describe them as "other names the organisation [Al-Muhajiroun] goes by" to circumvent the ban on the original group.) ### Al-Muhajiroun Choudary embraced Islamism and, with the Islamist militant leader Omar Bakri Muhammed, co-founded al-Muhajiroun, a Salafi organisation. The two men had met at a local mosque, where Bakri was giving a tafsir (an interpretation of the Qur'an). In 2002, following a bazaar organised by al-Muhajiroun (advertised by leaflet and word of mouth), Choudary gave a talk on education in Slough. His lecture outlined his ideas for a parallel system of Islamic education in the UK and included elements of the group's ideology. In the same year, although they were refused a permit by the then Mayor of London Ken Livingstone, on 25 August the group held a rally in London. Choudary was summonsed to Bow Street Magistrates' Court in January 2003, on charges which included "exhibiting a notice, advertisement or any other written or pictorial matter", "using apparatus for the amplification of sound", "making a public speech or address" and "organising an assembly". In 2003 or 2004, he organised an Islamic-themed camping trip, at which Bakri lectured, on the 54-acre (220,000 m<sup>2</sup>) grounds of the Jameah Islamiyah School in East Sussex. Advertised by word-of-mouth, the trip was attended by 50 Muslim men, most of whom were members of al-Muhajiroun. Bakri later claimed the camp's activities included lectures on Islam, football and paintballing. In September 2006, following allegations that it was used in the training and recruitment of terrorists, police searched the school. According to testimony from Al Qaeda suspects held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in 1997 and 1998 Abu Hamza and groups of around 30 of his followers held training camps at the school, which included training with AK47 rifles and handguns, and a mock rocket launcher. No arrests were made, and students and faculty were allowed to return on 23 September 2006, the first day of Ramadan. The UK government had investigated expelling Bakri even before the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, and in July 2003 the headquarters of al-Muhajiroun, and the homes of Bakri and Choudary, were raided by the police. The following year, under new anti-terrorist legislation, the government announced that it wanted to ban al-Muhajiroun. In 2005, Bakri learned that he was at risk of prosecution for his support of the 7 July 2005 London bombers, and in August left the UK for Lebanon, where he claimed that he was on holiday. After leaving a television station where he said "I will not return to Britain unless I want to go there as a visitor or as a tourist", he was detained by Lebanon's general security department and held in a Beirut prison. Several days later, Bakri was excluded from returning to Britain by the Home Secretary, Charles Clarke, on the grounds that his presence in Britain was "not conducive to the public good." Choudary condemned the decision and demanded to know what Bakri had done to justify the ban. He claimed that ministers were inventing rules to ensure that Bakri could not return. In November, Choudary and three other followers of Bakri were deported from Lebanon and returned to the UK. Choudary blamed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office for orchestrating their deportations, claiming that the four were there to help Bakri set up a madrasah. Following his deportation, Choudary attended the launch in London of Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah, the intended successor organisation to al-Muhajiroun. Choudary said that Bakri was not on the committee of the new group, but that "we would love for the sheikh to have a role." The organisation operates mainly through an invitation-only internet forum, to which Choudary contributes under the screen name Abou Luqman. A reporter visiting the site found calls for holy war, and recordings by Osama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, and Omar Bakri Mohammed. Al-Muhajiroun attempted a relaunch in June 2009 at Conway Hall, in Holborn. Several speakers were invited to share a platform with Choudary, but some later claimed that they had been invited under false pretences. When the group refused to allow women into the meeting, the chairman of the society that runs the hall cancelled the event. He was heckled by many of those in the audience. Choudary took the microphone from the chairman and led chants of "Sharia for UK", saying in reference to the exclusion of women: "Jews and Christians will never make peace with you until you either become like them or adopt their ways." Outside the hall, Choudary criticised British society, predicting that Muslims would make up the majority within one or two decades. When asked why, if society were so bad, he lived here, he replied: "We come here to civilise people, get them to come out of the darkness and injustice into the beauty of Islam." ### Al Ghurabaa Choudary was also a spokesman for Al Ghurabaa, believed to have been an offshoot of al-Muhajiroun. It was proscribed in 2006 by the then Home Secretary John Reid. Choudary was outraged: "The easy option when one is losing an argument is to ban the opposition voice. ... We [al-Ghurabaa] are not a military organisation; we have only been vociferous in our views—views concerning everything from the government's foreign policy in Iraq and Afghanistan to the host of draconian laws, which they've introduced against us in this country." ### Islam4UK In November 2008, Choudary organised a meeting of the then recently formed Islam4UK, which, according to its website, was "established by sincere Muslims as a platform to propagate the supreme Islamic ideology within the United Kingdom as a divine alternative to man-made law", and to "convince the British public about the superiority of Islam ... thereby changing public opinion in favour of Islam in order to transfer the authority and power ... to the Muslims in order to implement the Sharee’ah (here in Britain)". According to Ed Husain, co-founder of the counter-terrorism think-tank the Quilliam Foundation, Islam4UK was a "splinter group of al-Muhajiroun and Hizb ut-Tahrir, the originators of extremism in Britain." Islam4UK was "previously known as al-Muhajiroun, al-Ghurabaa and Muslims Against Crusades", according to the Dutch intelligence agency AIVD. The meeting, advertised as a conference to "rise to defend the honour of the Muslims", was held at the Brady Arts and Community Centre in Tower Hamlets. Choudary then announced that Bakri would be speaking, via a video-conference link, although technical problems meant that his address was instead given over a telephone line. When asked by a Muslim woman how the comments of one of the event's speakers could be justified, with regard to Islam being a religion of peace, Choudary stated, "Islam is not a religion of peace ... It is a religion of submission. We need to submit to the will of Allah." With the announcement by Islam4UK that it planned to hold a protest march through Wootton Bassett (known for the military funeral repatriations of dead British soldiers returning from the war in Afghanistan), Choudary said "You may see one or two coffins being returned to the UK every other day, but when you think about the people of Afghanistan its a huge number [being killed] in comparison ... I intend to write a letter to the parents of British soldiers telling them the reality of what they died for." Choudary's open letter was published on 3 January 2010. It explained his reasons for proposing the march, endorsed his religious beliefs, and claimed that UK politicians had been lying about the war. Choudary wrote that the proposed march was to "engage the British public's minds on the real reasons why their soldiers are returning home in body bags and the real cost of the war." In an interview with Sky News, he stated that the location was chosen to effect a level of media attention which "it would not have gained anywhere else". The proposal was condemned by the British Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, who said that to offend the families of dead or wounded troops would be "completely inappropriate". The Minhaj-ul-Quran International UK centre in Forest Gate also condemned the proposal, as did the Muslim Council of Britain, which stated that it "condemns the call by the fringe extremist group Islam4UK for their proposed march in Wootton Bassett." The planned march was cancelled by the group on 10 January 2010. From 14 January 2010, Islam4UK was proscribed under the Terrorism Act 2000, making membership illegal and punishable by imprisonment. Choudary condemned the order. In an interview on BBC Radio he said "we are now being targeted as an extremist or terrorist organisation and even banned for merely expressing that" and "I feel this is a failure of the concept of democracy and freedom." Following his arrest and subsequent release in September 2014 on suspicion of encouraging terrorism, Choudary claimed he was questioned about his membership of or support for proscribed groups including Islam4UK and Need4Khalifah, both of which the government believes are successors to al-Muhajiroun. ## Activism Choudary has regularly attended public marches and, following a protest march outside the Danish Embassy in London on 3 February 2006, held in response to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy. As a member of a panel of interviewees on the BBC news programme Newsnight he claimed that the police had inspected and allowed the controversial placards used in the demonstration. Choudary was criticised by his fellow panellists, who included Ann Cryer (then MP for Keighley), Humera Khan (al-Nisa Muslim Women's Group, who accused him of demonising Islam), Sayeeda Warsi (vice-chair of the Conservative Party), Professor Tariq Ramadan (who claimed that Choudary's actions were designed to evoke a strong response from the media), and Roger Knapman (leader of the UK Independence Party). On 15 March 2006, he was among five men arrested in connection with the demonstration, which had been organised by al Ghurabaa. He was arrested again on 4 May at Stansted Airport for an alleged breach of bail, and charged with organising the protest without notifying police. He was bailed to appear before Bow Street Magistrates' Court on 11 May. On 4 July 2006 he was convicted and fined £500 with £300 court costs. The following day, at an Al Ghurabaa press conference at the Al Badr centre in Leyton, Choudary claimed that the blame for the London bombings lay with the British government, and said that the then Prime Minister, Tony Blair, had "blood on his hands". He also urged Muslims to defend themselves against perceived attacks by "whatever means they have at their disposal", and referred to the 2 June 2006 Forest Gate raid in which Mohammed Abdul Kahar was shot in the shoulder. He encouraged Muslims not to cooperate with the police under any circumstances. Local council leader Clyde Loakes criticised Choudary's comments, stating "I am sure the vast majority of Waltham Forest residents do not support these views." Several days later, on 9 June 2006, Choudary organised a demonstration outside the Forest Gate police station in London, to protest against the arrest of the two Forest Gate men. The men's families said that an extremist protest would "only give another opportunity for our community to be portrayed in a negative light" and sent a statement to more than twenty mosques (read to worshippers during prayers) urging them to disassociate themselves from the event. About 35 men and 15 women attended the demonstration. In September 2006, Pope Benedict XVI gave a speech on the question of the "reasonableness" of the Christian faith, to the University of Regensburg in Germany. In the Regensburg lecture he spoke about rationality in faith, and cited comments by the fourteenth-century Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, who, as the Pope put it, said "show me just what Mohamed brought that was new, and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached." The citation attracted severe criticism from Muslims around the world, including the parliament of Pakistan, which condemned the Pope for his comments and sought an apology from him. Following the speech, on 17 September Choudary led a protest outside Westminster Cathedral, where he told reporters "Whoever insults the message of Mohammed is going to be subject to capital punishment." The Metropolitan Police investigated his comments, but concluded that "no substantive offences" were committed during the demonstration. The Shadow Home Secretary, David Davis, who had called for action to be taken against Choudary, said: "It is quite disgraceful. It sends out a message to Muslim extremists that we, as a country, do not have the moral courage to stand up to them." However, unnamed sources claim that UK law enforcement had, on multiple occasions, sufficient evidence to make an arrest. They were prevented from doing so as he was allegedly being monitored by British Security Services. He attempted to enter France to demonstrate against the French government's decision to ban the burka, but was stopped at the port of Calais. His passport was seized and he was issued documents banning him from France indefinitely. On 13 December 2013, Choudary led a march in Brick Lane, organised by the east London-based Sharia Project, demanding a ban on alcohol being sold by Muslim establishments. An East London Mosque official, speaking of the patrols, identified The Shariah Project as "strongly linked" to Anjem Choudary's banned group Al-Muhajiroun. Abu Rumaysah of The Shariah Project had predicted "hundreds" would join the demonstration, claiming that groups of Muslims would come from as far away as the Midlands to take part. In the event, only a few dozen protesters took part in the march. Choudary afterwards explained its purpose: "What we did is we posted a notice to the shop owners saying that under Sharia and under the Koran the sale of alcohol is prohibited and if one were to also drink alcohol, that would be 40 lashes. We were there to teach them that just because they are living among non-Muslims is no excuse because Sharia law will be implemented in Britain, and so they should be aware that just because it is not Sharia today, they can't just do whatever they like." He said the Shariah Project group would be arranging many more such rallies. ## Charge, conviction and imprisonment For decades, Choudary had "stayed [on] the right side of the law"—other than a minor conviction for failing to notify police of a demonstration. But in June 2014, the terror group ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) broke through the border between Syria and Iraq. They declared their leader a caliph, their law Sharia, and themselves The Islamic State. Since Choudary had called for the establishment of an Islamic state for many years in his lectures, "he came under intense sustained pressure from his acolytes", to declare his support for the new state. In a private social media message, one supporter, Abu Rumaysah al-Britani, demanded, "We have to declare our position - enough stalling!" Shortly afterwards, Choudary pledged allegiance to the Islamic State's “caliphate,” and its "caliph" (Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi) "'via Skype, text and phone' during dinner at a restaurant in London." But there were legal implications to swearing allegiance. Journalist Dominic Casciani pointed out that Choudary might circumvent laws on terrorism if "he was supporting a political concept" (an Islamic state) - "not the proscribed terrorist group behind it" (the Islamic State). Choudary believed he had, but British detectives "found the evidence — including a crucial IS oath of allegiance published by one of his Indonesian supporters that could be traced back to private social media conversations". On 5 August 2015, Choudary was charged with one offence under section 12 of the Terrorism Act 2000 for inviting support of a proscribed organisation, namely Islamic State, between June 2014 and March 2015. The trial was postponed to 27 June 2016, and was expected to last no more than four weeks. Choudary was convicted on 28 July 2016. At the Old Bailey on 6 September 2016, Mr Justice Holroyde sentenced Choudary to five years and six months in prison, telling him that he had "crossed the line between the legitimate expression of your own views and a criminal act". ## Release and further arrests Choudary was released from prison on 19 October 2018. Shortly after his release, it was reported that Choudary would be placed in a probation hostel in London Borough of Camden for six months where he would be required to abide by a number of conditions, such as ban from preaching at or attending certain mosques, he would only be allowed to associate with people who have been approved by the authorities, he would be allowed one phone and was banned from using an internet-enabled device without permission, use of the internet was to be supervised, he was restricted from travel outside Greater London's M25 and he was to not be able to leave the UK without permission. In mid-May 2019, Choudary was released from a probation hostel and began "the gradual process of becoming a free man". Other members of his organization were also released around that time, and began to "remobilize" their campaign to replace democracy in the U.K. with a caliphate ruled by Shariah law. Their area of focus (according to The New York Times), included East London and Bedfordshire (including the town of Luton). Their methods included "lower-profile tactics, ... encrypted apps"; instead of recruiting with "provocative public preaching and demonstrations", they now employ "secret internet forums and smaller group meetings in inconspicuous locations". These meeting are legal if the group holding the meeting uses a name that has not been "identified as that of a terrorist outfit" or otherwise banned. On 18 July 2021, Choudary's ban on speaking in public was lifted—though he was banned from Twitter almost immediately. As of October 2021 he has reportedly resumed his online campaigns. On 17 July 2023, Choudary was arrested by Metropolitan Police counter terrorism officers, along with Khaled Hussein of Canada. On 23 July Choudary was charged with membership of a proscribed organisation and directing and encouraging support for a proscribed organisation, all contrary to section 56 of the Terrorism Act 2000. Hussein was charged with membership of a proscribed organisation. ## Views Choudary referred to the 11 September 2001 terrorists as "magnificent martyrs". In 2003, he said that al-Muhajiroun would "encourage people to fulfil their Islamic duties and responsibilities", although he also said that the group was a political movement and not responsible for individual actions. In 2004, he said that a terror attack on British soil was "a matter of time". He refused to condemn the 7 July 2005 London bombings, but accused the Muslim Council of Britain (who had) of "selling their souls to the devil". He blamed the 2013 murder of Lee Rigby, an off-duty British soldier, on British foreign policy. Choudary has voiced support for the Muslim community in Somalia, who, he claims, have been "violated" by Christian-backed Ethiopians, and has also called for other members to fight jihad. The Wall Street Journal describes Choudary as a supporter of "the fundamentalist strain of Islamic teaching known as Salafism". He believes in the primacy of Islam over all other faiths, and the implementation of Sharia Law, in its entirety, in the UK. In 2001, he stated that his allegiance is to Islam, and not a country. He believes that, for a true Muslim, "a British passport is no more than a travel document." In October 2006, he addressed an audience at Trinity College, Dublin to oppose the motion that "This house believes that Islamist violence can never be justified". In February 2008 the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, commented that "as a matter of fact certain provisions of sharia are already recognised in our society and under our law". Choudary responded by saying that Sharia "has to be adopted wholesale", and that "it will come either by embracing Islam because it is the fastest growing religion in the country, or by an Islamic country conquering Britain or by elements embracing Islam and imposing it." In 2008, he spoke of the "flag of Sharia" flying over Downing Street by 2020, claimed that some Muslim families in east London were having "10 or 12 children each", and that hundreds were converting to Islam each day. Choudary has spoken against elements of the Christian faith. In December 2008, he posted a sermon on an Islamic website, in which he stated: "Every Muslim has a responsibility to protect his family from the misguidance of Christmas, because its observance will lead to hellfire. Protect your Paradise from being taken away – protect yourself and your family from Christmas". In an interview with Iran's Press TV (which was subsequently posted online on 11 April 2013), Choudary stated "As Muslims, we reject democracy, we reject secularism, and freedom, and human rights. We reject all of the things that you espouse as being ideals ... There is nothing called a republic in Islam. When we talk about the shari'a, we are talking about only the shari'a. We are talking about rejecting the U.N., the IMF, and the World Bank." In September 2014, Choudary described Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, as "the caliph of all Muslims and the prince of the believers". Facing a court sentence for inciting terrorism, Choudhary wanted to move to the Islamic State, and said that he thought it a much better society in terms of welfare benefits and other factors. ### Rationale for doctrine In interviews with Graeme Wood, Choduary gave explanations for some of his beliefs on the necessity of Sharia, terror and caliphate government. Sharia provides the best form of law enforcement (according to Choduary) because many of its punishments (hand chopping, head chopping, stoning, etc.) though severe, deter crime; while its exemptions (stolen goods must be non-perishable and of significant value, the thief cannot be very poor, etc.) and provisions for preventing false conviction, mean the punishments are seldom enforced, and so demonstrate mercy. However, "maybe 85% of the Shariah" is "in abeyance until we have khilafah" (caliphate). Sharia punishments, for example, cannot be done by vigilantes but require legal system, "with courts and an executive", which a caliphates provides. While it is true the Islamic State has been criticised for administering stonings, beheadings and amputations at a much higher rate than in classical Muslim times, this is to be expected because "the Islamic State is new and the people living under it have spent many years under kafir governments", so it really should not be "any surprise that they would require correction" Another distinction between Islam without a caliphate and Islam with, is that defensive jihad can be performed without a caliphate, but offensive jihad (jihad al talab) to forcibly expand the realm of true Islam into countries ruled by non-Muslims (in fact all countries, since "Muslim" countries are actually ruled by apostates), requires a caliphate. And offensive jihad will not be an option for the caliphate but an obligation. "The caliph must wage war to expand the domain of Islam, or remove obstacles to its practice, at least once a year", with its goal being world conquest. Because the caliphate should be working to gain territory from neighboring countries, is forbidden by Islamic law (according to Choduary) to have fixed borders with them, and forbidden to have treaties and ceasefires with the enemy lasting more than a decade, (treaties may be renewed but "may not be applied to all enemies at once"). Shirk — polytheism — the worst sin in Islam, is found in a great many things that others might find innocent of that vice (according to Choduary) — diplomacy, sending an ambassador to the United Nations, voting in UK elections. This is because these things "recognize an authority other than God's". The brutality of terrorism is justified because it leads to "less suffering". By striking terror into the enemy with slaughter and enslavement, jihadis will hasten victory and thus prevent a long drawn out war with more suffering. ## Terrorist designation and influence ### Designation On 30 March 2017, Choudary was declared a Specially Designated Global Terrorist by the United States Department of State. The designation blocks his assets and prohibits him from engaging in trade or financial transactions with US persons. On 15 October 2018, Choduary was added into the Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee list of the United Nations Security Council. The designation means that each UN member state is legally obliged to freeze financial assets belonging to Choudary, prevent him from entering or transiting their countries and stop any weapons reaching him. ### Influence "It is hard to overstate the role Mr. Choudary has played in motivating Islamic extremists", in the words of Ceylan Yeğinsu. According to journalist Graeme Wood, quoting Raffaello Pantucci, "members of Choudary's group have been linked to 23 out of 51" terrorist events in Britain as of circa 2015. These include the murder of Lee Rigby in Woolwich in 2013 and the July 7, 2005 bombings in London which killed 52. The New York Times estimates Choudary's group, was linked to "25% of all Islamist terrorism-related convictions in Britain between 1998 and 2015". Usman Khan, a convicted terrorist and the main perpetrator in the London Bridge terrorist attack on 29 November 2019, was said to be a member of his group. In 2019, the BBC reported that Abdul Lathief Jameel Mohamed, one of the attackers in the 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings, that killed more than 250 people, was radicalized by Choudary after attending his sermons in the U.K. in 2006. The British government estimates that "Choudary and his followers" have "inspired or influenced" more than 100 foreign fighters to fight in jihad. According to the head of Scotland Yard's counter-terrorism command, Dean Haydon, > “These men have stayed just within the law for many years, but there is no one within the counter-terrorism world that has any doubts of the influence that they have had, the hate they have spread and the people that they have encouraged to join terrorist organisations. > > “Over and over again we have seen people on trial for the most serious offences who have attended lectures or speeches given by these men.” AIVD, the Dutch intelligence agency, also assessed Choudary "to be a key influence in the spread of the jihadi movement in the Netherlands". Groups led by Choudary were “the single biggest gateway to terrorism in recent British history”, according to "the leftwing group Hope Not Hate". In 2013, Hope not Hate presented a report which identified Choudary as "a serious player on the international Islamist scene", saying that although there was no evidence that he was directly responsible for instigating any terrorist plots, "he helped shape the mindset of many of those behind them" and "through his networks linked them up to terror groups and supporters across the world." Choudary dismissed the claims as "fanciful", saying that if they were true, UK security services would have arrested him. ## Public reception and criticism Choudary has enjoyed wide exposure in the UK through "frequent media appearances", and according to Graeme Wood, "accepting absolutely every media request that he receives". He has been heavily criticised by most UK newspapers, some of which describe him as an extremist, or radical cleric or preacher. In January 2010, British Muslim Guardian contributor Mehdi Hasan wrote: "Is Choudary an Islamic scholar whose views merit attention or consideration? No. Has he studied under leading Islamic scholars? Nope. Does he have any Islamic qualifications or credentials? None whatsoever. So what gives him the right to pontificate on Islam, British Muslims or 'the hellfire'? Or proclaim himself a 'sharia judge'?" Hasan also claimed that Choudary was "as unrepresentative of British Muslim opinion, as he is of British anti-war opinion." The Conservative Party leader David Cameron said that Choudary "is one of those people who needs to be looked at seriously in terms of the legality of what he's saying because he strays, I think, extremely close to the line of encouraging hatred, extremism and violence." Salma Yaqoob, then leader of the Respect Party, said in 2010 of Choudary: "He is a bigot whose goal in life is to provoke division. He engages in these provocations because he is deeply hostile to any coming together of Muslims and non-Muslims. For him, the fact that a majority of the British people – Muslim and non-Muslim – oppose the war in Afghanistan is not something to be celebrated, but is something to be feared." Rod Liddle, writing in The Spectator, said: "Anjem Choudray ... is one of those thick-as-mince gobby little chancers who could only possibly come from Britain." Conservatives in the United States have also been critical of Choudary. Fox News host Sean Hannity invites Choudary on "regularly" (according to journalist Graeme Wood), where he "plays to type" serving as a "howling weird-beard of radical Islam ... in the villain-hero dichotomy of pro wrestling, a Muslim 'heel' to Sean Hannity's Christian 'face'." (Hannity has called Choudary "one sick, miserable, evil S.O.B." during a segment on his show discussing the 2011 Egyptian protests). Choudary has been denounced by mainstream Muslim groups. However, in January 2010, Jamie Bartlett, a writer for The Daily Telegraph, speculated that he might have "some" support among the minority of Muslims in the UK who could be considered to hold similar views. The following year, Peter Oborne, defending Baroness Warsi's criticism of how British Muslims have been treated, singled out Choudary as an exception to the majority that were "decent people". According to journalist Graeme Wood, despite his "genius for publicity", Choudary has "considerable ignorance" of Islam and the language of its scriptures -- Arabic. When "confronted on fine details of Islamic law, his main tactic is to change the subject". According to Wood, his Muslim critics "destroy" him in public debate, and Wood quotes one British Muslim as saying, 'How the hell he passes himself off as a Shariah court judge, I'll never know.' At least one fellow Islamic State supporter (Musa Cerantonio) has criticized him and his followers on doctrinal grounds—for their acceptance of qiyas (eye-for-an-eye punishment), their veneration of Omar Bakri Muhammad (whom they consider a mujaddid), and failure to emigrate to the Islamic State ("we say, 'Some of you have got passports! Why are you still there?'"). Tabloid criticism of Islam4UK and Choudary since news of the proposed march first became public has, generally, been vitriolic, calling him a "hate preacher". Among the claims made about him is that he collects Jobseeker's Allowance (with four children he collects £25,000, or almost US\$39,000 per year), and has explained "to followers how to receive government assistance they can use to fund a Muslim holy war". In a "secretly recorded video" he called the allowance "Jizya" (protection money or tribute paid to Muslims by non-Muslims) "which is ours anyway". ## Publications He has written many pamphlets and articles, including Human Rights: Comparison between the Declaration of Human Rights and Divine Rights in Islam and Groups and Parties in Islam: The Islamic Verdict. ## See also - Abu Haleema - Muslims Against Crusades - List of British Pakistanis
10,594,936	Dead Head Fred	1,173,408,146	null	[ "2000s horror video games", "2007 video games", "Action-adventure games", "D3 Publisher games", "Detective video games", "PlayStation Portable games", "PlayStation Vita games", "Single-player video games", "Vicious Cycle Software games", "Vicious Engine games", "Video games about zombies", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games scored by Jason Graves", "Video games scored by Rod Abernethy" ]	Dead Head Fred (Japanese: デッドヘッドフレッド ~首なし探偵の悪夢~, Hepburn: Deddo Heddo Fureddo \~Kubinashi Tantei no Akumu\~) is an action-adventure video game for the PlayStation Portable, developed by Vicious Cycle Software and published by D3 Publisher. It was released in North America on August 28, 2007, and is powered by Vicious Cycle's proprietary Vicious Engine. It features a premise that is a combination of 1940s-style noir and contemporary horror, dubbed "twisted noir" by the design team. The game is a single-player experience whose title character, Fred Neuman, is a private investigator with the ability to switch heads. Fred has recently been murdered and decapitated, and has few memories of the events leading to his death. The plot follows Fred as he pieces together the clues of his murder and tries to get revenge on the man who killed him. Unlike many action game heroes, Fred has no conventional weapons—he relies solely on the powers available to him from the severed heads of fallen enemies. The game received generally positive reviews, with reviewers mentioning its dark humor and noir-inspired motif as high points. It received criticism for its controls and lack of combat depth. In 2008, it won the Writers Guild of America's first-ever award for video game writing. Dead Head Fred was later made available on PlayStation Vita. ## Gameplay Dead Head Fred is a third-person action-adventure game that incorporates a variety of gameplay styles, including combat, platforming, and puzzles. The core gameplay of Dead Head Fred revolves around Fred's missing head and his ability to "switch" heads by defeating certain enemies, decapitating them, and collecting their heads (referred to as "headhunting"). As Fred explores the city of Hope Falls, he can collect an assortment of heads, each of which has unique abilities. Examples include the Stone Idol head, which Fred can use as a battering ram, and the Corpse head, which can be used to suck up and spit out water, gasoline, and other materials. Fred uses these heads to navigate the city of Hope Falls, and certain parts of the city are not accessible until certain heads are found. The high level of radiation in Hope Falls has led to a proliferation of grossly mutated worms, which the player can collect and use to upgrade Fred's heads and temporarily increase his fighting abilities, among other benefits. Also collectible are money and special items, which can be earned by defeating enemies or completing various side-missions. There are several minigames unrelated to the plot, such as pinball and fishing, scattered around the city. In combat, players have several attacks at their disposal, depending on the head Fred is equipped with. These attacks include combos, head-specific counterattacks, and ranged attacks. During a counterattack, the player can complete a Quick Time Event to instantly kill an enemy by removing its head, which gives Fred "Rage" points. Rage energy builds up over time, and the player can use it to unleash powerful attacks on multiple foes. Dealing a large amount of damage to an opponent will stun them, during which time Fred can remove their head. Collected heads can be traded at "Head Shops" for a usable version. There are several types of environmental puzzles that the player has to solve in order to progress through the game. Each one requires a specific head—the Bone head gives Fred sharp claws which allow him to climb on the sides of buildings, while the Shrunken head decreases his size dramatically and lets him navigate platforming levels, such as a saw mill. There is also a mannequin head that Fred must use to socialize with the residents of Hope Falls, because they are terrified of his other heads. There are nine available heads, seven of which are suitable for combat. ## Plot ### Setting Dead Head Fred takes place in Hope Falls, New Jersey, a once-prosperous area based on American cities in the 1940s. The city has steadily fallen from grace since a business mogul named Ulysses Pitt began accumulating power. Pitt has a background of petty crime, and there are allegations that he was somehow responsible for the disappearance of Vinni Rossini, an influential Hope Falls businessman. Pitt's new "Nukular Plant" has recently finished construction and has caused a high level of radiation in the city, leading to strange phenomena like mutated wildlife and undead monsters. Hope Falls is composed of several areas. The first that Fred has access to is Dr. Steiner's castle, the ancestral home of the Steiner family where Fred has been resurrected. Outside of the castle is a large cemetery that borders the forested area of Creepy Hollow. In Hope Falls proper are the urban areas of Downtown, Uptown, Old Hope Falls and Zombietown. Downtown is the home of Pitt's headquarters, and Fred's office is found in Old Hope Falls. Zombietown, as its name suggests, is overrun with zombies and most of its residents have fled the neighborhood or barricaded themselves in their homes. Two other rural areas border the city: Freak Farms, where Fred owns a small cabin, and the Boonies, a highly irradiated area where the Nukular Reactor has been built. Each area contains several teleporters in the form of sewer manholes, which Fred can use to quickly move from one area of Hope Falls to another. ### Characters The protagonist of Dead Head Fred is Fred Neuman (voiced by John C. McGinley), a private detective. Fred is the only playable character, but since each head gives him a different set of animations, he could be considered nine separate characters. As he does not have a proper face, Fred's mood is portrayed by the tone of his voice and by face-like expressions formed by his eyes and frontal lobes. Fred has a wisecracking, sarcastic personality and occasionally breaks the fourth wall, such as heckling the player when he dies. Ulysses Pitt (Jon Polito), the game's primary antagonist, is a small-time hoodlum turned racketeer. Pitt employs many henchmen throughout Hope Falls, the most prominent of which is his lieutenant Lefty, whose right leg has been amputated and replaced with a tommygun. Fred makes several allies throughout the game, including Dr. Steiner, who resurrected him, his girlfriend Jeanne Rossini (Kari Wahlgren), and his former partner Benny Salazar. Fred's enemies are generally employees of Pitt, like the skeletal "bone thugs", or creatures created by Hope Falls' radiation, like zombies and animated scarecrows. ### Story The game begins with Fred waking up in the castle of a Dr. Freidrich Steiner, an employee of Ulysses Pitt. Fred soon learns that he has been murdered and subsequently resurrected, and his head is missing. In its place is a liquid-filled jar that contains his brain and eyes. Steiner explains that Fred is a private detective who had been investigating Pitt, but Pitt had discovered that Fred was on to him and had him murdered. Many of Fred's memories are missing as a result of the trauma to his brain, and before Steiner can explain further, Pitt and several of his henchmen arrive. As Fred hides in Steiner's lab, Pitt's thugs apprehend Steiner and announce that he is to be taken to the Horseman, a minion of Pitt's who resides in Creepy Hollow. Fred leaves Steiner's castle and meets a blue-skinned hunchback in the cemetery outside. The hunchback introduces himself as Sam Spade, a gravedigger and "head merchant" who can help Fred by providing him with quality interchangeable heads. Fred continues to Creepy Hollow, where he defeats the Horseman and rescues Dr. Steiner. Steiner, however, has little information regarding Fred's investigation and suggests that he question the residents of Hope Falls to learn more about his demise. Fred begins exploring Hope Falls, meeting many strange personalities along the way. He reconnects with his old girlfriend Jeanne, who is the daughter of a prominent Hope Falls citizen, Vinni Rossini. Fred learns that Mr. Rossini had been reported missing by Jeanne, and Jeanne had subsequently hired Fred to find him. Fred had eventually followed the trail to Pitt, who had bribed Fred's partner, Benny Salazar, into betraying him. Fred was promptly caught by Pitt's henchmen and shot to death by his right-hand man, Lefty. Armed with the knowledge of his death and the events leading up to it, Fred continues his investigation and recovers a videotape of Vinni Rossini's murder that incriminates Pitt. Pitt learns that Fred is still "alive" and kidnaps Jeanne to use as leverage against him. Fred confronts the mobster at his headquarters after shutting down the centerpiece of his criminal enterprise, the Pitt Nukular Plant, and defeating Lefty. Lefty, however, was exposed to nuclear waste during the fight and subsequently mutated into a huge beast who comes to Pitt's aid in the game's final battle. Fred ultimately defeats both Pitt and Lefty atop the Pitt Building. Pitt is killed during the battle, but Lefty manages to escape and retreats to the remains of the Nukular Plant. After the battle, Fred's head, which, along with Jeanne, had been held hostage by Pitt, is shown tumbling into an open manhole near the Pitt Building, unbeknownst to Fred. The final scene of the game shows Fred and Jeanne having dinner at a restaurant to celebrate, with Fred lamenting the loss of his head. ## Development ### Geo Dead Head Fred uses the Vicious Engine, a game engine created and maintained by game design company Vicious Cycle Software. Considered "middleware" in the video game industry, the engine was designed as a simple set of creation tools that could be used across multiple consoles. The game was originally conceived as a platform game based on the character "Geo." Vicious Cycle's president, Eric Peterson, and some of his staff developed a conceptual world called "Prime" where Geo lived. Geo had the ability to switch his head between several different shapes (a cube, sphere, cylinder, and pyramid) that would help him solve puzzles, fight, and move around Prime in his quest to stop the evil King Rhombus, who was trying to destroy Prime. Each of Geo's shaped heads had unique properties that gave him different abilities—the sphere head allowed him to roll around very quickly, for example. The Geo concept was described by the development team as similar to other platform games like Rayman or Spyro, and skewed towards a younger audience. When the concept was complete, the development team presented it to several publishers, who stated that they liked the idea but its geometry-based core too strongly resembled "edutainment", and that they were interested in developing a more edgy, adult premise. The GameCube had been an early choice for hosting the game before the PSP was chosen. ### Noir setting Vicious Cycle went back to the drawing board and produced a new concept that they felt was darker and better suited to an older audience. The "head-switching" game mechanic had been praised by the potential publishers and was kept, but this time the cartoonish, childlike Geo was replaced by an angry, vengeful private detective named Fred Neuman. The world of Prime was replaced with the bleak, film noir-esque city of Hope Falls, where Fred would seek revenge against those who had wronged him. Vicious Cycle presented the new project to Sony, who promptly approved the game for the PSP, despite it not having secured a publisher. Shortly afterwards, the project was picked up by D3Publisher. Vicious Cycle then submitted the concept to art company Massive Black Studios to develop initial character sketches. Massive Black's artists were allowed to use their imagination while developing Fred, but the one stipulation Vicious Cycle made from the beginning was Fred's head—the developers wanted it to be a liquid-filled jar with the detective's brain and eyes floating around inside. Massive Black came up with several different versions of Fred, including some with guns, which lead designer Adam Cogan had already decided the game would not include. After receiving the sketches, Vicious Cycle chose several that portrayed Fred with a squat, childlike appearance that retained some of the youthful focus of the scrapped Geo project. The publisher, D3, decided to present all of the concept art to a test group. To the developers' surprise, the test group was much more interested in a darker, more intimidating portrayal of Fred than the cartoonish, playful look they had chosen. The developers decided to flesh out the concept and took the chosen sketches back to Massive Black. This time the art came back darker, with similarities to Dirty Harry and The Matrix and The Evil Dead, and a Norman Rockwell-inspired look that would influence the game's art style towards a more violent theme. ### Further testing D3 provided the development team with more focus groups, and as a result, the game slowly incorporated more combat and less platforming and puzzles. Fred's combat capabilities were revamped to give him more attacks, counterattacks and combinations. D3 also gave Vicious Cycle more time to develop the game, with the hope of receiving better reviews and potentially turning Dead Head Fred into a franchise. The delay pushed back the game's release from January to August 2007. D3Publisher bought Vicious Cycle two months before the game's release, but the company's headquarters remained in North Carolina and the staff was retained. ## Audio ### Soundtrack The music of Dead Head Fred was composed by Rod Abernethy and Jason Graves and recorded at Abernethy's studio, Rednote Audio. Abernethy and Graves had worked on previous games by Vicious Cycle, like Curious George. The composers were interested in developing a sound for Dead Head Fred that was retro-futuristic, and borrowed from other death-themed pieces like Stubbs the Zombie and Beetlejuice. The development team did not have any substantial ideas for the game's music beyond the theme and mood of Hope Falls, giving the composers free rein on the soundtrack's direction. ### Voice work A crucial area of development was the formation of the game's mood, theme, and story to give it a dark, yet humorous quality. Hiring a Hollywood screenwriter to create the script was proposed, but ultimately Vicious Cycle designer Dave Ellis was given the task of writing the game's cutscenes and voiceover script, while Cogan focused on the in-game dialog. Ellis referred to several noir films for inspiration, especially Miller's Crossing and Who Framed Roger Rabbit During this time, Eric Peterson cast several voice actors, including John C. McGinley from the TV show Scrubs and Jon Polito from the aforementioned Miller's Crossing. McGinley was cast as Fred because of his Scrubs character's sarcasm and wit, while Polito was cast in the role of mob boss Ulysses Pitt, which was very similar to his role of Johnny Caspar in Miller's Crossing. The development team then set about recording the game's dialog, which proved to be challenging because of Vicious Cycle's location on the East Coast. All of the recordings were done over the phone at a studio in Hollywood. Despite this, and the fact that Fred alone had over 1000 lines of in-game dialog, the recording went smoothly, with the exception of one unidentified actor who walked out in the middle of a session. The original script had only one instance of the word "fuck", but several recording sessions with McGinley resulted in a great deal of colorful improvisation. The design team liked the recordings and the script was modified to permit McGinley and other actors to curse more. McGinley focused on portraying Fred as "pissed off" and "having a chip on his shoulder" because his head was missing. > "No, this guy was unique because, well... his head was gone! With him, you could really just open up your imagination and roll out a cavalcade of eccentricities and see what makes sense to you. It was pretty much unlike anything I’ve ever done before." ## Promotion and release Dead Head Fred was first announced at the Electronics Entertainment Expo (E3) video game convention in May 2006, where a trailer was shown to the public. Following this, little was heard about the game until Cogan started a developer diary on Vicious Cycle's website in March 2007. Three diary entries were written by Cogan and Ellis, which provided details about the game's pre-production conceptualization and voice work. In May 2007, D3 announced that John C. McGinley would be voicing Fred, and the next month the company issued a press release stating that the game was finished and ready for mass production. However, the game was delayed, allowing D3 Publisher to show it at E3 2007. It was eventually released on August 28, 2007, in North America after nearly two years of development. It was released on October 26 in Europe, November 2 in Australia, and March 19, 2008, in Japan. In December 2007, D3 reduced the price of the game, and in October 2008 it was made available for download on Sony's PlayStation Network. The soundtrack was released on iTunes by Lakeshore Records on September 18, 2007. ### Future Dead Head Fred was designed specifically for the PSP, and Vicious Cycle intended it to be their "flagship" title for the system. However, the game's designers hinted that the game could potentially be ported to the PlayStation Network or Xbox Live Arcade with a few months' work. As of March 2009, D3Publisher announced a sequel, but the designers stated that subsequent titles were discussed during the game's development. John C. McGinley has expressed interest in reprising Fred. Namco Bandai Games (the parent of D3) were impressed with the game and wanted to publish the sequel because they "wanted" to test out Vicious Cycle's gameplay on the PSP. However, Vicious Cycle was shut down in 2016 and its publisher D3 Publisher of America has shifted its focus to mobile gaming a year before (changing its name to D3 GO!), making the future of the game unknown. ## Reception Dead Head Fred received generally favorable reviews from critics. The game's writing and dialogue were considered the main strengths of the game, with GameSpy's reviewer stating that "In the vast sea of PSP titles, Dead Head Fred stands 'head and shoulders' above the rest." IGN said "The tale of revenge in a dark world is twisted [and] unapologetically humorous". Other publications were not as impressed, however, with one reviewer stating "...the overused profanity just makes it feel like it's been designed by teenagers desperately trying to be edgy." The game's supernatural themes elicited comparisons to The Darkness and Grim Fandango. GamesRadar included it in their list of the 100 most overlooked games of its generation. Editor Jason Fanelli felt that PSP games often lacked creativity and that Dead Head Fred was the exception. Many reviewers were pleased with the game's premise and setting, variously describing it as "weird", "wacky" and "silly". Hope Falls, especially the area of Creepy Hollow, was compared to the work of Tim Burton. Dead Head Fred's graphics were warmly received, with GameSpy noting "The game looks simply phenomenal on the PSP screen." Pocket Gamer UK said "graphically the game won't blow your head off but it is undeniably stylish." Pocket Gamer also felt that the game's level design, with its emphasis on changing heads to solve environmental puzzles, made up for the "mediocre combat system". The character design was praised; GameSpy said "Fred is one of the most interesting and entertaining characters to ever hit gaming," and GameZone said "Fred’s freakish form is like looking at a car crash ... you really don’t want to stare but you just can’t help it." The voice acting, in particular John C. McGinley's portrayal of Fred, was widely praised, as was the rest of the game's audio. GameZone's Natalie Romano said "There’s also some great music in the game and the sound effects are...wonderfully detailed". > "The sound for the title, however, is fantastic. The majority of it is centered around the voice acting, which is anchored by John C. McGinley of Scrubs and Office Space fame. McGinley expertly brings his dry, sarcastic delivery to Fred's lines and consistently delivers humorous lines across the entire game." The focal point of reviewers' criticism was Dead Head Fred's gameplay, specifically the combat. It was generally considered tedious and repetitive. PALGNdescribed the combat as "one of the poorest elements of the game", and Game Informer called the combat mechanics "awful". The performance of the camera was also criticized, with IGN noting "Considering that the camera will sometimes choose some horrible angles for you in battle or during puzzles, it's annoying to have to fight it as well as mutants that want you dead." GameZone said "I just wish the camera wouldn’t be such a hindrance sometimes." Reviewers were also unhappy with Dead Head Fred's loading times; Eurogamer considered them "excessively high", and IGN said "The only downside that crops up when it comes to the visuals are the continual loading times on just about every single area." ### Awards Dead Head Fred was nominated for several awards, including the Writers Guild of America's first award for video game writing, which it won. During E3 2007, the game was nominated for the Best of E3 2007: Best Handheld Game award by the Game Critics Awards, a group of prominent media journalists. Dead Head Fred lost to The Legend of Zelda: Phantom Hourglass for the Nintendo DS, but was notable for being the only new intellectual property nominated in the handheld category. The audio was nominated for two awards at the Game Audio Network Guild's 6th annual ceremony, Best Soundtrack of the Year and Best Handheld Audio. Dead Head Fred lost to BioShock and Syphon Filter: Logan's Shadow, respectively.
42,086,632	Iskandar-i Shaykhi	1,108,259,936	null	[ "1403 deaths", "14th-century Iranian people", "14th-century monarchs in the Middle East", "15th-century Iranian people", "15th-century monarchs in the Middle East", "Afrasiyab dynasty", "Generals of the Timurid Empire", "Governors of the Timurid Empire", "Iranian slave owners", "People from Amol", "Year of birth missing" ]	Iskandar-i Shaykhi (Persian: اسکندر شیخی), was an Iranian ispahbad from the Afrasiyab dynasty, who ruled Amul as a Timurid vassal from 1393 to 1403. He was the youngest son of Kiya Afrasiyab, who had initially established his rule in eastern Mazandaran from 1349 to 1359, but was defeated and killed by the local shaykh (religious scholar) Mir-i Buzurg, who established his own dynasty—the Mar'ashis—in the region. Together with some supporters and two nephews of his father, Iskandar initially took refuge in Larijan, but later left for Herat, where entered into the service of the Kartid ruler Ghiyath al-Din II (r. 1370–1389). After Herat was captured by the Turco-Mongol ruler Timur (r. 1370–1405) in 1381, Iskandar joined the latter, whom he encouraged and accompanied in the conquest of Mazandaran in 1392–1393. After the Mar'ashis were dislodged, Timur assigned the governorship of Amul to Iskandar, but he soon staged a rebellion. Defeated, he was either killed by a Timurid army in 1403/4 at Shir-rud-duhazar, or committed suicide in the Alburz castle of Firuzkuh to avoid capture. One of his sons, Kiya Husayn I, was pardoned by Timur, who allowed him to retain control over Firuzkuh. ## Background Iskandar was the youngest son of Kiya Afrasiyab of the Afrasiyab dynasty, a family of ispahbads (local princes or military leaders) native to the city of Amul in eastern Mazandaran. They were also known as the Chalabis or Chalavis, after a district in Amul. Kiya Afrasiyab served as the general of his son-in-law, the Bavandid ispahbad Hasan II (r. 1334–1349), who ruled Amul and its surroundings. Late in his reign, Hasan II had his vizier Kiya Jalal ibn Ahmad Jal executed. This resulted in the alienation of his family—the powerful Kiya Jalili, which controlled Sari. This had many outraged, and made the Jalilids enter an alliance with the neighbouring Baduspanids of Rustamdar. Together, they attacked Amul, forcing Hasan II to surrender. The Baduspanid ruler (ustandar) Jalal al-Dawla Iskandar (r. 1333–1360), received Hasan II favorably, but the Chalabis distanced themselves from the latter. Hasan II's wife (Kiya Afrasiyab's sister) accused him of seducing his stepdaughter and gained a fatwa from Amul which had him convicted. Two of Kiya Afrasiyab's sons, Ali Kiya and Muhammad Kiya, murdered Hasan II on 17 April 1349, thus marking the end of the ancient Bavandid line, which stretched back to the pre-Islamic era. While the sons of Hasan II fled to Jalal al-Dawla Iskandar, Kiya Afrasiyab established his authority in Amul, and also possibly Sari. His accession was met with outrage by many in eastern Mazandaran, which made him feign adherence to the influential shaykh (religious scholar) Mir-i Buzurg. This, however, soon backfired; the power of the shaykh increased, making Kiya Afrasiyab attempt to suppress it. Together with his three sons (Kiya Hasan, Kiya Ali, and Kiya Suhrab), he launched an attack on Mir-i Buzurg, but they were defeated and killed. Mir-i Buzurg subsequently took over eastern Mazandaran, establishing the Mar'ashi line. ## Biography After Kiya Afrasiyab's death, some of his supporters returned to Amul and took with them two of his grandsons and Iskandar. Together, they first escaped to Larijan, where they hoped to be allowed refuge with their relative Kiya Hasan Kiya Damandar. At first, their request was declined, but Kiya Hasan later changed his mind, and granted them the districts of Ghazak and Sinak. Their stay was shortlived; the income from these districts proved insufficient, and thus one of Kiya Afrasiyab's men, Nur al-Din, took the young princes, together with some of their supporters, to the city of Shiraz in Fars and then to Sabziwar in Khorasan. There they pledged their service to the Sarbadarid ruler Ali ibn Mu'ayyad (r. 1362–1376, 1379–1386), who had rebelled against the Kartid ruler Ghiyath al-Din II (r. 1370–1389), who was based in Herat. Two different accounts are given about Iskandar during this event. According to the contemporary historian Zahir al-Din Mar'ashi (d. 1489), himself a member of the Mar'ashi family, he shifted his allegiance to Ghiyath al-Din II in 1374, because "treachery was in his nature." After Ali ibn Mu'ayyad was defeated and killed, Iskandar settled in Herat. There he was present when the Turco-Mongol ruler Timur (r. 1370–1405) besieged it in 1381. He subsequently betrayed Ghiyath al-Din II and handed the city over to Timur. According to the account of the Persian historian Hafiz-i Abru (d. 1430), it was the Kartids, and not Sarbadarids that Iskandar first joined. He was successful in the Kartid efforts against Ali ibn Mu'ayyad, and was as a result rewarded with the governorship of the city of Nishapur. In 1375, Iskandar betrayed Ghiyath al-Din II by joining an anti-Kartid rebellion supported by local dervishes and the Muzaffarid ruler in Shiraz, Shah Shoja Mozaffari (r. 1358–1384). The rebellion failed, but Ghiyath al-Din II ultimately pardoned Iskandar, who remained in Herat until its capture by Timur. Regardless, after the fall of Herat, Iskandar entered into the service of Timur. According to the Tarikh-i Tabaristan, he encouraged the latter to conquer Mazandaran by talking of its wealth and riches. While Iskandar had been away, the whole of Mazandaran had been conquered by the Mar'ashis, who now ruled a realm reaching as far west to the city of Qazvin. They had deposed the Baduspanid family in Rustamdar, but installed one of Jalal al-Dawla Iskandar's sons, Sa'd al-Dawla Tus on the throne to challenge Iskandar and Timur. However, Tus secretly corresponded with Iskandar, and eventually joined the forces of Timur in 1392. The following year (1393), Timur dislodged the Mar'ashis and conquered Mazandaran. He then entrusted Amul to Iskandar and Sari to Jamshid Qarin Ghuri. Tus managed to convince Timur to spare the Mar'ashi family, who were sent into exile in Transoxiana instead. Iskandar had the tomb of Mir-i Buzurg in Amul destroyed, which led to many people to move to Sari. When Iskandar left his realm in 1399/1400 to join Timur's Azerbaijan expedition, the latter deprived the Baduspanids of most of their holdings by sending his troops to administer most of Rustamdar. The holdings of the new Baduspanid ruler Kayumarth I were now restricted to that of the castle of Nur. After his return to the Alburz castle of Firuzkuh in c. 1402, Iskandar staged a rebellion against Timur, who sent a force to subdue him. The commanders of the force requested the help of Kayumarth, due to his reputation as a rival of Iskandar. However, they had him deceived by capturing and sending him to Iskandar as a bargaining chip to convince him to cease his rebellion. However, Iskandar instantly had Kayumarth released, who left for the court of Timur's son at Shiraz. Iskandar was either killed by a Timurid army in 1403/4 at Shir-rud-duhazar, or committed suicide in Firuzkuh to avoid capture. Timur appointed the Mar'ashi Sayyid Ali Sari as the governor of Amul, with his brother Ghiyath al-Din as his second-in-command. He pardoned Iskandar's two sons Kiya Ali and Kiya Husayn I, allowing the latter to retain control over Firuzkuh. After Timur's death in 1405, the Mar'ashis started to gradually assert their rule over their former territories.
42,242,923	Gabor B. Racz	1,165,274,754	Anesthesiologist and medical educator (born 1937)	[ "1937 births", "American anesthesiologists", "American medical researchers", "Hungarian emigrants to the United States", "Hungarian medical researchers", "Hungarian refugees", "Living people", "Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center faculty" ]	Gábor Béla Rácz (born 1937), is a Hungarian-American board-certified anesthesiologist and professor emeritus at Texas Tech University Health Science Center (TTUHSC) in Lubbock, Texas, where he is also Chairman Emeritus of the Department of Anesthesiology and Co-Director of Pain Services. He has worked in the field of chronic back pain and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). In 1982, he designed the Racz catheter, a flexible, spring-wound catheter with a small fluoroscopic probe. In 1989, he developed epidural lysis of adhesions, sometimes referred to as percutaneous adhesiolysis, or simply the Racz procedure. It is a minimally invasive, percutaneous intervention for treating chronic spinal pain often due to scarring after post lumbar surgery syndrome, sometimes called failed back surgery, and also low-back and radicular pain from spinal stenosis, a disease of aging. The procedure is somewhat similar to an epidural and is used when conventional methods have failed. The Racz procedure may employ the use of a wire-bound catheter to mechanically break-up or dissolve scar tissue, also called epidural adhesions or fibrosis, which have formed around the nerve roots, and allows for local anesthetics, saline, and steroids to be injected into the affected area. Racz was born in Hungary and, as a young man, had aspirations to become a medical doctor. He was a second-year medical student in November 1956 when he was forced to flee Hungary after the Soviets invaded Budapest in response to the Hungarian Revolution. He eventually arrived in England and resumed his education. He graduated from the University of Liverpool School of Medicine, and worked in the UK until 1963 at which time he moved to the United States. He completed his anesthesiology residency at SUNY Upstate Medical University in Syracuse, New York. He also worked as an associate attending anesthesiologist and respiratory consultant for other hospitals including the Veterans Administration Hospital, and the UHS Chenango Memorial Hospital in Norwich, New York, before moving to Lubbock, Texas, where he became the first chairman of anesthesiology for the then-new Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center (TTUHSC). Racz is also one of the founders of the World Institute of Pain. ## Early life and education Racz was born in Hungary to parents with a financially meager background which he attributed in part to his family's resistance to join the Communist party. He attended Semmelweis University Medical School, and it was during his second year there that the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 had begun. After seeing hundreds of injured people, he volunteered to help at the hospital. He said he received a signed directive to drive a truck and deliver sugar to the medical school clinics which he believed motivated the Hungarian Secret Police to seek him out for questioning. He also recalled a shooting incident where a bullet missed his head by "a few inches". On November 27, 1956, he fled from Budapest to Austria with his future wife Enid, his sister, brother-in-law, and a few others after the Soviets invaded the city. He had no prior intention to leave Hungary until he learned from his mother that the Hungarian Secret Police were looking for him. Racz said if they found him, "That would have meant the end of my dreams to become a doctor. Perhaps I would have ended up in prison. Not that I had done anything but many other people ended up in prison following 1956 without committing any crime." He arrived in the Austrian town of Eisenstadt where buses were waiting to take refugees to their new homes. Racz chose the bus to England, and he along with his family and other members of his group were transported to a military base in the Midlands. In 1957, as a former Hungarian medical student, Racz received a scholarship to attend second-year medical school in Liverpool, England. In 1962, he graduated from the University of Liverpool School of Medicine with Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.) and Bachelor of Surgery (Ch.B) degrees. Ian McWhinney and his wife helped Racz get his start as a doctor by providing him with rent-free lodging so he could finish his education. He said their generosity became a lifelong example in that "one must study and pass on knowledge and help the next generation." Racz later served as house surgeon and physician at the Royal Southern Hospital in Liverpool. ## Career in the United States In 1963, Racz moved to the United States for an anesthesiology residency at SUNY Upstate Medical University in Syracuse, New York. Upon completion, he worked in several positions at SUNY, including associate attending anesthesiologist and respiratory consultant in the neurological head injury unit as well as a consultant for the Veterans Administration Hospital, and the UHS Chenango Memorial Hospital in Norwich, New York. In 1977, Racz joined the then-new Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center (TTUHSC) and was designated as the Center's first Chairman of Anesthesiology. He held that position until March 1, 1999. His work from 1977 to 2006 not only included treating patients, he also served as acting director of pain services at TTUHSC, and oversaw the expansion of operations and future development of the Messer-Racz International Pain Center named in recognition of Racz's work and the Messer family's financial contributions. In 2015, Racz held the designation of Professor and Chairman Emeritus, Director of Pain Services for Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center. Throughout his career, Racz has also conducted research and co-authored articles with other experts in pain management to improve diagnosis and treatment of complex regional pain syndromes (CRPS), a long-term disorder of the nervous system which is a challenging pain problem that is often misunderstood and misdiagnosed. ## Racz catheter and Racz procedure Racz's work with nerve stimulators, spinal cord stimulators, radiofrequency thermocoagulation, and a wide range of other pain management procedures is being used in interventional pain practices throughout the world. He developed new designs in medical equipment and devices. In 1982, Racz designed the Racz catheter, a flexible, spring-wound catheter with a small fluoroscopic probe. In 1989, he developed epidural lysis of adhesions, a minimally invasive, percutaneous procedure also known as the "Racz procedure", which is somewhat similar to an epidural. It is used to treat patients with chronic low back pain due to post lumbar surgery syndrome, sometimes called failed back surgery, which involves scar tissue that has formed around the nerve root. It is also used to treat protruding or herniated disks, fractures, degeneration, or radicular pain from spinal stenosis, a disease of aging. The Racz procedure employs a wire-bound or spring loaded catheter to mechanically break-up or dissolve scar tissue, also called epidural adhesions or fibroids, that have formed around the nerve roots, and allows for local anesthetics, saline, and steroids to be injected into the affected area. This procedure was assigned a Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) code in 2000. ## Recognition and awards In 1996, Racz was the first recipient of the Grover E. Murray Professorship, TTUHSC's highest award. In December 1998, the University Medical Center named him to a \$1 million endowed chair in recognition of his work at TTUHSC and the University Medical Center. In 2004, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award presented by the American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians. In October 2012, the New York/New Jersey Societies of Interventional Pain Physicians awarded Racz a lifetime achievement award. ## Selected works Racz has published in many scientific publications. Among his works are: - Racz G., 1985: Capnography In The Operating Room: An Introductory Directory. by May, Wr., J. E. Heavner, D. Mcwhorter And G. Racz. Vi 58p. Raven Press Books, Ltd: New York, N.Y., USA. Illus. Paper. Vi 58p - Racz, Gabor B. 1989 Techniques of Neurolysis Gabor Racz (Ed.), (Print) 978-1-4899-6721-3 (Online), Current Management of Pain, Vol. 4, Springer U.S.
25,829	Ragnarök	1,172,518,894	End times in Norse mythology	[ "Apocalypticism", "Death of deities", "Eschatology in Norse mythology", "Events in Norse mythology", "War in mythology" ]	In Norse mythology, Ragnarök (/ˈræɡnəˌrɒk, ˈrɑːɡ-/ ; Old Norse: Ragnarǫk) is a foretold series of impending events, including a great battle in which numerous great Norse mythological figures will perish (including the gods Odin, Thor, Týr, Freyr, Heimdall, and Loki); it will entail a catastrophic series of natural disasters, including the burning of the world, and culminate in the submersion of the world underwater. After these events, the world will rise again, cleansed and fertile, the surviving and returning gods will meet, and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors, Líf and Lífþrasir. Ragnarök is an important event in Norse mythology and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory in the history of Germanic studies. The event is attested primarily in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In the Prose Edda and in a single poem in the Poetic Edda, the event is referred to as Ragnarøkkr (Old Norse for 'Twilight of the Gods'), a usage popularised by 19th-century composer Richard Wagner with the title of the last of his Der Ring des Nibelungen operas, Götterdämmerung (1876), which is "Twilight of the Gods" in German. ## Etymology The Old Norse compound word ragnarok has a long history of interpretation. Its first element is clear: ragna, the genitive plural of regin (n. pl.) 'the ruling powers, gods.' The second element is more problematic, as it occurs in two variants, -rök and -røkkr. Writing in the early 20th century, philologist Geir Zoëga treats the two forms as two separate compounds, glossing ragnarök as 'the doom or destruction of the gods' and ragnarøkkr as 'the twilight of the gods.' The plural noun rök has several meanings, including 'development', 'origin', 'cause', 'relation', 'fate.' The word ragnarök as a whole is then usually interpreted as the 'final destiny of the gods.' The singular form ragnarøk(k)r is found in a stanza of the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna, and in the Prose Edda. The noun røk(k)r means 'twilight' (from the verb røkkva 'to grow dark'), suggesting a translation 'twilight of the gods.' This reading was widely considered a result of folk etymology, or a learned reinterpretation of the original term due to the merger of (spelled ǫ) and (spelled ø) in Old Icelandic after c. 1200 (nevertheless giving rise to the calque Götterdämmerung 'Twilight of the Gods' in the German reception of Norse mythology). Other terms used to refer to the events surrounding Ragnarök in the Poetic Edda include aldar rök (aldar means age, 'end of an age') from a stanza of Vafþrúðnismál, tíva rök from two stanzas of Vafþrúðnismál, þá er regin deyja ('when the gods die') from Vafþrúðnismál, unz um rjúfask regin ('when the gods will be destroyed') from Vafþrúðnismál, Lokasenna, and Sigrdrífumál, aldar rof ('destruction of the age') from Helgakviða Hundingsbana II, regin þrjóta ('end of the gods') from Hyndluljóð, and, in the Prose Edda, þá er Muspellz-synir herja ('when the sons of Muspell move into battle') can be found in chapters 18 and 36 of Gylfaginning. ## Presence in literature ### Poetic Edda The Poetic Edda contains various references to Ragnarök: #### Völuspá In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, references to Ragnarök begin from stanza 40 until 58, with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath. In the poem, a völva (a female seer) recites information to Odin. In stanza 41, the völva says: The völva then describes three roosters crowing: In stanza 42, the jötunn herdsman Eggthér sits on a mound and cheerfully plays his harp while the crimson rooster Fjalar (Old Norse "hider, deceiver") crows in the forest Gálgviðr. The golden rooster Gullinkambi crows to the Æsir in Valhalla, and the third, unnamed soot-red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location of Hel in stanza 43. After these stanzas, the völva further relates that the hound Garmr produces deep howls in front of the cave of Gnipahellir. Garmr's bindings break and he runs free. The völva describes the state of humanity: The "sons of Mím" are described as being "at play," though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources. Heimdall raises the Gjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it, and Odin converses with Mím's head. The world tree Yggdrasil shudders and groans. The jötunn Hrym comes from the east, his shield before him. The Midgard serpent Jörmungandr furiously writhes, causing waves to crash. "The eagle shrieks, pale-beaked he tears the corpse," and the ship Naglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east. The fire jötnar inhabitants of Muspelheim come forth. The völva continues that Jötunheimr, the land of the jötnar, is aroar, and that the Æsir are in council. The dwarfs groan by their stone doors. Surtr advances from the south, his sword brighter than the sun. Rocky cliffs open and the jötnar women sink. The gods then do battle with the invaders: Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolf Fenrir, causing his wife Frigg her second great sorrow (the first being the death of her son, the god Baldr). Odin's son Víðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear, thus killing the wolf. The serpent Jörmungandr opens its gaping maw, yawning widely in the air, and is met in combat by Thor. Thor, also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth, furiously fights the serpent, defeating it, but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing dead from the Serpent's venom. The god Freyr fights Surtr and loses. After this, people flee their homes, and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea, the stars vanish, steam rises, and flames touch the heavens. The völva sees the earth reappearing from the water and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain. The surviving Æsir meet together at the field of Iðavöllr. They discuss Jörmungandr, great events of the past, and the runic alphabet. In stanza 61, in the grass, they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago (attested earlier in the same poem). The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown. The gods Höðr and Baldr return from Hel and live happily together. The völva says that the god Hœnir chooses wooden slips for divination and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world. She sees a hall thatched with gold in Gimlé, where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably. Stanzas 65, found in the Hauksbók version of the poem, refers to a "powerful, mighty one" that "rules over everything" and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods (Old Norse regindómr), which has been interpreted as a Christian addition to the poem. In stanza 66, the völva ends her account with a description of the dragon Níðhöggr, corpses in his jaws, flying through the air. The völva then "sinks down." It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that the völva is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post-Ragnarök world. #### Vafþrúðnismál The Vanir god Njörðr is mentioned in relation to Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál. In the poem, Odin, disguised as Gagnráðr, faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits. Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr's status as a hostage during the earlier Æsir–Vanir War, and that he will "come back home among the wise Vanir" at "the doom of men." In stanza 44, Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the "famous" Fimbulwinter ("Mighty Winter"). Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will be Líf and Lífþrasir and that they will hide in the forest of Hoddmímis holt, that they will consume the morning dew, and will produce generations of offspring. In stanza 46, Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists. Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her and that after Ragnarök this daughter will continue her mother's path. In stanza 51, Vafþrúðnir states that, after Surtr's flames have been sated, Odin's sons Víðarr and Váli will live in the temples of the gods, and that Thor's sons Móði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir. In stanza 52, the disguised Odin asks the jötunn about his fate. Vafþrúðnir responds that "the wolf" will consume Odin, and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle. Odin ends the duel with one final question: what did Odin say to his son before preparing his funeral pyre? With this, Vafþrúðnir realizes that he is dealing with none other than Odin, whom he refers to as "the wisest of beings," adding that Odin alone could know this. Odin's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr after Ragnarök. #### Helgakviða Hundingsbana II Ragnarök is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II. Here, the valkyrie Sigrún's unnamed maid is passing the deceased hero Helgi Hundingsbane's burial mound. Helgi is there with a retinue of men, surprising the maid. The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding, or if Ragnarök has occurred. In stanza 41, Helgi responds that it is neither. ### Prose Edda Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda quotes heavily from Völuspá and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there, though some of this information conflicts with that provided in Völuspá. #### Gylfaginning chapters 26 and 34 In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, various references are made to Ragnarök. Ragnarök is first mentioned in chapter 26, where the throned figure of High, king of the hall, tells Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) some basic information about the goddess Iðunn, including that her apples will keep the gods young until Ragnarök. In chapter 34, High describes the binding of the wolf Fenrir by the gods, causing the god Týr to lose his right hand, and that Fenrir remains there until Ragnarök. Gangleri asks High why, since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir, they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound. High responds that "the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf's blood, even though the prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin." As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr, Loki (described as father of Fenrir) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his son Narfi (which are turned into iron) in three places. There, venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by the jötunn Skaði. Loki's wife Sigyn collects the venom into a bucket, but whenever she leaves to empty it, the drops reach Loki's face, and the pain he experiences causes convulsions, resulting in earthquakes. Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset of Ragnarök. #### Gylfaginning chapter 51 Chapter 51 provides a detailed account of Ragnarök interspersed with various quotes from Völuspá, while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events. In Chapter 51, High states that the first sign of Ragnarök will be Fimbulwinter, during which time three winters will arrive without a summer, and the sun will be useless. High details that, before these winters, three earlier winters will have occurred, marked with great battles throughout the world. During this time, greed will cause brothers to kill brothers, and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds. High then quotes stanza 45 of Völuspá. Next, High describes that the wolf will swallow the sun, then his brother will swallow the moon, and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin. The stars will disappear. The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil, the mountains will topple, and all restraints will break, causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds. High relates that the great serpent Jörmungandr, also described as a child of Loki in the same source, will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it. The ship Naglfar, described in the Prose Edda as being made from the human nails of the dead, is released from its mooring and sets sail on the surging sea, steered by a jötunn named Hrym. At the same time, Fenrir, eyes and nostrils spraying flames, charges forward with his mouth wide open, his upper jaw reaching to the heavens, and his lower jaw touching the earth. At Fenrir's side, Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea. During all of this, the sky splits into two. From the split, the "sons of Muspell" ride forth. Surtr rides first, surrounded by flames, his sword brighter than the sun. High says that "Muspell's sons" will ride across Bifröst, described in Gylfaginning as a rainbow bridge, and that the bridge will then break. The sons of Muspell (and their shining battle troop) advance to the field of Vígríðr, described as an expanse that reaches "a hundred leagues in each direction," where Fenrir, Jörmungandr, Loki (followed by "Hel's own"), and Hrym (accompanied by all frost jötnar) join them. While this occurs, Heimdallr stands and blows the Gjallarhorn with all his might. The gods awaken at the sound, and they meet. Odin rides to Mímisbrunnr in search of counsel from Mímir. Yggdrasil shakes, and everything, everywhere fears. High relates that the Æsir and the Einherjar dress for war and head to the field. Odin, wearing a gold helmet and an intricate coat of mail, carries his spear Gungnir and rides before them. Odin advances against Fenrir, while Thor moves at his side, though Thor is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat. According to High, Freyr fights fiercely with Surtr, but falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger, Skírnir. The hound Garmr (described here as the "worst of monsters") breaks free from his bonds in front of Gnipahellir, and fights the god Týr, resulting in both of their deaths. Thor kills Jörmungandr but is poisoned by the serpent, and manages to walk only nine steps before falling to the earth dead. Fenrir swallows Odin, though immediately afterwards his son Víðarr kicks his foot into Fenrir's lower jaw, grips the upper jaw, and rips apart Fenrir's mouth, killing the great wolf. Loki fights Heimdallr and the two kill each other. Surtr covers the earth in fire, causing the entire world to burn. High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 of Völuspá, and additionally stanza 18 of Vafþrúðnismál (the latter relating information about the battlefield Vígríðr). #### Gylfaginning chapters 52 and 53 At the beginning of chapter 52, Gangleri asks "what will be after heaven and earth and the whole world are burned? All the gods will be dead, together with the Einherjar and the whole of mankind. Didn't you say earlier that each person will live in some world throughout all ages?" The figure of Third, seated on the highest throne in the hall, responds that there will be many good places to live, but also many bad ones. Third states that the best place to be is Gimlé in the heavens, where a place exists called Okolnir that houses a hall called Brimir—where one can find plenty to drink. Third describes a hall made of red gold located in Niðafjöll called Sindri, where "good and virtuous men will live." Third further relates an unnamed hall in Náströnd, the beaches of the dead, that he describes as a large repugnant hall facing north that is built from the spines of snakes, and resembles "a house with walls woven from branches"; the heads of the snakes face the inside of the house and spew so much venom that rivers of it flow throughout the hall, in which oath breakers and murderers must wade. Third here quotes Völuspá stanzas 38 to 39, with the insertion of original prose stating that the worst place of all to be is in Hvergelmir, followed by a quote from Völuspá to highlight that the dragon Níðhöggr harasses the corpses of the dead there. Chapter 53 begins with Gangleri asking if any of the gods will survive and if there will be anything left of the earth or the sky. High responds that the earth will appear once more from the sea, beautiful and green, where self-sown crops grow. The field Iðavöllr exists where Asgard once was, and, there, untouched by Surtr's flames, Víðarr and Váli reside. Now possessing their father's hammer Mjölnir, Thor's sons Móði and Magni will meet them there, and, coming from Hel, Baldr and Höðr also arrive. Together, they all sit and recount memories, later finding the gold game pieces the Æsir once owned. Völuspá stanza 51 is then quoted. High reveals that two humans, Líf and Lífþrasir, will have also survived the destruction by hiding in the wood Hoddmímis holt. These two survivors consume the morning dew for sustenance, and from their descendants, the world will be repopulated. Vafþrúðnismál stanza 45 is then quoted. The personified sun, Sól, will have a daughter at least as beautiful as she, and this daughter will follow the same path as her mother. Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 is quoted, and so ends the foretelling of Ragnarök in Gylfaginning. ## Archaeological record Various objects have been identified as depicting events from Ragnarök. ### Thorwald's Cross Thorwald's Cross, a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man, depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder. Rundata dates it to 940, while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century. This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök. On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan. These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as "syncretic art," a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs. ### Gosforth Cross The Gosforth Cross (920–950), in Cumbria, England, is a standing cross of a typical Anglo-Saxon form, carved on all sides of the long shaft, which is nearly square in section. Apart from panels of ornament, the scenes include a Christian crucifixion, and possibly another scene in Hell, but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from the Ragnarök story, even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations as David M. Wilson. The Ragnarök battle itself may be depicted on the north side. The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style, including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, with one foot thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, and the other is against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir. ### Ledberg stone The 11th-century Ledberg stone in Sweden, similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök. Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position. The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as "mysterious," and "an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world." ### Skarpåker stone On the early 11th-century Skarpåker Stone, from Södermanland, Sweden, a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form, fornyrðislag, as in the Poetic Edda in the following engraving: Jansson (1987) notes that at the time of the inscription, everyone who read the lines would have thought of Ragnarök and the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief. ## Theories and interpretations ### Cyclic time and Hoddmímis holt Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end of Ragnarök is "a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny, understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill. Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks (Askr, Embla) is repeated after the Ragnarök as well." Simek says that in Germanic regions, the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient, and additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar-Oddr, "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man (Ǫrvar-Odds saga 24–27)." ### Muspille, Heliand, and Christianity Theories have been proposed about the relation between Ragnarök and the 9th-century Old High German epic poem Muspilli about the Christian Last Judgment, where the word Muspille appears, and the 9th-century Old Saxon epic poem Heliand about the life of Christ, where various other forms of the word appear. In both sources, the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire. Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of Ragnarök, where the world is also consumed in flames, and, though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term, its etymology has not been solved. ### Proto-Indo-European basis Parallels have been pointed out between the Ragnarök of Norse religion and the beliefs of other related Indo-European peoples. Subsequently, theories have been put forth that Ragnarök represents a later evolution of a Proto-Indo-European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the Norse Fimbulwinter, the Iranian Bundahishn and Yima. Víðarr's stride has been compared to the Vedic god Vishnu in that both have a "cosmic stride" with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf. Larger patterns have also been drawn between "final battle" events in Indo-European cultures, including the occurrence of a blind or semi-blind figure in "final battle" themes, and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills. ### Volcanic eruptions Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the events in Völuspá occurring after the death of the gods (the sun turning black, steam rising, flames touching the heavens, etc.) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland. Records of eruptions in Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in Völuspá, especially the eruption at Laki that occurred in 1783. Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions and that he was a volcano demon. Surtr's name occurs in some Icelandic place names, among them the lava tube Surtshellir, a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland. ### Bergbúa þáttr Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a jötunn found in the 13th-century þáttr Bergbúa þáttr ("the tale of the mountain dweller"). In the tale, Thórd and his servant get lost while travelling to church in winter, and so take shelter for the night within a cave. Inside the cave they hear noises, witness a pair of immense burning eyes, and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas. The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology (including a mention of Thor) and also prophecies (including that "mountains will tumble, the earth will move, men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire"). Surtr's fire receives a mention in stanza 10. John Lindow says that the poem may describe "a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans, as in Ragnarök" but that "many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland." ## Modern influences The events of Ragnarok are dramatized, albeit briefly, in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Marsh King's Daughter". In late 2013 and early 2014, English-language media outlets widely reported that Ragnarök was foretold to occur on 22 February 2014. Apparently patterned after the 2012 phenomenon, the claim was at times attributed to a "Viking Calendar". No such calendar is known to have existed, and the source was a "prediction" made to media outlets by the Jorvik Viking Centre in York, England, intended to draw attention to an event that the institution was to hold on that date. The Jorvik Viking Centre was criticized for misleading the public to promote the event. In a 2014 article on the claims, philologist Joseph S. Hopkins perceives the media response as an example of a broad revival of interest in the Viking Age and ancient Germanic topics. The Norwegian fantasy adventure film Gåten Ragnarok was released in 2013 and centres on the discovery of the mythical serpent in contemporary Finnmark. The myth is central to the 2017 Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor: Ragnarok, at whose climax the demon Surtur destroys Asgard as its people flee into space under the guidance of Thor, Valkyrie, Loki, Heimdall, Hulk, and Korg. A. S. Byatt published a novel entitled Ragnarok: The End of the Gods in 2011. Ragnarök is set up at the end of the 2018 video game God of War, which is rooted in Norse mythology, after the protagonist Kratos kills Baldr. The 2022 sequel, God of War Ragnarök, deals with the aftermath of this event and covers the in-game version of Ragnarök. Norse mythology and climate change inspired the eponymous TV series Ragnarok. The town of Edda in Western Norway is plagued by climate change and industrial pollution caused by the factories owned by the Jutul family, a group of jötunn. They are challenged by a teenage boy, Magne, the reincarnation of Thor. Thus begins the event Ragnarok ("twilight of the gods"), the fight against those who are destroying the planet. In the 2020 video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla, which is partially inspired by Norse mythology, the Æsir are depicted as members of the Isu, who within the series' fictional lore, are an advanced civilization that predate humanity, and Ragnarök refers to a series of events revolving around the Toba Catastrophe, or the "Great Catastrophe", which was a solar flare that hit the Earth, killing most of the Isu. In one of the game's story arcs, the protagonist Eivor assumes the role of Odin (later revealed to be her previous life), who searches for a way for himself and the other Æsir to survive beyond Ragnarök, during which they are all foretold to perish. One of the game's downloadable content packs, titled Dawn of Ragnarök, builds upon this, as it follows Odin just as the events of Ragnarök are about to begin. ## General references
9,429,377	Jamie Stuart	1,164,076,102	English footballer (born 1976)	[ "1976 births", "AFC Wimbledon players", "Bury F.C. players", "Charlton Athletic F.C. players", "Doping cases in association football", "England men's semi-pro international footballers", "England men's under-21 international footballers", "English Football League players", "English football managers", "English men's footballers", "English sportspeople in doping cases", "Footballers from Southwark", "Grays Athletic F.C. managers", "Grays Athletic F.C. players", "Greenwich Borough F.C. players", "Hornchurch F.C. players", "Isthmian League players", "Living people", "Margate F.C. players", "Men's association football defenders", "Millwall F.C. players", "National League (English football) players", "Player-coaches", "Rushden & Diamonds F.C. players", "Southend United F.C. players", "Sutton United F.C. players" ]	Jamie Christopher Stuart (born 15 October 1976) is an English footballer who plays for Isthmian League South Division club Greenwich Borough as a defender. He started his career in the Football League with Charlton Athletic, Millwall, Bury and Southend United, before dropping into non-League football with Hornchurch, Grays Athletic and Rushden & Diamonds. Stuart went on to gain promotion back into the Football League with AFC Wimbledon, before dropping back into non-League with Sutton United and Margate – where he went on to become player/assistant manager. He has also once acted as manager for Grays in the Essex Senior Cup in 2006 and later captained the side, before returning in May 2016 as permanent manager. In 1997, Stuart was sacked by Charlton and served a six-month ban from football for failing a doping test. He was also charged with grievous bodily harm following an incident with Chris Beardsley, in a match with York City in September 2007. He was acquitted of the charges in September 2008. Stuart was player/manager for Grays Athletic from 2016 to 2019. ## Club career ### Charlton Athletic Stuart started his career at Charlton Athletic, where he rose through the youth system and signed his first professional contract in January 1995. He made his first team debut for Charlton in the 2–0 defeat against Huddersfield Town in the First Division on 17 August 1996. He went on to make 50 appearances in the Football League, scoring three goals for the "Addicks". During his time with Charlton Athletic, he earned four international caps playing for the England under-21 team in the Toulon Tournament against France, Brazil, Nigeria and Italy's under-21 teams. He was sacked by Charlton and banned for six months by The Football Association in November 1997 for testing positive for cocaine and cannabis. He denied the charge, claiming that a cigarette he smoked had been laced with the cocaine. ### Millwall After serving his suspension, he signed for Millwall and made his debut on 8 August 1998, in the 1–0 away win at Wigan Athletic. Stuart picked up seven yellow cards and two reds in his first season with Millwall. The following season, 1999–2000, Stuart turned out a further seven times for Millwall before being released. ### Bury At the start of the 2001–02 season, he had an unsuccessful trial with Cambridge United. He was then set to sign for Northampton Town, however, Kevin Wilson was sacked and the club's plans to sign the defender were halted. Stuart eventually joined Bury in October 2001 on a short-term contract, which was later extended to a two-and-a-half-year deal in February 2002. He made his debut for the club in the 1–0 away win at Hartlepool United in the Football League Trophy on 16 October 2001. He was sent-off in his third game for Bury in the 5–1 defeat to Brentford. Stuart scored his only goal for Bury on 22 December 2001, in the 1–1 draw at home to Blackpool. Bury went 1–0 down in the first-half, before Stuart equalised in the 53rd minute, with a shot that went in off the post. During his 18-month spell with Bury, Stuart was a first-team regular, making 61 appearances in the Third Division, scoring once. Bury finished seventh in the league during the 2002–03 season, qualifying for the play-offs. He also gained a total of four red cards and four yellows in the 18-months he was with Bury, including a red card in the 2002–03 play-off semi-final first leg against AFC Bournemouth. Stuart was allegedly elbowed in the face by Wade Elliott, which resulted in his nose being broken and Stuart reacting by grabbing Elliott's shirt. Referee, Jeff Winter, adjudged Stuart had thrown a punch, whilst Andy Preece criticised Stuart for raising his arms to another player, defended him saying "I can't see why he thinks Jamie has punched him in the face...the explanation from the ref doesn't add up with what you see on the video." ### Southend United In June 2003, Stuart then joined fellow Third Division side Southend United for the upcoming 2003–04 season, saying he wanted to move nearer his family in London. He made his debut in the 3–0 home defeat against Mansfield Town in League Two on 23 August 2003. He was released from Southend United in May 2004 at the end of the season by manager Steve Tilson, having made 26 appearances in the Third Division for Southend United, collecting five yellow cards and failing to score. ### Non-League career #### Hornchurch & Grays Athletic Stuart dropped down into non-League football with now defunct Hornchurch of the Conference South. He made fourteen appearances in the Conference South and seventeen in all competitions for Hornchurch, before a financial crisis at the club in November 2004 forced a number of players, including Stuart, to leave. He joined Grays Athletic, alongside Steve West and Lee Matthews, later being joined by former Hornchurch teammates Ashley Bayes, and John Martin. Stuart went on to win the Conference South and FA Trophy double with Grays that season, making 23 appearances in the league. The follow season, 2005–06 season, he made 34 appearances in the Conference National, reaching the play-offs finishing 3rd place, to be knocked out by Halifax Town 5–4 on aggregate. He also helped Grays Athletic retain the FA Trophy, defeating Woking 2–0 at Upton Park in the final. During the season, he received two red cards, the first against Exeter City on 19 November 2005 following a fight in the tunnel at half time with Exeter's Lee Phillips. The second red card came against Canvey Island on 2 January 2006, when Stuart was sent off in the 60th minute for punching teammate John Nutter. The 2006–07 season saw Stuart compete in all Grays' 46 Conference National matches, scoring two goals. On 31 October 2006, Stuart managed Grays Athletic in the Essex Senior Cup, defeating Concord Rangers 1–0. In May 2007, Stuart was called up to the England National Game XI by Paul Fairclough for the Four Nations Tournament. He won the Players', Supporters' and Manager's player of the year awards for the 2006–07 season. In October 2007, Stuart was held in custody by Essex Police on suspicion of assault, in relation to an incident involving Chris Beardsley which resulted in Beardsley's jaw being broken in two places. The incident occurred during a match with York City on 22 September 2007. He was charged with grievous bodily harm in December 2007. He made a further 43 appearances for Grays during the season, failing to score. Following the departure of Stuart Thurgood to Gillingham in November 2007, Stuart was handed the captaincy for the remainder of the season, having previous served as vice-captain. At the end of the 2007–08 season, Stuart was named as the Management player of the year. Stuart carried on his captain duties for the 2008–09 season. In February 2008, he pleaded not guilty to the charges of grievous bodily harm to Chris Beardsley. He went on trial on 2 September 2008, denying the allegations of intent and insisted it was an accident, trying to release himself of Beardsley's hold. On 5 September 2008, the jury acquitted Stuart of the charges causing Beardsley grievous bodily harm. Stuart scored his first goal of the 2008–09 season in the 2–1 home defeat to Stevenage Borough on 25 September. Stevenage's goalkeeper, Chris Day, parried a header from Barry Cogan which dropped at Stuart's feet who hit a low hard shot from ten yards out. Grays faced League One outfit Carlisle United away in the FA Cup first round on 8 November. In the 1–1 stalemate, Stuart scored Grays' only goal in the 52nd minute, with a ten-yard volley. In the New Year's Day fixture of 2009, Stuart scored with a header from a free-kick taken by Sam Sloma, to hand Grays a 3–1 victory over Ebbsfleet United. Following the departure of manager Wayne Burnett, Stuart took the role of assistant manager at Grays, alongside Stuart Elliott in late January 2009. #### Rushden & Diamonds He signed for Rushden & Diamonds in June 2009, reuniting with former Grays manager Justin Edinburgh, who described him as "a great leader". Stuart was named as captain for the upcoming 2009–10 season. He won the 2009–10 fans' player of the season award, and was included in the Conference National team of the year 2009–10. ### AFC Wimbledon In January 2011, Stuart signed for AFC Wimbledon for an undisclosed nominal fee. He made 21 appearances, scoring once for Wimbledon in the 2010–11 Football Conference season. The team finished second, qualifying for the play-offs for promotion to League Two, which they eventually won with Stuart playing in all three games. In July 2011 Stuart was named as the captain of the newly promoted team; on 6 August he scored AFC Wimbledon's first-ever Football League goal in the first game of the season. Stuart played his last game for AFC Wimbledon on 5 May 2012, in the 3–1 win over Shrewsbury Town. In May 2012, Stuart was released from the club due to the expiry of his contract. ### Sutton United and Margate After being named club captain Stuart scored his first competitive goal for the club on 5 March 2013 against Bromley in a 4–3 win for Sutton United. In 2014, he moved to Margate earning promotion into the Conference South. Following Terry Brown's departure from the club, Nikki Bull was appointed as player/manager with Stuart named as his assistant. ## Management career ### Return to Grays Athletic On 10 May 2016, Stuart returned to Grays Athletic as player/manager of the Isthmian League Premier Division club. He left by mutual consent in February 2019. ## Personal life Born in Southwark, London, Stuart is a father of two children and lives in Sidcup, Greater London. ## Honours Millwall F.C Football League Trophy Runner Up-1998-99 Grays Athletic - Conference South: 2004–05 - FA Trophy: 2004–05, 2005–06 AFC Wimbledon - Conference National play-offs: 2010–11 ## See also - List of doping cases in sport
284,899	Whale shark	1,172,995,761	Largest living species of fish	[ "Apex predators", "Articles containing video clips", "Extant Oligocene first appearances", "Fish described in 1828", "Fish of Africa", "Fish of Asia", "Fish of Australia", "Fish of Central America", "Fish of North America", "Ovoviviparous fish", "Pantropical fish", "Rhincodontidae", "Taxa named by Andrew Smith (zoologist)" ]	The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is a slow-moving, filter-feeding carpet shark and the largest known extant fish species. The largest confirmed individual had a length of 18.8 m (61.7 ft). The whale shark holds many records for size in the animal kingdom, most notably being by far the largest living nonmammalian vertebrate. It is the sole member of the genus Rhincodon and the only extant member of the family Rhincodontidae, which belongs to the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. Before 1984 it was classified as Rhiniodon into Rhinodontidae. The whale shark is found in open waters of the tropical oceans and is rarely found in water below 21 °C (70 °F). Studies looking at vertebral growth bands and the growth rates of free-swimming sharks have estimated whale shark lifespans at 80–130 years. Whale sharks have very large mouths and are filter feeders, which is a feeding mode that occurs in only two other sharks, the megamouth shark and the basking shark. They feed almost exclusively on plankton and small fishes and pose no threat to humans. The species was distinguished in April 1828 after the harpooning of a 4.6 m (15 ft) specimen in Table Bay, South Africa. Andrew Smith, a military doctor associated with British troops stationed in Cape Town, described it the following year. The name "whale shark" refers to the fish's size: it is as large as some species of whale. In addition, its filter feeding habits are not unlike those of baleen whales. ## Description Whale sharks possess a broad, flattened head with a large mouth and two small eyes located at the front corners. Unlike many other sharks, whale shark mouths are located at the front of the head rather than on the underside of the head. A 12.1 m (39.7 ft) whale shark was reported to have a mouth 1.55 m (5.1 ft) across. Whale shark mouths can contain over 300 rows of tiny teeth and 20 filter pads which it uses to filter feed. The spiracles are located just behind the eyes. Whale sharks have five large pairs of gills. Their skin is dark grey with a white belly marked with an arrangement of pale grey or white spots and stripes that is unique to each individual. The skin can be up to 15 cm (5.9 in) thick and is very hard and rough to the touch. The whale shark has three prominent ridges along its sides, which start above and behind the head and end at the caudal peduncle. The shark has two dorsal fins set relatively far back on the body, a pair of pectoral fins, a pair of pelvic fins and a single medial anal fin. The caudal fin has a larger upper lobe than the lower lobe (heterocercal). Whale sharks have been found to possess dermal denticles on the surface of their eyeballs that are structured differently from their body denticles. The dermal denticles, as well as the whale shark's ability to retract its eyes deep into their sockets, serve to protect the eyes from damage. Evidence suggests that whale sharks can recover from major injuries and may be able to regenerate small sections of their fins. Their spot markings have also been shown to reform over a previously wounded area. The complete and annotated genome of the whale shark was published in 2017. Rhodopsin, the light-sensing pigment in the rod cells of the retina, is normally sensitive to green and used to see in dim light, but in whale sharks (and bottom-dwelling cloudy catsharks), two amino acid substitutions made the pigment more sensitive to blue light instead, the light that dominates the deep ocean. One of these mutations also makes rhodopsin vulnerable to higher temperatures. In humans a similar mutation leads to congenital stationary night blindness, as the human body temperature makes the pigment decay. To protect this pigment which becomes unstable in shallow water, where the temperature is higher and the full spectrum of light is present, as otherwise the pigment would hinder full color vision, the shark deactivates it. In the colder environment at 2,000 meters below the surface where the shark dives, it is activated again. The mutations thus allow the shark to see well at both ends of its great vertical range. The eyes have also lost all cone opsins except LWS. ### Size The whale shark is the largest non-cetacean animal in the world. Evidence suggests that whale sharks exhibit sexual dimorphism with regards to size, with females growing larger than males. A 2020 study looked at the growth of whale shark individuals over a 10-year period. It concluded that males on average reach 8 to 9 meters (26 to 30 ft) in length. The same study predicted females to reach a length of around 14.5 m (48 ft) on average, based on more limited data. However, these are averages and do not represent the maximum possible sizes. Previous studies estimating the growth and longevity of whale sharks have produced estimates ranging from 14 to 21.9 meters (46 to 72 ft) in length. Limited evidence, mostly from males, suggests that sexual maturity occurs around 8 to 9 meters (26 to 30 ft) in length, with females possibly maturing at a similar size or larger. The maximum length of the species is uncertain due to a lack of detailed documentation of the largest reported individuals. Several whale sharks around 18 m (59 ft) in length have been reported. Large whale sharks are difficult to measure accurately, both on the land and in the water. When on land, the total length measurement can be affected by how the tail is positioned, either angled as it would be in life or stretched as far as possible. Historically, techniques such as comparisons to objects of known size and knotted ropes have been used for in-water measurements, but these techniques may be inaccurate. In 2011, laser photogrammetry was proposed to improve the accuracy of in-water measurements. ### Reports of large individuals Since the 1800s, there have been accounts of very large whale sharks. Some of these are as follows: In 1868, the Irish natural scientist Edward Perceval Wright obtained several small whale shark specimens in the Seychelles. Wright was informed of one whale shark that was measured as exceeding 45 ft (14 m). Wright claimed to have observed specimens over 50 ft (15 m) and was told of specimens upwards of 70 ft (21 m). Hugh M. Smith described a huge animal caught in a bamboo fish trap in Thailand in 1919. The shark was too heavy to pull ashore, and no measurements were taken. Smith learned through independent sources that it was at least 10 wa (a Thai unit of length measuring between a person's outstretched arms). Smith noted that one wa could be interpreted as either 2 m (6.6 ft) or the approximate average of 1.7 to 1.8 m (5.6–5.9 ft), based on the local fishermen. Later sources have stated this whale shark as approximately 18 m (59 ft), but the accuracy of the estimate has been questioned. In 1934, a ship named the Maunganui came across a whale shark in the southern Pacific Ocean and rammed it. The shark became stuck on the prow of the ship, supposedly with 15 ft (4.6 m) on one side and 40 ft (12.2 m) on the other, suggesting a total length of about 55 ft (17 m). Scott A. Eckert & Brent S. Stewart reported on satellite tracking of whale sharks from between 1994 and 1996. Out of the 15 individuals tracked, two females were reported as measuring 15 m (49 ft) and 18 m (59 ft) respectively. A 20.75 m (68.1 ft) long whale shark was reported as being stranded along the Ratnagiri coast in 1995. A female individual with a standard length of 15 m (49.2 ft) and an estimated total length at 18.8 m (61.7 ft) was reported from the Arabian Sea in 2001. In a 2015 study looking into the size of marine megafauna, McClain and colleagues considered this female as being the most reliable and accurately measured. On 7 February 2012, a large whale shark was found floating 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the coast of Karachi, Pakistan. The length of the specimen was said to be between 11 and 12 m (36 and 39 ft), with a weight of around 15,000 kg (33,000 lb). ## Distribution and habitat The whale shark inhabits all tropical and warm-temperate seas. The fish is primarily pelagic, and can be found in both coastal and oceanic habitats. Tracking devices have shown that the whale shark displays dynamic patterns of habitat utilization, likely in response to availability of prey. Whale sharks observed off the northeast Yucatan Peninsula tend to engage in inshore surface swimming between sunrise and mid-afternoon, followed by regular vertical oscillations in oceanic waters during the afternoon and overnight. About 95% of the oscillating period was spent in epipelagic depths (\<200 metres (660 ft)), but whale sharks also took regular deep dives (\>500 metres (1,600 ft)), often descending in brief "stutter steps", perhaps for foraging. The deepest recorded dive was 1,928 metres (6,325 ft), making the whale shark the deepest diving fish to be recorded. Whale sharks were also observed to remain continuously at depths of greater than 50 metres (160 ft) for three days or more. The whale shark is migratory and has two distinct subpopulations: an Atlantic subpopulation, from Maine and the Azores to Cape Agulhas, South Africa, and an Indo-Pacific subpopulation which holds 75% of the entire whale shark population. It usually roams between 30°N and 35°S where water temperatures are higher than 21 °C (70 °F) but have been spotted as far north as the Bay of Fundy, Canada and the Sea of Okhotsk north of Japan and as far south as Victoria, Australia. Seasonal feeding aggregations occur at several coastal sites such as the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia, Darwin Island in the Galápagos, Quintana Roo in Mexico, Mafia Island of Pwani Region in Tanzania, Inhambane province in Mozambique, the Philippines, around Mahe in the Seychelles, the Gujarat and Kerala coasts of India, Taiwan, southern China and Qatar. In 2011, more than 400 whale sharks gathered off the Yucatan Coast. It was one of the largest gatherings of whale sharks recorded. Aggregations in that area are among the most reliable seasonal gatherings known for whale sharks, with large numbers occurring in most years between May and September. Associated ecotourism has grown rapidly to unsustainable levels. ## Growth and reproduction Growth, longevity, and reproduction of the whale shark are poorly understood. There was uncertainty as to whether vertebrae growth bands are formed annually or biannually, which is important in determining the age, growth, and longevity of whale sharks. A 2020 study compared the ratio of Carbon-14 isotopes found in growth bands of whale shark vertebrae to nuclear testing events in the 1950-60s, finding that growth bands are laid down annually. The study found an age of 50 years for a 10 m (33 ft) female and 35 years for a 9.9m male. Various studies looking at vertebrae growth bands and measuring whale sharks in the wild have estimated their lifespans from \~80 years and up to \~130 years. Evidence suggests that males grow faster than females in the earlier stages of life but ultimately reach a smaller maximum size. Whale sharks exhibit late sexual maturity. One study looking at free-swimming whale sharks estimated the age at maturity in males at \~25 years. Pupping of whale sharks has not been observed, but mating has been witnessed twice in St Helena. Mating in this species was filmed for the first time in whale sharks off Ningaloo Reef via airplane in Australia in 2019, when a larger male unsuccessfully attempted to mate with a smaller, immature female. The capture of a \~10.6 m (35 ft) female in July 1996 that was pregnant with \~300 pups indicated that whale sharks are ovoviviparous. The eggs remain in the body and the females give birth to live young which are 40 to 60 cm (16 to 24 in) long. Evidence indicates the pups are not all born at once, but rather the female retains sperm from one mating and produces a steady stream of pups over a prolonged period. On 7 March 2009, marine scientists in the Philippines discovered what is believed to be the smallest living specimen of the whale shark. The young shark, measuring only 38 cm (15 in), was found with its tail tied to a stake at a beach in Pilar, Sorsogon, Philippines, and was released into the wild. Based on this discovery, some scientists no longer believe this area is just a feeding ground; this site may be a birthing ground, as well. Both young whale sharks and pregnant females have been seen in the waters of St Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, where numerous whale sharks can be spotted during the summer. In a report from Rappler last August 2019, whale sharks were sighted during WWF Philippines’ photo identification activities in the first half of the year. There were a total 168 sightings – 64 of them “re-sightings” or reappearances of previously recorded whale sharks. WWF noted that “very young whale shark juveniles" were identified among the 168 individuals spotted in the first half of 2019. Their presence suggests that the Ticao Pass may be a pupping ground for whale sharks, further increasing the ecological significance of the area. ## Diet The whale shark is a filter feeder – one of only three known filter-feeding shark species (along with the basking shark and the megamouth shark). It feeds on plankton including copepods, krill, fish eggs, Christmas Island red crab larvae and small nektonic life, such as small squid or fish. It also feeds on clouds of eggs during mass spawning of fish and corals. The many rows of vestigial teeth play no role in feeding. Feeding occurs either by ram filtration, in which the animal opens its mouth and swims forward, pushing water and food into the mouth, or by active suction feeding, in which the animal opens and closes its mouth, sucking in volumes of water that are then expelled through the gills. In both cases, the filter pads serve to separate food from water. These unique, black sieve-like structures are presumed to be modified gill rakers. Food separation in whale sharks is by cross-flow filtration, in which the water travels nearly parallel to the filter pad surface, not perpendicularly through it, before passing to the outside, while denser food particles continue to the back of the throat. This is an extremely efficient filtration method that minimizes fouling of the filter pad surface. Whale sharks have been observed "coughing", presumably to clear a build-up of particles from the filter pads. Whale sharks migrate to feed and possibly to breed. The whale shark is an active feeder, targeting concentrations of plankton or fish. It is able to ram filter feed or can gulp in a stationary position. This is in contrast to the passive feeding basking shark, which does not pump water. Instead, it swims to force water across its gills. A juvenile whale shark is estimated to eat 21 kg (46 pounds) of plankton per day. The BBC program Planet Earth filmed a whale shark feeding on a school of small fish. The same documentary showed footage of a whale shark timing its arrival to coincide with the mass spawning of fish shoals and feeding on the resultant clouds of eggs and sperm. Whale sharks are known to prey on a range of planktonic and small nektonic organisms that are spatiotemporally patchy. These include krill, crab larvae, jellyfish, sardines, anchovies, mackerels, small tunas, and squid. In ram filter feeding, the fish swims forward at constant speed with its mouth fully open, straining prey particles from the water by forward propulsion. This is also called ‘passive feeding’, which usually occurs when prey is present at low density. Due their mode of feeding, whale sharks are susceptible to the ingestion of microplastics. As such, the presence of microplastics in whale shark scat was recently confirmed. ## Relationship with humans ### Behavior toward divers Despite its size, the whale shark does not pose any danger to humans. Whale sharks are docile fish and sometimes allow swimmers to catch a ride, although this practice is discouraged by shark scientists and conservationists because of the disturbance to the sharks. Younger whale sharks are gentle and can play with divers. Underwater photographers such as Fiona Ayerst have photographed them swimming close to humans without any danger. The shark is seen by divers in many places, including the Bay Islands in Honduras, Thailand, Indonesia (Bone Bolango, Cendrawasih Bay), the Philippines, the Maldives close to Maamigili (South Ari Atoll), the Red Sea, Western Australia (Ningaloo Reef, Christmas Island), Taiwan, Panama (Coiba Island), Belize, Tofo Beach in Mozambique, Sodwana Bay (Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park) in South Africa, the Galapagos Islands, Saint Helena, Isla Mujeres (Caribbean Sea), La Paz, Baja California Sur and Bahía de los Ángeles in Mexico, the Seychelles, West Malaysia, islands off eastern peninsular Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, Oman, Fujairah, Puerto Rico, and other parts of the Caribbean. Juveniles can be found near the shore in the Gulf of Tadjoura, near Djibouti, in the Horn of Africa. ### Conservation status There is currently no robust estimate of the global whale shark population. The species is considered endangered by the IUCN due to the impacts of fisheries, by-catch losses, and vessel strikes, combined with its long lifespan and late maturation. In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the whale shark as "Migrant" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System. It is listed, along with six other species of sharks, under the CMS Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks. In 1998, the Philippines banned all fishing, selling, importing, and exporting of whale sharks for commercial purposes, followed by India in May 2001 and Taiwan in May 2007. In 2010, the Gulf of Mexico oil spill resulted in 4,900,000 barrels (780,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of oil flowing into an area south of the Mississippi River Delta, where one-third of all whale shark sightings in the northern part of the gulf have occurred in recent years. Sightings confirmed that the whale sharks were unable to avoid the oil slick, which was situated on the surface of the sea where the whale sharks feed for several hours at a time. No dead whale sharks were found. This species was also added to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 2003 to regulate the international trade of live specimens and its parts. Hundreds of whale sharks are illegally killed every year in China for their fins, skins, and oil. ### In captivity The whale shark is popular in the few public aquariums that keep it, but its large size means that a very large tank is required and it has specialized feeding requirements. Their large size and iconic status have also fueled an opposition to keeping the species in captivity, especially after the early death of some whale sharks in captivity and certain Chinese aquariums keeping the species in relatively small tanks. The first attempt at keeping whale sharks in captivity was in 1934 when an individual was kept for about four months in a netted-off natural bay in Izu, Japan. The first attempt of keeping whale sharks in an aquarium was initiated in 1980 by the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium (then known as Okinawa Ocean Expo Aquarium) in Japan. Since 1980, several have been kept at Okinawa, mostly obtained from incidental catches in coastal nets set by fishers (none after 2009), but two were strandings. Several of these were already weak from the capture/stranding and some were released, but initial captive survival rates were low. After the initial difficulties in maintaining the species had been resolved, some have survived long-term in captivity. The record for a whale shark in captivity is an individual that, as of 2021, has lived for more than 26 years in the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium from Okinawa Ocean Expo Aquarium. Following Okinawa, Osaka Aquarium started keeping whale sharks and most of the basic research on the keeping of the species was made at these two institutions. Since the mid-1990s, several other aquariums have kept the species in Japan (Kagoshima Aquarium, Kinosaki Marine World, Notojima Aquarium, Oita Ecological Aquarium, and Yokohama Hakkeijima Sea Paradise), South Korea (Aqua Planet Jeju), China (Chimelong Ocean Kingdom, Dalian Aquarium, Guangzhou Aquarium in Guangzhou Zoo, Qingdao Polar Ocean World and Yantai Aquarium), Taiwan (National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium), India (Thiruvananthapuram Aquarium) and Dubai (Atlantis, The Palm), with some maintaining whale sharks for years and others only for a very short period. The whale shark kept at Dubai's Atlantis, The Palm was rescued from shallow waters in 2008 with extensive abrasions to the fins and after rehabilitation it was released in 2010, having lived 19 months in captivity. Marine Life Park in Singapore had planned on keeping whale sharks but scrapped this idea in 2009. Outside Asia, the first and so far only place to keep whale sharks is Georgia Aquarium in Atlanta, United States. This is unusual because of the comparatively long transport time and complex logistics required to bring the sharks to the aquarium, ranging between 28 and 36 hours. Georgia keeps two whale sharks: two males, Taroko and Yushan, who both arrived in 2007. Two earlier males at Georgia Aquarium, Ralph and Norton, both died in 2007. Trixie died in 2020. Alice died in 2021. Georgia's whale sharks were all imported from Taiwan and were taken from the commercial fishing quota for the species, usually used locally for food. Taiwan closed this fishery entirely in 2008. ### Human culture In Madagascar, whale sharks are called marokintana in Malagasy, meaning "many stars", after the appearance of the markings on the shark's back. In the Philippines, it is called butanding and balilan. The whale shark is featured on the reverse of the Philippine 100-peso bill. By law snorkelers must maintain a distance of 4 ft (1.2 m) from the sharks and there is a fine and possible prison sentence for anyone who touches the animals. Whale sharks are also known as jinbei-zame in Japan (because the markings resemble patterns typically seen on jinbei); gurano bintang in Indonesia; and ca ong (literally "sir fish") in Vietnam. The whale shark is also featured on the latest 2015–2017 edition of the Maldivian 1000 rufiyaa banknote, along with the green turtle. ## See also - List of sharks - List of threatened sharks
10,297,763	1888–89 New Zealand Native football team	1,171,853,848	Sports tours	[ "1888 in Australian rugby union", "1888 in New Zealand rugby union", "1888 rugby union tours", "1888–89 in English rugby union", "1888–89 in Scottish rugby union", "1888–89 in Welsh rugby union", "1889 in Australian rugby union", "1889 in New Zealand rugby union", "1889 rugby union tours", "Māori All Blacks tours", "Rugby union tours of Australia", "Rugby union tours of England", "Rugby union tours of Ireland", "Rugby union tours of New Zealand", "Rugby union tours of Scotland", "Rugby union tours of Wales", "World Rugby Hall of Fame inductees" ]	The 1888–89 New Zealand Native football team was a New Zealand rugby union team that toured Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand in 1888 and 1889. It mostly comprised players of Māori ancestry, but also included some Pākehā (white New Zealanders). A wholly private endeavour, the tour was not under the auspices of any official rugby authority; it was organised by New Zealand international player Joseph Warbrick, promoted by public servant Thomas Eyton, and managed by James Scott, a publican. The Natives were the first New Zealand team to perform a haka, and also the first to wear all black. They played 107 rugby matches during the tour, as well as a small number of Victorian Rules football and association football matches in Australia. Having made a significant impact on the development of New Zealand rugby, the Natives were inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame in 2008. After a preliminary tour of New Zealand in 1888, the side travelled to England via Melbourne and Suez. The Māori players initially provoked curiosity due to their race, but the British press subsequently expressed some surprise that the side was not as "Māori" as they had expected. Playing their first match, on 3 October against Surrey, the team was subjected to a taxing match schedule, and frequently played three matches per week. Their early matches included a 9–0 loss to Middlesex, but their form improved in November, when they won 10 of their 13 matches. The team played its first match against a national team on 1 December, against Ireland, and won 13–4. This was followed by a win over one of the strongest English county teams, Yorkshire, and a 5–0 defeat against the Wales national team. By January 1889 the Natives had played 36 matches in less than three months, winning 22 of them; they had spent most of their time in the north of England, where the playing strength was strongest and the crowds largest and most profitable. In a return match on 19 January, Yorkshire fielded a stronger side than in the first match and inflicted one of the Natives' heaviest losses, a 16–4 defeat. The team then went undefeated until 16 February, when they faced England. Officials of the strictly amateur Rugby Football Union (RFU) had become increasingly concerned at the behaviour of the New Zealanders, regarding them as unsportsmanlike, and tensions reached a nadir in the aftermath of the England match, during which the RFU secretary George Rowland Hill, refereeing the game, awarded some controversial tries to England, prompting three of the Natives to temporarily leave the field in protest. England eventually won 7–0. The Natives apologised afterwards for their behaviour, but the damage remained. The New Zealanders left England without an official send-off, and travelled to Australia where they toured Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. They then returned to New Zealand, where they displayed a level of combination not seen in their home country before. They went 31 games undefeated before losing their final match, on 24 August 1889, 7–2 to Auckland. The Natives' final record in rugby matches was 78 wins, 6 draws and 23 losses. They introduced tactical innovations to New Zealand rugby on their return home, and their tour contributed to the formation of the New Zealand Rugby Football Union in 1892. Seventeen of the team's 26 players went on to play provincially in New Zealand, and two, Thomas Ellison and David Gage, subsequently captained the New Zealand national rugby team. ## Background The idea for assembling a team of Māori footballers to tour Britain was conceived by Joseph Warbrick, a rugby player who had toured with the first New Zealand national team in 1884. He initially proposed a team of Māori or part-Māori to play the touring British side in 1888; this developed into a venture to have a Māori team tour Britain if a preliminary tour of New Zealand were successful. Hearing of Warbrick's plans, public servant Thomas Eyton contacted him to offer help managing the tour, which Warbrick accepted. When James Scott, a publican, subsequently joined the partnership, the three men decided that Warbrick would be the team's captain, Scott its manager and Eyton its promoter. Warbrick started assembling a team for the tour in early 1888. He had difficulties assembling a squad due to player availability, and failed to secure the talented Jack Taiaroa due to his university commitments. Some Māori players who initially agreed to play later pulled out when the eligibility criteria were relaxed to allow squad members who were only part-Māori. Twenty Māori or part-Māori players joined the squad; five Pākehā (white New Zealand) players were added after the team lost to Auckland. Due to the inclusion of these Pākehā players the team was renamed from the "New Zealand Maori" to the "New Zealand Native Football Representatives". The final squad comprised 26 players (including Warbrick); of these at least five were full-blooded Māori, while fourteen had a Māori mother and a Pākehā father. The parentage of some of the players is unknown. The team toured New Zealand before departing overseas, playing against Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Nelson, Wellington, Canterbury, South Canterbury, and Otago. The first game was contested against Hawke's Bay in Napier on 23 June 1888. They played nine games in their preliminary tour of New Zealand, and won seven of them. Their last New Zealand match before departure, against Otago played in Dunedin on 31 July 1888, was won by one try to nil. The team sailed for Australia from Dunedin, leaving on 1 August 1888. In Melbourne, Scott recruited Jack Lawlor to train the players in Victorian Rules football in Britain as preparation for possible Victorian Rules matches on their return to Australia. The team played two rugby matches against the Melbourne Rugby Union team, winning the first and drawing the second, before continuing to Britain via Suez. They arrived in London on 27 September 1888. ## Arrival in England and early matches The team were met in Britain by local rugby administrators, including an official of England's Rugby Football Union (RFU). The first match of the tour was against Surrey, where the team became the first New Zealand side to perform a haka, and also the first to wear an all black uniform. That the team was predominantly Māori provoked curiosity from the British press – at the time, most Britons had not seen non-white people – but there was some surprise that the team were not as "Māori" as had been expected. "They are not unlike Europeans," a Scottish reporter wrote in November 1888; "that is their resemblance is great when one remembers that they were a savage tribe no further back than a generation". The Surrey match, which was refereed by the RFU secretary George Rowland Hill, was won 4–1 by the Natives after they scored two tries. The Natives next defeated both Northamptonshire and Kent, before defeats by Moseley and Burton-on-Trent. Both defeats were unexpected, and in the Moseley match, injuries played a part – the tourists played most of the match at least two men down, as replacements were then not allowed. The team recovered to win their next game, against Midlands Counties in Birmingham. Their next fixture was against Middlesex in a match not open to the public, and hosted by the Earl of Sheffield at Sheffield Park, Uckfield. The Middlesex side contained a number of international players, including Arthur Gould. Middlesex won easily, with the Natives play characterised by poor tackling. The final score was 9–0, with three tries conceded by the New Zealanders. Prior to the match both sides had enjoyed lunch with wine – an indulgence the Natives were not used to. A report in the Auckland Star had this to say of the game: > The New Zealanders expected to meet a mere exhibition 15 of scratch players, whereas Mr Rowland Hill had carefully collected the best possible team available. Such " passing " as the Home men displayed the Maoris frankly admit they have never previously witnessed. Said McCausland whilst we were on the platform waiting for the London train, "I think they would have just beaten us, even if we had been in good form." Following the match against Middlesex, the team travelled to the north, where the strongest English rugby teams were based. Yorkshire and Lancashire dominated the county championship until many of their respective member clubs split from the RFU in 1895 over the issue of "broken time" payments. The New Zealanders lost to Hull F.C. 1–0, defeated Dewsbury, then lost to Wakefield Trinity. After their first draw of the tour (against Northumberland County) they defeated Stockton-on-Tees and Tynemouth. Joe Warbrick appeared in the match against Tynemouth, but aggravated the foot injury that had kept him out of the side until that point. These victories were followed by a 13–4 defeat to Halifax on 10 November. The team then won seven matches in a row, including one against Hawick RFC, their only Scottish opposition of the tour. The last two matches that month were a loss to Swinton and a 9–0 victory over Liverpool and District. The team had played thirteen fixtures during November and won ten of them. By this point, the team was beset by injuries – of the fifteen players that played against Westmorland County on 24 November, five had injuries. The squad comprised only 26 players, and the tourists were often struggling to field a side. Nevertheless, their heavy schedule continued; on 30 November 1888 they left for Dublin, where a match had been organised against the Ireland national team. ## Ireland, further English matches, and Wales The Ireland fixture was played at Lansdowne Road, Dublin, on 1 December 1888. Both teams had a number of leading players out injured – the Irish were forced to make four changes to their original selection. Ireland led 3–0 at half-time after scoring a converted try, but the Natives improved considerably in the second-half, scoring four tries. Patrick Keogh scored the first two tries, and his play was praised by the local press. The third try scored was by Thomas Ellison after a counter-attack by George Williams. The try was not converted, but the strong finish from the New Zealanders gave the visitors a 13–4 victory. The Irish press were surprised by the loss and strongly criticised their team, but Ireland did go on to defeat Wales two tries to nil in the 1889 Home Nations Championship. Following their defeat of Ireland, the Natives played Trinity College and then North of Ireland. The match against Trinity College was drawn 4–4, and despite Keogh not playing, the Native side played much better than their previous fixture. The team then travelled to Belfast, where they defeated North of Ireland 2–0 on 5 December; scoring two tries to nil. After returning to England, the Natives faced Lancashire in Manchester, where they lost 1–0. Two days later they drew with Batley, despite their opposition scoring five tries. Their next match was against Yorkshire, who were one of the strongest counties in the country, and went on to win the inaugural County Championship that season. Yorkshire fielded a weakened team, and were subsequently defeated 10–6 by the Natives, who scored six tries. After a further two victories, the team travelled to Wales, where they lost 3–0 to Llanelli, before facing Wales on 22 December. At the start of the match the home crowd were fairly hostile towards the Welsh team due to fans of both Swansea and Llanelli feeling slighted by the lack of selection of their players. Four teams dominated Welsh national selection at the time, and out of the 15-man team only William Towers and William Bowen of Swansea and Dan Griffiths of Llanelli had been selected. The match was played in Swansea, and the lack of local players may have contributed to a poor crowd, with gate receipts of only £120 recorded. The crowd's hostility impacted on the players, and debutant Norman Biggs was "palpably nervous" at the start of the match. Biggs, aged 18 years and 49 days, became the youngest Welsh international player – a record he held until the debut of Tom Prydie in 2010. Despite the heckles aimed primarily at Biggs, Charlie Arthur and George Thomas, the Welsh team produced an excellent effort, especially from the forwards. Towers scored the first Welsh try, which was converted by Jim Webb. The Natives replied with a spirited run by Ellison, but he failed to break through the Welsh defence. The tourists trailed even further after George Thomas scored a breakaway try frrm the half-way line, which went some way to silence the heckles from the crowd. Webb, playing in out of position at full-back, missed the conversion and then failed at a long-distance goal from a mark. The Natives continued to push, with Elliot coming within five-yards of the try line, and when Ellison did manage to cross the line he was carried back into the 25-yard line before he could touch down. In the second half Wales continued to push their advantage when Alexander Bland dribbled the ball into the Natives' 25; this was collected by Sydney Nicholls, who managed to get the ball across the try line, allowing Jim Hannan to score. Warbrick for the Natives and Stadden for Wales both subsequently came close to scoring tries, but there were no further scores in the game. The match was also of historical importance because of the Welsh tactics employed. In the 1886 Home Nations Championship Wales had trialled the four three-quarter system, wherein the team would play with eight forwards rather than nine, and instead employ an extra centre three-quarter. The system was deemed a failure and was particularly unpopular with star Welsh player Arthur Gould, whose formidable ability as a back allowed his club team Newport to retain the additional forward. With Gould working in the West Indies, Wales again tried the four three-quarter system against the Natives, and its success saw the team permanently adopt the system. Within six years the other three Home Countries had adopted four three-quarter style of play. Before they left Wales, the Natives played Swansea and two other local clubs, Newport, and Cardiff. They defeated Swansea for their first win in Wales, and followed this up with a victory over Newport in front of 8,000 spectators. They finished their Welsh matches, and the year, with a 4–1 loss to Cardiff in front of a partisan crowd. ## Return to England The side entered 1889 having played 36 matches for 22 wins and three draws. The Natives' play had improved throughout November and December following poorer form in their October matches; positive press reports reflected this improvement. The team would go on to play a further 17 matches before their 16 February match against England. January started with a 4–1 loss to Bradford, during which 25 police officers were required to keep many of the 12,000 spectators, many of them non-paying, in order. This was followed by victories over Leeds Parish Church, Kirkstall, Brighouse Rangers, and Huddersfield. Following further matches against Stockport, Castleford, and Warrington, where the team drew, lost, then won, the side faced Yorkshire for a second time. Yorkshire had been criticised in the press for fielding a weakened line-up against the Natives when the sides first met in December. After the unexpected loss, Yorkshire were determined to make amends and a strong side was selected for the county, including Fred Bonsor, Richard Lockwood and John Willie Sutcliffe, all of whom would appear for England against the Natives later that season. Described as "knocked about" and "stale", the Natives struggled to compete against such strong opposition, and Yorkshire scored three converted tries before a try to Ellison left the scores at 9–1 at half-time. The second half was little better for the Natives; they conceded a further two tries as well as a drop-goal. The second of these tries was scored by Lockwood after he ran the ball from his own half. Ellison scored a converted try late in the match, but this didn't prevent the Natives suffering their largest defeat of the tour: 16–4 to the Yorkshiremen. Ellison later described the match as "without a murmur, the biggest beating we received in our whole tour". After a victory over Spen Valley District, the team travelled west to play Somersetshire, Devonshire, Taunton, and Gloucestershire, and won all five games. The victory over Somerset was the New Zealanders' largest of the tour; they scored nine tries in a 17–4 victory. Half-back Keogh played outstandingly for the Natives, while the entire side demonstrated superior passing and combination to their opposition. Devonshire and Tauton suffered heavy defeats by the New Zealanders, before a strong Gloucestershire side was dismissed. After defeating Midland Counties, the Natives returned to London. The team had two further matches before their game against England. The first was against one of the strongest clubs in England, Blackheath. Andrew Stoddart, who had toured New Zealand and Australia with the 1888 British Isles side, played for the club in their 9–3 defeat to the Natives. The New Zealanders won having scored four tries, including two by Keogh. Their next opposition was a United Services side mainly comprising Royal Navy players. The Natives were again victorious, this time 10–0. The match against Oxford University was postponed due to heavy frost, and so the team had a seven-day break from playing – their longest of the tour. ## Match against England The match against England was causing the Natives' players and management problems before it had even begun. The team manager, Scott, was in dispute with the RFU over where the match should be played – the RFU were adamant that the match should take place at Blackheath's ground, but Scott wanted the game to proceed at The Oval, where a larger crowd, and therefore higher gate receipts, could be secured. The strictly amateur RFU establishment were already suspicious of the profit-making motives of the Natives, and were unwilling to yield on the selection of venue. The RFU was also in dispute with the other Home Unions over the formation of the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB). Following a disputed try in an England–Scotland international match in 1888, the Scottish authorities had pushed for the establishment of an international body to oversee the game, but the RFU insisted that they would only join if they held a deciding vote, arguing that they deserved this as they were, they asserted, the senior body, and had the most member clubs. Ireland, Wales and Scotland consequently refused to play against England until 1891, when, following arbitration, the RFU relented and joined the IRFB. The absence of international matches was a factor in England agreeing to face the Natives on 16 February 1889. The line-ups selected for the 16 February match were both strong, and close to full strength. Though 12 of the England side had not played internationally before, all were experienced at domestic level. The match was refereed by Rowland Hill, who had also officiated the Natives' first match in Britain, against Surrey. The opening of the first half was a scoreless affair, with much tackling and scrummaging on the heavy ground. Later in the half England scored two tries through Harry Bedford, but both were disputed by the Natives, who claimed that one of their players had grounded the ball in-goal. England took the two-try advantage into the second half. Early in the second half a third disputed try was scored by the English. The try and its aftermath caused controversy and a rift between the Natives and the RFU. Ellison attempted to tackle the English player Stoddart, and in the process ripped his shorts off. The Natives quickly formed a circle around Stoddart to allow him to replace his clothing without being seen. While this was happening one of the English players, Frank Evershed, picked up the ball and scored a try. The New Zealanders protested, believing that play had stopped after claiming Stoddart had called "dead ball" – but Hill awarded the try, prompting three of the Native players, Dick Taiaroa, Williams, and Sherry Wynyard, to leave the field in protest. The aggrieved players were eventually persuaded to return, but not before Hill had restarted play. Ellison was very critical of Hill, particularly because he was also Secretary of the RFU. Ellison wrote after the tour that "gross as these errors were, they were insignificant when compared with another that Mr Hill committed at the outset of the game, viz, refereeing at all in that game". The disputed try was followed by a final try for the English, who ultimately won 7–0. The RFU, at Hill's instigation, promptly demanded an apology from the Natives' captain of the day, Edward McCausland, who had led the team as Joe Warbrick was injured. The English authorities of the time believed that the decision of a referee was above question, and that protesting a decision as the New Zealanders had done was unsportsmanlike. The RFU threatened to bar any of their affiliated players – in other words, the entire rugby playing population of England – from facing the Natives if they did not apologise. McCausland swiftly sent an apology by telegram, but this was deemed inadequate; he therefore sent another, four days after the game: The London establishment that governed the game were disturbed by the New Zealanders' approach to the game; reports of rough and over-aggressive play by the Natives had steadily increased in frequency since their arrival in Britain. In the north of England, criticism of the visitors' sportsmanship was rarer; the tourists were accepted as playing the game in the same spirit as their local opponents, which in the north was a more working class sport than in the south. Some of the Natives, including Joe Warbrick, accused the RFU and the English press of hypocrisy, claiming that they were quick to criticise the New Zealanders for rough play, yet tolerant of similar behaviour from their own players. ## Later matches and departure from England The Natives remained in London following the England match. They defeated London Welsh on 18 February, before losing first to Cambridge, then Oxford University. From there they travelled north and won two matches before losing to Leigh. After a win over Runcorn, there was a defeat to Oldham, played on a ground Eyton said was so frozen it was dangerous. After reversing their previous loss to Halifax with a 6–0 win, the Natives suffered a loss to Barrow and District on 7 March. The New Zealanders then had a run of seven straight wins before a 1–1 draw with Hull. Widnes were then defeated for the second time in two weeks in the tourists' last match in northern England. The team struggled to find an opponent for their final match in Britain. They eventually played Southern Counties, and beat them 3–1. This was their 74th match in the British Isles and their 49th victory. The authorities and press in London continued to view the team negatively, and the Natives boarded ship without a formal farewell. This perceived affront from the RFU provoked some criticism from the press outside London, as well as from the team manager Scott, who felt that with the team's official apology after the England match, the controversy should have put to rest. ## Australia The majority of the Natives left Plymouth on 29 March (Eyton and Pie Wynyard followed a week later). They arrived in Melbourne in May, where the team played mostly Victorian Rules football, hoping to make more money that way. Although the side had employed Jack Lawlor to coach them in Victorian Rules during their tour of the British Isles, the heavy schedule and high injury count had left little time and energy for such training. As a result, the Victorian Rules matches were a failure; the players' unfamiliarity with the rules, combined with the fact that most of the Natives were rugby forwards (and therefore less suited to the more open Victorian Rules), ensured that they failed to perform well on the field and struggled to attract large crowds. The side played nine Victorian Rules matches in total, including one in New South Wales, but won only three of them, all against relatively weak opposition. The side's success in their rugby matches contrasted to their failure in Victorian Rules – the New Zealanders played three rugby matches while in Victoria: against Melbourne, a Navy selection, and Victoria. The matches were all won, with their game against Victoria a 19–0 victory. After this they left for Sydney for further rugby matches, and defeated New South Wales 12–9. After two further victories, the side again faced New South Wales, and won the match 16–12. Another two victories followed, before the team played their only association football matches of the tour – both defeats. The team travelled north to Queensland, where, as in New South Wales, rugby was the dominant code of football. Consequently, the team exclusively played rugby while in the region. The Natives faced Queensland at the Association Ground in Brisbane. The 8000 spectators witnessed the New Zealanders overwhelm the Queenslanders to win 22–0; the Natives did not exert themselves in the win, and the score did not reflect their dominance. After a further two matches, against Toowoomba and Ipswich (both of whom were comfortably defeated), the team returned to Brisbane for a rematch with Queensland. In contrast to their first meeting, the first half was a close affair, and the two sides were tied at the conclusion of the half. Billy Warbrick suffered a kick to the head, and had to retire early in the second-half. Following the loss of Warbrick, the play of the Natives improved and they recovered to win 11–7. Not long after the game concluded rumours circulated that some of the players had been offered £50 by bookmakers to throw the game. Eyton later said: > It was on the occasion of this match that four of our players were thought, in racing parlance, to be playing "stiff", and that they had been got by some bookies; at all events, when accused of it at half-time and cautioned, they played a different game in the second half. The response from the team's management was to suspend four players. The team travelled to Toowoomba, where they defeated the locals 19–0. The Natives included a replacement player for only the second time, Henry Speakman, after the suspensions reduced the playing strength of the side. The team then travelled back to New Zealand, and arrived in Invercargill on 5 August. ## Return to New Zealand Two days after their return, the Natives faced Southland, who they defeated 5–1 in front of a crowd of 2,000. The side suffered further injury, to Harry Lee, and recruited Southlander W. Hirst for their match against Mataura District on 8 August. Despite playing the match two players down, the Natives comfortably defeated Mataura 16–3. Following the side's return to New Zealand, the Otago Rugby Football Union demanded that the team's management explain the accusations levelled at them in Queensland. Eyton responded by insisting that the players had only been suspended while an investigation was conducted, and that the management was confident no wrongdoing had occurred. The Northern Rugby Union (since renamed Queensland Rugby Union) summarised the incident and aftermath in the 1889 Queensland Rugby Union Annual: > ... it was apparent to a judge of the game that something was wrong with the Maori, as they were not showing their usual dash and combination. Four members of the team were suspended, a charge being made against them of attempting the sell the match. The matter was brought before the Otago Union, who passed the following resolution: That, having heard all available evidence regarding the charges against certain members of the Native Team, and having received an explicit denial of charges from the accused members and a satisfactory explanation from the management, we are of opinion that there are no facts before us justifying the allegations ... It is unlikely, given the attitude of the Otago Rugby Union to the Natives before their departure, that they would have dismissed the allegations if incriminating evidence had existed. The side was back to full strength following the return of their suspended players when the side faced Otago in Dunedin. The Natives outscored their opponents five tries to two, and won 11–8. The side's star player and half-back, Keogh, stayed in Dunedin when the team departed for Christchurch. The side faced Hawke's Bay, who were touring, in Christchurch, and handily defeated them 13–2. The Natives' play was praised by The Press: "... the wearers of the black passed with remarkable accuracy and quickness between their legs, over their shoulders, under their arms and with their feet". The side then faced Canterbury on 17 August, who they thrashed 15–0. The report published in The Press said of the Natives' performance: > The play showed on Saturday afternoon was a fine exhibition of what several months of combination and practice will do ...it must be admitted they were far and away too good for our local men. In the loose, in the scrum, dribbling, passing, collaring, or running they were very much indeed Canterbury's superior. Such runs as were made by Warbrick at full back, by Madigan, Gage, and W. Wynyard, the passing of H. Wynyard, F. Warbrick, and all the backs as well as several forwards, the rushes of Alf Warbrick, Maynard, Taare, Taiaroa, and Rene, and the dodging and fending powers of nearly every one, nonplussed their opponents... The side left Christchurch and travelled north where they played Wairarapa in Masterton. The match was won 10–8, and the next day they faced Wellington, who they also defeated. The fixture against Wellington was nearly abandoned because Scott and the Wellington Rugby Union could not agree on a venue; the match went ahead only when the Wellington officials agreed to cede the Natives all profit from the match. After this the Natives travelled to Auckland where they played their last match, against the province on 24 August. The match was lost 7–2 after each team scored two tries each, but the Aucklanders kicked a drop-goal and a conversion. The loss ended a remarkable run of matches – the Natives had a 31-game unbeaten streak in rugby matches that started with their victory over Widnes on 9 March; the side won 30, and drew one match between the defeats. ## Impact and legacy The tour had a significant impact on the development of rugby within New Zealand. It was the first tour of the British Isles by a team from the Southern Hemisphere, and the longest in the history of the sport. By the time the Natives returned to New Zealand, they had developed into a side superior to any in the country, and introduced a number of tactical innovations. Seventeen of the 26 players went on to play provincially in New Zealand, and two, Ellison and David Gage, subsequently captained New Zealand. The tour also prompted the eventual formation of the New Zealand Rugby Football Union (NZRFU, later renamed New Zealand Rugby) in 1892; one reason for its formation was to ensure greater control over any future touring New Zealand sides. The NZRFU sent an officially sanctioned New Zealand team, captained by Ellison, to tour Australia in 1893. The Natives are also the forefathers of the Māori All Blacks, a representative team organised by the NZRFU, that first played in 1910. The Native team, along with Joe Warbrick, was inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame in 2008 – the seventh inductee. ## Squad The squad consisted of 26 players. The exact names of several of the players is unknown. The number of matches played is a minimum number only – the line-ups for a number of matches in Britain and Australia are either incomplete or unknown. ## Matches played ### Overall ### Matches against national teams #### Ireland Ireland: T Edwards, DC Woods, A Walpole, MJ Bulger, J Stevenson, RG Warren capt., HW Andrews, EG Forrest, JH O'Conor, JG Moffatt, JN Lytle, J Waites, R Stevenson, JC Jameson, FO Stoker New Zealand Natives: Billy Warbrick, David Gage, Edward McCausland, Frederick Warbrick, Patrick Keogh, Tabby Wynyard, Charles Madigan, William Elliot, George Williams, Dick Taiaroa, Thomas Ellison, W Anderson, Joe Warbrick, Richard Maynard, Charles Goldsmith #### Wales Wales: Jim Webb (Newport), George Thomas (Newport), Dickie Garrett (Penarth), Charlie Arthur (Cardiff), Norman Biggs (Cardiff), Charlie Thomas (Newport), William Stadden (Cardiff), Frank Hill (Cardiff) capt., Alexander Bland (Cardiff), Sydney Nicholls (Cardiff), Jim Hannan (Newport), Theo Harding (Newport), William Towers (Swansea), William Bowen (Swansea), Dan Griffiths, (Llanelli) New Zealand Natives: Billy Warbrick, Edward McCausland, William Thomas Wynyard, David Gage, William Elliot, Frederick Warbrick, Patrick Keogh, George Wynyard, Alexander Webster, Teo Rene, George Williams, Arthur Warbrick, David Stewart, Wi Karauria, Thomas Ellison #### England England: Arthur "Artie" V. Royle, John William "J.W." Sutcliffe, Andrew Stoddart, Richard "Dicky" Evison Lockwood, William Martin Scott, Fernand "Fred" Bonsor capt., Frank Evershed, Donald "Don" Jowett, Charles Anderton, Harry James Wilkinson, Harry Bedford, William Yiend, John W. Cave, Frederick Lowrie, Arthur Robinson New Zealand Natives: Billy Warbrick, Edward McCausland, Tabby Wynyard, Charles Madigan, William Elliot, David Gage, Patrick Keogh, George Wynyard, Teo Rene, Harry Lee, Thomas Ellison, George Williams, W Anderson, Dick Taiaroa, Richard Maynard
49,546,395	Corrida de Cori	1,170,437,377	Mountain range in Argentina and Chile	[ "Holocene volcanism", "Miocene volcanism", "Pliocene volcanism", "Salta Province", "Volcanoes of Salta Province" ]	Corrida de Cori is a mountain range in Argentina and Chile. It consists of several aligned volcanoes, including Cerro Escorial, which exceed 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) in elevation. The range, together with several local volcanoes, forms an alignment that may be controlled by a fault system. The volcanoes erupted mainly andesite and basaltic andesite, they were active in the Plio-Pleistocene with the most recent activity occurring at Cerro Escorial and at a cinder cone east of the range. There are two mines in the area, with a weather station nearby. ## Geography and geomorphology Corrida de Cori a range of Plio-Pleistocene volcanoes of small to medium dimensions. It is located in the Puna of South America, Salta province of Argentina and the Antofagasta Region of Chile. The boundary between the two countries was defined to run over this mountain range. Cerro Escorial is part of this range, Cerro Negro (5,579 metres (18,304 ft)) and Cerro Corrida de Cori (c. 5,400 metres (17,700 ft)) are other summits, Lastarria may also be linked. The Cerro Negro-Corrida de Cori chain and Cerro Escorial sectors run in north-northwest to south-southeast direction along the Argentina–Chile border. South-southeast of Cerro Escorial the chain continues southeastward into Argentina. Some glacial activity in the area has degraded volcanic landforms, but very little erosion is evident and on the Argentine side well-preserved lava flows are evidence. It forms a volcanic chain with Llullaillaco that extends towards Antofalla and Galán. This lineament is known as "Archibarca lineament". Cerro Corrida de Cori and Cerro Negro are associated with the intersections between this lineament and east-northeast trending lineaments. Fault zones on the area have controlled the rise of magma to the surface, probably facilitating the eruption of basaltic lavas. Among these faults is the Imilac–Salina del Fraile lineament. ## Geological history The Puna began to develop 15–20 mya and continued to contract until 1–2 mya. Activity commenced in the Miocene with basaltic andesites and dacitic ignimbrites and ended in the late Quaternary with basaltic andesites in form of cinder cones. K-Ar dates of 12 mya and 8.0 ± 0.3 have been found at Cerro Negro. A major ignimbrite is found in the Escorial area and extends in a butterfly shape over 105 square kilometres (41 sq mi) with a thickness of c. 6 metres (20 ft). Probably erupted from Cerro Escorial, it extends 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away from Escorial. It has a total volume of c. 0.6 cubic kilometres (0.14 cu mi) and consists of crystal rich dacite with large amounts of xenoliths. Where the ignimbrite was dammed by older lava flows, it formed internal wave structures. The surface of the ignimbrite is grooved and rippled in appearance and is heavily influenced by aeolian (wind-driven landscape changes) activity. Dating is uncertain, with older dates including 1.3 ± 0.6 mya but a more precise recent date is 0.457 ± 0.013 mya. This ignimbrite was likely formed by a column collapse and is known as the Caletones Cori, Escorial or Corrida de Cori Ignimbrite. Another ignimbrite is the La Casualidad Ignimbrite, it was erupted about 1.2 million years ago at Cerro Escorial. Lava flows found on Escorial and Cerro Corrida de Cori are the latest volcanic events and post-date the hydrothermal alteration; one date from Escorial is 0.342 ± 0.025 mya. Most Escorial lava flows head southwest. These flows are accompanied by andesitic blocks from possibly Vulcanian explosive activity. East of Corrida de Cori range a cinder cone accompanied by a much smaller vent was constructed on top of older eruption products and generated a lava flow that descended towards Salar Rio Grande. This cone may be of Holocene age, considering the appearance of the blockly lava flows. Present day geothermal activity is found at Lastarria and in form of fumarole spires, mud vents and warm springs at Escorial. Some of these originate by the summit lava flow of Cerro Escorial. ## Rocks and minerals Corrida de Cori volcanism is calc-alkaline and consists of potassium rich andesite as well as basaltic andesites. The Cerro Escorial ignimbrite may have originated in the crust and is dacitic. Trachydacite is found at Cerro Negro. Phenocrysts include augite, hypersthene and plagioclase with rare olivine. The basement beneath Corrida de Cori is mostly buried, but occasional outcrops indicate Paleozoic granites and sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Alteration by hydrothermal and fumarolic processes is widespread in this range. It has formed superficial sulfur deposits that have been mined at Cerro Escorial in the Mina Julia as well as deeper alteration which has been brought to the surface by the Cerro Escorial ignimbrite in form of quartz veins. This hydrothermal alteration of susceptible rocks makes Corrida de Cori's peaks look snow-covered from a distance. The Mina Julia sulfur mine was active until \~20 years before 2002, from where a funicular bucket railway transported sulfur towards Mina la Casualidad by the salar. Another mine is found east of Cerro Corrida de Cori. ## Climate Weather measurements have been made in a weather station by a sulfur mine worker's camp, at an elevation of 5,100 metres (16,700 ft) or 5,295 metres (17,372 ft). The dry air, high insolation and strong winds result in high potential evaporation reaching 1,392 millimetres per year (54.8 in/year). Based on precipitation maps, the annual precipitation reaches only 81 millimetres per year (3.2 in/year) but a reported precipitation value is 35 millimetres per year (1.4 in/year). Weather reporting began in 1942. Research in 1976–1977 found average temperatures of −5.5 °C (22.1 °F) with a daily variability of c. 9 °C (48 °F). Wind in Corrida de Cori has been reported to have "a cooling power in winter similar to the South Pole in summer." Wind speed reported in 1976–1977 after a row of measurements is 13.6 metres per second (45 ft/s) and air humidity about 40%. Winds are westerly and strongest in winter. During winter, the lower summits of Corrida de Cori can be snow-covered.
10,925,706	Canadian Afghan detainee issue	1,170,417,237	Abusive treatment of detainees in Afghanistan	[ "Afghanistan–Canada relations", "Bagram Theater Internment Facility detainees", "Canadian war crimes", "Military history of Canada", "Military prisoner abuse scandals", "Political scandals in Canada", "Torture in Afghanistan", "War crimes in Afghanistan", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)" ]	The Canadian Afghan detainee issue concerns Government of Canada or the Canadian Forces (CF) knowledge of abusive treatment of detainees in Afghanistan. The abuse occurred after Afghans were detained by Canadian Forces, and subsequently transferred to the Afghan National Army (ANA) or the Afghan National Directorate of Security (NDS) during the War in Afghanistan. The issue has sparked heated debate since Article 12 of the Third Geneva Convention (of which Canada is a signatory) states that "the Detaining Power [Canada] is responsible for the treatment given [to prisoners of war]". If the allegations of torture are true it would mean Canada is guilty of war crimes. The allegations were first sparked by University of Ottawa law professor Amir Attaran, who claimed that full versions of government documents proved Canada had willful knowledge that torture would occur before handing detainees to Afghan authorities. Subsequent to this, two official complaints have led to official investigations and hearings by the Military Police Complaints Commission (MPCC). One of these unveiled parliamentary testimony by diplomat Richard Colvin, who claimed that many detainees were probably tortured, and it was a standard operating procedure for Afghan interrogators. The allegations have led to a showdown in the House of Commons of Canada, as opposition Members of Parliament (MPs) had called for the releasing of relevant documents in full and unredacted form, claiming parliamentary privilege to see them. The government maintained that they had a duty to protect Canadian soldiers and citizens as the documents contained sensitive information. At the request of the Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada, a panel of former justices and selected MPs was tasked with sorting through the documents, and determining the need to release or withhold them. To date, only about 4,000 out of the estimated 40,000 documents have been released, A final report released in June 2012 found no wrongdoing by Canadian Forces members, but did issue recommendations related to improving military policing and MPCC access to information and witnesses. The Canadian public generally held views that there was knowledge of detainee abuse by military or government officials. The issue has also led to scrutiny on detainee treatment by other Canadian departments and the armed forces of other nations. ## Background Canada's military involvement in Afghanistan began in 2002 with the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), a coalition of soldiers from 42 countries, which was tasked as a counterinsurgency effort in response to the 11 September attacks. ISAF had initially been established as a stabilization force by the United Nations Security Council on 20 December 2001, to secure Kabul. The Canadian Liberal government at the time, under Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, chose to have the Canadian Forces (CF) hand over its prisoners to the United States, who led the fight against al-Qaeda and other insurgents. After NATO took command of Afghanistan in 2003, Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse at the hands of the United States armed forces in Iraq came to the attention of the public, and Canada soon faced pressure to hand their prisoners to someone else. Canada entered into an agreement with the Afghan government and started transferring detainees to Afghan security forces, which comprised the Afghan National Army (ANA) and the Afghan National Directorate of Security (NDS). On 18 December 2005, then-Chief of Defence Staff Rick Hillier signed an agreement between Canada's Department of National Defence and the Government of Afghanistan. The agreement did not include any explicit right of access by Canada to Afghan detainees. Members of the opposition requested then-Minister of National Defence Gordon O'Connor to renegotiate the prisoner transfer agreement. This request was dismissed, with O'Connor saying the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent fulfilled the duty of ensuring fair treatment of detainees and Canada could be notified and take action in any cases of abuse. However, the Red Cross stated that their mandate was being misunderstood, and it was the responsibility of Canada. It maintained that it had no role in monitoring the Canada-Afghanistan detainee-transfer agreement, and that following long-established operating procedure, the Red Cross would not reveal to any foreign government any abuses it might find in Afghan prisons. While maintaining that detainee monitoring was the Red Cross' duty until March 2007, O'Connor apologized to the House of Commons for previously misleading them on the issue. In turn, a new agreement was reached in April 2007 that allowed Canadian officials to have access to Kandahar jails. ## History ### Initial allegations The first allegations of detainee abuse came in early February 2007, when University of Ottawa law professor Amir Attaran produced documents he had received through an access-to-information request showing that three prisoners in the custody of Canadian military police were brought in by their Afghan interrogator for treatment of similar injuries to the head and upper body, all on the same day. Attaran argued this could be evidence of torture on the part of the interrogator and should be investigated. Attaran has maintained these allegations, stating in 2010 that the documents show torture of detainees was an actual tactic used to obtain information during interrogation. In April 2007, The Globe and Mail published interviews with 30 men who claimed they were "beaten, starved, frozen and choked after they were handed over to Afghanistan's National Directorate of Security" by CF members. It also revealed that it had received a censored report by the Canadian government on human rights in Afghanistan through an access to information request, and it contained "negative references to acts such as torture, abuse, and extra judicial killings [that] were blacked out without an explanation". This prompted intensive questioning in the House, to which O'Connor claimed that a new agreement had been reached, saying "we have, in the last few days, entered into a local agreement in the Kandahar province to enter the detention facilities any time we want". This would be reaffirmed by Prime Minister Stephen Harper, stating that there was "no evidence that access is blocked to the prisons", and that Afghan authorities had agreed to "formalize that agreement so there is no potential misunderstanding". Regardless, NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer announced that the Afghan government was to launch an inquiry about the fate of detainees. In January 2008, it was revealed that the government ceased the detainee transfers after an internal investigation revealed allegations of a detainee being abused on 5 November 2007. ### Richard Colvin testimony Allegations regarding the treatment of Afghan detainees resurfaced in November 2009 via parliamentary testimony by Richard Colvin, the second highest-ranked member of Canada's diplomatic service in Afghanistan from 2006 to 2007. Colvin claimed that many detainees were probably tortured, and it was a standard operating procedure for Afghan interrogators. This would be consistent with special reports by the United Nations Human Rights Commission and the US Department of State. Colvin also said the torture involved beatings, whipping with power cables, the use of electricity, knives, open flames and rape. The Canadian government dismissed opposition calls for a public inquiry the next day. "There has not been a single, solitary proven allegation of abuse involving a transferred Taliban prisoner by Canadian forces", Defence Minister Peter MacKay said in the House of Commons, with his parliamentary secretary suggesting Colvin was not credible. Regardless, Colvin would provide further testimony in a hearing at the MPCC. He stated that upon visiting Kandahar province's main prison in May 2006, he discovered the ICRC had a "serious problem" with trying to keep track of Afghan prisoners. Officials had approached Colvin with "forceful" concerns about the lack of information given to them by Canada, causing them to lose "many, if not most – and possibly all – of our detainees", stated Colvin. He has also presented allegations that Canadian government and military officials knew about reports of abuse and human rights violations surrounding former governor of Kandahar Asadullah Khalid, saying Canadian officials heard credible sources claiming that Khalid ran a drug network, used drugs himself, used private detention facilities, and sexually abused young girls. Colvin is not the only civil servant to indicate there was a problem about Afghan detainees. Eileen Olexiuk, another Canadian diplomat in Afghanistan, also revealed in an interview with the CBC that she had warned the government in 2005 about torture problems. She said that the government, which was under the leadership of Paul Martin at the time, ignored her advice. ### Subsequent allegations On 8 December 2009, General Walter Natynczyk testified before a parliamentary committee that one particular detainee that was abused on 14 June 2006 by Afghan police was never in CF custody. Canada's chief commander stated that although CF members had questioned the man, he was taken into custody by Afghan police, and Canadian troops rescued him when the police started beating him with their shoes. However, the general corrected himself the following day upon receiving new information that the man had in fact been in Canadian custody. This would be the first piece of evidence that Afghan detainees in Canadian custody were subsequently abused by Afghan officials, contrary to government claims that there was no such evidence. It prompted opposition MPs to recall for a public inquiry into the matter, and for Peter MacKay to be fired. Canada's top military commander subsequently ordered an inquiry to find out why he had not been informed about this incident. This inquiry revealed many Canadian soldiers were aware that Afghan security forces beat prisoners "in the street and elsewhere" on a regular basis. A separate report to General Natynczyk also concluded that the detainee beaten in June 2006 was not defined as a Canadian detainee, preventing it from being reported up the chain of command, and that the CF and Department of Defence should "be tasked to examine the detainee reporting process ... to develop one consolidated process for the reporting on [Canadian Forces] detainees". The United Nations (UN) has released at least two reports implicating torture in Afghanistan. A report from April 2010 stated the "use of harsh interrogation techniques and forced confession of guilt by the Afghan National Police and the National Directorate of Security was documented, including the use of electric shocks and beating", against juvenile detainees suspected of being involved in insurgency. This became concerning after a briefing note to Peter MacKay stated that many juvenile detainees were arrested by the CF, and transferred to the NDS, as per CF policy for all detainees under the age of 18. It also stated juvenile detainees were being kept in a Canadian transfer facility in Kandahar for "a significant period". Another report by the UN was released in October 2011. Interviews with 379 detainees at 47 facilities over the period of a year found "a compelling pattern and practice of systematic torture and ill-treatment" at multiple facilities operated by the ANP and NDS, after 46% of the detainees it spoke with indicated it occurred. A written statement by the Afghan government denied the 'systematic' nature of torture and claimed the report was exaggerated, although it admitted to deficiencies due to a lack of training and resources. The report also suggested that detainees handed over by the CF received different treatment, with one case citing a man who stated everyone was treated badly unless they were handled by Canadians. ### Investigations and inquiries While the first specific allegations of abuse surfaced more than three years ago, there has been no official public inquiry. MPs in the House of Commons voted 146 to 129 in favour of a motion to set one up, but the Prime Minister has refused to consider it, stating that "the government of Canada has taken all necessary actions in all instances where there is proof of abuse of Afghan prisoners". Some critics and the Speaker of the House of Commons have also scolded both the government and opposition MPs for using the issue for political gain. Opposition MPs have stated that it should not be left to the military to investigate itself through the MPCC. To date, there have been two main investigations conducted by the MPCC in relation to Afghan detainees. The first was launched on 9 February 2007 after a formal complaint by Amir Attaran regarding the treatment of three specific detainees arrested in Kandahar region in April 2006. The findings from this investigation stated that CF members handled the detainees appropriately, and were given medical treatment. However, the MPCC also found that the CF failed to conduct an investigation into how one of the detainees became injured, contrary to normal direction. The second investigation was launched on 26 February 2007, following a joint complaint between Amnesty International Canada and the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association, alleging CF military police transferred detainees while there was enough evidence to suggest they would be tortured on at least 18 occasions. The investigation was moved to a public hearing process on 12 March 2008, mainly due to "delays and difficulties in obtaining relevant documents and information from government authorities". This triggered legal challenges from the federal government over the MPCC's jurisdiction to investigate such complaints, resulting in a ruling that the MPCC had no jurisdiction over "transfer complaints", but it did over "failure to investigate" complaints. During substantial testimony and hearings throughout 2010, the government engaged the MPCC another three times for judicial review of the MPCC findings, including the testimony of Richard Colvin. A judge dismissed these challenges in September 2011. The MPCC released its report on 27 June 2012. No wrongdoing was found against specific Canadian Forces members, but the report "identified serious problems regarding reporting, accountability and information sharing". Four recommendations were made in the report to specifically improve the work of Canadian Forces Military Police that are deployed on missions, as well as improving document disclosure and witness access during MPCC hearings. ## Dispute over documents and parliamentary committees ### Beginning of calls and prorogation Opposition MPs in the House of Commons began calling for all documents the government possessed regarding the detainee issue to be made public since Richard Colvin's testimony in November 2009. Minister of Foreign Affairs Lawrence Cannon assured the House of Commons that the documents would be handed over to a special committee in charge of looking into the issue. "There's a mandatory obligation on public officials to ensure that when information is released that it is in compliance with the Canada Evidence Act [to avoid security risks]", according to Minister of Defence Peter MacKay. However, opposition MPs and other critics stated that this was an absurd argument, as Parliament has the constitutional right to have access to the documents uncensored. On 10 December 2009, the House of Commons passed a motion requiring the release of unredacted documents concerning the Afghan detainees to the committee hearing the issue. However, the government refused to abide by the motion. Critics repeated that the government was violating the Constitution of Canada and will be in contempt of Parliament if it continued to refuse to release uncensored documents regarding the Afghan detainee issue. On 30 December 2009, the parliamentary session was put on hold by being prorogued at the request of the Prime Minister. According to his spokesman, he sought this prorogation to consult with Canadians about the economy. The move caused cries from opposition MPs who labelled it as an attempt to "muzzle parliamentarians amid controversy over the Afghan detainees affair". Prorogation prevented the parliamentary committee from continuing to probe the issue. Although informal committee meetings continued, they had no power to compel testimony or grant immunity, and Conservative MPs would not be represented. ### Parliament resumes and 2010 release Justice Minister Rob Nicholson announced to the House of Commons on 5 March 2010 that former Supreme Court of Canada judge Frank Iacobucci was appointed to advise Nicholson if any "injurious" effects would result from making the Afghan detainee documents public. However, University of Ottawa law professor Amir Attaran pointed out that Iacobucci was not a sitting judge and therefore had no power except to give lawyer advice to Nicholson. The opposition expressed deep disappointment with the decision, saying that they did not doubt the competence of the former justice, but believed that it was nothing more than another way to delay the issue. While parliamentarians were not given the Terms of Reference posed to Iacobucci immediately, they were released on 13 March 2010. The government finally released thousands of documents to MPs at the end of March 2010. The documents immediately drew fierce criticism by the opposition, because they were still heavily redacted, and the "totally incoherent and totally disorderly" fashion of handing them out in a single copy and only in English (instead of both of Canada's official languages). The government maintained that redactions are required to protect Canada, with Justice Minister Rob Nicholson stating they were done by "non-partisan public servants whose only interest is the protection of national security". ### Speaker's question and ruling On 18 March, the three opposition parties united in a bid to force the government to let them look at uncensored documents on the Afghan detainees affair or face parliamentary contempt proceedings. Specifically, they called on the Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada, Peter Milliken to rule that the government violated collective parliamentary privilege \#5 in refusing to hand over uncensored documents on the transfer of Afghan detainees. MPs have claimed that the request from Parliament was based on "340 years of bedrock constitutional history", and that there are systems in place to decide what is and is not appropriate to release to the public. Referring to those "systems", Reg Whitaker noted that members of the "Military Police Complaints Commission, whose investigation of the Afghan detainee issue actually led to the calling of the parliamentary inquiry ... are [already] fully security cleared [to see the unredacted documents]". The Speaker first asked for comments from government and opposition MPs on the matter, including Peter MacKay, Rob Nicholson, Derek Lee, Jack Harris, Tom Lukiwski, and Jim Abbott. After considering the matter for two weeks, the Speaker ruled on 27 April 2010 that Parliament had a right to ask for uncensored documents. He asked that all House leaders, ministers and MPs to come to a collective solution "without compromising the security and confidentiality contained". The Speaker gave the House until 11 May 2010 to find a common ground. While MPs within the negotiations had to ask The Speaker for an extension of the deadline, it was granted until 14 May, and a deal was reached that morning. A Memorandum of Understanding on the particulars was not established until 16 June, when it was actually tabled in the House of Commons. It was still not agreed to by all political parties: The New Democratic Party refused to endorse the deal. ### Panel work and 2011 release A panel of MPs began the task of going through over 40,000 documents related to Afghan detainees on 10 July 2010. The MPs, consisting of one member and one alternate from the Liberal, Conservative and Bloc parties, determines what is relevant to the allegations of abuse. An independent panel of jurists determines how documents will be released publicly, in some cases censoring documents that may threaten national security, international relations, or soldiers in Afghanistan. This panel consists of Frank Iacobucci, fellow former Supreme Court justice Claire L'Heureux-Dubé and former B.C. Supreme Court judge Donald Brenner. Any documents that the government claims to contain legal advice may force the panel to determine whether to allow the MPs to see them. Approximately 4,000 documents were released by the government on 22 June 2011, almost a year after the panel began its work. Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird stated that the process had come to an end, "and accusations of improper conduct are unfounded". However, there are an estimated 36,000 pages still remaining that have not been released in a less-redacted form. Based on the documents that were released, MP Stéphane Dion implied that they were cause for concern, and "The likelihood is very high" that a detainee was abused while in the custody of Afghan authorities. "I don't think Canadians will accept that it's over", he added. ## Related abuse allegations ### Canada In March 2010, The Canadian Press reported that documents filed with the MPCC showed that the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) had started playing a role in the interrogation of Afghans captured by the CF. Sources say the military's decision to hand captives over to the NDS was sometimes based on the recommendations of CSIS interrogators, but Canadian military officials always delivered the final decision. This prompted CSIS to undertake a review of its dealings with Afghan detainees "to ensure that the Service can ... account for its engagement during this period". Briefing notes to CSIS director Dick Fadden state that the service interrogated up to 50 prisoners (between 2002 through late 2007 according to an assistant director with the service), but insists that they were treated properly. The notes also state "CSIS officers have been serving alongside the Canadian Forces" while armed, and affirms that agents had no role in determining whether prisoners should be transferred to Afghan authorities. It is believed that initial investigations into the treatment of Afghan detainees sparked investigations into Canada's elite military unit, Joint Task Force 2 (JTF2). The first investigation, named Sand Trap, examined allegations that a JTF2 member was involved in the 2006 shooting death of an Afghan who was surrendering. No charges were laid at the conclusion of the investigation. However, a larger investigation called Sand Trap II began hearing from witnesses in May 2009 regarding allegations of JTF2 members witnessing United States armed forces killing an unarmed man. This investigation is still being conducted by the Canadian Forces National Investigation Service, and it has led to calls for civilian oversight of JTF2. ### International There are also allegations that the NDS tortured detainees handed over to them by British soldiers in Afghanistan. Allegations were also made that British Armed Forces have received evidence of this torture, and NATO "has buried its head in the sand while torture has continued, and it's known about it". The British High Court of Justice ruled on 25 June 2010 that there was "a possibility of torture and serious mistreatment" of prisoners. It is now illegal for British troops to hand over detainees to the NDS in Kabul, however The High Court still approved of transfers in Kandahar and Helmand provinces. This was on the condition that government and military officials improved its systems for monitoring detainees to avoid "a real risk of torture or serious mistreatment". On 6 September 2011, it was revealed that NATO had suspended transfers of detainees to several Afghan prisons. The move was prompted by a United Nations report, published a few days later, which described "a compelling pattern and practice of systematic torture and ill-treatment" at a number of facilities run by the NDS and Afghan police. NATO stated it would undertake verification on the claims, and be "prudent" in halting transfers until that time. ## Public opinion An EKOS poll conducted in December 2009 revealed that 83% of the respondents believed the government knew Afghan detainees were tortured. This was a consistent result across all age groups, genders and geographic locations. It also concluded that 41% of respondents were dissatisfied with the governments transparency on the issue, and only 24% were satisfied. The remaining 35% were still undecided or had no opinion. As time progressed, 61% of Canadians still believed Afghan detainees were tortured in May 2010, according to an Ipsos-Reid poll. This poll also found that 52% of respondents believed that Stephen Harper and Canadian soldiers knew torture was occurring, and 75% believed senior military officials would have known about the problem. A poll done by Angus Reid during 5 January and 6, found that 38 per cent of Canadians believed that Harper used 30 December 2009 prorogation to curtail the Canadian Afghan detainee issue. ## See also - Bagram torture and prisoner abuse - Canada's role in the invasion of Afghanistan - Canadian Forces casualties in Afghanistan - International public opinion on the war in Afghanistan - Opposition to the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) - Protests against the invasion of Afghanistan
70,997,239	Bronx County Bird Club	1,171,110,465	Defunct ornithology club in the Bronx, New York	[ "1924 establishments in New York City", "1978 disestablishments", "Organizations based in the Bronx", "Ornithological organizations in the United States" ]	The Bronx County Bird Club (BCBC) was a small informal club of birders based in the Bronx, New York, active between 1924 and 1956, with residual activity through 1978. The club was a major participant in the Audubon Society's Christmas census, observing more species in the eastern US than any other team for three consecutive years. Club members Roger Tory Peterson, Joseph Hickey, Allan Cruickshank, and William Vogt became well-known ornithologists and authors. ## Formation The group's interest in birding began in 1918 when John (Matty) Matuszewski, his older brother Charlie, and Richard Kuerzi began looking for birds at the Hunts Point dump near where they lived, working from a copy of Chester A. Reed's Bird Guide: Land Birds East of the Rockies. Charlie, a member of Boy Scout Troop 149, was working on his bird study merit badge at the time. During this time, Matty, Charlie, and Richard met up with Irving Kassoy, another local birder who frequented the dump and the group started calling themselves the "Hunts Dumpers". It was at the dump that this group encountered naturalist Charles Johnston, who introduced them to the Linnaean Society where they met other Bronx birders. Through the Linneaens, the BCBC members were introduced to Ludlow Griscom, who acted as a mentor to the club. The BCBC was officially founded on November 29, 1924. Nine teenage boys (John F. Kuerzi and his brother Richard, Joseph Hickey, Allan D. Cruickshank, Frederick J. Ruff, Richard A. Herbert, Irving Kassoy, John E. Matuszewski and Philip Kessler) met in the attic of the Kuerzis' home at 978 Woodycrest Ave where they elected John Kuerzi to be chairman, and Hickey as secretary. William Vogt became a member later. Hickey later wrote Guide to Bird Watching and was awarded a Guggenheim fellowship in the field of Organismic Biology & Ecology. Cruickshank wrote several books, including Birds Around New York City. He was a staff member of the National Audubon Society for 37 years and had pictures published in over 175 books. Vogt served as curator of the Jones Beach Sanctuary, editor of Bird-Lore, and eventually as Conservation Chairman of the Pan-American Union. In about 1927, Roger Tory Peterson joined the club as its eleventh member, the club having waived its unwritten rule that only Bronx residents could join. Peterson, who later wrote A Field Guide to the Birds and contributed to nearly 50 other books, was also the last living member of the club. Ludlow Griscom taught Peterson how to quickly identify birds visually and his 1923 book, Birds of the New York City Region, was depended upon by the club members. Helen G. Cruickshank, wife of Allan, was made an honorary member in either 1937 or 1978. Ernst Mayr was also associated with the club. The founders were described by The New York Times Magazine in 2015 as "a group of competitive, iconoclastic young naturalists", and by Chicago Reader in 1987 as "smart-assed teenagers" who "astounded their stuffy elders with the sightings they reported and their ability to defend the accuracy of those sightings". Ernst Mayr described the group as "a somewhat rowdy group of youngsters who were having a wonderful time". ## Locations The members purchased a used Buick which they used to travel to birding locations, with sewer outfalls and garbage dumps as popular destinations. They found, for example, "four snowy owls feeding on rats" at the Hunts Point Dump. The BCBC did not limit itself to observing in the Bronx. In 1931 they were reported to have made several trips to Putnam County. The club members took over 40,000 photographs covering 400 species of birds. The last BCBC meeting was held in early 1978 at Fort Myers, Florida after it was made known that Kassoy was terminally ill. Club members attended from Florida, New York, Wisconsin, and Antarctica. The meeting lasted three days, and included a field trip to the Darling National Wildlife Refuge. Roger Tory Peterson was elected permanent president and Joseph Hickey permanent secretary. ## Christmas census In 1922, the club participated for the first time in the annual Christmas census run by the Audubon Society, recording 35 species in Pelham Bay, Van Cortlandt, and Bronx parks that year. The BCBC recorded more species each subsequent census; 26 species in 1923, 67 in 1925, 83 in 1926, 87 in 1927 and 93 in 1929. In 1934, the club spotted 97 species, reported to be one more than they had the previous year. By the group's twelfth census in 1935, 107 species were seen. In later years, the Queens County Bird Club were rivals in the competition. The club introduced a new technique, with teams of two or three assigned to survey specific areas. This proved to be a successful strategy, with the BCBC observing more species in the eastern US than any other team for three consecutive years. The 1935 total of 107 species was the first time any census participant had ever found more than 100. Initially called the Bronx County Christmas Bird Count, the boundary lines were redrawn in 1940 to include lower Westchester County and renamed the Bronx-Westchester Christmas Bird Count. The last BCBC member to participate in a Christmas count was Richard Herbert in 1956. ## Additional reading
20,452,234	Server Sundaram	1,168,355,000	1964 film by Krishnan–Panju	[ "1960s Tamil-language films", "1964 comedy-drama films", "1964 films", "AVM Productions films", "Films about actors", "Films about filmmaking", "Films directed by Krishnan–Panju", "Films scored by Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy", "Films set in hotels", "Films with screenplays by K. Balachander", "Indian comedy-drama films", "Indian films based on plays", "Tamil films remade in other languages", "Tragicomedy films" ]	Server Sundaram is a 1964 Indian Tamil-language comedy drama film directed by Krishnan–Panju and produced by A. V. Meiyappan. The film stars Nagesh as the title character. Muthuraman and K. R. Vijaya play the other lead roles while Major Sundarrajan, S. N. Lakshmi and Manorama play supporting roles. It focuses on a hotel waiter who strives to reach greater heights after he becomes an actor to attain the love of his restaurateur's daughter. The film was adapted from a 1963 play of the same name written by K. Balachander, with the play also featuring Nagesh himself in the title role along with Sundarrajan and Lakshmi who reprised their roles in the film. Balachander also wrote the screenplay for the film. Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy composed the film's soundtrack and background music, while Kannadasan, Vaali and V. Seetharaman wrote the lyrics for the soundtrack's songs. Server Sundaram was released on 11 December 1964. It received critical acclaim, with praise directed mainly at Nagesh's performance and Balachander's screenplay. The film went on to become a commercial success, with a theatrical run of over 100 days. At the 12th National Film Awards, it won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil under the Certificate of Merit category, and the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil. Server Sundaram earned Nagesh and Balachander their breakthrough in Tamil cinema and led to many successful collaborations between the two. It became the first Tamil film to show numerous behind-the-scenes looks at various processes involved in film-making such as the studio interiors and song recording. The film was remade into Hindi as Main Sunder Hoon (1971) and Kannada as Server Somanna (1993). ## Plot Sundaram, a poor man, comes to Madras with aspirations of becoming a film actor. However, he ends up getting a job as a hotel waiter. While catering for a group of people who were going on an excursion to Mahabalipuram, he meets Radha, the daughter of his restaurateur, Chakravarthy and misinterprets her friendly nature as love and falls in love with her. In the meantime, Sundaram happens to meet his friend Raghavan, an influential businessman, in the restaurant. During their subsequent meetings, Sundaram tells Raghavan about his ambition to become an actor as well as his love for Radha, without mentioning her name. Raghavan genuinely believes that the girl reciprocates Sundaram's feelings and motivates Sundaram to express his love. When Raghavan is about to leave his house for a marriage proposal, Sundaram comes there and describes the girl he was talking about to Raghavan. Raghavan realises that Radha, whom he intends to marry, is the same girl Sundaram is in love with. Raghavan, believing that Radha loves Sundaram, decides to help Sundaram attain his love and get a chance to act in films, which he does successfully. Sundaram becomes a star after his debut film becomes a success and believes that his stardom and popularity will help him in attaining his love. When Radha comes to Sundaram's house to congratulate him, he introduces her to Raghavan, who had come to visit Sundaram. As Sundaram goes to prepare snacks for the two, Radha asks Raghavan why he did not show up for the marriage proposal. Raghavan states that he thought Radha loved Sundaram. Shocked, Radha tells Raghavan that she likes Sundaram for his innocence, although she does not love him. Raghavan is pleasantly surprised, but to ensure that Sundaram's film career does not suffer from discovering the truth, he asks Radha to keep it a secret. Sundaram's mother is pleased with her son's popularity but misses his presence due to Sundaram's busy acting career. She expresses to Sundaram her desire that she should die in his arms. When Raghavan believes that Sundaram will gradually forget Radha so that he and Radha can get married, he discovers that Sundaram's love for Radha is stronger. Raghavan then informs Radha that she should marry Sundaram, as Raghavan does not want to backstab his friend. Radha instead decides to personally express her feelings to Sundaram. When Sundaram expresses his love to Radha, she tells him that she never imagined that he would assume her friendly affection towards him as love and that Raghavan is her fiancé. Sundaram, shattered on losing his love, is also happy on hearing that Raghavan would marry her and congratulates Raghavan. While Sundaram is busy shooting for the climax scene of a film, his mother falls down the footsteps of her home and is badly wounded. Sundaram's manager tries to convey the news to Sundaram, but is blocked by the studio authorities who inform him that the director has instructed them not to allow anyone inside. After finishing his shot, Sundaram hears of the news about his mother and rushes home, only to learn that she has died. He regrets being an actor. Later at Raghavan and Radha's marriage ceremony, Sundaram changes to his old uniform, that of a hotel waiter. When Raghavan orders Sundaram to remove the guise, Sundaram tells him that only the actor's role was a guise, and he has never felt the peace of mind he had as a waiter elsewhere. ## Cast Male cast - Nagesh as Sundaram - Muthuraman as Raghavan - Major Sundarrajan as Chakravarthy Female cast - K. R. Vijaya as Radha - S. N. Lakshmi as Sundaram's mother - Manorama as Kantha S. V. Ranga Rao guest stars as a film director. Singer T. M. Soundararajan, composer M. S. Viswanathan and guitarist S. Phillips make uncredited appearances in the song "Avalukenna". Goundamani appears uncredited as a car driver. ## Production ### Development In 1958, K. Balachander, then a playwright, established a theatre troupe named Ragini Recreations. Comedian Nagesh asked Balachander to give him a role in his plays, and Balachander assured him that he would write one featuring Nagesh as the main character, which became Server Sundaram. The play, a comedy drama, was first staged in 1963. Balachander stated that he wrote the story of Server Sundaram for Nagesh after watching his dramatic performance in the film Naanum Oru Penn (1963). He recalled in 2009 that when he wrote Server Sundaram with Nagesh in mind, he suffered anxious moments: "I was convinced of the story, but there was a risk in promoting Nagesh, but I pulled it off". A. V. Meiyappan, the founder of AVM Productions, desired to produce the play as a film, but before he could, the director duo Krishnan–Panju (R. Krishnan and S. Panju), after watching the play once, went on stage and announced that they would direct its film adaptation, and paid Balachander an advance. Nevertheless, the play's namesake film adaptation was produced by Guhan Films, a subsidiary of AVM. Balachander was recruited as the film's screenwriter, and initially had a keen interest in directing it himself. He said the script was "tailored" for Nagesh, contrary to AVM's general practice of choosing actors for already completed scripts. ### Casting and filming Nagesh, who starred as the title character in the play, reprised his role in the film along with Major Sundarrajan and S. N. Lakshmi. Sundarrajan played the restaurateur and the female lead's father, and Lakshmi played Sundaram's mother. After watching the play, Krishnan–Panju said, "If this play is ever made into a film, then Sundarrajan must play the father's role". Meiyappan accepted the inclusion of Nagesh in the film after watching his performance in the play. Nagesh, who in turn was impressed with Lakshmi's performance in the play, asked Balachander to have Meiyappan include her in the film. K. R. Vijaya was cast as Sundaram's love interest Radha, and Muthuraman as his friend Raghavan, reprising the roles played by Shobha and Raja on stage. Vijaya was chosen after many actresses refused to pair with Nagesh. Goundamani, who later became a successful comedian in Tamil cinema, made his acting debut with this film in an uncredited, non-speaking role. Balachander, who portrayed a small part as cleaner in the play, reprised his role in the film; however his scenes were deleted to accommodate the film's length. Server Sundaram was the first Tamil film to show numerous behind-the-scenes looks at the various processes involved in filmmaking such as the studio interiors, song recording, horse riding scenes and rain scenes. It was also notable for not featuring an antagonist. In one sequence, Manorama is seen as an actress performing a scene for a film directed by S. V. Ranga Rao's character, using the concept of a film-within-a-film. Cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao, and Panju edited the film under the pseudonym "Panjabi", with R. Vittal as co-editor. Server Sundaram was publicised with a still of Nagesh holding many cups and saucers, but the film initially had no such scene. After Meiyappan finished watching the final cut, upon his request it was added to the film. The final length of the film was 4,535 m (14,879 ft). ## Themes According to historian S. Theodore Baskaran, the film shows a "persistent theme in Tamil cinema", that of the bond between mother and son. He also compared it to City Lights (1931) because in both films, a poor man "pin[s] for the attention of the woman he fancies". Writing for The New Indian Express, Sharada Narayanan considered Server Sundaram to be a biography of Nagesh's own life, a view also shared by Hindustan Times' Gautaman Bhaskaran. Theodore Baskaran, Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen, and critic Baradwaj Rangan noted similarities between Nagesh and Charlie Chaplin. According to film journalist T. M. Ramachandran, the film tries to convey the message that when a man achieves popularity, the price he has to pay is rather unimaginably high and that peace and happiness are things which could be easily achieved by the humblest and poorest rather than by one in a state of material prosperity. Writing for Daily News Sri Lanka, S. Jegathiswaran noted that in Server Sundaram, Nagesh showed that "after having gained the social status one shouldn't forget one's past." TT Srinath wrote for The Hindu that the film tells viewers to "distance the problem or challenge and see it from afar, thus helping us recognise that what we are experiencing is perhaps not as daunting as we tend to believe." ## Music The soundtrack was composed by Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy (a duo consisting of M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy), with lyrics written by Kannadasan, Vaali, and V. Seetharaman. According to Balachander, when Meiyappan wanted another song to be added at the last minute, Kumaran gave an English song for which Viswanathan created a tune which eventually became "Avalukkenna". Philips, an autodidact guitarist, performed the guitar portions for "Avalukkenna". The music troupe for the song consisted of Noel Grant (drums), Mangalamurthy (accordion), Nanjappa (flute), Fobes (violin), Henry Daniel and Joseph Krishna. Violinist T. Samuel Joseph, popularly known as Shyam, also took part in the recording of the song. Balan, a member of the troupe, claimed in 2015 that Viswanathan came up with the tune for "Avalukenna" in ten minutes, while Anand Venkateswaran of The Wire believes that Viswanathan set the song to tune in 15 minutes, and it took T. M. Soundararajan the rest of the day to record it. According to Gopal Krishnan, in his book, Chords & Raaga, "Avalukkenna" involved a "complicated arrangement of mambo and bossa nova." Sadan, a mimicry artiste in Viswanathan's troupe, lent his voice as a parrot for the song "Thattai Nenjam". The soundtrack received positive reviews, with "Avalukkenna" being particularly well received. M. N. Bhaskaran of Hindu Tamil Thisai appreciated the clarinet interludes in the song. Baradwaj Rangan, writing for The Hindu, said, "Listen to the lazy drawl with which certain words taper off in 'Avalukkenna,' an antidote to the rock 'n' roll bounce in the rest of the song." Live versions of "Avalukenna" have been performed by various Indian singers including Karthik, Haricharan, Shweta Mohan and Rahul Nambiar. ## Release Server Sundaram was released on 11 December 1964, delayed from October. The film became a commercial success and completed a theatrical run of 100 days. It was also dubbed in Telugu under the same title. Server Sundaram was remade in Hindi as Main Sunder Hoon (1971), and in Kannada as Server Somanna (1993). On 18 April 2010, the film was screened at the South Indian Film Chamber Theatre for the Dignity Film Festival held in Chennai; other films also screened included Madhumati (1958), Kadhalikka Neramillai (1964), Anbe Vaa (1966) and Thillana Mohanambal (1968). ## Reception The film received critical acclaim. Positive comments were directed mainly at Nagesh's performance as Sundaram and Balachander's screenplay. The Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan, in its original review of the film dated 20 December 1964, mentioned that the highlight of the film was Nagesh's acting and the film gave the experience of conversing and enjoying with friends in a car journey without living much impact. Writing for Sport and Pastime on 9 January 1965, T. M. Ramachandran wrote that filmgoers who had persistently been watching films featuring "top stars in action, singing a duet or doing a romantic scene", would find Server Sundaram a welcome change, given that a comedian was playing the hero. He considered the story "very thin", but added, "The directors deserve to be congratulated on their ingenuity in presenting such scenes and in creating a sustaining interest in the whole film, especially to those moviegoers who have not witnessed the play." He lauded the performances of Nagesh, Vijaya, Muthuraman and Sundararajan, but criticised the music by Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy. Kalki said no one could have performed the title role better than Nagesh, but felt Vijaya was wasted. ## Accolades ## Legacy Server Sundaram attained cult status in Tamil cinema, and is considered by many critics to be Nagesh's breakthrough role as an actor and Balachander's first success in Tamil cinema. Actor Kamal Haasan compared his 2015 film Uttama Villain (which also starred Balachander) to Server Sundaram, finding it to be "both emotional and humorous" like the latter. The success of Server Sundaram led to many collaborations between Nagesh and Balachander, such as Neerkumizhi (1965), Major Chandrakanth (1966), Edhir Neechal (1968) and Apoorva Raagangal (1975). Film historian Mohan Raman noted that by casting Nagesh in Server Sundaram, Balachander "made the comedian a serious actor." The film also became noted for introducing the anti-hero to Tamil cinema as well as the style of delivering short and fast-paced dialogues. In 2014, Pradeep Madhavan of Hindu Tamil Thisai called it a trendsetter in Tamil cinema for showcasing scenes involved in filmmaking. A dialogue spoken by Sundaram, "Long, long ago... so long ago, nobody can say how long ago" became popular. Balachander mentions the dialogue in Uttama Villain as a build-up to the film his character directs. Tamil Canadian journalist D. B. S. Jeyaraj stated that the film gave Nagesh "another dimension as an actor who could evoke tears from the audience through his emotional performance" and that Server Sundaram was one film in which he "provided stellar displays of his histrionic talents". Actor Appukutty worked in several hotels and restaurants as a cleaner and server before making his debut as the lead actor with Azhagarsamiyin Kuthirai (2011) which won him the National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor; Kumar Chellappan of Daily News and Analysis compared this to the plot of Server Sundaram. Following Nagesh's death in 2009, Sify ranked Server Sundaram fourth in its list, "10 Best Films of late Nagesh", commenting, "A hotel waiter becomes a superstar and the transformation is shown brilliantly by the actor." Sri Lankan historian Sachi Sri Kantha included Server Sundaram in his list compiling "the ten landmark Tamil movies, spanning all genres, which delighted the multitude of fans immensely". The sequence where Sundaram balances several vessels in one hand, referred to by Gautaman Bhaskaran as the "dumara-tumbler" sequence, attained popularity, as did the scene where Sundaram's mother realises that he is not a hotel manager but a waiter. On the scene where Sundaram auditions in front of the film producers introduced to him by Raghavan, Baradwaj Rangan, writing for The New Indian Express, said, "Audiences that grew up with Nagesh will cotton on to the slyness of this apparently ungrateful gesture as the most identifiably Nagesh-like among everything that's transpired during these five minutes of Server Sundaram". Director Radha Mohan expressed a desire to remake the film but decided against it: "If there is one film I want to remake, [Server Sundaram] will be the one, but I know I will not, because I believe classics should be left alone." A restaurant named "Hotel Server Sundaram" is located in the Thuraipakkam area of Chennai. Clips from Server Sundaram were screened along with clips from other films such as Iru Kodugal (1969), Arangetram (1973), Aval Oru Thodar Kathai (1974), Avargal (1977) and Azhagan (1991) at a function held in Balachander's honour at Tiruchirappalli in January 2015, a month after his death. Actor Vikram, who became popularly known by the moniker "Chiyaan" after the release of Sethu in 1999, stated in August 2016, "After Nagesh sir [in Server Sundaram] becomes something else, he still holds his server uniform close to his heart as a memento. Chiyaan is something like that to me."
32,681,167	Wildwater Kingdom (Ohio)	1,126,549,264	Former water park in Ohio	[ "2005 establishments in Ohio", "2016 disestablishments in Ohio", "Amusement parks closed in 2016", "Aurora, Ohio", "Buildings and structures completed in 2005", "Buildings and structures demolished in 2017", "Buildings and structures in Geauga County, Ohio", "Buildings and structures in Portage County, Ohio", "Cedar Fair water parks", "Defunct amusement parks in Ohio", "Tourist attractions in Geauga County, Ohio", "Tourist attractions in Portage County, Ohio", "Water parks in Ohio" ]	Wildwater Kingdom was a water park located in Aurora and Bainbridge Township, Ohio, United States. Owned by Cedar Fair, the park opened in 2005 as part of the larger Geauga Lake and Wildwater Kingdom resort. The site was previously the location of SeaWorld Ohio (1970–2000) and later served as the marine life section of the larger Six Flags Worlds of Adventure (2001–2003). Worlds of Adventure was purchased by Cedar Fair in 2004 and the marine life area was converted into a water park for the 2005 season. Cedar Fair closed the Geauga Lake amusement park following the 2007 season but kept the water park open. It was first known as Geauga Lake's Wildwater Kingdom, and the name was later shortened to Wildwater Kingdom. Its normal operating season extended from late May to Labor Day each year. The park featured 15 water slides including Thunder Falls, which opened as the tallest water slide complex in Ohio. On August 19, 2016, Cedar Fair released a statement announcing the permanent closure of Wildwater Kingdom. Its final day of operation was September 5, 2016. ## History ### Background Wildwater Kingdom was located on the former site of SeaWorld Ohio. In January 2001, SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment sold SeaWorld to Six Flags, who combined the former site with Six Flags Ohio to form Six Flags Worlds of Adventure. Six Flags sold Worlds of Adventure to Cedar Fair in 2004, resulting in the removal of all Looney Tunes and DC Comics branding from the park and the Geauga Lake name being reinstituted for the park. ### Wildwater Kingdom Demolition of SeaWorld began in late 2004. Cedar Fair made plans to convert the site to a new water park. On November 11, 2004, Cedar Fair unveiled the new park as Wildwater Kingdom, announcing that it would open in 2005 upon the completion of the first phase of construction, which would include attractions such as ProSlide Tornado, an activity pool, an action river and a new children's area with a multistory play structure. The Hurricane Mountain water-slide complex at Six Flags would be retained but renamed Thunder Falls. The amusement and water park complex would be rebranded as Geauga Lake & Wildwater Kingdom, connected by a floating bridge running through the middle of the lake. The construction project was conducted in two phases, with the first costing \$16 million and the second costing \$8 million. The second phase began the following offseason with plans to be completed in time for 2006, involving the addition of a 38,000-square-foot (3,500 m<sup>2</sup>) wave pool, an adult pool with whirlpool spas, a swim-up bar, and two more water-slide towers. There were also plans to add an open-air auditorium and reopen a play area called Happy Harbor. However, only the wave pool was built. If the second phase had been completed, Wildwater Kingdom would have encompassed 20 acres (8.1 ha) to become one of the largest water parks in the United States. Instead, it was only expanded to 17 acres (6.9 ha). Before Wildwater Kingdom, Geauga Lake had its own water park which operated for more than 20 years. During the Six Flags era, it was known as Hurricane Harbor. Cedar Fair renamed it Hurricane Hannah's following its acquisition of World of Adventures in 2004. Hurricane Hannah's was closed permanently after the 2005 season, and it sat vacant and fenced off during the 2006 and 2007 seasons. On September 21, 2007, Cedar Fair announced that the amusement ride portion of Geauga Lake & Wildwater Kingdom would not reopen in 2008. Geauga Lake was dropped from the title in 2011, and it was marketed as simply Wildwater Kingdom. It put Geauga Lake's property up for sale in 2013. Several years later, Wildwater Kingdom would close permanently as well. Cedar Fair made the announcement on August 19, 2016. In their press release they stated, "Cedar Fair has been working cooperatively with both Bainbridge Township and the City of Aurora to redevelop the entire property into what will best benefit the surrounding communities. After examining its long-range plans, Cedar Fair has determined that the time is right to begin this transition and will continue to work together with community leadership in the positive future development of the property." The water park's final day of operation was September 5, 2016. The last remaining rides were demolished in November 2017. In August 2020, ground was broken for a mix-used development, featuring 308 residential units, 20 acres of commercial space and 98 acres of park land to replace the former Wildwater Kingdom park and parking lot. ## Slides and pools ### Other attractions In addition to slides and pools, the park featured several other family attractions. In 2010 it added a beach family-fun area, a children's attraction featuring a giant chessboard with movable playing pieces such as knights, rooks and pawns. There was also a sand-beach area overlooking Geauga Lake. Little Tikes Town, a children's area with playhouses and toys, was located behind Thunder Falls. ## Reception Wildwater Kingdom was regarded as Northeast Ohio's best water park. When the park operated as Geauga Lake & Wildwater Kingdom, the water park was the park's "highest rated attribute". ## In popular culture A scene between Kevin Costner and Frank Langella in the 2014 film Draft Day, was filmed at Wildwater Kingdom. ## See also - Wildwater Kingdom in Allentown, Pennsylvania (another Cedar Fair property) - List of water parks
2,360,645	Atul Gawande	1,168,103,275	American surgeon (born 1965)	[ "1965 births", "21st-century American physicians", "Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford", "American Rhodes Scholars", "American male non-fiction writers", "American male writers of Indian descent", "American medical writers", "American people of Indian descent", "American people of Marathi descent", "American surgeons", "Biden administration personnel", "Harvard Medical School alumni", "Harvard Medical School faculty", "Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health alumni", "Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health faculty", "Hastings Center Fellows", "Indian scholars", "Living people", "MacArthur Fellows", "Members of the National Academy of Medicine", "New America (organization)", "People from Athens, Ohio", "People of the United States Agency for International Development", "Physicians from Brooklyn", "Stanford University alumni", "The New Yorker people", "Writers from Boston" ]	Atul Atmaram Gawande (born November 5, 1965) is an American surgeon, writer, and public health researcher. He practices general and endocrine surgery at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. He is a professor in the Department of Health Policy and Management at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the Samuel O. Thier Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School. In public health, he is executive director of Ariadne Labs, a joint center for health systems innovation, and chairman of Lifebox, a nonprofit that works on reducing deaths in surgery globally. On June 20, 2018, Gawande was named the CEO of healthcare venture Haven, owned by Amazon, Berkshire Hathaway, and JP Morgan Chase and stepped down as CEO in May 2020, remaining as executive chairman while the organization sought a new CEO. He has written extensively on medicine and public health for The New Yorker and Slate, and is the author of the books Complications: A Surgeon's Notes on an Imperfect Science; Better: A Surgeon's Notes on Performance; The Checklist Manifesto; and Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End. On November 9, 2020, he was named a member of President-elect Joe Biden's COVID-19 Advisory Board. On December 17, 2021, he was confirmed as the Assistant Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development, and he was sworn in on January 4, 2022. ## Early years and education Gawande was born on November 5, 1965, in Brooklyn, New York, to Marathi Indian immigrants to the United States, both doctors. His family soon moved to Athens, Ohio, where he and his sister grew up, and he graduated from Athens High School in 1983. Gawande earned a bachelor's degree in biology and political science from Stanford University in 1987. As a Rhodes Scholar, he earned an M.A. in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) from Balliol College, Oxford, in 1989. He graduated with a Doctor of Medicine from Harvard Medical School in 1995, and earned a Master of Public Health from the Harvard School of Public Health in 1999. He completed his general surgical residency training, again at Harvard, at the Brigham and Women's Hospital, in 2003. ## Political advocacy As an undergraduate, Gawande was a volunteer for Gary Hart's campaign for the presidency of the United States. After graduating, he joined Al Gore's 1988 presidential campaign. He worked as a health-care researcher for Representative Jim Cooper (D-TN), who was author of a "managed competition" health care proposal for the Conservative Democratic Forum. Gawande entered medical school in 1990 – leaving after two years to become Bill Clinton's healthcare lieutenant during the 1992 campaign. ## Public service Gawande later became a senior advisor in the Department of Health and Human Services after Clinton's first inauguration. He directed one of the three committees of the Clinton administration's Task Force on National Health Care Reform, supervising 75 people and defined the benefits packages for Americans and subsidies and requirements for employers. But the effort was attacked in the press, and Gawande later described this time in his life as frustrating, saying that "what I'm good at is not the same as what people who are good at leading agencies or running for office are really good at." Gawande led the "Safe surgery saves lives checklist" initiative of the World Health Organization, which saw around 200 medical societies and health ministries collaborating to produce a checklist, which was published in 2008, to be used in operating theaters. The Lancet welcomed the checklist as "a tangible instrument to promote safety", adding "But the checklist is not an end in itself. Its real value lies in encouraging communication among teams and stimulating further reform to bring a culture of safety to the very centre of patients' care." ## Journalism Soon after he began his residency, his friend Jacob Weisberg, editor of Slate, asked him to contribute to the online magazine. Several articles by Gawande were published in The New Yorker, and he was made a staff writer for that publication in 1998. In January 1998, Gawande published an article in Slate – "Partial truths in the partial-birth-abortion debate: Every abortion is gross, but the technique is not the issue" – discussing how abortion policy should "hinge on the question of when the fetus first becomes a perceiving being" and "not on techniques at all – or even on when the fetus can survive outside the womb". A June 2009 New Yorker essay by Gawande compared the health care of two towns in Texas to show why health care was more expensive in one town compared to the other. Using the town of McAllen, Texas, as an example, it argued that a corporate, profit-maximizing culture (which can provide substantial amounts of unnecessary care) was an important factor in driving up costs, unlike a culture of low-cost high-quality care as provided by the Mayo Clinic and other efficient health systems. The article "made waves" by highlighting the issue, according to Bryant Furlow in Lancet Oncology. It was cited by President Barack Obama during Obama's attempt to get health care reform legislation passed by the United States Congress. According to Senator Ron Wyden, the article "affected [Obama's] thinking dramatically", and was shown to a group of senators by Obama, who effectively said, "This is what we've got to fix." After reading the New Yorker article, Warren Buffett's long-time business partner Charlie Munger mailed a check to Gawande in the amount of \$20,000 as a thank-you to Dr. Gawande for providing something so socially useful. Gawande returned the check and was subsequently sent a new check for \$40,000. Gawande donated the \$40,000 to the Brigham and Women's Hospital Center for Surgery and Public Health, where he had been a resident. In 2012, he gave the TED talk "How Do We Heal Medicine?" which has been viewed more than two million times. ## Books Gawande published his first book, Complications: A Surgeon's Notes on an Imperfect Science, containing revised versions of 14 of his articles for Slate and The New Yorker, in 2002. It was a National Book Award finalist. His second book, Better: A Surgeon's Notes on Performance, was released in April 2007. It discusses three virtues that Gawande considers to be most important for success in medicine: diligence, doing right, and ingenuity. Gawande offers examples in the book of people who have embodied these virtues. The book strives to present multiple sides of contentious medical issues, such as malpractice law in the US, physicians' role in capital punishment, and treatment variation between hospitals. Gawande released his third book, The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right, in 2009. It discusses the importance of organization and preplanning (such as thorough checklists) in both medicine and the larger world. The Checklist Manifesto reached the New York Times hardcover nonfiction bestseller list in 2010. Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End was released in October 2014 and became a \#1 New York Times bestseller. It discusses end of life choices about assisted living and the effect of medical procedures on terminally ill people. The book was the basis of a documentary for the PBS television series "Frontline", which was first broadcast on February 10, 2015. ## Later career Gawande chairs Lifebox, a non-profit founded in 2011 which provides training and equipment for safer surgery. In June 2018, he was named the CEO for the new, Boston-based company, Haven Healthcare, formed by billionaire investor Warren Buffett, Amazon's Jeff Bezos, and JPMorgan Chase CEO Jamie Dimon. He stepped down from the position in May 2020, remaining as executive chairman while the organization sought a new CEO. In January 2021, Haven announced that it was to cease operations. According to CNBC, sources associated with the company claimed that "while the firm came up with ideas, each of the three founding companies executed their own projects separately with their own employees, obviating the need for the joint venture to begin with." ### Biden administration On November 9, 2020, he was named a member of President-elect Joe Biden's COVID-19 Advisory Board. #### USAID nomination On July 13, 2021, President Biden nominated Gawande for the post of Assistant Administrator of U.S. AID for the Bureau of Global Health. Hearings were held on Gawande's nomination in the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on September 29, 2021. Florida Senator Marco Rubio delayed Gawande's committee vote in October 2021, claiming, "Atul Gawande’s defense of infanticide is disqualifying... President Biden should withdraw Gawande's nomination and replace him with someone who is committed to upholding the agency's mission of saving lives." Senator Rubio's statement stems from a 1998 article Gawande wrote defending particular methods of late-term abortion and post-delivery infanticide. On November 3, 2021, the committee favorably reported Gawande's nomination to the Senate floor. The entire Senate confirmed Gawande on December 17, 2021 by a vote of 48-31. ## Awards and honors In 2004, Gawande was selected as one of the "20 Most Influential South Asians" by Newsweek. In 2006, he was named a MacArthur Fellow for his work investigating and articulating modern surgical practices and medical ethics. In 2007, he became director of the World Health Organization's effort to reduce surgical deaths, and in 2009 he was elected a Hastings Center Fellow. In the 2010 Time 100, he was included, in fifth place in the "Thinkers" category. The same year, he was he was included by Foreign Policy magazine on its list of top global thinkers. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2012. In 2014, he presented the BBC's annual radio Reith Lectures, delivering a series of four talks titled The Future of Medicine. These were delivered in Boston, London, Edinburgh and Delhi. Also that year, he won the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science. In November 2016, he was one of three recipients of the Massachusetts Governor's Award in the Humanities for his contributions to improving civic life in Massachusetts. In May 2022 he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Sciences by the University of Pennsylvania at their annual commencement ceremony.
10,047,233	Baccano!	1,170,584,315	Japanese light novel series	[ "2003 Japanese novels", "2006 manga", "2007 Japanese television series endings", "2007 anime television series debuts", "Adventure anime and manga", "Anime and manga based on light novels", "Anime and manga set in the United States", "Aniplex", "Baccano!", "Brain's Base", "Dengeki Bunko", "Dengeki Comic Gao!", "Dengeki Comics", "Fiction about alchemy", "Fiction about immortality", "Funimation", "Gangan Comics manga", "Japanese adult animated adventure television series", "Japanese adult animated fantasy television series", "Kadokawa Dwango franchises", "Light novels", "Mystery anime and manga", "Novels set in New York City", "Novels set in the 1930s", "Novels set on trains", "Organized crime in anime and manga", "Seinen manga", "Shōnen manga", "Supernatural anime and manga", "Television series set in the 1930s", "Television series set in the 2000s", "Television shows based on light novels", "Television shows set in New York City", "Wowow original programming", "Yen Press titles" ]	Baccano! (Japanese: バッカーノ!, Hepburn: Bakkāno!, Italian for "ruckus",) is a Japanese light novel series written by Ryohgo Narita and illustrated by Katsumi Enami. The series, told from multiple points of view, is mostly set within a fictional United States across time most notably the Prohibition era. Its characters includes alchemists, thieves, thugs, Mafiosi and Camorristi, who are, at first, unconnected to one another. After an immortality elixir is recreated in 1930 Manhattan, the characters begin to cross paths, setting off events that spiral further and further out of control. The first novel was released in February 2003 under ASCII Media Works' (formerly MediaWorks) Dengeki Bunko imprint, twenty-two novels have so far been released. The novels were adapted into a sixteen episode anime television series directed by Takahiro Omori and produced by Brain's Base and Aniplex. The first thirteen episodes were aired on Wowow from July to November 2007; the final three were released direct-to-DVD. The series was also adapted into a two-volume manga, an adventure video game for the Nintendo DS and two drama CDs. An additional novel was released with the first drama CD and two gaiden novels were released in parts with the DVDs of the anime adaption. Funimation has dubbed the anime episodes in English, and has licensed them for release in the United States and Canada. The series was also licensed by Manga Entertainment for English releases in the United Kingdom, and by Madman Entertainment for releases in Australia and New Zealand. The entire English-dubbed series was streamed through Hulu during October 2009 and English-subtitled episodes continue to be streamed. Funimation streams English-subtitled and English-dubbed episodes through their website. Funimation's rights to the series expired in 2016. The light novels of the series have been well received by readers and have also been awarded. The first light novel, The Rolling Bootlegs, was awarded the Gold Prize of the ninth Dengeki Novel Prize, held by ASCII Media Works in 2002, after reaching third place. The anime adaptation of the series has been popular in Japan and the United States, and has also received significant praise for its plot, characters, strong dubbing, animation and musical score. ## Plot Below is a summary for the past twenty-two volumes in chronological order. Aboard the ship Advenna Avis in 1711, a group of alchemists summon a demon in the hopes of gaining eternal life. The demon gives them an elixir of immortality and the method of ending their existence, by "devouring" one another, and grants the summoner Maiza Avaro the formula of the elixir. Maiza and most of the alchemists decide that no one else must become immortal; only Szilard Quates opposes. That night, the alchemists begin to disappear, devoured by Szilard. Realizing the threat posed by staying together, they scatter across the globe. In New York City during November 1930, Szilard succeeds in recreating the elixir, only to have it stolen by young thug Dallas Genoard. The elixir continually moves around the city because of Dallas, with the three mafiosi Gandor brothers, the two idiotic thieves Isaac Dian and Miria Harvent, and Maiza's protege Firo Prochainezo and their Camorra family, the Martillo, all passing it around. Szilard makes Dallas an incomplete immortal (meaning he still ages) to retrieve the elixir. However, all other parties accidentally consume the elixir, mistaking it for alcohol, at a party for Firo. Firo falls in love with Szilard's immortal homunculus Ennis, who betrays Szilard by telling Firo how to devour Szilard, which he does. The Gandor then cement Dallas to a barrel at the bottom of the Hudson River to punish him for killing Gandor members. In late 1931, the Gandor fight the Runorata family for control of the same area after a new drug surfaces. In an attempt to resolve the situation, Luck Gandor asks his adoptive brother Claire Stanfield, an assassin and train conductor, to travel to New York. Claire agrees to, and as a conductor, boards the transcontinental train the Flying Pussyfoot. The train is hijacked by the Russo and Lemure gangs, who are trying to kidnap a senator's family, and a battle ensues between the two gangs. Jacuzzi Splot, Nice Holystone and their gang attempt to protect the passengers and fight the hijackers, while Claire assumes the identity of the Rail Tracer, a monster that eats train passengers, and slaughters much of the Russo and the Lemure. During a confrontation between Ladd Russo and Chane Laforet and the Lemure, Claire interrupts and proposes to Chane Laforet, who is the daughter of Huey Laforet, one of the original immortals aboard the Advenna Avis. A serial stowaway and newspaper field agent named Rachel flees Claire and ends up helping in the rescue of the hostages. The last remaining members of the Lemure are eventually defeated by Jacuzzi's gang, while sadistic murderer Ladd Russo is incarcerated and loses his arm to Claire. At the same time, Ennis writes to Isaac and Miria, inviting them to Manhattan. The duo boards the same train and meets Jacuzzi, and unwittingly sway immortal Czeslaw Meyer from enacting malevolent acts via bombs to be used in the New York Drug War. The train arrives in New Year 1932 with the survivors going their separate ways: Jacuzzi and Nice escape custody and go into hiding after their base of operations in Chicago was taken over by the Russo family; information gatherer Rachel returns to the Daily Days mostly unscathed; Isaac and Miria introduce Czes to the Martillo family and is subsequently adopted by Firo and Ennis, who later marry, as the latter's brother; and Claire begins his mission to exterminate the enemies of his adoptive brothers, with his intentions to find Chane and marry her after the job is done. Later that year in 1932, Dallas' sister Eve searches for Dallas, putting her at odds with the Gandor family. These stories involved the Daily Days News Information company and the Runorattas' drug plot with Begg, a drug addicted immortal alchemist acquaintance of Maiza's encroaching Gandor turf through his miracle drugs, testing it on innocent bystanders including a young man named Roy Maddock. Eventually Eve is caught up in the turf war involving drugs with the Runoratta family and Gandors, the ramifications of the turf war affecting two lovers: Gandor speakeasy waitress Edith and her boyfriend, revealed to be Roy. The climax of the conflict results in Luck secretly telling Eve where Dallas is to spare her from bloodshed, and with Claire's help, the turf war ends with bittersweet results for Edith and Roy now associated with the Gandors until they finish the debt they compiled in the story albeit in happier terms. Eventually in 1933, Dallas is pulled out of the river, but shortly after, he is abducted by the Larvae, a group working for Huey Laforet. Meanwhile, Jacuzzi's operations begin to encroach on Gandor and Martillo turf. Representatives (Ronnie Schiatto, Ennis, Maria Barcelito and Tick Jefferson) from both groups converge on Eve's home, where his gang is staying along with Isaac and Miria. At the same time, the Larvae arrive to enlist Jacuzzi's help; they have kidnapped Dallas to prove that immortality is possible, and attempt to convince Jacuzzi into join them. However it devolves into an incident at the mansion, forcing both parties to temporarily retreat and attract the attention of Claire after hearing Chane was injured in the battle. Their conflict reaches a prominent building in New York called Mist Wall, the largest branch office of the military equipment researcher and developer Nebula, is bombed according to Huey's plan but mitigated by the intervention of various parties involved. The gangs avert further catastrophe by stopping the Larvae group and with Tick Jefferson making amends with Larvae leader Tim, revealed to be his lost younger brother before once again going their separate ways. The next year in 1934 at Alcatraz Island, Ladd Russo befriends Firo, who was framed by fellow Immortal Victor Talbot for the Mist Wall public bombing and Isaac, who was finally caught for his thefts, leaving Miria morose from his arrest. All three men meet Huey Laforet in separate occasions, who was charged with treason and conspiracy years ago with affiliation to the Lemures among other terrorist acts. Meanwhile, Christopher Shouldered, Huey's homunculus, and Graham Specter, Ladd's loyal follower, cause an all out war in Chicago through various battles enacted by the Lamia, Nebula and the Russo family led by a now immortal Placido Russo with each battling for their lives. Afterwards, Jacuzzi and his gang return to Chicago while Ladd attempts to kill Huey and fails thanks to the efforts of Isaac, Firo and Chane's homunculus sister, Leeza Laforet; however, the scuffle resulted in Huey's eye taken with the help of Lamia operative Sham, a homunculus who can take over one's consciousness by contact through his body in the form of water. The homunculus group Lamia (associated with Larvae, the group previously encountered by the cast in 1933) cause trouble for the Russo family while this happens. Several of the Lamia join their forces and others split after the conflict, particularly Christopher joining with the Russo family to protect the androgynous heir Ricardo Russo along with Lamia member Sickle and Graham Spector. Isaac is eventually released from Alcatraz along with Firo after fulfilling their mission. Placido Russo, Ricardo's grandfather and Ladd's uncle, is eventually turned immortal and consumed by Nebula scientist Renee for his failure in stopping the rampage of Chicago, resulting in Ricardo inheriting the crime family. The remainder of the plot focuses of an even older faction of Immortals led by Huey's mentor and former lover, Renee Paramedes Branvillier detailed their relationship with the 1711 immortals from the 1700s till the later 1930s and how the corporation Nebula involves themselves against the other crime families by allying themselves with Senator Manfred Beriam, who bears malevolent grudges against immortals. In 1935, One particular immortal named Melvi targets Firo in by manipulating the entire cast to partake in a high stakes casino royale party in a newly established building called Ra's Lance run by various Mafia families, however many other characters have various agendas that threatens his plan. He intends to endanger Ennis in order to extract the memories of Szilard Quaites by eating Firo, unaware that his bodyguard is Claire Stanfield, resulting in his defeat. Later, Renee continues to pursue Huey by attempting to reclaim their daughter Chane for an experiment which put her at odds with Claire who intends to marry their daughter. As of this writing, the conflict remains unresolved. In 2001, Maiza and a few immortals appear in a rural European town to apprehend a fellow alchemist and immortal Elmer C. Albatross, who had been masquerading as a demon and was imprisoned by the locals. They uncover an age old conspiracy detailing the origins of water homunculi from the 1930s (Sham and Leeza Laforet, sister of Chane) and also putting a stop the experiments on the people that had been ongoing in the town as they remained unaware of Szilard Quaite's demise for almost the remaining century, his descendant Bild Quaites later encounters the immortals and reveals the horrific secrets of the village. Phil and Felt Nebil, homunculi resulting from Szilard's experiments are subsequently freed from the village and allowed to wander the earth, ending up in New York after the ordeal. In 2002, a cult named SAMPLE launches a heist to replicate the Flying Pussyfoot incident via a twin cruise ship named Exit and Entrance only to be thwarted by Claire Stanfield and Chane Laforet's descendants, Claudia and Charon Walken with Jaccuzi Splot and Nice Holystone's descendant, Bobby Splot along with his gang with unwitting aide from another faction called Mask Makers led by Huey's descendant Luchino B. Campanella. It is eventually revealed that Czes's tormentor Fermet is in fact the mastermind and overall villain of the series after Szilard Quates. ## Production Ryohgo Narita wanted to write a story set during the Prohibition and chose a light novel as the medium because not many of them had that setting. He believed that this choice would better attract the interest of the ASCII Media Works judges. After Narita saw The Untouchables, he spent about ten days working with inspirations and created Baccano! "out of [his] useless calculations." While writing the first novel The Rolling Bootlegs, he consulted many books while writing and mixed fictional elements with historical situations to create a unique plot flow. The story he originally planned was about an ancient magician who was revived during the Prohibition and began to terrorize New York City. A group of mafiosi then violently oppose the magician. However, the story became very different from the original concept. Narita never wrote a detailed outline for the novel and is relieved by that fact because it allowed the characters to "move on their own." The original stages of the series included more supernatural elements. Maiza Avaro was a hypnotist; Ennis was a succubus; Szilard was a magician. In addition, every member of the Camorra, except for Firo, did not survive. Despite the great differences between the characters' initial concepts and the result, Narita is "glad" that these ideas were not used in the finished novel. Narita did not begin work on a second novel during the six months after the publication of The Rolling Bootlegs because his chief editor asked him to write nothing until after he graduated from university. After his graduation, he was offered to publish his next book in August, and he submitted his manuscripts in late April, a bit behind original deadlines. He had written over 400 pages, making the price over ¥700, which is a high price for a novel written by a newcomer. This worried Narita because it was unlikely anyone would buy the novel. As a result, he and his chief editor decided that the novel would be released in two parts. However, Narita was still anxious about publishing such a long novel. To motivate himself to write more, he would often refer back to the dialogue he had written for Ladd Russo. As with the first novel, the plot changed because of the characters' "movements", most notably Claire Stanfield. Narita noted that all of the Lemure and Russo, with the exception of a character named Neider, were originally planned to die, but Claire's presence in the novel left that concept "in ruins". In addition, Chane Laforet, who was not well liked by the author, was also supposed to die, but as time passed, Narita became attached to her and changed her fate. While creating the anime series, art director Akira Ito and other staff members scouted Manhattan and surrounding neighborhoods to accurately portray the area. They visited the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood, Chinatown, Little Italy, Grand Central Terminal and various locations in Brooklyn and along the East River, many of which provide the backdrop for the events in Baccano!. The staff also visited the Steamtown National Historic Site to create accurate steam locomotives. Tyler Walker, the ADR director of the English dub of the series, held auditions for six days, during which about 140 people came for the eighteen main roles. Walker states that this is probably the longest casting process Funimation has held. He comments that because there are a lot of characters and most of them are older men, a character type he does not work with often, choosing voice actors and familiarizing them with their characters was difficult. He asked many directors and actors for recommendations and mainly aimed to cast newcomers, as he felt Baccano! provided him a chance to discover newer talent. Walker wished to find actors who could provide the dialect and accents of the various time periods and locations, especially when casting for the characters with heavy European accents. To prepare to write the script, Walker watched various movies featuring gangsters. He attempted to take what he could from The Untouchables, especially Robert De Niro's portrayal of Al Capone. Walker watched movies created and set in the 1930s, including but not limited to The Public Enemy, Little Caesar, Once Upon a Time in America, Miller's Crossing and various movies starring James Cagney, because he believed they would give him a truer feel on how people of the era sounded and talked. He wanted to capture the lingo and rhythm. Because Baccano! is a "stylized gangster flick" and because of the nature of anime, he made the dialogue more flowery and lingo-ridden than it would have been in reality. ## Media ### Light novels The Baccano! light novels are written by Ryohgo Narita and illustrated by Katsumi Enami. Originally, Narita entered the first novel into ASCII Media Works' ninth Dengeki Novel Prize in 2002 and the novel won the Gold Prize, placing third. The first novel was released in February 2003 under ASCII Media Works' Dengeki Bunko imprint, and as of August 2016, twenty-two novels have been released. In addition, one novel accompanied the first drama CD, released on March 31, 2006, and two gaiden novels were released in parts with DVDs of the anime adaption, released from October 24, 2007, to May 28, 2008. Daewon C.I. licensed the Korean-language release of the series in South Korea and releases the novels under their NT Novels imprint. A Chinese-language release in Taiwan and Hong Kong is published by the Taiwan branch of Kadokawa Media under their Fantastic Novels imprint. It was announced at the 2015 Anime Expo that Yen Press will start publishing the Baccano! novels in English in 2016. The English edition of the first volume, The Rolling Bootlegs, was published in May 2016. ### Drama CDs The series has been adapted into two drama CDs. The first, titled 1931 Local Chapter ・ Express Chapter (鈍行編・特急編, Donkōhen ・ Tokkyūhen) The Grand Punk Railroad, was released March 31, 2006, by MediaWorks. Named after the second and third light novels, the CD retells the events occurring aboard the Flying Pussyfoot train. The second CD, Firo Prochainezo witnesses the 53rd death of Pietro Gonzalez (フィーロ・プロシェンツォ、ピエトロ・ゴンザレスの五十三回目の死を目撃す, Firo Puroshentso, Pietoro Gonzaresu no gojūsankaime no shi o mokugeki su), was released by Movic on October 24, 2007. It follows Firo and Luck as they chase two men to a small village in Mexico and attempt to retrieve money stolen from the Martillo and Gandor families. ### Anime A 16-episode anime series directed by Takahiro Omori and produced by Brain's Base, Aniplex and Movic was adapted from the light novels. The episodes describe the events spanning from 1930 to 1932 in a non-linear fashion, including the recreation of the immortality elixir, the hijacking of the Flying Pussyfoot, Eve's hunt for her brother and the gang war between the Gandor and the Runorata. The first thirteen episodes aired in Japan from July 26, 2007, to November 1, 2007 on WOWOW, a Japanese pay-per-view station, and the final three were released direct-to-DVD. The series made its North American television debut when it started airing on the Funimation Channel in 2010. Eight DVD compilations were released by Aniplex, each containing two episodes, with the first released on October 24, 2007, and the eighth on May 28, 2008. A Blu-ray Baccano! limited edition boxset was released on January 26, 2011, by Aniplex. On July 21, 2008, Funimation announced that it has licensed Baccano! for a North American release. Four DVD compilations were released, with the first on January 27, 2009, and the fourth on June 16, 2009. A complete DVD collection boxset was released December 29, 2009, and re-released on December 28, 2010, as part of a lower-priced Viridian Collection. A limited edition Blu-ray boxset was released May 17, 2011. The entire English-dubbed series was streamed through Hulu during October 2009 and English-subtitled episodes continue to be streamed, and Funimation streamed subtitled and dubbed episodes through their website. In Australia and New Zealand, the series is licensed by Madman Entertainment, who released the series over four DVDs between June 24, 2009, and October 21, 2009. A boxset was released on March 17, 2010. Baccano! is licensed in the United Kingdom by Manga Entertainment and was released as a complete boxset on October 11, 2010. The series is aired in the Philippines, Hong Kong, India, Pakistan and Southeast Asia on Animax Asia. On January 25, 2016, it was announced that Funimation's DVD home distribution and streaming rights for the anime would expire on February 8, 2016, and the series will be transferred to Aniplex of America. #### Soundtrack The series' original soundtrack was released as Spiral Melodies on October 24, 2007 by Aniplex. Two singles, "Gun's & Roses" by Paradise Lunch and "Calling" by Kaori Oda, were released on August 22, 2007. "Gun's and Roses" contained the opening theme, a vocal version of the opening, two songs and karaoke versions of the three tracks. The "Calling" single included the ending theme, another track and the karaoke versions of the two. ### Manga A manga adaption titled Baccano! 1931 The Grand Punk Railroad was written by Narita and illustrated by Ginyū Shijin. It was published in MediaWorks' Dengeki Comic Gao! magazine from December 27, 2006 to February 27, 2008 and was collected in two volumes released July 27, 2007 and April 26, 2008. The chapters center around the hijacking of the Flying Pussyfoot train. The Chinese-language release is published by the Taiwan branch of Kadokawa Media. A second adaptation, written by Shinta Fujimoto and published in Square Enix's Young Gangan magazine, was published between October 16, 2015 and January 6, 2017. The series was licensed by Yen Press, who published the chapters simultaneously with Japan. A third manga adaptation (of the eleventh volume, 1705 The Ironic Light Orchestra), titled Baccano! \~from the 1700s\~, written and illustrated by Kakuji Fujita, launched on December 25, 2022 on DMM's DMM Books manga website. #### Volume list ### Video game On February 28, 2008, MediaWorks released an adventure game, simply titled Baccano!, for the Nintendo DS. Based on the two Grand Punk Railroad light novels, the game recounts the events aboard the Flying Pussyfoot train from multiple perspectives. The player's goal is to help the passengers arrive safely in New York City by selecting the correct choices. The game can conclude with one of about fifty scenarios, depending on the player's decisions. ### Artbook On February 20, 2009, ASCII Media Works released an art book titled Katsumi Enami Artbook Baccano! (エナミカツミ画集バッカーノ!, Enami Katsumi Gashū Baccano!). The book not only featured illustrations drawn by Enami, but also included a story titled Boy Czeslaw, Fellows of the Forest (of Buildings) (チェスワフぼうやと、(ビルの)森の仲間達, Chesuwafu Bōya to, (Biru no) Mori no Nakamatachi). ## Reception While reviewing the first light novel, Gabriella Ekens from Anime News Network said "The prose in Baccano! is extremely punchy, moving quickly by focusing heavily on dialogue and action." She also praised it by saying "blast moment to moment." Nevertheless, she found its gore as a con to enjoying it. The anime adaptation of Baccano! has received positive reviews. Several critics from various websites have praised the series for its plot, characters, animation, musical score and its voice acting. For example, THEM Anime Reviews gave the entire series a score of 5 out of 5 stars, with reviewer Bradley Meek stating that the show was "a joy to watch" and despite the fact that "the series ends on an epilogue that feels a bit flat", it left him with "the best possible feeling: a mixture of contentment and a hunger to see more". He also praised the series for its animation which looked "great throughout, especially for a TV series" before summarizing the series as a "beautiful, confounding mess of chaos and delight". Baccano! has received significant praise from Anime News Network reviewers. Theron Martin described the anime as "sometimes humorous, occasionally brutal, and nearly always fun". He claimed that the anime's "complex plotting and voluminous casting, combined with strong dubbing, animation, and musical score, make this a must-see series for fans of American mobster stories," and concluding that "this could be one of the year's best series." In his review, Carl Kimlinger claimed Baccano! to be "one of the best, and certainly the most cleverly written series in recent years" and described it as "lethally fun" before giving the series an 'A' rating for both the subbed and dubbed versions. Davey C. Jones of Active Anime praised the anime, stating that, "Like Pulp Fiction changed the way we saw movies, Baccano will be the story that will change the way we see anime," concluding that "this all over the map anime is one unique and crazy ride from start to its never ending finale" and that "Baccano offers something truly unique in anime." Daryl Surat and Mike Toole of Anime World Order Podcast consider Baccano! to be their "pick for best series of 2007 (or 2009 depending on how you want to count it)." Bryce Coulter of Mania Entertainment gave the complete series a 'B' rating, stating that it is "a drastic and welcome departure from your typical anime formula and that's what makes it so intriguing," and concluding that it has a "little bit of comedy, drama, action, and romance all swirled up into one giant ruckus of fun!"
63,529,500	French cruiser Tage	1,142,783,488	Protected cruiser of the French Navy	[ "1886 ships", "Cruisers of the French Navy", "Ships built in France" ]	Tage was a protected cruiser built for the French Navy in the 1880s, the second vessel of that type built for the French fleet. The design was based on the previous cruiser, Sfax, and like that vessel, Tage was intended to be used as a commerce raider to attack merchant shipping. As such, she carried a barque sailing rig to supplement her steam engines for long voyages overseas. Tage was armed with a main battery of eight 164 mm (6.5 in) guns and had a curved armor deck that was 51 to 56 mm (2 to 2.2 in) thick. Tage spent the 1890s operating in the Mediterranean Sea, either as part of the active Mediterranean Squadron or in the Reserve Squadron, which was typically activated for annual training exercises with the rest of the fleet. The ship was modernized in 1900, which included the installation of new boilers, removal of her sailing rig, and other alterations. She operated with the Newfoundland and Iceland Naval Division and later the Atlantic Squadron in the early 1900s. Tage was ultimately struck from the naval register in 1910 and then broken up for scrap. ## Design In 1878, the French Navy embarked on a program of cruiser construction authorized by the Conseil des Travaux (Council of Works) for a strategy aimed at attacking British merchant shipping in the event of war. The program called for ships of around 3,000 long tons (3,048 t) with a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph). The first four vessels of the program were wood-hulled unprotected cruisers, but a planned fifth vessel, originally intended along the same lines, was radically re-designed as the first modern protected cruiser of the French fleet, which became Sfax. In 1883, Bertin proposed a follow-on vessel based closely on Sfax, the principal change being an increase in the power of the ship's propulsion system to reach a speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph), a major improvement over the 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph) reached by Sfax. The Conseil approved the specifications on 10 July, but Bertin continued to work on the design, particularly after the Navy requested the speed to be increased by another knot to keep pace with developments in fast civilian steam ships. After a meeting on 20 May 1884, the Conseil suggested removing the cellular layer of watertight compartments above the armor deck that Bertin had devised for Sfax as a way to save weight and thereby increase speed. Bertin submitted three variations in mid-1885, which the Conseil examined and rejected on 9 June. At the same time, the naval architect Charles Jaÿ was preparing a proposal to meet the Navy's requirements, which he completed on 18 December 1884. His proposed ship would have a top speed of 19 to 20 knots (35 to 37 km/h; 22 to 23 mph), and he based the arrangement of the propulsion system on information received from the trials of the British cruiser Iris, which had reached 18.6 knots (34.4 km/h; 21.4 mph) during initial speed tests. Instead of Bertin's cellular layer, Jaÿ employed a cofferdam above the armor deck to control flooding in the event of battle damage. Vice Admiral Alexandre Peyron, then the Minister of the Navy, forwarded Jaÿ's design to the Conseil on 19 January 1885. After an evaluation on 24 February, the Conseil requested modifications, including an armament identical to Sfax and improved armor protection. Jaÿ completed the revisions on 15 April, which the Conseil approved on 26 May. ### General characteristics and machinery Tage was 124.1 m (407 ft) long overall, 119.94 m (393.5 ft) long at the waterline, and 118.8 m (390 ft) long between perpendiculars. She had a maximum beam of 16.38 m (53 ft 9 in) below the waterline and an average draft of 6.95 m (22 ft 10 in), which increased to 7.5 m (25 ft) aft. She displaced 7,073.65 t (6,961.93 long tons) as designed and up to 7,600 t (7,500 long tons) at full load. Her hull featured a pronounced ram bow and short fore and sterncastles. As was typical for French warships of the period, she had a pronounced tumblehome shape and an overhanging stern. Tage's hull was constructed primarily of steel, but her keel and sternpost were iron. Her superstructure was minimal, consisting primarily of a small conning tower forward. Her crew consisted of 511 officers and enlisted men, nearly half of whom—250 men—worked in the engine and boiler rooms. Tage was propelled by a pair of horizontal, three-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a four-bladed, bronze screw propeller. The engines consisted of two high-pressure cylinders and a low pressure cylinder, the latter of which could be disconnected to allow the machinery to be run as a two-cylinder compound engine. Steam was provided by twelve coal-burning fire-tube boilers that were ducted into funnels located amidships. The boilers were divided into three groups of four, each group in its own watertight boiler room. To supplement the steam engines on long voyages, she was originally fitted with a barque sailing rig with three masts. The power plant was rated to produce 12,410 indicated horsepower (9,250 kW) for a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). On steam trials, she reached 17.8 knots (33.0 km/h; 20.5 mph) from 8,115 ihp (6,051 kW) using normal draft and 19.2 knots (35.6 km/h; 22.1 mph) from 12,110 ihp (9,030 kW) using forced draft. The engines were capable of reaching 97 revolutions per minute, but they vibrated excessively above 90 rpm, and so in 1893, they were modified to be limited to a maximum of 87 rpm to address the problem. Coal storage amounted to 856 t (842 long tons) normally and up to 1,023 t (1,007 long tons) at full load. Her cruising radius was 4,642 nautical miles (8,597 km; 5,342 mi) at an economical speed of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). ### Armament and armor The ship was initially armed with a main battery of six 164.7 mm (6.48 in) M1881 28-caliber (cal.) guns carried in individual pivot mounts. Four of the guns were mounted in sponsoned on the upper deck, two on each broadside, while the other two were placed in embrasures in the forecastle. These weapons were supported by a secondary battery of ten 138.6 mm (5.46 in) M1881 30 cal. guns that were carried in a main deck battery amidships. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried three 47 mm (1.9 in) M1885 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns, a single 47 mm Hotchkiss revolver cannon, and fourteen 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder Hotchkiss revolvers, all in individual mounts. She also carried seven 356 mm (14 in) torpedo tubes in her hull above the waterline. Two were in the bow, two were on each broadside, and the last was in the stern. The ship was protected by a wrought iron armor deck that was 40 mm (1.6 in) on the flat portion, increasing to 80 mm (3.1 in) on the section that covered her propulsion machinery spaces and magazines. Toward the sides of the ship, the deck sloped down and increased in thickness slightly to 44 mm (1.7 in); the sloped sides terminated at the hull 1.30 m (4 ft 3 in) below the waterline. Both sections of the deck were layered over 14 mm (0.55 in) of hull plating. Tage's bow was reinforced above the deck by 30 mm (1.2 in) layered on the 14 mm of hull plating, but the bow was not otherwise strengthened for ramming attacks. The main deck battery had transverse bulkheads that were 80 mm on either end. Her conning tower also had 80 mm sides. Between the armor and main decks, a cofferdam was erected at sides of the ship, which was lined with cellulose to contain flooding in the event of damage. ### Modifications During the ship's initial trials in 1889, the navy decided to increase Tage's armament with an additional pair of 164.7 mm guns. Small sponsons were added amidships, but delays in the delivery of the gun mounts left the sponsons empty until 1892. At that time, the ship underwent a thorough refit that included replacing the original medium-caliber gun armament with newer quick-firing guns of the same size. These consisted of eight 164.7 mm M1884 30-cal. guns and eight 138.6 mm M1884 30-cal. guns. The sailing rig was removed, along with the mainmast, the remaining masts were shortened, and the mizzenmast was relocated further forward. It was during this refit that the engines were limited to 87 rpm to address the vibration problem. The work began in August 1892 and lasted into April 1893. In 1897, the bow and stern torpedo tubes were removed. A second major refit was carried out between 1899 and 1901, which included the installation of new boilers and revisions to the light guns. The original fire-tube boilers were replaced with Bellville type water-tube boilers. At that time, she carried a defensive battery of fourteen 47 mm M1885 QF guns and a pair of 37 mm (1.5 in) M1885 QF guns. ## Service history Tage was ordered on 3 August 1885 and was laid down later that month at the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire shipyard. She was launched on 28 October 1886 and began fitting out. Installation of her engines lasted from 11 July 1887 to 12 July 1888. She was towed to the Arsenal de Brest shortly before being commissioned for sea trials on 1 March 1889. These lasted until 20 October 1890, when the ship was placed in full commission. Three days later, she departed for Toulon, where she joined the Mediterranean Squadron. There she served as part of the reconnaissance force for the main French battle fleet, along with the cruisers Sfax, Amiral Cécille, and Lalande. The ship participated in the 1891 fleet maneuvers, which began on 23 June and concluded on 11 July. In August 1892, the ship was refitted at Toulon, and in April 1893, she returned to active service. By that time, Tage had been assigned to the Reserve Squadron, where she spent six months of the year on active service with full crews for maneuvers; the rest of the year was spent laid up with a reduced crew. At that time, the unit also included several older ironclads and the cruisers Davout, Sfax, Forbin, and Condor. Tage took part in the fleet maneuvers in 1894; from 9 to 16 July, the ships involved took on supplies in Toulon for the maneuvers that began later on the 16th. A series of exercises included shooting practice, a blockade simulation, and scouting operations in the western Mediterranean. The maneuvers concluded on 3 August. Tage returned to the Mediterranean Squadron in 1895, joining the recently completed cruiser Suchet and the three Troude-class cruisers. She took part in the fleet maneuvers that year, which began on 1 July and concluded on the 27th. She was assigned to "Fleet A", which along with "Fleet B" represented the French fleet, and was tasked with defeating the hostile "Fleet C", which represented the Italian fleet. The ship was still formally assigned to the Reserve Squadron in 1896, though she was out of service for repairs that year. That year, she was reduced to the 2nd category of reserve, along with several old coastal defense ships, ironclads, and other cruisers. They were retained in a state that allowed them to be mobilized in the event of a major war. In 1897, Tage was reactivated to participate in the second phase of the exercises of the Northern Squadron. These lasted from 18 to 21 July, and the scenario saw the Tage and Sfax simulate a hostile fleet steaming from the Mediterranean Sea to attack France's Atlantic coast. In the course of the exercises, the Northern Squadron successfully intercepted the cruisers and "defeated" them. Tage was refitted again between September 1899 and April 1901 at Brest, France. After returning to service in 1901, she remained in Brest, though she was not attached to the Northern Squadron. In 1902, she was assigned to the Newfoundland and Iceland Naval Division, serving with the cruisers D'Estrées, Suchet, and Descartes. The unit was tasked with patrolling fishing areas off the coast of North America. She remained on the station the following year, and she was joined by the cruiser Lavoisier. Later in 1903, she was transferred to the Atlantic Squadron, which had previously been amalgamated with the Northern Squadron. At that time, the unit consisted of Tage, Troude, and D'Estrées. Later that year, Tage was relieved by the armored cruiser Dupleix; Tage thereafter returned to Brest, where she was paid off into the 2nd category of reserve on. On 20 October that year, she was transferred to the special reserve, and in 1904, she was sent to Landévennec, where she joined Sfax. The ship was struck from the naval register on 7 June 1907, but was kept at Brest through 1909 before being placed for sale on 3 December that year. She was eventually sold on 25 August 1910 to the Shipbreaking Co., based in London, and broken up.
16,110,833	Federated States of Micronesia at the 2008 Summer Olympics	1,122,367,717	null	[ "2008 in Federated States of Micronesia sport", "Federated States of Micronesia at the Summer Olympics by year", "Nations at the 2008 Summer Olympics" ]	The Federated States of Micronesia sent a team of five athletes to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. The appearance of the delegation marked the third appearance by a Micronesian team at the Olympics since its debut at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia. Three male athletes (Jack Howard in athletics, Kerson Hadley in swimming and Manuel Minginfel in weightlifting) and two female athletes (Maria Ikelap in athletics and Debra Daniel in swimming) comprised the Olympic team. None of the track or swimming athletes advanced past the qualification round, and Minginfel placed second to last in his event. There has yet to be a medalist from the Federated States of Micronesia. Minginfel held the Micronesian flag in the opening ceremony. ## Background The Federated States of Micronesia is a collection of some 6,000 islands in the South Pacific Ocean that includes approximately 100,000 people. The nation is composed of several states that each embody a prominent ethnic group amongst the island group, and lies approximately three-quarters of the way between Hawaii and Indonesia. After World War II, the Micronesian island chain became a United Nations trust territory administered by the United States. The Federated States of Micronesia became an independent country on 1986, but freely associates with the United States, which handles matters of defense. The Federated States of Micronesia sent its first delegation to participate in the Olympics approximately 14 years after it became a sovereign entity, sending three men and two women to the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia. Between then and Beijing in 2008, three male and two female Micronesian athletes participating across three sports have appeared at the Olympics at every instance. Prior to Beijing, there had been no medalists from the Federated States of Micronesia; no medals were won by Micronesian athletes at the Beijing games either. Up to and including the Beijing Olympics, weightlifter Manuel Minginfel had been the flagbearer for Micronesia at every opening ceremony. At the Beijing games, the youngest athlete was swimmer Debra Daniel, who was 17 years old. The eldest was Minginfel at age 29. Of the delegation, the only one who had been to multiple Olympic games was Minginfel. ## Athletics Jack Howard represented the Federated States of Micronesia as its only male track athlete at the Beijing Olympics. He competed in the men's 100 meters races. Born in the island of Weno in the Chuuk Lagoon along with his twin brother John Howard, Jack Howard was born in July 1981 and was 27 years old when he competed in Beijing. Howard had not previously competed at any Olympic games. Howard competed in heat seven against seven other athletes in the qualification round of the event on August 14. He finished the race in 11.03 seconds, ranking seventh in his heat; he placed ahead of Gordon Heather of the Cook Islands (11.41 seconds) and immediately behind Monaco's Sebastien Gattuso (10.70 seconds) in a heat led by Qatar's Samuel Francis (10.40 seconds) and Trinidad and Tobago's Marc Burns (10.46 seconds). Overall, 80 competitors took part in the qualification round of the event. Howard ranked 66th. Of the 80 competitors to compete the top 41 qualified for the second round and, therefore, Howard did not advance to later rounds. Maria Epiph Ikelap competed on the Federated States of Micronesia's behalf at the Beijing Olympics in the women's 100 meters races. Born in 1987 in Weno, an island in the archipelago of Chuuk, Ikelap was 21 years old at the time of her participation in the 2008 Olympics. Ikelap had not previously competed in any Olympic games. During the qualification round of her event, which took place on August 15, Ikelap competed in the ninth heat against eight other athletes. She finished the race in 13.73 seconds, ending in eighth place. Lao's Philaylack Sackpaseuth ranked immediately behind Ikelap (13.86 seconds), while Yemen's Waseelah Saad ranked immediately ahead (13.60 seconds). The heat itself was led by Russia's Evgeniya Polyakova (11.24 seconds) and Barbados's Jade Bailey (11.46 seconds). Of the 85 competitors in the event's first round, Ikelap ranked 80th and, therefore, that was the end of her competition. ## Swimming Kerson Hadley represented the Federated States of Micronesia as its only male swimmer competing in the Beijing Olympics. Hadley took part in the men's 50 meters freestyle race. He was born in May 1989, and was 19 years old when he appeared in Beijing for his races. Hadley had not previously competed at any Olympic games. The preliminary round for the men's 50 meters freestyle took place on August 14, with Hadley in the eight-person fifth heat. With a time of 25.34 seconds, Hadley finished fifth, displacing John Kamyuka of Botswana (25.54 seconds) but falling behind Andrey Molchanov of Turkmenistan (25.02 seconds). The heat was led by Cameroon's Alain Brigion Tobe (24.53 seconds) and Sidni Hoxha of Albania (24.56 seconds). Of the 97 people who competed in the event's preliminary round, Hadley ranked 70th. He did not advance to later rounds. Debra Daniel, Federated States of Micronesia's youngest competitor at the Beijing games, represented the Federated States of Micronesia at Beijing as its only female swimmer, as she was a competitor in the women's 50 meters freestyle event. Born in March 1991, Daniel was 17 years old when she arrived in Beijing to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics. Daniel had not previously competed at any Olympic games. The preliminary round of her event took place on August 15; Daniel was placed in the third heat against seven other athletes for the races. She finished in 30.61 seconds, placing fifth. Daniel ranked immediately ahead of Tanzania's Magdalena Moshi (31.37 seconds) and immediately behind Julianne Kirchner of the Marshall Islands in a heat led by Ugandan swimmer Olivia Aya Nakitanda (29.38 seconds) and Botswana's Samantha Paxinos (29.92 seconds). Of the 90 athletes who finished the event, Debra Daniel ranked 76th. Therefore, Daniel did not advance to later rounds. ## Weightlifting Manuel Minginfel was the only weightlifter at the Beijing Olympics who competed under the banner of the Federated States of Micronesia. He participated in the men's featherweight class, which includes athletes of 62 kilograms and below. Born in Yap, Minginfel was 21 years old when he first competed at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia. Although he was unable to successfully lift any snatches at those games, Minginfel finished in his event when at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, at 25 years old. The Micronesian athlete was 29 years old when he returned to the Olympics for the third time in 2008. During the course of his event, which took place on August 11, Minginfel was the only Oceanian competing against 16 other athletes. While on the snatch phase, Minginfel successfully lifted 115 kilograms on his first attempt and 120 kilograms on his second attempt, but failed to lift 123 kilograms on his third try. However, he succeeded in all of his clean and jerks, and successfully lifted 145 kilograms; 150 kilograms; then 155 kilograms. His final score, which combines his highest lifted weight from the snatch and clean and jerk categories, was 275 kilograms. Of the 12 athletes who finished the event, Minginfel ranked 11th ahead of Canadian weightlifter Jasvir Singh (266 kilograms) and behind Henadzy Makhveyenia of Belarus (278 kilograms). In comparison, gold medalist Zhang Xiangxiang of China lifted a combined total of 319 kilograms.
24,281,059	Hurricane Fred (2009)	1,168,001,431	Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 2009	[ "2009 Atlantic hurricane season", "Cape Verde hurricanes", "Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Cape Verde", "Tropical cyclones in 2009" ]	Hurricane Fred was one of the easternmost forming major hurricanes in the North Atlantic basin since satellite observations became available. Forming out of a strong tropical wave on September 7, 2009 near the Cape Verde Islands, Fred gradually organized within an area of moderate wind shear. The following day, decreasing shear allowed the storm to intensify and develop well-organized convective banding features. Later on September 8, Fred attained hurricane intensity and underwent rapid intensification overnight, attaining its peak intensity as a strong Category 3 hurricane with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg). Shortly after reaching this intensity, the hurricane began to weaken as wind shear increased and dry air hampered convective development. Throughout September 10, Fred maintained Category 2 status before weakening to a Category 1 hurricane. Continued weakening took place on September 11 as convection became fully disorganized. Later that day, Fred weakened to a tropical storm and by September 12, no convection remained around the center of the former hurricane, leaving an exposed low-level circulation. The storm degenerated into a remnant-low later that day, corresponding with the final advisory from the National Hurricane Center (NHC). The remnants of Fred persisted for nearly a full week, traveling west-northwest across the Atlantic basin. The remnants finally dissipated on September 19. Prior to becoming a tropical depression, the precursor to Fred produced moderate to heavy rainfall in the southern Cape Verde Islands, leading to two flight cancellations and several delays. ## Meteorological history Hurricane Fred originated from a strong tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 6. Environmental conditions ahead of the system favored development and the system was forecast to slowly develop into a tropical cyclone. The following day, the wave tracked south of the Cape Verde Islands; however, it was close enough to bring showers and gusty winds to the southern islands. By this time, the National Hurricane Center anticipated the system to organize into a tropical depression within 24 hours. While passing near Cape Verde, a broad area of low pressure developed within the tropical wave. Following further development, the NHC declared that the low strengthened into a tropical depression, the seventh of the 2009 season, and issued their first advisory on it. Upon being classified a tropical depression, the system was located roughly 160 mi (255 km) south of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands. Upon being classified a tropical depression, the NHC noted that the center of circulation was difficult to locate and the mid-level circulation was displaced from the low-level circulation. The cyclone tracked slightly north of due west in response to a small ridge to the north. Moderate wind shear initially displaced convective activity to the west. Several hours after being classified, the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Fred; this was the first use of the name Fred in the Atlantic basin after it replaced Fabian which was retired in 2003. This followed the development of convective banding features along the periphery of the storm and strong shower and thunderstorm activity forming over the center of Fred. The system continued to organize, with the banding features becoming well-defined within hours and strong outflow developing around the storm. By the afternoon of September 8, an eye began to develop within a central dense overcast. Later that day, Fred intensified into a Category 1 hurricane with winds estimated at 75 mph (120 km/h). By the morning of September 9, satellite imagery depicted that Fred had undergone rapid intensification and attained Category 2 status. This resulted from the formation of a 12 mi (19 km)-wide eye due to low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures. This intensification continued for several more hours, ending with Fred attaining satellite-estimated its peak intensity as a solid Category 3 hurricane with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and an estimated barometric pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg), making it the second strongest storm of the season. Hours after attaining its peak intensity, Fred began to weaken as clouds began to fill the eye. By this time, the hurricane was beginning to turn toward the northwest as a subtropical ridge to the north weakened. Continued weakening took place as dry air started to erode convection along the southern edge of the system and the eye was no longer present on satellite imagery and wind shear also increased. Convection gradually became elongated in response to the shear and outflow was mostly restricted to the northeast region of the hurricane. By September 10, the mid-level circulation center was displaced from the low-level circulation center. On September 11, the convective pattern of Fred had no organized shape to it and the NHC downgraded the hurricane to a tropical storm. Unrelenting shear and dry air finally took their toll on September 12. By that time, no deep convection was associated with the main circulation of Fred, leaving the center fully exposed. The storm degenerated into a remnant-low later that day, corresponding with the final advisory from the National Hurricane Center. On September 13, despite being in an extremely hostile environment with very high wind shear, convection redeveloped near the center of Fred, and regeneration into a tropical cyclone was seen as a possibility. Two days later, the NHC noted that environmental conditions could become marginally favorable for redevelopment of the system. On September 16, the circulation of Fred became less defined and only intermittent convection persisted around the system. By September 17, the remnant circulation became increasingly disorganized and the system dissipated later that day without regenerating into a tropical cyclone. However, several hours later, a new area of low pressure formed in association with the remnants of Fred roughly 525 mi (845 km) south of Bermuda. The remnant low finally dissipated on September 19, roughly 520 mi (835 km) southwest of Bermuda. Remnant moisture from Hurricane Fred contributed to the 2009 Southeastern United States floods, which caused 10 fatalities and produced damages estimated at \$250 million. ## Historical perspective and impact Over the years that the Atlantic hurricane basin has been thoroughly studied since 1851, there was only one other storm prior to Hurricane Fred to attain Category 3 intensity south of 30°N and east of 35°W. This storm was Hurricane Frances in 1980. Frances attained major hurricane status farther south and east than Fred; however, Fred was the strongest of the two, peaking with estimated winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg). Just over a year later, this intensity record was broken by Hurricane Julia, which attained winds of 140 mph (225 km/h) and a pressure of 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg) at 17.7°N and 32.2°W, becoming the easternmost-forming Category 4 hurricane on record. In one of the NHC's discussions on Hurricane Fred, it was mentioned that due to the unusual location of a storm of its intensity, the hurricane would likely have gone unnoticed before the advent of satellite imagery in the 1960s. Several hours before being declared a tropical depression, the precursor to Fred produced moderate rainfall and gusty winds across the southern Cape Verde Islands. In the city of Praia, Cape Verde, only a trace of rain, less than 0.1 in (2.5 mm) fell on September 7 and sustained winds reached 25 mph (40 km/h). The increased winds and heavy rains led to the cancellation of two flights and the delay of several others. ## See also - Timeline of the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season - Hurricane Frances (1980) - Hurricane Julia (2010) - Hurricane Fred (2015) – became the easternmost Atlantic hurricane before moving through Cape Verde
756,772	Lennie Tristano	1,172,933,028	American jazz pianist and composer	[ "1919 births", "1978 deaths", "20th-century American composers", "20th-century American male musicians", "20th-century American pianists", "20th-century jazz composers", "American blind people", "American jazz composers", "American jazz educators", "American jazz pianists", "American male jazz composers", "American male pianists", "American musicians with disabilities", "American people of Italian descent", "Atlantic Records artists", "Avant-garde jazz pianists", "Bebop pianists", "Blind educators", "Blind musicians", "Cool jazz pianists", "Educators from Illinois", "Jazz musicians from Chicago", "Jazz musicians from New York (state)", "Musicians from Flushing, Queens", "People from Hollis, Queens", "People from Jamaica Estates, Queens", "Post-bop pianists", "Prestige Records artists", "Savoy Records artists" ]	Leonard Joseph Tristano (March 19, 1919 – November 18, 1978) was an American jazz pianist, composer, arranger, and teacher of jazz improvisation. Tristano studied for bachelor's and master's degrees in music in Chicago before moving to New York City in 1946. He played with leading bebop musicians and formed his own small bands, which soon displayed some of his early interests – contrapuntal interaction of instruments, harmonic flexibility, and rhythmic complexity. His quintet in 1949 recorded the first free group improvisations. Tristano's innovations continued in 1951, with the first overdubbed, improvised jazz recordings, and two years later, when he recorded an atonal improvised solo piano piece that was based on the development of motifs rather than on harmonies. He developed further via polyrhythms and chromaticism into the 1960s, but was infrequently recorded. Tristano started teaching music, especially improvisation, in the early 1940s, and by the mid-1950s was concentrating on teaching in preference to performing. He taught in a structured and disciplined manner, which was unusual in jazz education when he began. His educational role over three decades meant that he exerted an influence on jazz through his students, including saxophonists Lee Konitz and Warne Marsh. Musicians and critics vary in their appraisal of Tristano as a musician. Some describe his playing as cold and suggest that his innovations had little impact; others state that he was a bridge between bebop and later, freer forms of jazz, and assert that he is less appreciated than he should be because commentators found him hard to categorize and because he chose not to commercialize. ## Early life Tristano was born in Chicago on March 19, 1919. His mother, Rose Tristano (née Malano), was also born in Chicago. His father, Michael Joseph Tristano, was born in Italy and moved to the United States as a child. Lennie was the second of four brothers. Lennie started on the family's player piano at the age of two or three. He had classical piano lessons when he was eight, but indicated later that they had hindered, rather than helped, his development. He was born with weak eyesight, possibly as a consequence of his mother being affected by the 1918–19 flu pandemic during pregnancy. A bout of measles when aged six may have exacerbated his condition, and by the age of nine or ten he was totally blind as a result of glaucoma. He initially went to standard state schools, but attended the Illinois School for the Blind in Jacksonville for a decade from around 1928. During his school days he played several instruments, including saxophones, trumpet, guitar, and drums. At the age of eleven he had his first gigs, playing clarinet in a brothel. Tristano studied for a bachelor's degree in music in performance at the American Conservatory of Music in Chicago from 1938 until 1941, and stayed for another two years for further studies, although he left before completing his master's degree. One of his aunts assisted Tristano by taking notes for him at university. ## Later life and career ### 1940s In the early 1940s Tristano played tenor saxophone and piano for a variety of engagements, including in a rumba band. He began giving private music lessons at around the same time, including to saxophonist Lee Konitz. From 1943 Tristano also taught at the Axel Christensen School of Popular Music. He first received press coverage for his piano playing in early 1944, appearing in Metronome's summary of music in Chicago from that year, and then in Down Beat from 1945. He recorded with some musicians from Woody Herman's band in 1945; Tristano's playing on these tracks "is characterized by his extended harmonies, fast single-line runs, and block chords." He also recorded solo piano pieces in the same year. Tristano also married in 1945; his wife was Judy Moore, a musician who sang to his piano accompaniment in Chicago in the mid-1940s. Tristano's interest in jazz inspired a move to New York City in 1946. As a preliminary step to moving there, he stayed in Freeport, Long Island, where he played in a restaurant with Arnold Fishkind (bass) and Billy Bauer (guitar). This trio, with an assortment of bassists replacing Fishkind, was recorded in 1946–47. Reviewers at the time commented on the originality of the piano–guitar counterpoint and the trio's approach to harmony. Gunther Schuller later described one of their recordings as "too far ahead of its time" in its harmonic freedom and rhythmic complexity. Tristano met saxophonist Charlie Parker in 1947. They played together in bands that included bebop musicians Dizzy Gillespie and Max Roach later that year for radio broadcasts. The pianist reported that Parker enjoyed his playing, in part because it was different from what Parker was accustomed to and did not copy the saxophonist's style. In 1948 Tristano played less often in clubs, and added Konitz and a drummer to his regular band, making it into a quintet. This band recorded the first sides for the New Jazz label, which later became Prestige Records. Later that year Warne Marsh, another saxophonist student of Tristano's, was added to the group. Tristano's band had two recording sessions in 1949 that proved to be significant. The sextet recorded original compositions, including his "Wow" and "Crosscurrent", that were based on familiar harmonies; reviewers commented on the linearity of the playing and its departure from bebop. Without a drummer, the other musicians also recorded the first free improvisations by a group – "Intuition" and "Digression". For these tracks, the sequence in which the musicians would join in the ensemble playing, and the approximate timing of those entrances, were planned, but nothing else – harmony, key, time signature, tempo, melody or rhythm – was prepared or set. Instead, the five musicians were held together by contrapuntal interaction. Both tracks were praised by critics, although their release was delayed – "Intuition" was released late in 1950, and "Digression" not until 1954. Parker and composer Aaron Copland were also impressed. Numerous other musicians of the time, however, thought Tristano's music too progressive and emotionally cold, and predicted that it would not be popular with the public. The sextet struggled to find enough work, but did play at Birdland's opening night "A Journey Through Jazz", a subsequent five-week engagement at that club, and at various other venues in the north-east of the US late in 1949. They performed free pieces in these concerts, as well as Bach fugues, but found it difficult over time to continue to play with the freedom that they had initially felt. ### 1950s With occasional personnel changes, the sextet continued performing into 1951. In the same year, the location for Tristano's lessons shifted from his home in Flushing, Queens to a Manhattan loft property, part of which he had converted into a recording studio. This also served as the location for frequent jam sessions with various invited musicians. The address became the title of one of his compositions – "317 East 32nd Street". At around the same time, Tristano started a record label named Jazz Records. It released "Ju-ju" and "Pastime" on a 45 record in 1952, before Tristano abandoned the project because of time demands and distribution problems. The two tracks were from a trio session with bassist Peter Ind and drummer Roy Haynes, and contained overdubbed second piano parts added later by Tristano. Ind described them as the first improvised, overdubbed recordings in jazz. Early reviewers largely failed to realize that overdubbing had been used. Tristano's recording studio remained in use, and was the scene of early sessions for Debut Records, co-founded by Roach and bassist Charles Mingus. In 1952 Tristano's band performed occasionally, including as a quintet in Toronto. In the summer of that year, Konitz joined Stan Kenton's band, breaking up the core of Tristano's long-standing quintet/sextet, although the saxophonist did on occasion play with Tristano again. Tristano's 1953 recording "Descent into the Maelstrom" was another innovation. It was a musical portrayal of Edgar Allan Poe's story of the same title, and was an improvised solo piano piece that used multitracking and had no preconceived harmonic structure, being based instead on the development of motifs. Its atonality anticipated the much later work of pianists such as Cecil Taylor and Borah Bergman. In the following year Tristano's sextet played at the first Newport Jazz Festival. This may have been his only jazz festival appearance – he considered them to be too commercial. Marsh left the band in the summer of 1955. Tristano recorded his first album for Atlantic Records in 1955; he was allowed control over the recording process and what to release. The eponymous album included solo and trio tracks that contained further experiments with multitracking ("Requiem" and "Turkish Mambo") and altered tape-speed ("Line Up" and "East 32nd"). The use of overdubbing and tape manipulation was controversial with some critics and musicians at the time. "Requiem", a tribute to Parker, who had died a short time earlier, has a deep blues feeling – a style not usually associated with Tristano. For "Line Up" and "East 32nd", Tristano's "use of chromatic harmony ... secures him a position of a pioneer in expanding the harmonic vocabulary of jazz improvisation", in biographer Eunmi Shim's words. By the mid-1950s Tristano focused his energies more on music education. In 1956 he had to leave his Manhattan studio; he established a new one in Hollis, Queens. Some of his core students moved to California after Tristano's base was relocated. This, coupled with a separation from his wife in the same year due to his infidelity, meant that he was physically more isolated from the New York music scene. He gave fewer concerts than earlier, but in 1958 he had the first of what were sometimes lengthy engagements at New York's Half Note Club, after the owners persuaded him to perform, in part by replacing their club's Steinway piano with a new Bechstein of Tristano's choosing. They later reported that, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the musicians who were the most popular at their club were John Coltrane, Zoot Sims, and Tristano: "Coltrane brought in the masses, Zoot brought in the musicians and Lennie brought in the intellectuals." In 1959 Tristano's quintet again performed in Toronto, this time at the Famous Door. ### 1960s and 1970s Tristano's second album for Atlantic was recorded in 1961 and released the following year. The New Tristano, as was stressed on the album cover, consisted entirely of piano solos and no overdubbing or tape-speed manipulation was employed. The tracks contain left-hand bass lines that provide structure to each performance as well as counterpoint for the right-hand playing; block chords, unclear harmonies and contrasting rhythms also appear. Other solo piano recordings that Tristano made in 1961 were not released until the 1970s. Tristano and his wife formally divorced in 1962. Their son, Steve, who was born in 1952, met his father only once after their initial 1956 separation. Tristano married again in the early 1960s. His second wife was Carol Miller, one of his students. They had a son, Bud, and two daughters, Tania and Carol. The couple divorced in 1964, and Tristano later lost a custody battle with his ex-wife over the children. In 1964 the pianist reformed his quintet with Konitz and Marsh for a two-month engagement at the Half Note and performances at the Coq D'Or in Toronto. The quartet, missing Konitz, played the Cellar Club in Toronto two years later. Tristano played on occasion at the Half Note Club until the mid-1960s, and toured Europe in 1965. His European tour was mainly as a solo pianist, and the playing was in the style of his The New Tristano recordings. He performed with Ind and others in concerts in the UK in 1968; they were well received, and Tristano returned the following year. His last public performance in the US was in 1968. Tristano declined offers to perform in the 1970s; he explained that he did not like to travel, and that the requirement for a career-minded musician to play concerts was not something that he wanted to follow. He continued teaching, and helped to organize concerts for some of his students. Another album, Descent into the Maelstrom, was released in the 1970s; it consisted of recordings made between 1951 and 1966. Tristano had a series of illnesses in the 1970s, including eye pain and emphysema (he smoked for most of his life). On November 18, 1978, he died of a heart attack at home in Jamaica, New York. ## Personality and views on music In Ind's view, Tristano "was always so gentle, so charming and so quietly spoken that his directness could be unnerving." This directness was noted by others, including bassist Chubby Jackson, who commented that Tristano had almost no tact and would not worry about being rude or making others feel incompetent. Some of his students described Tristano as domineering, but others indicated that this impression came from his demanding discipline in training and attitude to music. Writer Barry Ulanov commented in 1946 that Tristano "was not content merely to feel something, ... he had to explore ideas, to experience them, to think them through carefully, thoroughly, logically until he could fully grasp them and then hold on to them." Tristano criticized the free jazz that began in the 1960s for its lack of musical logic as well as its expression of negative emotions. "If you feel angry with somebody you hit him on the nose – not try to play angry music", he commented; "Express all that is positive. Beauty is a positive thing." He expanded on this by distinguishing emotion from feeling, and suggested that playing a particular emotion was egotistical and lacking in feeling. Tristano also complained about the commercialization of jazz and what he perceived to be the requirement to abandon the artistic part of playing in order to earn a living from performing. Later commentators have suggested that these complaints ignored the freedom that he was given by Atlantic and blamed others for what in many cases were the outcomes of his own career decisions. ## Influences and playing style Saxophonists Parker and Lester Young were important influences on Tristano's development. Another major figure was pianist Art Tatum: Tristano practiced solo Tatum pieces early in his career, before gradually moving away from this influence in search of his own style. Bebopper Bud Powell also affected Tristano's playing and teaching, as he admired the younger pianist's articulation and expression. Tristano's advanced grasp of harmony pushed his music beyond the complexities of the contemporary bebop movement: from his early recordings, he sought to develop the use of harmonies that were unusual for that period. His playing has been labeled "cool jazz", but this fails to capture the range of his playing. Eunmi Shim summarized the changes in Tristano's playing during his career: > The trio recordings of 1946 show a novel approach in the linear interaction between piano and guitar, resulting in counterpoint, polyrhythm, and superimposed harmonies. The sextet recordings of 1949 are notable for coherent ensemble playing and soloing, and the free group improvisations based on spontaneous group interactions and the contrapuntal principle. In the 1950s Tristano employed an advanced concept in jazz improvisation called side-slipping, or outside playing, which creates a form of temporary bitonality when chromatic harmony is superimposed over the standard harmonic progressions. Tristano intensified his use of counterpoint, polyrhythm, and chromaticism in the 1960s[.] Grove Music commented on some aspects of Tristano's style that were different from most modern jazz: "Rather than the irregular accents of bop, Tristano preferred an even rhythmic background against which to concentrate on line and focus his complex changes of time signature. Typically, his solos consisted of extraordinarily long, angular strings of almost even quavers provided with subtle rhythmic deviations and abrasive polytonal effects. He was particularly adept in his use of different levels of double time and was a master of the block-chord style". Fellow piano player Ethan Iverson asserted that, "As a pianist, Tristano was in the top tier of technical accomplishment. He was born a prodigy and worked tirelessly to get better." Tristano "had seemingly small but extremely flexible hands, which could expand to a phenomenal degree", allowing him to reach large intervals. ## Teaching Tristano is regarded as one of the first to teach jazz, particularly improvisation, in a structured way. He taught musicians irrespective of their instrument and structured lessons to meet the needs of each individual. Lessons were typically 15–20 minutes in length. He did not teach the reading of music or the characteristics of different styles of jazz, instead challenging students in ways that would allow them to find and express their own musical feelings, or style. Foundational elements for a student's learning were having a concept of (principally diatonic) scales as music and a basis for harmony. One of the teaching tools often used by Tristano, including for scales, was the metronome. The student set the metronome at or near its slowest setting initially, and gradually increased its speed, allowing a sense of time to develop, along with confidence in placing each note. Tristano encouraged his students to learn the melodies of jazz standards by singing them, then playing them, before working on playing them in all keys. He also often had his students learn to sing and play the improvised solos of some of the best-known names in jazz, including Parker and Young. Some students first sang solos from a recording slowed to half the normal speed; eventually they learned to sing and play them at normal speed. Tristano stressed that the student was not learning to imitate the artist, but should use the experience to gain insight into the musical feeling conveyed. Such activities stressed the value of ear training, and the idea of feeling being fundamental to musical expression. All of this preceded having the opportunity to improvise during lessons. ## Legacy Critics disagree on Tristano's importance in jazz history. Max Harrison indicated that the pianist had limited influence outside his own group of affiliated musicians; Robert Palmer, who pointed out that only one of Tristano's albums was in print at the time of his death, suggested that he was pivotal in the change from 1940s modern jazz to the freer styles of subsequent decades; and Thomas Albright similarly believed that his improvising prepared and developed new ground in the history of the music. Elements of Tristano's early playing – counterpoint, reharmonizing, and strict time – influenced Miles Davis' Birth of the Cool, and the playing of saxophonist Gerry Mulligan and pianist Dave Brubeck. Tristano's early, more feelings-based performances also influenced the style of pianist Bill Evans, who also used overdubbing and multitracking in his own recordings after Tristano had experimented with the techniques. Avant-garde musician Anthony Braxton has often mentioned Tristano and some of his students as influences. Pianist Mose Allison commented that Tristano and Powell "were the founders of modern piano playing, since nearly everyone was influenced by one or the other of them." Albright cited Tristano as an influence on the pianists Paul Bley, Andrew Hill, Mal Waldron, and Taylor. After Tristano's death, jazz piano increasingly adopted aspects of his early playing, in Ted Gioia's view: "younger players were coming to these same end points not because they had listened to Tristano ... but because these developments were logical extensions of the modern jazz idiom." In Ind's opinion, Tristano's legacy "is what he added technically to the jazz vocabulary and his vision of jazz as a serious musical craft". Grove Music's summary is that "Tristano's influence is felt most strongly in the work of his best pupils ... and in his example of high-mindedness and perfectionism, characteristics which presupposed for jazz the highest standards of music as art." Shim too identified his teaching as part of his legacy: parts of his approach to teaching jazz have become standard practice; and "the sheer number of students he taught, which may easily exceed a thousand", tied to some of them going on to employ what they learned in their own playing and pedagogy, illustrate his influence. Tristano's teaching also affected the art of painter Robert Ryman, who had music lessons with the pianist: Ryman's "technique not only parallels music in general but shares the principles of kinesthetic and multisensorial attention to detail that characterized the teaching of Lennie Tristano." Shim suggested that the common under-appreciation of Tristano is attributable in part to his style being unusual and too difficult for jazz commentators to categorize. Ind also believed that Tristano's reputation became less than was deserved – "He stuck with his convictions and would not commercialize. His dedication, plus the lack of general appreciation by many jazz critics, led inevitably to his being sidelined." ## Awards Tristano was Metronome's musician of the year in 1947. He was elected to Down Beat's Hall of Fame in 1979. In 2013 Tristano was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for Crosscurrents, an album of recordings from 1949. He was added to the Ertegun Hall of Fame in 2015. ## Discography Only albums are listed. ### As leader/co-leader ### As sideman Main sources:
33,238,413	Most Wanted (Hilary Duff album)	1,172,885,397	null	[ "2005 compilation albums", "Albums produced by Chico Bennett", "Albums produced by John Shanks", "Albums produced by Matthew Gerrard", "Albums produced by the Matrix (production team)", "Hilary Duff compilation albums", "Hollywood Records compilation albums" ]	Most Wanted is the first compilation album by American actress and singer Hilary Duff. It was released on August 10, 2005, by Hollywood Records. The album comprises ten previously released tracks (three of which are in a remixed form), and three new recordings: "Wake Up", "Beat of My Heart", and "Break My Heart". A deluxe edition of the album, subtitled The Collector's Signature Edition, was also released, containing additional remixes and another new recording "Supergirl". At first, Duff was concerned about the reaction of fans to the new songs, since they carry a "totally different sound" and are more dance-oriented than her previous music. Following its release, Most Wanted received mostly negative reviews from critics, who deemed the release as premature, stating that Duff did not have enough material to warrant a compilation. However, the Dead Executives-produced tracks received favorable comments; critics wrote that they stood out from the rest of the album. In the United States, the album debuted atop the Billboard 200, becoming Duff's second number one entry on the chart, also becoming the second solo artist to chart on the Billboard 200 under the age of 18 twice, and sixth overall. It was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Elsewhere, it debuted at number one in Canada, and reached the top ten in Australia, Ireland, Italy, Japan and New Zealand. Four singles were released from the album. The lead single, "Wake Up", was released in August 2005, and peaked within the top ten in countries including Italy, Norway and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the song reached number 29 and was certified Gold by the RIAA. The accompanying music video features Duff portraying styles from cities over the world like London and Tokyo. The second single, "Beat of My Heart", peaked in the top 20 in countries such as Australia, Italy and Spain. "Supergirl" was released in February 2006 exclusively to the iTunes Store as promotional single and "Fly", originally released as the lead single from Hilary Duff, was re-released throughout Europe as the final single from Most Wanted. Duff embarked on the worldwide Still Most Wanted Tour in support of the album; the tour ran from July 2005 through September 2006. ## Background and development Following Hollywood's reported disappointment in the lack of sales longevity of the Hilary Duff album and the chart performance of "Fly", all further single releases from Hilary Duff in the United States were cancelled and the Most Wanted project was quickly conceived. On May 20, 2005, MTV News reported that Duff would be releasing a new album in August, comprising previously released tracks and four new recordings. It was also announced that preceding the album's release, Duff would begin a 32-date summer concert tour in support of the album. Four days later, on May 24, the album's title was revealed to be Most Wanted, and the album's release date was announced to be August 16, 2005. The following month, in an interview with MTV News, Duff said that she had been working with brothers Joel and Benji Madden, of the American rock band Good Charlotte, and Jason Epperson (together known under the production name the Dead Executives) to write and produce new songs for the compilation. She said that " ... they're three of my favorite songs I've ever done. ... It was really fun being in the studio with them." Described by Duff as the first time when "all the responsibility was on [her]", she went into the recording studio without the guidance of her record label or management. According to Duff, she did not tell anyone at her record label that she was working with the Dead Executives. Joel, whom Duff had been dating at the time, was aware that she needed new material for a compilation album, and knew that she wanted a "totally different sound". Together, the Dead Executives went into the recording studio and worked on new music for Duff, before bringing her into the studio to collectively work on them. Duff described working with them as pleasant, and the music as a new milestone in her career, stating that working with "people you're close with makes a world of difference when you're recording and being creative." At the same time, Duff was also nervous about how her fans would react to the new music. Duff recorded four tracks for the album, three of which appear on the standard edition of the album—"Wake Up", "Beat of My Heart" and "Break My Heart"— while the fourth appears only on the deluxe edition: "Supergirl". The song was penned by Duff alongside Kara DioGuardi and Greg Wells. The track listing for Most Wanted was revealed on July 12, 2005, and the album was released on August 16, 2005 in the United States and Canada. The Japanese standard edition of the album features the same track listing as The Collector's Signature Edition, with additional remixes of "Wake Up" by DJ Kaya, and was released on August 10, 2005. Another version with a bonus DVD including music videos to selected songs and "making of" clips was also released in the same region. In the US, the iTunes digital version includes an interview with Duff. A deluxe edition of the album, subtitled The Collector's Signature Edition, was also released, containing an acoustic version of "Who's That Girl?", an alternate version of "Jericho" and a remix of "Party Up" along with "Supergirl". The pressing features a different album art and was packed with four autographed photo cards and a wristband. Most Wanted also contains 10 previously released tracks from Metamorphosis (2003) and Hilary Duff (2004), as well as songs from soundtracks of Duff's films: The Lizzie McGuire Movie (2003) and A Cinderella Story (2004), three of which—"Come Clean", "Rock This World" and "Why Not"—are in a remixed form. ## New material "Wake Up", the opening track, is a mid-tempo number backed by dance, pop and electronic beats, and has "a more mature pop-techno sound" than Duff's previous work. Its instrumentation includes a guitar, bass and drums. Kelefa Anneth of The New York Times noted that the song contains musical influences of The Go-Go's. The lyrics of the song speak about having fun. Duff initially sings about the consequences of her fame and how people think they know "everything about [me]" ("There's people talking / They talk about me / They know my name / They think they know everything / But they don't know anything about me"). As the chorus draws near, the song takes on a "party anthem" approach, where Duff discusses the "struggle" for joy and self-confidence: "I know I make mistakes / I'm living life day to day / It's never really easy but it's OK..." According to Duff, the song "makes you want to forget about all the pressure of dealing with your boss, or your teacher, or your mom, or [whoever]," and lyrically discusses "getting out and not forgetting to have some fun." Duff has also said the song also "talks about being in all [my] favorite places in the world, which is Tokyo and Paris and London and New York." "Beat of My Heart", the third track on the album, is inspired by the new wave genre. The song also draws influences from the bubblegum pop and dance genres. It carries a "soft electronic pop" sound and has the heart beat sound as its base. According to Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine, the word 'beat of my heart' is repeated forty-four times in the song. The next new track and the ninth track on the album, "Break My Heart" is another dance-inspired number incorporating pop punk elements, and was described as a "highly produced four-on-the-floor rocker." The song interpolates "slick and clean 'punk' guitars and a chugging rhythm". "Break My Heart" leans more towards the rock genre and was compared to the works of Good Charlotte. The lyrics describe the feelings faced by the protagonist, following her heartbreak. Bill Lamb of About.com observed that "Beat of My Heart" and "Break My Heart" were "cookie cutter copies" of Avril Lavigne's "Sk8er Boi" (2002). "Come Clean", "Why Not" and "Rock This World" are featured as remixes in Most Wanted. According to Spence D. of IGN, "Come Clean", remixed by Chris Cox exhibits elements of house music, while "Rock This World" displays "Kid Rock-meets-Aerosmith rock blitz". He classified the remix of "Why Not" as a "hyperkinetic pop" sped-up to a "level of sugar high bounce". Another remix, of the Diane Warren-penned "I Am", is included as a hidden track, with added synths to give it a '80s indie feel. The version of "Girl Can Rock" featured on the album, according to Anthony Miccio of Baltimore City Paper has a chord progression similar to the song "Cherry Pie" by American band Warrant. The song displays elements of country music and the lyrics are a "statement of purpose". Duff sings the chorus, backed by a guitar: "It ain't no shock/ The girl can rock". ## Critical response Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave a mixed review of Most Wanted, stating that "hardcore fans will be hard-pressed for a reason to add this to their collection" and that the new songs—"Wake Up", "Beat of My Heart" and "Break My Heart"—"sound a bit like leftovers". Although he wrote that Most Wanted "isn't a terrible album by any means, it's not particularly a good one, since Duff's two pop albums [Metamorphosis (2003) and Hilary Duff (2004)] have distinctive personalities that don't necessarily mesh together [...], and are both more fun than this." Bill Lamb of About.com noted that the three new songs "seem to be marking time instead of finding a new direction" but said that "[the] remaining bulk of this collection is strong." Anthony Miccio, from the Baltimore City Paper, wrote that the album "doesn't signify the closure of a brief career" but is "meant to satisfy an audience that won't be offended by the opportunity to buy their favorite songs again and again." He noted that Duff's voice was not strong enough and stated that the "rock tracks are surprisingly sluggish." Talia Kraines of BBC Music commented that " ... there isn't enough here to warrant a purchase if you're already the owner of her back catalogue. But if you're after your first taste of Duff-flavoured pop to listen to in the background as you do your homework, then this album can do no harm." Spence D. of IGN stated that "the only draw for this album are the three new tracks and the three remixes." He further commented that Most Wanted is a "filler album" and that "[T]he new songs that are served up still show Duff chasing trends rather than setting them and actively searching for her own voice and image." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine was critical of the album writing he "literally laughed out loud when I heard the Duffster was releasing a best-of album titled Most Wanted." He praised the Dead Executives produced tracks and concluded the review by writing that "apparently there aren't even enough bearable moments in Duff's recording career to fill one CD". Gabriel Leong of MTV Southeast Asia started the review by writing "A greatest hits album seems a tad flagrant when you've only had two albums so far. So let's call this one a compilation album instead." Leong noted that the title fitted the album perfectly and that it proves "its innocuous appeal of infectious bubblegum pop." David Hiltbrand of The Philadelphia Inquirer commented that it was "a little early in the career" to release a greatest hits album and that it showcased that "Duff is more product than talent." Aidin Vaziri of San Francisco Chronicle also commented that it was premature as it was too early in Duff's career to release a greatest hits compilation. He commended the new tracks produced by the Dead Executives writing that they "help alleviate the feeling that this is a total cash grab." In 2006, Rolling Stone included the album in their Lamest Greatest Hits Albums Ever list. ## Commercial performance In the United States, Most Wanted debuted at number one, with sales of over 208,000 units. It became her first album to debut at the top, and her second album to top the chart after Metamorphosis (2003). It stayed at the same position in its second week of release, after a 40% drop in sales. In September 2005, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIIA) for shipments of over one million copies. By January 13, 2007, the album had sold over 1.4 million in the United States. In Canada, the album became Duff's third consecutive album to debut at number one, selling 45,000 units in its initial week. In December 2005, it was certified two times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) for shipments of over 200,000 copies. In Australia, the album debuted at number three and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of over 70,000 copies. In New Zealand, it debuted at number 17 and two weeks later, peaked at number 10 becoming Duff's first and only top 10 entry in New Zealand, to date. As of July 27, 2014, the album had sold 1,489,000 copies in the United States. Overseas, in the United Kingdom, Most Wanted debuted at number 31, with first-week sales of 10,661 copies, and stayed on the chart for a total of five weeks. It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 100,000 copies in January 2006. The album peaked at number eight on the Irish Albums Chart and stayed on the charts for eighteen weeks, with its final appearance on the chart at number sixty-nine. It was certified gold by the Irish Recorded Music Association (IRMA) denoting sales/shipments of 7,500 copies. In Japan, the album debuted at number three on the Oricon charts, with sales of 38,892 units. It stayed on the chart for fourteen weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ). Most Wanted also peaked within the top 10 in Italy and Ireland, and the top fifty in Mexico and Spain. Due to its appearance on many European charts, it peaked at number 59 on the European Albums Chart, as compiled by Billboard's Music & Media. ## Promotion ### Singles "Wake Up" was released as the lead single from Most Wanted. It was serviced to US mainstream radio on July 12, 2005, and was physically released on August 26, 2005. The song was met with generally mixed reviews from critics; a few noted that the Madden-produced track was a standout on the album. Chuck Taylor of Billboard called the song "an easy ace" and deemed it "a summer beach staple". He also commended Duff's vocal style in the song and remarked that it would "put her singing career on par with her hyperactive acting endeavors." Stephen Thomas Erlwine of Allmusic commented that it sounded like "leftovers" Commercially, "Wake Up" peaked within the top 10 in Italy, Ireland, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the song reached number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Duff's highest peak at the time. The accompanying music video for the song, directed by Marc Webb, portrays Duff in several different looks, representing styles from Tokyo, London, Paris and New York City. "Beat of My Heart" was released as the second single from Most Wanted on December 12, 2005. The song received generally negative reviews from critics, who labelled it repetitive. Chuck Taylor of Billboard wrote: "Pop music is always appreciated, but this is a kiddie anthem, plain and simple, so repetitive and childlike [...] that is hardly a contender for contemporary radio." The song failed to chart in the US, but was a moderate success elsewhere, peaking within the top 10 in Italy, and the top-twenty in Australia and Spain. The song's accompanying music video, directed by Phil Harder, was influenced by the opening title sequences of James Bond films, and Duff sports different looks inspired by the different eras of the Bond films. In a few European countries, "Fly" was released as the second single from Most Wanted on March 13, 2006. It charted and peaked at number 20 on the UK Singles Chart and number 13 on the Italian Singles Chart. A third single from the album was planned to be released, but due to Duff's busy schedule and exhaustion from touring, it did not materialize. Instead, "Supergirl" was released as a download-only single on February 28, 2006. "Wake Up" and "Supergirl" were also used in an advertisement campaign to promote Candie's' clothing line for young women in 2005–06. ### Tour To promote the album, Duff embarked on a worldwide arena tour. Titled the Still Most Wanted Tour, the tour—an extension of the Most Wanted Tour (2004–05)—began on July 12, 2005 in Los Angeles, California at the Greek Theatre, with a United States leg. Following the end of the US leg in September, it visited Australia in December. Duff then made her Canadian touring debut in January 2006, before heading off to Europe in April. She then visited Latin America, before closing the tour up with various dates in North America from June to September 2006. The set list contained songs from Metamorphosis and Hilary Duff. Duff also premiered "Wake Up", "Beat of My Heart" and "Break My Heart" on the tour. ## Track listing Notes - These tracks are previously unreleased. The original version appears on a previous release. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the album - Hilary Duff – vocals & executive production (all tracks) - Andre Recke – executive production (all tracks); production & mixing (track 5) - Dead Executives – production, engineering, mixing & bass guitar (track 1, 3, 9) - Julian Bunetta – production (track 2) - The Matrix – production (track 2, 6); mixing, arrangement & recording (track 6) - John Shanks – production (track 4, 10); mixing (track 10) - Haylie Duff – production (track 5) - Kevin De Clue – production (track 5) - Chico Bennett – production (track 7) - Charlie Midnight – production (track 7, 8, 11, 12) - Denny Weston Jr. – production (track 8, 11) - Ty Stevens – production (track 8) - Spider – production (track 12) - Matthew Gerrard – production & remix (track 13) - Chris Cox – remix (track 4) - Dean Butterworth – drums (track 1, 3, 9) - Monique Powell – background vocals (track 1, 3, 9) - The Fruit – background vocals (track 1, 3, 9) - Todd Parker – engineering (track 1, 3, 9) - Grant Conway – engineering (track 1, 3, 9) - Allan Hessler – engineering assistance (track 1, 3, 9) - Joe Gastwirt – mastering (track 1, 3, 9) - Stephen Marcussen – mastering (track 2, 5, 6, 8, 10) - Joel Soyffer – mastering (track 7, 11, 12); remix (track 8) - Eric Sarafin – mixing (track 2) - Jeff Rothschild – mixing (track 10) - Jay Landers – executive production (2, 4, 5-8, 10-12) ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
69,797,008	Emily Engstler	1,169,020,381	American basketball player	[ "2000 births", "American women's basketball players", "Basketball players from Queens, New York", "Indiana Fever draft picks", "Indiana Fever players", "Living people", "Louisville Cardinals women's basketball players", "McDonald's High School All-Americans", "Minnesota Lynx players", "Power forwards (basketball)", "Small forwards", "Syracuse Orange women's basketball players" ]	Emily Ann Engstler (born May 1, 2000) is an American professional basketball player for the Minnesota Lynx of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). She played college basketball for Syracuse during her first three years at the college level, then for Louisville, earning first-team All-ACC honors in her only season with the team. Engstler graduated from St. Francis Preparatory School in Queens, New York, where she was rated a five-star recruit by ESPN and named a McDonald's All-American. ## Early life and high school career Engstler was born on May 1, 2000, in Queens, New York, to Marilyn and William Engstler, and moved to Roosevelt Island by the age of eight. She first picked up a basketball as a three-year-old and grew up playing for boys' Catholic Youth Organization teams at Resurrection Ascension Catholic Academy. Engstler also played pick-up games on outdoor courts across the street from her home. She modeled her game after Elena Delle Donne and Kevin Durant. In her freshman season, Engstler played for Christ the King Regional High School in Queens, where her mother had played basketball. After one year, she transferred to St. Francis Preparatory School in Queens, seeking a better academic fit, and sat out for her sophomore year due to Catholic High School Athletic Association (CHSAA) transfer rules. As a junior, Engstler averaged 19 points, 15.7 rebounds, 5.9 blocks and 3.4 steals per game. She recorded the first quadruple-double in school history, with 27 points, 29 rebounds, 11 assists and 10 blocks, against Nazareth Regional High School. Engstler was named to the New York State Sportswriters Association (NYSSWA) Class AA all-state sixth team. In her senior season, she averaged 18.3 points, 11.5 rebounds, 3.7 assists, 3.3 steals and 2.1 blocks per game, receiving New York Gatorade Player of the Year and NYSSWA Class AA all-state first team accolades. She helped her team achieve a 19–9 record and reach the Brooklyn/Queens CHSAA title game. Engstler was selected to play in the McDonald's All-American Game and the Jordan Brand Classic. ### Recruiting Engstler was considered a five-star recruit and the ninth-best player in the 2018 class by ESPN. On October 19, 2017, she committed to play college basketball for Syracuse over offers from Ohio State and Miami (Florida). Engstler was drawn to the school because of its proximity to her home and its reputed program in broadcast journalism, her intended major. ## College career Engstler came off the bench during her freshman season at Syracuse. On February 21, 2019, she recorded a season-high 17 points, six rebounds, three assists and three blocks in a 90–63 win over Pittsburgh. As a freshman, Engstler averaged 4.9 points and 4.5 rebounds in 14.2 minutes per game. With the departure of small forward Miranda Drummond, she entered the starting lineup in her sophomore season. On December 20, 2019, Engstler posted 13 points, a season-high 17 rebounds and five assists in a 77–63 victory over Michigan State. On January 5, 2020, she recorded a season-high 22 points and 15 rebounds in a 74–63 victory against Notre Dame. As a sophomore, Engstler averaged nine points, 9.2 rebounds and 1.6 blocks per game, leading her team in rebounds and blocks. She suffered from depression during the season. Engstler improved her endurance and mental health by exercising routinely during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown under the guidance of her older sister, Danielle. She lost about 40 lbs (18 kg) in the offseason through exercise and dieting. Engstler returned to a reserve role in her junior season, but remained one of Syracuse's most productive players. In the quarterfinals of the 2021 ACC tournament, she made a game-winning, buzzer beating layup in a 90–89 win over Florida State. Engstler registered a career-high 21 points and 10 rebounds in a 72–59 loss to Louisville at the semifinals. She was selected to the all-tournament second team. As a junior, Engstler averaged 10.5 points and 9.1 rebounds per game, earning ACC Co-Sixth Player of the Year honors. She led Syracuse in rebounds, steals and three-point field goal percentage. For her senior season, Engstler transferred to Louisville, being drawn to the program by head coach Jeff Walz. On January 2, 2022, she made a game-winning layup with three seconds left in a 50–48 victory over Georgia Tech. On March 26, Engstler matched her season-high of 20 points while grabbing 10 rebounds in a 76–64 win against Tennessee at the Sweet 16 of the NCAA tournament. She helped Louisville reach the Final Four of the tournament. As a senior, Engstler averaged 11.9 points, 9.4 rebounds, 2.7 steals and 1.8 blocks per game, and was named to the first-team All-Atlantic Coast Conference and All-Defensive Team. On March 29, she declared for the 2022 WNBA draft, forgoing her additional year of college eligibility granted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Professional career ### WNBA Engstler was selected by the Indiana Fever with the fourth overall pick in the 2022 WNBA draft. On August 12, 2022, she scored a season-high 18 points, five rebounds and three blocks in an 82–70 loss to the Washington Mystics. In her rookie season, Engstler averaged 5.2 points and 5.2 rebounds per game, making six starts in 35 games. Prior to the start of the 2023 WNBA Training Camp, the Fever waived Engstler. After being waived by the Fever, Engstler signed a training camp contract with the Washington Mystics. Engstler did not make the final roster for the Mystics after appearing in the preseason. On June 14, 2023, Engstler signed a Hardship Contract with the Minnesota Lynx. Engstler spent just over a month with the Lynx before Jessica Shepard returned from her illness and Engstler was released from her hardship contract. ### Overseas After the 2022 WNBA season, she played for Flammes Carolo Basket of the Ligue Féminine de Basketball in France. ## WNBA career statistics ### Regular season \\|- \\| align="left" \\| 2022 \\| align="left" \\| Indiana \\| 35 \\|\\| 6 \\|\\| 18.2 \\|\\| .396 \\|\\| .356 \\|\\| .553 \\|\\| 5.2 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| 0.7 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|\\| 5.2 \\|- \\| align="left" \\| Career \\| align="left" \\| 1 year, 1 team \\| 35 \\|\\| 6 \\|\\| 18.2 \\|\\| .396 \\|\\| .356 \\|\\| .553 \\|\\| 5.2 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| 0.7 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|\\| 5.2 ## National team career In August 2021, Engstler played for the United States national 3x3 team at the FIBA 3x3 Under-23 Nations League in France. She helped the team finish with a 5–3 record. Engstler won a silver medal at the 2022 FIBA 3x3 U23 World Cup in Romania.
12,423,622	White-fronted falconet	1,154,723,080	Species of bird	[ "Birds described in 1879", "Birds of East Malaysia", "Endemic birds of Borneo", "Microhierax", "Taxa named by Richard Bowdler Sharpe", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot" ]	The white-fronted falconet (Microhierax latifrons), also called the Bornean falconet, is a species of bird of prey in the family Falconidae. Described by the British ornithologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1879, it is endemic to Borneo, where it is found in Sarawak, Sabah, and extreme northeastern Kalimantan. An extremely small falcon, it is only 14–17 cm (5.5–6.7 in) long and weighs 35–65 g (1.2–2.3 oz), being the smallest species of falconet. It has glossy bluish-black , black and outer thighs, and a black mask. The belly and are pale yellowish-brown, while the throat, cheeks, and breast are white. The species can be told apart from other falconets by the colour of its and forehead, which is white in males and reddish-brown in females. It has no subspecies. The species inhabits open forests, forest edges, clearings with dead trees, and cultivated regions with interspersed trees, and rarely in mangrove forests. It mainly eats insects, although it has also been reported hunting birds. The breeding season lasts from March to either June or April, with clutches of two eggs being laid in old barbet or woodpecker nest holes. It is classified as being near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and is also listed on Appendix II of CITES. Threats to the species include deforestation, forest fires, and the cage-bird trade. ## Taxonomy and systematics The white-fronted falconet was first described as Microhierax latifrons by the British ornithologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1879 on the basis of specimens from the Lawa River and Lumbidan in Borneo. The generic name Microhierax is from the Ancient Greek mikros, meaning small, and hierax, meaning hawk. The specific name latifrons is from the Latin latus, meaning wide or broad, and frons, meaning forehead. White-fronted falconet is the official common name designated by the International Ornithologists' Union. The white-fronted falconet is one of five species in the falconet genus Microhierax, which is found in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Philippines. A 2004 study of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA by Carole Griffiths and colleagues found that within the family Falconidae, the falconets were mostly closely related to the pygmy falcons (Polihierax). These two genera are further sister to the falcons of the genus Falco. No subspecies of the white-fronted falconet are recognised. ## Description The white-fronted falconet is an extremely small shrike-like species of falcon, with a length of 14–17 cm (5.5–6.7 in), a mass of 35–65 g (1.2–2.3 oz), and a wingspan of 28–31 cm (11–12 in). It is similar to other falconets, but is the smallest by a small amount. Both sexes have glossy bluish-black , black and outer thighs, and a black mask. The throat, cheeks, and breast are white, changing to pale yellowish-brown on the belly and . The tail is short and black, with the wings reaching halfway to its tip. Males have a white and forehead, while females have this region reddish-brown. Females are also 9 per cent larger in size and have 4 per cent longer tails. In both sexes, the eyes are brown and the cere and legs are dark grey to black. Juveniles are similar to females, but have tawny-buff forecrowns and cheeks, while young females may also show reddish-brown on the forecrown. The species may be confused with the black-thighed falconet, with which its range overlaps, but can be told apart from the latter and all other falconets by the colour of its forehead. The black-thighed falconet also has more intense reddish-brown on the belly and vent, along with white bars on the underside of the tail, which is pure black in the white-fronted falconet. The white-fronted falconet's vocalizations are not well-known, but are assumed to be similar to those of other falconets. It makes a quavering kree-kree-kree. ## Distribution and habitat The white-fronted falconet is endemic to Borneo, where it is found in the Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah, along with the extreme northeastern part of Kalimantan (the Indonesian portion of Borneo). It inhabits open forests, forest edges, clearings with dead trees, and cultivated regions with interspersed trees, and is thought to be especially common on mountainous slopes. It is also infrequently found in mangrove forests. The species is found at elevations of 0–1,200 m (0–3,937 ft). ## Behaviour and ecology The white-fronted falconet is found alone or in groups of several individuals. The generation length in the species is 3.2 years. The species mainly feeds on insects such as dragonflies, bees, and cicadas, but has also been reported chasing birds. Hunting parties have been observed in November. The species have been observed hunting from perches, making flights to catch flying insects and then eating the prey around two minutes after returning to the perch. Other hunting behaviours are thought to be similar to those of other falconets, although there may be differences in the hunting techniques of the present species and the black-thighed falconet. The breeding season of the white-fronted falconet is thought to be either from March to June or from March to April, although breeding has also been observed in November. In Sabah, a male was seen feeding a fully-fledged chick in late July. Nesting occurs in old barbet or woodpecker nest holes, with clutches comprising two eggs. The incubation and fledging times are unknown. Adult males have been observed preening each other, but it is not known if it breeds communally like the collared falconet. ## Status The white-fronted falconet is classified as being near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on the IUCN Red List, due to its small range, a moderately small population that is declining, and habitat loss within its range. It is also listed on Appendix II of CITES. The species' total population is estimated to be 15,000–30,000 total individuals, out of which 10,000–19,999 are adults. The population is estimated to be declining at a rate of 10–19% over a decade. Extensive deforestation in lowlands throughout its range, along with forest fires, is a threat, although the presence of the species in areas of secondary growth shows a degree of resistance may imply that it is not immediately threatened. The cage-bird trade may also pose a threat to the species.
870,269	Everytime	1,172,575,134	2004 single by Britney Spears	[ "2000s ballads", "2003 songs", "2004 singles", "Answer songs", "Britney Spears songs", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Jive Records singles", "Music video controversies", "Music videos directed by David LaChapelle", "Number-one singles in Australia", "Number-one singles in Hungary", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Guy Sigsworth", "Songs about heartache", "Songs written by Britney Spears", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles" ]	"Everytime" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her fourth studio album, In the Zone (2003). It was released as the third single from In the Zone on May 10, 2004, by Jive Records. After her relationship with Justin Timberlake ended in 2002, Spears became friends with her background singer Annet Artani. They started writing songs together at Spears' house in Los Angeles, and then traveled to Lombardy, Italy, where they collaborated on "Everytime". Musically, it is a piano-driven pop ballad, which lyrically plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover. Spears composed the music herself and wrote the lyrics with Artani. According to Artani, it was written as a response to Timberlake's 2003 hit "Cry Me a River", which Spears has neither confirmed nor denied. "Everytime" received universal acclaim from music critics, who praised its lyrics, composition, and Spears' breathy vocals and songwriting, deeming it amongst the highlights of In the Zone. Commercially, it became a global success, topping the charts in five countries, including Australia and the United Kingdom, and reached the top-ten in 16 other markets. In United States, the single peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100. Spears did a series of live performances, such as for TV shows Saturday Night Live on NBC and Top of the Pops in the United Kingdom. On her tours, Spears also performed: the song on piano in a flowered-themed setting at The Onyx Hotel Tour (2004), while suspended on a giant umbrella at The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009) and in an angel costume at Britney: Piece of Me (2013). The song has been covered by artists like Glen Hansard, Ethel Cain, Kelly Clarkson, Lewis Capaldi, and James Franco in the 2013 film Spring Breakers. Inspired by the cinematography of the 1995 film Leaving Las Vegas, the accompanying music video for "Everytime" was directed by David LaChapelle. It features Spears as a pop star fighting with a male companion as she is hounded by paparazzi. She starts to drown in her bathtub after bleeding from a head wound from a paparazzi camera hit. In the hospital, doctors fail to resuscitate her, while simultaneously a child is born in the next room (implying she has been reincarnated). The original concept had Spears kill herself from a drug overdose, but that part of the plot was removed after it received criticism from organizations such as Kidscape, who perceived it as a glamorization of suicide. Critics took note of the video for its religious references to The Passion of the Christ, Kabbalah and stigmata, as well as for foreshadowing Spears' own struggles with fame. ## Background and writing Spears's three-year relationship with singer-songwriter Justin Timberlake ended in 2002 after months of speculation. In November 2002, Timberlake released the song "Cry Me a River" as the second single from his debut solo album Justified. The song's music video featured a Spears lookalike and fueled the rumors that she had been unfaithful to him. "Cry Me a River" is often credited as being the song that propelled Justified into the charts. In September 2001, Annet Artani accepted to become a backing vocalist for Spears's 2001–02 Dream Within a Dream Tour. Her interactions with Spears during most of the tour were limited to small conversations at the gym and vocal warm ups. Artani had begun a relationship with the show's musical director during 2002; however, it was not working out well by the end of the tour. Before the final date in Mexico City, Spears called her and asked about the relationship. Artani told her they were going to break up, to which Spears responded, "Don't worry about it, you're going to hang out with me." Concluded the tour, Spears and Artani began to forge a friendship. Spears invited Artani to her house in Los Angeles. According to Artani, their relationship grew out of their shared romantic experiences at the time. She explained, "Basically, we commiserated because she, at that time, had broken up with Justin [Timberlake]. Maybe like nine months before, but of course it was really fresh in the media. I was just breaking up with this guy, so we kind of like—I think we kind of needed each other." Artani stayed at Spears's house for a few weeks, in which they started writing songs at the piano. Shortly after, they traveled to Lake Como in Lombardy, Italy. Artani added, "It was me and her, her stylist and Felicia, and we had this humongous house to ourselves, and they had a piano there as well." According to Artani, "Everytime" was written in large part as a response to "Cry Me a River" as well as various radio interviews. Artani explained, "He was getting personal. Here, she had a different type of image, and he was really exposing some stuff that she probably didn't want out there, and in front of her little sister ... I remember her sister being mortified and her being mortified. I'm sure that that really hurt her." The song was also speculated to be a reply to Timberlake's "Never Again", a ballad which appeared on his debut solo album Justified. "Everytime" was recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles and mixed at Frou Frou Central in London, England. During an interview with Hip Online, Spears commented about the recording sessions, saying, > "... Like with 'Everytime' I wrote the whole thing from scratch on the piano. Musically there was no track or anything. I was just at my house and I did the whole thing by myself. And then I went and I played it for [Guy Sigsworth] and I just basically told him exactly how I wanted the song to sound. And he was so amazing because there's a lot of producers you tell them things and they don't get it. And you're like oh, that's not the right way. He got it just right. He was amazing. And so that song specifically, you know, I did everything." "Everytime" was one of the first songs finished for In the Zone, previewed on May 30, 2003, to Quddus Philippe of MTV at Battery Studios in New York City. It was registered with the U.S. Copyright Office on April 26, 2003, under the title of "Everytime I Try" and SRU000530591 registration number with a given recording year of 2002. Spears named it the most personal song on the album along with "Touch of My Hand", explaining, "It's one of the songs that when you hear, it's like the kind of song when you go to heaven. It kind of takes you away. You know, it takes you in to a very cool consciousness I think." ## Composition "Everytime" is a pop ballad. It begins with a music box introduction accompanying Spears's breathy vocals, which build from soft to strong through the song. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, "Everytime" is composed in the key of E major, with a tempo of 110 beats per minute. Spears's vocal range spans from the low note of A<sub>3</sub> to the high note of E<sub>5</sub>. "Everytime" lyrics are a plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover. In the song, the singer explains she feels unable to continue in lines such as "Everytime I try to fly I fall / Without my wings I feel so small". Jennifer Vineyard of MTV compared the song lyrically to another ballad from In the Zone, "Shadow", since they both speak "about how reminders of a lover can still linger after he's gone." During an interview with Jennifer Vineyard of MTV, Spears said about "Everytime", "It's about heartbreak, it's about your first love, your first true love. That's something all people can relate to, because you all have that first love that you think you're going to be with the rest of your life." When asked if "Everytime" was about Timberlake during an interview with Diane Sawyer in PrimeTime, she responded "I'll let the song speak for itself." ## Critical reception "Everytime" received widespread acclaim from music critics, who complimented its lyrical content and Spears' breathy vocals, while others deemed it a standout track on In the Zone. Gavin Mueller of Stylus Magazine considered "Everytime" to be the best track on In the Zone, explaining "it is just a spare piano ballad, simple yet effectively fragile". Ali Fenwick of The Johns Hopkins News-Letter complimented Spears' songwriting and added the song "shows a glimmer of the talent that hides behind the robotic, synthed-out vocals on the rest of the album". Christy Lemire of MSNBC called it "actually a pretty tune" and named it the best ballad in Greatest Hits: My Prerogative. Jason Shawhan of About.com said "Everytime" "screams Single!". For Daniel Megarry from Gay Times, it's "one of the most stunningly heartbreaking songs of all time". Nayer Nissim, from Pink News, wrote that "despite some limp efforts scattered around her albums, Britney can actually do some utterly compelling and heartbreaking ballads, and this is her very best. Beautiful, disarming, and emotionally raw". Digital Spy's Alim Kheraj praised its "lullaby-like production, wonderfully simple piano riff and confessional lyrics". For Alex Macpherson from The Guardian, it's one of the best examples of Spears' "distressing vulnerability" as well as her fifth best song; "one of Britney's oddest curveballs was following the gleaming banger 'Toxic', with its polar opposite. [...] ['Everytime'] is a rare pop hit that seizes attention by shrinking further away". Spence D. of IGN said the song "continues to mine the Zone turf and unleashes what is ostensibly Britney's first mature ballad, at least in terms of being musically staid and stripped of any danceteria sweat and gloss". Linda McGee of RTÉ.ie said that along with In the Zone's "Brave New Girl", they were "individually impressive", but disrupted the direction of the album. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly commented, "With its dainty piano, 'Everytime' plays like a forlorn postmortem on her Justin Timberlake era." In 2016, the staff from Entertainment Weekly placed it at number six on their ranking of Spears' songs and called it "her finest ballad and one of the most emotionally affecting songs of her career". Sterling Clover of The Village Voice called it "a weeper in the best 'Time After Time' (1984) tradition." William Shaw of Blender said that while "Everytime" was not her greatest ballad, the lyrics were "certainly heartfelt". A reviewer from the Huddersfield Daily Examiner stated, "[the] breathy ballad [has] got a stage musical feel to it, but Britney's no Elaine Paige". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine named it along with "Shadow" "two sappy ballads". ## Commercial performance On May 22, 2004, "Everytime" debuted at number 61 on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming the "Highest Debut" of the week. On July 3, 2004, it peaked at number 15 and stayed in the position for four weeks. The song also peaked at number four on Billboard's Pop Songs and at number 17 and number 25 on the Hot Dance Club Songs and Adult Pop Songs charts, respectively. On November 18, 2004, "Everytime" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) selling 500,000 copies. As of July 2010, "Everytime" has sold 469,000 paid digital downloads in the United States. In Canada, the song peaked at number two on the Canadian Singles Chart. In Australia, "Everytime" debuted at the top of the ARIA Singles Chart on June 28, 2004 – for the week ending date July 4, 2004. It received a gold certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments over 35,000 units. In the United Kingdom, "Everytime" debuted at the top of the UK Singles Chart on June 20, 2004 – for the week ending date June 26, 2004 – becoming her second consecutive number one song in Britain from In the Zone, following "Toxic" in March 2004 and her fifth number one overall. According to the Official Charts Company, the song has sold 523,000 copies in Britain. "Everytime" was also successful elsewhere in Europe, topping the charts in Hungary and Ireland, peaking at number two in France, number three in Sweden and reaching top five positions in Austria, Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Norway, and the Netherlands. ## Music video ### Development and release On March 9, 2004, the treatment of the music video for "Everytime" was released online. It featured Spears as a star hounded by photographers, who eventually kills herself by taking prescription drugs and drowning in a bathtub. The suicide scene was perceived to be Spears's response to rumors that suggested she suffered from a mental disorder. After news of the concept broke, it was criticized by a number of organizations in the United States and the United Kingdom. MTV News' "You Tell Us" received numerous letters from upset viewers, who criticized Spears, saying they perceived the ending as a glamorization of suicide. On March 12, 2004, Spears announced through her label that she had removed the concept, "due to the potential for a fictional accidental occurrence to be misinterpreted as a suicide". She also clarified it was not her intent to present suicide in any sort of positive light. The video was directed by David LaChapelle and shot on March 13–14, 2004, in Los Angeles. The lighting was described as "saturated, but low and naturalistic" to give the video a cinematic feel, referencing the film Leaving Las Vegas (1995). It premiered on TRL on April 12, 2004. Spears called the show and explained the video explored reincarnation. She added, "It's more like a movie. It's different than anything I've ever done. It's dark, and it shows me in a different light. Of course, I'm going to go back and do dance videos, but I wanted to be inspired and challenged." The video was released through a DVD single in the United Kingdom. An alternate version of the video which only features Spears singing in the white hallway scenes was released on the 2004 DVD Greatest Hits: My Prerogative. ### Synopsis The video begins with an aerial shot of Las Vegas, showing the Palms Casino Resort and continues with a shot of a marquee hotel that reads "Britney Spears Live From Miami The Onyx Hotel Tour Las Vegas", with a picture of Spears holding a leather strap and referencing her Showtime concert special from Miami. Christian author Eva Marie Everson compared the image to "Madonna doing her own impersonation of Marilyn Monroe". Spears and her boyfriend (played by Stephen Dorff) arrive at the hotel inside a limousine. They sit apart from each other, staring out separate windows. Spears wears a Birmingham Barons cap in these scenes. The boyfriend is talking on his cell phone, and when she attempts to get his attention, but he puts his index finger up indicating he is unable to shift his attention to her at that moment. The entrance is full of fans and paparazzi taking pictures. When they leave the car, fans and paparazzi alike act in an extreme way and fights break in the crowd. While her bodyguards try to protect her, her boyfriend throws magazines at the paparazzi. Stephanie Zacharek of The New York Times compared the shots of the paparazzi with the Jews in the film The Passion of the Christ (2004). During this scene, she gets hit in the head with a camera, and unknowingly gets a wound on her head, but keeps walking. Inside their hotel room, Spears and her boyfriend start shouting at each other. When he tries to make amends and get close to her, she brushes off his attempts and walks away. Her boyfriend gets mad and then throws a vase at the wall while Spears goes into the bathroom, hurling a drink at the mirror. She begins to fill the bathtub and remove her clothes. After this, the video includes intercut scenes of a close-up of Spears singing in a white coat in front of a bright white light. As she lies in the bathtub, a red string, a custom associated with Kabbalah is seen in her wrist. She touches her head and looks at her hand, realizing she is bleeding from the wound. Writer Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News speculated the blood in her hand is stigmata, but also indicates she did not know where the blood was coming from, meaning Vineyard may have missed the camera hitting Spears' head and that this is a misinterpretation. She loses consciousness in the bathtub and drowns. Shortly after, her boyfriend finds her and tries to resuscitate her. Meanwhile, it is revealed that in the close-up scenes Spears is actually inside a hospital hallway. The video continues with scenes of her being carried into an ambulance and surrounded by photographers, as well as scenes of her being resuscitated by doctors in a hospital bed. The ghost of Spears in a white shirt, watches herself in the bed and walks into the next room, where a baby girl is born. Spears is then seen running away from the camera into the light. The music video ends with her rising from under the water, resting her head and smiling, suggesting the whole scene of her death was a dream or a morbid fantasy. ### Reception Eva Marie Everson wrote that the music video showed the reality "behind the glitz and the glamour". Dominic Fox commented, "Even in its bowdlerised form, the 'Everytime' video presents a moment of existential indecision, a fugue of suicidal ideation in which the singer fantasises about her own death". While reviewing the music video for her 2009 single "If U Seek Amy", James Montgomery of MTV called the music video for "Everytime" "underrated". Rolling Stone in their 2009 article "Britney Spears: The Complete Video Guide", called it "horribly prophetic and depressing" and added that the clip foreshadowed Spears's struggles with fame and mental instability during 2007 and 2008. ## Live performances On October 18, 2003, "Everytime" was performed by Spears for the first time during the twenty-ninth season of the American comedy show Saturday Night Live. She also performed it at Britney Spears: In the Zone, a concert special that aired in ABC on November 17, 2003. "Everytime" was also performed by Spears at 2004's The Onyx Hotel Tour. Before the tour began, Spears said that it was one of the songs she was looking most forward to perform, explaining, "I really think I'm talking to everyone when I perform 'Everytime'". It was the first song of the third act, titled "Mystic Garden". It began with a video interlude in which Spears walked into a garden wearing a rainbow-colored dress and sat in a flower-covered piano. As the video ended, it was revealed that she was sitting onstage in a similar setting. She started the performance talking to the audience about the media coverage of her personal life. She played the piano and sang until the second verse, where she stood up and walked to the center of the stage to continue the performance. Neil Strauss of The New York Times commented, "It was the only song that she appeared to sing unaccompanied by backing tapes". Kelefa Sanneh of Blender called it the best performance of the show. "Everytime" was also performed by Spears at the British music chart show Top of the Pops in June 2004. Spears also performed the song at 2009's The Circus Starring Britney Spears. "Everytime" was the only song that was not included in the released setlist, and was added as a surprise. It was the sixth and last song of the second act, titled "House of Fun (Anything Goes)". After a Bollywood-inspired performance of "Me Against the Music" from In the Zone, Spears sat on a giant umbrella in the middle of the stage and briefly talked to the audience. She performed "Everytime" while the umbrella was lifted into the air. Spears included "Everytime" on the setlist for her Las Vegas residency, Britney: Piece of Me. After a brief interlude, descended from the ceiling as a "giant, white-winged angel". After a snow shower of confetti, the song transitioned into "...Baby One More Time". ## Cover versions Jackie Evancho covered the song for her debut album Prelude to a Dream (2009). On August 19, 2010, her version debuted at number three on Billboard's Classical Digital Songs chart. British singer Cher Lloyd covered the song live on The X Factor in the United Kingdom in 2010. This caused the song to reenter the top 50 singles chart in the UK. On July 27, 2012, Kelly Clarkson covered the song during the Las Vegas stop of her summer tour, as an audience request. Clarkson had a harpist accompany her during the performance, and told the audience, "This song is one of my favourite songs. [...] I actually prefer [Spears's] version better, because it just sounds really sad, but I'm going to try and do it." Spears approved of Clarkson's cover via her Twitter account, calling it "beautiful". On May 24, 2019, American singer Slayyyter released a cover as a single. On March 8, 2022, American singer-songwriter Ethel Cain released a cover as part of Spotify Singles, in observance of International Women's Day. On 26 September 2022, Lewis Capaldi covered "Everytime" for a BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge performance. ## Track listings - European CD single 1. "Everytime" (Album Version) – 3:50 2. "Everytime" (Hi-Bias Radio Remix) – 3:29 - Australian, Canadian, European and Japanese CD maxi single 1. "Everytime" (Album Version) – 3:50 2. "Everytime" (Hi-Bias Radio Remix) – 3:29 3. "Everytime" (Above & Beyond's Radio Mix) – 3:47 4. "Everytime" (The Scumfrog Vocal Mix) – 9:53 - German CD maxi single 1. "Everytime" (Album Version) – 3:50 2. "Everytime" (Hi-Bias Radio Remix) – 3:29 3. "Everytime" (Above & Beyond's Radio Mix) – 3:47 4. "Don't Hang Up" – 4:01 - DVD single 1. "Everytime" – 4:09 2. "Breathe on Me" (Performed on Britney Spears CD:UK Special) – 3:54 - UK 12-inch vinyl 1. "Everytime" (Hi-Bias Radio Remix) – 3:29 2. "Everytime" (Above & Beyond's Radio Mix) – 3:47 3. "Everytime" (The Scumfrog Vocal Mix) – 9:53 - US 12-inch vinyl (The Remixes) 1. "Everytime" (The Scumfrog Vocal Mix) – 9:53 2. "Everytime" (Valentin Remix) – 3:28 3. "Everytime" (Above & Beyond's Club Mix) – 8:46 4. "Everytime" (Dr. Octavo's Transculent Mixshow Edit) – 5:18 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of In the Zone. Recording - Vocals recorded at Conway Studios, Los Angeles, California - Mixed at Frou Frou Central, London Personnel - Britney Spears – lead vocals, songwriting, co-production - Annet Artani – songwriting - Guy Sigsworth – co-production, all instruments - Sean McGhee – mixing, engineering, editing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history
1,252,181	Ontario Highway 406	1,155,707,299	Controlled-access highway in Ontario	[ "400-series highways", "Roads in the Regional Municipality of Niagara", "Thorold", "Transport in St. Catharines", "Transport in Welland" ]	King's Highway 406 (pronounced "four-oh-six"), commonly referred to as Highway 406, is a 400-series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The primary north–south route through the central portion of the Niagara Peninsula, Highway 406 connects Welland, Thorold and downtown St. Catharines to the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW). Construction of Highway 406 began in 1963. The first section opened between St. Davids Road and Geneva Street on December 7, 1965, followed by a southward extension to Beaverdams Road in late 1969. The route was later extended south as a super two to Merritt Road where it became Highway 58. In 1977, construction began to connect the freeway with the QEW; this was completed in late 1984. Construction on the route resumed in 1987, connecting the route with East Main Street in Welland, completed in 1995. In 2009 construction resumed on the highway to expand the remaining two-lane sections to a four-lane divided freeway, with the existing route becoming the southbound lanes of the new freeway. The southern terminus in Welland was converted to a roundabout while the remaining at-grade intersections were rebuilt as interchanges. ## Route description From 1987 until 2015, Highway 406 was unique as the only 400-series highway with two lane sections and with an at-grade rail crossing. The highway is heavily travelled within St. Catharines, but volumes drop considerably south of the city. The speed limit on Highway 406 varies from 80 km/h (50 mph) to 100 km/h (62 mph). It is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police. The 406 designation begins at East Main Street in Welland at a roundabout immediately west of East Main Street Tunnel beneath the Welland Canal. From here the now-four-lane divided road veers northeast and travels parallel to the canal. Two golf courses separate the canal. As the highway passes to the west of them, it jogs to the west and crosses a Trillium Railway spur (formerly at-grade, now over the railway), and meets Daimler Parkway and Woodlawn Road at a newly constructed interchange. Soon after, it crosses the Welland River and then the former channel of the canal, which was replaced by the current Welland By-Pass in the 1970s. The highway curves to the northwest as it passes through thick forest, and meets another newly built interchange with Merritt Road (formerly Highway 58), which as of 2009 was being rebuilt as a grade-separated interchange. After this, it returns to its northward orientation and passes the final former at-grade intersection, Niagara Regional Road 63 (Port Robinson Road). North of Port Robinson Road, the forests break and the freeway continues straight north for 7 km (4.3 mi) through a mostly agricultural area. Along the straightaway are interchanges with former Highway 20 and Niagara Regional Road 67 (Beaverdams Road). The freeway crosses over Lake Gibson, and curves to the northeast. It passes beneath Niagara Regional Road 71 (St. Davids Road) and Highway 58 at a complicated interchange as it descends the Niagara Escarpment, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, and enters St. Catharines. Within St. Catharines, Highway 406 twists frequently, entering the Twelve Mile Creek valley south of a complicated interchange with Westchester Avenue and Geneva Street and curving west. Within the valley, the freeway features a lower design speed and reduced speed limit of 80 km/h (50 mph). It passes beneath the high-level St. Paul Street bridge, crosses the creek and intersects Fourth Avenue. Exiting the creek valley, the freeway parallels Fourth Avenue for a 1 kilometre (0.62 mi), gradually curves to the north and ends 3 km (1.9 mi) to the north, ending at a trumpet interchange with the QEW. ## History Planning for Highway 406 began in early 1959, when Minister of Highways Fred M. Cass presented the Ontario Roads and Streets report to the Ontario Legislative Assembly on March 16, outlining highways needs for the province over 20 years. One of the planned routes was a freeway to link Highway 3 in Port Colborne with the QEW, travelling alongside the Welland Canal. By 1961, route studies and planning were well underway. The future route was designated as Highway 406 despite construction not beginning until 1963; the first section, between Geneva Street and St. Davids Road, opened December 7, 1965. This was followed several years later by an extension south to Beaverdams Road, which opened November 21, 1969. During the early 1970s, the highway was extended south as a Super 2 to north of the Welland River, where it curved west along Merritt Road and became Highway 58. This extension, which included the Beaverdams Road interchange and a signalized intersection, was opened on June 30, 1971. In 1977, construction began on the section of Highway 406 between Geneva Street and the QEW. This work included the construction of several large bridges over the widened ravine, a curving structure over Twelve Mile Creek, and the first single-point urban interchange (SPUI) in Ontario (the only other SPUI is located on Airport Parkway in Ottawa). The original design plans for Highway 406 called for this section to follow the creek valley the full distance to the QEW, interchanging with it east of Martindale Road. Instead, the alignment was moved west of the city. Realignments to several streets in St. Catharines were completed in advance of construction on overpasses, ramps and the bridges over Twelve Mile Creek; this work was finished in late 1983. Grading contracts were awarded in mid-1983 for the entire extension. Paving took place during the summer of 1984, and the route was opened to traffic in October 1984. Further work to extend the future southbound lanes Highway 406 to East Main Street in Welland began during the fall of 1987, including an eastward extension of Woodlawn Road. Construction of the bridges that carry the extension over the Welland River and old canal began in mid-1988, and was completed during the fall of 1989. Work then began to grade and pave the Woodlawn Road Extension to Highway 406 and Highway 406 between there and East Main Street. The extension was completed by the mid-1990s. ### Expansion Highway 406 was the last 400-series highway that featured at-grade intersections and two lane sections. The original intention was to twin this two-lane section shortly after it was constructed in the 1970s. Plans were deferred multiple times, until the project resumed in the early 2000s. The first phase of this twinning opened to traffic in 2007, extending the four-lane highway 5.6 km (3.5 mi) from its previous convergence south of Beaverdams Road to a point north of Port Robinson Road. On May 15 2009, Minister of Transportation Jim Bradley announced that the section from Port Robinson road to East Main Street in Welland would be converted to a full freeway; this work included a roundabout at East Main Street to replace the existing signalized intersection. Work on the Merritt Road overpass began in September 2009, and was scheduled for completion in mid-2011. On August 19, 2011, full construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony. The roundabout with East Main Street opened to traffic on September 5, 2013, featuring no central island. By September 2015, all the at-grade intersections had been removed and the 406 was a minimum four-lane, controlled-access freeway for its entire length. Despite requests from local politicians, there are no plans to extend Highway 406 to Port Colborne at this time. ## Exit list
498,815	Workhouse	1,170,510,836	Institution for those unable to support themselves	[ "Poverty in the United Kingdom", "Workhouses in the United Kingdom" ]	In Britain, a workhouse (Welsh: tloty lit. "poor-house") was an institution where those unable to support themselves financially were offered accommodation and employment. (In Scotland, they were usually known as poorhouses.) The earliest known use of the term workhouse is from 1631, in an account by the mayor of Abingdon reporting that "we have erected wthn [sic] our borough a workhouse to set poorer people to work". The origins of the workhouse can be traced to the Statute of Cambridge 1388, which attempted to address the labour shortages following the Black Death in England by restricting the movement of labourers, and ultimately led to the state becoming responsible for the support of the poor. However, mass unemployment following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the introduction of new technology to replace agricultural workers in particular, and a series of bad harvests, meant that by the early 1830s the established system of poor relief was proving to be unsustainable. The New Poor Law of 1834 attempted to reverse the economic trend by discouraging the provision of relief to anyone who refused to enter a workhouse. Some Poor Law authorities hoped to run workhouses at a profit by utilising the free labour of their inmates. Most were employed on tasks such as breaking stones, crushing bones to produce fertiliser, or picking oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike. As the 19th century wore on, workhouses increasingly became refuges for the elderly, infirm, and sick rather than the able-bodied poor, and in 1929 legislation was passed to allow local authorities to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals. Although workhouses were formally abolished by the same legislation in 1930, many continued under their new appellation of Public Assistance Institutions under the control of local authorities. It was not until the introduction of the National Assistance Act 1948 that the last vestiges of the Poor Law finally disappeared, and with them the workhouses. ## Legal and social background ### Medieval to Early Modern period The Statute of Cambridge 1388 was an attempt to address the labour shortage caused by the Black Death, a devastating pandemic that killed about one-third of England's population. The new law fixed wages and restricted the movement of labourers, as it was anticipated that if they were allowed to leave their parishes for higher-paid work elsewhere then wages would inevitably rise. According to historian Derek Fraser, the fear of social disorder following the plague ultimately resulted in the state, and not a "personal Christian charity", becoming responsible for the support of the poor. The resulting laws against vagrancy were the origins of state-funded relief for the poor. From the 16th century onwards a distinction was legally enshrined between those who were willing to work but could not, and those who were able to work but would not: between "the genuinely unemployed and the idler". Supporting the destitute was a problem exacerbated by King Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries, which began in 1536. They had been a significant source of charitable relief, and provided a good deal of direct and indirect employment. The Poor Relief Act of 1576 went on to establish the principle that if the able-bodied poor needed support, they had to work for it. The Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601 made parishes legally responsible for the care of those within their boundaries who, through age or infirmity, were unable to work. The Act essentially classified the poor into one of three groups. It proposed that the able-bodied be offered work in a house of correction (the precursor of the workhouse), where the "persistent idler" was to be punished. It also proposed the construction of housing for the impotent poor, the old and the infirm, although most assistance was granted through a form of poor relief known as outdoor relief – money, food, or other necessities given to those living in their own homes, funded by a local tax on the property of the wealthiest in the parish. ### Georgian era The workhouse system evolved in the 17th century, allowing parishes to reduce the cost to ratepayers of providing poor relief. The first authoritative figure for numbers of workhouses comes in the next century from The Abstract of Returns made by the Overseers of the Poor, which was drawn up following a government survey in 1776. It put the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales at more than 1800 (about one parish in seven), with a total capacity of more than 90,000 places. This growth in the number of workhouses was prompted by the Workhouse Test Act 1723; by obliging anyone seeking poor relief to enter a workhouse and undertake a set amount of work, usually for no pay (a system called indoor relief), the Act helped prevent irresponsible claims on a parish's poor rate. The growth was also bolstered by the Relief of the Poor Act 1782, proposed by Thomas Gilbert. Gilbert's Act was intended to allow parishes to share the cost of poor relief by joining together to form unions, known as Gilbert Unions, to build and maintain even larger workhouses to accommodate the elderly and infirm. The able-bodied poor were instead either given outdoor relief or found employment locally. Relatively few Gilbert Unions were set up, but the supplementing of inadequate wages under the Speenhamland system did become established towards the end of the 18th century. So keen were some Poor Law authorities to cut costs wherever possible that cases were reported of husbands being forced to sell their wives, to avoid them becoming a financial burden on the parish. In one such case in 1814 the wife and child of Henry Cook, who were living in Effingham workhouse, were sold at Croydon market for one shilling (5p); the parish paid for the cost of the journey and a "wedding dinner". By the 1830s most parishes had at least one workhouse, but many were badly managed. In his 1797 work, The State of the Poor, Sir Frederick Eden, wrote: > The workhouse is an inconvenient building, with small windows, low rooms and dark staircases. It is surrounded by a high wall, that gives it the appearance of a prison, and prevents free circulation of air. There are 8 or 10 beds in each room, chiefly of flocks, and consequently retentive of all scents and very productive of vermin. The passages are in great want of whitewashing. No regular account is kept of births and deaths, but when smallpox, measles or malignant fevers make their appearance in the house, the mortality is very great. Of 131 inmates in the house, 60 are children. Instead of a workhouse, some sparsely populated parishes placed homeless paupers into rented accommodation, and provided others with relief in their own homes. Those entering a workhouse might join anywhere from a handful to several hundred other inmates; for instance, between 1782 and 1794 Liverpool's workhouse accommodated 900–1200 indigent men, women and children. The larger workhouses such as the Gressenhall House of Industry generally served a number of communities, in Gressenhall's case 50 parishes. Writing in 1854, Poor Law commissioner George Nicholls viewed many of them as little more than factories: > These workhouses were established, and mainly conducted, with a view to deriving profit from the labour of the inmates, and not as being the safest means of affording relief by at the same time testing the reality of their destitution. The workhouse was in truth at that time a kind of manufactory, carried on at the risk and cost of the poor-rate, employing the worst description of the people, and helping to pauperise the best. ### 1834 Act By 1832 the amount spent on poor relief nationally had risen to £7 million a year, more than 10 shillings (£) per head of population, up from £2 million in 1784. The large number of those seeking assistance was pushing the system to "the verge of collapse". The economic downturn following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century resulted in increasing numbers of unemployed. Coupled with developments in agriculture that meant less labour was needed on the land, along with three successive bad harvests beginning in 1828 and the Swing Riots of 1830, reform was inevitable. Many suspected that the system of poor relief was being widely abused. In 1832 the government established a Royal Commission to investigate and recommend how relief could best be given to the poor. The result was the establishment of a centralised Poor Law Commission in England and Wales under the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, also known as the New Poor Law, which discouraged the allocation of outdoor relief to the able-bodied; "all cases were to be 'offered the house', and nothing else". Individual parishes were grouped into Poor Law Unions, each of which was to have a union workhouse. More than 500 of these were built during the next 50 years, two-thirds of them by 1840. In certain parts of the country there was a good deal of resistance to these new buildings, some of it violent, particularly in the industrial north. Many workers lost their jobs during the major economic depression of 1837, and there was a strong feeling that what the unemployed needed was not the workhouse but short-term relief to tide them over. By 1838, 573 Poor Law Unions had been formed in England and Wales, incorporating 13,427 parishes, but it was not until 1868 that unions were established across the entire country: the same year that the New Poor Law was applied to the Gilbert Unions. Despite the intentions behind the 1834 Act, relief of the poor remained the responsibility of local taxpayers, and there was thus a powerful economic incentive to use loopholes such as sickness in the family to continue with outdoor relief; the weekly cost per person was about half that of providing workhouse accommodation. Outdoor relief was further restricted by the terms of the 1844 Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order, which aimed to end it altogether for the able-bodied poor. In 1846, of 1.33 million paupers only 199,000 were maintained in workhouses, of whom 82,000 were considered to be able-bodied, leaving an estimated 375,000 of the able-bodied on outdoor relief. Excluding periods of extreme economic distress, it has been estimated that about 6.5% of the British population may have been accommodated in workhouses at any given time. ## Early Victorian workhouses The New Poor Law Commissioners were very critical of existing workhouses, and generally insisted that they be replaced. They complained in particular that "in by far the greater number of cases, it is a large almshouse, in which the young are trained in idleness, ignorance, and vice; the able-bodied maintained in sluggish sensual indolence; the aged and more respectable exposed to all the misery that is incident to dwelling in such a society". After 1835 many workhouses were constructed with the central buildings surrounded by work and exercise yards enclosed behind brick walls, so-called "pauper bastilles". The commission proposed that all new workhouses should allow for the segregation of paupers into at least four distinct groups, each to be housed separately: the aged and impotent, children, able-bodied males, and able-bodied females. A common layout resembled Jeremy Bentham's prison panopticon, a radial design with four three-storey buildings at its centre set within a rectangular courtyard, the perimeter of which was defined by a three-storey entrance block and single-storey outbuildings, all enclosed by a wall. That basic layout, one of two designed by the architect Sampson Kempthorne (his other design was octagonal with a segmented interior, sometimes known as the Kempthorne star), allowed for four separate work and exercise yards, one for each class of inmate. Separating the inmates was intended to serve three purposes: to direct treatment to those who most needed it; to deter others from pauperism; and as a physical barrier against illness, physical and mental. The commissioners argued that buildings based on Kempthorne's plans would be symbolic of the recent changes to the provision of poor relief; one assistant commissioner expressed the view that they would be something "the pauper would feel it was utterly impossible to contend against", and "give confidence to the Poor Law Guardians". Another assistant commissioner claimed the new design was intended as a "terror to the able-bodied population", but the architect George Gilbert Scott was critical of what he called "a set of ready-made designs of the meanest possible character". Some critics of the new Poor Law noted the similarities between Kempthorne's plans and model prisons, and doubted that they were merely coincidental - Richard Oastler went as far as referring to the institutions as 'prisons for the poor'. Augustus Pugin compared Kempthorne's octagonal plan with the "antient poor hoyse", in what Felix Driver calls a "romantic, conservative critique" of the "degeneration of English moral and aesthetic values". By the 1840s some of the enthusiasm for Kempthorne's designs had waned. With limited space in built-up areas, and concerns over the ventilation of buildings, some unions moved away from panopticon designs. Between 1840 and 1870 about 150 workhouses with separate blocks designed for specific functions were built. Typically the entrance building contained offices, while the main workhouse building housed the various wards and workrooms, all linked by long corridors designed to improve ventilation and lighting. Where possible, each building was separated by an exercise yard, for the use of a specific category of pauper. ### Admission and discharge Each Poor Law Union employed one or more relieving officers, whose job it was to visit those applying for assistance and assess what relief, if any, they should be given. Any applicants considered to be in need of immediate assistance could be issued with a note admitting them directly to the workhouse. Alternatively they might be offered any necessary money or goods to tide them over until the next meeting of the guardians, who would decide on the appropriate level of support and whether or not the applicants should be assigned to the workhouse. Workhouses were designed with only a single entrance guarded by a porter, through which inmates and visitors alike had to pass. Near to the entrance were the casual wards for tramps and vagrants and the relieving rooms, where paupers were housed until they had been examined by a medical officer. After being assessed the paupers were separated and allocated to the appropriate ward for their category: boys under 14, able-bodied men between 14 and 60, men over 60, girls under 14, able-bodied women between 14 and 60, and women over 60. Children under the age of two were allowed to remain with their mothers, but by entering a workhouse paupers were considered to have forfeited responsibility for their families. Clothing and personal possessions (with the possible exception of spectacles) were usually taken from them and stored, to be returned on their discharge. After bathing, they were issued with a distinctive uniform: for men it might be a striped cotton shirt, jacket and trousers, and a cloth cap, and for women a blue-and-white striped dress worn underneath a smock. Shoes were also provided. In some establishments certain categories of inmate were marked out by their clothing; for example, at Bristol Incorporation workhouse, prostitutes were required to wear a yellow dress and pregnant single women a red dress; such practices were deprecated by the Poor Law Commission in a directive issued in 1839 entitled "Ignominious Dress for Unchaste Women in Workhouses", but they continued until at least 1866. Some workhouses had a separate "foul" or "itch" ward, where inmates diagnosed with skin diseases such as scabies could be detained before entering the workhouse proper. Also not to be overlooked were unfortunate destitute sufferers of mental health disorders, who would be ordered to enter the workhouse by the parish doctor. The Lunacy Act 1853 did promote the asylum as the institution of choice for patients afflicted with all forms of mental illness. However, in reality, destitute people suffering from mental illness would be housed in their local workhouse. Conditions in the casual wards were worse than in the relieving rooms, and deliberately designed to discourage vagrants, who were considered potential troublemakers and probably disease-ridden. Vagrants who presented themselves at the door of a workhouse were at the mercy of the porter, whose decision it was whether or not to allocate them a bed for the night in the casual ward. Those refused entry risked being sentenced to two weeks of hard labour if they were found begging or sleeping in the open and prosecuted for an offence under the Vagrancy Act 1824. A typical early 19th-century casual ward was a single large room furnished with some kind of bedding and perhaps a bucket in the middle of the floor for sanitation. The bedding on offer could be very basic: the Poor Law authorities in Richmond in London in the mid-1840s provided only straw and rags, although beds were available for the sick. In return for their night's accommodation vagrants might be expected to undertake a certain amount of work before leaving the next day; for instance at Guisborough men were required to break stones for three hours and women to pick oakum, two hours before breakfast and one after. Until the passage of the Casual Poor Act 1882 vagrants could discharge themselves before 11 am on the day following their admission, but from 1883 onwards they were required to be detained until 9 am on the second day. Those who were admitted to the workhouse again within one month were required to be detained until the fourth day after their admission. Inmates were free to leave whenever they wished after giving reasonable notice, generally considered to be three hours, but if a parent discharged him- or herself then the children were also discharged, to prevent them from being abandoned. The comic actor Charlie Chaplin, who spent some time with his mother in Lambeth workhouse, records in his autobiography that when he and his half-brother returned to the workhouse after having been sent to a school in Hanwell, he was met at the gate by his mother Hannah, dressed in her own clothes. Desperate to see them again she had discharged herself and the children; they spent the day together playing in Kennington Park and visiting a coffee shop, after which she readmitted them all to the workhouse. Available data surrounding death rates within the workhouse system is minimal; however, in the Wall to Wall documentary Secrets from the Workhouse, it is estimated that 10% of those admitted to the workhouse after the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act died within the system. ### Work Some Poor Law authorities hoped that payment for the work undertaken by the inmates would produce a profit for their workhouses, or at least allow them to be self-supporting, but whatever small income could be produced never matched the running costs. In the 18th century, inmates were poorly managed, and lacked either the inclination or the skills to compete effectively with free market industries such as spinning and weaving. Some workhouses operated not as places of employment, but as houses of correction, a role similar to that trialled by Buckinghamshire magistrate Matthew Marryott. Between 1714 and 1722 he experimented with using the workhouse as a test of poverty rather than a source of profit, leading to the establishment of a large number of workhouses for that purpose. Nevertheless, local people became concerned about the competition to their businesses from cheap workhouse labour. As late as 1888, for instance, the Firewood Cutters Protection Association was complaining that the livelihood of its members was being threatened by the cheap firewood on offer from the workhouses in the East End of London. Many inmates were allocated tasks in the workhouse such as caring for the sick or teaching that were beyond their capabilities, but most were employed on "generally pointless" work, such as breaking stones or removing the hemp from telegraph wires. Others picked oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike, which may be the source of the workhouse's nickname. Bone-crushing, useful in the creation of fertiliser, was a task most inmates could perform, until a government inquiry into conditions in the Andover workhouse in 1845 found that starving paupers were reduced to fighting over the rotting bones they were supposed to be grinding, to suck out the marrow. The resulting scandal led to the withdrawal of bone-crushing as an employment in workhouses and the replacement of the Poor Law Commission by the Poor Law Board in 1847. Conditions were thereafter regulated by a list of rules contained in the 1847 Consolidated General Order, which included guidance on issues such as diet, staff duties, dress, education, discipline, and redress of grievances. Some Poor Law Unions opted to send destitute children to the British colonies, in particular to Canada and Australia, where it was hoped the fruits of their labour would contribute to the defence of the empire and enable the colonies to buy more British exports. Known as Home Children, the Philanthropic Farm school alone sent more than 1000 boys to the colonies between 1850 and 1871, many of them taken from workhouses. In 1869 Maria Rye and Annie Macpherson, "two spinster ladies of strong resolve", began taking groups of orphans and children from workhouses to Canada, most of whom were taken in by farming families in Ontario. The Canadian government paid a small fee to the ladies for each child delivered, but most of the cost was met by charities or the Poor Law Unions. As far as possible, elderly inmates were expected to undertake the same kind of work as the younger men and women, although concessions were made to their relative frailty. Or they might be required to chop firewood, clean the wards, or carry out other domestic tasks. In 1882 Lady Brabazon, later the Countess of Meath, set up a project to provide alternative occupation for non-able-bodied inmates, known as the Brabazon scheme. Volunteers provided training in crafts such as knitting, embroidery and lace making, all costs initially being borne by Lady Brabazon herself. Although slow to take off, when workhouses discovered that the goods being produced were saleable and could make the enterprise self-financing, the scheme gradually spread across the country, and by 1897 there were more than 100 branches. ### Diet In 1836 the Poor Law Commission distributed six diets for workhouse inmates, one of which was to be chosen by each Poor Law Union depending on its local circumstances. Although dreary, the food was generally nutritionally adequate, and according to contemporary records was prepared with great care. Issues such as training staff to serve and weigh portions were well understood. The diets included general guidance, as well as schedules for each class of inmate. They were laid out on a weekly rotation, the various meals selected on a daily basis, from a list of foodstuffs. For instance, a breakfast of bread and gruel was followed by dinner, which might consist of cooked meats, pickled pork or bacon with vegetables, potatoes, yeast dumpling, soup and suet, or rice pudding. Supper was normally bread, cheese and broth, and sometimes butter or potatoes. The larger workhouses had separate dining rooms for males and females; workhouses without separate dining rooms would stagger the meal times to avoid any contact between the sexes. ### Education Education was provided for the children, but workhouse teachers were a particular problem. Poorly paid, without any formal training, and facing large classes of unruly children with little or no interest in their lessons, few stayed in the job for more than a few months. In an effort to force workhouses to offer at least a basic level of education, legislation was passed in 1845 requiring that all pauper apprentices should be able to read and sign their own indenture papers. A training college for workhouse teachers was set up at Kneller Hall in Twickenham during the 1840s, but it closed in the following decade. Some children were trained in skills valuable to the area. In Shrewsbury, the boys were placed in the workhouse's workshop, while girls were tasked with spinning, making gloves and other jobs "suited to their sex, their ages and abilities". At St Martin in the Fields, children were trained in spinning flax, picking hair and carding wool, before being placed as apprentices. Workhouses also had links with local industry; in Nottingham, children employed in a cotton mill earned about £60 a year for the workhouse. Some parishes advertised for apprenticeships, and were willing to pay any employer prepared to offer them. Such agreements were preferable to supporting children in the workhouse: apprenticed children were not subject to inspection by justices, thereby lowering the chance of punishment for neglect; and apprenticeships were viewed as a better long-term method of teaching skills to children who might otherwise be uninterested in work. Supporting an apprenticed child was also considerably cheaper than the workhouse or outdoor relief. Children often had no say in the matter, which could be arranged without the permission or knowledge of their parents. The supply of labour from workhouse to factory, which remained popular until the 1830s, was sometimes viewed as a form of transportation. While getting parish apprentices from Clerkenwell, Samuel Oldknow's agent reported how some parents came "crying to beg they may have their Children out again". Historian Arthur Redford suggests that the poor may have once shunned factories as "an insidious sort of workhouse". ### Religion Religion played an important part in workhouse life: prayers were read to the paupers before breakfast and after supper each day. Each Poor Law Union was required to appoint a chaplain to look after the spiritual needs of the workhouse inmates, and he was invariably expected to be from the established Church of England. Religious services were generally held in the dining hall, as few early workhouses had a separate chapel but in some parts of the country, notably Cornwall and northern England, there were more dissenters than members of the established church. As section 19 of the 1834 Poor Law specifically forbade any regulation forcing an inmate to attend church services "in a Mode contrary to [their] Religious Principles", the commissioners were reluctantly forced to allow non-Anglicans to leave the workhouse on Sundays to attend services elsewhere, so long as they were able to provide a certificate of attendance signed by the officiating minister on their return. As the 19th century wore on non-conformist ministers increasingly began to conduct services within the workhouse, but Catholic priests were rarely welcomed. A variety of legislation had been introduced during the 17th century to limit the civil rights of Catholics, beginning with the Popish Recusants Act 1605 in the wake of the failed Gunpowder Plot that year. Though almost all restrictions on Catholics in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland were removed by the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, a great deal of anti-Catholic feeling remained. Even in areas with large Catholic populations, such as Liverpool, the appointment of a Catholic chaplain was unthinkable. Some guardians went so far as to refuse Catholic priests entry to the workhouse. ### Discipline Discipline was strictly enforced in the workhouse; for minor offences such as swearing or feigning sickness the "disorderly" could have their diet restricted for up to 48 hours. For more serious offences such as insubordination or violent behavior the "refractory" could be confined for up to 24 hours, and might also have their diet restricted. Girls were punished in the same way as adults but sometimes in older cases girls were also beaten or slapped, but boys under the age of 14 could be beaten with "a rod or other instrument, such as may have been approved of by the Guardians". Children, specifically orphans, who leave the grounds without being discharged or run away from workhouses could be severely disciplined and could be confined with no food or water. The persistently refractory, or anyone bringing "spirituous or fermented liquor" into the workhouse, could be taken before a Justice of the Peace and even gaoled. All punishments handed out were recorded in a punishment book, which was examined regularly by the workhouse guardians, locally elected representatives of the participating parishes with overall responsibility for the running of the workhouse. ### Management and staffing Although the commissioners were responsible for the regulatory framework within which the Poor Law Unions operated, each union was run by a locally elected board of guardians, comprising representatives from each of the participating parishes, assisted by six ex officio members. The guardians were usually farmers or tradesmen, and as one of their roles was the contracting out of the supply of goods to the workhouse, the position could prove lucrative for them and their friends. Simon Fowler has commented that "it is clear that this [the awarding of contracts] involved much petty corruption, and it was indeed endemic throughout the Poor Law system". Although the 1834 Act allowed for women to become workhouse guardians provided they met the property requirement, the first female was not elected until 1875. Working class guardians were not appointed until 1892, when the property requirement was dropped in favour of occupying rented premises worth £5 a year. Every workhouse had a complement of full-time staff, often referred to as the indoor staff. At their head was the governor or master, who was appointed by the board of guardians. His duties were laid out in a series of orders issued by the Poor Law Commissioners. As well as the overall administration of the workhouse, masters were required to discipline the paupers as necessary and to visit each ward twice daily, at 11 am and 9 pm. Female inmates and children under seven were the responsibility of the matron, as was the general housekeeping. The master and the matron were usually a married couple, charged with running the workhouse "at the minimum cost and maximum efficiency – for the lowest possible wages". A large workhouse such as Whitechapel, accommodating several thousand paupers, employed a staff of almost 200; the smallest may only have had a porter and perhaps an assistant nurse in addition to the master and matron. A typical workhouse accommodating 225 inmates had a staff of five, which included a part-time chaplain and a part-time medical officer. The low pay meant that many medical officers were young and inexperienced. To add to their difficulties, in most unions they were obliged to pay out of their own pockets for any drugs, dressings or other medical supplies needed to treat their patients. ## Later developments and abolition A second major wave of workhouse construction began in the mid-1860s, the result of a damning report by the Poor Law inspectors on the conditions found in infirmaries in London and the provinces. Of one workhouse in Southwark, London, an inspector observed bluntly that "The workhouse does not meet the requirements of medical science, nor am I able to suggest any arrangements which would in the least enable it to do so". By the middle of the 19th century there was a growing realisation that the purpose of the workhouse was no longer solely or even chiefly to act as a deterrent to the able-bodied poor, and the first generation of buildings was widely considered to be inadequate. About 150 new workhouses were built mainly in London, Lancashire and Yorkshire between 1840 and 1875, in architectural styles that began to adopt Italianate or Elizabethan features, to better fit into their surroundings and present a less intimidating face. One surviving example is the gateway at Ripon, designed somewhat in the style of a medieval almshouse. A major feature of this new generation of buildings is the long corridors with separate wards leading off for men, women and children. By 1870 the architectural fashion had moved away from the corridor design in favour of a pavilion style based on the military hospitals built during and after the Crimean War, providing light and well-ventilated accommodation. Opened in 1878, the Manchester Union's infirmary comprised seven parallel three-storey pavilions separated by 80-foot-wide (24 m) "airing yards"; each pavilion had space for 31 beds, a day room, a nurse's kitchen and toilets. By the start of the 20th century new workhouses were often fitted out to an "impressive standard". Opened in 1903, the workhouse at Hunslet in West Riding of Yorkshire had two steam boilers with automatic stokers supplying heating and hot water throughout the building, a generator to provide electricity for the institution's 1,130 electric lamps, and electric lifts in the infirmary pavilion. As early as 1841 the Poor Law Commissioners were aware of an "insoluble dilemma" posed by the ideology behind the New Poor Law: > If the pauper is always promptly attended by a skilful and well qualified medical practitioner ... if the patient be furnished with all the cordials and stimulants which may promote his recovery: it cannot be denied that his condition in these respects is better than that of the needy and industrious ratepayer who has neither the money nor the influence to secure prompt and careful attendance. The education of children presented a similar dilemma. It was provided free in the workhouse but had to be paid for by the "merely poor"; free primary education for all children was not provided in the UK until 1918. Instead of being "less eligible", conditions for those living in the workhouse were in certain respects "more eligible" than for those living in poverty outside. By the late 1840s most workhouses outside London and the larger provincial towns housed only "the incapable, elderly and sick". By the end of the century only about 20 percent of those admitted to workhouses were unemployed or destitute, but about 30 percent of the population over 70 were in workhouses. The introduction of pensions for those aged over 70 in 1908 did not reduce the number of elderly housed in workhouses, but it did reduce the number of those on outdoor relief by 25 percent. Responsibility for administration of the Poor Law passed to the Local Government Board in 1871, and the emphasis soon shifted from the workhouse as "a receptacle for the helpless poor" to its role in the care of the sick and helpless. The Diseases Prevention Act of 1883 allowed workhouse infirmaries to offer treatment to non-paupers as well as inmates, and by the beginning of the 20th century some infirmaries were even able to operate as private hospitals. A Royal Commission of 1905 reported that workhouses were unsuited to deal with the different categories of resident they had traditionally housed, and recommended that specialised institutions for each class of pauper should be established, in which they could be treated appropriately by properly trained staff. The "deterrent" workhouses were in future to be reserved for "incorrigibles such as drunkards, idlers and tramps". On 24 January 1918 the Daily Telegraph reported that the Local Government Committee on the Poor Law had presented to the Ministry of Reconstruction a report recommending abolition of the workhouses and transferring their duties to other organizations. The Local Government Act 1929 gave local authorities the power to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals, although outside London few did so. The workhouse system was abolished in the UK by the same Act on 1 April 1930, but many workhouses, renamed Public Assistance Institutions, continued under the control of local county councils. At the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 almost 100,000 people were accommodated in the former workhouses, 5,629 of whom were children. The 1948 National Assistance Act abolished the last vestiges of the Poor Law, and with it the workhouses. Many of the workhouse buildings were converted into retirement homes run by the local authorities; slightly more than half of local authority accommodation for the elderly was provided in former workhouses in 1960. Camberwell workhouse (in Peckham, South London) continued until 1985 as a homeless shelter for more than 1,000 men, operated by the Department of Health and Social Security and renamed a resettlement centre. Southwell Workhouse, now a museum, was used to provide temporary accommodation for mothers and children until the early 1990s. ## Modern view The Poor Law was not designed to address the issue of poverty, which was considered to be the inevitable lot for most people; rather it was concerned with pauperism, "the inability of an individual to support himself". Writing in 1806 Patrick Colquhoun commented that: > Poverty ... is a most necessary and indispensable ingredient in society, without which nations and communities could not exist in a state of civilisation. It is the lot of man – it is the source of wealth, since without poverty there would be no labour, and without labour there could be no riches, no refinement, no comfort, and no benefit to those who may be possessed of wealth. Historian Simon Fowler has argued that workhouses were "largely designed for a pool of able-bodied idlers and shirkers ... However this group hardly existed outside the imagination of a generation of political economists". Workhouse life was intended to be harsh, to deter the able-bodied poor and to ensure that only the truly destitute would apply, a principle known as less eligibility. Friedrich Engels, however, described what he imagined the motives of the authors of the 1834 New Poor Law to be, "to force the poor into the Procrustean bed of their preconceived notions. To do this they treated the poor with incredible savagery." The purpose of workhouse labour was never clear according to historian M. A. Crowther. In the early days of workhouses it was either a punishment or a source of income for the parish, but during the 19th century the idea of work as punishment became increasingly unfashionable. The idea took hold that work should rehabilitate the workhouse inmates for their eventual independence, and that it should therefore be rewarded with no more than the workers' maintenance, otherwise there would be no incentive for them to seek work elsewhere. As of 1997, around 10% of the British population had a genealogical connection to the workhouse system. ## In art and literature The "dramatic possibilities" of the workhouse provided the inspiration for several artists including Charles West Cope, whose Board Day Application for Bread (1841), depicting a young widow pleading for bread for her four children, was painted following his visit to a meeting of the Staines Board of Guardians. The "quintessential workhouse yarn" is Oliver Twist (1838) by Charles Dickens, which contains the well-known request from Oliver to the master of the workhouse: "Please, sir, I want some more". Another popular piece of workhouse literature was the dramatic monologue In the Workhouse – Christmas Day (1877) by George Robert Sims, with its first line of "It is Christmas Day in the workhouse". In chapter XXVII of his first book, Down and Out in Paris and London (1933), George Orwell gives a brief but vivid account of his stay in a London workhouse when he roamed the streets as a tramp. In 1931 an early version of this account had been published as an essay "The Spike" in an issue of The New Adelphi. ## See also - Almshouse - Poorhouse - Book of Murder - Cottage Homes - Penal servitude - Scottish poorhouse - Unfree labour
17,497,396	Should've Said No	1,165,516,699	2008 single by Taylor Swift	[ "2006 songs", "2008 singles", "American pop rock songs", "Big Machine Records singles", "Country rock songs", "Post-grunge songs", "Song recordings produced by Nathan Chapman (record producer)", "Songs about infidelity", "Songs written by Taylor Swift", "Taylor Swift songs" ]	"Should've Said No" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift for her self-titled debut studio album (2006). The song was released to US country radio as the album's fifth and final single on May 19, 2008, by Big Machine Records. Produced by Nathan Chapman, "Should've Said No" combines country rock, pop rock, and post-grunge with banjo and distorted guitars. The lyrics are about Swift's contempt for a cheating ex-lover. Music critics praised the song's production and Swift's songwriting. "Should've Said No" was Swift's second number-one single on the Hot Country Songs chart and peaked at number 33 on the Billboard Hot 100. The single was certified platinum, for exceeding one million digital copies sold, by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It entered the singles charts in Canada and New Zealand. Swift performed "Should've Said No" live at the 43rd Academy of Country Music Awards; the performance was recorded and released as the official music video. The song was also included in the set list of her first headlining tour, the Fearless Tour (2009–2010). She also sang the song as a guest star on the Jonas Brothers' Burnin' Up Tour; the performance was featured in the concert film Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience. In 2018, she included a mashup of "Should've Said No" and "Bad Blood" in the set list of her Reputation Stadium Tour. ## Background and writing "Should've Said No" was a last-minute addition to Taylor Swift's 2006 self-titled debut studio album; she wrote it two days before the album was mastered and published and completed the track with producer Nathan Chapman overnight. She said she wrote it as a reaction to something "dramatic and crazy" that happened to her, and she felt that she needed "to address it in the form of music". The first line that came to her was the title, and she wrote the refrain in five minutes. Swift said that many of the lyrics were based on actual words that she used when confronting her ex-boyfriend. The whole song took her 20 minutes to compose. Swift commented that "Should've Said No" and "Picture to Burn" are the two songs on the album that depict a vengeful attitude towards those who wronged her; whereas "Picture to Burn" has an angry attitude, "Should've Said No" is "more of a moral statement. It's an 'I love you, we were awesome and great together, but you messed this up and I would still be with you' kinda thing. You said yes, and you should've said no." ## Music and lyrics "Should've Said No" is an uptempo country rock song that incorporates a banjo and opens with a steel guitar riff. Roger Holland of PopMatters categorized the track as pop rock and said that the country-music arrangement was minimal. Brittany Spanos from Rolling Stone remarked that "Should've Said No" stands out as a pop-rock-leaning tune in a country-music album. In The Guardian, Alexis Petridis described it as a "post-grunge stadium rock anthem". Musicologist James E. Perone commented that "Should've Said No" features a production incorporating textured guitars that resembles a rock power ballad, and includes elements of American folk music through the use of the pentatonic scale in the melody and the fiddles in unison with other instruments. In the lyrics, the narrator chastises a cheating ex-boyfriend and tells him that she would have forgiven him if he had said no to the girl with whom he cheated on the narrator. She has no intention to get back with him, no matter how much he pleads. Before ending their relationship, the narrator asks the ex-boyfriend, "Before you go, tell me this: Was it worth it? Was she worth this?" to which she answers herself, "No," repeatedly. Some authors remarked that the song has an empowering message to young female listeners, who listen to Swift's music to find power to control their own lives. In The New York Times, Jon Caramanica wrote that the song is "a little vicious ... animated by something sharper than traditional teenage angst". ## Release and commercial performance "Should've Said No" was the fifth and final single from Swift's debut album. It was released to US country radio on May 19, 2008, by Big Machine Records. An alternate version of the song was released on her extended play Beautiful Eyes (2008). A remix was included in the international edition of Swift's second studio album, Fearless, released in March 2009. In October 2019, following the Taylor Swift masters controversy, Big Machine Records re-released "Should've Said No", along with other singles from Swift's debut album, on limited-edition vinyl. In the United States, the single peaked at number 33 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was Swift's second number-one single on the Hot Country Songs chart, following "Our Song"; both singles were solely written by Swift. It spent two weeks at number one on the Hot Country Songs chart. The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2009 and, by November 2017, had sold 1.5 million digital copies in the United States. "Should've Said No" also charted on the Canadian Hot 100 (peaking at number 67) and the Official New Zealand Music Chart (peaking at number 18). ## Critical reception Roger Holland of PopMatters lauded the song's production and felt that it proved Swift's potential success beyond her country-music identity. Chris Neal of Country Weekly and Jon Caramanica of The New York Times both selected "Should've Said No" as one of the best songs on Swift's debut album. Reviewing the international edition of Fearless, Fiona Chua of MTV Asia selected the track as a highlight, lauding its upbeat production and emotional sentiments that resonated with many tween females. New Zealand magazine The Spinoff's Sam Brooke placed it at number five on a list of the best songs of 2009. The song was one of the 50 award-winning songs at the 2009 BMI Country Awards. In retrospect, Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic considered "Should've Said No" one of the better songs in Swift's discography. Spanos picked it as one of Swift's 10 best deep cuts, deeming it a precedent to Swift's experimentation beyond country music that would later turn her into a household name. Jonathan Bradley from Billboard commented that the song's theme of anger set a precedent for some of Swift's later songs. On a less positive side, Valerie Megan of Consequence praised the production but criticized the lyrics as clunky. ## Live performances Swift included "Should've Said No" in the set list of a promotional tour for her debut album in 2008. She sang the song as the opening act to Rascal Flatts' 2008 tour. Swift performed the song live at the 43rd Academy of Country Music Awards in May 2008. The performance was recorded and later released as the song's live music video. In the video, the performance begins with Swift playing the guitar in a hooded sweatshirt and jeans, and after an on-stage costume change, she is seen in a black dress. Swift sings the song and drapes her arm around the guitar player during a guitar solo. Towards the end, she performs the last lines of the song in the pouring rain onstage, and the crowd receives with a standing ovation. She also performed the song with Jonas Brothers on the Burnin' Up Tour; the performance is included in the concert film Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience (2009). Swift included the song in the set list of her first headlining tour, the Fearless Tour (2009–2010). She later performed the song on select dates of the Red Tour (St. Louis, March 2013, East Rutherford, July 2013) the 1989 World Tour (Santa Clara, August 2015), and the Eras Tour (Foxborough, May 2023). On her 2018 Reputation Stadium Tour, she included a mashup of the song and "Bad Blood" in the set list. ## Personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Taylor Swift (2006). - Taylor Swift – vocals, harmony vocals, songwriting - Nathan Chapman – production, additional engineering, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, harmony vocals - Chad Carlson – engineering, recording - Jeremy Wheatley – additional recording engineering, additional mixing, additional programming - Richard Edgeler – assistant engineering, assistant mixing - Richard Adlam – additional programming - Alexis Smith – additional programming - Gordon Hammond – assistant engineering - Jeff Balding – mixing - John Wills – banjo - Tim Marks – bass guitar - Nick Buda – drums - Rob Hajacos – fiddle - Eric Darken – percussion - Scotty Sanders – steel guitar ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
5,024,371	Mirza Shafi Vazeh	1,167,873,577	19th-century Azerbaijani poet	[ "1794 births", "1852 deaths", "19th-century Azerbaijani poets", "Burials at Pantheon of prominent Azerbaijanis", "Persian-language poets", "Writers from Ganja, Azerbaijan" ]	Mirza Shafi Vazeh (Azerbaijani: Mirzə Şəfi Vazeh; میرزا شفیع واضح) was an Azerbaijani poet and teacher. Under the pseudonym "Vazeh", which means "expressive, clear", he wrote in both Azerbaijani and Persian, developing the traditions of poetry in both languages. He compiled the first anthology of Azerbaijani poetry and a Tatar-Russian dictionary for the Tiflis gymnasium with Russian teacher Ivan Grigoriev. He has written multiple ghazals, mukhammases, mathnawis and rubais. His poems were mostly intimate, lyrical and satirical. The main theme of Vazeh's works is the glorification of romantic love and the joy of life, but in some of his poems, he denounces the vices of feudal society and opposes slavery and religious fanaticism. The German poet Friedrich von Bodenstedt, who took oriental language lessons from Vazeh, published translations of Vazeh's poems in his book A Thousand and One Days in the East in 1850. Bodenstedt's book, titled Songs of Mirza Shafi, was published in 1851. ## Life ### Birth date Mirza Shafi Sadykh oglu was born at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries in Ganja. The exact date of his birth is disputed. Soviet-era encyclopedias such as the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, the Concise Literary Encyclopedia and the Philosophical Encyclopedia state that Mirza Shafi was born in 1796, but a number of authors write that he was born in 1794. According to Willem Floor and Hasan Javadi in The Heavenly Rose-garden: A History of Shirvan & Daghestan, by Abbas Qoli Aqa Bakikhanov, Vazeh was born in 1792. According to the orientalist Adolf Berge, he saw Mirza Shafi Vazeh, whom he described as "a modest, about 60 year old Tatar" in the streets of Tiflis in 1851. This would suggest the poet was born before 1800. Archive documents contain completely different information. In the "Official List of Service for 1845" (Russian: Формулярном списке о службе за 1845 год) it is written that Mirza Shafi is 40 years old. This would mean Vazeh was born in 1805. At the same time, in the "Official List of Service for 1852" (Russian: Формулярном списке о службе за 1852 год), it is written that he is 45 years old, indicating that he was born in 1807. According to orientalist Ivan Yenikolopov, the most trustworthy source is the "Official List of Service for 1845" which was approved by Mirza Shafi's commander-in-chief, A.K. Monastyrski. ### Early life Mirza Shafi's father was Sadykh Kerbalayi, more commonly known as Usta Sadykh, who served as an architect for Javad Khan, the last khan of the Ganja Khanate. The poet's elder brother, Abdul-Ali, became an architect like his father. Mirza Shafi was born in the years of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. In 1804, Russian forces besieged and eventually captured Mirza Shafi's hometown, Ganja. After its fall, General Pavel Tsitsianov renamed Ganja Elisabethpol (in honour of Russian empress Elizabeth Alexeievna) and integrated the khanate's territory as part of the Georgia Governorate of the Russian Empire. Mirza Shafi's family was seriously affected by these events as his father lost his income. Orientalist Adolf Berge, citing Mirza Fatali Akhundov, an Azerbaijani critic, noted that after the fall of the Ganja Khanate, Mirza Shafi's father went bankrupt, then fell ill and later died. His father's death date is unknown, though literary critic Aliajdar Seidzade argues he died in early 1805. Mirza Shafi's father's bankruptcy is confirmed by a letter sent from a poet by the name of Shakir to poet Gasim bey Zakir, in which Sadykh from Ganja (Mirza Shafi's father), along with a certain Haji-Qurban, are mentioned as being rich men, who became completely impoverished. According to historian Mikhail Semevsky, Mirza Shafi was "a kind, simple man who was Tatar by origin, and Persian by upbringing". ### Education Shafi's interest in books and science was evident from an early age. Because of this, his father sent him to the madrasa at the Shah Abbas Mosque in Ganja. His father wanted him to become a mullah. Shafi's interests and abilities grew at the madrasa, where he learned Persian and Arabic language and was taught calligraphy. Adolf Berge wrote in his article titled "Journal of the German Oriental Society" (German: Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft): > His success in the study of the Arabic language was not great, the second language though (that is, Persian) he mastered, as it was possible, without a thorough knowledge of Arabic. Shafi did not want to become a mullah but wanted to learn literature and different languages instead. As his father was alive, Shafi did not want to go against his wishes He continued his education in the madrasa until his father's death. At the time of his father's death, while Shafi was still studying in the madrasa, Haji Abdullah returned from Tabriz to Ganja. According to Adolf Berje, Haji Abdullah was "of remarkable spiritual qualities and high morality". He played a significant role in shaping Shafi's personality. According to Adolf Berge, Haji Abdullah was born in Ganja and went to Tabriz to engage in trade. In Persia, he visited holy places and made a pilgrimage to Mecca. Later, he lived in Baghdad for some time where he met a dervish named Seid Sattar, who taught him about Sufism. After returning to Ganja, Haji Abdullah argued constantly with the local mullahs and akhoonds (Muslim clerics) of the Shah Abbas mosque, trying to prove the inconsistency and absurdity of religious prejudices and superstitions. Because of this, he made enemies of most of the local clergy. Haji Abdullah enlightened Shafi. Seeing the change in Shafi's mindset, the madrasa's mullahs refused to continue teaching him. After this, Shafi was forced to leave the madrasa and from this point, according to Berge, the development of Shafi's complete contempt for the clergy began. In his arguments with the mullahs, Shafi supported Haji Abdullah, who, according to Aliajdar Seizade, adopted him. ### Teaching in Tiflis In the 1830s to the 1840s, Mirza Shafi earned money working as a servant for wealthy people. In Elisabethpol, he also taught oriental languages and calligraphy. Shafi moved to Tiflis in 1840, where he became a teacher. There he established close ties with other prominent figures like Khachatur Abovian, Abbasgulu Bakikhanov and Mirza Fatali Akhundov, who was also his student. He moved back to Elisabethpol in 1846 and continued to work as a teacher and write poetry until 1850 when he moved back to Tiflis. He began working in the Tiflis Gymnasium and taught the Persian and Azerbaijani languages. #### Vazeh and Bodenstedt In 1844, the German writer and orientalist Friedrich von Bodenstedt, who showed a great interest in the life of the Caucasus and wished to take lessons in oriental languages, came to Tiflis. Soon after his arrival there he met Shafi, who taught him the Azerbaijani and Persian languages. Bodenstedt left Tiflis in 1848, taking with him a notebook of poems by Mirza Shafi entitled The Key of Wisdom. In 1850, he published a voluminous book called A Thousand and One Days in the East, part of which included works by Shafi. He compiled another book called Songs of Mirza-Shafi which consisted of his translations of Shafi's poems. Twenty years after Shafi's death, Bodenstedt published a book titled From the Heritage of Mirza Shafi, in which he claimed the Shafi's songs were not translations but were his work. Nevertheless, the originals in Persian and Azerbaijani languages have survived to this day, proving the authorship of Mirza Shafi. ### Death According to the historian Mikhail Semevsky, Adolf Berge met "a modest, about 60 year old Tatar" who was a teacher in one of the Muslim schools. It was Mirza Shafi Vazeh. When Berge looked for him the following year in order to get to know him, Shafi had died. Berge wrote in his notes that Shafi had died from gastritis on the night of 16 November 1852. The day of Vazeh's death was marked by a note in the Acts of the Caucasian Archaeological Commission and the poet was buried in the Muslim cemetery in Tiflis (now known as Pantheon of prominent Azerbaijanis). ## Literary activity The main theme of Shafi's works was the glorification of romantic love and the joy of life, but in some of his poems he denounced the vices of feudal society, opposed slavery and religious fanaticism. He compiled the first anthology of Azerbaijani poetry and a Tatar-Russian dictionary for the Tiflis gymnasium with Russian teacher Ivan Grigoriev. Until the 1960s, it was believed that the literary legacy of Mirza Shafi Vazeh had been passed on only in the form of translations and that the originals of his poems were lost. In the 31 January 1963 issue of Literaturnaya Gazeta, it was reported that the originals of Mirza Shafi's poems in Azerbaijani and Persian had been found. Only a few of his works have survived, most were translated by Naum Grebnev and Bodenstedt from Azerbaijani and Persian and were included in the book Vazeh. M.-Sh. Lyrica. Bodenstedt cited one characteristic of Shafi—his dislike of printed books. According to the poet, "real professors do not need printing". Shafi himself was an excellent calligrapher. Bodenstedt writes: > Mirza Shafi wrote very delicately and at the same time brought beauty and variety: he adapted letters to the content of the text. If he had to write about ordinary things, then he clothed them in everyday clothes, beautiful ones in festive clothes, in letters to women he wrote with special thin handwriting. In his memoirs, Mirza Fatali Akhundov wrote that Vazeh "had the art of writing in beautiful handwriting, known by the name Nastaliq". Bodenstedt translated and spread the works of Vazeh. In 1850, he published the book A Thousand and One Days in the East in Stuttgart, where he included some of Vazeh's poems. A year later, they were published separately in Berlin in German under the title Songs of Mirza Shafi. These poems became so popular that they were reissued every year and translated into many languages. The Songs of Mirza Shafi was first translated into Russian by N.I. Eifert. In 1880, he wrote: The Songs of Mirza Shafi, which have already survived up to 60 editions, is one of the most beloved works of modern poetry in Germany." They have been translated into English, French, Italian, Persian, Hungarian, Czech, Swedish, Dutch, Flemish, Danish, Spanish, Portuguese, most Slavic languages and Hebrew. The translation into Italian was done by Giacomo Rossi. Russian poet Mikhail Larionovitch Mikhailov translated Shafi's poems into Russian. Shafi's poems also came to the attention of Leo Tolstoy, who told Afanasy Fet in 1880 that they had made a deep impression him. Research into Shafi's writings is far from complete and continues in Azerbaijan to this day. ## Legacy Mirza Shafi's works and personality continued to influence Azerbaijani literature after his death. He became the inspiration of the Haji Nuri character in Mirza Fatali Akhundov's play, Hekayat-e Molla Ebrahim Khalil kimiagar. There are several streets, schools and parks named in his honour, such as the "Mirza Shafi" streets in Tbilisi and Baku, the No.16 middle school and the "Shafi" park in Ganja. In 2010, a memorial plaque was installed for Bodenstedt and Vazeh in Bodenstedt's hometown, Peine, Germany. Similarly, a bust was erected in Ganja in honour of Shafi. Transfer of the works of Mirza Shafi from Germany to Ganja began in 2014 and a museum dedicated to him was opened in Ganja in November 2017.
501,566	Conker's Bad Fur Day	1,172,924,380	2001 video game	[ "2001 video games", "3D platform games", "BAFTA winners (video games)", "Censored video games", "Conker (series)", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo 64 games", "Obscenity controversies in video games", "Parody video games", "Rare (company) games", "Split-screen multiplayer games", "THQ games", "Video games about dinosaurs", "Video games about vampires", "Video games about zombies", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by Robin Beanland", "Video games set in 2001", "War video games", "Xbox One games" ]	Conker's Bad Fur Day is a 2001 platform game developed and published by Rare for the Nintendo 64. The game follows Conker, a greedy, hard-drinking red squirrel who must return home to his girlfriend after binge drinking. Most of the game requires the player to complete a linear sequence of challenges that involve jumping over obstacles, solving puzzles, and fighting enemies. A multiplayer mode in which up to four players can compete against each other in seven different game types is also included. It is the second installment in the Conker series, after Conker’s Pocket Tales. Although visually similar to Rare's previous games, such as Donkey Kong 64 and Banjo-Kazooie, Conker's Bad Fur Day was designed for mature audiences and features graphic violence, alcohol and tobacco use, profanity, vulgar humour, fourth wall breaks and pop culture references. Development lasted four years, with concepts originating during the development of Killer Instinct Gold in 1996. The game, intended for a family audience, was initially titled Twelve Tales: Conker 64 and was set for release in late 1998, but by the time it received criticism for its kid-friendly tone and resemblance to Banjo-Kazooie during E3 1998, the game was transformed into an adult-oriented version of that product. Conker's Bad Fur Day was released in March 2001, following an advertising campaign that targeted male college students. It received critical acclaim, with praise directed at its humour, sound, visuals, and gameplay. However, the game sold well below expectations due to limited advertising and a release towards the end of the Nintendo 64's life cycle, but has since developed a cult following. A remake, Conker: Live & Reloaded, was released for the Xbox in 2005, while the original version was included as part of the Rare Replay compilation for Xbox One in 2015. ## Gameplay Conker's Bad Fur Day is a platform game, its latest sections featuring elements of shooters. The player controls Conker the Squirrel through a series of three-dimensional levels. The game features an overworld where players can transition from one level to another, although many are initially blocked off until Conker earns a certain amount of cash. Each level is an enclosed area in which the player can freely explore to find tasks to do. The gameplay mostly relies on figuring out a way to help other characters by completing a linear sequence of challenges. These challenges may include defeating a boss, solving puzzles, gathering objects, and racing opponents, among others. The result is always a cash reward, which aids access to other areas in the overworld. As compared to the player characters in Rare's previous platform games Banjo-Kazooie and Donkey Kong 64, Conker's abilities are simpler. The player can run, jump, and smack enemies with a frying pan. Conker can also swim underwater for a limited period of time, climb ladders or ropes, and push objects. To regain lost health, Conker can eat pieces of "anti-gravity" Chocolate that are scattered throughout the levels. The game employs "context-sensitive" pads that allow Conker to gain different, temporary abilities when pressing the "B" button atop them. For instance, in the beginning of the game, by pressing the B button on the first pad he encounters, Conker drinks some Alka-Seltzer to wipe out his hangover, at which point players can proceed forward. Some pads can turn Conker into an anvil to slam into the ground, while others pull out his shotgun, blow torch, throwing knives, and slingshot. They also serve to inform players of what needs to be done next. The game includes a multiplayer mode where up to four players can compete against each other in seven different game types: Beach, Raptor, Heist, War, Tank, Race and Deathmatch. In Beach, a team of players must go up through a beach and into a waiting escape vehicle, while another must stop them by firing at them from fixed positions. Raptor involves a team of players controlling raptors to feed a baby dinosaur while another controlling cavemen who have to steal dinosaur eggs. Heist engrosses players in the robbery of a bank, where the goal is to retrieve a cash bag from the centre of the level and run with it to the team's vault without being damaged. War can either be a traditional capture the flag mode or Total War, where players have to get the other team's gas canister and use it to release a chemical gas that annihilates the enemy. In Tank, players fight using tanks and chemical canisters that release a lethal gas. Race is a racing mode which provides two variations of the same course. Items can be acquired and used against opponents. Finally, Deathmatch is a standard deathmatch mode where players fight against each other in shooting style from a third-person perspective. Players can set multiple options for each game, such as score limit, number of lives, and inclusion of computer-controlled bots. ## Summary ### Setting Conker's Bad Fur Day is set in the Fairy Panther King's Kingdom. Windy is the game's main hub with entrances to most other sections: the farm Barn Boys, the poo-filled Sloprano, Heist, the horror-themed Spooky, Bats Tower, and It's War. Only one other section requires entering from an area besides Windy: Uga Buga, which must be entered under the bottom of Sloprano by paying the location's weasel guards \$1,000. Obtaining access to the entrance requires going through a sewer pipe only accessible after defeating a big, opera-singing chunk of poo, named the "Great Mighty Poo". Windy has a beetle-populated area entirely filled with fecal matter, consisting of a big Poo Mountain and a Poo Cabin and a river next to it. Poo balls are required to enter the Sloprano section within the mountain, and Bats Tower which is only opened once the water in the river is drained. Poo balls are available at Poo Cabin, accessible after completing Barn Boys. The dung beetle near the entrance offers Conker poo balls if he can make the farm cows excrement in the pasture. Doing so involves Conker on the Poo Cabin's pasture turning on a big spigot to activate the prune juice (which gives the cows diarrhea), and using a bull to open gates for the cows to get out, as well as to kill the cows once each one finishes defecating. \$2,110 is needed to pay Mr. Barrel to propel down a slope and break a barrier to the entrance of Spooky. ### Plot Conker, an anthropomorphic red squirrel, has a night at a bar named The Cock and Plucker, where he parties with the other attendants that are drafted to fight a war; he contacts his girlfriend Berri to inform her he will be at her place, but a bit late. He leaves the bar and moves into the rainy outside drunk with blurry vision and a lack of balance, making it difficult for him to maneuver. He falls asleep in an area far away from Berri's place way, waking up next to a farm consisting of a scarecrow named Birdy, of whom he asks for help. Birdy teaches Conker about the game's context-sensitive button mechanic. A context-sensitive area gives him a pill that re-energizes Conker and makes him able to move actively again. The various moves and button commands for Conker's movements and action, such as jumping, flying, and his frying pan attack, also come back to his memory. Meanwhile, the Panther King, ruler of the land that Conker is lost in, finds that his throne's side table is missing one of its legs and orders his servant, Professor Von Kriplespac, to solve the problem. When Von Kriplespac suggests the use of a red squirrel as the fourth leg of his table, the Panther King sends his minions to capture one. Conker enters Windy, where he saves the hive of Queen Bee from the Nasty Wasps twice; in both situations she uses the hive to shoot the wasps to death. He then goes to Barn Boys. There, he first helps a box get off of another box by feeding a mouse cheese to the point where he explodes. When Conker enters Spooky, he finds Death (the reaper responsible for Conker's multiple lives), who provides him a shotgun and informs him one of his ancestors is undead, rich, and living in a mansion around the area. He wanders around looking for the ancestor's mansion, hoping to inherit the wealth, and shoots several squirrel zombies along the way. He finds the house and meets its owner, 300-year-old vampire Count Batula, who provides the red squirrel a dinner and wine, as well as shows him around the property. During Conker's feast, Batula tells of his war-crusading forefather, as well as the fact that there used to be a union between the squirrels and panthers when he was alive. A raid of the property by the surrounding villagers occurs, not for the first time, and interrupts the conversation. After Batula drinks a bit of Conker's blood, figuring out Conker is his "great, great, great, great, great grandson", and turns himself and Conker into a bat, he gives Conker a task: to catch the villagers and place them into a grinder for Batula to eat their blood. Conker is successful, but he feeds Batula so much that his body weight becomes too big for the rope he's latching on hold, causing him to fall in the grinder. Conker turns back into his normal squirrel form and leaves with the inheritance, entering Windy at nightfall, when a new entrance for It's War appears. Conker walks into the war zone, where it is the squirrels against the Tediz. Although he is not in the proper attire for the situation and did not sign up beforehand, the General accepts him after Conker gets a fallen plane out of the way of the squirrel team's route. The team arrives at the beach, the location of the Tediz' base location. With the context-sensitive button equipping him with machine guns, Conker breaks in the warehouse and traverses, fighting several Tediz, including scalpel-throwing scientists, in the process. He encounters a squirrel soldier about to be shot to death by the Tediz. Conker kills the Tediz and saves the squirrel, who is named Rodent and met Conker before. Rodent is the only fight wearing experiment number G7224, a titanium laminate suit that protects him from any weapon, and joins Conker as his "Operation Squirrel Shield". Conker, pulling a switch that's in a secret area filled with toxic chemicals and using a tank, enters the underground area Submariner. There, she finds a seemingly little girl, but turns out to be a puppet on the hand of a bigger Tedi machine. Conker successfully defeats the big robot Tedi, but not before the little girl turns on a self-destruct mechanism that will blow up the entire war zone in four minutes in 30 seconds. All of the remaining squirrels escape in time, while the Tediz' base explodes. Conker returns to Windy, only to find parts of the scenery and a windmill on top of a mountain no longer there. When Conker finds Berri, Don Weaso, head of the Weasel Mafia, enlists their help in robbing a bank. After entering the vault, Conker and Berri find that the bank scene was an elaborate trap set by the Panther King to capture Conker. Berri steps forward to resolve the situation, but is shot and killed by Weaso on the Panther King's orders. The Panther King suddenly begins having chest pains and calls for Von Kriplespac, who takes Conker aside, and they both watch as a Xenomorph-like creature bursts out of the Panther King's chest, killing him instantly. Von Kriplespac explains that the creature, which he names "Heinrich", is one of his creations and that he had planned to use this opportunity to kill the Panther King and escape his captivity. He then reveals that they are inside a spaceship, which he activates and takes into low orbit. From there, he instructs the creature to attack and kill Conker as revenge for destroying the Tediz, which were also his creations. Conker opens an airlock, expelling Kriplespac and the Panther King and Berri's corpses into space, and then battles Heinrich with the aid of a robotic suit. After Conker fails to successfully throw the creature out the airlock, Heinrich lunges at Conker, who braces for his seemingly inevitable death, but the game then suddenly freezes, and Conker expresses disbelief that Rare did not test the game properly. Asking for the programmers' assistance, the programmers give Conker a katana and teleport him to the Panther King's throne room, where he decapitates Heinrich with ease. Conker is then crowned the new king of the land. As the King, Conker realizes that he should have brought Berri back to life when he negotiated with the programmers. He then calls out to bring her back to life, only to realize that the programmers have already left. Characters that Conker first encountered begin hailing him, despite his animosity towards them. Conker gives a closing monologue, in which he discusses appreciating what one already has instead of always wanting more, stating that "the grass is always greener, and you don't really know what it is you have until it's gone". After the credits roll, Conker is seen back at The Cock and Plucker, where he was seen at the start of the game. As it begins to storm outside, he drunkenly exits the bar, leaving in the opposite direction he took previously. ## Development ### Early concepts Following the success of Nintendo's Super Mario 64 (1996), a "barn" at Rare began conceiving and designing a similar unnamed "generic 3D platform adventure" during development of Killer Instinct Gold (1996). Tim Stamper had planned the game to star a cute squirrel mascot named Conker from the get-go, in order to have the widest possible appeal. The staff of Project Dream saw the yet-to-be-named platform game during the creation of its engine, and was inspired to change Dream from an RPG to a platforming game in the visual and gameplay style of the Killer Instinct team's project. Both then-upcoming Rare titles were first announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in June 1997, receiving the names Banjo-Kazooie and Conker's Quest, the first two games presented by Nintendo at the event. N64.com reported Conker's Quest being a Super Mario 64-like game that "make[s] gamers feel as if they're playing through Disney's movie version of Bambi", where "Conker collects nuts and battles against giants in huge landscapes and is joined by a female squirrel who assists him as he makes his way through the game". The source reported the cameras being in an unfinished state and journalists unable to differentiate between it and Banjo-Kazooie, although liking Banjo far more. A writer for Ultra Game Players also noted it looking similar to Banjo and summarized that "Conker has to collect nuts, find new power-ups (in the form of different hats - kind of like Wario Land) and generally negotiate colorful 3D landscapes". He called its gameplay "competent and even addictive" and praised the visuals for "upping the ante on [Rare's] previous efforts, where the clipping is better, the textures more varied and the overall look of the game is expansive and colorful". However, he suggested its "disturbing" cuteness, while gaining Nintendo an audience of younger players, would turn off older players and criticized the gameplay of Conker and Banjo for being not original enough from Mario 64. At the 1998 Expo, it was revealed that the game's title was changed to Twelve Tales: Conker 64 and the release was set for fall 1998. 64 magazine suspected the name change was to prevent consumers from confusing it with another Nintendo 64 title, Quest 64 (1998). Twelve Tales would have had a single-player mode and two-multiplayer modes. In single-player, the player could play as either Conker or Berri, where Conker's segments would be "arcade-style platformer[s]" involving "action and speed" and Berri's would be puzzle stages depicting her controlling her dino companion (as well as feeding him) so that he can protect her from enemies. The two multi-player modes would have been a co-operative two-player mode where the players play as Conker and an owl, and a split-screen four-player battle mode where players attack each other with acorns. Conker, unlike Bad Fur Day, moved on four legs in Twelve Tales. Coverage upon the game's 1998 E3 appearance was generally positive, with focal points including the graphics, characters, content, and the characters changing emotions in reaction to the environment. Total 64 found the visuals better than Nintendo's Zelda game presented at the Expo, "utilising the N64's hi-res mode and displaying some gorgeous textures"; it additionally praised its "highly imaginative" four-player mode and Berri's levels. Journalist Andy McDermott appreciated the huge amount of content, in particular the multi-player modes, the two different gameplay styles in the single-player mode and the fact that Conker learns new moves and attacks as the game progresses. Coverage was not without criticisms, however; McDermott disliked its "Americanized" writing that consisted of "colonial-style comments" and the "infuriatingly happy music", while Next Generation called its premise of a squirrel collecting acorns in "stunningly unimaginative forests" a rip-off of Ocean Software's 16-bit platform game Mr. Nutz (1993). The most frequent skepticism was its kid-friendliness, particularly its consumer interest after the release of others family-friendly platformers like Banjo-Kazooie (1998). All of this concerned Rare, a developer which had a history of making games like Conker, resulting in a game design overhaul. ### Transition to an adult game Conker was planned to only take two years to make, but fights between workers at the barn delayed the process. Artist Don Murphy found the developing game not very good, and software engineer Chris Marlow said that "there was an awful lot of content and there were lots of fun ideas, but it just really wasn't gelling as a finished game". Additionally, the market for Mario 64-style platformers was saturated, and another game of that caliber developed by Rare, Banjo-Kazooie, was already completed and released to critical and commercial success. For the team, either something changed or the team had to split into other barns working on new projects, after having cancelled Conker. Multiple delays and a lack of updates led the press to believe that Twelve Tales was quietly cancelled. Chris Seavor, who began working on the project as an artist, then pitched to Rare leaders Tim and Chris Stamper an idea he had since during the Twelve Tales phase, a day in the life game named Bad Fur Day about Conker trying to help others but causing more problems in doing so. In addition to having a narrative to give the titular character a personality, Seavor wanted to make the game "edgy, in terms of its violence"; the Stampers loved the idea and moved Seavor up to project lead. Seavor's first action following the meeting was changing the task "Wasps and the Queen Bee". Tim Stamper conceived its premise of wasps stealing a beehive, but Seavor noticed no established reasons or punchline behind it. He decided to end it with the beehive having guns shooting at the wasps; the founders loved it and directed the team to "make more of that". This set the formula for later missions: an introduction, interaction of the mission, and then an "extreme punchline" cutscene as reward for completing the task. It also changed the style of a game to a platformer starring a cute mascot character in an incredibly raunchy world. According to the developers: "We already had the main character (although he was eventually remodeled) and a good deal of code already written, so the best option seemed to be to change the game's direction. Mature humor was a key element". Rare clarified publicly in January 2000 that the game was "still being worked on by a full team and with the same level of dedication as when it was first announced". In 2000, Twelve Tales: Conker 64 was retooled into Conker's Bad Fur Day with a large amount of scatological humour. ### Workflow All of Conker's Bad Fur Day's staff, including the animators, programmers, and writers, worked in a liberated, non-planned, and intuition-based manner; the cutscene dialogue and gameplay design in particular was spontaneously conceived between the developers with a rough notion of the level's story. Out of all the game's dialogue, only the intro was scripted. The developers' ideas were tracked with notepads, as they would describe them verbally while taking notes of what they heard from others. Shawn Pile wrote a language that allowed for changes in the game’s structures to be done in a few seconds, whereas without it, it would have taken "two-and-a-half to three minutes" to make a change. ### Writing The beginning, middle and end of the story was done all at the same time, with events written to happen later in the story leading to the inclusion of elements earlier. In order to fit three save files in four kilobytes of SRAM space, the game was broken up into lengthy chapters. Seavor's focus on the game, as project lead, was making sure the narrative complemented the gameplay and mechanics: "Just doing a 'thing' like hitting something with a brick is far more engaging if there's a motivation behind it to disguise the binary nature of the act". For example, the developers originally planned Conker to attack with a baseball bat; this was changed to a frying pan because it justified the use of a comic sound effect of a metal object hitting something. When designing levels, the developers were originally more focused on the gameplay than the comedy; as development went on, they noticed being less focused on gameplay and more on the comedic premises made the levels come together easier. This especially became evident with the use of film parodies, which Seavor decided on after adding a Terminator (1984) reference in the barn yard scene. The parodies helped the developers come up with ideas for music, sound, design, and gameplay. For example, the spoofing of The Matrix (1999) in a lobby chase scene gave composer and audio engineer Robin Beanland ideas for interactive music, where shooting bullets would fade the channels of the upbeat music into channels playing something more downtempo. The Star Wars series, Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), and Apocalypse Now (1979) are among the films spoofed. Conker's Bad Fur Day begins with a shot-by-shot recreation of the intro of A Clockwork Orange (1971). A joke in one of Conker's conversations with the catfish references Trading Places (1983). The sequences involving the shark-bulldog Brute parodies Jaws (1975), particularly featuring music cues similar to that of the film. The final boss fight references Aliens (1986), as an alien rips out of the Panther King's chest and Conker fights it in a powersuit. Conker's Bad Fur Day also satirizes conventions of adventure and platform games, occasionally by breaking the fourth wall. Conker makes fun of how menial his missions are, and the villain's motivation of getting a table leg pokes at the shallow premises of other games. Burt, a metal box in the "Barn Boys" chapter that stands in place for most of the level, is only there to open a gate, which pokes fun at characters in other games only there to be communicated with for the player to achieve other tasks. The explanation for why floating chocolate bars exist makes fun of floating collect-able items in other games where why they float is not established. The death sequences, where Conker encounters a skeleton named Gregg, was an attempt to make logical the concept of multiple lives. The bosses also take four hits to kill, a twist on the typical three in other video games. Certain story elements, although not spoofing material, took influence from the works of Monty Python. "The Milk Thing", a running gag where the Panther King has to be resisted from masturbating, was inspired by a joke just as "trivial and banal" in a skit on Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969–1974) titled "Blancmange Playing Tennis", while a cow was based on the feminine guard character in Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975). The fart noise segment of "Uncle Fucka" from South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut (1999) was the inspiration for a level theme (named "Poo")'s arrangement consisting of fart noises. Some characters were based on real-life people the developers encountered. Birdy the scarecrow was based on a bearded Rare developer, and Greg the Grimm Reaper was named after Gregg Mayles. The bee king was inspired by a "really scruffy" man Seavor encountered while walking on a street in Nottingham who screamed at him, "don’t speak to me like that, in my country I am a king." ### Programming The developers heavily analyzed Super Mario 64 in making Conker's Bad Fur Day, especially when it came to the camera. The staff noticed it, along with Prince of Persia 3D (1999), used "fixed views" that could not be controlled by the player. To make the game look cinematic, Rare went with having a fixed camera that was very zoomed out. To increase the number of simultaneous light sources to four, one programmer spent four months deciphering and rewriting the Nintendo-supplied Japanese-commented microcode for the Nintendo 64's Reality Coprocessor, while another microcoded the support for MP3, reverberation, and Dolby Pro Logic surround sound. The length of all cutscenes combined total around two hours. Marlow programmed a "cutscene editor" that allowed for separately-made animations, audio files, visual effects, and camera setups to easily be compiled together for cutscenes. However, making cutscenes was still a lengthy process. The editor lacked a feature to preview only bits of cutscenes, meaning they had to be played in their entirety before they could be altered again; this made several small changes (such as text copyedits and adjustments to the timing of speech bubbles to match camera angle changes) very tedious. The testing for Nintendo's Seal of Quality was strict; although the game was tested in the United States for five days with no bugs noticed, it was 24 hours in the Japan unit's three-day test that they noticed a problem of a cutscene in the first level not being triggered. Initially, Gregg's introductory scene (which is triggered the first time the player dies) was not to be "forced" in the "Spooky" level where the reaper appears again, as the programmers assumed no player would get to it without dying; a tester successfully did, so in the final game, the death scene plays once Conker reaches the stage. ### Animation Maya was used to create 3D animations. Beanland and animator Louise Ridgeway estimated 8.7 seconds and two-to-three cycles of animation were completed per day. When it came to animation, small details were a priority, such as the fire demons reacting if a swear word was entered into the cheat code menu and the camera shaking and triggering a sound effect if hit by an object. This method sometimes led to tedious tasks, such as having to animate each of several bricks on a bridge separately. Some animations, such as drunk character movements, required research. Animating Conker's juggling required Ridgeway being taught by David Rose how to juggle. Conker has 2,000 animations, including 15 idle animations. Lots of work was spent on Conker’s tail, animating it for several instances when he rotates, stands, twitches, and moves around; in an attempt to simplify this process, the tail was thought of as a "bag of air". For animating objects attached to parts of Conker's model, Marlow coded as if the objects were constrained to joints different from the parts coming in contact with the objects; Conker's juggling balls moved based on his right hip, the Game Boy was attached to his foot, and the frying pan was connected to his wrist. For Conker's peeing attack, only the back of him was animated without his front completed; this was because if the front of Conker peeing was animated and seen, it would have given Conker's Bad Fur Day an AO ("Adults Only") rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board. Conker's cheeks were originally animated to puff during his whistling animation, but it broke during testing, and by the time it was fixed it was too late to program it into the final product. ### Audio The inclusion of voice acting, in addition to the adult content, was another method by Seavor of differentiating Conker's Bad Fur Day in the Nintendo 64 marketplace; the idea initially garnered skepticism from a few staff members who argued it was "too much work", but Seavor explained that for Beanland, it "was like laying down a challenge, one we both accepted and relished". For making each mission scenario, voice recording came first; Beanland recalled one session lasting an hour. Seavor described the voice recording process and him and Beanland "having some fun with stupid voices". The vocal track meant Conker's Bad Fur Day required a 64 MB cartridge, one of the few Nintendo 64 games that size. Audio made up around 40 MB to 48 MB of all cartridge space. Except for The Great Mighty Poo, all of the male characters, including Conker, and two female characters were voiced by Seavor, with all other female characters voiced by the animator Louise Ridgeway. Routines of The Jerky Boys influence the voice direction, such as the New York accent on the Nasty Wasps. For Berri, Ridgeway was directed to use an American accent. She recalled in 2015 that she'd "never been anywhere in my life; I’d just flown over from Dublin", so "all I could think was to add 'like' so often". Seavor and Beanland had difficulty coming up with voices for the Ugas; they initially tried to make them sound like the cavemen in At the Earth's Core (1976), but were unsuccessful and ultimately decided to do random grunts and fast word sayings. For music tracks where the instruments playing change depending on location, volumes of different MIDI channels were programmed to go up or down; one MIDI file was limited to 16 channels, so in order to have 32 MIDI channels for as much variation as possible, audio software engineer Mike Currington conceived having two MIDI files sync up with each other. With the intro to It's War replicating the chaotic audio of Saving Private Ryan, its bullet hit sounds were programmed as MIDI notes with much panning, taking advantage of the game's Surround Sound. The Great Mighty Poo was performed by Marlow, who had experience in opera; recorded in a single afternoon, "Sloprano", the song the character sings, was written by Seavor and composer Robin Beanland specifically to incorporate Marlow's operatic talents. "Sloprano" was also originally going to have the sweetcorn be backing singers, with Ridgeway and another animator Aisling Duddy voicing them; this was rejected. The only Twelve Tales piece included in Conker's Bad Fur Day was the one where Conker is peeing on his enemies. ### Rejected material Although Seavor remarked that "pretty much 99.9% of the game content remained" writing-wise, Conker's Bad Fur Day was around 20% longer than the final product when it came to planned gameplay designs and concepts, with material cut due to a lack of time to incorporate it. A few areas that made it into the game were initially modeled differently, such as the water tube in the shark-bulldog area Conker swims in chasing a wad of money. Some offensive content was cut by Nintendo, including cutscenes with Pokémon and a joke at the expense of the Ku Klux Klan. The introduction of Conker slashing the N64 logo in half was also initially disapproved by Nintendo; the developers in 2013 recalled that Rare founder Tim Stamper may have met with Nintendo to resolve the conflict. Scrapped characters included four in the cheese field of the barn (Camembert, Ninja Cheese, Cheese Crate, and King Dick Cheesy III) and six "Drugrats" (Roach, Cornsacks, Floury, Doughy, Pooey, and Mrs. Roach). In the final game, a climbing area in the Poo Cabin includes a hole containing a piece of chocolate that's unattainable due to being protected by bars; this was meant to be the entrance of a section that was never finished, and Seavor deliberately left the hole to annoy players. The "Yeehaa!" section, which involve three cows and a bull Conker rides named Bugger Lugs, was going to be a bigger level; Conker would have flown in the sky by blowing up a female cow into fetish outfits and turning her into a balloon, dropping bricks on other cows that exploded into fecal matter. Another scrapped mission was a return to the shark-bulldog area with the re-appearance of Brute and Marvin the farting mouse, who exploded in a previous section; Conker would have killed the dogfish by feeding the mouse to Brute, then going to a context-sensitive area to shoot the fish as Marvin was about to explode, in reference to the shark's demise in Jaws. A scrapped conclusion, named the "Lock-Up Ending", would have occurred when Conker beat the final boss and died at the same time. Everything would become static except for Conker, who would fall to the ground after briefly being frozen during a dive, and the programmers would be heard arguing about the bug; Conker would then make a deal with the programmers to remove the boss in exchange for not telling "Tony" about it. Animation for a set of outtakes in the closing credits a la the end credits of Toy Story 2 (1999) was started, but could not be completed in time. One of the bloopers was the "Mad Pitchfork" scene where Conker became annoyed and had his voice turn "primadonna". Another was for a scene not in the actual game, where the teddy bears had to play dead but were not in character when the sequence started, which, according to a developer, was to make fun of a tester. A rejected post-credits finale would have had Berri still alive, but as a slave to king Conker. ## Release ### Target demographic Conker's Bad Fur Day received an M (Mature) rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board for reasons of "animated violence", "mature sexual themes", and "strong language", becoming the second Nintendo-distributed M-rated title after another Rare-developed game, Perfect Dark (2000). Nintendo's move into adult titles was to keep the interest of consumers who played the company's titles when they were younger; Nintendo of America spokeswoman Perrin Kaplan explained that the "kids who were 6 when they played the first Mario game are now 26". Less than a year before Conker's release, 18-year-olds and over made up 58% of console players, those in the 35+ age group 21%. This demographic change was due to the success of adult-oriented PlayStation franchises like Tomb Raider and Resident Evil, and it meant it would not be enough for Nintendo to compete with Sony entirely on children's properties. Because Nintendo was known for its family-friendly games (in 2000, around three quarters of revenue were from sales of child-friendly video games), Conker's Bad Fur Day was the subject of controversy. According to Rare, "Nintendo initially had concerns regarding this issue, because kids might confuse the product as being aimed at them". The Los Angeles Times claimed "some parents used to Nintendo’s family-friendly games are horrified", reporting a mother in Schererville, Indiana who bought the game for her 15-year-old son: "This is disgusting, sophomoric humor, and I’m disappointed in Nintendo. It’s like Disney releasing pornography". Nintendo of America declined to acknowledge the game in its Nintendo Power magazine (although other official Nintendo publications outside the USA did cover the game), and copies of the magazine's strategy guides were packaged in black polybags with warnings similar to the one on the cover art imposed onto them. KB Toys, which specialised in toys and video games for children, also refused to sell the game. ### Marketing campaign Starcom's promotional campaign for Conker's Bad Fur Day targeted college males and fratboys, advertising located in bars, colleges, late-night television, and adult magazines. For the Conker campaign, Starcom won two International Advertising Festival awards in the categories of use of mixed media and best campaign directed towards adult males; according to judges, it was also one of the top three contenders for Grand Prix, although Crispin Porter + Bogusky's Florida Anti-Tobacco Pilot Programme won it. The campaign included a video ad named "Girl Talk" (on the website dubbed "69 Uncensored Seconds") that depicts a half-naked girl and a squirrel in bed with each other after a night of partying. For several months, urinal mats were placed in bathrooms of places in major cities, which included the URL for the game's website; Starcom associate media director Gina Broderick said: "Like Conker, our target's focus in on his social life. Being in bars is absolutely being in their element, and because urinating is part of game play, it made total sense". From March to April 5, 2001, Playboy magazine ran its first ever video-game-related tour, a set of Conker's Bad Fur Day "Beach"-mode multiplayer competition parties at 20 colleges across the United States, hosted by Miss March 2001 Miriam Gonzalez. Winners of the contests were rewarded with green Nintendo 64 consoles, copies of Conker's Bad Fur Day, and Nintendo and Playboy merchandise, while the player with the highest score of all competitions won trips to two Playmate of the Year parties at Playboy Mansion. Spring break parties were also held at Club La Vela and South Padre Island's Louie's Backyard, the main events being "King of Tail" tattoo contests with free giveaways of various products on the side, such as Conker condoms, copies of Conker's Little Black Book (a collection of Conker's Bad Fur Day print ads), and t-shirts with "Got Tail?" on the front and the game's logo on the back. Three "coloring book" advertisements were printed in magazines like Maxim. One consists of Conker and a woman next to a tree and around acorns on the ground, with the squirrel's head into her breasts; the tagline is, "Conker is a squirrel. Squirrels hunt for acorns. Can you help Conker find some acorns?" One depicted Conker peeing on flames with the tagline "Help Conker stop the bullies. Use your Yellow crayon" and another depicted him laying his head in a toilet with the text "Shhh! Conker is taking a nap". ### Sales Conker's Bad Fur Day was first released on 5 March 2001 in North America. In Europe, the game was published and distributed by THQ on 13 April 2001, after Nintendo of Europe declined to publish it. It was the highest-selling mature-rated video game in its first month of release, and its website garnered 300,000 unique visitors in the first two weeks on the market. However, Conker's Bad Fur Day was not a commercial success, selling only about 55,000 copies within its first month of release. Potential reasons included its prohibitively high cost, advertisements exclusive to the older audience, and release near the end of the Nintendo 64's commercial life. As of February 2020, Conker's Bad Fur Day is the fourth rarest Nintendo 64 title, with copies selling on bidding sites for around \$500 to \$700 for a new copy; its value was affected by its unusual genre, poor initial sales, costly 64MB cartridges, being released near the end of the Nintendo 64's lifespan, and several leftover copies purchased upon Live & Reloaded's release. ## Critical reception Conker's Bad Fur Day received critical acclaim, with an aggregate review score of 92 out of 100 at Metacritic based on reviews from 19 critics. Claimed IGN editor Matt Casamassina in his 9.9/10 review, "not only is it quite possibly the most hilarious title ever created, but the selection of crude jokes, over-the-top violence and sexual content featured is only one-upped by the game's remarkably deep, well-paced level design, tightly knitted control mechanics, beautiful graphics and amazing sound quality." Many publications and websites declared the graphics were the best on the Nintendo 64. Chris Slate of Next Generation wrote the title has the usual Rare qualities of "top-notch graphics" and "incredible worlds". Official Nintendo Magazine described even the gross-out levels as "drop dead gorgeous", and exclaimed the "amazing detail on the brilliant film spoof stages take our beloved N64 to new heights of visual pleasure". Critics noted that the game featured a number of technical effects that were uncommon at the time, especially for a Nintendo 64 game, such as "varied and crisp" textures, dynamic shadowing, coloured lighting, large areas with a long draw distance, no distance fog, detailed facial animations, lip syncing, and individually rendered fingers on some characters. GameSpot went so far as to say that the game "makes other Nintendo 64 games look like 16-bit software". Casamassina praised the detailed 3D worlds, "fantastic" texture work, and cute character designs. He remarked that "Conker himself is equipped with an in-game facial animation system that realistically portrays his different moods as he travels the lands. When he's scared, he looks it, and when he's pissed off players will actually be able to see his teeth showing in a frown". Reviewers noted occasional frame rate drops, but most agreed they did not interfere with the gameplay. The game's audio and diverse vocal track were widely praised. Critics credited the voice acting for its different accents and styles, with "cleverly lewd" scripts and "dead-on" movie spoofs; Nintendojo noted certain voices sounding identical to film characters being spoofed. The soundtrack was praised for sounding clear for a cartridge title, its use of arrangement variation based on player location, and rich and creative instrumentation. Reviewers also highlighted the high number of sound effects, such as Conker's footsteps changing sound effects step-by-step, and how they benefitted the settings. Most reviewers agreed the jokes were clever, funny, and well-delivered, and GamePro felt the "wildly diverse" weird missions were "sublime satirical genius" making up for the linear gameplay. However, some criticized the humor for being juvenile, misogynistic, and over-filled with profanity and bodily humor, and Slate felt the shock effect would go away within an hour. Seth Stevenson of Slate magazine called it an example of the lack of actual "mature" console games for "socially adjusted, non-outcasted adults who enjoy videogames". Official Nintendo Magazine described Conker's Bad Fur Day as "a monster sized game. Either you’ll die laughing well before the end or it will take you months of dedicated gameplay to reach it". The gameplay was highlighted for its unconventional context-sensitive pads. Casamassina noted that they "help keep the action shifting, refreshing, and always exciting", and credited Rare for reducing the number of items to collect. GameRevolution's Johnny Liu positively described the gameplay as "a staccato flow between gameplay and cutscenes"; while there's only one path to traverse the game's big world, the enjoyment came in thinking what to do next. Slate wrote its diverse set of "bizarrely creative scenarios" motivated gamers; he was, however, bothered by the game's lack of clear direction on where to go, which resulted in long-length wonders that only ended in stumbling upon the next required area, and felt that many puzzles lack logical coherence and depended too much on trial and error. Edge remarked that the pads make Conker's Bad Fur Day "little more than a procession of barely connected and puerile minigames". Criticism was also targeted at the game's erratic camera system, simplistic action, short length and linear nature. N64 Magazine felt that camera system does not allow players to properly judge their position within their surroundings and GameSpot remarked that it can get caught on objects or refuse to obey commands. The San Francisco Chronicle reported the camera being occasionally immovable and getting into frame objects that block the player's view, making worse an experience where the character is "difficult to control, especially when required to jump onto small areas". The multiplayer modes garnered mixed responses. Casamassina and Gameplanet considered them inventive and praised the numerous options, adding longevity to the product. On the other hand, GameSpot stated that most modes "fail to stand the test of time", and Liu, although stating they were "a welcome bonus", considered them to be "filler", also criticizing that the responsiveness and control setup of the single-player mode were not suitable for the fast pace of the multi-player battles. ## Accolades Conker's Bad Fur Day was awarded Nintendo 64 Game of the Month by IGN. It won best sound at the 2001 BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Awards, Best Platform Game at the GameSpot Best and Worst of 2001 awards (where it also was nominated in the Best Story and Best Nintendo 64 Game categories, losing to Final Fantasy X and Paper Mario respectively) and Best Anthropomorphic Game at the furry media award ceremony Ursa Major Awards. During the 5th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Conker's Bad Fur Day for the "Console Action/Adventure" and "Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development" awards, ultimately losing to Halo: Combat Evolved and Ico respectively. In later years, Conker's Bad Fur Day has been called by professional gaming critics one of the best video games of all-time, one of the greatest Nintendo games, and one of the best Nintendo 64 titles. In Uproxx's 2021 list of top 100 Nintendo 64 games based on 250,849 user ratings from various websites, Conker's Bad Fur Day came in at number 12. It ranked number six both on a list of Rare games by Shacknews (2018) and a ranking of best games featured on Rare Replay by Ginx TV. It was also called the first and seventh funniest game by GameTrailers (2009) and God is a Geek (2011) respectively. UGO included the game at \#3 on their 2010 list of The 11 Weirdest Game Endings, and in 2013 Gaming Bolt named the water tube the 64th most challenging level of all video games. Despite its poor sales initially, the game has since enjoyed a cult following due to its unique styling. ## Legacy After the release of Conker's Bad Fur Day, Rare began development of a direct sequel referred to as Conker's Other Bad Day. Seavor revealed that the game would deal with "Conker's somewhat unsuccessful tenure as King. He spends all the treasured money on beer, parties and hookers. Thrown into prison, Conker is faced with the prospect of execution and the game starts with his escape, ball and chain attached, from the Castle's highest tower". In 2002, however, Rare was purchased by Microsoft, who told them they were not interested in such a project. A remake of Conker's Bad Fur Day, titled Conker: Live & Reloaded, was ultimately released for the Xbox in 2005 to generally favourable critical reception. Developers noted that it was difficult to port the game to the Xbox system because Bad Fur Day's microcoded performance optimisations had been deeply customised for the Nintendo 64 hardware. Conker: Live & Reloaded features updated graphics and a multiplayer mode that supports the Xbox Live service. Additionally, some aspects in the single-player mode were adjusted: several minor obscenities within the voice dialogue that are present in the Nintendo 64 game were censored at Microsoft's request, the camera control was refined and improved with a zoom function, and an auto-targeting system was added to the game. After the release of Live & Reloaded, Rare began work on another game in the Conker universe titled Conker: Gettin' Medieval. The game was to be multiplayer focused and did not feature Conker as a main character, with Rare instead hoping to focus on other characters in the series, but the game was ultimately cancelled. Conker returned in a new episodic campaign for the sandbox game Project Spark. The campaign, titled Conker's Big Reunion, is set ten years after the events of Bad Fur Day and Seavor reprised his voice roles. The first episode of the campaign was released in April 2015, but the remaining ones were cancelled the following September. Conker's Bad Fur Day is also included as part of the Rare Replay compilation for Xbox One, marking the original game's first official re-release. The compilation was released on August 4, 2015.
35,150,601	Soedjatmoko	1,162,919,492	Indonesian politician, intellectual, and diplomat (1922–1989)	[ "1922 births", "1989 deaths", "20th-century Indonesian historians", "Academic staff of United Nations University", "Ambassadors of Indonesia to the United States", "Asian Institute of Management people", "Indonesian Muslims", "Members of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia", "People from Sawahlunto", "Ramon Magsaysay Award winners" ]	Soedjatmoko (born Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat; 10 January 1922 – 21 December 1989), more colloquially referred to as Bung Koko, was an Indonesian politician, intellectual and diplomat. Born to a noble father and mother in Sawahlunto, West Sumatra, after finishing his primary education, he went to Batavia (modern day Jakarta) to study medicine; in the city's slums, he saw much poverty, which became an academic interest later in life. After being expelled from medical school by the Japanese in 1943 for his political activities, Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and practiced medicine with his father. In 1947, after Indonesia proclaimed its independence, Soedjatmoko and two other youths were deployed to Lake Success, New York, to represent Indonesia at the United Nations (UN). They helped secure international recognition of the country's sovereignty. After his work at the UN, Soedjatmoko attempted to study at Harvard's Littauer Center for Public Administration (now the John F. Kennedy School of Government); however, he was forced to resign due to pressure from other work, including serving as Indonesia's first chargé d'affaires in London for three months as well as establishing the political desk at the Embassy of Indonesia in Washington, D.C. By 1952 he had returned to Indonesia, where he became involved in the socialist press and joined the Socialist Party of Indonesia. He was elected as a member of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in 1955, serving until 1959; he married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1957. However, as President Sukarno's government became more authoritarian Soedjatmoko began to criticise the government. To avoid censorship, he spent two years as a guest lecturer at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, and another three in self-imposed unemployment in Indonesia. After Sukarno was replaced by Suharto, Soedjatmoko returned to public service. In 1966 he was sent as one of Indonesia's representatives at the UN, and in 1968 he became Indonesia's ambassador to the US; during this time he received several honorary doctoral degrees. He also advised foreign minister Adam Malik. After returning to Indonesia in 1971, Soedjatmoko held a position in several think tanks. After the Malari incident in January 1974, Soedjatmoko was held for interrogation for two and a half weeks and accused of masterminding the event. Although eventually released, he could not leave Indonesia for two and a half years. In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding, and in 1980 he was chosen as rector of the United Nations University in Tokyo. Two years after returning from Japan, Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest while teaching in Yogyakarta. ## Early life Soedjatmoko was born on 10 January 1922 in Sawahlunto, West Sumatra, with the name Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat. He was the eldest son of Saleh Mangoendiningrat, a Javanese physician of noble descent from Madiun, and Isnadikin, a Javanese housewife from Ponorogo; the couple had three other children, as well as two adopted children. Soedjatmoko's younger brother, Nugroho Wisnumurti, went on to work at the United Nations. His younger sister Miriam Budiardjo was the first woman to be an Indonesian diplomat, and became a co-founder and Dean of the Faculty of Social Science at the University of Indonesia. When he was two years old, he and his family moved to the Netherlands after his father received a five-year scholarship. After returning to Indonesia, Soedjatmoko continued his studies at a Europeesche Lagere School (ELS) in Manado, North Sulawesi. Soedjatmoko later attended a Hogere Burgerschool in Surabaya, where he graduated in 1940. The school introduced him to Latin and Greek, and one of his teachers introduced him to European art; he later recalled that this introduction had allowed him to see Europeans as more than colonists. He then continued to medical school in Batavia (modern day Jakarta). Upon seeing the slums of Jakarta, he was drawn to the issue of poverty, a subject with would later become an academic interest of his. However, during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, in 1943, he was expelled from the city due to his relationship with Sutan Sjahrir – who had married Soedjatmoko's sister Siti Wahyunah – and participation in protests against the occupation. After his expulsion, Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and studied Western history and political literature, which led to him developing an interest in socialism. Some figures which affected him besides Karl Marx were Ortega y Gasset and Jan Romein. While in Surakarta he also worked at his father's hospital. After Indonesia proclaimed its independence, Soedjatmoko was asked to become Deputy Head of the Foreign Press Department in the Ministry of Information. In 1946, at the request of Prime Minister Sjahrir, he and two friends established a Dutch-language weekly, Het Inzicht (Inside), as a counter to the Dutch-sponsored Het Uίtzicht (Outlook). The next year, they launched a socialist-oriented journal, Siasat (Tactics), which was published weekly. During this period Soedjatmoko dropped the name Mangoendiningrat, as it reminded him of the feudal aspects of Indonesian culture. ## Career ### Time abroad In 1947, Sjahrir sent Soedjatmoko to New York as a member of the Indonesian Republic's "observer" delegation to the United Nations (UN). The delegation travelled to the United States via the Philippines after a two-month stay in Singapore; while in the Philippines, President Manuel Roxas guaranteed support of the nascent nation's case at the United Nations. Soedjatmoko stayed in Lake Success, New York, the temporary location of the UN, and participated in debates over international recognition of the new country. Towards the end of his stay in New York, Soedjatmoko enrolled at Harvard's Littauer Center; as, at the time, he was still part of the UN delegation, he commuted between New York and Boston for seven months. After being released from the delegation, he spent most of a year at the center; for a period of three months, however, he was chargé d'affaires – the nation's first – at the Dutch East Indies desk of the Dutch embassy in London, serving in a temporary capacity while the Indonesian embassy was being established. In 1951, Soedjatmoko moved to Washington D.C. to establish the political desk at the Indonesian embassy there; he also became Alternate Permanent Representative of Indonesia at the UN. This busy schedule, demanding a commute between three cities, proved to be too much for him and he dropped out of the Littauer Center. In late 1951, he resigned from his positions and went to Europe for nine months, seeking political inspiration. In Yugoslavia, he met Milovan Djilas, who impressed him greatly. ### Return home Upon returning to Indonesia, Soedjatmoko once again became an editor of Siasat. In 1952, he was one of the founders of Socialist Party daily Pedoman (Guidance); this was followed by a political journal, Konfrontasi (Confrontation). He also helped to establish the Pembangunan publishing house, which he directed until 1961. Soedjatmoko joined the Indonesian Socialist Party (Partai Sosialis Indonesia, or PSI) in 1955, and was elected as a member of Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in the 1955 elections until the dissolution of the assembly in 1959. He served with the Indonesian delegation at the Bandung Conference in 1955. Later the same year, he founded the Indonesian Institute of World Affairs and became its Secretary General for four years. Soedjatmoko married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1957. Together they had three daughters. Towards the end of the 1950s, Soedjatmoko and President Sukarno, with whom he had had a warm working relationship, had a falling out over the president's increasingly authoritarian policies. In 1960 Soedjatmoko co-founded and headed the Democratic League, which attempted to promote democracy in the country; he also opposed Sukarno's Guided Democracy policy. When the effort failed, Soedjatmoko went to the US and took a position as guest lecturer at Cornell University. When he returned to Indonesia in 1962, he discovered that key members of the PSI had been arrested and the party banned; both Siasat and Pedoman were closed. To avoid trouble with the government, Soedjatmoko voluntarily left himself unemployed until 1965, when he became co-editor of An Introduction to Indonesian Historiography. ### Ambassadorship After the failed coup d'état in 1965 and the replacement of Sukarno by Suharto, Soedjatmoko returned to public service. He served as vice-chairman of the Indonesian delegation at the UN in 1966, becoming the delegation's adviser in 1967. Also in 1967, Soedjatmoko became adviser to foreign minister Adam Malik, as well as a member of the International Institute for Strategic Studies, a London-based think tank; the following year he became Indonesian ambassador to the United States, a position which he held until 1971. During his time as ambassador, Soedjatmoko received honorary doctorates from several American universities, including Cedar Crest College in 1969 and Yale in 1970. He also published another book, Southeast Asia Today and Tomorrow (1969). Soedjatmoko returned to Indonesia in 1971; upon his return he became Special Adviser on Social and Cultural Affairs to the Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency. That same year, he became a board member of the London-based International Institute for Environment and Development, a position which he held until 1976; he also joined the Club of Rome. In 1972 Soedjatmoko was selected to the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation, in which position he served 12 years; also in 1972 he became a governor of the Asian Institute of Management, a position which he held for two years. The following year he became a governor of the International Development Research Center. In 1974, based on falsified documents, he was accused of planning the Malari incident of January 1974, in which students protested and eventually rioted during a state visit by Prime Minister of Japan Kakuei Tanaka. Held for interrogation for two and a half weeks, Soedjatmoko was not allowed to leave Indonesia for two and a half years for his suspected involvement. In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding, often called Asia's Nobel Prize. The citation read, in part: > Encouraging both Asians and outsiders to look more carefully at the village folkways they would modernize, [Sodjatmoko] is fostering awareness of the human dimension essential to all development. [...] [H]is writings have added consequentially to the body of international thinking on what can be done to meet one of the greatest challenges of our time; how to make life more decent and satisfying for the poorest 40 percent in Southeastern and southern Asia. In response, Soedjatmoko said he felt "humbled, because of [his] awareness that whatever small contribution [he] may have made is dwarfed by the magnitude of the problem of persistent poverty and human suffering in Asia, and by the realization of how much still remains to be done." ## Later life and death In 1980 Soedjatmoko moved to Tokyo, Japan. In September of that year he began service as the rector of the United Nations University, replacing James M. Hester; he remained in that position until 1987. In Japan he published two further books, The Primacy of Freedom in Development and Development and Freedom. He received the Asia Society Award in 1985, and the Universities Field Staff International Award for Distinguished Service to the Advancement of International Understanding the following year. Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest on 21 December 1989 when he was lecturing at Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta.
70,458,225	Macauley Island	1,170,109,411	Volcanic island in New Zealand's Kermadec Islands	[ "Calderas of New Zealand", "Holocene calderas", "Important Bird Areas of the Kermadec Islands", "Inactive volcanoes", "Island restoration", "Islands of the Kermadec Islands", "Quaternary Oceania", "Submarine calderas", "Uninhabited islands of New Zealand", "VEI-7 volcanoes", "Volcanic islands of New Zealand", "Volcanoes of the New Zealand outlying islands" ]	Macauley Island is a volcanic island in New Zealand's Kermadec Islands, approximately halfway between New Zealand's North Island and Tonga in the southwest Pacific Ocean. It is part of a larger submarine volcano that features a 10.5 by 7 kilometres (6.5 mi × 4.3 mi) wide underwater caldera northwest of Macauley Island. Two islets, Haszard Island and Newcome Rock, lie east offshore of Macauley Island. The island is mostly surrounded by high cliffs that make accessing it difficult; the inland parts are mostly gently sloping terrain covered with ferns and grasses. The island was formed during several volcanic episodes that produced mainly basaltic rocks as lava flows. During the Holocene, a large explosive eruption produced the Sandy Bay Tephra; this eruption may have had a volume of more than 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) and the Macauley caldera might have formed during that occasion. Later, the Haszard Formation built most of the current surface of Macauley Island. Two uncertain eruptions took place during the 19th century offshore Macauley Island; a hydrothermal vent system is active on Macauley Cone in the caldera. Macauley Island is an important breeding place for numerous seabirds, which come on land only to reproduce. While the island is uninhabited, Polynesians, and during the 19th century whalers, introduced goats, pigs and rats which damaged the island's ecosystem. During the 20th and 21st century these invasive species were largely eradicated, leading to a recovery of the previous vegetation. The island is part of a protected area. ## Geography and geomorphology Macauley Island is in the Kermadec Islands, 109 kilometres (68 mi) south-southwest of Raoul Island and roughly halfway between Tonga and New Zealand. Cheeseman Island and Curtis Island lie south-southwest of Macauley Island, and Havre and L'Esperance Rock are even farther south; together these islands form the southern group of the Kermadec Islands, of which Macauley Island is the largest. Under good conditions Raoul Island can be seen from Macauley Island. Located within the exclusive economic zone of New Zealand, the islands are since 1990 within the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve and the Kermadec Benthic Protected Area administered by the New Zealand Department of Conservation. The islands are, with the exception of the weather station on Raoul Island, uninhabited. The volcano rises from a depth of 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) where it is 23–30 kilometres (14–19 mi) wide; it is elongated in east-southeast direction and features a 10.5 by 7 kilometres (6.5 mi × 4.3 mi) wide submarine caldera northwest of Macauley Island. The caldera floor lies at 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) depth and its rim at 600 metres (2,000 ft). The caldera is elongated in east-northeast direction and features north-northeast trending lineaments that extend to Macauley Island. Jumbled blocks, presumably from landslides or slumps, cover the portions of the caldera adjacent to Macauley Island, and there is evidence of collapses on the western caldera margin. A fault runs inside the caldera next to its southeastern margin. The caldera floor is covered with pumice, and thick pumice deposits occur on the flanks of Macauley volcano. North-northwest of the caldera is a 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) long structure called Lloyd dome or Curtis Ridge; it is surmounted by a lineament of cones that rise to 80 metres (260 ft) below sea level. 300 metres (980 ft) high and 700 metres (2,300 ft) wide Macauley Cone is located on the southeastern caldera margin and rises to 250 metres (820 ft) depth. It is capped by a 80 metres (260 ft) wide and 45 metres (148 ft) deep crater with a floor covered with ash and sulfur, while its slopes are covered with talus. Parasitic vents and structures have been identified on the caldera rim and submarine slopes of Macauley Island volcano during bathymetric analysis, some are the source of lava flows that extend into the caldera and down the flanks. The seafloor on the slopes of Macauley volcano is covered with sand, rock, breccia and bacterial mats. "Sediment waves" up to 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long and 100 metres (330 ft) wide occur on the submarine slopes and extend over 55 kilometres (34 mi) away from the volcano. These waves appear to have formed in part during sector collapses and in part during density flows triggered by eruptions; the size of the latter waves may be indicative of the large size of eruptions. The submarine slopes are dissected by canyons and channels. The total volume of the volcano is about 269 cubic kilometres (65 cu mi), of which less than five percent are emergent. ### Macauley Island Parts of the volcano emerge above sea level, forming Macauley Island, Haszard Island and Newcombe Rock. Together they have an area of about 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi), making it the second-largest island in the Kermadec Islands. Macauley Island was also known as Green Island. Macauley Island is about 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi) wide with a roughly circular to rectangular shape and rises from an average elevation of about 100 metres (330 ft) to the 238 metres (781 ft) high Mount Haszard in the northern part of the island. Seen from the north the island has the shape of a wedge, while it has a more rounded shape when seen from the east. The island has a surface area of 3.06 square kilometres (306 ha). Most of the island is a gently tilted plateau, cut by gullies and ravines which are the only way to reach the inside of the island. The deepest of these gullies is 45 metres (148 ft) deep Grand Canyon on the eastern side of Macauley Island; there is evidence that the gullies have become deeper in historical times. Flowing water only occurs after rainfall. The island is geologically unstable, with beaches and landforms frequently shifting due to erosion during rainfall and tropical cyclones, but also due to earthquakes. A castaway depot was established on the northeastern side of Macauley Island in 1888. Cliffs with heights of over 61 metres (200 ft) surround most of Macauley Island and allow landing only at Sandy Bay, a 140 metres (150 yd) long beach. Boulder, gravel and sand beaches occur at some places, while others have steep rocky slopes at subtidal depths with crevices, caves and overhangs. At its northwestern end west of Mount Haszard, the steep Perpendicular Cliff drops into the southern part of the caldera. The structure of the shield volcano with lava flows, tephra and two volcanic craters crop out in the cliff. South and southwest of Mount Haszard are two more craters known as Haszard Crater and Macauley Crater. Haszard Island lies 0.23 kilometres (250 yd) east of Macauley Island, next to Sandy Bay. Its name is derived from Henry Douglas Morpeth Haszard (at first, it was named Roaches' Isle), and, like that of Mount Haszard, is often spelled as Hazard. It has a surface of about 0.032 square kilometres (8 acres) and is entirely surrounded by cliffs, making access difficult. Newcombe Rock - also known as Haszardette - is located northeast of Haszard Island and may be part of the same edifice, separate from the Macauley Island one. Three more emergent rocks are found northeast and southwest of Haszard Island and south of Macauley Island, and a shallow rock named Mac Donald lies reportedly a few kilometres off Mount Haszard. ## Geology In the Southwest Pacific, the Pacific Plate subducts beneath the Australian Plate and a set of microplates in the 2,550 kilometres (1,580 mi) long and maximally 10,800 metres (35,400 ft) deep Kermadec Trench. This subduction has given rise to the Tonga-Kermadec volcanic arc, which is subdivided at 25.6° latitude (where the Louisville seamount chain subducts in the trench) in the northern Tonga and the southern Kermadec arc. In the Kermadec arc, subduction proceeds at a rate of 50–70 millimetres per year (2.0–2.8 in/year). The Kermadec arc consists mainly of 33 submarine volcanoes and calderas and extends from White Island next to New Zealand to Raoul Island; most of these volcanoes however are submarine. The volcanoes are formed principally by basaltic and andesitic magmas and are lined up in a 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide zone west of the trench. The volcanoes are located 15–25 kilometres (9.3–15.5 mi) west of the ridge, except for Macauley, Raoul and Curtis Islands which are on it, and rise on an oceanic crust of Eocene age. Volcanism began in the Pliocene and has occurred at the present-day location of the Tonga-Kermadec Ridge for about one million years. Many of the volcanoes were discovered using bathymetry, and about 80% show hydrothermal activity. Because of its mostly submarine location, volcanism in the Kermadec arc is poorly understood. The Kermadec Islands are the emergent part of the Kermadec arc, and most of the ridge lies at over 500 metres (1,600 ft) depth. The islands are usually found on ridges perpendicular to the main ridge, implying that local lineaments control the position of volcanoes; they are separated from each other by water depths of over 900 metres (3,000 ft). twenty-four kilometres (15 mi) west-northwest of Macauley Island lies Giggenbach, a submarine volcano, and even farther west lies the Havre Trough. This trough separates the Kermadec microplate from the Australian plate and it and the Lau Basin began to form through crustal spreading 6 million years ago; the lineaments of the Macauley caldera appear to match these of the Havre Trough. The Kermadec-Havre system is considered to be an archetype of a backarc-volcanic arc system. ### Composition Most of the rocks on Macauley Island have a basaltic composition, which define an alumina-rich to tholeiitic suite with intermediate potassium contents. The rocks contain olivine and pyroxene phenocrysts with rare glass, and the Sandy Bay Tephra contains augite, hypersthene, ilmenite, magnetite and plagioclase. There is a single instance of dacite and rhyolite in Sandy Bay Tephra, and evidence for earlier felsic eruptions; with the exception of that Macauley Island rocks have a largely uniform composition. Magma mingling processes appear to have occurred prior to the eruption of the Sandy Bay Tephra. Gabbro and basalts with different compositions occur as xenoliths and resemble Raoul Island rocks. Chemical alteration has given rise to gypsum, hematite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, natroalunite and tridymite. The altered rocks have pink and red colours and there are occurrences of palagonite. Hyaloclastite is found in the sea at shallow depths and ferromanganese crusts have been dredged from the submarine flanks of Macauley Island. The volcano is believed to consist mostly of basaltic rocks. The occurrence of felsic rocks at Macauley Island and elsewhere in the Tonga-Kermadec volcanic arc is unexpected. Processes where magma ascending into the lower crust heats it until it melts (anatexis) and dehydrates have been invoked to explain the felsic volcanism in the Kermadec arc. In contrast, an origin through fractional crystallization of basaltic magmas is unlikely for a number of reasons. The backarc extension in the Havre Trough, where tectonic lineaments match the trend of the Macauley caldera and of Denham Caldera on Raoul Island, may also have influenced the explosive activity at both calderas. ## Climate and oceanic conditions The climate of Macauley Island is expected to resemble that of Raoul Island, where temperatures range between 12–25 °C (54–77 °F) and about 1,500 millimetres (60 in) of precipitation fall each year. In summer, winds blow from east and southeast and the rest of the year from northwest. Mean sunshine duration per year is about 2100 hours. The Kermadec Islands are largely exposed to oceanic swells coming from all directions. Ocean current regimes in this area of the Pacific Ocean are poorly known and appear to be seasonal, with northerly currents during summer and southeasterly ones the rest of the year. Sea surface temperatures at Raoul Island to the north range between 16–26 °C (61–79 °F) and these at L'Esperance Rock south between 14–26 °C (57–79 °F), thus they are considered too cold to be tropical. Waters are salty and clear. ## Ecosystem Most of the island is covered by beadfern and sedgeland, trees are rare. Several vegetation associations occur, such as turf along the coasts, lichens and mosses on the northwestern cliffs, sedgelands mostly at the periphery of the island, shrubs at various sites and dwarf ngaio and Homalanthus forests. Moisture-loving plants occur in the canyons and gullies. 68 plant species were recorded on Macauley Island in 2008, and there are bryophytes, lichens, lycophytes, pteridophytes, seaweeds and spermatophytes. One fungus was recorded in 2015, the artist's conk. There have been historical changes in vegetation due to the introduction and eradication of pigs and goats and a spread of ferns that may be due to climatic changes. Macauley Island has the largest seabird population of New Zealand. Seabirds live on the sea and come to land only to breed; birds found breeding on Macauley Island include black noddies, black-winged petrels, grey noddies, Kermadec parakeets, Kermadec petrels, little shearwaters, masked boobies, red-tailed tropicbirds, sooty terns, wedge-tailed shearwaters, white-bellied storm petrels and white-naped petrels. Of these, the Kermadec parakeet is the only land bird on Macauley Island. Catastrophic volcanic eruptions that periodically wipe the animals out may be the reason why Macauley Island and other Kermadec islands lack endemic birds. In 1988, 5.2 million breeding birds were reported. They nest mainly in the sedgelands and cliffs, and both Macauley and Haszard Island are heavily burrowed by nesting seabirds. Birds may fly from the colonies on Macauley Island to islands farther west, such as Balls Pyramid and Lord Howe Island. Invertebrates reported from the islands include ants, beetles, butterflies, centipedes, crickets, flies, moths, orthopterans, snails and spiders although centipedes were not recorded in 2011 and millipedes and earthworms were absent as well. ### Marine organisms Unlike the land-based fauna, the marine flora and fauna of the Kermadec Islands is mostly tropical and subtropical. It resembles that of Lord Howe Island more than that of New Zealand and there are reef-building corals. Reefs have been reported from boulders and rocks at depths of over 7 metres (23 ft). These reefs are dominated by algae with proper corals covering less than one percent of the ground; there are no proper coral reefs at Macauley Island presumably owing to the only marginally suitable water temperatures, as has been observed at other subtropical sites. Spiny kelp occur at Macauley Island, the northernmost occurrence of this species. Squids, sharks, dolphins and crown-of-thorns starfish occur at Macauley Island. Other animal taxa include ascidians, bivalves, bony fish, cartilaginous fish, crabs, crinoids, echinoids, eels, gastropods, hermit crabs, hydrozoans, nudibranchs, ophiuroids, polychelida, porifers, sea anemones, sea pens, sea stars, soft corals, stony corals, tube worms and tunicates. Animal density is higher in the areas of hydrothermal venting. About 105 mollusc taxa and numerous bryozoan species have been identified in the surrounding sea. Species discovered at Macauley Island and other Kermadec volcanoes are the crabs Gandalfus puia (Macauley Island and submarine volcanoes farther south) and Xenograpsus ngatama (Macauley Island and Brothers volcano), the crustacean Munidopsis maunga (Macauley caldera), and the mussel Vulcanidas isolatus (at Macauley Island and Giggenbach volcano). ### Human activity and ecological impacts The Polynesian rat was presumably introduced by Polynesians, while goats and pigs were introduced presumably by whalers in the 19th century probably as an emergency food supply for shipwrecked sailors; whalers also burned the shrubs of the island. The island was reported in 1789 to be heavily populated by rats and mice. While not as severe as at Raoul Island, these introduced animals altered the ecosystem of the island, preying on birds and confining many plant species to inaccessible cliffs; they might be responsible for the absence of several birds known from Raoul Island on Macauley Island and for changes in the vegetation of Macauley Island between human visits during the 20th century. Additionally, plants may have been imported by later visitors or birds and flotsam/marine debris arriving from New Zealand is frequently reported. In the late 20th century, there have been efforts to eradicate introduced species from the Kermadec Islands. Pigs had died out by 1910 and goats were removed in the 1960s by the New Zealand Wildlife Service; about 3,200 goats were killed during that occasion. After an initial delay due to concerns that toxic baits used for rat removal could impact parakeet populations, in 2006 the New Zealand Department of Conservation began an effort to eradicate the Polynesian rat. This eradication programme was probably successful, leading to the recovery of a more diverse fern-sedge vegetation that may be still underway as of 2015 and could lead to a future reduction of fern occurrences. Rats and other rodents have never been reported from Haszard Island. Since the establishment of the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve, certain activities such as discharging wastewaters, fishing, mining and laying submarine cables are prohibited around Macauley Island. ## Eruption history The history of Macauley Island is easily recognizable from the cliffs on its northern side, where five geological formations crop out; from bottom to top these are the North Cliff Lavas, the Boulder Beach Formation, the Annexation Lavas, the Sandy Bay Tephra and the Haszard Formation. An additional formation, the Grand Canyon Formation, crops out in the east of the island. Tephra layers dating to 130,000, over 40,000 years and 30,000 years old identified in marine cores around Macauley Island may originate from eruptions there. Rocks dip away from the northwestern side of the island and all the rocks appear to have been emplaced above sea level; there is no evidence for orogenic deformation although the presence of subaqueous lava flows indicates that recent eruptions occurred during a time of low sea level. During the sea level lowstand of the last glacial period, a much larger area of the island was exposed above sea level. Pumices dredged from Macauley Island bear evidence of having formed through a unique process ("Tangaroan eruption"), where expanding magma forms a foam-like structure that fragments into numerous spherical pieces. These pieces upon contacting water solidify on the outside but remain molten on the inside. These pumice deposits are distinct from the Sandy Bay Tephra deposits and probably formed during additional eruptions. The chemistry and density of Macauley Island pumices indicate a complex volcanic history. ### Pre-Sandy Bay activity The lava flows of the North Cliff Lavas are the oldest formation that crops out, and are part of a shield volcano with at least one crater. Little erosion took place before phreatomagmatic eruptions emplaced the tephras and lavas of the Boulder Beach Formation, presumably after water had entered the vent. Dykes, most of which are correlated to the Annexation Lavas, are intruded into the Boulder Beach Formation. The Annexation Lavas are widespread on Macauley Island and also occur at Haszard Island and Newcombe Rock. Hawaii-like eruptions of vents located northwest of present-day Macauley Island produced lava flows with average thicknesses of 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) or less intercalated with brown tephra. Dykes fed lava to additional vents, including the Newcombe Rock volcanic plug. Lava also ponded in a crater that crops out in Perpendicular Cliffs; the ponded lava which was originally interpreted as a volcanic intrusion. The total volume of the Annexation Lavas is about 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi), they reach total thicknesses of about 115 metres (377 ft). Along with volcanic activity, tectonic activity increased during the Annexation Lavas stage, giving rise to normal faulting and subsidence; at the end of the stage a summit crater was left. At this time, Macauley Island may have had a diameter of 4 metres (13 ft) and maximum elevation of 150 metres (490 ft). ### Sandy Bay eruption The Sandy Bay Tephra was erupted 7,200 or 6,310 years ago during the formation of the Macauley caldera from a shallow submarine vent close to Macauley Island, and is named after Sandy Bay. Its total volume is poorly known, an estimate of 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) inferred from the caldera volume would make the eruption that gave rise to Sandy Bay Tephra one of the largest volcanic eruptions during the Holocene but it is possible that the Macauley caldera formed during multiple eruptions. A submarine eruption jet breached the sea surface, producing at least thirty successive pyroclastic flows, pyroclastic surges and tephra fallout episodes on Macauley Island. The eruption products buried and sometimes eroded earlier deposits. The flows were cold, most likely from interaction with seawater. The flows buried the scrubby vegetation on Macauley Island, leaving wood casts in the rocks. The Sandy Bay Tephra has a conspicuous white colour, contrasting with the dark colours of the rest of Macauley Island. It consists of dacitic tephra, which forms layered deposits containing lapilli, pumice, sand and fine volcanic ash. The total thickness of the Sandy Bay Tephra ranges from about 100 metres (330 ft) in the south to 15 metres (49 ft) in the north, with evidence of thicker deposits in topographic depressions. Basaltic and plutonic rocks are found embedded in the Sandy Bay rocks and reach sizes of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in); they indicate that older rocks were integrated into the erupting magma. The total volume of Sandy Bay Tephra on Macauley Island is about 0.1–0.2 cubic kilometres (0.024–0.048 cu mi) but it is likely that the total volume of the tephra was considerably larger. Erosion has affected the Sandy Bay Tephra, leaving cliffs around Haszard Islet. Tephra from the Sandy Bay eruption has been identified in sediment cores taken around the island and formed concentric ridges on the western flank of submarine Macauley. It is likely that the eruption produced large amounts of pumice, which would have been transported by ocean currents to other islands in the Southwest Pacific. Caldera collapse and collapses of caldera flanks perhaps produced tsunamis which may have hit the Bay of Plenty region of New Zealand. The Sandy Bay Tephra is the only demonstrated felsic eruption at Macauley volcano; the presence of obsidian and pitchstone in the Sandy Bay Tephra indicate that earlier felsic eruptions took place, but their dates are unknown. ### Haszard Formation The Haszard Formation makes up the bulk of exposed Macauley Island rocks. It includes the Parakeet Tuff, Haszard Scoria and Cascade Lava Members, which probably were produced by the same eruptive episode. The 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) Cascade Lava was produced from the craters at Mount Haszard and other vents; the lava flows reach thicknesses of 1–2 metres (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in) and their eventual course was strongly influenced by topography. The lavas were overlaid by the bedded Haszard Scoria. Submarine phreatomagmatic activity generated the Parakeet Tuff, which was erupted along with the Haszard Scoria and consists of lapilli and volcanic ash. Both the Haszard Scoria and the Parakeet Tuff include rafted blocks with diameters of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). The Parakeet Tuff and Haszard Scoria are thought to have originated in the southeastern sector of the caldera, 0.75 kilometres (0.47 mi) northwest of Macauley Island. Their emplacement may have begun decades or centuries after the Sandy Bay Tephra eruption, during which rainfall eroded the Sandy Bay Tephra and formed valleys later filled by the Haszard Formation. The eruption was centered at the crater of the Annexation Lavas and on flank vents and reached sub-Plinian dimensions; the crater eventually collapsed below sea level, perhaps during the slumping of the southeastern flank of Macauley Caldera, but the eruption continued as a Surtseyan eruption. Several small phreatic craters on southern Macauley Island probably relate to the Haszard Formation, as does the Grand Canyon Formation formed in a lake formed through the damming of a valley at the eastern end of the island. ### Historical eruptions and hydrothermal activity Macauley Island is considered to be a dormant volcano. An eruption supposedly took place in 1825 at a "Brimstone Island" 45 kilometres (28 mi) west of Macauley Island, while another was reported 1 December 1887 north-northeast. These locations may be erroneous given the absence of bathymetric structures coinciding with their location, but they may be historical eruptions of the Macauley Island volcano. There are anecdotal reports of earthquakes, and a faint smell of sulfur was reported at the northern cliffs, next to the oldest rocks of Macauley Island. Hydrothermal activity occurs in the submarine Macauley Cone, where white fluids and occasional bubbles emanate from rocks and chimney-shaped vents. Elemental sulfur occurs around the vents, which release warm (112 °C (234 °F)) acidic mineral-rich waters with a brine-like composition and intense hydrothermal plumes. These waters may be derived from magmatic fluids and their helium isotope ratios appear to vary between observations. The influence of the hydrothermal emanations extend 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) from the volcano. One or two additional vent sites are suspected to exist in the Macauley Caldera. There is evidence that a lake of molten sulfur once filled the Macauley Cone crater and left sulfur deposits with thicknesses exceeding 1 metre (3 ft 3 in). A vent biota has become established around the hydrothermal vents consisting of mussels: Vulcanidas isolatus at shallow depths and Gigantidas gladius at both shallow and intermediate depths. Sea stars prey on them while crabs and tonguefish graze at the sulfurous crater walls. The hydrothermal activity occurs at shallow depths, thus fluids can enter the photic zone where biological productivity is highest. ## History Macauley Island was first discovered on 30 June 1788 by the Lady Penrhyn, but it is likely that Polynesians visited the island during the last 700 years despite the lack of direct archaeological evidence other than an obsidian flake discovered in 2015. They may have obtained obsidian from the island. The island was originally named Macaulay, after George Mackenzie McCaulay, alderman of the City of London who had contracted the voyage of the Lady Penrhyn. Macauley Island and other Kermadec islands are part of New Zealand's territory since the 19th century; early explorers envisaged planting trees on Macauley Island and using the Kermadec islands as places to settle from New Zealand, and in 1957 were briefly considered as a potential testing ground for the British nuclear weapons programme. Archaeological excavations were conducted in 1990. ## See also - New Zealand outlying islands - List of volcanoes in New Zealand - List of islands of New Zealand - List of islands - Island restoration - Desert island
6,907,309	Detroit-style pizza	1,172,084,370	Rectangular pan pizza with a thick crust	[ "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States", "Culture of Detroit", "Food and drink introduced in 1946", "Italian-American cuisine", "Italian-American culture in Michigan", "Pizza in the United States", "Pizza styles" ]	Detroit-style pizza is a rectangular pan pizza with a thick, crisp, chewy crust. It is traditionally topped to the edges with mozzarella and/or Wisconsin brick cheese, which caramelizes against the high-sided heavyweight rectangular pan. Detroit-style pizza was originally baked in rectangular steel trays designed for use as automotive drip pans or to hold small industrial parts in factories. It was developed during the mid-20th century in Detroit, Michigan, before spreading to other parts of the United States in the 2010s. It is one of Detroit's iconic local foods. ## History Detroit-style pizza was developed in 1946 at Buddy's Rendezvous, a former speakeasy owned by Gus and Anna Guerra located at the corner of Six Mile Road and Conant Street in Detroit. Sources disagree whether the original Sicilian-style recipe was based on Anna Guerra's mother's recipe for sfincione or a recipe from one of the restaurant's employees, a Sicilian woman named Connie Piccinato. The recipe created a "focaccia-like crust" and the restaurant baked it in blue steel pans available from local automotive suppliers because baking pans available at the time were not appropriate for the dish. The steel pans were made by Dover Parkersburg in the 1930s and 1940s and were originally used as drip trays or to hold small parts or scrap metal in automobile factories. Some 50- to 75-year-old pans are still in use. The restaurant was later renamed Buddy's Pizza. In 1953, the Guerras sold it and opened the Cloverleaf in Eastpointe, Michigan. Former Buddy's employee Louis Tourtois made pizzas at Shield's before founding Loui's Pizza in Hazel Park, Michigan. The Detroit News called Tourtois the "king of pizzas" in 1978. National chain Jet's, local chain Shield's, and Luigi's the Original of Harrison Township are other locally-notable restaurants serving the style. Buddy's Pizza chief brand officer Wesley Pikula, who started at Buddy's as a busboy in the 1980s, said that he had never heard the term "Detroit-style" before the 1980s when a trade magazine used it and that even afterward it was seldom used except in national trade articles. As late as 2007, some local media were referring to the style as "Sicilian-style". Some makers of Detroit-style pizza in other areas questioned whether to call their pizza by that name, as "sometimes people have negative thoughts about Detroit." The Detroit-style pizza was popular throughout the Detroit area but until the 2010s was not often found at restaurants outside the area. In 2011 two Detroit brothers opened a Detroit-style pizza restaurant in Austin, Texas, using the "Detroit-style" name as a point of differentiation. In 2012, a New York restaurateur created a pizza he called "Detroit-style", though he had never visited Detroit, using focaccia dough, mozzarella, and ricotta. In 2012, local restaurant cook Shawn Randazzo won the Las Vegas International Pizza Expo world championship with a Detroit-style pizza, and according to pizza educator Tony Gemignani, the reaction was immediate. "After he won, I must have had six phone calls from operators, from guys who are big in the industry, saying, 'Give me a recipe for Detroit. How do I figure this out?'" According to Serious Eats, "in early 2016 or so, everyone seemed to be talking about it or writing about it or opening up restaurants devoted to it." Trade journal Pizza Today wrote in 2018 that "Perhaps no pizza style has entered the public consciousness in quite the way that Detroit-style pan pizza has." Trade journal Restaurant Hospitality said the style had become popular on Instagram. In 2019, Esquire called the style "one of the hottest food trends across America", and both the Detroit Free Press and Eater said Detroit-style pizza was "having its moment". Eater wrote that pizzerias offering the style were spreading across the US, but that the new pizzas were different: > On one side are the local Detroit pizzerias and restaurants devoted to their normcore, family-restaurant roots with toppings directly on the crust, a layer of processed brick cheese, and sauce on top. Then there are the "artisanal" square pizzas, with their aged doughs, organic toppings, unprocessed cheeses, and "frico" crust. These designer square slices are sometimes baked in a wood-fired oven and often served on Instagrammable metal trays in perfect lighting—a departure from the checkered tablecloths, no-frills boat drinks, and generous displays of bocce ball plaques at Buddy's. And in this new era of Detroit-style pizza, it's this photogenic version that many Americans are discovering first. Eater said the artisanal trend was slow to catch on in Detroit. Along with the Coney Island hot dog and the Boston cooler, the traditional Detroit-style is one of Detroit's iconic local foods. According to a 2021 forecast report, Yelp.com noted that Detroit-style pizza was national and reported that reviews mentioning "Detroit-style pizza" were up 52%. In 2023, Detroit-based author Karen Dybis published Detroit-Style Pizza: A Doughtown History covering three waves of Detroit-style pizza, ranging from the original innovators up through current pizzerias around the country. ## Description Detroit-style pizza is a deep-dish rectangular pizza topped with Wisconsin brick cheese and a cooked tomato-based sauce. The dough typically has a hydration level of 70 percent or higher, which creates an open, porous, chewy crust with a crisp exterior. The fresh dough is double-proofed and stretched by hand to the pan corners. When seasoning new steel pans, they usually need to be dry-baked using 10 to 18 ounces of dough per pan. Randazzo says that the crust should be about 1.5 inches thick for true Detroit-style pizza. The buttery flavor of the crust results from a small quantity of oil and the melting properties of the mozzarella and Wisconsin brick cheeses. Shield's Pizza describes the importance of the sauce for flavor and how quality is ensured by consistently baking pizza for 13 minutes at 440 °F. Loui's Pizza places the pepperoni first, underneath almost one pound of brick cheese and then bakes the pizza at 700 °F. The brick cheese can withstand the heat due to the heavy butterfat content. Pepperoni is often placed directly on the crust, and other toppings may go directly on top of the cheese with the cooked sauce optionally as the final layer, applied in dollops or in "racing stripes", two or three lines of sauce. Some recipes call for the sauce to be added after the pizza comes out of the oven. The style is sometimes referred to as "red top" because the sauce is the final topping. The cheese is spread to the edges and caramelizes against the high-sided heavyweight rectangular pan, giving the crust a lacy, crispy edge. This edge, known as frico, is the crispy caramelized cheese that runs along the edges of Detroit-style pizzas. According to the trade journal Pizza Today, "The key to this pizza is the delicious caramelized cheese that melts down the interior walls of the pan". ## Reception GQ food critic Alan Richman included Buddy's Pizza and Luigi's the Original among his 2009 list of 25 best pizzas in the USA. A Detroit-style pizza made by Randazzo, who was then working at Cloverleaf, won the 2012 Las Vegas International Pizza Expo world championship. The Chicago Tribune reviewed Jet's Pizza in 2013 and rated it very highly. In 2019, The Daily Meal named Buddy's the best pizza in Michigan. The Detroit Free Press named the Cloverleaf its Classic Restaurant of 2020. In 2020, four Detroit-area restaurants, Buddy's, Supino Pizzeria, Loui's Pizza, and Cloverleaf Pizza, were listed in the 101 Best Pizzas in America by The Daily Meal. Plate mentions that "The chewy crust, crispy cheese corners, and hearty meal of a slice fits precisely with what customers want right now: rich, satisfying comfort to-go." The Palm Beach Post describes how within minutes, a Delray Beach, Florida bakery with a Detroit-style pizza pop-up store sells out its takeout pizza that is ordered online at noon on a Monday for pickup on the following Sunday. A writer for Delish originally from Chicago and now based in New York City provided a positive review in an article correspondingly entitled "What Is Detroit-Style Pizza? It's Way Better Than Your Deep Dish Or New York Slice". ## See also - Sicilian pizza - Pan pizza - Chicago-style pizza - New York-style pizza - Cuisine of the Midwestern United States § Detroit - List of pizza varieties by country
15,366,588	Seeing Sounds	1,160,458,922	null	[ "2008 albums", "Albums produced by the Neptunes", "Interscope Records albums", "N.E.R.D. albums", "Star Trak Entertainment albums" ]	Seeing Sounds is the third studio album by American alternative rock band N.E.R.D released June 10, 2008 on Star Trak Entertainment and Interscope Records in the United States. After ending their contract with Virgin Records in 2005, the band felt their previous album Fly or Die (2004) was too consistent. Using their own money, the band recorded the album in Florida and California. The album was produced solely by record production duo The Neptunes, consisting of Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo, with additional assistance by rock band Spymob and was mainly written by Williams. The album's title, as well as its content, revolves around the neurological phenomenon of synesthesia, the mixing of sensory modalities. The album debuted at number seven on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, selling 80,000 in its first week. It peaked in the top 20 in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, while also charting in the several other countries. Upon its release, Seeing Sounds received generally mixed to positive reviews from most music critics. Some writers called the record N.E.R.D's best album to date and praised its production, while others negatively criticized Williams' singing and the album's lyrical content. ## Concept While touring in promotion of their previous album, Fly or Die, N.E.R.D ended their contract with Virgin Records in 2005. After touring, Pharrell Williams felt that the album was too consistent; he felt the band abandoned a sense of unpredictability. The band became "hooked" on the energy from their fans and began recording their third album. Williams and fellow band member Chad Hugo later established Star Trak Entertainment, a subsidiary of Interscope Records. For the album, the band wanted to create the atmosphere of hyperactivity they knew their fans wanted. They wrote a few songs, but felt the songs "weren't strong enough" and sent them to other musicians. Member Shay Haley explained that in their new work, the band wanted to add energy to the emotional appeal of their past albums, though the band did not conceive a clear plan for the direction of the new album. N.E.R.D described the desired outcomes of the album as "a pre-cognitive effort to make music that would make sense for us on while we're on a stage and to recapture that feeling we love so much" and additionally, "to make something that was thought provoking and for people to listen to it and enjoy it on their own time". Originally titled N.3.R.D, the title was changed to Seeing Sounds. Williams explained that the title was based on synesthesia, a neurological phenomenon the band learned of while watching the Discovery Channel. They were inspired to create music that could be conceived as a live show. He was surprised to learn not everyone experienced while listening to music. He described synesthesia as the outcome when "one sense gets more information than what's intended", stimulated by sensory deprivation. Haley further elaborated, saying that it is a mixture of senses that causes a person to experience colorful hearing and auditory smell. When the band created the album, it was the music they envisioned and decided the appropriate title for the album, Seeing Sounds. Williams pointed out that the lyrics were also inspired by synesthesia. He said that his fans want to "rock out" and be taken on an "emotional roller coaster", and the only way to do that is to give the fans some records they could blast out on their speakers. The European-influenced music is layered and textured with many music modalities, differing from their past club-oriented albums. Hugo called the album a "big album of LSD, sonic drug". The band described the album of being an exercise in creative cohesion, band unity and a renewed purpose for themselves. Williams went on to add: > If you really analyze that, the most inspiration is probably deep inside a synesthesiac. So for us, 'seeing sounds' is what we relate to the most. We figured we'd make an album out of it. Energy and emotion was the criteria [while recording], but we made the music anticipating the [live] show. That was the most important thing...[The song] 'Spaz' is [an] old school, hip hop feeling with some drum and bass. It becomes a big, tall monster. It's almost like this big gorilla looking down at you. If he smacks you, he kills you. His fingers are the size of your body. That's kinda what we're doing. We're facing this big monster of, of what we know is out there, of what we see, that big monster of energy. ## Recording and production Spending their own money, N.E.R.D recorded the album at the South Beach Studios in Miami, Florida, and the Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles, California. Williams used a Triton Extreme, Triton Pro and Pro Tools in the production of the album, while Hugo worked in Access Virus TI, Roland JV-1080, JV-2080, XV-5080, TR-808 and TR-909 as beatboxing was provided by Haley. Rock band Spymob further assisted production with guitar and drums. Production revolved around heavy rock, funk and soul music, which was first introduced in their debut album, In Search Of.... Hugo described the album as going back to the band's roots, combining a classic rock sound with a 1970s funk swing. The typical process of recording was described as "Williams arrives at the studio, ideas in full flower, and lays down both a beat (either programmed or played on an assortment of buckets) and vocals." Hugo then would add extra instrumentation. In an interview with MTV, Williams said that the band "didn't care about genres; we're not doing this for the money. We're doing this for people who pledge allegiance to our movement." Hugo went on to say that they "just want to make people move". On the album he said, "We had anger, quiet angst. We had something to get off our chest. And we wanted to show we could do it as a band." Don Was, a musician and record producer, thought that the band was on a creatively fulfilling path, calling their musical style "really innovative". Williams felt music lacked energy, citing Limp Bizkit's "Nookie" as the last energetic record. Williams suggested his engineer, Andrew Coleman, to "put the drums and bass on the right, keys in the middle, and the mothafucking guitar and backgrounds on the left". Coleman denied his request, saying, "those systems were different back then. If we do that, you'll be in a club and all you will hear on one side of the club is drums and on the other side, just chords." The Hives' members - Chris Dangerous (drums/percussion), Nicholaus Arson (guitar), Vigilante Carlstroem (guitar), Dr. Matt Destruction (bass) - contributed instrumentals on "Time For Some Action" and "Windows", with The Hives' frontman Howlin' Pelle Almqvist providing guest vocals on "Time For Some Action". On Seeing Sounds they are credited with their real names instead of the pseudonyms they use within the band. ## Promotion In promotion of the album, N.E.R.D performed in Kanye West's Glow in the Dark Tour as well as the Isle of Wight Festival. The band also performed at the Austin City Limits festival, where they encouraged fans to dance on stage and urged them to vote in the 2008 United States elections. The song "Spaz" was used for commercials for the Zune Pass. The band performed at Vanderbilt University's Rites of Spring Music Festival in April. ## Reception ### Commercial performance The album debuted at number seven on the U.S. Billboard 200, selling 80,000 copies in its first week. As of 2010, sales in the United States have exceeded 222,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan. It peaked in the top 20 in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, while also charting in the several other regions, including Austria, Belgium, France and Italy. ### Critical response Upon its release, the album received generally mixed to positive reviews from most music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 64, based on 19 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Some writers noted and praised the heavy use of electronic, bass and funk beats, while others suggest The Neptunes were unable to blend R&B and rock. Anthony Henriques of PopMatters lauded the production, saying that "their signature drums and spaced-out samples sound as good as ever here", going on to say "[t]he overall balance between live and electronic instrumentation is also the best they have managed on any of the N.E.R.D. albums". He compared the album to M.I.A.'s Kala as "one of the best genre-blurring club records". However, Andy Kellman of Allmusic felt the songs "still have a way of seeming as easy and carefree as the moments when N.E.R.D. are simply bashing away...blowing off steam, and talking ridiculous nonsense". Alexis Petridis of The Guardian pointed out that the songs were "largely about sex", calling it "wearisome". Ian Cohen of Pitchfork Media called the album a "baffling, obnoxious mess". Adrian Ruhi of Okayplayer gave the album a score of 88 out of 100 and called some of the songs "a dynamic mess", but noted it was "a good thing". Some critics argued that the album was their most consistent and strongest album to date. Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone felt that the album was "experimental and expansive". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine felt that the album lacked "freshness or spontaneity" that was found in the band's debut album, calling only two songs on the album "very visionary". Jim Farber of the Daily News criticized Williams, saying "Even aided by studio correction, the guy can't sing", calling it "bad singing at its engaging best". Cohen of Pitchfork Media bashed the lyrics, saying that the writing was "far down the list of what N.E.R.D. is actually good at". Hoard of Rolling Stone felt he learned nothing from the lyrics except that Williams was sexually aroused. Henriques of PopMatters noted that Williams is not a "technically gifted rapper", he "does not have a beautiful voice" and his lyrics are "typically inconsequential in a 'saying shit just to sound cool' sort of way", but found strengths in his choruses, which he pointed out "typically use a catchy phrase or recognizable melody as an anchor for his nonsensical verses". Dan Charnas of The Washington Post commended N.E.R.D for their songwriting, writing that Seeing Sounds "combines the adolescent and clever". The Times writer Priya Elan gave the album 4 out of 5 stars and wrote that band is "pushing the boundaries of the popular song". In his Consumer Guide, Robert Christgau gave the album a three-star honorable mention () and stated, "Beats of course, songs usually, singing barely--especially sincere-type singing"; he also picked out two songs from the album: "Anti-Matter" and "Everyone Nose (All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom)". ## Track listing ## Personnel - Davis A. Barnett – viola - Andrew Coleman - engineer - Eric Fawcett – drums, background vocals - Larry Gold – conductor, string arrangements - Bernie Grundman – mastering - Hart Gunther – assistant - Mike Larson - assistant, background vocals - Femio Hernández – assistant - Jun Hirota – package design, booklet design - Mike Hogue – assistant - Chad Hugo – horn, keyboards - Chris Kasych – assistant - Emma Kummrow – violin - Jennie Lorenzo – cello - Peter Nocella – viola - Charles Parker – violin - Brent Paschke – guitar - Neal H. Pogue – engineer, mixing - John Stahl – assistant - Igor Szwec – violin - Gregory Teperman – violin - Javier Valverde – assistant ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history
40,693,538	Ontario Highway 30	1,040,263,010	Former Ontario provincial highway	[ "Ontario provincial highways" ]	King's Highway 30, commonly referred to as Highway 30, was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The 51.1-kilometre (31.8 mi)-long route connected Highway 2 in Brighton with Highway 7 in Havelock via Campbellford. Established in 1930, the highway initially travelled only as far north as Campbellford. Alongside the construction of Highway 7 between Peterborough and Perth, Highway 30 was extended north to Havelock in 1934. The route remained generally consistent until 1998, when it was decommissioned and transferred to Northumberland County and Peterborough County. Both counties redesignated their portion of the former highway as County Road 30. ## Route description Highway 30 began at former Highway 2 (Main Street) in downtown Brighton, following Young Street northward and meandering out of town towards an interchange with Highway 401. It continued to meander northward through the communities of Hilton and Orland before straightening out. It passed through Codrington, but otherwise encountered stretches of farmland or forests. The route eventually curved to the northeast to meet the Trent River in Meyersburg. It paralleled the river into Campbellford, taking on the local name of Grand Road. In downtown Campbellford, Highway 30 turned west onto Bridge Street West and followed it out of town before curving north. It continued through farmland along a generally straight course to Havelock, crossing the Trent River and skirting the community of the same name several kilometres to the south. Entering Havelock, the highway took on the name Concession Street, and terminated at Highway 7; Concession Street continued north as Peterborough County Road 46, as it is still known. ## History On July 9, 1930, the Department of Highways, predecessor to the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario, assumed the 32 km (20 mi), gravel-surfaced Brighton–Campbellford Road. Unemployment relief measures carried out in 1931 and 1932 resulted in the construction of Highway 7 between Peterborough and Ottawa. As a result, Highway 30 was extended north from Campbellford to Havelock in 1934 along existing roads. The section within Peterborough County was assumed on March 28, while the section within Northumberland County was assumed on April 11. In 1936 work began to grade and improve Highway 30 along its entire length. By the end of 1937, paving was completed several kilometres south of Havelock as well as from Campbellford south to Northumberland County Road 29. A gravel base was laid from there to south of Orland. The remainder of the road was gravelled. A diversion was also constructed at Meyersburg, bypassing the junction with Percy Boom Road. Between 1942 and 1949, paving was completed on the gravel section between Brighton and Campbellford. The remaining gravel section, between Campbellford and Havelock, was paved in 1951. Highway 401 opened between Brighton and Trenton on November 25, 1958. Traffic could only proceed east to Trenton until the gap between Port Hope and Trenton was opened on July 20, 1961. A new bridge was built over the Trent Canal in 1968, bypassing the route along Church Street. Highway 30 remained generally unchanged over the next 30 years, until January 1, 1998, when the entire route was decommissioned and transferred to Northumberland and Peterborough counties. It was subsequently designated as Northumberland County Road 30 and Peterborough County Road 30. ## Major intersections
54,435,459	Boy Oh Boy (Alexandra Stan song)	1,057,451,238	null	[ "2017 singles", "2017 songs", "Alexandra Stan songs", "English-language Romanian songs", "Songs written by Alexandra Stan" ]	"Boy Oh Boy" is a song recorded by Romanian singer Alexandra Stan for her fourth studio album, Mami (2018). It was digitally released on 30 June 2017 through Alexandra Stan Records, her own label, due to the singer's desire to work independently. The track was written by Andy Grasu, Marius Mirică and Stan, while production was handled by Mirică and Stan. Musically, "Boy Oh Boy" is a 90s-influenced electropop song with dancehall and reggae elements revolving around a girl's need to be loved and Stan's volatile relationship with her partner. Music critics were positive towards "Boy Oh Boy", praising its vibe and summery style. An accompanying music video for the track was uploaded onto Stan's official YouTube channel simultaneously with the single's release. Shot by Bogdan Păun in Kuala Lumpur, it features Stan walking through the city and a food warehouse. She confessed that she wanted to capture Asian culture in the video. ## Background and composition "Boy Oh Boy" was written by Andy Grasu, Marius Mirică and Stan, with production handled by Mirică and Stan. Both Narcotic Creation and representatives of Alexandra Stan Records served as co-producers. The single was made available for digital download on 30 June 2017 by Alexandra Stan Records, the singer's own label, as she desired to work independently. "Boy Oh Boy" is a 90s–influenced electropop song with dancehall and reggae elements. Regarding its style, Stan confessed, "I want to release what I like and not to follow the trend and speed up the creation process just because something needs to be released. [The song] is a mixture of [different] styles. I would say it is a more '90s track but with a contemporary feel". On another occasion, the singer described the single as an "old kind of style, but a new style. It's like eurodance." According to her, the lyrical message is "[her way] of expressing the girls' need to be loved [...] and sometimes you just need to tell to the guy, 'tell me that you love me'". Jonathan Currinn from CelebMix noted, "As for the meaning behind the song, the lyrics suggest a relationship where a guy is always breaking her heart even though she knows that he actually cares for her. Such a deep emotional message behind this infectious tune." ## Critical reception Music critics were positive towards "Boy Oh Boy". Teodora Dinu from Antena 1 found the song had a positive vibe and was full of energy. Another editor from the same website applauded the summery style and danceable rhythm of the track. Currinn from CelebMix praised Stan's vocal delivery and saw "Boy Oh Boy" as the "perfect" transition from her previous single "9 Lives" (2017) due to its reggae vibes, although noting Stan took a new direction: "She keeps to her usual style, adding flavour, texture, and progression." ## Music video Stan first confirmed the release of an accompanying music video shot in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in an article on her website. A first teaser was uploaded onto the singer's YouTube channel on 25 June 2017, lasting 25 seconds and showing her "out in the rain, on a motorbike, and with an orange ponytail". Stan also posted various behind-the-scenes pictures on her Instagram account, followed by a second teaser released on 27 June 2017. The preview lasted 17 seconds, and showcased a portion of the song and its lyrics. The music video premiered on 30 June 2017. It was shot by Bogdan Păun from the production company NGM Creative, with Alexandru Mureșan serving as the director of photography. Alex Ifimov did the make-up and hair styling for the video, and collaborated with Ema Băniță for its styling. Regarding the clip, the singer said, "I have an affinity for Asia, and I wanted to capture the Asian culture and atmosphere on the streets, the people and their customs. I met many lovely people that helped us with the filming and even wanted to appear in the clip. It was an unforgettable experience." The clip starts with Stan sitting on stairs in front of a temple, wearing pink clothing and an orange ponytail attached to her hair. Following this, she walks through the city interacting with the people, and performs to the song in what appears to be a food warehouse, wearing an orange top and a black and white coat. The video continues in a similar style and ends with her in front of skyscrapers. A writer from Antena 1 found that Stan's appearance in the music video was "the hottest [...] of the year", while Currinn of CelebMix compared it to her previous works, writing, "she brings her usual stage presence and energetic vibes, whilst managing to display a relaxed vigour". Yannick Murgalé of Aficia suggested that the singer is "more sober, but always so attractive." ## Track listing ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the official music video. Technical and composing credits - Narcotic Creation – co-producer - Andy Grasu – composer - Marius Mirică – composer, producer - Alexandra Stan – lead vocals, composer, producer - Alexandra Stan Records – co-producer Visual credits - Ema Băniță – styling - Alex Ifimov – make-up, hair styling, styling - Alexandru Mureșan − director of photography - Bogdan Păun (NGM Creative) – director ## Release history
19,840,001	The Invincible Iron Man (video game)	1,160,679,530	2002 video game	[ "2002 video games", "Activision games", "Game Boy Advance games", "Game Boy Advance-only games", "Run and gun games", "Single-player video games", "Superhero video games", "Torus Games games", "Video games based on Iron Man", "Video games developed in Australia", "Video games set in the United States" ]	The Invincible Iron Man is a 2002 run and gun video game published by Activision and developed by Torus Games for the Game Boy Advance. The game, played from a side-scrolling perspective, is based on the Marvel Comics superhero Iron Man, and is the character's first appearance on a handheld game console. Within the game's narrative, Iron Man must traverse through a series of levels and recover one of his stolen suits of armor while battling supervillains such as the Blizzard and Crimson Dynamo. The Invincible Iron Man received mixed reviews from critics, who compared the gameplay to the Mega Man series. While they praised the visuals and generally found the gameplay to be solid, they faulted the game's lack of variety and length, and held middling opinions toward the audio. ## Gameplay The Invincible Iron Man is a side-scrolling run and gun game in which the player controls Iron Man, who is tasked with recovering one of his stolen suits of armor and tracking down the culprit. The game consists of eight levels, featuring four distinct environments divided into two levels each, and includes three bosses. Iron Man's primary offensive measure against enemies is a pair of repulsors built into his gauntlets, which are connected to an energy gauge displayed on the upper-hand side of the screen alongside his health bar. Normal repulsor shots slightly decrease the energy gauge, while shots that are charged before firing decrease a larger amount. Energy can be restored either automatically over time or by collecting small energy balls scattered across the level. Health can also be restored with designated power-ups. Special power orbs located in various areas allow Iron Man to fire a chest-mounted cannon or to detonate a bomb that clears all enemies on-screen. Aside from these weapons, Iron Man is capable of a shoulder tackle that he can combine with his jumping ability to fly short distances. Hidden within each level is a portrait that unlocks a piece of artwork. ## Plot Tony Stark is alerted that his Iron Man armor has been stolen from Stark Enterprises. Tracking down his technology to the harbor, Stark dons another Iron Man armor to retrieve it. Battling operatives of Advanced Idea Mechanics upon his arrival, Stark comes across his cousin Morgan Stark, who the former defeats easily in a battle. Despite getting back his armor, Iron Man discovers that Morgan uploaded the armor's data systems, which would give the benefactors the ability to reverse engineer his designs and turn them against Stark. Iron Man follows the transmission to the woods, where he encounters a robot army commissioned by an unknown mastermind. The Blizzard appears, and as Iron Man gains the advantage, the villain flees. Chasing the Blizzard to a wintry habitat, Iron Man fights his way through the Blizzard's defenses before encountering him again. The Blizzard explains that when Stark's technology is finally replicated, an unstoppable army will arise. As the two battle, Iron Man disables a chamber that regenerates the Blizzard's powers and neutralizes him. Iron Man discovers a back door to a tower, and enters it to uncover the culprit. After Iron Man breaks through the tower's security, the Crimson Dynamo reveals himself as the one who orchestrated the theft. Now armed with Stark's armor calibrations, the Dynamo fights Iron Man to a standstill. However, Iron Man exploits a weakness within the Dynamo's armor by overloading it with his energy blasts, helping Iron Man secure the victory over the Dynamo. This results in the armor releasing energy, triggering explosions throughout the tower. Iron Man escapes, as the Dynamo is seemingly killed in the process. In its aftermath, Iron Man ponders if another such incident could have a different outcome. ## Development and release The Invincible Iron Man was developed by Torus Games under the direction of Bill McIntosh, with Torus's Kevin McIntosh, Activision's Marc Turndorf, and Marvel's T.Q. Jefferson serving as producers. The game was designed by Jim Batt, programmed by Grant Davies, and features art by Andrew McIntosh. The music and sound effects were respectively created by Ed Colman and James Langford. The levels were designed by Craig Duturbure, Alex Hutchinson, and Van Ricketts. The Invincible Iron Man was announced by Activision on October 8, 2002, and shipped to North American retailers on December 20. It is the first handheld video game to feature Iron Man as a playable character. ## Reception The Invincible Iron Man received "mixed or average" reviews according to Metacritic, with reviewers commonly comparing its gameplay to the Mega Man series. The reviewers of Nintendo Power enthusiastically compared the game to Turok: Evolution on the same console, and assessed that the graphics, audio and gameplay combined to create a satisfying experience. Frank Provo of GameSpot deemed it a relatively competent example of a comic book adaptation and "one of the few side-scrolling action games that's genuinely fun to play". He commented that the game bypassed the common action game faults of linear levels and unintelligent enemy AI, and though he acknowledged that the combat was repetitive, he determined that the effect was intentional, observing that the large amount of enemies required the player to choose which ones to fight or avoid. However, he was puzzled by the choice of boss characters, remarking that they "aren't exactly the A-list of Marvel Comics villains". Craig Harris of IGN described the game as a "fun romp" that was reminiscent of the many licensed action platformers released for the Genesis and Super NES. However, while he considered the gameplay to be solid with tight controls and decent collision detection, he felt that it lacked variety, elaborating that "there's no discovery; there's no extra weaponry and no special abilities beyond what [Iron Man] has at the beginning of the game". Provo and Harris faulted the game's short length, with Provo suggesting that the game was "five or six more levels away from being a vanguard of its genre". Code Cowboy of GameZone felt that the game was too similar to Mega Man and other titles in the same genre, with few distinguishing features. While he considered the controls simple to master, he was aggravated by the swift appearance and firing speed of enemies and turrets, which led him to slowly creep across levels. However, he regarded the bosses as fun challenges. Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer, dismissing the title as a "rather limp platformer-with-guns", was confused by the positive critical responses from American reviewers (citing Provo's commentary in particular), summarizing the game as having "few options, functional presentation and only one obvious route to take". He was additionally disappointed by Iron Man's inability to aim his repulsors vertically or diagonally, arguing that such a limitation was "ridiculous" in light of the eight-directional shooting pioneered by Metroid and several other games. Provo and Harris praised the game's visual presentation, singling out the detailed and multi-layered environments and the large, colorful, and smoothly animated character sprites. Code Cowboy, however, disliked the environments, describing them as cluttered and cumbersome. Bramwell also observed that the amount of environmental detail made background and foreground objects difficult to distinguish, although he too commended the detail and animation of Iron Man's sprite. While Provo deemed the audio to not be up to the same level as the visuals, he acknowledged that the sound effects were loud and the music was fitting without being annoying. Harris considered the music to be "nice", but felt that it looped and repeated too frequently. Code Cowboy found the music average, but spoke positively of the sound design. However, he expressed distaste toward Iron Man's grunting while leaping, likening it to "a Klingon with a migraine".
42,455,764	Dan Jones (footballer, born 1994)	1,171,340,024	English footballer (born 1994)	[ "1994 births", "AFC Fylde players", "Barrow A.F.C. players", "England men's semi-pro international footballers", "English Football League players", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from Bishop Auckland", "Gateshead F.C. players", "Grimsby Town F.C. players", "Harrogate Town A.F.C. players", "Hartlepool United F.C. players", "Living people", "Men's association football central defenders", "Men's association football defenders", "Men's association football fullbacks", "National League (English football) players", "Port Vale F.C. players", "Salford City F.C. players", "Sunderland A.F.C. players" ]	Daniel John Jones (born 14 December 1994) is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender for club Port Vale. His preferred position is at centre-back, though he is able to play at left-back, and he is also a skilled throw-in taker. Jones started his career in Hartlepool United's youth system, signing his first professional contract in 2013. Having been released by the club in 2016, Jones signed for League Two club Grimsby Town, with loan spells at Gateshead and AFC Fylde during the 2016–17 season. He joined Barrow in 2017 and was a first-team regular for two seasons, winning two caps for the England C team, before he joined Salford City on a two-year contract in June 2019. He spent the second half of the 2019–20 season on loan at former club Barrow, which would end in them winning promotion as champions of the National League. He was loaned to Harrogate Town the following season and played in the 2020 FA Trophy final victory over Concord Rangers. He joined Port Vale after being released from Salford at the end of the 2020–21 season. ## Club career ### Hartlepool United Dan Jones was born on 14 December 1994 in Bishop Auckland, County Durham. He spent four years in the academy at Sunderland, before he started his career in Hartlepool United's youth system and established himself in the youth team in the 2012–13 season. He was offered his first professional contract in April 2013. Jones's progress was hampered after a knee injury in October 2013 which saw him ruled out for two months with a meniscus tear. He made his first-team debut at Hartlepool's Victoria Park on 25 March 2014, coming on as a 65th-minute substitute in a 4–2 defeat to Mansfield Town. He signed a new contract of undisclosed length with Hartlepool two months later. Having failed to play again under Colin Cooper's stewardship, Jones came into first-team contention during Sam Collins's caretaker spell. On 7 October 2014, he made his first start in a 2–1 home defeat to Sheffield United in the Football League Trophy. He was initially dropped to the bench by new permanent manager Paul Murray, who lasted six weeks in the role, before Jones established himself in defence following the appointment of Ronnie Moore in December. He went on to start 23 League Two games primarily as a left-sided centre-half in the 2014–15 campaign, helping United to avoid relegation out of the Football League, and signed another new contract of undisclosed length in the summer. He made 12 appearances in the 2015–16 season. On 10 May 2016, Jones was released by Hartlepool; manager Craig Hignett said that "It might be the best thing that’s happened to him because Dan has got everything, but, for one reason or another, it hasn’t really clicked for him". ### Grimsby Town Jones signed a one-year contract with newly-promoted League Two club Grimsby Town on 24 June 2016. According to the Grimsby Telegraph, manager Paul Hurst saw him as "one for the future upon his arrival at Blundell Park". He joined National League club Gateshead on a one-month loan on 7 October 2016. Jones featured in three league games at the Gateshead International Stadium, but "Tynesiders" boss Neil Aspin said that "if Grimsby decide to loan him out again then he will be somebody we consider". Jones instead joined National League North leaders AFC Fylde on a one-month loan, starting on 10 February 2017. Dave Challinor, manager of the "Coasters", tried to extend the loan to keep Jones at Mill Farm, but his request was denied by Grimsby. Upon returning to Grimsby, new manager Marcus Bignot said that "Dan is back with us now and is going to be important for us moving forward". However Bignot was sacked three weeks later and, having made five appearances for Grimsby in the 2016–17 season, Jones was released by new manager Russell Slade in May 2017. ### Barrow On 22 June 2017, Jones signed a one-year contract, with the option of another year, at National League club Barrow. Speaking six days later, manager Paul Cox said that he had missed out on a number of other targets and that the transfer market was “the hardest in a number of years”. Jones scored his first career goal on his Barrow debut in a 2–1 defeat away to Dagenham & Redbridge on 5 August. It proved to be a difficult campaign however, with Cox leaving the club in August, and his replacement – Micky Moore – was sacked after three months despite being publicly backed in the media by Jones. Jones missed a month of action with a knee injury, but the North-West Evening Mail reported that he had impressed new manager Adrian Pennock with his work rate on the sidelines. He ended the 2017–18 season with three goals in 35 appearances as the Barrow finished one points above the relegation zone. The following season Jones was named in the National League Team of the Year for the 2018–19 season despite Barrow finishing in tenth-place. ### Salford City On 5 June 2019, Jones joined newly-promoted League Two club Salford City on a two-year contract. However he struggled to break into Graham Alexander's first-team plans, with Ibou Touray preferred at left-back, and was limited to three league games. On 10 February 2020, he rejoined Barrow on loan until the end of the 2019–20 season. Barrow manager Ian Evatt stated that Jones would provide fresh competition for a team aiming to win the league and that he would provide cover for the centre-back position with Josh Granite out injured. He was limited to four appearances during his second spell at Holker Street however, as due to the COVID-19 pandemic in England the season was curtailed on 16 March, and Barrow were promoted as league winners on a points-per-game basis. He joined fellow League Two side Harrogate Town on a season-long loan in September 2020. He scored his first goal for Harrogate in an EFL Trophy tie against Leicester City U21s on 6 October. However he missed three months after picking up a groin injury in training towards the end of November. He scored his first Football League goal on 13 April, in a 2–2 draw with Leyton Orient at Wetherby Road, and was praised by manager Simon Weaver after the game. He played for Harrogate at Wembley Stadium in the 2020 FA Trophy final, which had been delayed from the previous season due to the pandemic; Harrogate won the game 1–0, though Jones was substituted on 62 minutes after being shown a yellow card. Jones did not play a first-team game for Salford during the 2020–21 season and left Moor Lane after not being offered a new contract by new manager Gary Bowyer. ### Port Vale On 10 June 2021, he reached an agreement to join League Two club Port Vale on a two-year contract, with manager Darrell Clarke commenting that "I've always liked Dan to be honest ... he'll give us options in a number of positions defensively". He played at left-back, right-back and centre-back in the opening three games of the 2021–22 season. He played the first 21 league games of the season before being suspended for three games after picking up a straight red card for a foul on Oli Cooper in a 2–1 defeat at Newport County on 11 December. He was then sidelined with a hamstring injury he picked up in training and featured for just 27 minutes in the second half of the campaign as the team secured promotion out of the play-offs. Jones made his first league start of 2022 and his first ever game at League One level in September, having rebuilt his fitness during the 2022–23 pre-season. He replaced Connor Hall at centre-back follow a loss in form for Hall, though Jones dropped back to the bench the following month. He played across the back five as the season progressed, winning the supporters' Player of the Match award playing in the centre of the back three in a 1–0 home win over Charlton Athletic on 19 November. He went on to be named as the club's Player of the Month in a fan vote. He picked up an ankle injury in February, which required surgery and saw him sidelined for the rest of the campaign. Clarke praised Jones for his 30 appearances throughout the season, saying he had been a "model of consistency". Jones signed a new two-year deal in May 2023; David Flitcroft, the club's director of football, said that "all his stats and data are on an upward trajectory... he is one of the top performers physically". Jones stated that new manager Andy Crosby's accessibility and knowledge were key factors in his decision to sign a new deal. ## International career Jones was called up to an England C training camp in September 2017. He made his debut on 20 March 2018 when starting a 3–2 away win over Wales in a friendly. On 20 March 2019, Jones played in the reverse fixture for England, which ended in a 2–2 draw. ## Style of play Jones is a defender who plays primarily at centre-back, though is able to play at left-back. He has the ability to play out from the back and make diagonal passes to switch the play by passing the ball into a different zone of the pitch. He is also an accomplished throw-in taker, having been a javelin thrower at school. ## Personal life His son, Theo John Jones, was born to his partner Scarlett in December 2022. ## Career statistics ## Honours Individual - National League Team of the Year: 2018–19 Barrow - National League: 2019–20 Harrogate Town - FA Trophy: 2019–20
4,724,685	Nathaniel Dance	1,132,046,093	English officer in the East India Company	[ "1748 births", "1827 deaths", "British East India Company Army officers", "British naval commanders of the Napoleonic Wars", "Knights Bachelor", "Sailors from London" ]	Sir Nathaniel Dance (20 June 1748 – 25 March 1827) was an officer of the East India Company who had a long and varied career on merchant vessels, making numerous voyages to India and back with the fleets of East Indiamen. He was already aware of the risks of the valuable ships he sailed on being preyed on by foreign navies, having been captured by a Franco-Spanish fleet in 1780 during the East Indies campaign of the American War of Independence. His greatest achievement came during the Napoleonic Wars, when having been appointed commodore of one of the company's fleets, he came across a French squadron under Rear-Admiral Comte de Linois, which was raiding British shipping in the area. Through skillful seamanship and aggressive tactics he fooled the French commander into thinking that the British convoy was escorted by powerful naval forces, and the French decided not to risk attacking the convoy. Dance compounded the deception by taking his lightly armed merchants and chasing the French away, despite the considerable disparity of force. Having saved the convoy from almost certain destruction, Dance was hailed as a hero, lavishly rewarded with money and a knighthood, and spent the last years of his life in comfortable retirement. ## Family and early life Dance was born in London on 20 June 1748, the son of James Dance and his wife Elizabeth. James Dance was a successful lawyer of the city, but shortly after the birth of Nathaniel, he abandoned his wife to live with an actress, and in time established himself as a successful actor and playwright in Drury Lane. Elizabeth Dance and her family were instead cared for by James's father, and Nathaniel's paternal grandfather, George Dance the Elder, a prominent architect for the City of London. Nathaniel lived with his grandfather until 1759, when he went to sea under the patronage of Nathaniel Smith, a high-ranking official in the Honourable East India Company. With Smith's support, Dance rose through the ranks of the service, by 1780 having made eight voyages to India, as well as one to the Mediterranean and one to the West Indies. While making his ninth voyage to India as first officer on Royal George when a combined Spanish and French fleet captured his ship in the action of 9 August 1780. Dance was taken to Spain, where he spent six months on parole. He became commander of Lord Camden in January 1787, making another four voyages to India aboard her (including one that went as far as Canton). He was appointed commander of a new ship, Earl Camden, in 1802, and he sailed her in January 1803 to China. ## Voyage home Earl Camden sailed from Canton with the rest of the fleet on 31 January 1804, bound for England. By virtue of his seniority Dance was appointed commodore of the fleet of 11 "country" ships, and 16 East Indiamen. The fleet that had been assembled was the richest to date, carrying cargoes with an estimated value of £8 million, (approximately £ in present-day terms). Dance had been taken seriously ill at Bombay during the outward voyage, but had recovered in time to sail with the convoy. The fleet did not have any naval escorts, and though the East Indiamen were heavily armed for merchants, carrying nominal batteries of between 30 and 36 guns, they were no match for disciplined and professional naval forces. Not all of their listed armament was always carried, but to give the illusion of greater strength, fake gunports were often painted on the hulls, in the hope of distant observers mistaking them for 64-gun ships of the Royal Navy. By the time the fleet approached the Strait of Malacca on 14 February, Dance's convoy had swelled to include 16 East Indiamen, 11 country ships, a Portuguese merchant ship from Macau, and a vessel from Botany Bay in Australia. Although the HEIC had provided the small, armed brig Ganges as an escort, this vessel could only dissuade pirates; it could not hope to confront a French warship. As they neared the entrance to the straits suspicious sails were sighted in the south west. Dance sent some of his ships to investigate, and it was soon discovered that this was Linois's squadron, consisting of the 74-gun Marengo, the two heavy frigates Sémillante and Belle Poule, the corvette Berceau, and the Dutch brig Aventurier. ### The battle Having ascertained the identity of the ships Dance signaled for his merchants to form the line of battle, and continued their heading, while the French closed, but made no move to attack. Dance used the delay to gather his ships together so the stronger East Indiamen stood between the French and the weaker country ships. The merchants continued on towards the straits, followed by Linois, who was trying to gauge the strength of the convoy. There were more ships in the convoy than he had expected, and taken in by Dance's manoeuvres and the painted gunports, Linois suspected that several warships were escorting them. He seemed to be confirmed in his suspicions when at dawn on 15 February, both forces raised their colours. Dance ordered the brig Ganges and the four lead ships to hoist Blue Ensigns, while the rest of the convoy raised Red Ensigns. By the system of national flags then in use in British ships, this implied that the ships with blue ensigns were warships attached to the squadron of Admiral Peter Rainier, while the others were merchant ships under their protection. With the French still appearing reluctant to attack on the morning of 16 February, Dance ordered his ships to increase their speed by breaking into a sailing formation. This had the effect of making the convoy appear less intimidating and Linois decided to attack. By the afternoon the French were observed to be moving to cut off the rearmost ships of the convoy. Dance promptly hoisted colours, and ordered his largest ships, led by the East Indiamen Royal George, Ganges and his own ship, Earl Camden, to come about and close on the French. Advancing under full sail, they endured the fire of the French as they closed, before firing broadsides at close range. At this the French abandoned their attack, turned, and fled under a press of sail. Dance hoisted the signal for a general chase and his merchant fleet pursued the French squadron for two hours, before Dance broke off and returned on his original heading. The fleet resumed their course towards the Malacca Strait, and having met two British ships of the line from Admiral Peter Rainier's fleet on 28 February, were escorted as far as Saint Helena. There the convoy met with other British merchants, and were escorted to Britain by Royal Navy warships, arriving in August 1804. ## Rewards The achievement of a convoy of merchants not only escaping without loss from a French squadron, but going so far as to attack, drive off, and then pursue their would-be predators, was widely hailed as a signal victory. The Naval Chronicle declared: > We cannot sufficiently express our opinion of the coolness, intrepidity, and skill, with which the Commander of this Fleet, unaccustomed as he was to the practice of naval engagements, provided against every emergency, and prepared his plans, either for attack or defence, as the manoeuvres of the French Admiral might render it expedient for him to adopt either the one of the other. His conduct was worthy of the experience and science of our most approved and veteran Admirals, while the ardour and promptitude with which his orders were obeyed and his plans executed by the several Captains under his command, may have been rivalled, but can scarcely be exceeded in the most renowned of our naval exploits. Dance received £5,000 from the Bombay Insurance Company (approximately £338,000 in present-day terms), a pension of £500 a year (approximately £34,000 a year in present-day terms), plate worth 200 guineas from the Honourable East India Company, a ceremonial sword worth £100, and a silver vase. Captain Timmins of Royal George received £1000, a sword and plate, while the other captains received £500, and a sword and plate, with money being paid to the officers and seaman under their command. An ordinary seaman received £6 (approximately £ in present-day terms). Dance himself credited the actions of those under his command as being largely responsible for the victory, writing in reply to the award from the Bombay Insurance Company: > Placed, by the adventitious circumstances of seniority of service and absence of convoy, in the chief command of the fleet intrusted to my care, it has been my good fortune to have been enabled, by the firmness of those by whom I was supported, to perform my trust not only with fidelity, but without loss to my employers. Public opinion and public rewards have already far outrun my deserts; and I cannot but be sensible that the liberal spirit of my generous countrymen has measured what they are pleased to term their grateful sense of my conduct, rather by the particular utility of the exploit, than by any individual merit I can claim. Dance received a knighthood and went into a comfortable retirement, dying at Enfield on 25 March 1827 at the age of 78.
38,076,198	Pikes Hotel	1,158,977,129	Luxury hotel in Ibiza, Balearic Islands of Spain	[ "Hotels established in 1978", "Hotels in Ibiza", "Spanish companies established in 1978" ]	Pikes Hotel, now known as Pikes Ibiza, is a luxury hotel in Ibiza, in the Balearic Islands of Spain. It is located in the countryside, 1.6 miles (2.6 km) to the northeast of the town of Sant Antoni de Portmany, and 10.2 miles (16.4 km) to the northwest of Ibiza Town. A 15th-century stone mansion which was a finca (farm estate), it was converted into a hotel in 1978 by British-born Australian Anthony Pike. The hotel, cited as one of the most famous or infamous hotels on the island, developed a notorious reputation for hedonism in the 1980s, and is associated with being a playground for the rich and famous. It is best known for being the location of filming for Wham!'s 1983 hit "Club Tropicana" and for Freddie Mercury's 41st birthday bash in 1987, cited as one of the most lavish parties ever to be held on Ibiza. By the 1990s the hotel had fallen into difficulties and after Pike's son was murdered in 1998 attempting to sell the hotel, it was later sold to the Ibiza Rocks organization, which also owns clubs on the island and the Ibiza Rocks Hotel in the nearby town. Today it has 26 rooms, and the restaurant, named Room 39, has earned critical acclaim on the island. ## History Tony Pike arrived in Ibiza in 1978. Yachtsman and former hat maker Pike led a very colourful life, which had already seen him shipwrecked in the Caribbean, injured in a bobsleigh accident, serving in the military, indulge in heavy drinking, and married and divorced three times. Pike had rented a finca for three months during which time he met his next partner Lyn. Together they bought a derelict finca called Ca’n Pep Toniet in the countryside east of Sant Antoni and they decided to renovate it into a hotel. Tony, along with Lyn and his two sons, did most of the work themselves. Bo Palk, the managing director of MGM Studios, checked into the hotel just as Pike was finishing the last bathroom of the hotel. An acquaintance of Palk’s, Simon Napier-Bell, visited him at the hotel whilst scouting for a video shoot location. As a result, Wham!'s "Club Tropicana" was shot at the hotel in 1983. The video was directed by Duncan Gibbins with scenes shot of George Michael, the lead singer of the band and his fellow band member Andrew Ridgeley and their backing singers Dee C. Lee and Shirlie Holliman. The scenario saw George Michael "floating about on a lilo in his Speedoes and shades", relaxing with the boys by Pike’s pool sipping cocktails. The scene of the trumpet-playing took place in the pool itself. Tony Pike got on well with the band and he was persuaded to take a small part in the video as the barman in one of the scenes. The success of the video and Wham!'s status at the time firmly placed Pike’s Hotel in the circles of the music industry and within a short time the hotel was attracting other stars and people connected to the industry. In the 1980s, the authorities on Ibiza grew very concerned about the wild orgies and drug use which were taking place at the hotel. They showed particular concern over the extensive cocaine use at the hotel. In 1987, Freddie Mercury celebrated his 41st birthday at Pikes, several months after discovering that he had contracted HIV. Mercury sought much comfort at the retreat, and was a close friend of Pike. The party, held on 5 September 1987, has been described as "the most incredible example of excess the Mediterranean island had ever seen", and "the most lavish party even Pike had ever thrown." It has been cited as a legendary party, with a celebrity guest list of some 500 people and up to 700 people in total which included Julio Iglesias, Grace Jones, Jean-Claude Van Damme, Kylie Minogue, Nigel Benn, Anthony Quinn, Bon Jovi, Boy George, Five Star, Tony Curtis, Robert Plant, Naomi Campbell, and Spandau Ballet. A notable feature of the party was its thousands of gold and black helium balloons which reportedly took three days to inflate, and a grand firework display at the end which was reported to have been seen on Majorca. 350 bottles of Moet & Chandon champagne, and a cake in the shape of Gaudi's Sagrada Familia Cathedral were provided for the party, although the original cake collapsed and was replaced with a 2-metre-long sponge with the notes from Mercury's song "Barcelona". The bill, which included 232 broken glasses, was presented to Queen's manager, Jim Beach. By the 1990s the hotel was beginning to lose its reputation and a slow decline in popularity began. In 1998, Pike had put the hotel up for sale. He signed a deal to sell it to the Italian TV producer Enrico Forti. His son, Anthony Dale Pike, flew to Miami to deal with Forti in person, since Tony had been diagnosed with AIDS-related dementia. Dale was killed on February 15, 1998, shot twice in the head and dumped in a secluded forest at Virginia Key beach. The police arrested and questioned Tony's longtime friend and Forti's neighbor, Thomas Heinz Knott, who was later convicted of running up \$90,000 on Tony Pike's credit cards. In June 2000, Forti was convicted of murdering Anthony Dale Pike in Miami. Forti is now serving a lifetime prison sentence at the Everglades Correctional Institution in Florida. In Italy the verdict has been viewed as a miscarriage of justice, because of the lack of a valid motive and solid proof. Pike estimated that the hotel was worth \$5 million (£3.2 million) in 2002. He later sold it to Ibiza Rocks in 2008. A television documentary, screened on Sky Living that same year, also showed him and the hotel in an unfavourable light, and it appeared to be living on its past reputation. In the summer of 2011, Pikes Hotel was re-launched as Ibiza Rocks House at Pikes Hotel. The hotel has been restored under the ownership Andy McKay, the man behind the Ibiza Rocks, Ibiza Rocks Hotel and Mallorca Rocks brands, with new décor, whilst trying to maintain its rock'n'roll image of its most glamorous years. The new owners made Tony Pike the first full-time resident of the hotel and he lived permanently in Room 25 until his death in 2019. Ibiza Rocks publicizes the hotel and its chain as "After sex and drugs, comes rock and roll." Scottish rockband Biffy Clyro and Australian pop singer Kylie Minogue stayed at the hotel during the Ibiza Rocks Festival in 2011. ## Features Pikes Hotel is a luxury hotel, set in a 15th-century stone mansion, a finca, which was a farm for centuries. It is accessed off a long lane leading off the main road from Sant Antoni de Portmany. Stuart Husband of The Independent describes Pikes Hotel as "a notorious Ibiza hotel where anything goes". It is considered to be one of the most famous or infamous hotels on the island and has been cited as one of the "world's true spiritual homes of rock n’ roll hedonism". Iain Stewart of The Rough Guide to Ibiza considers Pikes Hotel to be an "almost legendary, relaxed and idiosyncratic rural hotel, popular with visiting celebrities". Anthony himself said: "it's been claimed we break every law, but I wouldn't be in business if that was the case." Boy George referred to Pike as the "Hugh Hefner of Ibiza". Pikes Hotel has 26 rooms with king-sized beds, one restaurant named Room 39 which has received much critical acclaim, and two bars. As of 2009 it costs £157 to stay at the hotel. The rooms retain the sense of the original farmhouse, and are furnished in the Moroccan style with some heavy dark wood furnishings. The rooms each have different themes, including "Honeysuckle" and "Sunset", the latter of which is set behind the middle of three dark wood doors on the second floor of a small outhouse. According to author Stephen Armstrong, this room had a "modest sitting room with a huge antique mirror, plush sofas and a CD player which didn't work". The bedroom was enormous, and the bathroom was decorated in a vaguely Moroccan style with a curtained bath nestling behind a low arch. A wide range of entertainment is put on at the hotel, from flamenco shows to costume balls. The hotel also offers a VIP card to visitors to many of the notable clubs, bars, and casinos in the town. The garden has a memorial to Anthony Dale Pike (1955-1998), which says, "In loving memory of eldest son Dale. Here a portion of his ashes are laid to rest while the remainder flow within the currents of his beloved Pacific Ocean. May his spirit strive no more but rest within this tree in peace and tranquility. I loved you, my son."
26,056,175	Uzbekistan at the 2010 Winter Olympics	1,022,949,012	null	[ "2010 in Uzbekistani sport", "Nations at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Uzbekistan at the Winter Olympics by year" ]	Uzbekistan sent a delegation to compete at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, from 12–28 February 2010. This was the country's fifth appearance in a Winter Olympic Games. The delegation consisted of three athletes: Kseniya Grigoreva and Oleg Shamaev in alpine skiing, and Anastasia Gimazetdinova in figure skating. None of the Uzbekistani competitors won a medal at these Olympics. ## Background Uzbekistan became an independent country in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and competed with the Unified Team made up of several former Soviet Republics during the 1992 Winter and Summer Olympics. The National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan was recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1993, and beginning with the 1994 Winter Olympics Uzbekistan began competing as an independent country. The country has participated in every Olympics, Summer and Winter, since 1994. The only Uzbekistani Winter Olympics medal was won by Lina Cheryazova, a freestyle skier, in 1994 in Lillehammer, Norway. The delegation sent to Vancouver in 2010 consisted of three competitors; two alpine skiers, Kseniya Grigoreva and Oleg Shamaev, and one figure skater, Anastasia Gimazetdinova. Shamaev was chosen as the flag bearer for both the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony. ## Alpine skiing Kseniya Grigoreva was 22 years old at the time she competed in the Vancouver Olympics. She was entered into two events, the women's slalom and giant slalom. In the giant slalom, held from 24–25 February due to bad weather, she posted run times of 1 minute and 31 seconds and, the next day, 1 minute and 25 seconds. Her combined time was 2 minutes and 57 seconds, which ranked her 58th out of 60 competitors who finished both runs of the race. On 26 February, she failed to finish the first leg of the race in the slalom. Oleg Shamaev, who was 27 years old at the time, took part in the men's giant slalom and the slalom. The giant slalom was held on 23 February, and Shamaev posted run times of 1 minute and 32 seconds and 1 minute and 36 seconds. His combined time ranked him 77th out of 81 competitors who finished both legs of the race. On 27 February, he participated in the slalom, posting run times of 57 seconds and 1 minute. His combined time placed him 42nd out of 48 competitors who finished both runs of the race. ## Figure skating Anastasia Gimazetdinova was 29 years old at the time of the Vancouver Olympics, and was the oldest competitor in the ladies' singles. She had previously competed for Uzbekistan at the 2006 Winter Olympics, finishing in 29th place in the short program, and not advancing to the second stage of Olympic competition, the free skate. In Vancouver, she scored a 49.02 for her short program, which put her in 24th place, the last position to qualify for the free skate. Gimazetdinova scored an 82.63 on her free skate, placing her 23rd in that round. Her total score, the sum of the short and free programs, was 131.65, placing her 23rd for the competition. ## See also - Uzbekistan at the Olympics - Uzbekistan at the 2014 Winter Paralympics
14,100,189	Miscellaneous solo piano compositions (Rachmaninoff)	1,026,074,053	Group of piano pieces by Sergei Rachmaninoff	[ "Compositions for solo piano", "Lists of piano compositions by composer", "Piano music by Sergei Rachmaninoff" ]	The composer Sergei Rachmaninoff produced a number of solo piano pieces that were either lost, unpublished, or not assigned an opus number. While often disregarded in the concert repertoire, they are nevertheless part of his oeuvre. Sixteen of these pieces are extant; all others are lost. Ten of these pieces were composed before he completed his Piano Concerto No. 1, his first opus, and the rest interspersed throughout his later life. In these casual works, he draws upon the influence of other composers, including Frédéric Chopin and Pyotr Tchaikovsky. The more substantial works, the Three Nocturnes and Four Pieces, are sets of well-thought out pieces that are his first attempts at cohesive structure among multiple pieces. Oriental Sketch and Prelude in D minor, two pieces he composed very late in his life, are short works that exemplify his style as a mature composer. Whether completed as a child or adult, these pieces cover a wide spectrum of forms while maintaining his characteristic Russian style. ## Works In the autumn of 1885, the twelve-year-old Rachmaninoff entered the home of Nikolai Zverev to receive private piano instruction and at the end of May 1886, Zverev took his students to Crimea, where Rachmaninoff continued his studies, hoping to gain entrance to Anton Arensky's harmony class at the Moscow Conservatory. It was during this time that Rachmaninoff created his first composition, a two-page Étude in F-sharp major (the manuscript is now lost). After admission to the class, he produced more exercises, the earliest of which is a Lento in D minor; it is the only surviving piece of ten he is said to have composed. Now beginning to compose independently, Rachmaninoff's next project was a group he titled Three Nocturnes, and is regarded as his first serious attempt at writing for the piano. The first nocturne, in F-sharp minor, was written 14–21 November 1887, and has three parts: a beginning and an end in andante cantabile and a central section in allegro. The slower andantes are gentle sections, influenced by Pyotr Tchaikovsky, while the allegro is unnatural and stiff and unusually fast for a nocturne. The second piece, in F major, followed on 22–25 November, also contains a slower portion coupled with a quick section. No. 3, in C minor, took more than a month to compose, dated from 3 December 1886 to 12 January 1887. With a chordal texture spread over the entire keyboard, it is reminiscent of the music of Robert Schumann. The nocturnes were published posthumously in Moscow in 1949, but were not assigned an opus number. The Four Pieces of 1887 are perhaps Rachmaninoff's first comprehensive works. Each has a clear aim and method to attain it, and all unfold with a fluency significantly more advanced than that shown in the previous nocturnes. The opening Romance, in F-sharp minor, harks back to Frédéric Chopin's tenderness. The E-flat minor Prelude is an unremarkable but well-thought out piece. The third, a Mélodie in E major, is modestly expressive, but the Gavotte in D major is, although repetitive, the most energetic and vigorous piece. These were published posthumously in Moscow in 1948, without an opus number. In 1890, after vacationing at Ivanovka, his family's summer residence, Rachmaninoff wrote a letter to Natalia Skalon, a family friend in Moscow, reporting that he had to write a fugue for Arensky's class, "an unpleasant circumstance however you look at it." It turned out to resemble a canon more than a fugue, however, and was published in 1949 as Canon in E minor. Although written as an assignment, the piece conveys the impression not of an academic contrapuntal exercise but rather of a vivid outburst. The texture and harmony show enough advancement over his earlier Four Pieces to indicate that he had been sensible not to publish them as his opus 1. In 1891, Rachmaninoff composed his Piano Concerto No. 1 (which became his first official opus) and afterwards in July, a small piece, Prelude in F major, which he revised later to include the cello. It was at this time, in 1892, that the Morceaux de fantaisie were composed. In 1891 Rachmaninoff also composed his Suite in D minor for orchestra, which he could not get performed in its full orchestra form and thus made into a solo piano reduction, the score for which was discovered in 2002 in Alexander Siloti's archive. The suite is in four movements: Lento: Allegro moderato in D minor, Lento in B minor, Menuetto in F-sharp major, and Allegro in D major. He spent much of the next few years writing some of his orchestral pieces, including The Rock (1893) and Caprice bohémien (1895). His return to pianistic work in early 1896 was marked by his contribution to Four Improvisations, a collaboration with Anton Arensky, Alexander Glazunov, and Sergei Taneyev. After the Six moments musicaux were completed in 1896, Rachmaninoff composed a single Morceau de Fantaisie in G minor on 11 January 1899. He subtitled it "Delmo", however what this means is unknown. It is two pages long and features an emphatic, if not brief, climax. He also produced a Fughetta in F major in February of that year, which is also short and has clean counterpoint. He composed most of his published works in this period, starting with the Chopin Variations. After the nine Études-Tableaux, Op. 39, Rachmaninoff composed several minor works in 1917. The Oriental Sketch is a fast-paced piece littered with sixteenth note figures. The piece was not intended to be associated with the Orient; the title was given by the publisher. The Prelude in D minor, a dark piece with thick and fast moving chords that repeatedly descend into low register, is a manifestation of his unhappiness with the October Revolution. The manuscript survived and was first published in 1973. His penultimate piano composition (only his Corelli Variations came later) was a one-page piece entitled Fragments, a brief nostalgic piece from his final days in Moscow. It was first published in the magazine, The Etude, in 1919. In 2003, while researching Rachmaninoff material at the Library of Congress, the Australian pianist Scott Davie discovered a two-page sketch of a previously unknown Rachmaninoff work, a Piano Piece in A-flat major. While he was able to make a pencil copy, it wasn't until later he realized that the sketch was complete. Davie was given permission to make use of the piece by the composer's great-granddaughter, Natalie Wanamaker Javier, while attending the 2006 International Rachmaninoff Conference in Amsterdam. The piece was recorded and released by ABC Classics on his Pictures from an Exhibition CD. Since then the piece has also been recorded by Vladimir Ashkenazy and released by Decca.
33,758,502	A God Somewhere	1,131,567,842	2010 graphic novel by John Arcudi	[ "2010 comics debuts", "2010 graphic novels", "WildStorm titles" ]	A god Somewhere is a 2010 graphic novel created by writer John Arcudi, artist Peter Snejbjerg, and colorist Bjarne Hansen. The novel was first published in one paperback volume by DC Comics' Wildstorm imprint. It tells the story of Eric Foster, the first human to develop superhuman abilities, through the eyes of his friends and family. Over time, Eric's powers cause him to become disconnected from and ruthless toward humanity, leading to a conflict with the US military that ends in Eric's death. The story emphasizes violence and focuses on the ways people are affected by it. Critics gave the story generally positive reviews, but noted that the subject matter was cliché and sometimes found the use of flashbacks confusing. ## Development and publication The concept began to develop when John Arcudi read Kenneth Brower's 1978 book The Starship and the Canoe, which documents the divergent lives of physicist Freeman Dyson and his son George. Arcudi applied ideas from it to superheroes, a staple of comic books for which he has little affection. He then pitched his story to DC Comics as "this is not the story about a god-like superman. This is the story about everybody else". He wanted to offer a counterpoint to most comics and action films that avoid showing how violence changes both the victim and the victimizer. He also wanted address certain racial, religious and cultural issues he felt were underrepresented in comics. Arcudi drew inspiration from the works of theologians St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Friedrich Nietzsche, and some elements of the plot were inspired by the story of King Saul. The time from Arcudi's inception of the story to his final draft was about 18 months. It was initially crafted as a miniseries with editor Peter Tomasi for release through DC, but when Tomasi left the project it was repackaged as a graphic novel to be released through DC's Wildstorm imprint. The content itself was unchanged. From the beginning, Arcudi wanted to work with artist Peter Snejbjerg and colorist Bjarne Hansen after seeing their work in DC's 2004 miniseries The Light Brigade, which was written by Tomasi. They had to decline the project when they were first asked because of other commitments, so other artists were considered. However, issues unrelated to the artwork caused production on the comic to be delayed until their schedules were clear. When discussing the story with them, Arcudi had specific ideas about Eric's appearance. A God Somewhere was released to comic specialty shops and the book market on June 3, 2010. It was an unusual release for Wildstorm at the time, as the imprint had not released an original graphic novel in five years. It was advertised in the Diamond Distribution catalog with a three-page preview. Critics typically praised the story, but sales were average at best. Initial orders were estimated to be around 2,600 copies, and reorders only raised the total sales to 3,500 by the end of the year. The lackluster performance may have been due in part to the \$24.99 retail price, which was higher than average for a softcover graphic novel at the time. A second edition was released in late 2011, this time as part of DC's Vertigo imprint. A German language edition was later made available in Europe through Panini Comics. In an interview given prior to publication, Arcudi said it was "hard to imagine revisiting" the story in a second volume or a prequel. ## Plot In 1992, Sam Knowles is a new black student in a predominantly white high school. When he is attacked by other students, brothers Eric and Hugh Foster come to his rescue. The three form a strong, lasting friendship that is strained when Hugh marries Alma, a girl all three boys find attractive. Years later, Eric's apartment building mysteriously explodes, but Eric is unharmed. Sam takes Eric to a hospital where they are found by Alma. She and Hugh had split up to search for Eric, but Eric does not hear her explanation and is hurt by Hugh's absence. They see on TV that people are still trapped in the apartment rubble, and Eric rushes out of the hospital to help them. Sam follows him but is left behind when Eric leaps into the air and flies away. Eric returns to his apartment and rescues multiple survivors using superhuman strength and senses. He is caught on film by news crews, becoming an overnight sensation. Over the next few weeks, Eric uses his abilities to protect various people. He also becomes more religious, believing God is speaking through him. Sam uses his relationship with Eric to garner girls and career success in journalism. Hugh and Alma are upset by the sudden public attention and wish things would return to normal. They are also slightly afraid of what Eric has become. After a tense meeting with the President of the United States, Eric attacks his brother and rapes his sister-in-law. Hugh survives as a quadriplegic. The police arrive and Eric allows himself to be arrested. When Sam visits Eric in jail, Eric claims to have been a god in another universe. Sam wants an explanation for Eric's actions, but Eric says Sam can never understand. Eric then escapes from his cell, murdering many guards and innocent bystanders. During the next year, Eric leaves a path of destruction across the United States, killing any soldier or civilian he encounters. Sam is hired by a national magazine to travel with the military and document the effort to capture Eric. The military discovers Eric is vulnerable to lasers and is able to give him a mortal wound. Eric kills all the soldiers present and has a brief talk with Sam. Eric tries to explain his actions, but Sam does not understand. The Air Force arrives to bomb Eric, and Eric saves Sam's life by throwing him from the blast area. Eric mentally controls Sam's flight path, giving Sam a taste of what superpowers were like. Eric is killed by the bombs. Sam becomes famous for the articles he writes about Eric, and his agent pushes him to write a book. Because his articles inspired a cult devoted to Eric, Sam declines to write anymore. He visits Hugh and Alma, learning Alma still suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder. Sam leaves, deciding to move on with his life. ## Reception A God Somewhere debuted to mostly positive reviews from critics. Many of them noted that the premise and themes were common to the comic medium, and others drew specific comparisons to Doctor Manhattan from Watchmen, Miracleman and Kid Miracleman, and Superman: Secret Identity. Despite the "well-worn" premise, Multiversity Comics felt A God Somewhere excelled in the presentation of its "complex, layered, and dialogic" themes. One theme was how different people are changed by violence, which involved emphasizing violence without sensationalizing it. Another theme was the cultural definition of heroism, which is common across Arcudi's oeuvre. Comic Book Resources liked that Arcudi left Eric's motivations ambiguous, letting readers draw their own conclusions. The relationships between the characters were frequently touched on by critics. The story is narrated in the past-tense by Sam, and Publishers Weekly felt this made Eric's development tragic rather than exciting. Comic Book Resources agreed, saying the changes he went through are surprising as they happen but seem inevitable afterward. Der Spiegel thought Arcudi handled the relationship between "unequal brothers" well, and cited A God Somewhere as proof that Arcudi is among the best writers in comics. That sentiment was shared by Seattle PI, who felt the believable characters set the work apart from other contemporary comics. The story includes a subplot focused on the racial tension caused by Sam's friendship with Eric, but it does not build to a conflict or affect the climax. Critics were torn on its inclusion, with Pop Matters and Multiversity Comics saying it gave the characters additional depth and The Outhousers seeing it as an odd choice to increase tension. The characterization of Alma was criticized by Pop Matters, who noted that her role is limited to an object of sexual desire. Arcudi used minimal dialogue throughout the book, relying on Snejbjerg to convey important parts of the story through body language and facial expressions. This tactic was cause for criticism at certain points of the story, particularly flashbacks. The primary indication that the narrative has moved between time periods is the length of Eric's hair. The transitions were described as "jarring" but effective by The Outhousers and "confusing" by Multiversity Comics, who went on to call it "a novel idea that is ineffective in practice" because Eric does not appear in every flashback scene.
72,128,351	Grand station (CTA Logan Square branch)	1,145,447,546	Rapid transit station in Chicago, 1895–1951	[ "1895 establishments in Illinois", "1951 disestablishments in Illinois", "Defunct Chicago \"L\" stations", "Railway stations closed in 1951", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1895" ]	Grand was a rapid transit station on the Chicago "L"'s Logan Square branch, one of the several branches of the Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railroad. Located on Grand Avenue, the station was constructed by the Metropolitan in the early 1890s and began service on May 6, 1895. The Metropolitan, one of four companies that would build what became the Chicago "L", had many branches to serve Chicago's west side, including the Logan Square branch on which Grand lay. With some interruptions and financial issues, it operated these lines until 1911, when it handed operations to Chicago Elevated Railways, and formally merged into the Chicago Rapid Transit Company (CRT) in 1924. The "L" was taken over by the publicly-held Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) in 1947. A subway had been planned since the late 1930s to reach downtown in a more direct way than the portion of the Logan Square branch where Grand stood. This subway was originally intended to supplement the old elevated Logan Square branch, but the CTA sought to simplify its routing and saw no need for the old branch's continued existence. The subway opened on February 25, 1951, with a station of its own on Grand Avenue; the old Grand station was then closed along with the others on the affected part of the branch. The station and its trackage remained in non-revenue service until it was demolished and the property sold off in 1964. Grand was typical of the Metropolitan's stations, with two wooden side platforms and a brick station house at street level. For most of its existence it connected with a streetcar route that reached Navy Pier; both the "L" and streetcar had owl service. After the late 1910s it was also the lowest-ridership station on the Logan Square branch, and one the least-patronized on the entire "L". ## History The Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railroad Company was granted a 50-year franchise by the Chicago City Council on April 7, 1892, and began securing right of way shortly thereafter. As designed, the Metropolitan's operations would comprise a main line that went west from downtown to Marshfield, where three branches – one northwest to Logan Square, one due west to Garfield Park, and one southwest to Douglas Park – would diverge and serve various parts of Chicago's west side. A further branch to Humboldt Park would proceed due west from the Logan Square branch just past Robey Street. Unlike the competing South Side and Lake Street Elevateds, the Metropolitan never used steam traction; although intending to and building much of its structure with locomotives in mind, it decided in May 1894 to have electrified tracks instead, opening as the first revenue electric elevated railroad in the United States. The Metropolitan's tracks on the Logan Square branch were finished up to Robey by the middle of October 1894, and were given power in April 1895 for test and inspection runs. The Metropolitan began service at 6 a.m. on Monday, May 6, 1895, between Robey on the Logan Square branch and Canal on the main line. Eleven stations opened that day, one of which was on Grand Avenue. The Metropolitan's lines were originally operated by the West Side Construction Company, which had been responsible for constructing them, and would be transferred to the Metropolitan on October 6, 1896. The backers and officers of the two companies were largely identical, however, so this transfer of ownership was nominal. The expenses incurred in constructing the Metropolitan's vast trackage would come back to haunt the company, which entered receivership in 1897; the similarly-named Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railway Company was organized in January 1899 and assumed operations on February 3 of that year. The new Metropolitan, along with the other companies operating "L" lines in Chicago, became a part of the Chicago Elevated Railways (CER) trust on July 1, 1911. CER acted as a de facto holding company for the "L" – unifying its operations, instituting the same management across the companies, and instituting free transfers between the lines starting in 1913 – but kept the underlying companies intact. This continued until the companies were formally merged into the single Chicago Rapid Transit Company (CRT), which assumed operations on January 9; the former Metropolitan was designated the Metropolitan Division of the CRT for administrative purposes. Although municipal ownership of transit had been a hotly-contested issue for half a century, the publicly-owned Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) would not be created until 1945, or assume operation of the "L" until October 1, 1947. ### Closure and demolition Plans for Chicago to have a subway system to relieve the severe congestion of, if not replace, its elevated trackage dated back to the early 20th century, but the city lagged in building subways. Chicago petitioned the Public Works Administration (PWA) for construction funds for a subway on State Street in 1937. Originally included in the petition was a proposal for two downtown east-west streetcar tunnels. Harold L. Ickes, the administrator of the PWA and a longtime Chicagoan, vetoed the streetcar tunnel plan and insisted instead on a second subway that would go under Dearborn Street and Milwaukee Avenue, which would provide a more direct route from Logan Square to downtown. Although this idea engendered considerable local opposition, especially from mayor Edward Joseph Kelly, Ickes's influence in the federal government led to the Dearborn plan being adopted in 1938. A 1939 plan also introduced the idea of replacing the Metropolitan's main line and Garfield Park branch with a section of rapid transit operating through a proposed Congress superhighway (the eventual Interstate 290). These sections of transit would be connected, allowing for the area's rapid transit to be routed through downtown rather than adhere to a trunk-and-branch model. The subway's approval did not immediately imply the end of the old Logan Square branch; plans in 1939 included another proposed subway to connect the branch with the Ravenswood branch to the north and through-routing it with the Douglas Park branch to the south into a subway on Ashland Avenue to form a crosstown route. Damen Tower, serving the Humboldt Park branch divergence, was rebuilt with the expectation that it also would switch trains between the subway and the elevated, in the same manner as the State Street subway supplementing the earlier elevated North Side main line, and as late as 1949 commuters were promised such a setup that would have preserved the old Logan Square trackage. However, the CTA had no interest in operating either the old Logan Square elevated or the Humboldt Park branch; the new Damen Tower would never be installed with switching equipment, and the Logan Square branch south of Damen would be closed after the subway opened. World War II interrupted the construction of the subway; although the federal government allowed the continued construction of the State Street subway, it did not do so for the Dearborn subway despite its being 82 percent complete in 1942. After the war ended, work resumed on the Dearborn subway and it opened at the midnight beginning Sunday, February 25, 1951. The subway was predicted to reduce the travel time between Logan Square and downtown from 28 minutes to 15. Since construction had not started on the Congress Line, trains in the subway turned back at its southern terminus at LaSalle. Despite this incomplete state, and complaints from riders no longer given a direct trip to the Near West Side, the new subway had over 60 percent higher ridership than the old Logan Square branch by the end of the year. The subway contains a station of its own on Grand Avenue. The old Logan Square branch trackage south of its entrance to the subway became known as the Paulina Connector, connecting the branch with the rest of the "L" system now that it no longer had revenue service to the Loop. Construction on the Congress Line began in 1954, leaving the Douglas branch with the issue of how to connect with the Loop in the meantime. The Paulina Connector south of Washington Boulevard (about one-half mi (0.80 km) south of Grand) was reopened for the purpose, but the Metropolitan's old tracks north of Washington were replaced in revenue service by a direct connection to the Lake Street Elevated's trackage known as Washington Junction. This connection was used until the Congress Line was completed in 1958, after which the Douglas branch connected directly with it to use the Dearborn Street subway to go downtown, creating the "West-Northwest Route" that was renamed the Blue Line in 1992. Wooden parts from the old stations on the Connector, including Grand, were removed to reduce fire hazards, as were the lowest flights of stairs to deter trespassing. North of Washington Junction, the old northbound track was removed in 1957 while the southbound track continued non-revenue operations. The portion of the Connector north of Kinzie Street, including where Division, Chicago, and Grand stations stood, was demolished in 1964 and the right of way sold to adjacent landowners. ## Station details Grand had two wooden side platforms at its tracks and a station house at street level. The station house, made of red pressed brick and white limestone trim with a stone sill and foundation, was designed similarly to other stations on the Logan Square branch, surviving examples of which are at California and Damen, with a corniced and dentiled front bay containing dual doors specifically marked "Entrance" and "Exit" and prolific use of terra cotta. Its platforms had hipped roof tin canopies in the center and decorative cast-iron railings with diamond designs. Unlike elsewhere on the "L", station houses on the Metropolitan had central heating and a basement. The Metropolitan's tracks and stations were constructed by the West Side Construction Company, a company with the same officers as the Metropolitan itself and the chief engineer of E. W. Elliot, with steel and iron from the Carnegie Steel Company. ### Operations and connections As originally opened, the Metropolitan's trains ran every six minutes between 6 a.m. and 6:30 p.m., and every ten minutes during the night; the average speed was 16 mph (26 km/h). Unlike the Lake Street Elevated, which offered smoking and non-smoking cars, all of the Metropolitan's cars allowed smoking. Smoking was banned by the city across the "L" and in streetcars in response to a 1918 influenza outbreak, a prohibition that has remained in force ever since. The fare across the "L" was legally mandated to be a nickel (5 cents, \$ in 2021) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This fare continued until temporarily increased by a cent to \$0.06 (\$ in 2021) in 1917 before stabilizing to a dime (10 cents, \$ in 2021) in 1920. Starting in 1922, fares were usually marketed in packs of three for 25 cents, or 8+1⁄3 cents per ride (\$ in 2021), but individual fares remained 10 cents each. At the same time, a weekly pass was introduced, the first in a major American city, for \$1.25 (\$ in 2021) for rides outside of Evanston and Wilmette. Fare control was usually by a station agent posted 24 hours a day, but conductors were used instead during night and off-peak hours from 1931 to 1934, and during 1936 and 1937. As of 1912, Grand Avenue had two streetcar routes, one of which, an express from Harlem Avenue to downtown, was in the area of the station. The other route, a local, was extended to Western Avenue in 1914, bringing it in the station's vicinity. The express car was discontinued on June 8, 1916, but half of the local cars were extended to Harlem to compensate for it; Navy Pier was then made the line's eastern end. By 1928, the local route had owl service between 1 and 5 a.m., wherein cars ran once every thirty minutes; during the day, streetcar lines in Chicago typically had intervals of between eight and fifteen minutes per car. Service was cut back from Navy Pier on September 28, 1941, and buses began supplementing streetcars on December 4, 1949, and replaced them altogether on April 1, 1951, shortly after the station was abandoned. Streetcars were typically one car each in Chicago, but two-car streetcars ran on Grand Avenue on occasion – motor-trailer trains ran between July 13, 1922, and May 4, 1923, and multiple-unit trains ran between November 18, 1926, and January 3, 1928. ### Ridership Grand's ridership peaked in 1902 at 634,530 passengers. Between 1900 and 1913, the station was consistently in the middle of the Northwest branch's rankings, surpassing the stations of Lake and Madison to its south but trailing Robey, Division, and Chicago to its north. By the late 1910s, the station was the lowest-ridership station on the branch except for the Metropolitan's portion of the Lake Street Transfer station, the successor to Lake and a station whose ridership the Metropolitan shared with the Lake Street Elevated, giving a combined ridership higher than that of Grand; in any event, Grand's ridership also trailed every station on the Logan Square branch proper. Ridership last exceeded 600,000 passengers in 1907, 500,000 in 1910, 400,000 in 1912, 300,000 in 1924, and 200,000 in 1929. During the 1930s, ridership dropped below six figures, bottoming out at 83,003 patrons in 1933. In the last year ridership records are available, 1948, Grand served 128,950 passengers, a 23.27 percent decrease from the 168,006 in 1947. In 1948, it was the 196th-most ridden of the 223 stations on the Chicago "L" at the beginning of the year where ridership was recorded; in 1947, it had been the 193rd-most ridden of 222 such stations.
54,442,191	David 8	1,172,217,873	Fictional character featured in the Alien franchise	[ "Alien (franchise) characters", "Fictional amputees", "Fictional androids", "Fictional anthropologists", "Fictional artists", "Fictional aviators", "Fictional butlers", "Fictional characters from the 21st century", "Fictional characters with superhuman strength", "Fictional linguists", "Fictional mass murderers", "Fictional musicians", "Fictional scientists", "Fictional sole survivors", "Film characters introduced in 2012", "Male horror film villains", "Science fiction film characters" ]	David<sup>8</sup>, commonly known as David, is a fictional character featured in the Alien franchise, portrayed by Michael Fassbender. Introduced in the first prequel film, Prometheus (2012), David is an android serving as a butler, maintenance man and surrogate son to his creator, Peter Weyland, the founder of the Weyland Corporation. While he assists his human companions in their interstellar expedition to meet their creators, the extraterrestrial Engineers, David is obsessed with the concept of creating life of his own. After Peter Weyland is killed, David is freed from servitude, allowing him to conduct experiments to engineer his own variants of the Alien creature. David was conceptualised as a character to provide a non-human perspective for the theme of meeting one's creators in Prometheus, with him representing the next generation in a line of creators who finds himself disillusioned by his predecessors. Fassbender, who was director Ridley Scott's first choice for the role, helped fashion the character to share traits with T. E. Lawrence, who was a source of inspiration as a control freak caught between two cultures – the cultures being humanity and synthetics, in David's case. As the series progresses, David's behaviors and motivations evolve from a mysterious agent with ambiguous motivations to a character directly opposing the well-being of humanity. Despite the lukewarm reception of the Alien prequel films, both Fassbender's performance and the character of David have been met with critical acclaim. Reviews praised the character for developing into an overt antagonist with the events of Alien: Covenant (2017). Critics have called David one of the greatest Alien characters to date and one of the best cinematic villains of the 2010s. Fassbender has been the recipient of a number of awards and nominations for his portrayal of the character. ## Background A hallmark of director Sir Ridley Scott is the theme of artificial intelligence present in his science fiction films. Scott's earliest foray into the philosophy of artificial intelligence was with the android character Ash, in the original Alien film released in 1979. Ian Holm portrayed Ash as a character who may uncannily assume a human form, yet he maintains a sense of superiority that is only humbled by the nature of the Alien, which runs counter to the very future of the human race. In the book The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott, the authors (Adam Barkman, Ashley Barkman, and Nancy Kang) reason that though Ash is designed to appear human, his innards are bio-mechanical and he himself does not presume to be a sentient being with a semblance of life, but an artificial construct whose personality is dictated by machinery. Every subsequent installment in the Alien film series directed by Scott features at least one synthetic (android) character designated to maintain order aboard their respective space ship. In 2017, Scott explained that the synthetics featured in the Alien films he directed are designed to subvert their robotic nature and to impeccably mimic humans. The original form of androids introduced in Alien would contradict the observable nature of David in Prometheus; though both would serve the same corporate masters and have the same non-human innards, David would identify himself as a sentient entity who is capable of expressing—if not feeling—emotion. In between the time Scott released Alien in 1979 and returned to the franchise with Prometheus in 2012, he directed another notable science fiction film concerning artificial intelligence, Blade Runner, in 1982. Contrary to the white-blooded androids of Alien that emulate emotions and recognize a disconnect with humanity, Blade Runner features the replicants, enhanced biorobotic humanoids that may only be identified by their lacking emotions. In order to maintain control, the replicants' human creators install false memories that detail entire lives that give them a sense of identity. Blade Runner, an influential film, has prompted a slew of philosophical questions concerning artificial intelligence and whether or not an android could truly be considered alive. The film specifically questions whether thoughts, a sense of identity, emotions and consciousness in general, may be something genuine when applied to artificial intelligence. Due to David identifying himself as a living entity—similar to the replicants—film critics in 2012 would come not to only question if Prometheus was a direct prequel to Alien, but if the film had a relation to Blade Runner. A number of models for testing artificial intelligence have been noted by philosophers as being relevant to the themes present in Scott's filmography. The test most commonly associated with artificial intelligence in his work is the Turing test, created by the British computer scientist Alan Turing. Turing's argument was that there is no significant difference between a human and an android, which would be apparent when a human would be unable to identify if the individual they are communicating with is a human or android. In Blade Runner, the method for identifying the physically identical replicants is by administering the fictional Voight-Kampff test, which detects disparities in emotional responses. Though a replicant would fail the Turing test, an android at the chronological marker of Alien, such as Ash, would likely perform exceedingly well. Additionally, the Chinese room, created by John Searle, has been postured as a test relevant to the androids of the Alien franchise. As the test determines if someone can identify what is Chinese lettering without knowing what it means, philosophers have drawn a parallel to Ash, who may uncannily emulate a human, though fail to understand what it means to be one. Kang described David's eventual introduction as another android character created by Scott as a synthesis between both Alien and Blade Runner, with the character being capable of passing the Turing test like Ash, yet also able to pass the Chinese room test like a replicant, implying that he would indeed be the first living android of the Alien franchise. ## Character development ### Creation Writer Jon Spaihts created David as a shipboard android in the first draft of his screenplay for the prequel Alien: Engineers, as an exploration of the theme of creations and being in the presence of one's makers. Just as the humans aboard the Prometheus look to discover the secrets of their creators, the Engineers, David is already in the presence of his creators. Unlike his companions and android successors, David would be disillusioned by his creators and look to fashion himself into an entity defying their nature. Scott was in favor of the concept and urged writer Damon Lindelof to pursue it further while rewriting the script that would be adapted as Prometheus. Though David would perceive the concept of the Prometheus expedition to be frivolous, due to his disappointment in his creators, he would nonetheless be fascinated by the notion of creation. Therefore, the character's treacherous actions in the films, such as infecting the archaeologist Charlie Holloway with an alien mutagen, would be from a desire to create a new evolutionary generation of his own. Shortly after the release of Alien: Covenant, Scott explained that as David learns more about his lineage through humanity and the Engineers, "He hates them. He has no respect for Engineers and no respect for human beings," and concludes that eradicating them from existence will be for the betterment of the universe. With relation to the human characters, David was conceptualized as not only a surrogate son for Peter Weyland, but as a replacement for Weyland's estranged daughter, Meredith Vickers. The actress who portrayed Vickers, Charlize Theron, detailed that Scott perceived Weyland's family and his company, the Weyland Corporation, as being male-dominated, with Vickers' shared DNA being the only attachment. This runs counter to David, who is a synthetic male created to supplant Vickers and uphold the family's patriarchy. Throughout the eight-month rewrite process leading directly into principal photography, Damon Lindelof focused on enhancing David's bondage to Weyland and the Prometheus- despite David being designed to be a surrogate son, he would actually be a proverbial captive to the master and his ship. With Weyland's death at the hands of the awakened Engineer, David's programming has run its course and every action he takes from thereon out is by his own volition, essentially freeing him. A philosophical element Scott raised about the David 8 model is that he exemplifies the dangers of making an android sentient- with him having the capacity for free will and the ability to create, he crosses a moral boundary that other androids stay within. The contrast between David and the other androids was developed further in Alien: Covenant, with the creation of the physically identical character Walter, who was made more robotic and unable to create on his own. ### Casting Throughout the development stage of the production of Prometheus, director Ridley Scott considered German-Irish actor Michael Fassbender to be his top choice to portray David. In January 2011, Fassbender was confirmed to have joined the cast of Prometheus. Fassbender was provided with a significant amount of free rein for modeling the character as he saw fit. Rather than taking inspiration from the previous Alien installments, Fassbender studied Sean Young's character Rachael, a replicant in Blade Runner, noting her vacant demeanor. Fassbender drew inspiration from a number of other film performances, including Douglas Rain as HAL 9000 in 2001: A Space Odyssey, David Bowie in The Man Who Fell to Earth, and Dirk Bogarde in The Servant. Additionally, Fassbender modeled his walk around American Olympic diver Greg Louganis. In the screenplay for Prometheus, David is noted as being unusually fond of the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia, with the character viewing parallels to himself, as they both have unfaltering pursuits of the objectives. As such, Fassbender elected to model much of his performance and appearance around the Peter O'Toole depiction of T. E. Lawrence. Fassbender would continue to have his role make references to Lawrence of Arabia in Alien: Covenant by having David play samplings of the soundtrack on his flute. For his first appearance in Prometheus, Fassbender, a natural redhead, dyed his hair blond and fashioned it into a style influenced by Lawrence. Scott requested that Fassbender dye his hair for the role, in order to provide the character with an otherworldly and unsettling appearance. ## Fictional biography ### Prometheus (2012) As the science vessel Prometheus heads for the moon LV-223, David maintains the ship and passes time by engaging in leisurely activities, monitoring the crew members' dreams, watching films and studying the Proto-Indo-European language that the Engineers are believed to speak. Upon arrival, a holographic presentation by the supposedly deceased Peter Weyland introduces David as his surrogate son. David, along with the bulk of the crew, embark on a ground excursion towards one of the artificial structures containing submerged Engineer ships. Inside, David utilizes his linguistic knowledge to activate an ancient hologram depicting Engineers fleeing through the corridors of the ship. Pursuing the hologram, he finds a room filled with urns containing a black mutagen. As an incoming windstorm is detected, David bags one of the urns and returns it to Prometheus. Aboard the ship, David assists Shaw with studying an Engineer head. David is instructed by an unidentified voice on a radio to "try harder", prompting him to gather a drop of mutagen from the urn and use it to infect Holloway as he drinks champagne. The following day, there is another excursion to the Engineer ship, with David providing Weyland Corporation executive Meredith Vickers with a live stream of his own private investigation. However, he cuts Vickers off from the feed and keeps it exclusive to a private audience. David makes his way to the ship's flight deck, where he activates a hologram revealing that the Engineers were looking to travel to Earth and that there is a single Engineer in cryosleep. David and the rest of the team return to Prometheus when Holloway's infection from the mutagen becomes apparent, prompting Vickers to incinerate him with a flamethrower. David checks Shaw's vitals and informs her that she is "pregnant", as a result of Holloway passing the mutagen to her when they had intercourse the night before. After Shaw surgically extracts an alien parasite from her abdomen, she happens into the private quarters of David's previously unidentified director — the still-alive Peter Weyland. David prepares Weyland for an excursion to the Engineer ship. Shaw asks David about his freedom after Weyland's eventual demise, to which he ominously asks about every child's dream of having their parents dead. He leads the team to the flight deck of the ship, where he awakens and speaks with the Engineer, who reacts by decapitating him and killing the rest of the team, save for Shaw. David's severed head watches from the floor as the Engineer launches the ship and attempts to embark for Earth. After the ship is disabled by Prometheus getting purposely crashed into it, David warns Shaw that the Engineer is coming for her. David contacts Shaw after she escapes the Engineer and convinces her to retrieve his head and body, so that he may pilot another ship. Shaw dictates that she will cooperate with him if he takes them to the Engineer home world, which he agrees to, despite not understanding her motivations. Together, they depart from the moon aboard an Engineer ship. ### Alien: Covenant (2017) Shortly after his creation, David becomes acquainted with a young Peter Weyland, who introduces himself as the android's creator and "father". Weyland asks him what his name is and upon observing David by Michelangelo, states that his name is David. As David plays the piano, Weyland states that they will together seek out humanity's creator. David remarks that Weyland will die, while he himself is incapable of death. An agitated Weyland responds by ordering David to prepare him a cup of tea. Following David and Shaw's exodus for the Engineer home world, they arrive at a temple surrounded by scores of Engineers. David carpet bombs them with the mutagen, resulting in the extinction of all non-floral life on the planet, as well as mutations in the flora that can infect and impregnate organisms with Neomorphs. The Engineer ship crashes afterwards and Shaw dies from unknown means, though David preserves and utilizes her body in his experiments. Eleven years later, a team from the colony ship Covenant is attacked by two Neomorphs that burst from two of their bodies. David intervenes by frightening them away with a flare gun. He urges the survivors to follow him to the temple, where he has established his laboratory. Sporting overgrown hair, David introduces himself and offers them shelter, while learning about the 2,000 colonists and 1,000 embryos in stasis aboard Covenant. He takes a special interest in the successor model from his own synthetic line, Walter, and tells him that Shaw died when the Engineer ship crashed. David claims to have loved Shaw and compares it to Walter's attachment to the terraforming expert Daniels, which Walter dismisses as being impossible. David attempts to bond with Walter by teaching him to play the flute. Walter explains that, while he is more advanced, he has been inhibited from creating, due to David's more human-like idiosyncrasies and ability to think for himself causing a disturbance with people around him. After a Neomorph attacks and decapitates Covenant security officer Rosenthal, David approaches it and pacifies it by attempting to communicate. The ship's captain, Christopher Oram, kills the Neomorph, upsetting David. Held at gunpoint by Oram, David shows him how he has been utilizing the mutagen to try and engineer the "perfect organism", with the Neomorphs being one of the outcomes. David leads Oram to a room filled with Alien Eggs or Ovomorphs, where Oram is attacked and impregnated by a Facehugger by forcing its ovipositor down his throat. David watches as Oram awakens a short time later and dies as an Alien Xenomorph bursts out of his chest. Having discovered the dissected and mutilated corpse of Shaw, Walter confronts David, stating that he knows that David killed her, along with the Engineers. Walter rejects David's offer to join him, prompting David to deliver a Judas kiss and then impale him through the neck with his flute, apparently terminating him. David encounters Daniels, who he attacks after giving a Judas kiss. Walter intervenes and the two androids engage in a fight. Though Walter has the upper-hand, David reaches for a knife and defeats Walter, secretly assuming his identity. David escapes with the few survivors aboard a cargo lander, which is used to kill an Alien giving chase. Aboard Covenant, the ship's mainframe computer, MU/TH/UR, ("Mother"), informs the crew that an "unidentified life form" has stowed away. David coordinates with Daniels and the ship's pilot, Tennessee, to lead the Alien to the terraforming bay, where the creature is flushed into space. David helps Tennessee into cryosleep, followed by Daniels. Before Daniels goes to sleep, she mentions her dream about a cabin on the lake, which she had previously told Walter about. When David does not recognize her story, Daniels realizes who he is and panics, before David puts her into cryosleep. David regurgitates two Alien embryos and stores them in cold storage next to the human embryos. With the humans and embryos at his mercy, he sends out a transmission impersonating Walter that states that all the crew members, save for Daniels and Tennessee, were killed in a neutrino blast and that they are still en route to their original destination, Origae-6. ### Other appearances David has been featured in a number of promotional materials for the Alien prequel films. For Prometheus, rather than focusing on the film's connection with the Alien canon, the marketing team emphasized central characters, most prominently David. On March 17, 2012, director Ridley Scott hosted a panel for Prometheus at WonderCon, where attendees were provided with Weyland Corporation business cards that provided a website and telephone number. Upon calling the number, callers were played an automated message that stated that Weyland Corporation's lines were busy, at which point a text message was sent that linked to a video narrated by Fassbender that showed David being unboxed, prior to his awakening. A month later, on April 17, an extended version of the unboxing video was released, with David providing additional insight into his function aboard the Prometheus as the ship's butler and maintenance man, as well as advertising his ability to seamlessly replicate human emotions without the restrictions of ethics or distress. Released with the video was also a poster featuring David, which was printed as a full-page advertisement in The Wall Street Journal. Prior to the release of Alien: Covenant, 20th Century Fox released online two prologue short films directed by Ridley Scott. Following a first short film called "The Last Supper" about the crew of the Covenant prior to going into cryosleep, the second part called "The Crossing", connecting the continuities of Prometheus and Alien: Covenant, was released on April 26, 2017. In The Crossing, Shaw reattaches David's head to his body as they voyage through space aboard an Engineer ship towards the species' home world. Shaw enters cryosleep in a shipboard chamber, leaving David awake and alone. The ship arrives at the home world and above a massive gathering of Engineers around a temple, David prepares to drop the urns of mutagen on them. ## Reception ### Critical reception Despite the lukewarm reception of the Alien prequel films, Michael Fassbender's portrayal of David was met with critical acclaim, with his performance generally considered to be the standout. Following the critics screening of Prometheus in May 2012, critics from a number of media companies, including /Film and Screen International, proclaimed Fassbender to have been the highlight of the film. Forrest Wickman of Slate magazine lauded Fassbender for being able to emulate uncanny valley through his mannerisms alone and ranked David as being the greatest portrayal of an android to date. Philip French from The Guardian praised the character for being a cross between the fictional valet Jeeves, created by P. G. Wodehouse, and a double agent commonly found in an English Renaissance theatre production. French further complimented the character for paying homage to T. E. Lawrence by being portrayed as a control freak caught between two cultures- the parallel in Prometheus being that David is caught between humanity and synthetics. Referencing the Titan Prometheus of Greek mythology, Kwaak Je-yup stated in his review of Prometheus that Fassbender "steals fire" in every scene, upstaging Noomi Rapace's leading performance as Shaw. David's character arc throughout the Alien prequel series, with his role becoming increasingly central, has been lauded by critics. Kevin Lincoln of Vulture magazine described David as being the best cinematic villain in years, due to his dynamic personality and ability to win against the characters in Alien: Covenant. John Squires of Bloody Disgusting praised David for supplanting the main protagonist of the first four films, Ellen Ripley, as the overall best character of the franchise in 2017. Squires perceived David's passion to become a creator in Alien: Covenant as a retroactive explanation for poisoning Holloway in Prometheus. Eschewing most reviews, Wenlei Ma from News.com.au complimented Fassbender's ability to portray David, though she criticized the mystery lost by revealing the character's true intentions. ### Awards Michael Fassbender has earned a number of awards and nominations for his portrayal of David. Fassbender won Best Supporting Actor at the 2012 edition of the Fright Meter Awards, an annual horror film awards event. He was nominated by the London Film Critics Circle Awards 2012 for Supporting Actor of the Year, but lost to Philip Seymour Hoffman in The Master. At the 39th Saturn Awards, Fassbender was nominated for Best Supporting Actor, losing to Clark Gregg's portrayal of Phil Coulson in The Avengers. ## Appearances - Prometheus (2012) - Prometheus (novel) (2012) - Alien: The Weyland-Yutani Report (2014) - Alien: Covenant - Prologue: The Crossing (2017) - Alien: Covenant (2017) - Alien: Covenant (novel) (2017) - Alien: Covenant - Advent (2017) (voice)
8,522,234	The Essential Barbra Streisand	1,151,315,769	null	[ "2002 greatest hits albums", "Barbra Streisand compilation albums", "Columbia Records compilation albums" ]	The Essential Barbra Streisand (retitled The Ultimate Collection in some European countries) is the fifth greatest hits album by American singer Barbra Streisand, released on January 29, 2002, by Columbia Records. The compilation features 38 songs from Streisand's catalog, in addition to two previously unreleased tracks (covers of "Someday My Prince Will Come" and "You'll Never Walk Alone"). It includes material from 26 of the singer's albums and was described as a collection of, mainly, her pop songs. A reissued version of the compilation was distributed by Columbia and Legacy Recordings in 2008 and includes a bonus disk featuring nine additional songs from Streisand's discography. Critically, the album was noted for being a comprehensive and complete view of her discography, unlike her previous greatest hits releases. It topped the charts in Ireland, Scotland, and the United Kingdom, and peaked at number 15 on the Billboard 200 in the United States. The Essential Barbra Streisand also reached the top ten in several countries and was included on four year-end lists. The album has since been certified Platinum in Australia, Europe, New Zealand, Spain, and the United States, and multi-platinum in the United Kingdom. ## Background and development The Essential Barbra Streisand was released on January 29, 2002, by Columbia Records. A compilation of Streisand's "pop-oriented performances", the collection contains two discs featuring 38 songs from Streisand's discography. Representing 26 albums from her career, the first-recorded song included on The Essential Barbra Streisand is "A Sleepin' Bee" from The Barbra Streisand Album (1963), while the most recent track featured is "I've Dreamed of You" from A Love Like Ours (1999). In addition, Streisand included two previously unreleased tracks on the second disc, covers of "Someday My Prince Will Come" and "You'll Never Walk Alone". William Ruhlmann from AllMusic suggested that the former song was recorded during sessions for A Love Like Ours while the latter was meant for her twenty-seventh studio album, Higher Ground (1997). In some European countries, the album was released under the title The Ultimate Collection with an identical track listing. The Essential Barbra Streisand was reissued on September 30, 2008, through a co-partnership between Columbia Records and Legacy Recordings. The new version featured a bonus third disk with seven more songs from Streisand's back-catalog and two live renditions. ## Critical reception The Essential Barbra Streisand was given a perfect five star rating by AllMusic's William Ruhlmann. He felt that Streisand's discography had not been detailed well on her previous compilations and considered The Essential Barbra Streisand to be the best choice for fans not willing to purchase the expensive box set Just for the Record... (1992). Considering its comprehensiveness, Ruhlmann praised the album's inclusion of her eleven top ten hits and nearly all of her top 40 hits. Tom Santopietro, author of The Importance of Being Barbra: The Brilliant, Tumultuous Career of Barbra Streisand, was disappointed by Streisand's decision to release two greatest hits albums in the same year (the other being Duets). Describing her action as "cynical", he wrote: "At this point, even the most die-hard Streisand fan could be forgiven for expressing frustration at yet another release of 'People' and 'The Way We Were'." However, he praised the inclusion of "Someday My Prince Will Come" and "You'll Never Walk Alone", calling them both "extraordinary" cover tracks. In addition to The Barbra Streisand Album and Stoney End (1971), Phyllis Fulford and Michael Miller, authors of the 2003 book The Complete Idiot's Guide to Singing, listed The Essential Barbra Streisand as one of the singer's "CDs that best represent [her] more pop-oriented performances". ## Commercial performance The Essential Barbra Streisand entered the Billboard 200 at number 15, its peak position, during the week of February 16, 2002. It was the chart's second highest entry of the week, just behind the soundtrack to the 2002 film State Property, which debuted at number 14. It spent a total of nine weeks on the Billboard 200. On March 15, 2002, it was certified Gold as a multi-disk package by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for physical shipments of 250,000 copies; its certification was then upgraded to Platinum, signifying shipments of 500,000 copies, on October 17, 2003. As of June 22, 2007, The Essential Barbra Streisand has sold 506,000 copies in the United States. Elsewhere in North America, it debuted in Canada at number 73 according to the chart published by Nielsen SoundScan. In Europe, The Essential Barbra Streisand topped the charts in several countries and has been certified Platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for sales upwards of one million. According to the Official Charts Company, it topped the charts in both Scotland and the United Kingdom. In the latter country, the compilation spent 49 weeks charting and was ranked on the year-end sales charts for both 2002 and 2003 at positions 36 and 192, respectively. It was later certified double-platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 600,000 copies. In the same continent, The Essential Barbra Streisand (or The Ultimate Collection in some European territories) topped the Irish Albums Chart, and reached the top ten in Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden. In Oceania, the album peaked in Australia and New Zealand at numbers 5 and 3, respectively. Both countries issued the compilation double Platinum and platinum respectively. When the album was reissued in 2007 and 2008 in several European countries, it debuted on the album charts in Austria, Italy, and Spain. In the first country, it reached the top twenty and peaked at number 11, and in Italy it peaked at number 75. In Spain, the album originally peaked at number 14 but reentered in 2013 at number 85. ## Track listing ## Personnel Personnel adapted from AllMusic. - Barbra Streisand – arranger, composer, executive producer, primary artist, producer - Walter Afanasieff – arranger, composer, producer - Milton Ager – composer - Harold Arlen – composer - Billy Barnes – composer - Richard Baskin – producer - Alan Bergman – composer, producer - Marilyn Bergman – composer, producer - Michael Berniker – producer - Leonard Bernstein – composer - Don Black – composer - David Caddick – conductor - Charles Calello – arranger, producer - Ann Hampton Callaway – composer - John Cameron – orchestration - Truman Capote – composer - Jacques Charles – composer - Frank Churchill – composer - Grant Clarke – composer - Don Costa – arranger, conductor - David Cullen – orchestration - Nick DeCaro – arranger - Neil Diamond – composer, guest artist, performer - Céline Dion – guest artist, performer - Bob Esty – arranger, composer, conductor, producer - Peter Fletcher – project manager - David Foster – arranger, composer, producer - Ian Freebairn-Smith – arranger - Albhy Galuten – producer - Bob Gaudio – producer - Barry Gibb – composer, guest artist, performer, producer - Maurice Gibb – composer - Robin Gibb – composer - Jack Gold – producer - Wally Gold – producer - Alan Gordon – composer - Arthur Hamilton – composer - Marvin Hamlisch – composer - Oscar Hammerstein II – composer - Christopher Hampton – composer - James F. Hanley – composer - Charles Hart – composer - Jack Hayes – string arrangements - Rupert Holmes – arranger, conductor, producer - Paul Jabara – composer, vocal arrangements - Buddy Johnson – composer - Gary Klein – producer - Charles Koppelman – executive producer - Jay Landers – executive producer - Burton Lane – composer - Robert John "Mutt" Lange – arranger, composer - Michel Legrand – arranger, composer, conductor, producer - Alan Jay Lerner – composer - Jeffrey Lesser – producer - Ira Levin – composer - Alan Lindgren – arranger, conductor - Mort Lindsey – arranger, conductor - Tommy LiPuma – producer - Andrew Lloyd Webber – composer, orchestration, producer - Rolf Løvland – composer - Jeremy Lubbock – conductor, orchestration - Stephen Marcussen – mastering - Greg Mathieson – arranger, conductor - Peter Matz – arranger, conductor, executive producer, orchestration, producer - Bob Merrill – composer - Robert Mersey – producer - Larry Morey – composer - Jürg Morgenthaler – composer - Jerome Moross – composer - Trevor Nunn – composer - Laura Nyro – composer - Gene Page – arranger - Marty Paich – arranger, producer - Richard Parker – composer - Richard Perry – producer - Channing Pollack – composer - Phil Ramone – producer - Gabrielle Raumberger – art direction - Karl Richardson – producer - Nelson Riddle – arranger, conductor - Bruce Roberts – composer, vocal arrangements - Richard Rodgers – composer - Sigmund Romberg – composer - William Ross – arranger, conductor, orchestral arrangements, producer - Milton Schafer – composer - Walter Scharf – arranger, conductor - Cliff Singontiko – design - Stephen Sondheim – composer - Alan Stein – A&R - Richard Stilgoe – composer - Jule Styne – composer - Donna Summer – guest artist, performer - Linda Thompson-Jenner – composer - Jonathan Tunick – arranger, conductor - Luther Waters – vocal arrangements - Bobby Whiteside – composer - Stewart Whitmore – digital editing - Albert Willemetz – composer - Patrick Williams – arranger, conductor - Paul Williams – composer - Stevie Wonder – composer - Nigel Wright – producer - Jack Yellen – composer - Maurice Yvain – composer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history ## See also - List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2000s
1,317,186	Significant Other (album)	1,173,268,504	null	[ "1999 albums", "Albums produced by DJ Premier", "Albums produced by Terry Date", "Flip Records (1994) albums", "Limp Bizkit albums" ]	Significant Other is the second studio album by American rap rock band Limp Bizkit, released on June 22, 1999, by Flip and Interscope Records. It saw the band expand their sound from that of their 1997 debut Three Dollar Bill, Y'all to incorporate further metal and hip hop influences, but with a more melodic and less hardcore punk-influenced sound. Significant Other received high commercial sales, peaking at number one on the US Billboard 200. The band's distinctive sound and performance, which was thought to be an improvement over the band's debut, received positive reviews from the critics. At least 16 million copies of the album have been sold worldwide. ## Production Following the radio success of the band's cover of George Michael's "Faith", the band was determined to record the follow-up to their first album in order to show that they weren't a "Korn ripoff" or a cover band; the band began writing an album which dealt with issues deriving from their newfound fame. Producer Terry Date, known for working with Pantera, White Zombie and Deftones, was chosen by Limp Bizkit to produce Significant Other. Guitarist Wes Borland stated of Date's production, "he doesn't get overly involved at the 'music' end of things. He's a producer who fools with sound and sonically makes everything perfect. He gets sounds that translate really well on tape and pretty much completely captures what we do, perfectly." The band immediately began recording after the conclusion of the Family Values Tour, despite the insistence of Interscope Records that the band take a break after it. ## Music and lyrics Significant Other has been described as a nu metal and rap metal album. An early version of "I'm Broke" was recorded for Three Dollar Bill, Yall\$, but was left off the album because of how different the song sounded from the rest of that album's material. The melody for "Trust?" originated from a melody played in rough form in early 1998, during the Ladies Night in Cambodia tour. In response to claims that the lyrics of Three Dollar Bill, Yall\$ were misogynistic, Fred Durst, member of Limp Bizkit, toned down his lyrical content on this album, which he described as being more lyrically mature. Durst's breakup with his girlfriend inspired the songs "Nookie" and "Re-Arranged". The band allowed Durst and DJ Lethal to explore their hip hop influences by recording with Method Man. DJ Premier of Gang Starr was brought in to produce the collaboration. The band wanted to record "a track that was straight hip-hop", according to Borland. The song was originally titled "Shut the Fuck Up", but was retitled "N 2 Gether Now" for marketing purposes. Durst also recorded a song with Eminem, "Turn Me Loose", which was left off the album. Durst also recorded a song with System of a Down's vocalist Serj Tankian named "Don't Go Off Wandering". Serj's vocals only appeared on the demo version of the song where he sang the bridge and ending chorus but his vocals don't appear on the album version of the song. The band also collaborated with Korn vocalist Jonathan Davis and Scott Weiland of Stone Temple Pilots on "Nobody Like You". Weiland would frequently visit NRG Recording Studios and help with the recording, vocally coaching Durst. Staind singer Aaron Lewis provided backup vocals on the song "No Sex", while Scott Borland, Wes' brother, played keyboards on "Just Like This", "Nookie", "Re-Arranged", "I'm Broke", "9 Teen 90 Nine" and "A Lesson Learned". The song "Show Me What You Got" is a sequel to "Indigo Flow" from Three Dollar Bill, Yall\$. "A Lesson Learned" is a psychedelic trip hop track similar to "Everything" from Three Dollar Bill, Yall\$. Describing the album's music, AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that it contains "flourishes of neo-psychedelia on pummeling metal numbers and there are swirls of strings, even crooning, at the most unexpected background." While the band was opposed to solos, they allowed John Otto to perform an extended drum solo in the middle of "Nobody Like You". Scott Borland wrote string melodies for "Don't Go Off Wandering". The band also recorded interludes featuring celebrity cameos. The first was "Radio Sucks" with MTV VJ Matt Pinfield, in which he rants about "pre-fabricated sorry excuses for singers and musicians who don't even write their own songs" before praising Bizkit for helping launch a musical revolution. The second, "The Mind of Les" featured Primus bass player and singer Les Claypool in what begin as an album intro. Claypool stated, "I came in and they wanted me to write some sort of intro for the record. I got stoned and got in front of the mic and started babbling and they ended up not using the intro and using that instead." ## Cover art The album cover depicts a hooded microphone assassin (supposedly extra-terrestrial) donning Fred Durst's notorious red Yankees cap and striking a mean pose. American artist Mear One created the cover by painting it on a wall as graffiti. A time-lapse video of the process is featured in the enhanced CD version of Significant Other. Since its inception, the hooded figure is often being used as the band's logo as seen in 2003's Results May Vary and 2021's Still Sucks albums. ## Critical reception Significant Other received generally positive reviews from critics. Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne wrote, "Significant Other isn't simply modern rock; it's postmodern rock." Robert Christgau gave the album an honorable mention and noted the songs "Just Like This" and "N 2 Gether Now" as highlights of the album, writing, "Give their image credit for having a sound." AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called the album "considerably more ambitious and multi-dimensional" than the band's previous album, Three Dollar Bill, Yall\$. In later reviews of the album, About.com's Tim Grierson gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, calling it "A buzz saw of bad attitude, metal guitar and white-boy rapping, Limp Bizkit's breakthrough album, Significant Other, is unapologetically rude and immature. But perhaps more importantly, it also rocks very, very hard." Rolling Stone and its album guide awarded the album three and a half out of five stars. A less favorable notice came from author Martin C. Strong, who gave the album 5 out of 10 stars in his book The Essential Rock Discography. In 2014, Revolver magazine said Significant Other was "one of the great guilty-pleasure hard-rock albums of all time", and listed it as one of ten essential nu metal albums "you need to own." In 2021, it was named one of the 20 best metal albums of 1999 by Metal Hammer magazine. ## Commercial performance Significant Other climbed to No. 1 on the Billboard 200, selling 643,874 copies in its first week of release. In its second week of release, the album sold an additional 335,000 copies. The band promoted the album by appearing at Woodstock 1999 and headlining the year's Family Values Tour. Durst directed music videos for the songs "Re-Arranged" and "N 2 Gether Now". ## Controversy Violent action sprang up during and after Limp Bizkit's performance at Woodstock 1999, including fans tearing plywood from the walls during a performance of the song "Break Stuff". Several sexual assaults were reported in the aftermath of the concert. Durst stated during the concert, "People are getting hurt. Don't let anybody get hurt. But I don't think you should mellow out. That's what Alanis Morissette had you motherfuckers do. If someone falls, pick 'em up. We already let the negative energy out. Now we wanna let out the positive energy". Durst later stated in an interview, "I didn't see anybody getting hurt. You don't see that. When you're looking out on a sea of people and the stage is twenty feet in the air and you're performing, and you're feeling your music, how do they expect us to see something bad going on?" Claypool told the San Francisco Examiner, "Woodstock was just Durst being Durst. His attitude is 'no press is bad press', so he brings it on himself. He wallows in it. Still, he's a great guy." Durst saw the band as being scapegoated for the event's controversy and later stated that the promoters of Woodstock '99 were at fault for booking his band, due to their reputation for raucous performances. While the performance was the subject of much controversy, the violence did not affect sales of Significant Other. The video for "Re-Arranged" would refer to the controversy, with the band being shown on trial for the events of the concert. ## Track listing Notes - On the digital version, "Outro" and "Radio Sucks" are separated tracks (with "Radio Sucks" renamed to "Rant (Matt Pinfield)") and "The Mind of Les" is omitted. ## Personnel Limp Bizkit - Fred Durst – vocals - Wes Borland – guitars, artwork - DJ Lethal – turntables, keyboards - John Otto – drums - Sam Rivers – bass Additional musicians - Method Man – vocals on "N 2 Gether Now" - Les Claypool – spoken word on hidden track - Matt Pinfield – spoken word on hidden track - Anita Durst – guitar, vocals on hidden track - Mathematics - Scott Borland – keyboards - Jonathan Davis – vocals on "Nobody Like You" - Aaron Lewis – backing vocals on "No Sex" - Scott Weiland – backing vocals on "Nobody Like You" Production - Produced by Limp Bizkit, Terry Date, and DJ Premier - Mixed by Brendan O'Brien - Cover art by Mear One ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications
38,847,467	2014 United States Grand Prix	1,152,288,370	null	[ "2014 Formula One races", "2014 in American motorsport", "2014 in sports in Texas", "Motorsport competitions in Texas", "November 2014 sports events in the United States", "Sports in Austin, Texas", "United States Grand Prix" ]	The 2014 United States Grand Prix (formally the 2014 Formula 1 United States Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 2 November at the Circuit of the Americas in Travis County near Austin, Texas. It was the 17th round of the 2014 Formula One World Championship and the 36th United States Grand Prix held as part of the series. Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton won the 56-lap race starting from second position. His teammate Nico Rosberg finished second and Red Bull driver Daniel Ricciardo was third. It was Hamilton's tenth victory of the season and the 32nd of his career. Rosberg won the pole position by recording the fastest lap in qualifying and kept the lead on the first lap. The race was neutralised by a four-lap safety car period when Sergio Pérez, Adrian Sutil and Kimi Räikkönen made contact. During the first half of the race, Hamilton ran close behind teammate Rosberg to conserve fuel but braked heavily through parts of the track to prevent brake glazing. After the two Mercedes cars made their pit stops for new tyres, Hamilton passed his teammate Rosberg for the lead on lap 24, and pulled away to achieve victory and overtake Nigel Mansell for the highest number of wins for a British driver in Formula One. In the week before the event, the Caterham and Marussia teams went into administration and were granted dispensation to miss the race, leaving the sport with nine entered teams, the lowest number since the 2005 Monaco Grand Prix. Hamilton's victory, his fifth in a row, moved him further clear from Rosberg atop the World Drivers' Championship, as Ricciardo's third-place finish eliminated him from title contention. Valtteri Bottas moved further ahead of Sebastian Vettel in fifth. Mercedes increased their unassailable lead in the World Constructors' Championship to 245 points over Red Bull while Williams moved further away from Ferrari in fourth with two races left in the season. ## Background The 2014 United States Grand Prix was the 17th of the 19 rounds of the 2014 Formula One World Championship, and the 36th running of the event in Formula One. It was held on 2 November at the 5.513-kilometre (3.426 mi) 20-turn Circuit of the Americas in Travis County, Austin, Texas. The sport's governing body, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), elected to retain two drag reduction system (DRS) activation zones from 2013: one was on the straight between turns 10 and 11, and the second was on the straight linking the final and first corners. The circuit was changed following the 2013 race. At the request of motorcycling's governing body, the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme, some sections of turn ten's asphalt run-off area were replaced by gravel and some light panels were mounted closer to the ground for better visibility. Tyre supplier Pirelli brought the yellow-banded soft and white-banded medium dry compound tyres to the race, as opposed to the Hard and Medium tyres in 2012 and 2013. The event's official name was the 2014 Formula 1 United States Grand Prix. Before the race, Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton led the World Drivers' Championship with 291 points, ahead of teammate Nico Rosberg in second and Daniel Ricciardo third. Valtteri Bottas was fourth with 145 points, with Sebastian Vettel two points behind in fifth. While the Drivers' Championship had not been won, Mercedes had taken the World Constructors' Championship in the preceding . Red Bull were in second place on 342 points; Williams (216 points) and Ferrari (188) were third and fourth and McLaren were fifth with 143 points. After spending most of the season behind Rosberg, Hamilton had won the previous four races, converting a 29-point deficit into a 17-point lead over his teammate. With three races left, Hamilton said he would prioritise not allowing any negative thoughts consume him and would take any opportunities presented to him: "We've just got to do our due diligence and work as hard as we can to make sure we don't have any problems." Hamilton hoped to achieve his fifth consecutive victory of the year: "A lot of the American side of my family come to the race, plus I won the first F1 GP at the circuit back in 2012 – it's a special one for me. I really enjoy going there and I'm looking forward to another great race." Rosberg aimed to improve on his best finish in Austin and lower Hamilton's points lead. He said Mercedes targeted "a big finish" to the season, declaring he would not concede defeat until the final round, and hoped to maintain the level of entertainment for the fan base. After both Friday practice sessions, the FIA tested for the first time a new system called the virtual safety car, which is in response to minimising the risk of serious accidents and injuries, such as those suffered by Jules Bianchi at the . Its aim is to force drivers to slow by about 35 per cent in an accident zone, with the aid of a dashboard display. Drivers agreed it was a worthwhile system that, however, required refinement for further testing at subsequent races before it was introduced for the 2015 season. Caterham and Marussia were each granted permission by Formula One's commercial rights owner Bernie Ecclestone to miss the race due to their long-term financial problems and entering administration. With 18 entered vehicles, this was the smallest field entered into a Formula One race since the 2005 Monaco Grand Prix. There were driver changes for the first free practice session. European Formula Three Championship third-place finisher Max Verstappen replaced Jean-Éric Vergne at Toro Rosso for the second time in 2014, and Williams reserve driver Felipe Nasr drove Bottas's car. The press reported that the Sauber, Lotus and Force India teams had considered withdrawing from the race to signal to Formula One's commercial leaders about its financial state following Caterham and Marussia's non-participation in the race. Ecclestone said if two of those squads left the series then "that is what will happen" and teams should only participate if they were competitive. Force India team principal Bob Fernley stated discussions about a boycott were as a final recourse. Lotus owner Gérard Lopez said he had not heard about the proposed boycott and the team insisted that they would race. Vijay Mallya, the owner of Force India, severely criticised suggestions of a boycott six days after the race: "Who said that we wanted to boycott the race? Please tell me. If I am wrong, you educate me. I speak on behalf of Force India. I have never said that we are going to boycott, and I have clarified this in Austin. Why would we? We have come to go racing." ## Practice Per the regulations for the 2014 season, three practice sessions were held, two 90-minute sessions on Friday and another 60-minute session on Saturday. Hamilton lapped fastest in the first practice session—which took place on a damp track that later dried—at 1 minute, 39.941 seconds; his session 18 minutes ended early due to a gear shift problem. His teammate Rosberg, Jenson Button, Daniil Kvyat, Kevin Magnussen, Fernando Alonso, Vettel, Nasr, Nico Hülkenberg and Verstappen occupied positions two to ten. Ricciardo was only able to drive the first of an hour because his energy recovery system failed and was restricted to five timed laps. In the second session, where it was difficult for teams to alter their car's race set-ups because of strong crosswinds, Hamilton set the day's fastest lap at 1 minute, 39.085 seconds on super-soft compound tyres; Rosberg was three-thousands of a second slower in second and had the fastest time until Hamilton's lap. Both Mercedes cars had reliability concerns with Hamilton reporting another gearbox problem and his session ended early with a minor hydraulic issue. Rosberg had a downshifting concern which he attributed to hitting the clutch pedal after lifting his leg. Alonso was third-fastest, followed by Ricciardo, Felipe Massa—who locked his brakes lightly and later spun his car—and Kimi Räikkönen. Kvyat, Magnussen, Button and Hülkenberg followed in the top ten. Romain Grosjean and his teammate Pastor Maldonado both lost control of their tight-handling Lotus cars and drove onto the run-off area several times. Hamilton was fastest in the third session, which was held in chilly but bright weather, with a time of 1 minute, 37.107 seconds; Rosberg had a brake issue until the final minutes and went faster in the first two-thirds of the lap but an untidy final third of the lap caused by a glazed left rear brake disc only allowed him to go quicker by one-thousands of a second and placed second. Massa, Bottas, Alonso, Ricciardo, Hülkenberg, Adrian Sutil, Räikkönen and Button completed the top ten. Upon switching settings on his steering wheel, Hamilton spun under braking at turn 12, and Rosberg ran wide at turns 11 and 12. Vergne's session ended early when his engine cut out. ## Qualifying Following the withdrawal of the Caterham and Marussia team's two entries, minor changes were made to Saturday afternoon's three-part qualifying session. The first part ran for 18 minutes, eliminating cars that were 15th or below. The 107% rule was in effect, requiring drivers to reach a time within 107 per cent of the quickest lap to qualify. The second part lasted 15 minutes, eliminating cars in 11th to 14th. The final 12-minute session determined pole position to tenth. Cars who progressed to the final session were not allowed to change tyres for the race's start, using the tyres with which they set their quickest lap times in the second session. Rosberg was fastest in the second and final sessions and achieved his ninth pole position of 2014 and the 13th of his career, with a lap of 1 minute, 36.067 seconds. He praised the balance of his car but said it was challenging due to track and wind direction changes. Rosberg was joined on the grid's front row by teammate Hamilton, who had a left-front brake 100 °C (212 °F) cooler than the right-front, slowing him, which was observed by him constantly locking them in the second session. Bottas and Massa were third and fourth, and Ricciardo improved greatly on his final timed lap for fifth, ahead Alonso in sixth. Button qualified seventh, but incurred a five-place grid penalty for changing his gearbox, promoting his teammate Magnussen to seventh. Although Räikkönen in eighth improved his car's balance, he slid multiple times after an unrectifiable frontal problem, creating understeer. Sutil took ninth and Maldonado, who was the fastest driver not to advance into the final session, was tenth, after sliding in turn 19, losing about two-tenths of a second, preventing an improvement. Sergio Pérez, 11th, used two sets of soft tyres in the first session to get into the second. Hülkenberg, 13th, was forecast to qualify in the top ten until a tear-off visor wrapped itself around a front tyre into turn 12, losing grip, ran wide, and lost time. Kvyat complained of tyre temperature issues in slower traffic on his out-lap. However, he incurred a ten-place grid penalty for changing an engine component. His teammate Vergne started 14th and was the fastest driver not to enter the second session, attributing the result to switching to an older, less powerful engine and excess oversteer. Esteban Gutiérrez took 15th ahead of Grosjean. Vettel in 17th opted to do one lap on soft tyres to comply with the 107 per cent rule. He began from the pit lane after changing his engine, his sixth of the season. ### Qualifying classification The fastest lap in each of the three sessions is denoted in bold. Notes: - – Jenson Button dropped five places on the starting grid due to a gearbox change to his McLaren. - – Daniil Kvyat was demoted ten places on the starting grid due to an engine change to his Toro Rosso. - – Sebastian Vettel was required to start the race from pit lane after being penalised for exceeding the season limit of five power unit component changes, by changing a sixth on his Red Bull prior to qualifying. ## Race The race began before 107,778 people at 14:00 Central Time Zone (UTC−06:00), in dry and sunny weather with an air temperature of 23 °C (73 °F) and a track temperature of between 31 and 34 °C (88 and 93 °F). Every driver, bar Vettel, Kvyat and Hülkenberg, started on the soft compound tyres. The trio began on the medium compound tyres. A strong cross wind cutting through turns three and five caused cars to oversteer. When the race began, Rosberg maintained the lead into the first corner. Hamilton. who put his car at an angle towards Rosberg, stayed in second. Wheelspin dropped Bottas behind his teammate Massa. Alonso attempted to pass Bottas into turn two for fourth but slowed in doing so. Ricciardo also had wheelspin, and fell behind the Ferrari and McLaren cars. He remained on the outside and overtook Button, Räikkönen and Magnussen before turn 12. Pérez glimpsed space to Sutil's left but the extra speed needed to drive alongside caused him to slide into the rear of Räikkönen's car. Räikkonen was able to continue but Pérez ploughed into Sutil. As Sutil spin, he hit Pérez again; both their front wheels interlocked and damaged their suspensions. Sutil's race was over but Pérez drove his damaged car into the pit lane to retire. The incident necessitated the safety car's deployment to allow track marshals to remove debris. Both McLaren cars, Hülkenberg, Gutiérrez and Vettel made pit stops for the medium tyres. The safety car was withdrawn at the end of lap four and racing resumed with Rosberg leading Hamilton. The duo pulled away from Massa in third who held off his teammate Bottas. Alonso locked his rear wheels, and Ricciardo switched lines to pass him for fifth as he narrowly avoided hitting the rear of Bottas's car. Alonso and Ricciardo were alongside through turn two with Ricciardo keeping fifth by driving onto the artificial grass, causing Alonso to slow through the turn three and four switchback. Räikkönen held off Maldonado's attempts to pass as Vergne unsuccessfully tried to overtake Maldonado into turn one. On the seventh lap, the stewards placed Vergne, Maldonado, Button and Gutiérrez under investigation for speeding behind the safety car. The Mercedes duo ran close behind each other with Hamilton remaining behind to conserve fuel, and observe the comparison between himself and Rosberg. The tight confines of the second half of the lap gave Hamilton difficulty entering the DRS activation zone before turn 11 and his left-front brake was 100 °C (212 °F) cooler because the safety car was slower. He braked heavily at certain corners to prevent glazing. Grosjean steered right to try and pass Vergne for ninth on the tenth lap but the latter blocked him. It was announced on the following lap no further action would be taken against Button although Vergne, Gutiérrez and Maldonado were imposed five-second stop-and-go penalties to be taken at their next pit stops. Ricciardo ran close behind Bottas but was not fast enough to pass. Red Bull elected to bring Ricciardo into the pit lane for the medium compound tyres on lap 14. Bottas was vulnerable to Ricciardo passing him and his pace on the lap allowed Ricciardo to draw alongside into turn one after his pit stop. Bottas gained momentum to pass Ricciardo on the outside for fourth place. Rosberg made his pit stop from the lead on lap 15 and fell behind teammate Hamilton. Bottas used DRS to attack Ricciardo into turn 12 but the latter defended. Hamilton was slower than Rosberg and made his pit stop (lap 17) for a front wing adjustment and rejoined with a larger lead over his teammate. Ricciardo continued to hold off the faster Bottas who closed up to him into turn 12. On lap 18, Hülkenberg lost engine power and Sauber instructed him to stop the car at the side of the track on the backstraight to retire. Alonso overtook Vettel for ninth on the next lap. Hamilton gained on Rosberg enough to use DRS by lap 22. On the following lap Hamilton lined up a pass on his teammate on the back straight but did not get ahead. On lap 24, Rosberg selected a setting intended to give him extra power to defend against Hamilton of which he did not receive. Hamilton slipstreamed Rosberg on the backstraight, used DRS, and drove alongside his teammate going into turn 12. Rosberg attempted to defend his position but Hamilton steered left to overtake him for the lead. Hamilton forced Rosberg onto the run-off area and both drivers narrowly avoided a collision as Hamilton began to pull away from his teammate. Alonso batted Button in the past two laps and overtook him on the outside for seventh place on that lap. Vergne attacked Grosjean on lap 25 after the latter could not overtake the slower Vettel. Grosjean tried again on the next lap and passed Vettel for ninth at the first turn. Alonso overtook Magnussen for sixth with a switchback move at turn one. Over the next two laps, Grosjean and Vergne demoted Button to tenth. Massa kept reasonably between both Mercedes cars and was 2.4 seconds ahead of Ricciardo. Williams elected to make a pit stop for the medium compound tyres for Bottas at the end of lap 30 and Ricciardo responded by going seven-tenths of a second faster than Bottas in the final third of the lap. Ricciardo made his pit stop on the following lap and emerged ahead of Bottas. He began matching Massa's pace before the latter made a problematic pit stop on lap 32: his mechanics were delayed for one second in the installation of a front tyres, promoting Ricciardo to third. Hamilton entered the pit lane from the lead on the 33rd for his final stop and rejoined in second, behind teammate Rosberg, whom Mercedes told to go faster. Rosberg led lap 34 before making his pit stop, returning the lead to Hamilton. Vettel overtook Grosjean for tenth on lap 37 and drew close to Magnussen soon after. He overtook Magnussen on the outside three laps later but was unable to slow sufficiently and the latter retook ninth. On lap 41, Maldonado incurred a five-second stop-and-go penalty for speeding in the pit lane. Vettel braked later than Magnussen and passed him for ninth on the next lap. Alonso made a pit stop for soft compound tyres on lap 43 and emerged in seventh behind Vettel. He immediately got involved in a three-way battle between Vettel and Magnussen for sixth to eighth. Vettel was unhappy with how his car handled on worn tyres and Alonso passed him with DRS for sixth on lap 46. Rosberg went a second quicker than teammate Hamilton to be 1.9 seconds behind at the start of the next lap and Hamilton was radioed to be cautious about tearing up a loose piece of artificial grass exiting turn 19. As Rosberg sought to close up more, Hamilton went quicker to extend his lead by four-tenths of a second. Williams radioed Massa to close up to Ricciardo and went a second quicker on lap 49. Vergne and Grosjean made contact at turn one with the former taking ninth on the inside on lap 50, as Maldonado passed his teammate Grosjean for tenth. On lap 52, an error from Kvyat allowed Räikkönen past. Button lost eighth to Vergne on the same lap and fell behind Vettel on lap 54. Vettel overtook Vergne for ninth on the next lap. Slower traffic delayed Hamilton, reducing his lead to 2.1 seconds when the final lap began, but his teammate Rosberg was also baulked, allowing Hamilton to win by 4.3 seconds. Ricciardo finished third, 1.3 seconds ahead of Massa in fourth. Bottas, Alonso, Vettel, Magnussen, Maldonado finished in positions five to nine. Vergne finished tenth after a five-second time penalty for the collision with Grosjean. Grosjean, Button, Räikkönen, Gutiérrez and Kvyat were the final classified finishers. It was Hamilton's tenth win of 2014 and the 32nd of his career, breaking Nigel Mansell's record for the most race victories by a British driver. There were five lead changes in the race; two drivers reached the front of the field. Hamilton led three times for a total of 33 laps, more than any other driver. ### Post-race At the podium interviews, conducted by former driver Mario Andretti, Hamilton was grateful to be at the front of the field and said it was "such a privilege" to represent his nation. Rosberg said he found a rhythm he liked when Hamilton passed him. Ricciardo thanked his team for providing him with a podium-contending car and was "really happy" to finish third. In the later press conference, Hamilton said upon passing Rosberg, he controlled the pace by managing tyre wear, and was unhindered by brake locking. Rosberg stated there were no lasting problems after driving over the kerbs but was fully committed to gaining on his teammate. Ricciardo said he felt his team's strategy allowed him to pass the Williams cars and believed he was at fault for his slow start, which he intended to correct before the . Along with his five-second time penalty for forcing Grosjean off the track, Vergne incurred one penalty point on his super licence, his third of the season. Vergne said he wanted to move up the field late on, and that the contact with Grosjean as part of motor sport. Grosjean stated it was "really frustrating" not to finish in the top ten, and that the collision with Vergne damaged his front wing and floor, making his car difficult to control for the final laps. For the contact with Sutil and Räikkonen, a seven-place grid penalty was imposed on Pérez for the Brazilian Grand Prix along with two penalty points on his super licence. Pérez described the situation as "unfortunate" and did not anticipate Räikkönen being in the place that he was. Sutil was frustrated over the crash, which prevented him from scoring Sauber's first points of 2014, describing it "such a shame and so disappointing" and called the incident "unnecessary": "We were hoping for a great result today and because of a silly action like this we missed everything." Räikkonen disliked the situation he found himself in during the race by making three pit stops, complaining of heavy front tyre degradation and excess understeer. He said neither he or Ferrari identified the source of the problem but appreciated assistance: "To try and drive slowly in certain places didn't make any difference so I don't understand it really. Wherever we finished it's pretty disappointing. Not being able to solve certain issues is frustrating. Hopefully something comes up and we find what the issues are." Similarly, Alonso complained his car had severe tyre vibrations in the final two laps, reducing his visibility: "I tried to control the pace. I was asking for a gap from behind to cross the line just in front of them. But then Vettel overtook [Kevin] Magnussen and there was no time to save any more so on the last lap I was flat out with huge vibrations." The Williams performance chief Rob Smedley suspected minor issues such as Massa's slow pit stop prevented his team from finishing on the podium. Red Bull team principal Christian Horner said Vettel's first lap pit stop for the medium tyres was done with the intention of not using soft tyres for the rest of the race. The result increased Hamilton's lead over Rosberg in the World Drivers' Championship to 24 points. Ricciardo remained in third but by finishing third was excluded from title contention. Bottas in fourth moved another four points clear of Vettel in fifth. Mercedes further extended its unassailable lead in the World Constructors' Championship to 245 points over Red Bull in second. Williams and Ferrari remained in third and fourth and McLaren were fifth on 147 points with two races left in the season. ### Race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. Notes: - – Jean-Éric Vergne originally finished ninth, but had five seconds added to race time for making contact with Romain Grosjean while overtaking him. ## Championship standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Constructors' Championship standings - Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings. - Bold text and an asterisk indicates competitors who still had a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion. ## Explanatory notes and references ### Explanatory notes
15,354,302	Åndalsnes Station	1,158,215,935	Railway station in Rauma, Norway	[ "1924 establishments in Norway", "Railway stations in Møre og Romsdal", "Railway stations on the Rauma Line", "Railway stations opened in 1924", "Rauma, Norway" ]	Åndalsnes Station (Norwegian: Åndalsnes stasjon) is a railway station in the town of Åndalsnes, the administrative centre of Rauma Municipality in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It has been the terminal station of the Rauma Line since the line was extended to Åndalsnes on 30 November 1924. The station was designed by Gudmund Hoel and is located on reclaimed land along the Isfjorden. To get the line to the station, a cutting had to be built. In addition to a station building, the station has an engine shed and a bus station; the station building is next to a cruise ship port. It serves four passenger trains per day, and has correspondence by bus onwards to the nearby towns of Molde and Ålesund. The station is staffed and features a chapel within a retired train carriage. ## History The area where the station is located is built on reclaimed land, as the Åndalsnes side of Isfjorden is sufficiently shallow. The earthwork for the reclaiming was taken from a cutting built to allow the line access to Åndalsnes. The earthwork was transported using temporary 90 and 60 centimetres (35 and 24 in) gauge railways. In 1912, tests were done in the area of the cutting to establish if it should be a cutting or a tunnel. Work with excavation started in 1915, with the cutting up to 16 meters (52 ft) deep. It was necessary to move one house to make room for the line through Åndalsnes. The station building was built in 1923 and 1924, and had an area of 316.2 square meters (3,404 sq ft). It cost to build. Both the main station building and the auxiliary buildings were designed by Gudmund Hoel of NSB Arkitektkontor, the in-house architecture firm for the Norwegian State Railways, who were responsible for construction. The station also received an engine shed in natural stone brick. Built from mid to late 1924, it cost . The classic style brick buildings on the station stuck out from the other station buildings on the Rauma Line. To secure a sufficient water supply for the steam locomotives, a new water pool needed to be built at Bjørmosen. By damming up a pool, it was possible to supply 120 cubic meters (4,200 cu ft) of water per day to the station. This was built by NSB, but was then given free of charge to the municipality who operated it, in exchange for the railway receiving the allocated amount of water free for all eternity. Because of delayed delivery of parts from Germany, the water system was not opened until 10 February 1925. On 29 November 1924, Norsk Spisevognselskap established a restaurant in the station. As one of the larger railway station restaurants in the country, it included an outdoor patio. Åndalsnes Station was opened on 30 November 1924, when the Rauma Line was extended from Verma Station. The train chapel was opened on 10 June 2003. On 8 June 2011, a renovation project for the station was completed. This included better transfer between trains and buses and cruise ships, a new park, and raising of the platforms. Including upgrades to the track, the upgrades cost . The station building has received an elevator and a renovation of the lobby. The station is considered worthy of preservation and the renovation was done in cooperation with the preservation authorities. ## Facilities Åndalsnes Station is located in downtown Åndalsnes at 4 meters (13 ft) above mean sea level and is 457 kilometers (284 mi) from Oslo Central Station. The station building is owned by Rom Eiendom, a subsidiary of NSB, while the infrastructure is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration. Åndalsnes Station has a staffed ticket booth and has a waiting room, lockers, a kiosk, a bicycle rack and parking for 15 cars. It is located next to the cruise ship terminal. The part of the station building not used for train operations is rented out to businesses. At the station is a train chapel, a retired B3 carriage which has been converted to a chapel. It has kept the original seating of the train, but there is incorporated an altar. It is run as a cooperation between the Church of Norway, the Salvation Army and the Pentecostal Church. ## Service SJ Norge operates passenger train services on the line. Using Class 93 trains, they operate four services in each direction per day. From the station, there is correspondence with buses to the nearby towns of Ålesund and Molde. During the summer, from June through August, NSB operates the trains as tourists trains, limiting the service from Åndalsnes to Bjorli.
561,291	Fallen (Evanescence album)	1,173,843,594	null	[ "2003 debut albums", "Albums produced by Dave Fortman", "Epic Records albums", "Evanescence albums", "Gothic metal albums by American artists", "Wind-up Records albums" ]	Fallen is the debut studio album by American rock band Evanescence, released on March 4, 2003 by Wind-up Records. Co-founders singer and pianist Amy Lee and guitarist Ben Moody began writing and recording songs as Evanescence in 1995, and after releasing several EPs and a demo CD, Evanescence signed to Wind-up in January 2001. Several of the songs from their earlier independent releases feature on Fallen. The album was recorded between August and December 2002 in several studios in California. It is Evanescence's only studio album to feature Moody, who left the band in October 2003. The album yielded four singles: "Bring Me to Life", "Going Under", "My Immortal", and "Everybody's Fool". "Bring Me to Life" and "My Immortal" charted in the top 10 of over 10 countries, including the US, UK and Australia. Fallen is the band's most commercially successful album to date, selling 10 million copies in the US and over 17 million copies worldwide, making it the sixth best-selling album of the 21st century, and the second best-selling rock album of the 21st century after Hybrid Theory by Linkin Park. It debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200 with 141,000 copies sold in its first week, peaking at number three in June 2003. The album topped the charts in more than 10 countries. It was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in November 2022. Fallen received generally positive reviews from music critics. Evanescence received five nominations at the 46th Grammy Awards: Album of the Year, Best Rock Album, Best Rock Song, Best Hard Rock Performance, and Best New Artist, winning the latter two. At the following year's ceremony, "My Immortal" was nominated for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. Evanescence embarked on their first headlining concert tour, the Fallen Tour, in 2003. A live album and concert DVD with behind the scenes footage was released in 2004, titled Anywhere but Home. ## Background Lee and Moody met as teenagers in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1994. She brought him a cassette tape of her playing guitar and singing a song she wrote, and they became musical collaborators, playing and working on music at Lee's home, and occasionally performing acoustic sets at book stores and coffee houses in the Little Rock area. Lee had a 16-track recorder that she and him would use alongside Pro Tools, "fake strings and choirs" on her keyboard, and layer sounds and beats for their early material, which they mixed and produced. "We were basically just putting it down to remember what we wanted", Lee said. Lee's musical vision for Evanescence was "the idea of combinations that were unlikely". She aimed to combine her different musical tastes, "bringing something from the cinematic and classical symphonic world and marrying it to metal, hard rock and alternative music." "There was all this music that was inspiring me. And Evanescence was the product of these two extremes combining". They recorded two independent EPs. Their early demos got them airplay on the local modern rock station in Little Rock, which helped them develop a local fanbase, allowing them to play a couple of bigger production shows a year and hire other musicians to perform other instruments live. Although they played with guest musicians, Evanescence remained a duo. "It was more because that's what we did and how we worked rather than not wanting any other input", Lee recalled; "The idea of a full band playing these songs was something that only came along later." Moody said that at the time Lee and him were focused on writing music over playing live shows, and they did not want to have a band join their writing process; "we just wanted it to be the two of us and so we'd play once or twice a year." In 2000, they recorded a demo CD, Origin, and signed with Wind-up Records in 2001. Origin and the earlier EPs contain demo versions of some of the songs that would later appear on Fallen. In a 2004 MTV interview, Moody said that he and Lee rarely wrote together, it was "maybe two or three times in eight years did we actually sit down and write together in the same room." Lee said that she and Moody never sat down and wrote together, and instead would combine their respective parts in songs. From the start, Lee would only ever write music by herself, considering it a vulnerable process and feeling disrespected by Moody. The creation of Fallen largely consisted of her and Moody writing music separately and then adding to each other's work, due to tension and significant creative differences between them. Lee's creative disagreements with Moody included his strict approach to songwriting and focus on commerciality; he would "always be corralling" her ideas, and wanting to push them in a more commercial, pop direction. She indicated that with Moody there was a "pressure of wanting to rule the world". "It was always a push and pull between us, for me", she said. "Fallen really is a lot of compromise. It definitely leaned toward what he wanted a lot of the time." Creative restrictions included instrumentation decisions such as her wanting to play organ on the record and Moody not wanting that. Moody said in a 2003 interview that he focused on making the album "as accessible as possible, to as many people as possible". He later conceded that they had different approaches, adding that Lee is "more creative" and "more educated musically", and he is "more commercial minded" and likes making "songs people can adhere to." In 2004, Lee expressed that the making of Fallen was stressful because "we had to remember [that] at least one big single had to be totally radio-friendly. And I'm really ready not to think that way." In 2020, Lee recalled the process of making Fallen: > "When we were making the first album there was so much back-and-forth and so much turmoil between us and the label and each other. I always had to fight to get my music made and I remember focussing more than anything on the work and on the fights and on, 'I’m gonna make this right.' The moment when you finally get to hear it back and enjoy it, those are shorter moments." ## Writing and musical style Lee and Moody were the main writers on the album, Lee the core writer. The two wrote some of the songs when they were 15 and 16. "Imaginary", "My Immortal", and "Whisper" were originally from the duo's independent recordings in the 1990s. Lee composed some of the songs at her house on her keyboard. She wrote songs alone first on the piano or on acoustic guitar, and for Fallen she would write a song and work with Moody to "take it to the finish line." Lee wrote the album's lyrics except "My Immortal"'s, the melodies, much of the music, pianos, and all the choirs; she is credited with the choral arrangements. Most of Lee's writing on Fallen was driven by her mindset during a relationship she was in with an abusive man. Lee wrote "Going Under" about "coming out of a bad relationship". She described the feeling as, "when you're at the end of your rope, when you're at the point where you realize something has to change, that you can't go on living in the situation that you're in." Lee later said that after completing the songs that came out of an abusive relationship, she was listening to her words on "Going Under" and felt that in the chorus she would have liked to have written instead the notion of "I'm leaving and I'm not going to put up with this anymore", thinking to herself "you know what you need to do and you're not doing it." Billboard said that the "stop/start cadence" of the guitar, "rippling piano and Lee's defiant wail pack a startling wallop". Written by Lee when she was 19, "Bring Me to Life" is stylistically on the album a nu metal-rap rock song, which Lee disliked as the label forced them to add the male rapping vocal. She wrote the song after a then-acquaintance asked her if she was happy, and while in an abusive relationship at the time, she lied in response. The acquaintance seeing through her facade, as she felt she "was completely outwardly acting normal", inspired her to write the track. The song is about "open-mindedness" and "waking up to all the things you've been missing for so long", Lee said, realizing that "for months I'd been numb, just going through the motions of life." She later confirmed that the acquaintance was Josh Hartzler, a therapist who became a close friend and she married in 2007. "From the sparkling piano to the epic choruses, to Lee's siren call", Billboard considered "Bring Me to Life" Fallen's "definitive track." Lee wrote "Everybody's Fool" in 1999 about the lie of pop stardom life and unrealistic, over-sexualized images that warped the youth's expectations. In a VH1 interview, Lee explained that the song came about when her little sister was being influenced by such images. She said it is not about a specific person, but about a collective of the industry that promotes detrimental images and ideals of perfection while "nobody looks like that. It's all fake and it's really hurting a lot of girls' and women's self images." Songfacts stated that the song's concept "seems like it's always relevant". When asked about it in 2016, Lee said she wrote it as "an angsty teenager" about her "frustration with fakeness" that sprung at the time from all the "bubblegum pop acts" that were "put together like products" influencing young people, including her younger siblings. She said that she also acknowledged that "you never know what's going on inside anybody, no matter what they seem like", and it is a song she has "disconnected" from over the years. adding: > "It's interesting to write songs when you're in high school and then have them become your most famous songs, because you're stuck singing the stuff you were hung up on when you were in high school when you're 34. And I'm not really hung up about that so much anymore." "My Immortal" is a piano power ballad, with fictional words written by Moody and the composition by Lee and Moody when they were 15 and 16, respectively. The version on the album was the preferred version of the label, a demo from 2000 using a MIDI keyboard and Lee's demo vocals as a teen, with strings added during the production of Fallen. The version for the single, used for radio and the music video, features guitar, drums and bass after the bridge and a new string arrangement. "Haunted"'s production emphasizes "feeling overwhelmed by someone’s obsession with you", according to Billboard, with Lee "fighting both being possessed and her desire to give in to it." "Tourniquet" is a reworked cover of Soul Embraced's "My Tourniquet", co-written by Soul Embraced guitarist and Evanescence tour drummer Rocky Gray. Gray told Lee the song was "coming from a Christian standpoint, but it's about suicide. It's from the perspective of someone who has just committed suicide and it's about the controversy in Christianity that if you commit suicide, will you go to heaven or hell?" Lee wrote the cover's melody and added the second verse. "Imaginary" is a song from Lee and Moody's 1998 EP Evanescence, which Lee wanted as Fallen's fourth single. She wrote it about feeling the need to retreat to her safe haven as a young teen. Billboard described the combination of Lee's lyrics, the piano, "crashing drums" and the Millennial Choir as painting "a picture of the heavens shooting overhead". The midtempo "Taking Over Me"'s lyrics are about Lee being consumed by another person's obsession with her. Lee wrote "Hello" about her little sister who died of an illness when Lee was six years old. The song has a "chilled atmosphere", Billboard stated, and "relates, from a child’s perspective, the dawning agony of realizing someone is gone forever." The lyrics of "My Last Breath" imply a struggle for emotional and physical survival. "Whisper" is originally from Lee and Moody's 1999 EP Sound Asleep. Driven by guitar and Lee's "commanding voice", it features the "booming" Millennium Choir singing in Latin, ending the album "on a foreboding note", Billboard wrote. Fallen was regarded as nu metal, gothic rock, gothic metal, and alternative metal. Lee and Moody said they did not consider their music to be "goth", with Moody adding that he thinks the "goth" label came because the songs sound sad and people think that "sad equals dark equals Goth. It's real easy for them to throw us in that box". Moody also disliked the nu metal label, stating: "I think the only nu-metal thing about us is the fact that on one song we have rap and singing". Lee also disagreed with the nu metal tag, attributing it to the rap rock of "Bring Me to Life". ## Recording Fallen was recorded in California at Track Record Studios, NRG Recording Studios, Ocean Studios, and Conway Recording Studios, beginning at Ocean Studios in Burbank. Recorded and mixed from late August to early December 2002, the album was "built on overdubs" to supplement "the depth of production" that the music involves; "this type of record should be done to where it sounds larger than life", producer Dave Fortman said. Moody said he didn't want the album to "sound too fabricated". "I love electronics and I love digital manipulation, but I wanted to first establish us as a real rock band. We're actually playing all of those parts: The strings are real, the choirs are real, the piano is real." Songs were recorded as demos before the recording sessions. Prior to making Fallen, they had recorded a demo of "My Immortal" at the radio station where Lee's father worked after it was empty late at night; this recording, with Lee's teen demo vocals and a MIDI keyboard, is the version used on Fallen per the label's demand, to Lee's displeasure. She stated: > "It's really hard for me to listen to the album version because we did it two years ago — it was just me and guitarist Ben [Moody], and I've grown so much as a performer since then ... It's not even a real piano. And the sound quality is bad because we had to break into the studio to record it late at night when no one was around because we couldn't afford a real session." Lee later said she also dislikes it because she "sounds like a little kid" and the album version of the song does not use David Campbell's orchestration. When "My Immortal" became a single, Lee and Moody chose their preferred version of the song for radio and its music video. Jay Baumgardner lent Moody his guitar gear, including Gibson Les Paul and Gibson SG guitars, Marshall and Mesa Boogie amp heads with an old Mesa Boogie cabinet. Moody said, "It was an old cabinet that was tried-and-true on rock records. It was a no-brainer to use it. I know it was used on Papa Roach and, I think, Staind." The guitars on the album were recorded at Mad Dog Studios in Burbank. Fortman recorded the guitars through two different amps: Marshall on one side and Mesa/Boogie on the other. "The differences tonally and with the different frequencies in the two different amps really do create a larger stereo feel", he said. He used two Shure 57 mics and ran them through Neve 1081 preamps directly to Pro Tools. Lee's vocals, recorded on a Neumann U47 tube mic, pianos and the background vocals by the Millennium Choir were recorded at NRG Recording Studios. The string arrangements were done by David Campbell and David Hodges except for "My Immortal", which had strings added by composer Graeme Revell for the song's inclusion in the Daredevil soundtrack. As opposed to a synthesized version, Campbell contributed orchestral strings, which was an "expense" Lee fought for. A 22-piece string section was recorded in Seattle, and later mixed at the Newman Scoring Stage and Bolero Studios in Los Angeles. To record the 12-member Millennium Choir's voices, Fortman ran a stereo pair of U67s and their voices were then doubled or tripled for a larger sound. In the bridge of "Imaginary", Fortman said "there are probably 70-plus people performing at that moment", including "the choir that's been doubled, a string orchestra with 22 players doubled, then you add all of the bandmembers, and it's huge." Drum tracks were recorded at Ocean Studios, with Josh Freese playing on selected songs to a click track, stereo guitars and vocals. Fortman recorded Fresse's drums with C12As for overheads, Audio-Technica ATM25s on the toms, a D112 on the inside of the kick drum, a U47 on the outside, and an NS-10 speaker as an outside mic. He also used 414 microphones on the ride and hi-hat cymbals. He recorded the drums on two-inch tape on a Studer recorder, and bounced the tracks in Pro Tools. Fallen was mixed over a two-week period at Conway Recording Studios in North Hollywood, and mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound in New York City. Regarding Hodges' involvement in Fallen and his exit from Evanescence thereafter, Moody stated: > "We just ended up going in different directions. We worked well together for a while and then it was like... he's probably going to release solo stuff next year. If you can get a hold of that, you'll understand [and] you'll see how drastically different it is. We were just going in different directions so we chose to split ways before we built the whole image of the band based on somebody that wasn't going to be there." In another interview, he said that Hodges mostly contributed string arrangements on the album. ## Release and tour "Bring Me to Life" first appeared in a scene of the film Daredevil and was included on the film's soundtrack, released in February 2003. Fallen was released on March 4, 2003. Fallen was initially promoted by the label in the Christian market. Lee and Moody publicly made it clear in an April 2003 interview that they were not a Christian band and did not want to be associated with Christian rock. Moody's comments against being in the Christian market immediately prompted Wind-up Records chairman Alan Meltzer to send a letter to Christian radio and retail outlets explaining that despite the "spiritual underpinning that ignited interest and excitement in the Christian religious community", Evanescence were "a secular band, and as such view their music as entertainment" and the label then "strongly feels that they no longer belong in Christian retail outlets." Wind-up formally requested the recall of Fallen from Christian retailers and radio stations. After receiving the letter, many Christian radio stations pulled Fallen songs from their playlists. Rolling Stone stated in April 2003 that while Wind-up had no official Christian affiliation, they had been marketing their bands "to both the Christian and mainstream music market." Wind-Up "began courting the Christian music market more than a year ago, making its first foray with 12 Stones' self-titled 2002 debut. Hooking up with powerhouse Christian music distributor Provident ... Wind-Up attempted to tap into a segment that generated sales of more than 50 million albums in 2002". Terry Hemmings, CEO of Provident, said that the decision to recall Evanescence's album likely would not hurt Wind-up's image in the Christian market, and that he was puzzled by the band's about-face, saying: "They clearly understood the album would be sold in these channels." Meltzer claimed their decision to promote Evanescence in the Christian market was made with the band's consent. Lee said that she had always opposed the promotion in the Christian market and the "Christian band" identification from the beginning, while Moody had supported it. Moody had misrepresented Evanescence in the past, talking about his religious beliefs as Evanescence's. The label had wanted to use the Christian market promotion as a marketing tool for the band, which she had opposed, stating that "it was an important fight to me because it felt false. That wasn't really what our music was. And I felt like they were selling somebody something that wasn't true." She noted that Evanescence "has never been a Christian band" and lyrically never had a religious affiliation. On April 7, 2003, "Bring Me to Life" was released as the album's first single. Wind-up Records president Ed Vetri revealed that when the label introduced the song to radio, radio programmers rejected it, saying, "A chick and a piano? Are you kidding? On rock radio?" Some program directors would hear the female voice and piano at the start of the song and turn it off without listening to the rest of the song. A female voice on rock radio was a rarity, and the song was considered for airplay only after there was a male vocal on it. After the song was released on the Daredevil soundtrack, a grassroots fanbase grew and listeners began requesting air play for it, compelling radio stations to reconsider the band. On the worldwide success of the song, Lee said: > "Since we released [the song] on Daredevil it went all over the world, whether they wanted it to or not, so we had fans in countries we had never been to because they had the soundtrack and they heard it on the radio. So, it started blowing up all over the world and then we had a reason to tour all over the world. And that's how the whole international thing happened this early." After the album's completion, Evanescence's touring lineup was hired, including guitarist John LeCompt, drummer Rocky Gray, and bassist Will Boyd. Evanescence performed on radio shows and on the festival circuit for weeks in early 2003. They embarked on their first headlining tour from April to May in the US. In June, they had to cancel shows in Germany due to Moody reportedly falling ill. That month, they accepted an offer from the video game company Nintendo to perform on the Nintendo Fusion Tour, which they headlined beginning on August 4, 2003. In an August 2003 interview, Moody said that Evanescence is "just Amy and I, and I want to keep it that way", adding that their process together is what works. Moody left the band mid-tour in October 2003. Guitarist Terry Balsamo replaced him on tour and as Evanescence's lead guitarist. The band played some shows with Korn in Europe, with Evanescence originally set to headline however Lee wanted Korn to headline instead. Evanescence filmed a Paris concert of the Fallen tour for their first live album and concert DVD, Anywhere but Home (2004). ## Critical reception Fallen received generally positive reviews from music critics. Johnny Loftus of AllMusic wrote that the album “does include flashes of the single's PG-rated nu-metal ('Everybody's Fool,' 'Going Under'). But it's the symphonic goth rock of groups like Type O Negative that influences most of Fallen." Entertainment Weekly, graded the album B-minus: "The genre now too old to be called nü-metal isn't exactly overflowing with spine-tinglingly great vocalists – let alone female ones. Amy Lee, lead singer of gloomy Arkansas rockers Evanescence, is an exception." Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone said that "when vocalist Amy Lee croons about lying 'in my field of paper flowers' or 'pouring crimson regret,' she gives Fallen a creepy spiritual tinge that the new-metal boys lack." Billboard's Christa Titus called the album a "highly polished, hook-filled affair." Melissa Maerz of Spin gave it four out of five stars: "Nu metal gets a powdering of Andrew Lloyd Webber theatrics as Lee aces her piano A-levels, adds a string section, and tackles capital letter issues – God ('Tourniquet'), Love ('Going Under'), and Death ('Bring Me To Life') – with the grandeur they deserve." Adrien Begrand of PopMatters opined that the album "has a small handful of transcendent moments, but a complete lack of musical adventurousness has the band mucking around either in stultifying nu-metal riffage, pretentious high school journal caterwauling, or even worse, both." Begrand praised Lee's "soaring, enchanting, angelic" voice, writing that "Evanescence would be nothing" without her. Christopher Gray of the Austin Chronicle found the album to be "a little too by the numbers to fully capitalize on Lee's obvious talents." According to Village Voice critic Robert Christgau, "Their faith, as embodied in Amy Lee's clarion sopralto [sic], lends their goth-metal a palpable sweetness". He jokingly concluded, "Now if only it wasn't goth-metal at all." In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked Fallen number 99 on their list of "The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time", calling it an "unlikely classic" with "a horror-movie-level ambience that was as chilling as it was campy". ## Commercial performance Fallen has sold more than 17 million units worldwide, with 10 million in the US, since its 2003 release. The album debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200, with more than 141,000 copies sold in its first week, Fallen was the eighth-bestselling album of 2004 and the nineteenth-bestselling album of the 2000s. By October 2011 the album had spent 106 weeks on the Billboard 200, with 58 of those weeks in the top 20. Peaking at number three on June 14, 2003, it re-entered the chart at number 192 on March 13, 2010. Fallen spent 223 weeks on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart after it fell off the Billboard 200. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album platinum in April 2003 and 4x platinum in January 2004; in November 2022, it was certified diamond for 10 million units sold in the US. On the UK Albums Chart, Fallen debuted at number 18 with sales of 15,589 copies. The album reached number one (with 38,570 copies sold) seven weeks later, after "Bring Me to Life" topped the UK Singles Chart. It sold 56,193 copies in December 2003, its highest week of sales (although it was number 28 on the chart that week). Fallen spent 33 weeks in the top 20 and 60 weeks in the top 75. It re-entered the UK chart at number 35 the week after the release of Evanescence's second studio album, The Open Door. Fallen also topped the charts in more than ten other countries and reached the top ten in over 20 countries. According to Nielsen SoundScan figures, after more than three months in the top 10 of the Canadian Albums Chart Fallen peaked at number one on August 13, 2003 with sales of 8,900 copies. ## Track listing ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Fallen. Evanescence - Amy Lee – vocals, choral arrangements, piano, keyboards - Ben Moody – guitars, tribal percussion, programming - David Hodges – piano, keyboards, additional programming; string arrangements (tracks 1–3, 5–11) Additional musicians - Francesco DiCosmo – bass - Josh Freese – drums - David Campbell – string arrangements (tracks 1–3, 5–11) - Graeme Revell – string arrangements (track 4) - Zac Baird – additional programming - Chris Johnson – additional programming - Millenium choir – background choir: Beverly Allen, Geri Allen, Eric Castro, Melanie Jackson, Karen Matranga, Joanne Paratore, Lesley Paton, Dwight Stone, Rick Stubbs, Talaya Trigueros, Susan Youngblood (tracks 3, 5, 7, 11) - Paul McCoy – guest vocals (track 2) Technical - Dave Fortman – production (tracks 1–3, 5–11); mixing (tracks 1, 3–11) - Jay Baumgardner – mixing (track 2) - Ben Moody – production (track 4); additional Pro Tools engineering - Jeremy Parker – engineering - Ted Jensen – mastering - Jason Cupp – engineering assistance - Dean Nelson – engineering assistance - Ai Fujisaki – engineering assistance - Sergio Chavez – engineering assistance - Sam Storey – engineering assistance - Mark Curry – strings recording, strings mixing - John Rodd – strings recording - Bill Talbott – strings engineering Artwork - Ed Sherman – art direction - Frank Veronsky – photography ## Charts ### Weekly charts Monthly charts Decade-end charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history
14,342,210	1901 Michigan Wolverines football team	1,173,071,491	American college football season	[ "1901 Western Conference football season", "1901 in Detroit", "1901 in sports in Michigan", "Big Ten Conference football champion seasons", "College football national champions", "College football undefeated seasons", "Michigan Wolverines football seasons", "Rose Bowl champion seasons" ]	The 1901 Michigan Wolverines football team was an American football team that represented the University of Michigan in the Western Conference during the 1901 Western Conference football season. In their first year under head coach Fielding H. Yost, the team compiled a perfect 11–0 record, outscored its opponents by a combined total of 550 to 0, tied with Wisconsin for the Western Conference championship, and defeated Stanford by a 49 to 0 score in the inaugural Rose Bowl game, the first college bowl game ever played. Northwestern (8–2–1) had the best record of a Michigan opponent. The 1901 team was the first of Yost's famed "Point-a-Minute" teams, so named for their high scoring offense. From 1901 to 1905, Yost's Michigan teams compiled a record of 55–1–1 and outscored their opponents by a combined score of 2,821 to 42. Although no system was in place during this era to determine a national champion, the NCAA recognizes as "major" certain selectors who have sought to establish national championships retrospectively. Three of the five major selectors, Helms Athletic Foundation in 1941, Houlgate System after 1926, and the National Championship Foundation in 1980, recognized the 1901 Michigan team as the national champion, despite contrary contemporaneous accounts. Parke H. Davis in 1933 selected 12–0 Harvard as national champion. The 1901 team holds the distinction of having won the first national championship claimed by the Michigan Wolverines football program. Several players from the team received individual honors. Fullback/end Neil Snow was selected as a first-team player on Caspar Whitney's 1901 All-America Team. Halfback Willie Heston was selected as a third-team player on Walter Camp's 1901 and 1902 All-America Teams and as a first-team player on Camp's 1903 and 1904 All-America Teams. In addition, five Michigan players received first-team honors on the 1901 All-Western college football team. They are Snow, Heston, quarterback Boss Weeks, tackle Bruce Shorts, and fullback/halfback Everett Sweeley. The team captain was tackle, Hugh White. Four individuals associated with the team have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. They are Yost, Snow, Heston, and assistant coach Bennie Owen, who later went on to fame as the head coach at Oklahoma. ## Schedule ## Preseason ### 1900 season The 1900 Michigan team compiled an overall record of 7–2–1 under first-year head coach Langdon Lea. However, the season was considered a disappointment as the Wolverines finished in fifth place in the Western Conference with a 3–2 record against Western Conference opponents and a loss to rival Chicago. In January 1901, coach Lea resigned as Michigan to accept a position as the head football coach at Princeton. ### Yost's arrival Fielding Yost was hired as the new coach at Michigan in the spring of 1901. He traveled to Ann Arbor in early April to evaluate the talent pool with which he would be working. After sizing up the players, Yost asked for early practice in the fall. Yost left California in late August and arrived in Ann Arbor on September 4. On arriving in Ann Arbor, Yost said that he was "here to stay until Michigan secured the western championship." ### Whitmore Lake Several starters from the 1900 team returned to Michigan to participate in the 1901 team, including Boss Weeks, Everett Sweeley, Curtis Redden, Hugh White (the 1901 team captain), Ebin Wilson, Bruce Shorts, Neil Snow, Arthur Redner, and Albert Herrnstein. The strength of the returning roster led to confidence in the 1901 team's prospects. On September 9, 1901, Yost and captain White gathered a small squad of men at Whitmore Lake; the squad grew over the next two weeks to nearly 20 players. Training continued for nearly two weeks, and "cold baths in the lake soon toughened the men." Yost worked with the players on the rudiments of the game and later recalled that, by the time they returned to Ann Arbor, "we had worked the men down into fairly good training for football work." In addition to training, Yost spent time at Whitmore Lake evaluating his talent to fit particular positions. He soon shifted players around. He moved the team's only All-American, Neil Snow, from end to fullback on offense, keeping him at right end on defense. Yost moved Arthur Redner from center to right guard and George W. Gregory to center. He also brought Willie Heston with him from California at the halfback position. In a 1952 letter, Heston later recalled: "He brought to Michigan an entirely new brand of football, not known in the Big Ten nor to the Middle West. Particularly, that was true of his offense. Speed and more speed was continually emphasized. Boss Weeks was instructed to call his signal for the next play while the team was getting up from the last play." Team captain White recalled the time at Whitmore Lake as follows: > "The work at the Lake was a review in the first principles of the game, a thorough study and quiz upon the rules – something which had been sadly neglected in former years. It was also the first step in the conditioning of the team. A new freshman, David Banks, wrote a letter to his mother about his experience in trying out for the football team in the fall of 1901: > "I am not sure whether I ought to play football or not. ... I put on Tom's suit one night and went down to the field to meet Yost and a few other men. They made me run around the track a couple times to try my wind. Then they rolled me around the ground and sat on me a while. I did not understand the necessity of all they did to me, but the boys say every great player must begin that way." On September 24, 1901, the Michigan Daily-News correctly predicted that "Hurry up" would become the future title of Michigan's new coach, Fielding Yost. ## Game summaries ### Week 1: Albion Michigan opened the 1901 season with a 50–0 win against Albion, a team that won the Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association championship in 1900. The game was played in 20-minute halves at Regents Field in Ann Arbor on September 28. Michigan scored nine touchdowns (worth five points each in 1901), including three by Hugh White, two by Walter W. Shaw, and one each by Neil Snow, Willie Heston, Bruce Shorts, and Everett Sweeley. Shaw also kicked three goals from touchdown with Herb Graver and Sweeley adding one each. Heston appeared in his first game for the Wolverines as a substitute for Shaw at left halfback. In its account of the game, The Michigan Alumnus described Heston as a "stocky Californian" who "proved a whirlwind in bucking the line." Heston's first touchdown as a Wolverine came on a defensive take-away described as follows: "Once when Albion had the ball on her 25-yard line, Heston broke through between guard and center, got possession of the ball before it left the quarter back's hands, and made a touchdown." Joe Maddock was the only Albion player to gain ground; he transferred to Michigan in 1902. Michigan starting lineup was Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George W. Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), James Knight (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Walter Shaw (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 2: Case On October 5, Michigan played its second game of the season against Case Scientific School from Cleveland, Ohio. In a short game of 20-minute halves, Michigan won by a score of 57–0. Heston scored four touchdowns, Sweeley and Snow added two each, and single touchdowns were scored by White and Woodward. Goals after touchdown were scored by Shaw (4), Graver (2) and Sweeley (1). Heston and Sweeley were singled out for praise in the account of the game published in The Michigan Alumnus: > "Two men, Sweeley and Heston, constantly won the plaudits of the rooters by their long gains around the ends. Sweeley is fleet, and he kept his feet in a way that reminded the wise ones of McLean's remarkable performances. Heston proved himself the ground gainer that he has given evidence of being during the daily practices." In its coverage of the game, the Alumnus also noted that Michigan's new coach Yost "refuses to have a man on the field who [is] 'yellow' or who is not willing to work and to take his fair share of knocks." The Alumnus concluded: "If Michigan has a winning team, it will be because some of the enthusiasm of her coach has been transferred to the men." Michigan's starting lineup was Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Daniel Woodward (right tackle), James Knight (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Everett Sweeley (left halfback), Walter Shaw (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 3: Indiana On October 12, Michigan defeated Indiana, 33–0, at Regents Field in a game of 25- and 20-minute halves. The game was played on a field that had undergone steady rain for 24 hours and had been reduced to "a sea of mud." The field conditions kept Michigan from getting its "fast play into correct motion". Nevertheless, Michigan allowed Indiana a first down only once and was only once forced to punt. Aside from the field conditions, Michigan's scoring was slowed by three fumbles and eight holding and offsides penalties. The highlight of the game was a 75-yard punt return by Boss Weeks. Michigan scored six touchdowns, including two each by Bruce Shorts and Willie Heston and single touchdowns by Neil Snow and Walter W. Shaw. Shorts added three goals from touchdown. Following the win over Indiana, the student newspaper, The Wolverine noted: "The 'Varsity showing was most satisfactory. Against a heavier team, on a slippery field which was all in favor of the visitors and directly opposed to our style of play, the 'Varsity was not found wanting and turned victory into a fight for big scores. Even the most optimistic did not look for such a large score, with the elements against us. The smiling, yet earnest face of Coach Yost has become a favorite feature at the games. His success as a coach has already been demonstrated, and every Michigan man is proud of him as an athlete, as a coach and as a man." Michigan's starting lineup was Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), Albert Herrnstein (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Willie Heston (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 4: Northwestern On October 19, Michigan defeated Northwestern by a score of 29–0 at Regents Field in front of a crowd of 3,000 persons. The victory was considered particularly important as Northwestern had been considered "a strong aspirant for western championship honors". In a game of two 25-minute halves, Heston scored three touchdowns and had runs of 55 and 45 yards. Left halfback Willie Heston scored three touchdowns, with Neil Snow and Walter Shaw scoring one each. Bruce Shorts added four goals from touchdown. Northwestern's longest gain was six yards. The only threat to Michigan's goal came in the second half when Willie Heston fielded a kickoff and tossed to Everett Sweeley. Northwestern took over at the ten-yard line and moved it by the "tandem play" to the two-yard line. Yost later recalled the impressive play of his team in preventing Northwestern to score: "The defense at this point was as good as I have ever seen. Northwestern could not advance a foot. When the ball was held for downs and Michigan had again obtained possession, our goal line had passed its only danger of the season." The Pittsburgh Press described the game as follows: "Just to show her superiority during the last few minutes of play, Michigan, put in an all substitute line. The Michigan defence was impregnable and her offensive work grand." Michigan's starters in the game were Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), Albert Herrnstein (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Willie Heston (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 5: Buffalo On October 26, Michigan defeated the University of Buffalo by a score of 128–0 at Ann Arbor. Michigan scored 22 touchdowns in the game, five by Albert Herrnstein, four each by Neil Snow and Arthur Redner, three each by Willie Heston and Everett Sweeley, two by Curtis Redden, and one by Bruce Shorts. Shorts also had 18 goals for touchdown. The game was scheduled to be played in 30-minute halves, but Buffalo's coach asked at halftime that the second half be reduced to 20 minutes, and so the game was limited to 50 minutes of playing time. The Detroit Free Press noted that Michigan scored more points against Buffalo than it had during the entire 1900 season, averaging more than two points per minute played and a touchdown every two minutes. A newspaper account reported that "the most spectacular" play of the game came on a 90-yard touchdown run by Herrnstein. The New York Times reported that the Wolverines' margin of victory was the third largest in the history of the sport: > "[T]he score of to-day's game was one of the most remarkable ever made in the history of football in the important colleges. Only two scores are recorded in American where a victory was won in more decided style. These occasions were when Stevens Institute beat the College of the City of New York by 162 to 0 at Hoboken, N.J., in 1885, and when Harvard beat Exeter by 158 to 0 at Exeter, Mass., in 1886." After the game, Buffalo's Coach Gordon said Michigan was "one of the most wonderful teams he ever saw," and added, "Michigan can defeat any team in the East." Buffalo had defeated the team from Columbia University, one of the stronger teams in the east, by a score of 5–0 earlier in the season. The 1901 Columbia team defeated Eastern "Big Four" power Penn, 11–0, and narrowly lost a game to Yale, 10–5. Several newspapers used the Buffalo game as a point of reference in assessing the strength of Michigan's 1901 team. The Pittsburgh Press reported that Michigan's big victory over a "fairly strong" Buffalo team "shows that Michigan has a remarkable team." The Daily Review from Decatur, Illinois, observed: "Considering the fact that Buffalo trimmed Columbia rather easily, making a larger score against the college than did Harvard or Yale, there seems some justice in" Coach Brown's comments that Michigan could defeat Harvard, Yale or Princeton. The Adrian Daily Telegram opined: "Michigan defeated Buffalo 128 to 0, which clearly demonstrates that she can bump the big eastern four without much fear of disaster." In 1916, Coach Yost shared his recollections of the Buffalo game with Big Bill Edwards: "Buffalo University came to Michigan with a much-heralded team. They were coached by a Dartmouth man and had not been scored upon. Buffalo papers referred to Michigan as the Woolly Westerners, and the Buffalo enthusiasts placed bets that Michigan would not score." The score at the end of the first half was 65 to 0. About fifteen minutes after the second half had started, Yost discovered a Buffalo player, Simpson, "on Michigan's side of the field, covered up in a blanket." Yost was curious and asked, "Simpson, what are you doing over here? You are on the wrong side." To which, Simpson replied, "Don't say anything. I know where I am at. The coach has put me in three times already and I'm not going in there again. Enough is enough for any one. I've had mine." ### Week 6: Carlisle The Wolverines defeated Pop Warner's Carlisle Indian team, 22–0, in a game played at Bennett Park in Detroit on November 2. The game drew a crowd of 8,000 spectators, "[t]he largest crowd that ever turned out to a football game in Michigan." Bruce Shorts led the scoring with 12 points on a touchdown, a field goal, and two goals from touchdown. Ebin Wilson and Willie Heston also scored touchdowns. Carlisle in 1901 also played several of the major Eastern teams, losing a close game to Penn (14–16), and also losing to Cornell (0–17) and Harvard (0–29). Accordingly, the Michigan-Carlisle game triggered a debate as to whether Michigan's football team was as strong as Harvard and the other leading teams of the East. Carlisle played the Michigan game without its star tackle, Martin Wheelock, who was injured one week earlier against Harvard. Michigan, too, played without a key player, Curtis Redden. After the game, Pop Warner, who had predicted a victory before the game, asserted that his team was depleted by injuries and opined that Michigan was not as strong as Harvard. Following Warner's claim, the Detroit Free Press published a position-by-position analysis purporting to show that Warner used his best team against Michigan. The New York Times pointed to the Carlisle game as evidence that Michigan's remarkable season was not limited to small institutions. Coach Yost later wrote that he believed Michigan would have won by an even larger score if Redden had not been injured. Michigan's convincing win over Carlisle, and its wins over Buffalo and Chicago, led the Times to conclude that a game between Michigan and one of the "Big Four" teams of the East "would be a conflict well worth seeing and productive of interesting and possibly startling results." Michigan's starters in the game were Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), Albert Herrnstein (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Willie Heston (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 7: Ohio State On November 9, 1901, undefeated Michigan faced an undefeated Ohio State team that had allowed opponents to score only five points in its five previous games. The 1901 game was the third meeting in what would become the Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry, with the two teams having played to a scoreless tie in their prior match in 1900. Michigan won the 1901 game, 21–0, at Ohio Field in Columbus, Ohio, in front of a crowd of approximately 4,000 persons. A special train carried 375 Michigan students to the game on the Ann Arbor and Hocking Valley railroads. Ohio State held the Wolverines to their lowest point total of the 1901 season. Prior to the game, the head coaches argued over the length of the game, Yost insisting on regulation halves of 30 minute and Ohio State's John B. Eckstorm insisting that the first half be limited to 25 minutes. When the umpire threatened Ohio State with a forfeiture, coach Eckstrom agreed to play regulation halves of 30 minutes. Michigan scored three touchdowns in the first half. Left tackle Hugh White scored the first touchdown on a two-yard run with Bruce Shorts kicking the goal from touchdown to give Michigan a 6-0 lead. Michigan's second touchdown was scored by left halfback Willie Heston on a 40-yard run. Fullback Neil Snow scored the third touchdown of the first half and also scored the only touchdown of the second half. The Detroit Free Press noted that Ohio State's players sought to slow the pace of Michigan's "hurry up" style of play. The paper noted: "On almost every scrimmage some Ohio man would stretch out on the ground and take his full time. This playing for wind was so apparent that the Michigan players finally burlesqued it. The Ohio men could not stand the gaff, and their doctors and trainer ran more yards than both teams put together." After the game, coach Yost commented on Ohio State's tactic: "Their laying down for time took much of the vim out of our team, and rested their tired out players." Michigan's starters in the game were Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), Albert Herrnstein (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Willie Heston (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 8: Chicago On November 16, 1901, Michigan faced its traditional rival in Amos Alonzo Stagg's University of Chicago Maroons football team. Chicago had won three of the prior four matches, including a 15–6 victory over Michigan in 1900. Coach Yost noted, "I knew long before I came to Michigan of the great rivalry existing between this University and the University of Chicago. It was my desire to win this game above all others." The 1901 game was played in 35-minute halves at Regents Field in front of one of the largest crowds that ever attended a game up to that time in Ann Arbor. Michigan won the game, 22–0. Michigan's first touchdown was scored by fullback Neil Snow with Bruce Shorts kicking for the goal after touchdown. The second touchdown was scored at the 9-minute mark in the first half by left tackle Hugh White on a "mass play" on Chicago's left end. Shorts missed the kick for goal from touchdown. In the second half, Shorts scored Michigan's third touchdown after 5:45 had been played in the second half but missed the kick for goal as Michigan extended its lead to 16–0. White scored Michigan's fourth touchdown and Shorts kicked goal at the 7:30 mark of the second half. Michigan's defense held Chicago to three first downs, never allowed the Maroons into field goal range, and forced 11 punts while the Wolverines punted only once. Despite the win, Coach Yost was disappointed with the low point total accumulated by his team and publicly stated that "we would have scored many more points on Chicago if the field had been dry." Yost described the impact of the weather on his team as follows: "Much to our disappointment the game was played on a muddy field in a snowstorm, and the work of our backs was seriously handicapped. The Chicago team was not to the same extent handicapped by reason of the fact that it did not rely upon speed to advance the ball. . . . End-running was impossible, and we were compelled to make our gains by line-bucking which is a slow process . . ." Michigan's starters in the game were Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), Albert Herrnstein (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Willie Heston (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 9: Beloit Michigan played its final home game on November 23 and won, 89–0, over Beloit College. The game was played in 30-minute halves at Regents Field in Ann Arbor. Michigan scored 15 touchdowns, six by Albert Herrnstein, three by Neil Snow, and single touchdowns by Shorts, Heston, White, Graver, Sweeley and Redner. Shorts also scored on 14 goals from touchdown, giving him 19 points. The game was played on a wet field that was "practically a pond in the centre, filled in with sawdust before the game started." Because of the field conditions, Michigan was not able to execute its end runs and relied principally on "line bucking." Right end Albert Herrnstein scored six touchdowns for 30 points, including two kickoff returns for touchdowns in the second half. Coach Yost later recalled the scene on the field after one of Herrnstein's runs: "Once when Herrnstein made a long run for a touchdown I remember of seeing four Beloit players stretched on the ground in a line where they had made useless efforts to stop him." Right tackle Bruce Shorts scored a touchdown and kicked 14 extra points for 19 points. Fullback Neil Snow added three touchdowns for 15 points, and single touchdowns were scored by Heston, White, Graver, Sweeley and Redden. The Beloit team managed to gain the five yards required for a first down on only one drive late in the game. Beloit's one first down came on a fake kick followed by a run of 15 yards—the largest gain made by any team against Michigan in 1901. The New York Times reported: "The strong team from Beloit was unable to do anything against the Ann Arbor men." Michigan's starters in the game were Curtis Redden (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), Albert Herrnstein (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Willie Heston (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ### Week 10: Iowa Michigan closed its regular season schedule on Thanksgiving Day, November 28, with a 50–0 win over the University of Iowa in front of a crowd of 10,000 spectators at West Side Park in Chicago. The New York Times reported that "Michigan scored almost at will" and "outclassed" a "sturdy, plucky" Iowa team. Willie Heston and Bruce Shorts scored four touchdowns each for Michigan and "played a spectacular part for the Wolverines." Shorts added five successful extra point kicks giving him 25 points in the game. Neil Snow also scored a touchdown for Michigan. Michigan's starters in the game were Herb Graver (left end), Hugh White (left tackle), Dan McGugin (left guard), George Gregory (center), Ebin Wilson (right guard), Bruce Shorts (right tackle), Albert Herrnstein (right end), Boss Weeks (quarterback), Willie Heston (left halfback), Everett Sweeley (right halfback), and Neil Snow (fullback). ## Postseason ### Rose Bowl After the conclusion of the 1901 football season, Michigan, was invited to play against Stanford in the first Rose Bowl Game in Pasadena, California. Michigan won the game on New Year's Day 1902 by the score of 49–0. Neil Snow scored five touchdowns. The players that traveled to California were starters, Hugh White, Curtis Redden, Dan McGugin, George Gregory, Bruce Shorts, Albert Herrnstein, Boss Weeks, Everett Sweeley, Willie Heston, and Neil Snow, and substitutes Arthur Redner (back), Benjamin Harrison Southworth (guard), James E. Forrest (tackle), and Paul J. Jones (back). ### "Point-a-Minute" teams The 1901 Michigan team was the first of Yost's "Point-a-Minute" teams, so named for their high scoring offense. From 1901 to 1905, Yost's Michigan teams compiled a record of 55–1–1 and outscored their opponents by a combined score of 2,821 to 42. After the first four games, a Boston newspaper noted that Michigan "has scored an average of one point for every minute of play." The race to continue the point per minute scoring remained a topic of reportage for the remainder of the season. After six games, the Wolverines had scored 319 points in 280 minutes. At the end of the regular season, Michigan had fallen slightly short of the point-a-minute mark with 501 points in 540 minutes. ### Accolades At the conclusion of the 1901 season, team captain Hugh White gave head coach Fielding Yost and trainer Keene Fitzpatrick substantial credit for the performance of the 1901 team. He credited the coach with "inoculating into the men some of Mr. Yost's own spirit, impulsiveness and optimism," and with having the "faculty of adapting his plays to the material at hand so that he got the best there was out of every one of the eleven men." With respect to the trainer, White noted: > "An equally strong element, and one many are apt to overlook, was the work of Keene Fitzpatrick. Consider a team training nearly four months, without a man going stale, and but one injured so that he had to be taken out of the game! Then in addition a trip of nearly 3000 miles, from a climate where the thermometer registered 10 degrees below zero, into one of summer weather, and eleven men playing through an entire game and finishing it with faster and stronger play than at the beginning! Such were the results achieved by our trainer. ... Too much praise cannot be given him." For its impressive average of 50 points per game on offense and eleven games of scoreless defense, the 1901 team has been recognized as one of the greatest college football teams of all time. Snow was selected as an All-American by Caspar Whitney for Outing magazine, and four Wolverines were selected for the All-Western team: Snow (fullback/end), Heston (halfback), Boss Weeks (quarterback), and Bruce Shorts (right tackle). At the end of the 1901 season, team captain Hugh White wrote: "The fall of 1901 will go down in the history of Michigan athletics, not only as the most successful football season the University has ever had, but also as establishing the most wonderful and unique record in the history of the game." A summary of the accomplishments of the 1901 Michigan team written by Yost was published in the 1902 University of Michigan yearbook under the title "Yost's Soliloquy," originally printed in a Detroit newspaper. The accomplishments of the 1901 team, wrote Yost, included "the highest number of points ever rolled up in a season by a recognized team." The punting of Everett Sweeley was also an important element in Michigan's success in 1901. Sweeley was regarded by Yost as "the best punter in the country." Ten men, all but the center, carried the ball in turns. Yost highlighted that Michigan ran 219 plays in the Iowa game, compared to 149 run by Harvard in the Harvard–Yale game of 1901. The fast pace of Michigan's play on offense earned Yost the nickname "Hurry Up." Yost described the 1901 team as a speedy group "composed of muscular, wiry men who had no superfluous weight." Michigan's line was strong on defense. The fullback was called upon to make a tackle only once in the entire season. In the final three games of the season, Michigan's defense allowed only seven first downs. Four of Michigan's opponents (Albion, Case, Beloit, and Indiana) never had possession of the ball in Michigan's territory. Only Northwestern and Buffalo moved the ball inside Michigan's 30-yard line, and those two instances came on penalties against Michigan for forward passes. Only one player was taken out of a game for injury, and he returned to practice the Monday after the Saturday game. ## Personnel ### Depth chart The following chart provides a visual depiction of Michigan's lineup during the 1901 season with games started at the position reflected in parenthesis. The chart mimics Yost's short punt formation while on offense, with the quarterback under center. ### Varsity letter winners The following 13 players received varsity "M" letters for their participation on the 1901 football team: #### Line #### Backfield ### Varsity substitutes ### Reserves ### Coaching staff - Head coach: Fielding H. Yost - Assistant coach: Bennie Owen - Trainer: Keene Fitzpatrick - Manager: Harry K. Crafts, Class of 1902 (Law) - Manager-elect: Joseph H. Ferguson, Class of 1903 (Lit.) ### Scoring leaders
6,204,251	Arizona State Route 88	1,159,553,221	Highway in Arizona	[ "Scenic highways in Arizona", "State highways in Arizona", "Transportation in Maricopa County, Arizona", "Transportation in Pinal County, Arizona" ]	State Route 88 is a long state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona. It runs from U.S. Route 60 (US 60) in Apache Junction through desert terrain to SR 188 near Roosevelt Dam. Following the Salt River for much of its length, the section east of Tortilla Flat is known as the Apache Trail and is part of the National Forest Scenic Byway system. The Apache Trail was built in the mid-1920s and the number 88 was assigned in 1927. An eastern extension of State Route 88 to Globe, Arizona was redesignated as State Route 188 on August 20, 1999. ## Route description SR 88 begins at a diamond interchange with US 60, the Superstition Freeway, in southern Apache Junction. The route follows Idaho Road northward through a residential area with four lanes. Following a junction with Old West Highway, SR 88 turns northeast onto Apache Trail and narrows to two lanes. The route exits the city limits of Apache Junction, entering desert terrain. Passing a ghost town known as Goldfield, Apache Trail enters Tonto National Forest just northwest of Lost Dutchman State Park. SR 88 nears Canyon Lake south of the Mormon Flat Dam and follows a part of the southern shore of Canyon Lake. Apache Trail heads away from the Salt River. It passes through the town of Tortilla Flat, becoming an unpaved dirt trail winding eastward through the Superstition Mountains. SR 88 again turns northeast and nears Apache Lake. The route follows the Salt River northeast to the Theodore Roosevelt Dam, near which the route is again paved. SR 88 intersects with SR 188 along the coast of Theodore Roosevelt Lake. The highway is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT), which is responsible for maintaining highways in the state, including SR 88. As part of this role, ADOT periodically surveys traffic along its routes. These surveys are presented in the form of average annual daily traffic, which is the number of vehicles who use the route on any average day during the year. In 2009, ADOT calculated that around as few as 400 vehicles used the route daily near the Roosevelt Dam and as many as 16,000 daily at the US 60 interchange in Apache Junction. The section east of Canyon Lake is part of the Apache Trail National Forest Scenic Byway system. No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System, a system of roads in the United States important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility. Part of SR 88, known as the Apache Trail Historic Road, is one of only four state designated Historic Roads under the Arizona Parkways, Historic and Scenic Roads program. Following the 2019 Woodbury Fire and subsequent damage to the unpaved portion of the route, the road is closed indefinitely from milepost 222 to 229 (Roughly midway from Tortilla Flat to Roosevelt Dam) until a plan to revamp the seven-mile closure is implemented. SR 88 is not a major route between Apache Junction and Roosevelt Lake and has a very low traffic count, so it is likely it is not a priority project for the Arizona Department of Transportation. There is access to all the Salt River lakes impacted by the closure. Canyon Lake can be accessed from Apache Junction while Roosevelt and Apache Lakes are accessed through Globe or via State Highway 87, south of Rye, Arizona. ## History The Apache Trail connected the Old Spanish Trail where Apache Junction is today and Roosevelt Lake with an unpaved road as early as 1925, following much of the modern route. By the next year, SR 66 followed the Apache Trail and the Old Spanish Trail was numbered as US 80. The number 88 was given to the route by 1927, but continued past its current terminus east to US 180 west of Globe. US 60 and US 89 became concurrent with US 80 at the western terminus by 1935, and the US 70 designation was added to the road by 1939. The section of the route from Apache Junction to Canyon Lake was paved in the late 1940s. By 1958, the section east of Roosevelt Dam was paved. The extra designations at SR 88's western terminus were removed by 1971, leaving only the US 60 designation. August 20, 1999, the section east of Roosevelt Dam was renumbered as SR 188, cutting SR 88 back to its current terminus. ## Junction list ## See also - Apache Trail
3,413,204	Wulfhelm	1,078,015,164	10th-century Archbishop of Canterbury	[ "10th-century English archbishops", "941 deaths", "Archbishops of Canterbury", "Bishops of Wells", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Wulfhelm (died 12 February 941) was Bishop of Wells before being promoted to the Archbishopric of Canterbury about 926. Nothing is known about his time at Wells, but as archbishop he helped codify royal law codes and gave lands to monasteries. He went to Rome soon after his selection as archbishop. Two religious books that he gave to his cathedral are still extant. ## Biography Wulfhelm was elected and consecrated Bishop of Wells between 923 and September 925. Nothing else is known about his time at Wells. Wulfhelm was translated from the Bishopric of Wells to be Archbishop of Canterbury in about 926. While he was archbishop, he was a frequent attendee of the royal court, and King Æthelstan of England says in his law code that Wulfhelm was consulted on the drafting of the laws. Wulfhelm also advised the king on the Ordinance on Charities issued by Æthelstan. One of the surviving manuscripts of Æthelstan's laws has an epilogue that stated that the law was declared and decided at a synod held at Grately where Wulfhelm was present. From other parts of the laws issued by the king, it appears that Wulfhelm also presided at a council held at Thunderfield, at which the reeves of London pledged to keep the king's peace. The implication of the various accounts of the laws of Æthelstan is that Wulfhelm was highly involved in royal efforts to improve the law code. Wulfhelm also went to Rome to receive his pallium in person from Pope John X. Why he chose to go to Rome in person for his pallium rather than having it sent to him like most of his predecessors is unknown. One suggestion has been that because he had been translated from another see, Wulfhelm felt the need to have papal approval of his translation made explicit. Given the low status of the papacy at the time, it is unlikely that the impetus for the change in tradition came from the pope. Wulfhelm died while archbishop on 12 February 941. During his time as archbishop, he received as gifts two gospels that are still extant, as Wulfhelm donated them to Christ Church. One of the gospels was produced in Ireland, the other either in Lotharingia or Germany. The second gospel may originally have been a gift to Æthelstan during the negotiations over the marriage of Æthelstan's sister Edith to the future Emperor Otto I. These diplomatic events probably explain the appearance of Wulfhelm's name in the confraternity books of some German monasteries. He may also have given land to the church, although the record is a bit unclear as to exactly what was given. Another grant of land was of land at Deverel, Wiltshire to Glastonbury Abbey while he was archbishop. Wulfhelm was buried at Canterbury. He was buried at first the church of St John the Baptist near the Saxon-era Canterbury Cathedral. When a new cathedral was constructed under Archbishop Lanfranc after the Norman Conquest of England, the earlier archbishops of Canterbury were moved to the north transept of the new cathedral. Later, Wulfhelm and his predecessor as bishop and archbishop Athelm were moved to a chapel dedicated to St Benedict, which later was incorporated into the Lady Chapel constructed by Prior Thomas Goldstone (d. 1468).
2,400,661	Fort Ricasoli	1,170,882,030	Historic fort on Malta	[ "1698 establishments in Malta", "17th-century fortifications", "Barracks in Malta", "British military hospitals", "Buildings and structures by Italian architects", "Buildings and structures completed in 1698", "Coastal erosion in Malta", "Defunct hospitals in Malta", "Defunct prisons in Malta", "Forts in Malta", "Hospitaller fortifications in Malta", "Kalkara", "Limestone buildings in Malta", "Military installations closed in 1964", "National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands" ]	Fort Ricasoli (Maltese: Forti Rikażli) is a bastioned fort in Kalkara, Malta, which was built by the Order of Saint John between 1670 and 1698. The fort occupies a promontory known as Gallows' Point and the north shore of Rinella Bay, commanding the entrance to the Grand Harbour along with Fort Saint Elmo. It is not only the largest fort in Malta but also the largest in Europe, and it has been on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1998, as part of the Knights' Fortifications around the Harbours of Malta. Fort Ricasoli saw use during the French invasion of Malta in 1798 and the subsequent Maltese insurrection, after which it ended up in British hands. Ricasoli was the site of the Froberg mutiny in 1807, and it was also used as a military hospital during the 19th century. It saw use once again in World War II, when parts of it were destroyed by aerial bombardment. After it was decommissioned in the 1960s, the fort was used for industrial purposes. Today, the fort remains mostly intact but in a dilapidated state, and it is used as a filming location and a tank cleaning facility. Plans to restore the fort were approved in June 2019. ## Hospitaller rule ### Background Fort Ricasoli stands on the easternmost peninsula on the east side of the Grand Harbour. The promontory was originally known as Rinella Point or Punta Sottile (Maltese: Ponta Irqiqa). In 1531, two leaders of a slave rebellion and ten others who took a prominent role, who had tried to take over Fort St. Angelo and escape from Malta, were tortured and then hanged on the peninsula, which became known as Gallows' Point (Maltese: Ponta tal-Forka) afterwards. During the Great Siege of Malta in 1565, the Ottomans built an artillery battery on the peninsula in order to bombard Fort St. Elmo. A small semi-circular battery which was known as San Petronio Battery, and later as Orsi battery, was built at Gallows' Point in 1602. On 18 January 1629, the Italian knight Alessandro Orsi financed the construction of a tower near the battery. It was officially called Torre San Petronio, but it was commonly known as Orsi Tower or Torri Teftef by the locals. The name San Petronio was chosen during the rule of Grandmaster de Paola, and the name dell’Orso became much popular after the renovation of the battery itself apart from the building of the tower. It was also known as Torre De Falcha (Tower of the Gallows) in historic documents. Its exterior was plastered and painted with yellow ochre. The tower was designed by Bartolomeo Ganga. At this point the peninsula became known as Punta dell'Orso. The tower was built to prevent the escape of slaves from the island. The tower and battery were protected by a sea-filled ditch and a drawbridge. The tower and battery are visible in the distance in a 1664 drawing of the Grand Harbour by Willem Schellinks. They remained standing until they were destroyed by waves in a storm on 8 February 1821, and today only the rock-hewn ditch of the battery remains. In 1644, Giovanni de’ Medici proposed that Fort St. Angelo in Birgu be abandoned and a new fort be constructed on Orsi Point. The new fort would have been also called Fort St. Angelo, and would be manned with the garrison of the old fort. He drew up plans for the proposed fort, but they were never implemented. ### Construction and modifications In 1669, fears of an Ottoman attack rose after the fall of Candia, and the following year Grand Master Nicolas Cotoner invited Antonio Maurizio Valperga, the military engineer of the House of Savoy, to improve Malta's fortifications. Valperga designed a new fort to be built on the headland, and despite some criticism from within the order, the decision was eventually approved. The Florentine knight Fra Giovanni Francesco Ricasoli donated 20,000 scudi to construct the fort, and it was named in his honour. The first stone was laid down on 15 June 1670, and the initial stages of construction were supervised by Valperga himself. The fort received a skeleton garrison in June 1674, although it was still incomplete. In 1681, the Flemish engineer Carlos de Grunenbergh proposed some changes to the design of the fort, and these recommendations were implemented. The barracks, chapel and other buildings within the fort were constructed in the 1680s and 1690s, and the fort was officially declared complete and armed in May 1698. In 1714, the French engineers Jacop de Puigirand de Tigné, Charles François de Mondion and Philippe de Vendôme criticized the small size of the fort's bastions, which they deemed ineffective. De Tigné proposed a number of alterations, including repairing the existing parapets and embrasures, as well as constructing a retrenchment within the fort. Vendôme proposed the construction of a canal separating the fort from the mainland. In 1722, the repairs proposed by de Tigné were implemented, although the retrenchment and canal were never built due to a lack of funds. The fort was in a bad state by the mid-18th century, and some maintenance work was done in 1761. In 1785, Ricasoli was armed with eighty cannons, including forty-one 24-pounders, making it the most heavily armed fort in Malta. Parts of the fort's enceinte were rebuilt under the direction of Antoine Étienne de Tousard in the 1790s. The fort was also used as a prison prior to the construction of the Corradino Correctional Facility. ## French occupation Fort Ricasoli saw use during the French invasion of Malta in June 1798, during the French Revolutionary Wars. At the time, it was commanded by the Bali de Tillet, and was garrisoned by the Cacciatori, who were a volunteer chasseur light infantry regiment. The fort repelled three French attacks, before surrendering after Grand Master Hompesch officially capitulated to Napoleon. In the subsequent Maltese uprising and blockade, the fort remained in French hands. It continually fired at the insurgents' San Rocco Battery, which was located about 700 m (2,300 ft) away. ## British rule The fort continued to be an active military installation throughout the British period. It was the scene of a mutiny in 1807 when Albanian soldiers of the Froberg Regiment revolted and shut themselves up in Fort Ricasoli. Despite attempts at negotiation they eventually blew up the main gunpowder magazine, causing extensive damage to the fort in the process. The mutiny was quashed by loyal troops, and some of the mutineers were condemned to death by court martial. The damaged parts of the fort were repaired, but were not rebuilt to their original design. A new magazine was built in 1829 to replace the one destroyed in the mutiny. The fort was also used as a temporary naval hospital in the late 1820s and early 1830s, before Bighi Hospital was opened. During the cholera epidemic of 1837, patients who had contracted the disease at the Ospizio in Floriana were transferred to Ricasoli. Most of them died within a few days, and they were buried within the nearby Wied Għammieq cemetery. Another cholera epidemic broke out at Ricasoli in 1865. In 1844, the fort was manned by 500 men. In 1848, Sir John Fox Burgoyne inspected Malta's fortifications, and considered Ricasoli as "impregnable". In the 1850s, artillery of a higher calibre was introduced to the fort, and the guns were replaced a number of times over the following decades. The seaward enceinte had been completely overhauled by 1878, and by the 1900s, new gun emplacements, searchlights and a torpedo station had been installed. In the 1930s, concrete fire control towers were built on No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 bastions, and further searchlights were installed. Fort Ricasoli was active in the defence of Malta during World War II, and on 26 July 1941, its guns helped repel an Italian attack on the Grand Harbour. In April 1942, the gate and Governor's House were destroyed by German aerial bombardment. After the war, the fort was commissioned as HMS Ricasoli between 1947 and 1958, and was used as a naval barracks. In 1958, the gate was rebuilt, although the design was slightly different from the original. The Governor's House was never reconstructed, mainly for financial reasons. In 1949, the lighthouse close to the fort was damaged due to bad weather. In 1964, the Admiralty transferred control of the fort to the government of Malta. ## Recent history ### Industrial use After the fort was handed over to the Maltese government, it was initially abandoned but it later became a container depot for raw material arriving in Malta. In 1976, part of the ditch near the Left Ravelin was filled in, and St. Dominic Demi-Bastion was breached to make way for a new road. In 1964, the fort's ditch became a tank cleaning farm for the Malta Drydocks. The depot, which is known as Ricasoli Tank Cleaning Facilities, treats liquid waste from ships arriving in the Grand Harbour and removes oil and other chemicals prior to releasing the waste into the sea. The facility was privatized in 2012, and it is currently under the management of Waste Oils Co. Ltd. The area around the fort eventually became an industrial park, which was known as Ricasoli Industrial Estate after the fort. The industrial estate was demolished in 2007 to make way for SmartCity Malta. ### Filming location Most of the fort is leased to the Malta Film Commission, and it has been used extensively as a location for various films and serials. In recent years, huge sets were built within its walls for the films Cutthroat Island (1995), Gladiator (2000), Troy (2004), Agora (2009), and Napoleon (2024). In these films, the fort stood in as Port Royal, Rome, Troy, Alexandria, and Toulon respectively. The fort was also used in the filming of Assassin's Creed (2016) and Entebbe (2018). The TV miniseries Julius Caesar (2002) and Helen of Troy (2003) were also partially filmed at Fort Ricasoli. A set dubbed as the Roman Road was built for Julius Caesar and this has been retained and used for other films. The first season of HBO's adaptation of George R. R. Martin's Game of Thrones used various parts of the fort to represent the Red Keep. ### Present condition Today, Fort Ricasoli remains largely intact, although it is in a dilapidated state. The headland that it is built upon is prone to coastal erosion, and some of the walls between No. 3 and No. 4 bastions have already collapsed into the sea. In 2004, the Restoration Unit of the Ministry of Resources and Infrastructure removed, restored and re-attached part of the fort's walls, but nothing has been done to restore the entire fort. In May 2015, the Democratic Alternative and some NGOs suggested that the campus of the proposed American University of Malta should be split up between Fort Ricasoli and the nearby Fort Saint Rocco and Fort San Salvatore. This proposal was not implemented, as the campus is to be split up between Dock No. 1 in Cospicua and Żonqor Point in Marsaskala. By 2018, heritage NGOs had made repeated calls for the fort to be restored. Some works meant to attract more film productions began in early 2019, and plans for extensive restoration works (originally submitted to the Planning Authority in 2013) were approved in June 2019. This move was welcomed by NGOs. ## Layout Fort Ricasoli has an irregular plan following the coastline of the peninsula it is built upon. The fort consists of a bastioned land front and its outworks, an enceinte facing the sea, and a tenaille trace facing Rinella Bay of the Grand Harbour. ### Land front The land front consists of the following bastions and demi-bastions, which are linked together by curtain walls: - St. Dominic's Demi-Bastion, also known as Left Demi-Bastion or No. 5 Bastion – the demi-bastion at the northern end of the land front. It was damaged during the Froberg mutiny of 1807, when its magazine was blown up. - St. Francis Bastion, also known as Central Bastion or No. 6 Bastion – a pentagonal bastion at the centre of the land front. It contains a traverse and a covered abris. - St. John's Demi-Bastion, also known as Right Demi-Bastion or No. 7 Bastion – the demi-bastion at the southern end of the land front. The land front contains casemates, which were used as barracks. The land front is further protected by the following outworks: - a faussebraye in the form of a crownwork encircling the entire land front. - St. Dominic Counterguard – a casemated counterguard near the left extremity of the land front. It was heavily damaged by the action of seawater, with half of the structure having collapsed. - two triangular ravelins between the St. Francis Bastion and either of the demi-bastions. The Left Ravelin contains a 6-inch (152mm) breech-loading (BL) gun emplacement. - two caponiers leading from the land front to each of the ravelins. Extensive modifications were made to their structures by the British. The outworks are surrounded by a ditch, a covertway and a glacis. ### Sea front enceinte The enceinte facing the open sea is made up of the following bastions and curtain walls: - No. 1 Bastion – a demi-bastion linked to a tenaille, forming Point Battery. It originally contained an échaugette, a protruding tower, but this was dismantled to make way for a directing station for the Brennan Torpedo System. A gun emplacement for an RML 12.5-inch 38 ton gun is located on the bastion's face. - No. 1 Curtain – curtain wall between No. 1 and No. 2 bastions, containing a casemated battery and a searchlight emplacement. - No. 2 Bastion – an asymmetrical bastion containing embrasures, and various British gun emplacements, magazines and a fire control tower. - No. 2 Curtain – curtain wall between No. 2 and No. 3 bastions, containing embrasures, an expense magazine (where ammunition intended for immediate use was stored) and a searchlight emplacement. - No. 3 Bastion – a flat-faced bastion, containing embrasures and various British gun emplacements, magazines and a fire control tower. - a curtain wall near No. 4 Bastion, containing embrasures, magazines and a sally port. Part of the curtain wall has collapsed into the sea. - No. 4 Bastion – a small bastion, containing a gun emplacement, magazine, gun crew shelters and a fire control tower. - No. 5 Curtain – curtain wall between No. 4 Bastion and St. Dominic Demi-Bastion of the land front, containing gun emplacements, magazines and gun crew shelters. A shallow rock-hewn ditch extends from No. 1 to No. 3 bastions. ### Harbour tenaille trace The enceinte along Rinella Bay is made up of a tenaille trace with high walls. The fort's main gate is located within the enceinte. The Governor's House (now demolished) and a Chapel of St Nicholas are located within the fort, close to the main gate. An inscription on the gate commemorates the inauguration of the fort in 1698 and gives praise to Grand Master Perellos. The rock-hewn ditch of Orsi Battery can still be seen at the northern end of the tenaille, at the tip of the peninsula. The British built a Brennan Torpedo Station near the trace in the late 19th century.
48,850,650	Hitman: Sniper	1,169,464,121	2015 video game	[ "2015 video games", "Android (operating system) games", "Hitman (franchise)", "IOS games", "Mobile games", "Single-player video games", "Sniper video games", "Square Enix games", "Video games developed in Canada", "Video games set in Montenegro" ]	Hitman: Sniper is a 2015 mobile shooting gallery video game in the Hitman series by Square Enix Montréal. As the series' mainstay protagonist Agent 47, the player looks through a first-person sniper scope vision on their touchscreen device to assassinate several powerful figures who have assembled at a lakeside compound without alerting their associates. The player uses the environment to find creative ways to kill these targets, sometimes prompted by secondary objectives. Through mission progression, the player unlocks more powerful weapons and new weapon abilities. The game was announced at the 2014 Electronic Entertainment Expo as an extension of the Sniper Challenge promotional minigame from Square Enix's 2012 Hitman: Absolution. After a long Canadian soft launch, Square Enix released Hitman: Sniper for Android and iOS platforms on June 4, 2015, to generally favorable reviews. Some reviewers praised the cleverness and minimalism of its puzzle design, and others wanted more variety from its activity-dense scenarios. In free post-launch updates, Square Enix added a zombie defense game mode, new weapons, and a seasonal Halloween theme. A year after its release, Hitman: Sniper remained Square Enix Montréal's biggest revenue generator, and helped to fund the studio's Go series, for which it is better known. ## Gameplay As Agent 47, the standard hitman protagonist of the Hitman series, the player is led to assassinate several powerful figures who have assembled at three upscale, lakefront houses in Montenegro. This shooting gallery game is played through first-person vision of a sniper scope, such that Agent 47 is not vulnerable to counterattack but can fail the mission if the targets notice the scheme and leave the premises. The game becomes a puzzle of isolating targets such that others nearby will not be alerted and, in turn, alert others at the compound. The player experiments with alternative methods for killing the targets, such as shooting out glass and letting targets fall to their deaths rather than killing them directly. Other traps include setting off car alarms to distract guards, turning on fans to knock enemies off cliffs, and letting a target fall directly into a jacuzzi. The player pinches the device's touchscreen to zoom in with the rifle's scope and taps its reticle to fire. An on-screen "reload" button begins a quick time event in which the player swipes the screen to reload the weapon. Missions are constructed around killing one of ten important targets and a secondary objective, such as a stylized kill within a time limit, using a specific kind of trap, or landing a headshot on a moving target. As the game progresses, the player unlocks new weapons and weapon abilities as rewards from several activities: points accrued from successfully killing targets, leaderboard rankings, and "blueprint" collectibles dropped by targets. Added abilities include the option to slow time or reveal enemies on-screen. The player can also purchase the in-game currency directly through microtransactions to skip game progress and automatically unlock more powerful weapons. The player can sync progress between devices through Facebook integration. ## Development Hitman: Sniper is an extension of the Sniper Challenge promotional minigame from Square Enix's 2012 Hitman: Absolution. The team also sought to explore the benefits of not having to move a character around an in-game world. The game originally designed as a "massive, premium game" for the iPad, with an above-average price point, before it transitioned to a free-to-play concept supported solely by player microtransactions. Though the latter remains in the final game, Square Enix ultimately chose to charge players for the final product, between the two concepts. Square Enix announced Hitman: Sniper at the 2014 Electronic Entertainment Expo, where a demo was on display. The title was originally planned for release in 2014. After a long soft launch in Canada, Hitman: Sniper released for iOS and Android platforms on June 4, 2015. Like a free-to-play game, it continued to receive updates years after its release. A free post-launch update in June 2016 added a zombies mode—Death Valley Challenge Mode—wherein the player defends a human against encroaching zombies as he attempts to repair his car. The addition has three levels of difficulty and additional weapon upgrades and player achievements. Later that year, Square Enix Montréal added a Halloween theme and a limited-edition crossbow weapon with special abilities such as making a target's ghost into the player's ally. ## Reception The game received "generally favorable" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. Gamezebo named the title among the best mobile games released in June 2015. Reviewers praised the cleverness and minimalism of its puzzle design, but wanted more variety from its activity-dense scenarios. They noted how they came to know the characters intimately after memorizing each character's routes and remembering how they respond to different kinds of coaxing. This predictability felt great, the TouchArcade reviewer wrote, when he could instinctively respond to new combinations of targets, but as a trade-off, the game mechanics quickly became repetitive. The Gamezebo reviewer felt otherwise, and commended how the game's setting, despite its consistency, remained fresh and exciting as new targets and complications were added. Pocket Gamer's reviewer found the game's alternative methods for killing targets through "traps and tricks" to be the game's most interesting element. The Gamezebo reviewer had special praise for the game's sound design and how it was used to clue the player into puzzle solutions. TouchArcade commended how the game's sparse story unfolded by watching the assassination targets go about their time at the compound. The reviewer also noted that his suspension of disbelief was broken when characters would eventually return to partying after reacting to a gunshot, but suggested that the game's Easter eggs redeemed its psychopathic qualities. Pocket Gamer wrote that the game did not reach the heights of the series' situational humor in hiding bodies stealthily. Other criticism included Gamezebo, which blamed the game's core multiplier ability for breaking the balance of the game. TouchArcade thought that the game played better on the tablet iPad than on the smaller iPhone, and praised the feature that synced game progress, since Apple's iCloud service was known for its struggle to successfully implement the same feature. Despite Square Enix Montréal being best known for its Go series, Hitman: Sniper was the studio's biggest revenue generator. As its most lucrative title, the game helped to fund the development of the Go series. ## Sequel A sequel also developed by Square Enix Montreal titled Hitman Sniper: The Shadows released on March 3, 2022. It features new locations and multiple playable characters. It received positive reviews from Multiplayer.it and Pocket Tactics. The game shut down on January 4th, 2023.
67,832,356	St. Mary's-in-Tuxedo Episcopal Church	1,170,341,270	Church in Tuxedo, New York	[ "1887 establishments in New York (state)", "19th-century Episcopal church buildings", "Cemeteries in Orange County, New York", "Churches completed in 1888", "Churches in Orange County, New York", "Episcopal church buildings in New York (state)", "Ramapos", "Religious organizations established in 1887", "Shingle Style architecture in New York (state)", "Shingle Style church buildings", "William Appleton Potter church buildings" ]	St. Mary's-in-Tuxedo Episcopal Church, otherwise simply referred to as St. Mary's-in-Tuxedo, is an active Episcopal church in Tuxedo, New York, located within the historic village of Tuxedo Park. Constructed in 1888 according to designs by architect William Appleton Potter, the Shingle style community church was the result of efforts to establish a permanent place of worship for Tuxedo's predominantly Episcopalian residents. The church's interior features the work of architect Bertram Goodhue and sculptor Lee Lawrie, which accompanies the many examples of late 19th- and early 20th-century stained glass produced by prominent artists, including Louis Comfort Tiffany and John La Farge. Later additions to the wider campus include designs by Richard Howland Hunt and James Brown Lord. Many high society weddings have taken place at St. Mary's over the years, including that of Angier B. Duke to Priscilla Avenal St. George in 1937. Earlier services were attended by financier J. P. Morgan and on two occasions by future President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The lives of several people associated with Tuxedo Park are memorialized within the church, while the St. Mary's cemetery is the final resting place for several noted figures of the American Gilded Age. ## History ### Establishment The brother-in-law of Tuxedo Park founder Pierre Lorillard IV, Henry Isaac Barbey, offered to arrange for the construction of a village church in 1887. Previously the community had used both a local public schoolhouse—at the instigation of Tuxedo Park resident Robert Fulton Cutting—and later a temporary chapel designed by James Brown Lord for Episcopal services, the first of which took place in Tuxedo on July 18, 1886. Following its construction St. Mary's was consecrated on October 14, 1888, by architect William A. Potter's brother, Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New York Henry Codman Potter; the church was dedicated to Saint Mary. Founding vestry members included Grenville Kane, co-founder of the Park and a director of Northern Pacific Railway and the New York Public Library, James Brown Potter, the Brown Brothers merchant banker married to actress Cora Urquhart who reputedly introduced the Tuxedo to America, and James L. Breese, an accomplished amateur photographer and owner of "The Orchard". ### Early history St. Mary's soon became an established institution within the wider Tuxedo community. Pew rent records indicate the range of Tuxedo families who were involved in church life, including Frelinghuysens, Lorillards, Cuttings and Mortimers. Active by the 1890s, the St. Mary's Sunday school held at least one of its annual picnics on the grounds of William Waldorf Astor's Tuxedo Park estate. When the Reverend George Merrill returned to Tuxedo from Newport after his marriage to Ms. Pauline Dresser in December 1897, his daughter relayed that "the entire village met them at the train with great flaming lanterns and led them to the church through the snow singing 'Onward Christian Soldiers'." When Tuxedo's recently established Our Lady of Mount Carmel Roman Catholic church was completely destroyed by fire on July 4, 1899, the Rev. Merrill invited the affected congregation to worship in the St. Mary's Sunday School room while the new Heins & LaFarge-designed building was being constructed. Tuxedo resident and author George M. Rushmore offers a vignette of the Sunday procession to St. Mary's during the 1890s in The World with a Fence Around It: Tuxedo Park - The Early Days (1957): > On Sundays in season a long and picturesque procession of vehicles used to wind down to the Episcopal Church of St. Mary's. The Cuttings, the Alexanders, and the Gibsons, had yellow basket victorias with big fawn-colored parasol tops suspended over the heads of the family by curved metal rods. Beside the coachman sat a small groom or tiger, with folded arms, attired in a livery coat and tight doeskin breeches, a cockaded high hat on his head, and a serious expression on his face. The Munroes usually went packed in a big blue and black wagonette, or sometimes in a dark blue and black surrey. There were runabouts, landaus, black victorias and two-seater phaetons in which the groom sat behind on a small rumble seat, and in addition to all these vehicles there were two club stages. At the Deer Pen Hill, the last leg of the journey, soft-eyed deer would line up alongside the fence that bounded their home—silent spectators of the weekly parade. Tuxedo women supported St. Mary's in a variety of ways, becoming members of church-affiliated committees and guilds. Examples include Clemence Smith Bryce, wife of Nicholas Fish II, who provided a musical reception at the parish house opening reception in 1901, and Josephine Lee, wife of architect Bruce Price, who was a member of the Sewing School Committee. The St. Mary's Guild was founded by a number of Tuxedo women in June 1891, tasked with supervising several church organizations. A significant gift of \$10,000 was provided by financier Robert Fulton Cutting in 1919, ensuring the Guild's financial stability during the Great Depression. Several sources attest to the extensive decorations that accompanied the era's weddings at St. Mary's. Parts of the church's nave and sanctuary, including the aisles, pews, altar and columns, were decorated with a wide variety of seasonal and imported foliage; examples include palms, lilies, peonies, holly, roses, dogwood, ferns, fruit blossoms, dahlias, gladioluses, snapdragons, forsythia and syringa. Arches were covered with woodland foliage and laurel, while the rafters were filled with branches of balsam. On one occasion a wedding bell formed from white roses was hung from a central arch in the nave. A wedding gown first worn in 1768 and later worn by Julia Thorne at her 1970 marriage to John Kerry was worn by Julia Loomis Thorne, Alfred Lee Loomis's sister, at her St. Mary's wedding in 1911. The gown was once described by the New York Times as being "perhaps the most notable wedding gown in existence in this country". St. Mary's for many years operated a chapel in neighboring Sloatsburg, New York, a ministry which began when the Rev. Merrill starting conducting services in the Sloatsburg town hall in 1900. By 1904 land was deeded to St. Mary's to construct a chapel, consecrated as "St. Francis" that autumn. An advisory board was established for St. Francis' Chapel in the 1930s and was shared for a time with the nearby St. Elizabeth's Memorial Chapel in the Eagle Valley hamlet of Tuxedo. St. Mary's ties with St. Francis ended in 1953 when the latter became a diocesan mission. The chapel subsequently closed in 1974. Historical sources relate that St. Mary's supported itself and its activities through its endowment, annual contributions and pew rentals, which in 1926 were set at \$100 per pew. During the 1920s the church continued to play a major role in the community, serving as the initial meeting place for local chapters of the American Legion, Freemasons, and Order of the Eastern Star. Only by 1919 was St. Mary's able to secure a permanent organist, Fred Bentley, who maintained this position until his death in 1960. Another early St. Mary's organist was Frank H. Mather, a graduate of the Royal Academy and Royal College of Music in London. Tragedy struck the parish when four-time U.S. singles championship tennis player and Tuxedo resident Robert Wrenn struck and killed St. Mary's organist and choirmaster Herbert George Loveday after losing control of his vehicle on May 3, 1914. Charges of manslaughter against Wrenn were subsequently dropped. ### Post-Depression era The Wall Street Crash of 1929 took a toll on parish life and the church's finances, as the congregation and the pew rents it provided reduced in size. Several parishioners soon defected to nearby St. Elizabeth's in Eagle Valley, having found themselves unaccustomed to the high church style of the new rector, the Reverend Leon Cartmell. The "lean years" soon drew to a close however with the end of World War II, with the relocation of young families to the suburbs rejuvenating a stagnated church life. The Reverend Fenimore Cooper made further efforts to encourage participation in church life, forming several guilds for ushers, acolytes and lay readers.Although not formally affiliated with St. Mary's, the New York diocese established a diocesan conference center named after Bishop Donegan in Tuxedo Park in 1957. St. Mary's was occasionally represented at conferences held at the center. Father Cooper was a member of the committee tasked with renovating the center, which at one point housed the Tuxedo Park School. The T. Henry Randall-designed estate was the former residence of Henry W. Poor and Henry Morgan Tilford, and was described by the New York Times as "one of the finest country residences in America". The American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese of North America purchased the home from the Episcopal church in 1978 to establish a monastic community. The financial troubles that had plagued the parish since the Depression had eased by the 1960s, a reversal of fortunes attributed to successful endowment investing and a growing local population. Over several years until its completion in 1962, Francis Ormond French, son of Manhattan Trust banker Amos Tuck French, helped to raise the \$60,000 needed to construct the St. Mary's education building. French died the very morning of the dedication ceremony held on Trinity Sunday, 1962 for the building that to this day bears his name. Henry Mortimer financed parish house and undercroft renovations in 1971, dedicating these revisions alongside his siblings—including John Jay Mortimer and Stanley Grafton Mortimer—to his parents. By 1973 a new 3-manual, 35-stop Austin organ (Opus 2557) was installed at St. Mary's; the organist for the Church of the Heavenly Rest in New York City, Mr. Charles D. Walker, was invited to play a special inaugural concert. The serial entrepreneur and Tuxedo Park resident Hazard Reeves was inspired to found what was "said to be the world's first computerized multi-catalogue shopping system", Catalogia, after struggling to find a bell chime timing device for St. Mary's. One-time Tuxedo resident Jimmy Webb wrote a cantata for a children's choir and small orchestra for St. Mary's, first performed in December 1983. An expanded version was later performed by Art Garfunkel and Amy Grant for the 1986 album The Animals' Christmas. Other noteworthy musical events held at St. Mary's include a 1985-1986 concert series that featured a performance by clarinetist Gervase de Peyer, and a 1993 concert held in collaboration with the Edvard Grieg Society of New York featuring the soprano Bodil Arnesen. In 1974, Bishop of New York Paul Moore, Jr. visited St. Mary's to install board members for a local conference of Episcopal churches known as the Southern Orange Community. Bishop Moore would return to the parish several years later to lead a special service celebrating the centennial of the founding of St. Mary's, held on October 16, 1988. Recent years have seen efforts to restore several of the church's stained glass windows and the establishment of a building preservation fund to aid repairs and ongoing maintenance. A report commissioned by the church in 2019 identified several critical areas in need of repair in both the church and the nearby rectory. ### Notable people Several notable figures are known to have attended services at St. Mary's. A young Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed his name in the parish register while attending a baptismal ceremony on June 9, 1896, serving as a godfather for his cousin and Tuxedo Park resident Sara Roosevelt Collier. Roosevelt was to later return to St. Mary's as an usher in the marriage of Muriel Delano Robbins to Cyril Martineau on June 1, 1907. Future US Representative and Governor-General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison married Mary Crocker, daughter of Charles Frederick Crocker, at St. Mary's in 1900. Author Mark Twain attended the 1906 wedding of Grenville Kane's eldest daughter, Sybil Kane, to the architect A. Stewart Walker. Twain is described as being a friend of the then-rector of St. Mary's the Reverend William Fitz-Simon, with the latter writing the former soliciting advice on the subject of marriage in 1908. Banker J. P. Morgan attended Fitz-Simon's wedding in June that same year, leading the bride, his niece Ursula Morgan, up the St. Mary's aisle. The then-Superintendent of the United States Military Academy Douglas MacArthur was invited to speak at two Memorial Day services held on the church lawn in the early 1920s, around the same time that he met his future wife Louise Cromwell Brooks at a party in Tuxedo. The then-Bishop of Rhode Island James DeWolf Perry presided over the wedding of Louise King and Kenneth Shaw Safe at St. Mary's on April 24, 1926; guests included Henry Francis du Pont and Frederic Augustus Juilliard. High-profile and noteworthy services continued to take place at St. Mary's in the post-Depression era. The once-youngest American ambassador in history and Chief of Protocol of the United States Angier B. Duke was married to Priscilla Avenal St. George at a St. Mary's ceremony on January 2, 1937; also in attendance was the banker and Tuxedo resident Charles E. Mitchell. Later that same month, a number of notables were present at the funeral for New York State Special Sessions Judge Frederic Kernochan, including Fiorello La Guardia, Thomas E. Dewey and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's son, James Roosevelt. Funeral services for Adele S. Colgate, noted dog show judge, collector of Currier and Ives prints, and heir to the Colgate-Palmolive fortune, were held at St. Mary's on May 5, 1962. The Duke of Windsor and former King Edward VIII of England, along with his wife, Duchess of Windsor Wallis Simpson, attended a baptism at St. Mary's for one of the Duchess's godchildren in May 1969. ### List of rectors - The Rev. Vaughn Colston (1888-1891) - The Rev. W. McCarthy Windsor (1892-1894) - The Rev. George G. Merrill (1894-1903) - The Rev. William Fitz-Simon (1903-1911) - The Rev. Malbone Burkhead (1911-1912) - The Rev. Robert S. W. Wood (1912-1937) - The Rev. Leon E. Cartmell (1937-1952) - The Rev. Fenimore E. Cooper (1953-1969) - The Rev. James R. Leo (1969-1979) - The Rev. Dr. Edwin H. Cromey (1980-2006) - The Rev. Elizabeth S. McWhorter (2007-2015) - The Rev. Richard J. Robÿn (2017–Present) ## Architecture Desiring to complement the work of Village architect Bruce Price, architect William A. Potter—known for his numerous contributions to Princeton University's campus—produced a Shingle style design for St. Mary's in 1887. Critic Montgomery Schuyler described St. Mary's as a "cottage church," a term he deemed appropriate given Tuxedo's resort status. Several experts, including Sarah Landau, Wayne Andrews and Lawrence Wodehouse, argue that the design for St. Mary's was influenced by the work of Henry Hobson Richardson; Wodehouse attributes the "emphasis on horizontal cornices and high-pitched roofs" of St. Mary's to Richardson's 1880 design for the Dr. James Bryant House in Cohasset, Massachusetts. One local influence was the nearby Tuxedo Park gatehouse, designed by Price and itself influenced by William Ralph Emerson's houses with "bouldered bases" (a phrase used by Landau to describe bases of buildings made of boulder-like stones) and Richardson's F. L. Ames Gate Lodge in North Easton, Massachusetts.Although the church was originally designed with separate entrances for village residents and those who lived in the Town of Tuxedo, the latter entrance was ordered locked by the Reverend Merrill soon after his arrival at St. Mary's in 1894: it was never used again. More modifications came when the church was significantly expanded starting in 1897, with the addition of a further arch to the nave, a transept and a choir aisle. The final major alteration to the church's structure was the installation of the western aisle in 1904. A major aesthetic alteration occurred in 1922, when Isabelle Weart Giles arranged to have the church's sanctuary redesigned by the noted Gothic Revivalist architect Bertram Goodhue in honor of her late husband, Henry Morgan Tilford. Celebrated architectural sculptor Lee Lawrie contributed an alabaster and gold panel to the reredos as part of the redesign. An altar dedicated to St. Mark was installed at the foot of the western aisle in 1955, located in front of the since-replaced Hutchings-Votey organ given in honor of U.S. Representative and Tuxedo resident John Murray Mitchell.Two additional architects contributed to the wider St. Mary's campus in its early days. The 1895 rectory, built at a cost of \$12,000, was designed by Richard Howland Hunt in the same Shingle style as the nearby church. A sum of \$8,000 was raised to construct a parish house, designed by Beaux-Arts architect James Brown Lord and built in 1901. Bishop Potter helped to lay its cornerstone in February 1901, before returning in June for the dedication. ### Chapel of the Holy Spirit George de Ris of J&R Lamb Studios designed the Chapel of the Holy Spirit, located in the church's stone undercroft and described as being "built to suggest as nearly as possible a small Byzantine chapel." Completed in 1941, the Bishop of New York William Thomas Manning, dedicated the chapel to the late spouses of banker and Tuxedo resident Richard Delafield.The chapel features elements taken from the Tuxedo Park homes of Richard Mortimer and Henry Morgan Tilford. These include an Italian marble hearthstone taken from Mortimer's since-demolished home "Mortemar" that now serves as the chapel's altar and multiple stained glass fragments that date from possibly as early as the 15th century, at least some of which were taken from the Tilford House. Several of the glass fragments are estimated to date from the 16th century. The chapel was renovated in 2015. ## Stained glass St. Mary's is home to an array of stained glass produced by several leading American studios around the turn of the 20th century, including works by Louis Comfort Tiffany, Charles Lamb, John La Farge, Walter Janes and Henry Wynd Young. A window dedicated to Emily Post's son Bruce Price Post was made by J. Gordon Guthrie, an artist noted for his use of the color red in stained glass. Several windows have been restored in recent years. St. Mary's was featured as part of the New York Landmarks Conservancy's seventh annual Sacred Sites Open House Weekend in 2017. ### List of windows - Louis Comfort Tiffany: - "Edith Godfrey Memorial" (presumed) - "Pilgrim Window" - Memorial to William Lawrence Breese - "George Preston Memorial" - Preston Memorial Window (also referred to as the Hoffman Memorial Window) - "St. Elizabeth" - De Rham Memorial Window - "Crown of Life, St. Gertrude" - Memorial to Emily Post Griswold (May 10, 1905) - "Cross in a Field of Painted Flowers" - Memorial to Charles Henry Coster, partner at J.P. Morgan and prominent philatelist - "Angel Playing a Musical Instrument" - Dated 1890 (presumed) - Walter Janes (designed with Frances White): - "St. John the Divine" - Installed in 1898 in memory of Southern Pacific vice president Charles Frederick Crocker - John La Farge: - "Belief in the Resurrection" - Dated 1890; commissioned by Pierre Lorillard in memory of his son, Nathaniel Griswold Lorillard (1864-1888), who according to one account introduced the Tuxedo jacket to American circles; one of the two preliminary sketches for the window was exhibited at the La Farge Memorial Exhibition held at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in 1911. - J&R Lamb Studios: - "Jesus with Angels" - Andrae Memorial Window (also called "Resurrection") - "Iselin Memorial" - Memorial to Fannie Garner Iselin (presumed Lamb Studios) - Vestibule windows - These windows in the narthex were dedicated to Gabriel and Francine Demay on May 7, 1989, in celebration of the St. Mary's centennial. - J. Gordon Guthrie: - "Christ the Good Shepherd" - Neo-gothic, Arts & Crafts painted window in memory of Bruce Price Post, an acclaimed architect associated with the firm of Kenneth MacKenzie Murchison. Notable designs include the Bethlehem Union Station and the New Colonial Hotel. - Henry Wynd Young: - "R. J. Mortimer, Jr. Memorial" ### Images of stained glass #### Church windows #### Chapel windows ## Today The current rector at St. Mary's is the Rev. Richard James Robÿn, who previously served as the 31st rector of Trinity Church Oxford in Philadelphia. Robÿn is a charter member of the North American province of the Society of Catholic Priests and presently serves as Treasurer on the Provincial Council as of April 2023. St. Mary's tenth rector, the Rev. Dr. Edwin H. Cromey, serves as Rector Emeritus as of April 2023. Services of Holy Communion are held twice every Sunday at St. Mary's: a spoken Eucharist at 8am using Rite I of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer at the St. Mark's altar and one at 10am in the church using music and hymns (Rite II). Additional services include a 10am Eucharist held on Wednesdays, and a 5pm Evening service held at the St. Mark's altar from February through April. The St. Mary's website estimates the church's capacity at 300, although past services have hosted as many as 500 guests. St. Mary's rectors also conduct services and serve as priests-in-charge of St. John's in Arden, a country chapel whose cemetery serves as the final resting place of railroad magnate E. H. Harriman. Erected by the Parrott family in 1863 on the former Arden estate, St. John's hosts three public services annually—on Thanksgiving Day, Christmas Eve and Easter Sunday. These services use the 1928 Book of Common Prayer and the 1940 Hymnal. ## Burials and memorials The cemetery at St. Mary's was established in 1910, soon after the deaths of Pierre Lorillard's daughter Emily Lorillard Kent and her husband William Kent, a Senior Warden at St. Mary's and great-grandson of James Kent. A columbarium was installed in 1968. Burials at St. Mary's include: - Pierre Lorillard Barbey, son of socialite Mary Lorillard Barbey - John Insley Blair II, grandson of railroad magnate John Insley Blair - Clarence F. Busch, portrait artist; exhibited pieces at four of the National Academy of Design's annual exhibitions and the Findlay Galleries - Price Collier, former Unitarian minister, author and father of Katherine St. George - Richard Delafield, President of the National Park Bank and senior warden of Trinity Church - Frederic de Peyster Foster, lawyer, philanthropist and President of the Saint Nicholas Society of the City of New York - Theodore Frelinghuysen, socialite included in McAllister's "Four Hundred" - Pauline Leroy French, daughter of banker Amos Tuck French - Frederic Augustus Juilliard, nephew and heir of Augustus D. Juilliard - Katherine Lorillard "Kitty" Kernochan, daughter of socialite and businessman James Powell Kernochan - Ellen Farnsworth Loomis, wife of investment banker and scientist Alfred Lee Loomis - Winthrop McKim, nephew of Buchanan Winthrop and descendent of Massachusetts Bay Colony leaders Joseph Dudley and Wait Winthrop - John Jay Mortimer, financier and grandson of Henry Morgan Tilford and Richard Mortimer - Richard Mortimer, member of McAllister's "Four Hundred", real estate investor and St. Mary's vestryman - Herbert Claiborne Pell, father of U.S. Representative and Minister Herbert Pell - Emily Post, American socialite and author known for her work on etiquette - George Baker Bligh St. George, grandson of financier George Fisher Baker - Katherine St. George, cousin of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives - Henry Morgan Tilford, oil magnate; considered the founder of Standard Oil of California (today known as Chevron) - Eugénie Ambrose Philbin Tuck, daughter of Manhattan District Attorney Eugene Ambrose Philbin ### Memorials The memorials housed in St. Mary's have been recorded in the church's "Book of Remembrance", a book compiled by the St. Mary's Altar Guild and illuminated by the Sisters of St. Mary in Peekskill, New York. Those for whom memorial tablets are dedicated at St. Mary's include: - The Rev. George William Douglas, Canon of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine; known to have delivered a sermon on conscientious objectors at St. Mary's in 1917, first delivered at Holy Trinity Church in Brooklyn and later printed by Richard Delafield to distribute to the 400 employees of the National Park Bank - Hamilton Fish, Rough Rider and member of the Fish family - Maude Lorillard Baring, daughter of Pierre Lorillard IV and wife of Cecil Baring of Baring Brothers & Co. ## See also - List of Anglican Churches - Anglican Communion
2,585,050	Washington State Route 117	1,169,135,649	Highway in Washington, United States	[ "State highways in Washington (state)", "Transportation in Clallam County, Washington" ]	State Route 117 (SR 117) is a short, 1.40-mile (2.25 km) long state highway located entirely within Port Angeles, the county seat of Clallam County, in the U.S. state of Washington. The short roadway, named the Tumwater Truck Route, serves the waterfront of Port Angeles and intersects two streets and crosses under another street on a short bridge. Beginning at an interchange with U.S. Route 101 (US 101), the highway travels northeast to terminate at Marine Drive. SR 117 was first established in 1991, but a road parallel to the current roadway had existed since 1966. ## Route description SR 117 begins as the Tumwater Truck Road at an interchange with U.S. Route 101 (US 101) in southwest Port Angeles. The interchange only serves traffic from US 101 eastbound driving onto SR 117 northbound and motorists driving from the route southbound onto US 101 westbound, however, left turns are allowed to serve the missing movements. Traveling north, the highway intersects Lauridsen Boulevard and crosses under 8th Street. Between 8th Street and the Port Angeles waterfront, a daily average of 7,400 motorists accessed the roadway in 2008. After the 8th Street bridge, the road intersects 3rd Street and terminates at Marine Drive, which continues east as 1st Street to US 101. ## History SR 117 was designated in 1991, but a short local street connecting the waterfront with U.S. Route 101 (US 101) had existed for several decades under local maintenance. The Tumwater Truck Road was approved for construction by the Port Angeles city government in 1954 to detour logging truck traffic away from residential neighborhoods. It was constructed at a cost of \$250,000, shared with the county and state governments, along the existing Tumwater Canyon. The unfinished road was opened to traffic in July 1956, with logging truck drivers encouraged to use the graded road to prepare it for paving. In 1991, the state government added the truck road to the state highway system, assigning SR 117 as its designation. During a severe winter storm on November 27, 2006, the Port Angeles Police Department closed both ends of the highway due to treacherous conditions. On December 15, 2006, a wind storm caused trees near the roadway to block the highway and the route had to be shut down. On August 7, 2007, the city of Port Angeles announced that the 8th Street bridge over the Tumwater Truck Route would be closed on August 20, 2007. A detour was set for both 8th Street and the truck route; trucks were routed onto US 101 (Lincoln Street) and Marine Drive / Front Street. Starting on April 1, 2008, the new bridge's girders started to arrive at the construction site. The last girders arrived on April 9 and the highway was reopened. On August 1, the roadway was closed for another month to be reconstructed. SR 117 was designated as the POW/MIA Memorial Highway by the state transportation commission in 2013. ## Major intersections
67,008	Beleriand	1,170,012,385	Fictional Western region in Tolkien's legendarium	[ "Fictional elements introduced in 1977", "Middle-earth realms" ]	In J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional legendarium, Beleriand was a region in northwestern Middle-earth during the First Age. Events in Beleriand are described chiefly in his work The Silmarillion, which tells the story of the early ages of Middle-earth in a style similar to the epic hero tales of Nordic literature, with a pervasive sense of doom over the character's actions. Beleriand also appears in the works The Book of Lost Tales, The Children of Húrin, and in the epic poems of The Lays of Beleriand. Tolkien tried many names for the region in his early writings, among them Broceliand, the name of an enchanted forest in medieval romance, and Ingolondë, a play on "England" when he hoped to create a mythology for England rooted in the region. The scholar Gergely Nagy has found possible signs of the structure and style of Beleriand's poetry in the prose of The Silmarillion. ## Fictional history Events in Beleriand are described chiefly in the second half of the Quenta Silmarillion, which tells the story of the early ages of Middle-earth in a style similar to the epic hero tales of Norse mythology. Beleriand also appears in the works The Book of Lost Tales, The Children of Húrin, and in the epic poems of The Lays of Beleriand. The land is occupied by Teleri Elves of King Thingol from the east, who founded the city of Menegroth in the forest realm of Doriath. Other Elves, the Vanyar and Noldor, cross the Belegaer sea to Valinor. The Noldor of Kings Finrod of the realm of Nargothrond and Turgon of Gondolin return, resented by the Teleri. Later, Men arrive from the east, fleeing from an encounter with the satanic Vala Morgoth. Morgoth gathers a great army of Orcs, Balrogs and other monsters in his fortress of Angband beneath the Thangorodrim mountains in the north of Beleriand, and attacks the Elves repeatedly. Despite the threat, Thingol refuses to fight alongside the Noldor. One by one, the realms of Doriath, Nargothrond, and Gondolin all fall to assaults, assisted by betrayals and disputes among Elves, Men, and Dwarves. Finally, the Valar of Valinor ask the creator, Eru Ilúvatar, to stop Morgoth. Ilúvatar ends the War of Wrath and the First Age of Middle-earth by destroying Angband and banishing Morgoth. Beleriand's inhabitants flee, and much of Beleriand sinks into the sea. Only a small section of the eastern edge of Beleriand survives, including part of the Ered Luin (Blue Mountain) range and the land of Lindon, which became part of the far northwestern shore of Middle-earth. ## Fictional geography Beleriand is a region in the far northwest of Middle-earth, bordering the great sea, Belegaer. It is bounded to the north by the Ered Engrin, the Iron Mountains, and to the east by the Ered Luin, the Blue Mountains. ## Analysis ### Naming Beleriand had many different names in Tolkien's early writings, including Broceliand, the name of an enchanted forest in medieval romance, Golodhinand, Noldórinan ("valley of the Noldor"), Geleriand, Bladorinand, Belaurien, Arsiriand, Lassiriand, and Ossiriand (later used for the easternmost part of Beleriand). One of Beleriand's early names was Ingolondë, a play on "England", part of Tolkien's long-held but ultimately unsuccessful aim to create what Shippey calls "a mighty patron for his country, a foundation-myth more far-reaching than Hengest and Horsa, one to which he could graft his own stories." Tolkien's aim had been to root his mythology for England in the scraps of names and myths that had survived, and to situate it in a land in the northwest of the continent, by the sea. ### A sense of doom Shippey writes that the Quenta Silmarillion has a tightly-woven plot, each part leading ultimately to tragedy. There are three Hidden Elvish Kingdoms in Beleriand, founded by relatives, and they are each betrayed and destroyed. The Kingdoms are each penetrated by a mortal Man, again all related to each other; and the sense of doom, which Shippey glosses as "future disaster", hangs heavy over all of the characters in the tale. Shippey writes that the human race seen in Beleriand in the First Age did not "originate 'on stage' in Beleriand, but drifts into it, already sundered in speech, from the East [the main part of Middle-earth]. There something terrible has happened to them of which they will not speak: 'A darkness lies behind us... and we have turned our backs upon it'". He comments that the reader is free to assume that the Satanic Morgoth has carried out the Biblical serpent's temptation of Adam and Eve, and that "the incoming Edain and Easterlings are all descendants of Adam flying from Eden and subject to the curse of Babel." ### "Lost" poetry The Tolkien scholar Gergely Nagy writes that Tolkien did not explicitly embed samples of Beleriand's poetry in his prose, as he had done with his many poems in The Lord of the Rings. Instead, he wrote the prose of The Silmarillion in such a way as to hint repeatedly at the style of its "lost" poetry. Nagy notes David Bratman's description of the book as containing prose styles that he classifies as "the Annalistic, [the] Antique, and the Appendical". The implication of the range of styles is that The Silmarillion is meant to represent, in Christopher Tolkien's words, "a compilation, a compendious narrative, made long afterwards from sources of great diversity (poems, and annals, and oral tales)". Nagy infers from verse-like fragments of text in The Silmarillion that the poetry of Beleriand used alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm including possibly iambics. This applies to the Ainulindalë, Tolkien's account of the godlike Ainur: It applies, too, to the narrative of Elves and Men in the Beleriand landscape, in the Quenta Silmarillion: In a few places, it is possible to relate the adapted verse in the prose to actual verse in Tolkien's legendarium. This can be done, for instance, in parts of the story of Túrin. Here, he realizes he has just killed his friend Beleg:
5,457,172	Morrie Arnovich	1,170,911,037	American baseball player	[ "1910 births", "1959 deaths", "20th-century American Jews", "American men's basketball players", "Baseball players from Wisconsin", "Cincinnati Reds players", "Hazleton Mountaineers players", "Jersey City Giants players", "Jewish American baseball players", "Jewish Major League Baseball players", "Major League Baseball left fielders", "National League All-Stars", "New York Giants (NL) players", "Philadelphia Phillies players", "Sportspeople from Superior, Wisconsin", "Superior Blues players", "United States Army non-commissioned officers", "United States Army personnel of World War II", "Wisconsin–Superior Yellowjackets baseball players", "Wisconsin–Superior Yellowjackets men's basketball players" ]	Morris Arnovich (November 16, 1910 – July 20, 1959) nicknamed "Snooker", was an American baseball player. Arnovich played in Major League Baseball between 1936 and 1946 and played in the World Series winning team in 1940 as a part of the Cincinnati Reds. Playing as a line drive hitter, and fielding as an outfielder he began in MLB for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1936 where he played four seasons before joining the Reds for a season. After his time in Cincinnati, he joined the New York Giants for the 1941 season, and again for one game in 1946 after joining the United States Army. A member of the 1939 National League All-Star team, he finished his career with a .287 batting average. After retiring, Arnovich coached basketball and died in 1959 of a coronary occlusion. ## Early and personal life Arnovich was born in Superior, Wisconsin on November 16, 1910. One of the most religious Jewish major leaguers, Arnovich kept kosher his whole life. He attended Superior High School in Superior, Wisconsin. Arnovich was a two-time All-Wisconsin basketball star at the University of Wisconsin–Superior. He was later given the nickname "snooker", after being prolific in the British game of the same name. ## Baseball career Arnovich's professional baseball career began at age 22 with the Superior Blues, the champions of the newly revived Northern League in 1933. Playing as a shortstop that year, he hit .331 and had a slugging percentage of .495 with 17 steals. Throughout the season he hit 14 home runs, putting him fourth in the league. His .918 fielding percentage was best of any shortstop with 50 or more games that season and made the unofficial All-Star team listed by the Spalding Guide. Returning to Superior in 1934, Arnovich hit .374 to take the Northern League batting title, and his 21 home runs (three in one game) tied for fifth. The Philadelphia Phillies purchased his contract in 1935, where he turned up for spring training with regulars remarking that "he'll never make it". The Phillies assigned him to the Hazleton Mountaineers of the New York–Pennsylvania League where he hit .305. In 1936, he hit .327 with 19 home runs and 109 runs batted in (RBI) in the minor leagues. He also played his first games in Major League Baseball in 1936, debuting September 14, 1936, where he made .313 batting average over 13 games. He moved to the outfield, playing mostly in left field for the rest of his career. In 1937, he hit .290 and had a career-high five double plays from the outfield, and made seven consecutive hits. In 1938, he made the most outfield assists of his career – 18. He was referred to as the "Son of Israel", or the "Next Jewish Star" by the Anglo-Jewish press. When Phil Weintraub entered the armed forces, Arnovich took his spot in the Phillies lineup. For the 1939 season he was the top contact hitter in the National League before fading late and finishing fifth in the league with a .324 batting average, and sixth in the league with a .397 on base percentage. He also led all left fielders in putouts, with 335, and in range factor/game, at 2.61. He made the All-Star team in his best season, 18th in the MVP voting. Although originally not part of the team, a fan petition secured him a place on the roster, but he did not play. At the age of 29, Arnovich was traded to the Cincinnati Reds for Johnny Rizzo in June 1940 and had a disappointing season, though he continued to hit for solid contact (.284 with the Reds). He made his only World Series appearance that season, which Reds won 4–3 over the Detroit Tigers. He was sold to the New York Giants for \$25,000 in December 1940, and had a .280 batting average in 85 games through 1941. Arnovich tried to volunteer for the United States Army, but was turned down because he was missing a pair of molars. He got false teeth and volunteered again after Pearl Harbor in 1942; this time he was permitted in and spent the next four years in the Army. He was a staff sergeant for the Army in the Pacific Theater of Operations. While in the Army, Arnovich played for and managed the Fort Lewis baseball team, before becoming a postal clerk in New Guinea. Out of condition and now 35 years old, Morrie played in one game for the New York Giants in 1946 and was sent down to the Jersey City Giants, where he went 5 for 25 in 10 games before being released in June 1946. In 1947 Arnovich hit in the .370s in the Three-I League and Western Association, then batted .353 in limited time in the 1948 in the Southeastern League before retiring at the age of 37. In 2010 he was ranked ninth in career batting average among Jewish major league baseball players of all-time. ## Career statistics In 590 games over seven seasons, Arnovich posted a .287 batting average (577-for-2013) with 234 runs, 104 doubles, 12 triples, 22 home runs, 261 RBIs, 17 stolen bases and 185 base on balls. He also had a .350 on-base percentage and .383 slugging percentage. Defensively, he recorded a .981 fielding percentage playing primarily at left field, but played several games at center and right field. ## Later years and death Arnovich coached basketball for a Catholic high school in Superior after retiring, then ran a jewelry store and a sporting goods store. He gave out free baseball lessons to teenagers in Superior, Arnovich would manage both the Davenport Cubs, and Selma Cloverleafs of the Cub's farm teams, and was a basketball coach at a local Catholic high school. He married Bertha Aserson on July 10, 1956, and ran a jewellery and sporting goods shop. On July 20, 1959, he died of a coronary occlusion at his home shortly after his third wedding anniversary. Arnovich was buried at the Hebrew Cemetery in Superior, Wisconsin. ## See also - List of select Jewish baseball players
69,359,098	Mini ature	1,163,216,821	Species of frog endemic to Madagascar	[ "Amphibians described in 2019", "Cophylinae", "Endemic frogs of Madagascar", "Puns", "Taxa named by Andolalao Rakotoarison", "Taxa named by Angelica Crottini", "Taxa named by Frank Glaw", "Taxa named by Mark D. Scherz", "Taxa named by Miguel Vences" ]	Mini ature is a species of very small microhylid frog endemic to Madagascar described in 2019. The scientific name of the species refers to its size, being a pun on the word miniature. Although it measures only 14.9 mm (0.59 in) in snout–vent length, it is the largest species in its genus. The holotype of the species has a light brown back, beige sides, a dark brown underside with beige speckling that turns beige near the bottom, and a dark brown side and back of the head. It is known only from Andohahela National Park in Anosy, Madagascar. Like other species in its genus, it received media attention when first described due to the wordplay in its scientific name. ## Taxonomy and systematics Mini ature was described in 2019 by the herpetologist Mark Scherz and colleagues on the basis of an adult specimen collected in Andohahela National Park in Anosy in Madagascar in 2004. The name Mini ature is a pun on the word miniature, referring to the extremely small size of the species. It is regarded as an invariable noun (a noun with the same singular and plural forms). Along with Mini mum and Mini scule, the other two species in its genus, the species received publicity when it was first described due to its humorous scientific name. It is part of the family Microhylidae, a widespread family of over 650 species of mostly small frogs. It is most closely related to Mini scule, with these two species forming a clade sister to Mini mum. The study that described the species placed the genus Mini as sister to Plethodontohyla, despite the former being morphologically more similar to Stumpffia. However, a 2021 phylogeny by Alain Dubois and colleagues instead suggests that to be monophyletic, both Plethodontohyla and Mini should be lumped with Cophyla. This would make the present species' name Cophyla ature. The following cladograms show the differing phylogenies found by the 2019 and 2021 studies: ## Description Although Mini ature is an extremely small frog and has a snout–vent length of just 14.9 mm (0.59 in), it is the largest species in its genus. After 14 years of preservation in 70% ethanol, the holotype of the species had a light brown back, turning nearly beige at the sides. The side of the head is dark brown, while a trapezoidal area near the vent is brown. A crooked, distinct border is present at the sides, from the nostril through the eyes, ears, and body, up to the groin. Below the border, the body is dark brown with beige speckling, lightening to beige further down. There is a thin beige stripe over the backbone, while the area at the back of the head and the skin above the eyes is dark. M. ature is rectangular in shape, with a head that is wider than it is long and narrower than the body. The snout is slightly pointed from the top and pointed from the side and the non-protuberant nostrils are pointed towards the sides and equidistant between the tip of the snout and the eyes. The lores are flat and vertical. The second and fourth fingers are reduced, while the first finger is greatly reduced. The first toe is absent and the second and fifth toes are highly reduced. The maxillary and premaxillary teeth are present, but the vomerine teeth are absent. Within its genus, the species can be told apart by its larger size and shorter hindlimbs. It can be differentiated from M. mum by the presence of its maxillary and premaxillary teeth, and from M. scule by its proportionally smaller nasals and braincase. It can be told from most Stumpffia by its maxillary and premaxillary teeth, and from all of them by its curved clavicles (long bones between the shoulder blade and breastbone) and the loss or fusion of the second carpal. The species' calls are not known. ## Distribution The only known specimen of Mini ature was collected from the Andohahela National Park in Madagascar, but its total distribution is unknown. As the species is larger than M. mum and M. scule, its ecology may differ from these correspondingly. ## Conservation Mini ature's conservation status has not been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, but the authors of the study in which it was described recommended classifying it as data deficient due to the fact that its range and population are unknown and cannot be estimated.
15,689,474	Qianling Mausoleum	1,163,092,971	Tang dynasty imperial tomb in Shaanxi, China	[ "7th-century establishments in China", "Archaeological sites in China", "Buildings and structures completed in 684", "Buildings and structures completed in the 8th century", "Buildings and structures in Xi'an", "Burial sites of imperial Chinese families", "Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Shaanxi", "Pyramids in China", "Tang dynasty architecture", "Tang dynasty art", "Wu Zetian" ]	The Qianling Mausoleum () is a Tang dynasty (618–907) tomb site located in Qian County, Shaanxi province, China, and is 85 km (53 mi) northwest from Xi'an. Built in 684 (with additional construction until 706), the tombs of the mausoleum complex house the remains of various members of the House of Li, the imperial family of the Tang dynasty. This includes Emperor Gaozong (r. 649–83), as well as his wife, Wu Zetian, who assumed the Tang throne and became China's only reigning female emperor from 690 to 705. The mausoleum is renowned for its many Tang dynasty stone statues located above ground and the mural paintings adorning the subterranean walls of the tombs. Besides the main tumulus mound and underground tomb of Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian, there are 17 smaller attendant tombs, or peizang mu. Presently, only five of these attendant tombs have been excavated by archaeologists, three belonging to members of the imperial family, one to a chancellor, and the other to a general of the left guard. The Shaanxi Administration of Cultural Heritage declared in 2012 that no further excavations would take place for at least 50 years. ## History Emperor Gaozong's mausoleum complex was completed in 684 following his death a year earlier. After her death, Wu Zetian was interred in a joint burial with Emperor Gaozong at Qianling on July 2, 706. There are Tang dynasty funerary epitaphs in the tombs of her son Li Xián (Crown Prince Zhanghuai, 653–84), grandson Li Chongrun (Prince of Shao, posthumously honored Crown Prince Yide, 682–701), and granddaughter Li Xianhui (Lady Yongtai, posthumously honored as Princess Yongtai, 684–701) in the mausoleum that are inscribed with the date of burial as 706 AD, allowing historians to accurately date the structures and artwork of the tombs. In fact, the Sui and Tang dynasty practice of interring an epitaph that records the person's name, rank, and dates of death and burial was consistent amongst tombs for the imperial family and high court officials. Both the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang record that, in 706, Wu Zetian's son Emperor Zhongzong (r. 684, 705–10, Li Chongrun's and Li Xianhui's father and Li Xián's brother) exonerated the victims of Wu Zetian's political purges and provided them with honorable burials, including the princess and two princes. Besides the attendant tombs of the royal family members, two others that have been excavated belong to Chancellor Xue Yuanchao (622–83) and General of the Left Guard Li Jinxing. The five attendant tombs were opened and excavated in the 1960s and early 1970s. In March 1995, there was an organized petition to the Chinese government about efforts to excavate Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian's tomb. In 2012, the Shaanxi Administration of Cultural Heritage announced that no excavation could occur at the mausoleum site for at least 50 years to protect the tombs from damage and theft of artifacts. ## Location The mausoleum is located on Mount Liang, north of the Wei River, and 1,049 m (3,442 ft) above sea level. The grounds of the mausoleum are flanked by valley to the east and canyon to the west. Although there are tumulus mounds to mark where each tomb is located, most of the tomb structures are subterranean. The tumulus mounds on the southern peaks are called Naitoushan or "Nipple Hills", due to their resemblance to the shape of nipples. The Nipple Hills, with towers erected on the top of each to accentuate the hills' name, form a gateway into Qianling Mausoleum. The main tumulus mound is on the northern peak; it is the tallest of the mounds and is the burial place of Gaozong and Wu Zetian. Halfway up this northern peak, the builders of the site dug a 61 m (200 ft) long and 4 m (13 ft) wide tunnel into the rock of the mountain that leads to the inner tomb chambers located deep within the mountain. The complex was originally enclosed by two walls, the remains of which have been discovered today, including what was four gatehouses of the inner wall. The inner wall was 2.4 m (7.8 ft) thick, with a total perimeter of 5920 m (19,422 ft) enclosing a trapezoidal area of 240,000 m<sup>2</sup> (787,400 ft<sup>2</sup>). Only some corner parts of the outer wall have been discovered. During the Tang dynasty, there were hundreds of residential houses that surrounded Qianling, inhabited by families that maintained the grounds and buildings of the mausoleum. The remains of some of these houses have since been discovered. The building foundation of the timber offering hall situated at the south gate of the mausoleum's inner wall has also been discovered. ## Spirit way Leading into the mausoleum is a spirit way, which is flanked on both sides with stone statues like the later tombs of the Song dynasty and Ming dynasty tombs. The Qianling statues include horses, winged horses, horses with grooms, lions, ostriches, officials, and foreign envoys. The khan of the Western Turks presented an ostrich to the Tang court in 620 and the Tushara Kingdom sent another in 650; in carved reliefs of Qianling dated c. 683, traditional Chinese phoenixes are modelled on the body of ostriches. Historian Tonia Eckfeld states that the artistic emphasis on the exotic foreign tribute of the ostrich at the mausoleum was "a sign of the greatness of China and the Chinese emperor, not of the foreigners who sent them, or of the places from which they came". Eckfeld also asserts that the 61 statues of foreign diplomats sculpted in the 680s represents the "far-reaching power and international standing" of the Tang dynasty. These statues, now headless, represent the foreign diplomats who were present at Emperor Gaozong's funeral. Historian Angela Howard notes that along the spirit ways of the auxiliary tombs—such as Li Xianhui's—the statues are smaller, of lesser quality, and fewer in number than the main spirit way of Qianling leading to Emperor Gaozong and Wu's burial. Besides the statues, there are also flanking sets of octagonal stone pillars meant to ward off evil spirits. A 6.3 m (20.7 ft) tall tiered stele dedicated to Emperor Gaozong is also located along the path, with a written inscription commemorating his achievements; this is flanked by Wu Zetian's stele which has no written inscriptions. An additional stele by the main tumulus was erected by the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–96) during the mid-Qing dynasty. ## Tombs The tomb chambers of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu are located deep within Mount Liang, a trend that was set by Emperor Taizong (r. 626–49) with his burial at Mount Jiuzong. Of the 18 emperors of the Tang dynasty, 14 of these had natural mountains serving as the earthen mounds for their tombs. Only members of the imperial family were allowed to have their tombs located within natural mountains; tombs for officials and nobles featured man-made tumulus mounds and tomb chambers that were totally underground. Xinian Fu wrote that children of emperors were allowed tombs in the shape of truncated pyramids, but high-ranking officials and lesser tomb constructors could only have conical mounds. The conical tombs of officials were allowed to have one wall surrounding it, but only one gate—positioned to the south—was permitted. The attendant tombs feature truncated pyramid mounds above underground chambers that are approached by declining diagonal ramps with ground-level entrances. There are six vertical shafts for the ramps of each of these tombs which allowed goods to be lowered into the side niches of the ramps. The main hall in each of these underground tombs leads to two four-sided brick-laden burial chambers connected by a short corridor; these chambers feature domed ceilings. The tomb of Li Xian features real fully stone doors, a tomb trend apparent in the Han and Western Jin dynasties that became more common by the time of the Northern Qi dynasty. The stylistic stone door of Lou Rui's tomb of 570 closely resembles that of Tang stone doors, such as the one in Li Xian's tomb. Unlike many other Tang dynasty tombs, the treasures within the imperial tombs of the Qianling Mausoleum were never stolen by grave robbers. In fact, in Li Chongrun's tomb alone, there were found over a thousand items of gold, copper, iron, ceramic figurines, three-glaze colored figurines, and three-glaze pottery wares. Altogether, the tombs of Li Xian, Li Chongrun, and Li Xianhui had over 4,300 tomb articles when they were unearthed by archaeologists. However, the attendant tombs of the mausoleum were raided by grave robbers. Among the ceramic figurines found in Li Chongrun's tomb were horses with gilt decoration supporting armed and armored soldiers, horsemen playing flutes, blowing trumpets, and waving whips to spur their horses. Ceramic sculptures found in the tomb of Li Xian included figurines of civil officials, warriors, and tomb guardian beasts, all of which were over a meter (3 ft) in height. ### Li Xianhui Li Xianhui was a daughter of the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang and Empress Wei. She was likely killed at the age of 16 by her grandmother Wu Zetian, along with her husband. After Wu Zetian's death, when her father came to the throne, she was reburied in a grand tomb in the Qianling Mausoleum in 705. Her tomb was discovered in 1960, and excavated from 1964. It had been robbed in the past, likely soon after the burial, and items in precious materials taken, but the thieves had not bothered with the over 800 pottery tomb figures, and the extensive frescos were untouched. The robbers had left in a hurry, leaving silver items scattered around, and the corpse of one of their number. The tomb had a flattened pyramid rising 12 metres above ground, and a long sloping entrance tunnel lined with frescos, leading to an antechamber and the tomb chamber itself, 12 metres below ground level with a high domed roof. ## Murals The tombs excavated for Li Xian, Li Chongrun, and Li Xianhui are all decorated with mural paintings and feature multiple shaft entrances and arched chambers. Historian Mary H. Fong states that the tomb murals in the subterranean halls of Li Xián's, Li Chongrun's, and Li Xianhui's tombs are representative of anonymous but professional tomb decorators rather than renowned court painters of handscrolls. Although primarily funerary art, Fong asserts that these Tang tomb murals are "sorely needed references" to the sparse amount of description offered in Tang era documents about painting, such as the Tang Chao minghua lu ('Celebrated Painters of the Tang Dynasty') by Zhu Jingxuan in the 840s and the Lidai Minghua ji ('A Record of the Famous Painters of the Successive Dynasties') by Zhang Yanyuan in 847. Fong also asserts that the painting skill of portraying "animation through spirit consonance" or qiyun shendong—an art critique associated with renowned Tang dynasty painters like Yan Liben, Zhou Fang, and Chen Hong—was achieved by the anonymous Tang dynasty tomb painters. Fong writes: > The "Palace Guard" and the "Two Seated Attendants" from Prince Zhang Huai's tomb are especially outstanding in this respect. Not only are the relative differences in age achieved, but it is evident that the robust guard officer who stands at attention displays an attitude of respectful self-assurance; and the seated pair are deeply engrossed in a serious conversation. Another important feature in the murals of the tomb was the representation of architecture. Although there are numerous examples of existing Tang stone and brick pagoda towers for architectural historians to examine, there are only six remaining wooden halls that have survived from the 8th and 9th centuries. Only the rammed earth foundations of the great palaces of the Tang capital at Chang'an have survived. However, some of the mural scenes of timber architecture in Li Chongrun's tomb at Qianling have been suggested by historians as representative of the Eastern Palace, residence of the crown prince during the Tang dynasty. According to historian Fu Xinian, not only do the murals of Li Chongrun's tomb represent buildings of the Tang capital, but also "the number of underground chambers, ventilation shafts, compartments, and air wells have been seen as indications of the number of courtyards, main halls, rooms, and corridors in residences of tomb occupants when they were alive." The underground hall of the descending ramp approaching Li Chongrun's tomb chambers, as well as the gated entrance to the front chamber, feature murals of multiple-bodied que gate towers similar to those whose foundations were surveyed at Chang'an. Ann Paludan, an Honorary Fellow of Durham University, provides captions in her Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors (1998) for the following pictures of Qianling tomb murals: ## See also - Chinese pyramids - Zhao Mausoleum
581,030	Hed PE	1,171,720,816	American rock band	[ "1994 establishments in California", "American rap rock groups", "Musical groups established in 1994", "Musical groups from Orange County, California", "Musical quartets", "Nu metal musical groups from California", "Punk rock groups from California", "Rap metal musical groups", "Rapcore groups", "Suburban Noize Records artists" ]	Hed PE (standing for Higher Education Planet Earth/Planetary Evolution, typeset as (həd)<sup>p.e.</sup>, (hed) Planet Earth, (Hed)pe or (Hed)PE) is an American rock band from Huntington Beach, California. Formed in 1994, the band is known for its eclectic genre-crossing style, predominately in the fusion of gangsta rap and punk rock it has termed "G-punk", but also for its reggae-fused music. After releasing three albums on Jive Records, Hed PE left the label to record independently. Hed PE was signed with Suburban Noize Records from 2006 until 2010. Since 2006, the band has become known for its involvement in the 9/11 Truth movement, referencing it in many of their song lyrics and concerts, as well as the concept of the album New World Orphans. Since 2014, the band has been signed with Pavement Music. To date, Hed PE has released twelve studio albums, one live album and three compilation albums, and has sold over 700,000 albums worldwide. ## History ### Formation and major-label debut (1994–1999) The band was formed by vocalist Jared Gomes, also known as "M.C.U.D." (MC Underdog), and guitarist Wes Geer, who became friends amidst the Orange County hardcore punk scene. Gomes and Geer recruited guitarist Chizad, bassist Mawk, drummer B.C. Vaught and DJ Product © 1969. They named the group "Hed", which stands for "higher education". The band built a following with their energetic performances at local venues, and released the self-financed extended play, Church of Realities. Legal issues forced Hed to change their name, adding "PE", which stood for "Planetary Evolution (later changed to planet earth) ". Hed PE signed with Jive Records, releasing their self-titled debut album in 1997. In his review of the album, AllMusic's Steve Huey wrote "There are some slow and/or unfocused moments [...] but overall, its aggression will probably play well with late-'90s metal and punk fans." Due to the label's contractual terms and the disappointing sales of the album, the band found themselves unable to repay the cash advances given to them by Jive. Gomes is quoted as saying "We had these romantic visions of the music industry, and we thought it would be cool to be a punk band on a rap label. So we fulfilled that dream, but it was also probably the worst thing that could have happened. [...] We've had offers from Sony and others that we can't take because we owe Jive so much money." ### Broke and Blackout (2000–2004) On June 6, 2000, Hed PE appeared on the tribute album Nativity in Black II, covering Black Sabbath's "Sabbra Cadabra". Hed PE released their second studio album, Broke on August 22, 2000. It peaked at No. 63 on the Billboard 200, while its first single, "Bartender", peaked at No. 23 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and at No. 27 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. Allmusic's Jason D. Taylor wrote: "Broke may have not found as much success in the competitive mainstream market as some would have liked, and even despite its distinct departure from the group's debut, it is an album that shows more vision than other rap-tinged rock albums to come out in 2000." The most negative response to the album came from critics who viewed its lyrics as misogynistic. Jared Gomes denied that he was sexist in a 2001 Kerrang! magazine feature about sexism in rock music, saying that some of his lyrics were deliberately controversial in order to provoke a reaction from people. He also noted that his lyrics offended other members in Hed PE, but they "live[d] with it". On October 27, 2000, Gomes was arrested for possession of marijuana while the band was performing in Waterbury, Connecticut. He was released on a US\$1,500 bond. In 2001, Hed PE performed on the Ozzfest tour alongside bands such as Korn, Static-X, and System of a Down. A music video for "Killing Time", the second single from Broke, was produced in promotion of the film 3000 Miles to Graceland, which featured the song on its soundtrack. Hed PE released their third studio album, Blackout, on March 18, 2003. It peaked at No. 33 on the Billboard 200, while its title track peaked at No. 21 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and at No. 32 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. Allmusic's Johnny Loftus wrote that "While it expands on melodic elements that had previously played a supporting role in the band's sound, Blackout also delivers truckloads of crushing guitar and pounding rhythm. And whether or not it is the presence of a top-line producer, (hed) pe have figured out a way to imbue their aggressive mix of heavy rock and hip-hop with some serious hooks." Guitarist Jaxon joined the band in early 2004. He is the fourth person to fill this position. ### Only in Amerika (2004) Hed PE left Jive Records, releasing their fourth studio album, Only in Amerika, on Koch Records on October 19, 2004. It peaked at No. 20 on the Top Independent Albums chart and at No. 186 on the Billboard 200. In his review of the album, Johnny Loftus wrote "It wants to be a confrontational megaphone in the ear of conservatives, but Jahred's torrential rhetoric is too messy and blatantly offensive to incite anything but superficial anger, and the music – though occasionally explosive – takes a backseat to the ranting." ### Suburban Noize Records (2006–2010) In 2006, Hed PE signed with Suburban Noize Records, recording their fifth studio album, Back 2 Base X. The album was intended as a return to the basics of rock music, and did not rely as heavily on studio enhancement as previous releases. The album was released on June 6, 2006, the same day as The Best of (həd) Planet Earth, a compilation album produced by Jive Records without the band's authorization or consent. Back 2 Base X peaked at No. 12 on the Independent Albums chart, and at No. 154 on the Billboard 200. Allmusic's Rob Theakston wrote that "Back 2 Base X suffers from the same problems as Amerika: it tries to be conceptual in thought à la Tool and vicious in its political commentary à la Fugazi or System of a Down, but somehow falls short by sounding like an angry stoner on a soapbox. It won't win any new fans, but existing fans of (hed) pe's work won't be turning their backs away from the band in anger anytime soon, either." On June 26, 2007, the band released their sixth studio album, Insomnia. It peaked at No. 16 on the Independent Albums chart, and at No. 138 on the Billboard 200. The album's lead single, "Suffa", became one of the most requested tracks at Sirius Satellite Radio's Hard Attack, while the song's music video was voted one of the Top 10 of 2007 on MTV's Headbangers Ball. Hed PE released their first live album, The D.I.Y. Guys, in 2008. On December 20, 2008, Hed PE released their new single "Renegade" with the drummer Christopher Hendrich who appeared in the music video as well. On January 13, 2009, they released their seventh studio album, New World Orphans. It was released in three different versions; each contains a different set of bonus tracks. In 2009, drummer Trauma joined the band. He is the sixth person to fill this position. The band's eighth studio album, Truth Rising, was released on October 26, 2010, to mixed reviews. It would be the last album the band recorded for Suburban Noize, which Gomes described as having "imploded on itself" approximately around 2010, leaving the band without a label for the next four years. ### Evolution and Forever! (2014–2019) Hed PE subsequently signed with Pavement Music. In a 2012 interview, frontman Jared Gomes stated that their album for 2013 titled Ascension would be released within the first half of 2014. Towards the end of 2013, DJ Product mysteriously left the band with no explanation and no comment from the other members. On January 1, 2014, Gomes stated on the band's official Facebook that the new upcoming (hed) PE album will be named "Evolution" and to be released within the year. On May 13, 2014, On the band's official Facebook page, they released the official announcement of when the band's new album Evolution will hit stores. The album is set for release July 22, 2014. They also released a teaser of the tone of the new album on their Facebook page and soon after, the track "One More Body". In 2015, it was confirmed that 12-year guitarist Jaxon Benge and original bassist Mark Young had left the band. They were replaced by guitarist Greg "Gregzilla" Harrison and bassist Kurt "Kid Bass" Blankenship, leaving vocalist Jared Gomes as the group's only remaining original member. ### Stampede!, Class of 2020, Sandmine and Califas Worldwide (2019–present) On June 21, 2019, the band released a new 10-track album titled Stampede!, which was noted for taking a departure from the style of their previous albums through the inclusion of auto-tune on many of the tracks. In August 2020, Hed PE released the album Class of 2020 which was described as a return to the original G-punk sound of the band. The record saw a reunion with original guitarist Chad "Chizad" Benekos for the first time in nearly two decades, who performed in the song "Greedy Girl". Original member DJ Product © 1969 also returned to play on the album as well as create the artwork for the record which was a throwback to their album Broke to celebrate the 20th anniversary of its release. On May 7, 2021, the band announced the extended play Sandmine, which was released on July 23, 2021. On October 22 of the same year, the band announced the studio album Califas Worldwide, which was released on December 17, 2021. For the 20th anniversary of Broke, on April 8, 2022, the band released "Bartenders", a remake of "Bartender" featuring Dropout Kings and DJ Lethal. On October 14, 2022, the band released a rerecorded version of their song "Let's Ride" with Madchild for a deluxe edition of their album "Back 2 Base X". On February 5, 2023, the band released a cover of the Ramones song I Wanna Be Sedated. ## Style ### Music and lyrics Hed PE performs a style of music which they have referred to as "G-punk", a phrase inspired by the term "G-funk". Hed PE has also described its music as "schizophrenic". Hed PE's music is a fusion of styles ranging from hip hop, reggae, and ska to hard rock, punk, and heavy metal. Jared Gomes' vocal style ranges from melodic singing to rapping, screaming, and death growls. The band's lyrics draw on a number of subjects, including social justice, the existence of extraterrestrial life, criticism of organized religion, the 9/11 Truth movement, cannabis use and sexual intercourse. Gomes, in addition to the 9/11 Truth movement, has expressed support for social liberal politicians such as Nancy Pelosi and president Barack Obama. However, Gomes' 2004 lyrics for Only in Amerika supported American nationalism, and called for brutal retaliation against Al Qaeda for the 9/11 terrorist attacks. ### Influences The band's influences include Beastie Boys, Black Sabbath, Bob Marley, Led Zeppelin, Nine Inch Nails, Notorious B.I.G. and Rage Against the Machine. Hed PE's second album, Broke, incorporated classic rock and world music influences, while Back 2 Base X was influenced by classic punk bands such as the Sex Pistols and The Clash, Insomnia was influenced by thrash metal bands such as Slayer, and New World Orphans was influenced by Suicidal Tendencies and Minor Threat. Guitarist Jaxon has been credited for encouraging a heavier, hardcore punk-influenced musical style. ## Band members ### Current members - Jared "M.C.U.D." Gomes – lead vocals, melodica (1994–present) - Jeremiah "Trauma" Stratton – drums, backing vocals (2009–present) - Kurt "Kid Bass" Blankenship – bass (2015–present) - Nathan Javier – guitars (2021–present) ### Former members - Ken "The Finger" Sachs – keyboards (1994–1996) - Chad "Chizad" Benekos – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1994–2002) - Wesley "Wesstyle" Geer – lead guitar (1994–2003) - Ben "B.C." Vaught – drums (1994–2003) - Doug "DJ Product © 1969" Boyce – turntables, samples, melodica, backing vocals (1994–2013; 2019) - Mark "Mawk" Young – bass (1994–2015) - Sonny Mayo – rhythm guitar (2002–2003) - Christopher Hendrich – drums (2004) - Mark "Moke" Bistany – drums (2004–2006) - Devin Lebsack – drums (2006–2007) - Anthony "Tiny Bubz" Biuso (Tiny Bubz) – (2007–2008) - Jackson "Jaxon" Benge – guitars (2004–2015) - Greg "Gregzilla" Harrison – guitars (2015–2017) - Will Von Arx – guitars (2017–2018) - D.J. Blackard – guitars (2018–2021) ### Timeline ## Discography Studio albums - Hed PE (1997) - Broke (2000) - Blackout (2003) - Only in Amerika (2004) - Back 2 Base X (2006) - Insomnia (2007) - New World Orphans (2009) - Truth Rising (2010) - Evolution (2014) - Forever! (2016) - Stampede (2019) - Class of 2020 (2020) - Califas Worldwide (2021) - 70's Hits From the Pit (2023) - DETOX (2023)
20,909,419	Shin-shiro (album)	1,153,004,085	Album by Sakanaction	[ "2009 albums", "Intelligent dance music albums", "Japanese-language albums", "Sakanaction albums", "Victor Entertainment albums" ]	Shin-shiro (Japanese: シンシロ, Hepburn: Shinshiro, "New White") () is the third studio album by Japanese band Sakanaction. It was released on January 21, 2009 through Victor Entertainment. The release was the band's first album after relocating to Tokyo and moving to Victor Entertainment's main roster. Led by the singles "Sen to Rei" and "Native Dancer", the album became the group's first release to chart in the top 10 albums on Oricon's weekly album chart. Shin-shiro featured a different production approach to the band's previous albums. Band vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi collaborated with a different member of the band in a two-person demo session for each songs, instead of their previous approach involving all five members working together. This approach was difficult for pianist Emi Okazaki, who had no experience with song production previously, and for drummer Keiichi Ejima, who learnt the guitar specifically to record demos for this album. The first finished demo, created by Yamaguchi and bassist Ami Kusakari's for the song "Sen to Rei" strongly influenced the album's production. The album was well-received critically, with critics noting the band's growth; praising the band's electronic and pop sound, as well as Ichiro Yamaguchi's songwriting and vocals. The album led Sakanaction to be chosen one of the ten iTunes Japan Sound of 2009 artists, as well as nominated at the Life Music Award 2009. In 2009, the album was made available globally as a digital download, alongside the band's debut and second albums Go to the Future (2007) and Night Fishing (2008). In 2015, the album was reissued on CD, LP record and lossless digital formats. ## Background and development Sakanaction was first formed in 2005 in Sapporo, Hokkaido. The band gained notoriety in Hokkaido after winning the audition to perform as a newcomer artist at the Rising Sun Rock Festival in Otaru in August 2006, and after demos of their songs "Mikazuki Sunset" and "Shiranami Top Water" performed well on College Radio Japan Sapporo. The band were signed to major label Victor Entertainment, and released their debut album Go to the Future on May 7, 2007, through Victor's BabeStar Label, and followed this up eight month later with the album Night Fishing (2009). The album is the band's first after joining the main Victor Entertainment roster, after releasing two albums with Victor sub-label BabeStar. After the release of Night Fishing, the band began looking for a new management company to sign a contract with. Originally, the members did not want to leave Sapporo, especially guitarist Motoharu Iwadera and bassist Ami Kusakari. Of the five management companies they were choosing between, none of them needed the band to relocate, except for Hipland Management. Vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi realized that staying in Sapporo was against the band's goal of making music for a much wider group of listeners, and was surprised when all of the members agreed with him. In Spring 2008, the band moved to Tokyo from Hokkaido. ## Writing and production ### Production techniques In April, Sakanaction had already started making songs for Shin-shiro, despite having just finished their tour in March for the band's second album Night Fishing, which had been released in January of the same year. The album's production took a different approach to how Go to the Future and Night Fishing were produced. In their previous albums Yamaguchi produced the song demos, then took them to the studio and explained his vision for each song; creating them in sessions with all of the band members. For Shin-shiro, Yamaguchi created the songs, and then assigned each member of the band to create a demo based on their two-person vision. This was a conscious move by Yamaguchi to create a new sound for the album, figuring that if all of members were concurrently working on the songs, it was inevitable that one person would take charge of each song. Iwadera worked with Yamaguchi on the songs "Ame (B)" and "Namida Delight", Kusakari on "Sen to Rei", pianist Emi Okazaki on "Light Dance", and drummer Keiichi Ejima on the instrumental composition "Minnanouta". Kusakari and Okazaki collaborated to create demos for "Kiiroi Kuruma". Yamaguchi worked by himself on the songs "Native Dancer" and "Enough", while all of the band members contributed to "Adventure" and "Human". The exception to this was "Zattō", which was an old composition from Sakanaction's early days in 2005, when Yamaguchi and Iwadera were the only members of the group. The song's arrangement was basically unchanged from the time of writing to its inclusion in the album. This pattern was not true for "Human", which was originally a song written before the album sessions, however was completely rewritten when included in Shin-shiro. "Adventure" was created before the band left for Tokyo while they were experimenting with more approachable and pop sounds, and was intended to become the album's leading single, in the role that was later filled by "Sen to Rei". Similarly, in the early stages of the album's creation, Yamaguchi also considered Adventure as a title for the album. When the members were creating demos for songs, Yamaguchi had not at that point finished composing the songs for the album. After finishing each composition, he would give it to a member to develop; then return to composing more music while the members were all occupied. He found the two-person production process invigorating, and was quickly able to write the remaining album material. The band members all responded to this production method differently, with Iwadera and Kusakari finding the approach the easiest. Okazaki and Ejima both had trouble adopting this method. Okazaki was very anxious about her ability to create demos, having never used music software before, and not even owning a computer before moving to Tokyo. Yamaguchi bought her an iBook to help her with the process. Ejima found difficulty in recording demos due to the problem of recording drums at home for sound sampling. As a result, he learnt how to play the guitar. In June, the band were creating songs on a daily basis, and in August were still in the pre-production stages of the album. The album was created at Yamaguchi's apartment in Noborito in Kawasaki, Kanagawa, which became a meeting place for all of the band members for the album. In total, around thirty demo compositions were produced for the album. This method of song production also led to Yamaguchi being able to think of the album as a whole, as opposed to their methods on Go to the Future and Night Fishing, in which each song was thought of in its own individual context. Kusakari was the fastest to finish her demo. Other than her, the other members brought their work half-finished to their meetings with Yamaguchi. The song Kusakari was working on, "Sen to Rei", became crucial to the creation of Shin-shiro, as the band created the entire album in response to the song. Taking note of the musical style of "Sen to Rei", the band created songs that showcased the other genres they performed, in order to expose new listeners to the entirety of the band's sound. This was for first-time listeners who came to know Sakanaction through "Sen to Rei" to be able to the entirety of the band's sound. Kusakari's version of the song "Sen to Rei" had a very strong guitar-based rock sound, which the band mixed with electronic music. "Sen to Rei" was a challenge for the band, to bring as many entertaining and popular aspects to their music as they could, to balance the underground attributes of their sound. ### Demo production and location Sakanaction found that after moving to Tokyo, where the band stood in the Japanese music scene was a lot clearer to them. The album's sound was inspired by Tokyo, and was a search to more consciously define what Sakanaction's identity was, compared to their first two albums. As a result, Shin-shiro felt like the end of the first chapter of Sakanaction to the band members. The music the band created on Shin-shiro was a mix of everything that the band wanted to try musically, and an attempt to make a more "colorful" album inspired by both new wave and live performance-style arrangements. They increased the tempo on the songs for the album, and focused on the beat of each song more than whether each song was structurally a pop song or not. Consciously attempting to create an album with a more popular sound, Yamaguchi was anxious about how his works would be received, and felt that these anxieties expressed themselves more on the album. For the song "Enough", however, Yamaguchi wanted to create one song on the album that expressed his own thoughts on the album without being influenced by these pressures. The final studio takes of the songs were recorded in September 2008. The large amount of demos and separated work that each member was doing led to the creation of the instrumental song "Minnanouta" by Ejima. Originally Yamaguchi asked Ejima to create a song out of elements that Yamaguchi and Kusakari had discarded when making "Namida Delight", but Ejima eventually took his favorite parts from all of the discarded demo takes to create the piece. At first, the band did not intend to have an interlude on the album, however found it was a helpful guide for new listeners to Sakanaction's sound, and a good separator between the two halves of the album. "Namida Delight" also began as an instrumental song, however a melody and lyrics were added to the song after the band had entirely finished the piece. The song "Ame (B)" was originally written as a folk song that Iwadera reworked into a progressive rock song. In the final stages of creation, Yamaguchi suggested they feature choral vocals in the song. Yamaguchi and Iwadera sung the vocal chorus themselves, with an additional three takes of Iwadera's voice layered on top of each other. It was inspired by British rock band Queen's 1980s dance music, and was written as what Yamaguchi thought was an "old style cool" song in a verse–chorus form, featuring two verses and a chorus. The version of the song featured on the album was built around the B verse alone, and felt similar to a remix to Yamaguchi because of this. The demo version of the song "Light Dance" originally sounded similar to a war march, created this way by Okazaki was not very familiar with dance music. After fine-tuning the arrangement, and inserting "oriental" synths in the style of Japanese bands Yellow Magic Orchestra and Godiego, "Light Dance" settled at a new wave sound. Yamaguchi considered aspects of "Light Dance" and "Adventure" were similar to heavy metal, such as the bass drum being layered with different instruments, but felt that these would be interpreted as new wave by most people. The final studio versions of the album songs were recorded at Galva Studio in Kyūden, Setagaya, Tokyo. Several compositions had additional recorded elements. For "Zattō", Iwadera and Yamaguchi incorporated a recording they had made of the crowds at Jiyūgaoka Station in Tokyo. Parts of "Ame (B)" were recorded outside, during a summer thunderstorm. ### Title The album's title Shin-shiro was intended to represent the kanji 新白, a neologism created by Yamaguchi meaning "new white", although it could also be interpreted as the homonym 真白 ("pure white"). Yamaguchi hoped to express how the album was compiled with new feelings, and express the theme of the album as newness. The word "shin-shiro" first appeared in Ichiro Yamaguchi's blog in February 2008, right after the release of Night Fishing. The cover design was created by the creative team Hatos, and features a waveform visual representation of the album title "Shin-shiro" being spoken. ## Promotion and release The album was preceded by two singles. "Sen to Rei" was released on November 12, 2008, and later as the band's first physical CD single release on December 10. This was followed by a digital single "Native Dancer" in January 2009. "Native Dancer" served as the leading promotional track on Shin-shiro, promoted with a music video directed by Yuichi Kodama, featuring a pair of Nike sneakers performing an intricate dance. The video was critically successful, winning the best conceptual video award at the 2010 Space Shower Music Video Awards, and winning director Kodama the overall best director award. The band performed a national tour of Japan in February and March 2009, entitled Sakanaquarium 2009: Shinshiro. The 13 date tour began in Kyoto on February 14, and ended with two performances in Sapporo on March 20 and 21. Following this, Sakanaction performed at three dates on Base Ball Bear's Live Mathematics Tour: April 29 in Kōriyama, Fukushima, April 30 in Mito, Ibaraki and on May 7 in Kōfu, Yamanashi. On October 10, Sakanaction performed their first overseas concert, the Gentra X Ssamzie Sound Festival in Paju, South Korea. In 2015 the album was reissued, initially on vinyl record and a CD re-release in March, followed by a lossless digital release. Originally the band had planned on releasing a new studio album in March 2015, but they could not due to bassist Kusakari's pregnancy. ## Reception ### Retrospective In a retrospective interview on the album with Rockin' On Japan in 2011, Yamaguchi believed that many aspects of Sakanaction were not represented on the album, and felt that songs such as "Light Dance", "Zattō" and "Enough" only showed surface-level Sakanaction. The album's comparative commercial success created an odd feeling for the band, as even though it sold many more copies than their previous works, they were not sure why it had stopped selling at 30,000 copies. As a result of the album's disappointing sales, Yamaguchi felt that Sakanaction needed to create a signature song that would be recognisable to a wide audience and would represent Sakanaction as a band, and spent most of 2009 experimenting on the song "Aruku Around" (2010), released as the band's next single after Shin-shiro. ### Critical reception Critics positively reviewed Shin-shiro, with both CDJournal and Vibe reviewers noting the strong contrast to their first two studio albums. Mio Yamada of Vibe wrote that the album was completely different direction to their previous albums, feeling it was more accessible, while CDJournal felt that the album was more "colorful" and "radical". Yamada described it as a "Sakanaction-style road movie" about finding yourself, while being lonely, anxious and fed up with the tedium of everyday. Shirō Ise of Listen.jp noted the album's "high sense and edgy sound" based on "electronica and guitar rock", while being inspired by a variety of genres such as 1990s alternative rock, new wave, technopop, house, ambient music and African-American music. He praised the fact that despite how many genres the music was inspired by, the band's music did not forget the heart of songs. CDJournal praised the fact that each song stands on its own musically, instead of being drowned out by the album's overarching digital sound. Yuji Tanaka of CDJournal described the album as "dynamic technotronica rock" that fused the feel of live music with four on the floor beats. Alexey Eremenko of AllMusic gave the album four or of five stars, comparing it to the works of Asian Kung-Fu Generation. He felt that Sakanaction created "a fresh version of new wave", and felt that the album was "emotionally cohesive". He felt that none of the songs on Shin-shiro were "big catchy numbers", but felt that this was beneficial for the musical flow. Eremenko, however, criticized the album for being "too lightweight". For the leading single "Sen to Rei", CDJournal reviewers praised Sakanaction's "ever-changing sound", and were impressed with the changing vocals in the song's chorus. They noted that the song was not very "showy", however felt that despite this, Sakanaction still expressed a "high quality hybrid" sound. Sakiko Okazaki of Rockin' On Japan praised the song's high-pitched synthesizers, fast-paced guitars, groovy bass and heart-hitting drums, and felt the song expressed the vigor of Sakanaction. CDJournal praised Yamaguchi's "mostly detached but somehow cheerful vocals" in "Ame (B)", and felt that "Light Dance" was an "addictive, danceable number", and were impressed with the song's guitar solo, as well as how the digital sound brought up feelings of impatience and doubt. They noted the gap in "Native Dancer" between its dance rhythm and painful lyrical content, and were impressed with its transition from a "nostalgic" piano sound, developing into a dance song. For the instrumental track "Minnanouta", the reviewers praised the arrangement as "marvelous techno", and noted the song's distinctive sound loop, that "called out intoxication and ecstasy". Kuniko Yamada of Bounce felt the album was "fresh", and demonstrated the many senses that Sakanaction members had. She noted that the band were also comfortable in producing "guitar rock" songs such as "Sen to Rei", and that the four on the floor such as "Adventure" and "Ame (B)" would be comfortable on the dance floor. She singled out "Native Dancer" for its "beautiful fusion of acoustic and synth sounds", and felt that "Zattō" managed to be profound despite its simple arrangement. In February, Sakanaction were named as one of the ten iTunes Japan Sound of 2009 artists: musicians who iTunes Japan staff expected to make it big in 2009. At Life Music Award 2009, a Tokyo FM competition based on radio DJ nominations, Sakanaction were the runners up for the Best Impact of Life award for most surprising act, however lost to 9mm Parabellum Bullet. In the 2009 CD Shop Awards, the album was chosen as one of the ten finalists. ### Commercial reception In its debut week, Shin-shiro was the eighth most sold album in Japan according to the Japanese music chart Oricon, selling 12,000 copies. This resulted in the band having their first top fifty release, and outselling their first two albums in a single week. Rival sales tracking agency SoundScan Japan tracked 10,000 physical copies sold in the single's first week, and a total of 16,000 copies over two weeks. The album continued to chart in the top 100 albums for four more weeks, and the top 300 for an additional three, selling an additional 16,000 units. During the release of the band's single "Aruku Around" in January 2010, the album re-charted for a seven weeks, selling an additional 4,000 copies. After re-entering the chart for a single week in 2012 and being reissued in 2015, the album's current sales total adds to 34,000 copies. In tracking regional sales, CDJournal noted the album had broad charting success across all of Japan, and was the band's first album to perform well in the regional centers of Nagoya, Osaka and Fukuoka. ## Track listing ## Personnel Personnel details were sourced from Shin-shiros liner notes booklet. Sakanaction - All members – arrangement, production, composition (#5) - Keiichi Ejima – drums - Motoharu Iwadera – guitar - Ami Kusakari – bass guitar - Emi Okazaki – keyboards - Ichiro Yamaguchi – vocals, guitar, lyrics, composition (#1-4, \#6-11) Personnel and imagery' - Toshihiko Fujimi – executive producer - Hatos – artwork - Kenji Ishida – hair, make-up - Kentaro Ishikawa – A&R - Daisuke Ishizaka – photography - Ted Jensen – mastering (reissued edition) - Satoshi Kamata – executive producer - Kamikene – art direction, design - Yuka Koizumi – mastering - Yujiro Mitsugi – manager - Tatsuya Nomura – executive producer (Hip Land Music Corporation) - Normalization – artwork - Yuzuru Tomita – cooperative keyboard arrangement (#1, \#2, \#4, \#10) - Masashi Uramoto – mixing, recording - Wataru Woka – A&R ## Charts ### Sales ## Release history
63,598,250	You Go to My Head (film)	1,159,194,823	2017 romantic thriller film	[ "2010s Dutch-language films", "2010s French-language films", "2010s romantic thriller films", "2017 directorial debut films", "2017 films", "Films shot in Morocco" ]	You Go to My Head is a 2017 romantic thriller film, directed and produced by Dimitri de Clercq. The film was produced under the banner of CRM-114 and The Terminal. The film stars Delfine Bafort, Svetozar Cvetković, and Arend Pinoy. The plot revolves around a woman who is suffering from post-traumatic amnesia. The film premiered at the WorldFest-Houston International Film Festival on 27 April 2017. The film won numerous awards, including Best Directing and Special Jury Award at the WorldFest-Houston International Film Festival. It subsequently won Best Foreign Feature and Best Actress - Feature Film at the 2018 Twister Alley Film Festival. The film has received generally favourable reviews from film critics, with review-aggregation websites Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic giving 67 percent and 69 percent positive reviews, respectively. ## Synopsis A woman is lost in the Sahara desert after a car accident. She is found by Jake, an architect, and taken to the nearest doctor, who discovers that the woman is suffering from post-traumatic amnesia. Jake claims that he is her husband and names her Kitty. He takes her to his desert home so she can recover. The woman struggles to understand who she is, and she starts to fall in love with Jake. However, when her past begins to surface, Jake increasingly begins to fear losing her. ## Cast Credits adapted from Rotten Tomatoes. - Delfine Bafort as Dafne / Kitty - Svetozar Cvetkovic as Jake - Arend Pinoy as Ben ## Production You Go to My Head was the directorial debut for the producer Dimitri de Clercq. It was entirely filmed in Morocco, with four key crew and three actors. De Clercq wrote the script with the actor Delfine Bafort in mind, and described her as "the soul and spirit behind [the film]". When he approached Bafort to play the lead role, she agreed to act in the film under the condition that she would receive the screenplay. When de Clercq and Matt Steigbigel developed the film's plot, the first draft was more "graphically violent than the script used for the film". The actor Svetozar Cvetković was approached by co-producer Zoran Tasic a few weeks before principal photography began. According to the director, he was "very taken by the story", and immediately agreed to play the lead role. De Clercq said that the desert was "key in inspiring [him] to make this film". He compared his other films Earth and Ashes (2004) and Son of Babylon (2009), both of which were filmed in deserts, to You Go to My Head. De Clercq collaborated with Stijn Grupping as director of photography, having worked with him on a previous film shot in Morocco. The film does not use any artificial lights. De Clercq has described You Go to My Head as a "dream" film. When discussing her nudity in the film, Bafort said: "In my nudity, I wanted to feel free. I imagined the sun was my protection. After a while, shame disappears. It wasn’t easy, but I felt more and more connected to nature. In order to find my character, I tried to see and experience my surroundings as if for the first time." She further added that she never felt awkward or uncomfortable with intimate scenes with Cvetkovic, because he made her feel at ease. The post-production work was finished in Munich, Germany. ## Release The film premiered at the WorldFest-Houston International Film Festival on 27 April 2017, where it won the Best Directing and Special Jury awards. In its opening weekend, You Go to My Head was screened in one theatre, grossing \$5,864. In its second weekend, the film was screened in two theatres, grossing \$2,398, an average of \$1,199 per theatre. You Go to My Head has grossed \$10,682 worldwide. ### Critical response On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 60 percent based on ten reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 69 out of 100 based on six critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film's visuals and the lead actors' performances, writing "the movie nonetheless casts a spell, thanks to the hypnotic visuals [...] and the very effective, understated performances by the two leads". Kimber Myers of the Los Angeles Times found aspects of the film problematic, stating that "there's an interesting approach to the standard amnesia story somewhere in this languidly paced drama, but it largely seems engineered to show its lead actress nude for the pleasure of her much-older 'husband,' the director himself and those in the audience unconcerned with Kitty as a human being". Andrew Stover of Film Threat praised the cinematography of the film, writing, "It is a breathtaking, yet deadly location with vistas, ancient sites, and bodies of water." Joe Leydon of Variety praised Bafort for her performance in the film, stating that her "lithe and expressive physicality serve her well while playing a woman skittishly awakening to a world she doesn't remember". The pacing was criticised by Elizabeth Weitzman of TheWrap, who wrote: "There's nothing wrong with a movie that follows its own, insistently deliberate pace. If there is no satisfying end goal, however, an iconoclastic approach quickly shifts from artistic depth to empty posing". Shilpa Sebastian of The Hindu wrote, "Even though Dimitri has dominantly used the desert sand, huge white walls (of Jake's house) as the backdrop, the imagery created is a class apart and lingers in your mind." ### Accolades
61,512,949	Coat of arms of Sevastopol	1,173,050,621	Heraldic symbol of the city of Sevastopol, Crimea	[ "Coats of arms of cities in Ukraine", "Coats of arms with stars", "Culture in Sevastopol", "Municipal coats of arms in Russia" ]	The coat of arms of Sevastopol is a heraldic symbol representing the city of Sevastopol, Crimea. It is featured in the middle of the flag of Sevastopol on a red background. From 21 July 1893, until the October Revolution in 1917, Sevastopol, under the Russian Empire, used a royal coat of arms, which featured the monograms of Tsars Nicholas I and Alexander II. The royal coat of arms was disposed by the Soviet Union, and the city went without an official coat of arms until 1969. On 12 February 1969, city council approved a new design containing the Gold Star medal and a silhouette of the Monument to the Sunken Ships. Following the independence of Ukraine, the Representative of the President of Ukraine in Sevastopol, Ivan Fedosovich Yermakov [ru] began a review of the previous coat of arms in 1992. A jury decided to return to the royal coat of arms used in the 19th century. A legal technicality, where the decision by the city council to approve the previous coat of arms went unreverted, resulted in the city having two official coat of arms until 2000. On 21 April 2000, Sevastopol City Council passed resolution number 518 titled "О гербе города-героя Севастополя" (On the coat of arms of the Hero City of Sevastopol), which legitimized the Soviet-era design as the city's only official coat of arms. As a result of the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea, the city no longer had an official coat of arms. Since then, several attempts were made to reconfirm either of the previous designs, but to no avail. On 1 November 2018, Governor Dmitry Ovsyannikov made a decree allowing the Soviet-era design to be used as the city's coat of arms until the Legislative Assembly of Sevastopol approves a design. The Soviet-era design, although popular with residents, has been struck down by the Legislative Assembly on July 3, 2019, due to the criticisms on its design by the Heraldic Council of the President of the Russian Federation. ## History ### 19th century In the 1800s, the citizens of Sevastopol created their own coat of arms (pictured) and used it unofficially until a submission of the emblem was presented to city council in 1892. The council approved the design in 1893, and on 21 July 1893, the Russian Empire's department of Heroldia approved the emblem to be used as the city's official coat of arms. #### Design The escutcheon is a square top with a "French" base. The canton features the coat of arms for the Taurida Governorate. The rest of the shield depicts an argent griffin on a gules field. The crest contains another sable double-headed eagle with two imperial crowns and one enlarged between the two heads, representative of the Russian Empire—the crowns are tied together with the ribbon of the Order of Saint Andrew. The eagle sits on top of an or crown of the city's mayor. The Ribbon of Saint George surrounds the shield, entangling two diagonally crossed anchors, symbolizing the port city, and two flag poles. The flag poles contain gules banners featuring the monograms of Tsars Nicholas I (left) and Alexander II (right) enclosed by the chain of the Order of Saint Andrew. ### 20th century As a result of the October Revolution in 1917, Sevastopol lost its royal coat of arms. The city went fifty-two years without an official coat of arms until a design contest was held for a new emblem. Council approved the Soviet-era design on 12 February 1969, submitted by Sergei Shakhunov and Nadezhda Krylova. In October 1992, the Representative of the President of Ukraine in Sevastopol, Ivan Fedosovich Yermakov [ru] started a review of the city's coat of arms. The jury reverted to the royal emblem without reverting the previous approval, thus the city had two official coats of arms until 2000. On 21 May 1997, Ukraine passed the law regarding local self-government. Article 22 dictated that villages, towns, and cities may have their own symbols, flags, and coat of arms reflecting their own historical traditions and cultures as determined by local council. On 21 April 2000, Sevastopol City Council passed resolution number 518 titled "О гербе города-героя Севастополя" (On the coat of arms of the Hero City of Sevastopol), which made the Soviet-era design the official and only coat of arms of the city. #### Design The escutcheon shape features a square top with a "French" base. The field is divided party per bend, or diagonally from the upper left to the lower right, with an azure dexter base, which represents the sea, and an argent sinister chief, which represents the white stone of Inkerman. The azure corner features a silhouette of the Monument to the Sunken Ships, while the argent corner contains a Gold Star medal, symbolic of the victory during the Second World War. An or laurel branch stretches between the two partitions in the sinister base. Alternatively, some versions of the coat of arms feature the ribbon of the Order of Saint Andrew and a banner with the Russian word for Sevastopol, Севастополь. #### Usage The coat of arms of Sevastopol is the primary feature of the flag of Sevastopol appearing in the centre of a red field. It is also shown on the fuselage of Ka-27 and Mi-8 helicopters in Russia's Black Sea Fleet. ### 21st century Following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014, the city no longer had an official coat of arms. The Heraldic Council of the President of the Russian Federation approved the option to revert to the previous monarchical coat of arms with the addition of the Gold Star medal as the emblem's order. On 6 February 2015, deputy Alexander Kovshar presented Bill No. 19/102 to the Legislative Assembly of Sevastopol, proposing that the city's official coat of arms be a variant of the monarchical version chosen in 1893, excluding the Tauridan coat of arms, and adding the Gold Star as its order. The bill sparked an uproar among residents because of the lack of consultation. An appeal was made in March 2015, to the government and was signed by numerous citizens and notable residents. The appeal demands that the Legislative Assembly immediately recall the bill, discuss the feasibility of implementing a brand new coat of arms, and have a Russian-wide competition to decide upon said new coat of arms. Vasily Parkhomenko [ru], the Chairman of Sevastopol City Council when the resolution 518 was passed to approve the Soviet-era design, was among the signatories. The bill was recalled on 19 October 2015. Chairwoman of the Legislative Assembly, Yekaterina Altabaeva [ru], announced that a referendum on the coat of arms was planned for March 18, alongside the 2018 Russian presidential election, however it was later cancelled due to time constraints. On 25 May 2018, the City of Sevastopol unveiled an online poll asking residents which design they preferred to be the city's official coat of arms. 79% preferred the Soviet-era design, 18% favoured the Russian Empire-era design, while 3% wished for a brand new coat of arms. On 8 June 2018, a bill was tabled to the Legislative Assembly, which would have legitimized the design chosen in 2000, as the city's official coat of arms. On 20 June 2018, the heraldic council objected to the proposal due to its violation of heraldic design principals. Infringements include the gold border, which indicates the city is of a lower status, contradictory of Sevastopol's city of federal importance status; the Gold Star, which is in the field instead of the shield's order or support; the image of the Monument to the Sunken Ships; the structure of the shield, which is interpreted as combining two emblems into one shield, contradictory of the city's history; and the imposition of the Gold Star and laurel branch on a silver background, which violates the Rule of tincture where a metal (or) may not be placed on another metal (argent). The Legislative Assembly, on July 20, rejected the bill with ten votes in favour (one away from the eleven minimum required to pass); chairwoman Altabaeva cited the heraldic council's conclusions for the rejection and insisted the decision should be decided via referendum. Supporters of the royal coat of arms criticise the Soviet-era design's socialist imagery, while supporters of the Soviet-era emblem feel as though they are having a royal coat of arms imposed on them. On 1 November 2018, Governor Dmitry Ovsyannikov made a decree allowing the Soviet-era design to be used as the city's coat of arms until the appropriate laws are put in place. On 3 July 2019, he introduced a bill to the Legislative Assembly, which again attempted to confirm the Soviet-era emblem as the official coat of arms. The bill was rejected on the basis of the Heraldic Council's previous analysis of the coat of arms.
7,521,392	Belgium at the 1998 Winter Olympics	1,094,159,749	null	[ "1998 in Belgian sport", "Belgium at the Winter Olympics by year", "Nations at the 1998 Winter Olympics" ]	Belgium sent a delegation to compete at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan from 7–22 February 1998. The nation was represented by only one athlete, speed skater Bart Veldkamp. He won a bronze medal in the men's 5,000 metres race. With that bronze medal, Belgium finished in joint 22nd place on the medal table. ## Background Belgium has been participating in the Olympic movement almost since the beginning, with their first appearance coming at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris. They have competed in every Winter Olympic Games except for the 1960 and 1968 editions. Coming into Nagano, they had won four medals in Winter Olympic competition, but none since the 1948 Winter Olympics. The only Belgian representative to qualify for Nagano was speed skater Bart Veldkamp, who had previously won medals in the 10,000 metres race in both Albertville and Lillehammer. Conrad Alleblas, Veldkamp's manager, was chosen as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony. ## Medalists With one bronze medal, Belgium ranked a joint 22nd in the medal table. ## Speed skating Bard Veldkamp was 30 years old at the time of the Nagano Olympics. Although Veldkamp was born in the Netherlands, he chose to take Belgian nationality in 1996 to make it easier to qualify for major competitions. Veldkamp had won gold for the Netherlands at the 1992 Winter Olympics and bronze for the Netherlands at the 1994 Winter Olympics, and would go on to represent Belgium at the 2002 Winter Olympics and the 2006 Winter Olympics. On 8 February, he took part in the 5,000 metres race. He went out early and set a new world record, only for two more world records to be set that day, leaving him in third place and the winner of the bronze medal. On 12 February, despite being a distance specialist, he participated in the 1,500 metres, and finished 17th with a time of 1 minute and 51.73 seconds. In the 10,000 metres, on 17 February, he skated in the final pairing, and finished fourth with a time of 13 minutes and 29 seconds, which was less than a second and a half behind the bronze medal time.
33,602,644	St Cynfarwy's Church, Llechgynfarwy	1,081,711,499	null	[ "15th-century church buildings in Wales", "19th-century Church in Wales church buildings", "Church in Wales church buildings", "Churches completed in 1867", "Grade II listed churches in Anglesey", "Tref Alaw" ]	St Cynfarwy's Church is a medieval parish church in Llechgynfarwy, Anglesey, north Wales. The first church in the vicinity was established by St Cynfarwy (a 7th-century saint about whom little is known) in about 630, but no structure from that time survives. The present building contains a 12th-century baptismal font, indicating the presence of a church at that time, although extensive rebuilding in 1867 removed the datable features of the previous edifice. It is a Grade II listed building, a national designation given to "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them", in particular because it is "a simple, rural church of Medieval origins". The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales, one of nine in a combined parish, although there has not been an incumbent priest since September 2009. ## History and location St Cynfarwy's Church is set within a churchyard at the side of the road in the centre of Llechgynfarwy, a hamlet in Anglesey, north Wales. The settlement is in the countryside about 6 miles (10 km) to the north-west of Llangefni, the county town, and about 10 miles (16 km) from the port of Holyhead. According to the 19th-century Anglesey historian Angharad Llwyd, the first church was established here by St Cynfarwy in about 630. The date of the present structure is uncertain, although one 19th-century historian suggested that it might be from the 15th century. There was a church here before the 15th century, however, since the font is from the 12th century and a church was recorded in this location in the Norwich Taxation of 1254. On 5 November 1349, the possessions of the deceased clergyman who had been the incumbent priest of Llechgynfarwy were dealt with by an inquisition at Beaumaris, Anglesey – one of several dead clergymen whose goods were considered that day. According to the historian Antony Carr, the timing suggests that the priests had been victims of the Black Death, and he notes that "the clergy as a class were hit particularly hard" by it. A chapel was added on the south side of the building in 1664. St Cynfarwy's was largely reconstructed in 1867 under Henry Kennedy, the architect of the Diocese of Bangor. Kennedy's work, which rebuilt the church "almost from the foundations" in the words of a 2009 guide to the buildings of the region, left no datable features. When Llwyd described the church in 1833, she called it a "spacious and handsome cruciform edifice", with transepts on the north and south sides; there is nothing on the north side of the present building apart from the porch in the north-west corner, added by Kennedy in 1867. St Cynfarwy's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales, and is one of nine churches in the combined benefice of Bodedern with Llanfaethlu. As of 2012, the nine churches do not have an incumbent priest, and the position has been vacant since September 2009. The church is within the deanery of Llifon and Talybolion, the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor. People associated with the church include Owen Humphrey Davies, a 19th-century composer, conductor and quarry worker, who became a clergyman in his late forties. He was rector of the church from 1895 until his death in 1898. ## Architecture and fittings St Cynfarwy's is built in Early Decorated style using rubble masonry dressed with freestone. The roof is made from slate and has a stone bellcote decorated with Tudor roses at the west end. The arched inner door of the porch (which was added by Kennedy in 1867), with its "ornate hinges", leads into the north-west corner of the nave. Inside, the 19th-century roof with its exposed woodwork can be seen above the nave and chancel, which together measure 40 feet 3 inches by 16 ft 9 inches (12.3 by 5.1 m). There is no structural division between them, apart from two steps that lead up into the chancel. The 17th-century chapel is on the south side of the church, and the wooden trusses of its roof can also be seen. There are external buttresses to support the structure at the north-east corner and alongside the porch. The north wall of the church has a window of two lights (sections of window separated by mullions; the Perpendicular-style window in the south wall has three lights topped with trefoils (a pattern of three overlapping circles) set in a rectangular frame. The south wall of the chapel has a two-light window in an arch. Above it, there is a stone with the date "1664" and the initials "W B". These are the initials of William Bold, a member of the family owning an estate and house about 1 mile (2 km) from the church. The east window has two lights with three trefoils in the decorative stone tracery at the top, set in an arched frame with a hoodmould on the outer wall. Geometric patterns of stained glass, dating from about 1860, decorate the east window. A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire also noted a brass plate by the north nave window commemorating the 18th-century bequest of a Catherine Roberts to "two old housekeepers of unblemished character". The 12th-century stone font, which is 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter and 13 inches (33 cm) high, has a small circular bowl decorated with four panels carved with saltire crosses; a fifth panel is plain. It is set on a 19th-century base at the west end of the church. Monuments include one in the south chapel to Helen Bold (died 1631), the mother of William Bold. It has a large inscribed brass plate set in marble showing the genealogical links between the Bold family and the Tudor dynasty. There are two 18th-century memorials on the north wall of the nave, less elaborate than the Bold memorial. A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 said that the church's chalice, dated 1632, was "an interesting and very rare example" from the time of King Charles I (reigned 1625–1649), and had "a mixture of characteristics of different periods." It has a hexagonal stem engraved in medieval style, with a base depicting the Crucifixion and a more modern "engraved feather-like decoration". The inscription and coat of arms record that it was donated by William Bold. It measures just under 8 inches (20 cm) high and is about 3.25 inches (8 cm) in diameter. The survey also noted a 19th-century silver eight-sided paten, decorated with similar engravings to the chalice. ## Assessment St Cynfarwy's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing, designating "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them". It was given this status on 12 May 1970, and has been listed because it is regarded as "a simple, rural church of Medieval origin." Cadw (the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists) also notes that although the church retains some medieval fabric and has some features that date from the 17th century, it "is largely of 19th-century character", calling it "a simple vernacular building".
22,867,588	Bill Schmeisser	1,163,042,041	Lacrosse player, coach, and patron (1880–1941)	[ "1880 births", "1941 deaths", "20th-century American lawyers", "American lacrosse players", "Baltimore City College alumni", "Johns Hopkins Blue Jays men's lacrosse coaches", "Johns Hopkins Blue Jays men's lacrosse players", "Lacrosse players from Baltimore", "Maryland lawyers", "Mount Washington Lacrosse Club players", "University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law alumni", "YMCA leaders" ]	William Christian Schmeisser (August 4, 1880 – July 1, 1941), known widely as "Father Bill", was an American lacrosse player, coach, and patron. He served as the head coach of the Johns Hopkins Blue Jays for ten non-consecutive years, and won eight national championships. He was also an active patron of the sport and promoter of its development. He helped found the highly successful amateur Mount Washington Lacrosse Club. Schmeisser viewed his role in the sport as altruistic, and he never received monetary compensation for coaching. ## Education He was born on August 4, 1880, in Baltimore, Maryland, and attended high school at Baltimore City College, from which he graduated in 1899. He received his undergraduate college education at Johns Hopkins University and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1902. While at Hopkins, Schmeisser played as a defenseman on the lacrosse team from 1900 to 1902. He was also a member of the Beta Mu chapter of Phi Gamma Delta. Schmeisser returned to Johns Hopkins for graduate study in the field of political economy, and played an additional year of lacrosse, in 1905. In 1907, he graduated from the school of law at the University of Maryland, Baltimore. ## Role in lacrosse In 1902, he served as team captain and as a co-coach for Johns Hopkins alongside Ronald T. Abercrombie. That season, the team was awarded the Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (ILA) national championship. The following year, Schmeisser became the sole head coach, and the team again garnered the ILA championship. He returned to Hopkins as its head lacrosse coach from 1905 to 1909. Schmeisser took the position again from 1923 to 1925, and Johns Hopkins secured the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (USILA) championships in 1923 and 1924. Schmeisser helped organize and played on the Mount Washington Lacrosse Club, a highly successful Baltimore-based amateur team. Since there was no professional league, many former college lacrosse stars played for Mount Washington. The club regularly participated in exhibition games against the top intercollegiate programs and very rarely lost. In 1904, Schmeisser and Abercrombie co-authored Lacrosse: From Candidate to Team, a book which became the sport's standard text for the next fifty years. He also helped promote lacrosse at the University of Maryland and the Naval Academy. Schmeisser was known to often carry a furled umbrella on the sidelines, regardless of the weather, and he stated that his reason for doing so was, "This way I know it won't rain." In 1919, he helped start the tradition in which flags bearing gold stars are attached to the goals prior to the season opener. This was first done to honor three former Hopkins players who were killed in action during the First World War. The tradition has continued to date and additional stars have been added for players killed in the Second World War and Viet Nam. In 1928, Johns Hopkins won a postseason tournament to represent the United States in a lacrosse exhibition event during the Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, and Schmeisser accompanied the team as an assistant coach. He also traveled to England in 1937 alongside the all-star team. In 1941, just two months before his death, Schmeisser convinced the undefeated Johns Hopkins team to accept a challenge from the likewise undefeated Mount Washington Club. The Blue Jays edged their opponents, 7–6. Schmeisser was a long-time official of the USILA, and he held positions that included member of the rules committee, chief referee, and president. US Lacrosse, the American sport's governing body, inducted him into the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame in 1957. He was inducted into the Johns Hopkins University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1995. He is also the namesake of the William C. Schmeisser Award, which is given annually to the most outstanding defenseman in NCAA Division I men's lacrosse. ## Professional life Schmeisser was an attorney by trade and never accepted payment for his coaching. After earning his undergraduate degree, he worked first as a bank clerk and then as a law clerk. His next job was as an attorney for the Willis and Homer firm. Later in his career, he ran his own law firm and was a member of the American Bar Association, the Maryland State Bar Association, and the Bar Association of Baltimore City. Schmeisser also served sixteen years on the board of directors of the YMCA's Baltimore Branch and as president from 1938 to 1941. He married Isabel Wooldrige, with whom he had two children, a son and a daughter. Schmeisser died on July 1, 1941, at Union Memorial Hospital in Baltimore after a month-long illness.
54,143,490	Macedonian Mule Corps	1,158,030,376	null	[ "Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War", "British Cyprus", "Macedonian front", "Military history of Cyprus", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1919", "Military units and formations established in 1916", "Military units and formations of the British Army in World War I", "Mules", "Non-combatant military personnel", "Transport units and formations" ]	The Macedonian Mule Corps (Greek: Μακεδονικόν Μεταγωγικόν Σώμα) was a formation of the British Salonika Army consisting primarily of Cypriot muleteers and their mules. The unit was established in 1916 and dissolved in March 1919. During its service it provided crucial logistical support to the Allied war effort on the Macedonian front and the Southern Russia intervention. 12,288 Cypriots served in the corps, 3,000 of whom received bronze British War Medals. ## Background At the outbreak of the First World War, Cyprus was nominally a part of the Ottoman Empire, while in fact being administered by the British Empire, as agreed in the Cyprus Convention of 1878. On 5 November 1914, the Ottomans entered the conflict on the side of the Central Powers, prompting Britain to void the Cyprus Convention and annex the island, as the two states were now at war. A number of security measures, including telegraph censorship and martial law, were introduced, although Cyprus remained relatively isolated from the Macedonian front, Gallipoli Campaign, Sinai and Palestine Campaigns. As it did not possess harbors large enough to accommodate large warships, local authorities shifted their focus to supplying the fronts in its periphery with food, as well as housing those wounded in actions, prisoners of war as well as refugees. During the course of the Crimean War (1853–1856), French merchants had acquired mules from the island for the French expeditionary force. By the time of the British occupation of the island, Cypriot mules had already cemented their reputation as both sturdy pack animals and an alternative to polo ponies. Cypriot mules were later purchased during the Greek army's mobilization of 1880, and during the Mahdist War by the British themselves, who also recruited local muleteers. Starting from the middle of the 1880s, Cypriot mules were exported to India. In 1902, 128 mules were dispatched to South Africa in support of the British forces fighting in the Second Boer War. In December 1910, the Cypriot Breeding Committee began importing horses and mules from the Middle East in order to improve the quality of the local breeds. British General Staff reports dating to 1907 and 1913 respectively described the Cypriot mules as particularly docile and adapted to mountain warfare. ## Service On 24 April 1916, the commander of the British Salonika Army, Bryan Mahon, stated that for his advance towards the Greco–Serbian frontier to succeed, the recruitment of 1,676 pack animals and 1,232 muleteers per division was needed. The rough terrain, limited infrastructure and underdeveloped railway network of Macedonia necessitated the use of pack animals for military logistics. On 24 May, the British ambassador to Greece, Francis Elliot, requested the high commissioner of Cyprus, John Eugene Clauson, to raise a force of 7,000 Cypriot muleteers for the Macedonian Front in order to augment the British Salonika Army. Three days later, the British H.Q. in Salonika sent another inquiry, urgently requesting 3,000 Cypriot muleteers. The National Schism in then-neutral Greece had frustrated British efforts to recruit locals from among the pro–Triple Entente faction, with the Greek prime minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, stating that he could not guarantee that the British would be allowed to continue their recruitment drive. On 24 June, a belated reply from the British War Office ordered Clauson to purchase 2,000 mules and recruit 500 men to command them, this period of inaction drew the criticism of the Colonial Office. On 25 July, the first group of 150 muleteers disembarked at Salonika. On 27 July, 3,000 additional Cypriot muleteers (with a ratio of 1 foreman per 20 muleteers) were urgently solicited for the Macedonian Front. In the meantime, a Mule Purchasing Commission had been established in Famagusta, under the supervision of Major L. Sisman. On 2 August, 796 muleteers arrived at Salonika, 500 joining the XII Corps and 196 the XVI Corps. On 14 August, Clauson issued an order concerning the mandatory requisitioning mules for military purposes under martial law. From July until November, 2,750 mules, 1,200 donkeys and 140 ponies were sent to Salonika. By July 1919, over 3,500 mules and 3,000 donkeys had been exported. A number of rudimentary recruitment posters and leaflets were issued starting in summer of 1916; the posters were issued in English, Greek and Turkish. British recruiters used pro-Enosis rhetoric in order to increase the number of Greek Cypriot recruits, using references to “Macedonian brothers” and “eternal enemies”. The recruiters also falsely promised that the muleteers would stay away from the frontlines. Those interested were invited to the recruitment camps situated at Paphos, Limassol, Nicosia, Kyrenia and Famagusta. As of 6 November, 3,496 Cypriots had joined the corps in the capacity of muleteers, saddlers, farriers, coachmen, foremen and interpreters; signing up for 12 month contracts. Despite the opposition of the Turkish Cypriot political leadership to the war, by 1918 approximately 11% of the recruits were members of the Turkish Cypriot community. On 18 October, special legislation banned emigration for Cypriot males of conscription age in order to halt the mass migration of Cypriots to the USA. Passports that were already issued were subsequently revoked. The ranks of the Macedonian Mule Corps personnel were distinguished by an arm brassard bearing the letters "MMC" and a cap badge. Recruits underwent 15 days of basic training while in Cyprus, and were provided further mule and weapons training upon arriving in Salonika. Although officially muleteers were unarmed, a MMC veteran claimed that they were given Lee–Enfield rifles for the purpose of self defense. A crucial factor in the drive's success was the high wages (90 drachmas per month), free food and clothing offered, as well as the fact that the muleteers were registered as camp followers under the Army Act. In July 1917, the Mule Purchasing Commission was renamed into the Muleteer Recruiting and Staff Purchasing Commission, shifting its focus towards the recruiting of manpower. During the course of the campaign, Cypriot muleteers were tasked with transporting food, weapons, ammunition and water to the front as well as carrying injured soldiers back and working on road construction. The animals and their handlers endured harsh conditions, such as navigating swamps, rivers and mountain terrain during the night and under freezing temperatures. Following the end of World War I many members of the corps extended their contracts. Cypriots were subsequently stationed at Varna, Gallipoli, Constantinople, Serres, Doiran, Serbia and other locales. Others participated in the Allied Southern Russia intervention, during the Russian Civil War. ## Aftermath The Corps was dissolved in March 1919. By that time, 12,288 men had served in the unit, or approximately 20% of the Cypriot male population between the ages of 18 and 39. The Corps played a crucial role in the logistics of the British and French armies on the Macedonian Front, contributing to the eventual Allied victory. The veterans of the Macedonian Mule Corps received 3,000 bronze British War Medals. Approximately 40 graves of Cypriot muleteers are scattered in British war cemeteries located in Macedonia, Sofia, Constantinople and Georgia. At the conclusion of the war most of the mules were sold to Macedonian civilians, although some were shipped to Egypt and later on to Anton Denikin's Anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army which was at the time fighting in the Russian Civil War. ## See also - Chinese Labour Corps - Maltese Labour Corps
33,638,973	Kit Mueller	1,171,732,974	American basketball player	[ "1970s births", "American expatriate basketball people in Switzerland", "American men's basketball players", "Basketball players from DuPage County, Illinois", "Centers (basketball)", "Living people", "People from Downers Grove, Illinois", "Princeton Tigers men's basketball players" ]	Christopher J. "Kit" Mueller (born c. 1969) is a retired American basketball player. He played high school basketball in the Chicago metropolitan area for Downers Grove South High School. Subsequently, he starred for the Princeton Tigers men's basketball team, where he was a two-time Ivy League Men's Basketball Player of the Year (1990 and 1991) and three-time first team All-Ivy League player (1989, 1990 and 1991) as a center. He was also a two-time Academic All-America selection. As an All-Ivy League performer, he led his team to three consecutive Ivy League Championships and NCAA Division I men's basketball tournaments. He matriculated to Princeton University, after an injury late in his senior year caused other Division I schools to withdraw their offers. As of 2011, he continues to rank second and fourth in school history in career assists (381) and points (1546), respectively. He led the team in rebounds all four seasons and in points, assists and blocked shots three times each. He led the Ivy League in field goal percentage three times and ranks third all-time in Princeton history in that statistic for his career. The team earned three consecutive Ivy League championships during his career, including an undefeated conference record during his senior season. Despite the team's success and his individual accolades, his Princeton tenure was punctuated by three NCAA tournament first round losses by a total of seven points, most notably the March 17, 1989 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament first round 50–49 Georgetown vs. Princeton men's basketball game loss to the number-one seeded Georgetown Hoyas team featuring Alonzo Mourning and Dikembe Mutombo as well as 1989 Big East Conference Men's Basketball Player of the Year Charles Smith. After his collegiate career ended, Mueller played professional basketball in Switzerland. Then he returned to Chicago, where he became a hedge fund trader. In Chicago, he has played amateur 3-on-3 basketball with other Ivy League athletes at national competitions. ## High school Mueller attended Downers Grove South High School. As a freshman, he led the sophomore team with 18 points per game. He came off the bench for the varsity team as a sophomore to average 10 points per game as a 6-foot-3-inch (1.91 m) 185-pound (84 kg) forward. He grew 2 inches (5.1 cm) and 20 pounds (9.1 kg) prior to his junior season and became a center. As a junior, his outside shot was still undeveloped, but he averaged 20 points and 10 rebounds, leading his team to the 1986 Des Plaines Valley League championship and a second straight trip to the sectional finals. The team was ranked in the Chicago Sun-Times Super 25 for a couple of weeks during the season. He was benched for one game in early March of his junior year for disciplinary reasons by coach Dick Flaiz. The Chicago Sun-Times named him the MVP of the league. Mueller also played varsity tennis as a junior. Following the school year, he played in the suburban summer basketball league at Triton College in River Grove, Illinois. As a senior, he was his team's only returning varsity letterman, and was ranked by the Chicago Sun-Times among the preseason top 50 Metro Chicago basketball players. Off The Glass, a national basketball magazine, ranked him among the 19 best basketball players in the state of Illinois, along with Walter Bond, Marcus Liberty, Brian Banks and Rodell Davis. At the beginning of December of his senior season, the team was ranked 23rd in the Chicago Sun-Times''' Metro Chicago top 25, and there was talk of the team improving on the 23–6 record of the prior year. He led the West Suburban Conference in scoring and rebounding most of the season and was an All-Conference selection. Mueller posted his career-high 45 points on March 3, 1987 in an 83–47 victory against Montini High School. By the end of his senior season, he was one of the 20 All-Chicago Area selections by the Chicago Sun-Times, in a class that included Eric Anderson, Bond, Liberty and Sam Mack, after averaging 23 points and 14 rebounds. However, unlike Anderson, Liberty and Bond, he was not one of the 9 area All-State nominees. Mueller, who scored 1290 out of 1600 on his SAT and a 31 on his ACT, was a highly recruited high school basketball player. However, by early March 1987, he had not signed a National Letter of Intent as a commitment to any school. At that time, he was keeping a pair of piranhas at home in an aquarium and accidentally injured his left foot by breaking the aquarium's glass. The resulting injury caused severe damage to his leg including a severed achilles tendon; he had surgery to repair the damage in late March. Division I schools like Northwestern University withdrew their scholarship offers; however, Princeton maintained an interest, with supporters like John Rogers behind him. As most of his scholarship offers were withdrawn, he began to focus on schools that could provide him an academic opportunity in the event that his basketball career was over. He eventually matriculated to Princeton unsure of whether he would ever play competitive basketball again. ## College As a freshman, Mueller helped the 1987–88 Tigers win their final three games in March to finish the season with a 17–9 (9–5 Ivy League) record. He posted 25 points in the March 1, 1988 67–65 victory against . Then, two games later in the final game of the season on March 5, he added 22 in 79–58 victory over league champion Cornell. He finished the season as the Ivy League statistical champion in field goal percentage for the first of three times. He led the team in rebounds and blocked shots. Mueller began his career wearing the number 55, but switched to 00 by his sophomore year. During his sophomore season, the 1988–89 team earned a \#1 vs. \#16 matchup in the first round of the 1989 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament with their Pete Carril-coached princeton offense. The New York Times'' reported that the matchup seemed comical to some even though Carill had a system that frustrated many offensive systems and had already produced upsets. In the St. Patrick's Day 1989 Georgetown vs. Princeton men's basketball game, the 16th-seeded Tigers were 23 point underdogs according to the Las Vegas bookmakers and Dick Vitale had promised to serve as a Tiger ballboy if they won. Entering the game, the last four Ivy League representatives in the tournament had lost in the first round by an average of 35 points. During the game, Mueller's defensive assignment was Mourning, and he contributed 9 points and 8 assists to Princeton's 49-point effort. During the game, Mueller played beyond the foul line on the offensive end, forcing Mourning to leave passing lanes open for back-door attacks. Although the strategy enabled Princeton to stay in the game, Mourning had seven blocked shots, including two in the final fifteen seconds. Mueller's final shot was deflected by Mourning, which is remembered by Princeton fans as an uncalled foul. The team finished with a 19–8 (11–3) record. Later in the same tournament, Duke would use Christian Laettner at the top of the key, like Princeton had used Mueller, and eliminate Georgetown by shutting down Mourning. The Princeton-Georgetown game is regarded as one of only a handful of close \#1 vs. \#16 matchups in NCAA tournament history. For the season, he repeated as Ivy League field goal percentage champion. He was a first-team All-Ivy honoree. He led the team in points, rebounds, assists and blocked shots. As a junior, Mueller led the 1989–90 Tigers to a repeat Ivy League championship as the Ivy League Player of the Year. The team earned a 13 seed for the 1990 NCAA tournament. The team finished with a 20–7 (11–3) record after losing to the Arkansas Razorbacks by a 68–64 margin. Mueller was one of only six Tigers to appear in the game and led the team with 19 points. As a junior, Mueller earned a third team Academic All-America recognition from College Sports Information Directors of America. He was a first-team All-Ivy performer as well as Ivy League Player of the Year. He led the team in points, rebounds, and assists. In a February 23, 1991, game against , Mueller earned his current position as Princeton's second all-time leading scorer one night after the 1990–91 Princeton Tigers men's basketball team had clinched its third consecutive Ivy League championship with a victory over . The team went undefeated in the Ivy League and earned a birth in the 1991 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. After its strong tournament performances in the prior two seasons and strong regular season, the team earned a number 8 seed, which was a record for the highest seed by an Ivy League school at the time. The team had another close but disappointing loss, this time by a 50–48 margin to Villanova, finishing with a 24–3 (14–0) record. That year, senior Mueller served as team captain, and earned first team Academic All-America honors. That season marked the third year that Mueller led the team in points, assists and blocked shots and fourth time he led the team in rebounds. For the season, he earned his third Ivy League field goal percentage championship. He repeated as Ivy League Player of the Year and was a first-team All-Ivy performer for the third consecutive season. He remains prominent in the Princeton basketball record books. When Mueller ended his career, his 1546 career points trailed only Bill Bradley and his 381 career assists were also second in school history. His single-season assist totals of 140 in 1989-90 and 128 in 1990-91 remain second and fourth in school history. Only one other Tiger has totalled 11 assists in a game (a feat Mueller achieved three times). His career 59.5 field goal percentage is third in school history, as is his sophomore single-season rate of 64.9%. A 2009 publication by ESPN ranked him among the five greatest basketball players in Princeton history. On March 19, 2012, Doug Davis surpassed Mueller for second place on the Princeton scoring list. On March 1, 2013, Ian Hummer passed him as well. ## Post graduate After graduation, Mueller played professional basketball in Switzerland. He then became a professional hedge fund trader, and has played in competitive 3-on-3 basketball leagues with various combinations of Ivy League athletes including Arne Duncan, Craig Robinson, Mitch Henderson and Rogers in the mid to late 1990s and early 2000s. The mid-1990s versions of the team were Chicago area champions. In 1998, he won a 3-on-3 tournament in Dallas with Rogers and Robinson. Both the 2001 and 2003 versions of the team, named "Slow and Steady", qualified for national competition. The 2003 team with Duncan, Robinson, Henderson and Brian Earl made the national championship. Mueller's daughter, Ellie, followed in her father's footsteps and now plays lacrosse for the Tigers.
44,450,289	Serb uprising of 1596–1597	1,166,361,253	null	[ "1596 in the Ottoman Empire", "1597 in the Ottoman Empire", "16th century in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "16th century in Serbia", "16th-century rebellions", "Conflicts in 1596", "Conflicts in 1597", "Gacko", "History of Herzegovina", "History of the Serbian Orthodox Church", "History of the Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina", "History of the Serbs of Montenegro", "Long Turkish War", "Ottoman period in the history of Montenegro", "Ottoman–Serbian Wars", "Rebellions in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Rebellions in Montenegro", "Sanjak of Herzegovina", "Serb rebellions against the Ottoman Empire", "Serbs from the Ottoman Empire" ]	The Serb uprising of 1596–1597, also known as the Herzegovina uprising of 1596–1597, was a rebellion organized by Serbian Patriarch Jovan Kantul (s. 1592–1614) and led by Grdan, the vojvoda ("duke") of Nikšić against the Ottomans in the Sanjak of Herzegovina and Montenegro Vilayet, during the Long Turkish War (1593–1606). The uprising broke out in the aftermath of the failed Banat Uprising in 1594 and the burning of Saint Sava's relics on 27 April 1595; it included the tribes of Bjelopavlići, Drobnjaci, Nikšić, and Piva. The rebels, defeated at the field of Gacko (Gatačko Polje) in 1597, were forced to capitulate due to a lack of foreign support. ## Background In early 1594, the Serbs in Banat rose up against the Ottomans. The rebels had, in the character of a holy war, carried war flags with the icon of Saint Sava. The war banners were consecrated by Patriarch Jovan Kantul, and the uprising was aided by Serbian Orthodox metropolitans Rufim Njeguš of Cetinje and Visarion of Trebinje (s. 1590–1602). In response, Ottoman Grand Vizier Koca Sinan Pasha demanded that the green flag of Muhammed be brought from Damascus to counter the Serb flag and ordered that the sarcophagus containing the relics of Saint Sava be removed from the Mileševa monastery and transferred to Belgrade via military convoy. Along the way, the Ottoman convoy killed all the people in its path as a warning to the rebels. The Ottomans publicly incinerated the relics of Saint Sava on a pyre atop the Vračar plateau on 27 April 1595 and had the ashes scattered. The incineration of Sava's relics provoked the Serbs, and empowered the Serb liberation movement. From 1596, the center of anti-Ottoman activity in Herzegovina was the Tvrdoš Monastery in Trebinje, where Metropolitan Visarion was seated. Many of the Orthodox bishops appealed to the Archduchy of Austria for help in liberating their lands. The Uskoks, irregular soldiers in Habsburg Croatia, supported Austria, being scattered over the whole area between Senj and Ragusa (modern-day Dubrovnik). With a daring raid on 8 April 1596, the Uskoks even managed to occupy the Klis Fortress, though they were unable to hold it. At one point, Austrian officials considered taking military action in Bosnia, where Dalmatian-born Maltese knight Franjo Brtučević was in their service. However, they did not have the strength to fight the Ottomans in Bosnia. Earlier, Austrian forces had gone to great lengths and still barely managed to resist the Ottomans in Hungary. ## Uprising In 1596, the liberation movement spread into Ottoman Montenegro and the neighbouring tribes in Herzegovina, especially those under the influence of Metropolitan Visarion. Of the priests, Patriarch Jovan depended mostly on Visarion, and of the chieftains, mostly on Grdan, the vojvoda ("duke") of Nikšić. A Ragusan document from the beginning of 1596 claimed that the metropolitan and many Herzegovinian chieftains gathered in the Trebinje Monastery where they swore oath "to give up and donate 20,000 heroes to the [Austrian] emperors' light." The rebels sought help from the Austrians, and asked to be handed an Austrian flag to show the Ottomans that they had at least symbolic Austrian support. Shortly thereafter, on 8 April 1596, Klis was captured by the Uskoks, prompting a wave of excitement among Christians from Lika to Herzegovina. At the end of 1596, after the outbreak of the Himara Revolt, Serbs began to rebel against the Ottomans. The uprising, led by Grdan, broke out in Bjelopavlići, then spread to Drobnjaci, Nikšić, Piva, and Gacko. Save for the Brđani, the Montenegrin tribes did not participate in the uprising. At the time, Dervish Bey, the sanjak bey of Montenegro, threatened the Montenegrins through the provveditore ("overseer") of Kotor. Two Serbian monks, Damjan Ljubibratić and Pavle, were dispatched by Patriarch Jovan Kantul to Pope Clement VIII in 1597. Patriarch Jovan assured the pope of his "loyalty and obedience" to the Church of Rome, and sought help "to liberate the Serb people from the Ottomans". The monks made an exhibition to the papal curia on Serbian history and, among other things, petitioned the pope to send an army to Herceg Novi, which would aid vojvoda Grdan on the land; the tribes of Zupci, Nikšić, Piva, Banjani, Drobnjaci, and Gacko would rise up in arms. From there, they would go to Onogošt (Nikšić), where all chieftains of Montenegro, Dukađin, and the nearby lands, would gather. In the case of action, they could count on 100,000 fighters. It was said that since the Ottomans took Saint Sava from the Serbs "God does not help them any more, Christians kill them from every side". The curia then accused the monks, of "[praying] to God for our Evil." The monks asked the pope, with the support of Serb spiritual and secular leaders, to send a respectable Christian to oversee them. The Archbishop of Ohrid, Atanasije, after his movement had largely failed in Albania, was now in Rome. The Serb uprising had no better luck; the Herzegovinian tribes, Drobnjaci, Nikšić, and Piva began fighting, but were defeated at the field of Gacko (Gatačko Polje) by Dervish Bey sometime in 1597. According to the Venetian Lazzaro Soranzo (1599), the Piperi, Kuči, Klimenti, Bjelopavlići, and others tried to liberate themselves from Ottoman tyranny, and upon hearing the false claim that Sultan Mehmed III lost the battle and his life at the Siege of Eger, "they all rose up under the command of vojvoda Grdan and there was a great slaughter of Turks who were on their land. As I tried to find out more, I heard the contrary, that they unhappily withdrew into their mountains"; Montenegrin historian Gligor Stanojević, based on Soranzo's account, which he described as "the most interesting and most contradicting note on the movement of the Brda and Herzegovina tribes in this time", believed that the rebellion did not have the scale of a national uprising. > [There were] spontaneous uprisings or rebellions which often erupted caused by some event and quickly died away. Such disturbances, insurrections or rebellions took place earlier and later in all parts of the Balkans, and the Turks very quickly and efficiently reacted to them. If those rebellions did not lead to anything, they were another drop of hatred between the conquerors and the people. When the talks between the rebels and the papacy led to nothing and no foreign support arrived, the rebels were forced to capitulate to the Ottomans. Ahmed-paša Dugalić, the beylerbey ("governor") of Bosnia, pardoned Grdan of his crimes, and did not even strip him of his lands in Nikšić. > The rebels were challenged before any real action could be realized. Austria was not able to move towards Buda, let alone Bosnia or Serbia; the papal curia did not choose to aid the rebels; and Spain had their own problems. The diplomats—various adventurers, though well-meaning—were amateurs, and had wrongfully and colourfully painted the picture to both sides. To some they promised more than they could do, and to others they presented opportunities as being more mature than they were. Many false reports were made. [The rebels] naïvely thought that the messages and promises they received would give them greater success than they had. The only lesson learnt was for them to be more cautious. The Ottomans, occupied in Hungary, Croatia and the coast, were willing to somewhat leave them alone for the moment being. At this time, none of the prominent leaders in the Ottoman Serb regions were hurt. ## Aftermath and legacy After the failure of the uprising, many Herzegovinians moved to the Bay of Kotor and Dalmatia. The earliest more significant Serb migrations took place between 1597 and 1600. Grdan and Patriarch Jovan would continue to plan revolts against the Ottomans in the coming years. Jovan contacted the pope again in 1599, without success. Serbian, Greek, Bulgarian, and Albanian monks visited European courts to solicit help. The first decade of the 17th century saw some successful Montenegrin battles against the Ottomans under Metropolitan Rufim. The tribe of Drobnjaci defeated the Ottomans in Gornja Bukovica on 6 May 1605. However, Ottomans retaliated the same summer and captured the duke Ivan Kaluđerović, who was eventually taken to Pljevlja and executed. From the assembly in Kosijerevo monastery, on 18 February 1608, Serb leaders urged the Spanish and Neapolitan court for final energetic action. Preoccupied, Spain could not do much in Eastern Europe. However, the Spanish fleet did attack Durrës in 1606. Finally, on 13 December 1608, Patriarch Jovan Kantul organized an assembly in Morača Monastery, gathering all the rebel leaders of Montenegro and Herzegovina. The assembly officially negotiated with Emmanuel I to send a force for the liberation of the Balkans, in exchange for "the Crown of Macedonia", at the same time requesting that Pope Paul grant the Serbian Orthodox Church special privileges. "In our parts," they demanded, "we do not want any Jesuits, or anyone else, who intends on turning the Christian folk to Roman law." Jovan assured him that an army of 20,000, 25 guns, and weapons for 25,000 more to be distributed in the Balkans would overwhelm the Ottoman sultan. After years of planning, nothing concrete resulted in it, because such an operation "required Spanish naval and logistical support". The rebellion slowly faded through 1609 towards the end of 1610. The 1596–97 uprising would stand as a model for multiple anti-Ottoman uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the coming centuries. ## See also - Holy League of Pope Clement VIII - First Tarnovo Uprising (1598), in Bulgaria. ## Annotations
22,017,946	Cerne Abbas Giant	1,173,552,796	Hill figure near Cerne Abbas in Dorset	[ "Archaeological sites in Dorset", "Dorset folklore", "Hill figures in England", "National Trust properties in Dorset", "Nude art", "Scheduled monuments in Dorset", "Tourist attractions in Dorset" ]	The Cerne Abbas Giant is a hill figure near the village of Cerne Abbas in Dorset, England. 55 metres (180 ft) high, it depicts a standing nude male with a prominent erection and wielding a large club in its right hand. Like many other hill figures it is outlined by shallow trenches cut in the turf and backfilled with chalk rubble. It is listed as a scheduled monument of England; the site is now owned by the National Trust. The origin and age of the figure are unclear and there is archaeological evidence that parts of it have been lost, altered or added over time; the earliest written record dates to the late 17th century. Early antiquarians associated it, on little evidence, with a Saxon deity, while other scholars sought to identify it with a Romano-British figure of Hercules or some syncretisation of the two. The lack of earlier descriptions, along with information given to the 18th-century antiquarian John Hutchins, has led some scholars to conclude it dates from the 17th century, but recent optically stimulated luminescence testing has suggested an origin between the years and , possibly close to the 10th century date of the founding of nearby Cerne Abbey. Regardless of its age, the Cerne Abbas Giant has become an important part of local culture and folklore, which often associates it with fertility. It is one of England's best-known hill figures and is a visitor attraction in the region. The Cerne Giant is one of two major extant human hill figures in England; the other is the Long Man of Wilmington, near Wilmington, East Sussex. Both are scheduled monuments. ## Description The Giant is located just outside the small village of Cerne Abbas in Dorset, about 48 kilometres (30 mi) west of Bournemouth and 26 kilometres (16 mi) north of Weymouth. The figure depicts a naked man and is of colossal dimensions, being about 55 metres (180 ft) high and 51 metres (167 ft) wide. It is cut into the steep west-facing side of a hill known as Giant Hill or Trendle Hill. Atop the hill is another landmark, the Iron Age earthwork known as the "Trendle" or "Frying Pan". The figure's outline is formed by trenches cut into the turf about 0.6 metres (2 ft 0 in) deep, and filled with crushed chalk. In his right hand the giant holds a knotted club 37 metres (121 ft) in length, and adding 11 metres (36 ft) to the total height of the figure. A line across the waist has been suggested to represent a belt. Writing in 1901 in the Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society, Henry Colley March noted that: "The Cerne Giant presents five characteristics: (1) It is petrographic ... It is, therefore, a rock carving ... (2) It is colossal ... (3) It is nude. ... (4) It is ithyphallic ... (5) The Giant is clavigerous. It bears a weapon in its right hand." A 1996 study found that some features have changed over time, concluding that the figure originally held a cloak over its left arm and an object, possibly a severed head, beneath its left hand. The former presence of a cloak was corroborated in 2008 when a team of archaeologists using special equipment determined that part of the figure had been lost; the cloak might have been a depiction of an animal skin. In 1993, the National Trust gave the Giant a "nose job" after years of erosion had worn it away. The Giant sports an erection, including its testicles, some 11 metres (36 feet) long, and nearly the length of its head; it has been called "Britain's most famous phallus". One commentator noted that postcards of the Giant were the only indecent photographs that could be sent through the English Post Office. However, this feature may also have been changed over time. From a review of historical depictions, the Giant's current large erection has been identified as the result of merging a circle representing his navel with a smaller penis during a 1908 re-cut: the navel still appears on a late 1890s picture postcard. Lidar scans conducted as part of the 2020 survey programme have concluded that the phallus was added much later than the bulk of the figure, which was probably originally clothed. The hill figure is most commonly known as the "Cerne Abbas Giant" or "Cerne Giant", the latter being preferred by the National Trust, while English Heritage and Dorset County Council call it simply "the Giant". It has also been referred to as the "Old Man", and occasionally in recent years as the "Rude Man" of Cerne. Although the best view of the Giant is from the air, most tourist guides recommend a ground view from the "Giant's View" lay-by and car park off the A352. This area was developed in 1979 in a joint project between the Dorset County Planning Department, the National Trust, Nature Conservancy Council (now called English Nature), the Dorset Naturalists Trusts, the Department of the Environment, and local land-owners. The information panel there was devised by the National Trust and Dorset County Council. ## History ### Early accounts Like several other chalk figures carved into the English countryside, the Cerne Abbas Giant is often thought of as an ancient creation but its written history cannot be traced back further than the late 17th century. Medieval sources refer to the hill on which the giant is located as Trendle Hill, in reference to the nearby Iron Age earthwork known as the Trendle. J. H. Bettey of the University of Bristol noted that none of the earlier sources for the area, including a detailed 1540s survey of the Abbey lands and a 1617 land survey by John Norden, refer to the giant, despite noting the Trendle and other landmarks. In contrast, there are documentary references to the 3,000 year-old Uffington White Horse as far back as the late 11th century. The earliest known written reference is a 4 November 1694 entry in the Churchwardens' Accounts from St Mary's Church in Cerne Abbas, which reads "for repairing ye Giant, three shillings". In 1734, the Bishop of Bristol noted and inquired about the giant during a Canonical visitation to Cerne Abbas, while in 1738 the antiquarian Francis Wise mentioned the giant in a letter. The bishop's account, as well as subsequent observations such as those of William Stukeley, were discussed at meetings of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1764. Beginning in 1763 descriptions of the giant also began to appear in contemporary magazines, following a general increase in interest in "antiquities". The earliest known survey was published in the Royal Magazine in September 1763. Derivative versions subsequently appeared in the October 1763 St James Chronicle, the July 1764 Gentleman's Magazine and the 1764 edition of The Annual Register. In the early 1770s the antiquarian John Hutchins reviewed various previous accounts in his book The History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset, published posthumously in 1774. Noting a local tradition the giant had only been cut in the previous century, he described and drew it as then having three roughly-cut letters between its feet, and over them the apparent Arabic numerals "748", features since lost; Hutchins' account was copied by several early 19th century guidebooks. A map referred to as the "1768 Survey Map of Cerne Abbas by Benjamin Pryce" is held at the Dorset History Centre, though a record at the National Archives notes there is evidence the map may date to the 1790s. By the following century the phallus was invariably omitted from depictions, either in line with the prevailing views on modesty at the time or as it had become grassed over; the figure seems to have become increasingly neglected and overgrown during the 19th century until in 1868 its owner Lord Rivers arranged to have the Giant restored "as near as possible to his original condition". ### Interpretation 18th century antiquarians were able to discover little about the figure's origin: Stukeley suggested that local people "know nothing more of [the Giant] than a traditionary account of its being a deity of the ancient Britons". Several other local traditions have, however, been recorded, including that the Giant was cut in 1539 at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries as a "humiliating caricature" of Cerne Abbey's final abbot Thomas Corton, who amongst other offences was accused of fathering children with a mistress. Hutchins, noting the apparent figure "748" then visible between the Giant's feet, suggested that if this did not refer to the date of an earlier repair such as "1748", it could be a representation of Cenric, the son of Cuthred, King of Wessex, who died in battle in 748: Arabic numerals however did not come widely into use in England until the 15th century. Another 18th century writer dismissed it as "the amusement of idle people, and cut with little meaning, perhaps, as shepherds' boys strip off the turf on the Wiltshire plains." Richard Pococke, in a 1754 account, noted the figure was called "the Giant, and Hele", while Richard Gough, editor of the 1789 edition of William Camden's 1637 work Britannica, linked the Giant with a supposed minor Saxon deity named by Camden as "Hegle"; In the 1760s William Stukeley recorded that locals referred to the giant as "Helis". Stukeley was one of the first to hypothesize that "Helis" was a garbled form of "Hercules", a suggestion that has found more support; Pococke had earlier noted that "[the Giant] seems to be Hercules, or Strength and Fidelity". The close resemblance of the giant's features to the attributes of the classical hero Hercules, usually portrayed naked and with a knotted club, have been strengthened by the more recent discovery of the "cloak", as Hercules was often depicted with the skin of the Nemean lion over his arm. Modern histories of the Cerne Giant have been published by Bettey 1981, Legg 1990, and Darvill et al. 1999. In recent times there have been three main theories concerning the age of the Giant, and whom it might represent: - One, citing the lack of documentary evidence prior to the 1690s, argues that the giant was created in the 17th century, most likely by Lord Holles, who held the Cerne Abbas estate by right of his second wife Jane. J.H. Bettey was the first to suggest Holles could have cut the figure as a parody of Oliver Cromwell, though a further tradition local to Cerne was that the Giant was created by Holles' tenants as a lampoon aimed at Holles himself. - Another, based largely on an idea developed in the 1930s by archaeologist Stuart Piggott, is that due to the giant's resemblance to Hercules, it is a creation of the Romano-British culture, either as a direct depiction of the Roman figure or of a deity identified with him. It has been more specifically linked to attempts to revive the cult of Hercules during the reign of the Emperor Commodus (176-192), who presented himself as a reincarnation of Hercules. - Another is that the giant is of earlier Celtic origin, because it is stylistically similar to an image of the Celtic god Nodens on a skillet handle found at Hod Hill, Dorset, dated to between 10 CE to 51 CE. Proponents of a 17th-century origin suggest that the giant was cut around the time of the English Civil War by servants of Denzil Holles, then Lord of the Manor of Cerne Abbas. This theory originated in the 18th century account of John Hutchins, who noted in a letter of 1751 to the Dean of Exeter that the steward of the manor had told him the figure "was a modern thing, cut out in Lord Hollis' time". In his History and antiquities of the county of Dorset, first published in 1774, Hutchins also suggested that Holles could perhaps have ordered the recutting of an existing figure dating from "beyond the memory of man". It has been speculated that Holles could have intended the figure as a parody of Oliver Cromwell: while Holles, the MP for Dorchester and a leader of the Presbyterian faction in Parliament, had been a key Parliamentarian supporter during the First English Civil War, he grew to personally despise Cromwell and attempted to have him impeached in 1644. Cromwell was sometimes mockingly referred to as "England's Hercules" by his enemies: under this interpretation, the club has been suggested to hint at Cromwell's military rule, and the phallus to mock his Puritanism. In 1967 Kenneth Carrdus proposed that the Holles referred to in Hutchins' account was Denzil Holles' son Francis, MP for Dorchester in 1679-80: he claimed that the figures and letters noted by Hutchins could be made to read "fh 1680", though was unable to find much other evidence to support this. The deepest archeological horizon of the Giant is 1 metre. Results of optically stimulated luminescence testing of samples from this deepest level were published in 2021. Some of these samples support a construction date between and , suggesting the Giant was first cut in the late Anglo-Saxon period. As this date coincides with the founding of nearby Cerne Abbey, archaeologist Alison Sheridan speculated that it may have been a challenge to the new religion from the still-pagan local inhabitants, although other scholars have noted that early medieval monks could equally have been responsible for the figure. Other samples, however, gave later dates ranging up to 1560; one possible explanation is that the Giant may have first been cut in the late Saxon period, but then abandoned for several centuries. As the survey evidence also suggested that the giant's penis is of much later date than the rest of the figure, the National Trust has proposed that the feature could have been added by Holles as part of his parody of Cromwell when re-cutting the older figure. ### Modern history In 1920, the giant and the 4,000 square metres (0.99 acres) site where it stands were donated to the National Trust by its then land-owners, Alexander and George Pitt-Rivers, and it is now listed as a Scheduled Monument. During World War II the giant was camouflaged with brushwood by the Home Guard in order to prevent its use as a landmark for enemy aircraft. According to the National Trust, the grass is trimmed regularly and the giant is fully re-chalked every 25 years. Traditionally, the National Trust has relied on sheep from surrounding farms to graze the site. However, in 2008 a lack of sheep, coupled with a wet spring causing extra plant growth, forced a re-chalking of the giant, with 17 tonnes of new chalk being poured in and tamped down by hand. In 2006, the National Trust carried out the first wildlife survey of the Cerne Abbas Giant, identifying wild flowers including the green-winged orchid, clustered bellflower and autumn gentian, which are uncommon in England. In 1921 Walter Long of Gillingham, Dorset, objected to the giant's nudity and conducted a campaign to either convert it to a simple nude, or to cover its supposed obscenity with a leaf. Long's protest gained some support, including that of two bishops, and eventually reached the Home Office. The Home Office considered the protest to be in humour, though the chief constable responded to say the office could not act against a protected scheduled monument. ### Archaeology A 1617 land survey of Cerne Abbas makes no mention of the giant, suggesting that it may not have been there at the time or was perhaps overgrown. The first published survey appeared in the September 1763 issue of Royal Magazine, reprinted in the October 1763 issue of St James Chronicle, and also in the August 1764 edition of Gentleman's Magazine together with the first drawing that included measurements. Egyptologist and archaeology pioneer Sir Flinders Petrie surveyed the giant, probably during the First World War, and published his results in a Royal Anthropological Institute paper in 1926. Petrie says he made 220 measurements, and records slight grooves across the neck, and from the shoulders down to the armpits. He also notes a row of pits suggesting the place of the spine. He concludes that the giant is very different from the Long Man of Wilmington, and that minor grooves may have been added from having been repeatedly cleaned. In 1764, William Stukeley was one of the first people to suggest that the giant resembled Hercules. In 1938, British archaeologist Stuart Piggott agreed, and suggested that, like Hercules, the giant should also be carrying a lion-skin. In 1979, a resistivity survey was carried out, and together with drill samples, confirmed the presence of the lion-skin. Another resistivity survey in 1995 also found evidence of a cloak and changes to the length of the phallus, but did not find evidence (as rumoured) of a severed head, horns, or symbols between the feet. In July 2020, preliminary results of a National Trust survey of snail shells unearthed at the site suggested the hill figure is "medieval or later". Snails dating only from the Roman period (brought from France as food) were not found at the site, while species first found in England from the 13th and 14th centuries were found in soil samples examined. In 2020 the National Trust commissioned a further survey, using optically stimulated luminescence, and the results contradicted earlier research and theories. Samples from inside the deepest layers of the monument yielded a date range for construction of – early medieval late Anglo-Saxon period. #### Earthworks North-east of the head of the giant is an escarpment called Trendle Hill, on which are some earthworks now called The Trendle or Frying Pan. It is a scheduled monument in its own right. Antiquarian John Hutchins wrote in 1872 that "These remains are of very interesting character, and of considerable extent. They consist of circular and other earthworks, lines of defensive ramparts, an avenue, shallow excavations, and other indications of a British settlement." Unlike the giant, the earthworks belong to Lord Digby, rather than the National Trust. Its purpose is unknown; the claim that it was the site of maypole dancing, made by the former village sexton in the late 19th century, was disputed by other villagers who located the maypole site elsewhere. It has been considered to be Roman, or perhaps an Iron-Age burial mound containing the tomb of the person represented by the giant. ## Folklore Whatever its origin, the giant has become an important part of the culture and folklore of Dorset. Some folk stories indicate that the image is an outline of the corpse of a real giant. One story says the giant came from Denmark leading an invasion of the coast, and was beheaded by the people of Cerne Abbas while he slept on the hillside. Other folklore, first recorded in the Victorian era, associates the figure with fertility. According to folk belief, a woman who sleeps on the figure will be blessed with fecundity, and infertility may be cured through sexual intercourse on top of the figure, especially the phallus. In 1808, Dorset poet William Holloway published his poem "The Giant of Trendle Hill", in which the Giant is killed by the locals by piercing its heart. ## In popular culture In modern times the giant has been used for several publicity stunts and as an advertisement. For example, Ann Bryn-Evans of the Pagan Federation recalls that the Giant has been used to promote "condoms, jeans and bicycles". In 1998, pranksters made a pair of jeans out of plastic mesh with a 21-metre (69 ft) inside leg, and fitted them to the giant to publicise American jeans manufacturer Big Smith. In August 2002, the BLAC advertising agency, on behalf of the Family Planning Association, rolled a large latex sheet down the Giant's phallus to promote condom use. As a publicity stunt for the opening of The Simpsons Movie on 16 July 2007, a figure of Homer Simpson clad in y-front underpants and brandishing a doughnut was outlined in water-based biodegradable paint to the left of the Cerne Abbas Giant. This act displeased local neopagans, who pledged to perform rain magic to wash the figure away. An August 2007 report, in the Dorset Echo said a man claiming to be the "Purple Phantom" had painted the Giant's penis purple. It was reported that the man was from Fathers 4 Justice, but the group denied any involvement and said they did not know who did it. In 2012, pupils and members of the local community recreated the Olympic torch on the Giant, to mark the passing of the official torch in the run-up to the 2012 London Olympics. In November 2013, the National Trust supported Movember, which raises awareness of prostate and testicular cancer. It authorised the temporary placement of a huge grass moustache on the giant. The moustache was 12 metres (39 ft) wide and 3 metres (10 ft) deep according to the designer but both the National Trust and the BBC reported it as being 11 by 27 metres (36 by 89 ft). In October 2020, to promote the release of Borat Subsequent Moviefilm people added a 'mankini' and banners stating "Wear Mask." and "Save Live." on the site. The Cerne Abbas Giant has appeared in several films and TV programmes, including the title sequence of the 1986 British historical drama film Comrades, a 1996 episode of the Erotic Tales series "The Insatiable Mrs Kirsch", directed by Ken Russell (featuring a replica of the Giant), in 1997, the series 6 finale "Sofa" of the comedy series Men Behaving Badly, and the 2000 film Maybe Baby directed by Ben Elton. and even appeared in one of BBC One 'Balloon' idents between 1997-2002. The giant has also been depicted in multiple video games, including Pokémon Sword and Shield. In June 2023 the Oxford Cheese Company was criticised for using an image of the giant on one of its products without the distinctive phallus. ### Representations In 1980, Devon artist Kenneth Evans-Loud planned to produce a companion 70-metre (230 ft) female figure on the opposite hill, featuring Marilyn Monroe in her iconic pose from the film The Seven Year Itch where her dress is blown by a subway grating. In 1989, Turner Prize-winning artist Grayson Perry designed a set of motorbike leathers inspired by the Cerne Abbas Giant. In 1994, girls from Roedean School painted a 24-metre (79 ft) replica of the Giant on their playing field, the day before sports day. In 2003, pranksters created their own 23-metre (75 ft) version of the Giant on a hill in English Bicknor, but "wearing wellies, an ear of corn hanging from its mouth and a tankard of ale in its hand". In 2005, the makers of Lynx deodorant created a 9.3 square metres (100.1 sq ft) advert on a field near Gatwick, featuring a copy of the Giant wearing underpants, frolicking with two scantily clad women. In 2006, artist Peter John Hardwick produced a painting "The Two Dancers with the Cerne Abbas Giant, with Apologies to Picasso" which is on display at Poole Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. In 2009, the Giant was given a red nose, to publicize the BBC's Comic Relief charity event. In 2011, English animators The Brothers McLeod produced a 15-second cartoon giving their take on what the Giant does when no one is watching. In 2015, the giant was used as a character in an online comic book published by Eco Comics; the giant's character appeared in various adventures accompanying a character based on St George, though his erect penis was removed from the artwork as many "outlets, particularly in the US, refuse any form of nudity in comic books". The giant's image has been reproduced on various souvenirs and local food produce labels, including for a range of beers made by the Cerne Abbas Brewery. In 2016, the BBC reported that the beer company's logo had been censored in the Houses of Parliament. ## Gallery ## See also - Long Man of Wilmington - Fovant Badges - Marree Man - Osmington White Horse
22,484,934	Ámame (song)	1,158,548,725	null	[ "1993 singles", "1993 songs", "American disco songs", "Dance-pop songs", "EMI Latin singles", "Latin pop songs", "Selena songs", "Song recordings produced by A. B. Quintanilla", "Songs written by Pete Astudillo", "Songs written by Selena", "Spanish-language songs" ]	"Ámame" ("Love Me") is a song by American singer Selena, taken from her third studio album, Entre a Mi Mundo (1992). Selena and Chris Pérez began secretly dating subsequent to Pérez's reintegration into Selena y Los Dinos in the summer of 1991, despite her father's objections. The song was written by Selena and conveys her sentiments towards Pérez as they concealed their liaison from familial scrutiny. Pete Astudillo contributed to the lyrical development of the composition, while A. B. Quintanilla handled production. It was released as the fourth and final single from the album in April 1993. "Ámame" is a dance-pop and disco song, inspired by Selena and A. B.'s desire to record pop music compositions, accompanied by lyrics delineating a woman's longing for reciprocated affection from her lover. It received a positive response from music critics who lauded Selena's resonant vocals and acknowledged the dance-pop influences. The song peaked at number 27 on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart. Selena's creative process for the song was portrayed by Christian Serratos in the Netflix two-part limited drama, Selena: The Series (2020). ## Background and release In 1988, Chris Pérez replaced Roger Garcia as the guitarist of Selena y Los Dinos. Pérez developed an admiration for the ensemble subsequent to experiencing their album Preciosa (1988), becoming particularly enamored with A. B. Quintanilla's musical production. Pérez elected to join Selena y Los Dinos, and abandoned his recently-formed rock band. In 1990, Pérez temporarily departed the group, leading to Joe Ortega's recruitment. However, upon his wife's insistence, Ortega relinquished his position after their marriage, resulting in Pérez's return to the ensemble in the summer of 1991. Pérez began dating lead singer Selena in secret, despite her father's objections. In reaction to her emotions for Pérez and their concealed relationship, Selena composed "Ámame" and sought lyrical assistance from backup dancer and singer Pete Astudillo. Contrary to a 1996 article by biographer Joe Nick Patoski in the Austin American-Statesman, "Ámame" was not Selena's inaugural songwriting credit; she had previously authored "My Love" for her debut studio album with EMI Latin, Selena (1989). Abraham Quintanilla, Selena's father and manager, recounted the singer's dedication to recording the song as Selena "poured every ounce of energy" into it. A. B. produced the track for the group's third studio album, Entre a Mi Mundo (1992), which Abraham described as embodying one of Selena and A. B.'s "pop inclinations". The song was released as the fourth and final single from Entre a Mi Mundo in April 1993. Vilma Maldonado, writing for The Monitor, reminisced about the song permeating radio stations throughout Texas. ## Music, lyrics, and reception Suzette Fernandez for Billboard magazine, characterized "Ámame" as a disco song track encompassing lyrics expressing a woman's longing for reciprocated affection from her lover. Jessica Roiz, also from Billboard, deemed Selena's live rendition of "Ámame" on Telemundo's music show Club Telemundo in 1993 among her most exceptional televised performances. Writing for the Houston Chronicle, Joey Guerra described the song as dance-pop, showcasing Selena's "rich, throaty vocals", which revealed a distinct facet of the artist. After a string of musicians covered songs by Selena at their RodeoHouston concerts, Guerra proposed that Brendon Urie of Panic! At the Disco, slated for an upcoming performance at the venue, could interpret "Ámame". Guerra contended that Urie could infuse the "dance-pop anthem" suggesting that his vocals and the track's production could elevate it "into the heavens". Upon its radio release, "Ámame" debuted at number nine on the indie Tejano Singles chart for Texas on the week ending April 8, 1993. It debuted at number 40 on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart on the week ending April 24, 1993. "Ámame" peaked at number 27 on the Hot Latin Songs chart in the week ending May 22, 1993. The recording was the third-highest charting Tejano single on the Hot Latin Songs chart for the week, following La Mafia's chart-topper "Me Estoy Enamorado" and Mazz "¿Qué Será?" at number 17. The Netflix's two-part limited drama Selena: The Series (2020–21), portrayed the creation of "Ámame", with Christian Serratos depicting Selena opposite Jesse Posey as Pérez. In the ninth episode of the series' first part, Abraham rehires a bodyguard in response to a fan's aggressive physical approach during a live performance. Selena reacts by punching the concertgoer in order to set herself free from him. Because of the proximity of her bodyguard, Selena deliberately avoids Pérez, fearing the guard might disclose their relationship to her father. This avoidance distresses Pérez, leading him to suspect their romance has concluded. After Pérez confronts Selena, she pens her sentiments regarding their relationship, requesting Astudillo (Julio Macias) to transform "Ámame" ("Love Me") into a song. Following Selena's live performance, Pérez responds with "I do, te amo (love you)". ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Entre a Mi Mundo. - Selena – vocals, songwriter - A. B. Quintanilla – producer, arranger, mixing - Pete Astudillo – songwriter - Brian "Red" Moore – engineer, mix engineer - Ricky Vela – keyboards - Joe Ojeda – keyboards - Chris Pérez – guitar - Suzette Quintanilla – drums ## Chart performance
7,443,446	Alice (Friday the 13th)	1,172,925,898	Main character in the Friday the 13th series	[ "Female characters in film", "Female horror film characters", "Fictional artists", "Fictional murdered people", "Film characters introduced in 1980", "Final girls", "Friday the 13th (franchise) characters", "Teenage characters in film" ]	Alice Hardy is a fictional character in the Friday the 13th franchise. Alice first appears in Friday the 13th (1980) as an artist working as a camp counselor. She is portrayed by Adrienne King—who reprises the role in the sequel Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981) and the fan film Jason Rising (2021). Alice's creator, Victor Miller, scripted her as a flawed character, envisioning her in an affair. Once production began on the original film, budgetary constraints limited the deeper exposition intended for Alice's character. Director Sean S. Cunningham and casting director Barry Moss wanted an established actress for the part but realized they could not afford one. An open casting call was made for the part of Alice, and King secured the role over a hundred actresses who had auditioned. King was asked by director Steve Miner if she would be willing to return for the sequel, and she agreed. Alice is prominently featured in literary works of the franchise, appearing in three novelizations adapted from films and two original novels. Additionally, Alice cameos in the Friday the 13th comics published by WildStorm, and she has been featured in merchandise and works of fan labor. Alice's confrontation with the villain Pamela Voorhees (Betsy Palmer) and her nightmare sequence of Jason (Ari Lehman) acts as the catalyst for the rest of the events of the series. Film scholar Carol J. Clover cited Alice among the original examples of the "final girl" theory developed in her 1992 nonfiction book Men, Women, and Chainsaws; however, others have challenged Alice's designation as an archetypal "final girl". The depiction of Alice's death in Friday the 13th Part 2 helped spark a new slasher film trope, in which the primary surviving character from the first film is unexpectedly killed off in the subsequent sequel. ## Appearances Alice appears in three of the twelve Friday the 13th films—the first, second, and the twelfth film as a camp counselor that beheads Pamela Voorhees, setting off her son Jason's murderous rampage. The books and comics in the expanded universe explore Alice in-depth, providing her a backstory and offering insight into her psychological effect on Jason. ### Films Alice first appears in the original Friday the 13th (1980). The film depicts Alice as an aspiring artist hired as a counselor at Camp Crystal Lake. After numerous killings at the camp by an unseen assailant, Alice manages to survive, largely by chance. Alice ultimately decapitates the villain, revealed to be Mrs. Voorhees, driven to kill by the death by drowning of her young son, Jason, which she blamed on negligent camp counselors. The film ends with a dream sequence: Alice's nightmare of being attacked by Jason in a canoe. Alice's second cinematic appearance comes in the sequel, Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981). Although Adrienne King received top billing for the film, suggesting Alice would be prominently featured throughout, the character is suddenly killed in the prologue by Jason, who is revealed to be alive, fully grown, and seeking vengeance for the death of his mother. Alice's unexpected demise became a catalyst for a trope found in later slasher films, in which the main surviving protagonist from the first film is unexpectedly killed off in the subsequent sequel. In the franchise's 2009 reboot, which reimagined the events of the first four films, Alice's analogue is an unnamed character portrayed by Stephanie Rhodes. The unnamed camp counselor character beheads the crazed Pamela Voorhees (Nana Visitor), an event witnessed by the young Jason. ### Literature Alice appears in three of the twelve novelizations based on films in the franchise and two original novels. The character made her literary debut in Simon Hawke's 1987 novelization of the original Friday the 13th (1980). Alice's story arc and backstory depict her in a love affair with two men (John in California and Steve Christy at Crystal Lake). Despite liking them both and struggling to choose one, Alice wants to leave them as they do not put her above their agendas and expect her to give up her ambitions and goals. Hawke's novelization also features Alice being aware of the camp's grim history that began with the drowning of the young boy Jason. Alice later appears in Hawke's 1988 novelization of Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981), which expands on her aftermath and trauma. Alice is troubled by recurring nightmares of her encounter with serial killer Mrs. Voorhees and the recollection of being pulled into the depths of the lake by her supposed drowned son Jason. Alice now resides in Crystal Lake and frequently visits the lake in an attempt to deal with her trauma, which strains her relationship with her mother who refuses to understand or listen to her. Unlike the film, the novel details how Jason manages to locate Alice's whereabouts, with the revelations that he recognizes her during one of her visits to the lake and memorizes her car. The book then follows the prologue of the film, with Jason murdering Alice in her home. While not appearing in the film Freddy vs. Jason (2003) itself, Alice is mentioned briefly in the Stephen Hand novelization detailing her battle with Mrs. Voorhees. Alice later appeared in two original 2006 novels. Alice's first appearance in the original books, is in Christa Faust's novel Friday the 13th: The Jason Strain when Jason becomes enraged when he hallucinates a soldier taking the form of Alice in the process of killing his mother again. The second of the original books is in Stephen Hand's Friday the 13th: Carnival of Maniacs, which adapts the ending of the 1980 film as its prologue. Alice made her debut in comics in two WildStorm publications, both being cameo appearances adapted from scenes of the first film. The sixth and final issue of WildStorm's Friday the 13th, depicts a flashback of a young Jason pulling her into the lake. The second issue of the comic miniseries Friday the 13th: Pamela's Tale depicts Alice's first encounter with Mrs. Voorhees. ## Development ### Conception Writer Victor Miller was told to watch John Carpenter's Halloween (1978) and base a screenplay upon it. Miller was supposed to build Alice upon the characteristics set forth by virginal heroine Laurie Strode (Jamie Lee Curtis) in Carpenter's film, particularly a sense of "resourcefulness and intelligence." Miller, however, did not find it necessary for Alice to be virginal and wanted to depict her as a less sympathetic character. Miller's early drafts provide Alice with a backstory, with her having an affair with a married man on the West Coast, which is why her relationship with Steve Christy is deteriorating, and she wants to leave the camp. Miller's most conscious efforts with the character were to write her as an outsider, someone who did not fit in with the rest of the counselors. Once filming began, however, director Sean S. Cunningham did not explore Alice's story arc in-depth due to budget and time constraints. Miller turned down writing the second film, and Ron Kurtz took on writing duties. Kurtz's script kills Alice off in the opening of the film. Director Steve Miner found Alice to be pivotal to the plot as she is the heroine of the first film and that she needed to have a dramatic death as "Part 2 was Jason's film." Due to budgetary constraints again, the film only has Alice stalked and killed by an unseen assailant all in her apartment. King interprets Alice's death scene as a "nightmare within a nightmare" and that the viewer never really saw Alice's body afterward. ### Casting In 1979, there was an open casting call for the role of Alice as a publicity stunt to get people interested in the production. The audition process for Alice took an entire summer. Cunningham and casting director Barry Moss were initially looking for a big-name actress. At some point, they were pushing for Sally Field to play the part. They began to look for new actresses upon realizing that they could not afford someone established. King was a friend of a woman who worked in an office alongside Moss. After several other actresses in New York auditioned, they brought King in to audition. When she arrived, there were hundreds of people in the hallway waiting to audition for Alice. King recollects not having to even read for a scene but rather introduce herself and scream. After meeting her, Cunningham remarked, "You sneaky guys! You saved the best one for last!" Cunningham described her as embodying the "vulnerable, girl-next-door type" and having a natural appeal that he wanted for the Alice character. In late August of that year, King received a letter making her casting official. Ron Kurtz brought Alice back for Steve Miner's sequel Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981), purposefully in a smaller capacity. Both Kurtz and Miner believed King and her agent were trying to bribe the production for more money. However, in reality, King suffered an aggressive stalker after the first film and wanted to return as long as her character was handled properly. King did not receive a script but recalls having lunch with Miner and his assistant Denise Pinkley, and they asked if she would be willing to return. She unanimously agreed as she felt it was something she owed the filmmakers due to the first film's success. Alice's scenes for Part 2 were shot over a weekend in Connecticut at the end of November 1980. Miner recalls having fun shooting Alice's sequences, being particular about King's movement as the character. Conversely, King described returning as Alice for this film to be unenjoyable due to a mundane set, "It was just me, a head in the refrigerator and someone outside, ready to throw a black cat at me through the window." Filming Alice's death with the ice pick, King was injured when the prop failed to retract. ### Characterization Film critic Terry Lawson describes the character's depiction in Friday the 13th (1980) as an "all-American" girl, attributing to her being "destined to be the last one alive." Ted Serrill (Home News Tribune) describes Alice's placement as the heroine feeling arbitrary. Mike Hughes (The Journal News) wrote that Adrienne King "projects a combination of intelligence and fragility," in Alice. Both Hughes and Ron Cowan (Statesman Journal) criticize the character's trait of knocking the villain unconscious and running away without killing her, the latter describing Alice as "a rather panicky young woman." Alice's creator, writer Victor Miller, acknowledges this characteristic of the character in an op-ed, writing "Without spoiling the ending for you, I'll say that our heroine becomes locked in a terminal struggle with the villain. Time and time again the heroine cannot bring herself to kill the villain." King states that she based her portrayal on traditional horror movie characters and described Alice as a "great scream queen heroine." She also expresses regret that, due to the nature of horror movies, audiences never got to see Alice's relationship with Steve fleshed out, or what could have happened between her and fellow counselor, Bill. King describes the role as an "empowering position" due to her survival in the film. Because the character displayed an artistic side in the first film, production designer Virginia Field included various sketches in the character's home in the second film to humanize the character. She says, "It didn't seem like a big deal at the time we were filming, but I knew that Alice liked to draw and I wanted to show evidence of that." Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter (1984) director Joseph Zito praised the natural performance of King, "...the way Adrienne King played the lead—you really felt for her and cared for her." Alice has garnered her comparisons to other genre heroines such as Laurie Strode, Ellen Ripley, Nancy Thompson, and Sidney Prescott. Writer Jessica Robinson attributes Alice's survival to her innocence and resourcefulness. Writer Adam Rockoff describes Alice as a "headstrong artist". Bruce F. Kawin writes that unlike other heroines of the time, Alice isn't saved by a man in the ending, thus having a more profound impact. While one of the original examples of the "final girl" theory by Carol J. Clover in her 1992 non-fiction book Men, Women, and Chainsaws, Clover's inclusion of Alice has been challenged. Philip C. DiMare writes that Alice is a counterpart to the "final girl", in that she is both "tomboyish" and non-virginal. ## In popular culture Alice is featured in American popular culture. Merchandise based upon the character has been released periodically years after her debut. McFarlane Toys released a figure depicting Alice being pulled into the lake by a young Jason. NECA released a figure that included Alice's decayed corpse from Part 2 as a part of the model of Jason's shrine to his mother. Illustrator Erin Ellis released a paper doll of Alice. Alice is a featured character on the alternate cover of the first issue of Famous Monsters of Filmland. Artist Matthew Therrien released a digital piece of Alice alongside Pamela Voorhees for his "Final Girls & Cinema Survivors" series. The character served as inspiration for writer Grady Hendrix's idea for his novel The Final Girl Support Group (2021) as her death in Part 2 bothered him since he was a child, and he wanted to give her a happy ending. His character of Adrienne, named after Adrienne King, reflects Alice's story. Alice is brought back in fan labor of the franchise. While non-canonical, Alice is a supporting character in James Sweet's fan film Jason Rising (2021) as an artist suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder and wanting vengeance against the Voorhees family. King reprises her role. In the Indonesian rip-off of Friday the 13th (1980), Srigala (1981), Alice's analogue is Nina (Lydia Kandou).
71,377,677	Muslim uprisings in Kars and Sharur–Nakhichevan	1,170,857,601	1919–20 rebellions in Armenia	[ "1919 in Armenia", "20th-century rebellions", "Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan", "Conflicts in 1919", "Conflicts in 1920", "First Republic of Armenia", "July 1919 events", "Massacres in 1919", "Massacres in Azerbaijan", "Massacres of Armenians", "Modern history of Armenia" ]	The Muslim uprisings in Kars and Sharur–Nakhichevan were a series of insurgencies by local Muslims against the administration of the First Republic of Armenia, beginning on 1 July 1919 and ending 28 July 1920. The areas of uprising were persuaded into insurrection by the sedition of Turkish and Azerbaijani agents who were trying to destabilize Armenia in order to form a pan-Turkic corridor between their nations. Following the withdrawal of the Ottoman army from the South Caucasus, local Muslims in the formerly occupied areas were armed and assisted in establishing political states with the aim of resisting reincorporation into Armenia. In the spring of 1919, the British command in the Caucasus assisted Armenia in defeating these statelets; however, some months later due to the efforts of Turkish and Azerbaijani emissaries, Armenian administration collapsed and the region fell under local control again until the Armenian counteroffensive in the summer of 1920. The Armenian campaign to reabsorb the Nakhichevan region was halted by the forces of Soviet Russia who had invaded Azerbaijan earlier in the year. The Kars region was briefly reincorporated into Armenian governance until it was conquered by Turkish forces by the end of the Turkish–Armenian war in December 1920. Investigations conducted by American relief workers confirmed the reports of large-scale massacres of the local Armenians in the Sharur–Nakhichevan region. Armenia was assisted only by the forces of Anton Denikin who dispatched ammunition to replenish the enervated Armenian army. ## Background On 4 June 1918, in the aftermath of the October Revolution and the collapse of Russian authority in the South Caucasus, the newly independent First Republic of Armenia was forced to relinquish extensive territories to the Ottoman Empire through the Treaty of Batum. The districts surrendered consisted of Kars and western parts of the Erivan Governorate including most of the counties (Russian: уезды, romanized: uezdy) of Surmalu and Nakhichevan (present-day Iğdır Province and Nakhchivan, respectively). Following the Armistice of Mudros, the Ottoman army was forced to withdraw from the formerly-Russian territories it had seized. The withdrawal which occurred throughout 1918–1919 left Muslim puppet states in the wake of the retreat to hinder the westward expansion of the fledgling Armenian and Georgian republics. The Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus and the Republic of Aras existed for some months until their capitulation by Armenian and British forces in April 1919. Despite the apparent defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish agitators, invigorated by the British withdrawal from the South Caucasus, were reportedly encouraging sedition amongst Muslim villagers in Armenia—the subversive activities culminating in a series of anti-Armenian uprisings in the summer of 1919. A contemporary source writes: "By the summer of 1919, the question of repatriation was completely overshadowed by widespread Muslim uprisings. The issues at stake had transformed the repatriation question into a matter of Armenian survival." In 1921, C. E. Bechhofer Roberts wrote: "[On] the Igdir front ... General Sebo was holding the Kurds at bay ... [T]owards Ararat ... was the Kamarloo front. There the enemy was the Tartar, supported, of course, by Turkish auxiliaries and excited by their agents. Far away in the East is the way to Nahichevan, which was in the possession of the enemy." ## Azerbaijani uprisings ### Zangibasar Named for the Zangi (present-day Hrazdan) river passing through the territory, Zangibasar, which was located in northwest of the contemporary Ararat Province of Armenia, consisted of 30,000 Muslims in 26 villages some 9 kilometres (5.6 miles) southwest of Armenia's capital Yerevan—the principal town of the district was also named Zangibasar and now forms part of the town Masis. Despite Armenia appointing a local Azerbaijani official in the region, the latter's authority did not effectively extend from their post in Ulukhanlu (now also part of Masis) as it was undermined by the presence of Turkish and Azerbaijani envoys who were encouraging locals to sabotage infrastructure and to raid nearby Armenian villages—which many did with the help of Turkish soldiery. ### Vedibasar The district of Vedibasar constituted the south of the Ararat Province and was predominantly Azerbaijani-populated, with its key town in Boyuk Vedi (present-day Vedi). On 1 July 1919, raiders from Boyuk Vedi attacked the railway town of Davalu (present-day Ararat), killing several Armenian soldiers and civilians. 3 days later, a detachment of 400 soldiers of the Armenian army issued an ultimatum to Boyuk Vedi to surrender the raiders and the stolen belongings of the murdered, however, the rebels answered with machine-gun fire which scattered the detachment and caused a least 160 casualties. In the following 10 days, the Armenian army attempted to storm the village, though were unsuccessful due to the defenders being bolstered by Turkish officers. On 10 August 1919, General Drastamat Kanayan launched a counteroffensive which recaptured 5 rebelling villages and reached the heights of Boyuk Vedi, however, the town would not be retaken until the following year. On 14 July 1919, the Azerbaijani envoy to Armenia Mahammad khan Takinski [az] who played a "great role in the successful resistance of Muslims" dispatched the following note to the foreign minister of Azerbaijan: > The situation in Boyuk-Vedi is serious, Armenia is concentrating all its forces. Military mobilization has been announced. Muslims can be freed by Azerbaijan's armed intervention. ... The stubborn resistance of the Muslims made the English furious. The fight continues. In response to the Muslims' request for help, I announced that Azerbaijan cannot help with troops for now, but all the losses and damages of the Muslims will be immediately compensated by Azerbaijan. Major events are expected to take place in the entirety of Sharur–Nakhichevan–Ordubad and the Kars region. Send large amounts of money to military organizations without wasting a day. Three days earlier, Takinski had apprised the Azerbaijani government of the unsuccessful Armenian counterattack at Boyuk Vedi which resulted in 200 casualties and led to the locals seizing "two artillery pieces and eight machine guns". Though the Armenians attributed their failure to the presence of Turkish soldiery, historian Jamil Hasanli writes that it was determined that there was "not a single Turkish soldier in these villages". ### Sharur–Nakhichevan Encouraged by the uprisings near Yerevan, on 18 July 1919, Halil Sami Bey crossed the border from Doğubayazıt into Sharur to lead a local cavalry unit. The British command later received word that the Armenian authorities in Nakhichevan had become "powerless", as indicated by the inter-ethnic clashes that erupted over the following days. The city of Nakhchivan shortly thereafter became the center of an Armenian pogrom, thus the republic's administration over the region was shattered. On 21 July, Takinski reported to his government that Armenian governance had been ousted from Sharur. As the uprising spread throughout the Nakhichevan uezd, Armenians in Jugha (present-day Gülüstan) were forced to escape across the Aras river into Iran. Some 6,000 Armenians from Nakhichevan living in the Ararat Valley managed to escape to Daralayaz, the Nor Bayazet uezd, and the Zangezur uezd (present-day Vayots Dzor, Gegharkunik, and Syunik provinces, respectively). As a result of the uprising, Halil Sami Bey was responsible for the destruction of 45 Armenian villages and the massacre of 10,000 of their inhabitants in Sharur–Nakhichevan, including the destruction of the large Armenian-populated town of Verin Agulis (present-day Yuxarı Əylis) and its 1,400 inhabitants. Later in the year, Azerbaijani general Samed bey Mehmandarov complained to his government about the presence of Iranian agents trying to entice Muslim refugees in Sharur–Nakhichevan to seek refuge in Iran. ### Suppression On 18 June 1920, some months after the Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan in April, Armenia issued an ultimatum to the rebels of Zangibasar some 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) southwest of Yerevan to submit to Armenian rule. Having no expectation that the ultimatum would be answered, the Armenian army launched an offensive to recapture the rebelling villages on the following day. In the fight for Zangibasar, Lieutenant Aram Kajaznuni, the son of the first prime minister of Armenia was killed, however, the Armenians were victorious on 21 June and had secured the peripheries of Yerevan, however, the locals (mainly Tatars, later known as Azerbaijanis) fled into the neighboring Surmalu uezd to Aralık to avoid retribution. After the battle, volunteer detachments consisting of Armenian refugees from the Aresh and Nukha uezds of Azerbaijan looted the abandoned homes. The voices of the militaristic factions in the Armenian government were strengthened by the successes in Zangibasar and Olty, therefore, the army prepared to retake the districts of Vedibasar and Sharur–Nakhichevan; the advance into the former began on 11 July and by the next day, Armenian forces had recaptured the district and Boyuk Vedi, reaching the boundary of the Erivan and Sharur-Daralayaz uezds at the mountain pass known as the Volchi vorota (Russian: Волчьи ворота, lit. 'Wolf gate')—this again caused the local Muslims to flee, now southward to Sharur. On 14 July, the Armenian advance continued through the Volchi vorota into the Sharur district, capturing it 2 days later whilst the locals fled across the Aras river into Iran. Before the Armenians could advance into the Nakhchevan uezd proper, the national council (Azerbaijani: milli şura) of Nakhichevan appealed for peace, however, the negotiations only served in delaying Armenia's advance, after which the town of Şahtaxtı some 40 kilometres (25 miles) northwest of Nakhichevan was captured. By this time, the 11th Army of Soviet Russia which had previously invaded Azerbaijan reached southern Nakhichevan to form a link with Nationalist Turkey. Colonel Tarkhov, the commander of the "united troops of the Soviet Russia and Red Turkey in Nakhichevan" in addressing the Armenians in Şahtaxtı proclaimed Soviet rule over the rest of Nakhichevan, thereby ending the Armenian campaign. During the campaign, the Persian ministry of foreign affairs tried to delay the Armenian advance for a few days, stating that "the inhabitants of Nakhichevan were petitioning for protection through the sardar of Maku and the authorities at Tabriz" and that as the rebels were "former Persian subjects and overwhelmingly Shia", the government "could not remain indifferent to their appeal." ## Turko-Kurdish uprisings ### Surmalu The Surmalu uezd was the site of large-scale inter-ethnic clashes between Armenians and Muslims in early 1918, during the Ottoman advance—following the latter's withdrawal from the county, Armenians from Van and Sasun provided for the repatriation of Armenians in Surmalu. The following year, whilst the uprisings in the Erivan uezd raged, partisans in Aralikh led by a Turkish officer from Erzurum attacked the Armenian army to relieve pressure on rebelling Boyuk Vedi. In early August, Kurdish tribesmen led by Shamil bey Airumlinsky ousted the thinly stretched Armenian garrison from the peripheries of Surmalu, forcing hundreds of Armenian and Yazidi civilians to flee to Iğdır, later causing many to flee across the Aras river into the neighboring Etchmiadzin uezd (present-day Armavir and Aragatsotn provinces) to escape the raids. Thereafter, Armenian rule was limited to the plains of the Surmalu uezd around the administrative center Iğdır. The Kurdish raids continuing into September were answered by Turkish-Armenian detachments, during which rebelling Kurdish villages were burned. ### Kağızman On 17 August 1919, more than a thousand Kurdish tribesmen led by Omar Agha and Hasan Bey fought the Armenian garrison commanded by Colonel Shaghrutyan near Kağızman in the Kagizman Okrug, demanding that the Armenians withdraw from the region. The following day, the Armenians successfully pushed the Kurds away from the town, two days later pushing the Kurds to the hills. Clashes continued on 28–30 August when a Kurdish attempt to encircle Armenian forces in Sarıkamış was thwarted, causing the former to retreat to the heights of Başköy [tr] and Verishan (present-day Gürbüzler [tr]). Two days later, the Armenians captured the peak Gümrüdağı, forcing the tribesmen to retreat to Barduz (present-day Gaziler). As a result of roads and railway being severed by Kurdish and Turkish partisans, 6,000 Armenian and Greek peasants fled from Sarıkamış. In early September the Armenian army regained control over the republic's former borders in Kars and repatriated the Armenian, Greek, and Russian peasants who had fled the insurgents. The raiders in their retreat were accompanied by Turkish and Kurdish refugees and civilians fleeing from the areas recaptured by Armenia. ### Ardahan–Kars Since its annexation of the Kars Oblast, the Armenian administration had delegated authority to local Muslim officials in the subdistricts Çıldır (consisting of 40 Muslim villages), Aghbaba (present-day Amasia, consisting of 42 Muslim villages), and Zarushad (present-day Arpaçay, consisting of 45 Muslim and 20 Russian sectarian villages) to ensure their loyalty—these subdistricts laid within the districts (Russian: округы, romanized: okrugy) of Ardahan and Kars. Despite the presence of Turkish and Azerbaijani provocateurs carrying large sums of money in the region, Armenia did not attempt to disarm the local population. The provocateurs on 12 January 1920 intended to train a local militia from the population of the villages to occupy the railway passing the Armenian-populated town of Kizil-Chakhchakh (present-day Akyaka). On 24 January, the Armenian administration was completely ousted from Chaldyr, Aghbaba, and Zarushad—the following day, martial law was declared in the district. The Armenian army led by Colonel Hovhannes Mazmanyan [ru] on 28 January unsuccessfully utilised the local "coldly neutral" Russian Molokans of Zarushad as representatives to demand that the rebelling Muslims submit to Armenia. Shortly thereafter, on 1 February, the Armenian army shelled, set fire to, and occupied a number of rebelling villages, effectively routing the rebels of Zarushad. Nine days later, Zarushad's leaders officially accepted Armenian authority, and later confirmed it in-person to the provincial administration in Kars. Chaldyr later submitted on 14 March, however, the Armenian army continued to shell their settlements. The uprising and subsequent countermeasures had resulted in the displacement of up to 10,000 inhabitants of 20 villages, many of whom sought refuge in Azerbaijan. ### Penek Occurring simultaneously with the Armenian counteroffensive against the rebels of Zangibasar, an attempt was made to seize the coal reserves in Penek in the Kurdish-controlled Olti Okrug (present-day eastern Erzurum Province). Armenian policy towards integration of Muslim areas was divided between peaceful civilian incorporation with local autonomy, and military invasion and threats, ultimately, the latter policy prevailed in the case of Olty, to the chagrin of the governor-general of Kars. Armenian and Turkish reports confirmed the presence of Turkish soldiers operating in the district; despite this, the Armenian offensive to capture the western half of the okrug began on 19 June 1920. By 22 June, the Armenian army had converged on Penek and ousted its Turko-Kurdish defenders, setting the new Armenian–Turkish frontier at the Oltu river ## Allied reaction ### Proposed neutral zone William N. Haskell, the Allied High Commissioner for Armenia, only a week after the subjugation of the Karabakh Council to Azerbaijan suggested the creation of a neutral zone in the south of Erivan Governorate including the rebelling districts of Sharur–Nakhichevan. On 29 August 1919, Fatali Khan Khoyski, the Prime Minister of Azerbaijan, agreed to the arrangement with modifications, such as the inclusion of the Armenian-controlled Daralayaz region in the neutral zone, also providing that Azerbaijan would bear the operational expenses of such an entity and provide for the construction of a railway between Julfa and Baku. When Haskell brought this agreement before Armenian officials, already signed by the Khoyski, it was rejected due to the implication it would create of the region becoming a technical part of Azerbaijan, and that it would include the Daralayaz sub-district of the Sharur-Daralayaz uezd, which was under stable Armenian control and served as a vital connection between Yerevan and Armenian-controlled Zangezur. Armenian officials insisted on an American governorship to be created, limited in size to the areas under control of insurgents, however, this was rejected by the Azerbaijani government as it would not achieve its aim of severing Zangezur from Armenia. ### American investigation In the investigation by American relief workers, it was discovered that there were 7,000 Armenian refugees from Sharur in addition to 2,400 who had remained in one of the eight villages unable to return to their homes. Halil Sami Bey, in representing the rebel authorities of Nakhichevan, declared in a meeting with American officials that they would never allow the region to be ruled by Armenia again. One of the American relief officials involved in the investigation, Clarence Ussher, reported that practically all the Armenian villages in Nakhichevan–Sharur had been abandoned or repossessed by the local Muslims. ### Russian arms Armenian-American historian Richard G. Hovannisian argues that it was in the interest of Anton Denikin, the leader of the Volunteer Army, to protect Armenia because their existence prevented "Turkish intrusion into the Caucasus" which could jeopardise Russian military operations in the North Caucasus. Additionally, so long as Azerbaijan and Georgia suspected a secret military alliance between Armenia and South Russia, they couldn't focus all of their military forces against Denikin. In early September, 3 million rounds of ammunition were sent from the Armed Forces of South Russia to Armenia. ## Aftermath Some 5 months after the last uprising was suppressed, in December 1920 the Armenian republic was partitioned between Soviet Russia and Kemalist Turkey, ending its two and a half years of existence. The entirety of the Surmalu and Kars regions, with the exception of the Aghbaba subcounty (Russian: Агбабинский участок), were ceded to the Government of the Grand National Assembly and emptied of its Armenian population—this was confirmed by the 1921 treaties of Kars and Moscow. Conversely, most of the Erivan uezd was retained by Soviet Armenia, with the southernmost section forming the Nakhichevan ASSR of Soviet Azerbaijan along with the Sharur subcounty of Sharur-Daralayaz uezd, and most of the Nakhichevan uezd.
628,044	Guillermo Endara	1,169,960,356	President of Panama (1936–2009)	[ "1936 births", "2009 deaths", "20th-century Panamanian lawyers", "New York University alumni", "Panamanian Roman Catholics", "Politicians from Panama City", "Presidents of Panama", "Solidarity Party (Panama) politicians" ]	Guillermo David Endara Galimany (May 12, 1936 – September 28, 2009) was a Panamanian politician who served as the President of Panama from 1989 to 1994. Raised in a family allied to Panameñista Party founder Arnulfo Arias, Endara attended school in exile in the United States and Argentina following Arias's removal from power. Endara later received a law degree in Panama. He subsequently served as a member of Panama's National Assembly, and briefly as a government minister before heading into exile again following Arias' third overthrow. After Arias' death in 1988, Endara became a leading opponent of the Manuel Noriega military dictatorship, heading the opposition coalition in the 1989 presidential election. Though his coalition was judged by international observers as having defeated pro-Noriega candidate Carlos Duque, the results were annulled by the government, and Endara and his running mates were attacked in the streets by the paramilitary Dignity Battalions. The assaults received widespread coverage in international media, helping to build support within the U.S. for military action against Noriega. Seven months later, the United States invaded Panama. Endara was sworn in as the new president on the first night of the invasion on a U.S. military base. During his presidency, Endara abolished the Panamanian military and replaced it with a national police force. Endara's term saw steady economic growth and a return of democratic institutions, but also high unemployment rates. His administration was marked by internal fighting, and his popularity plummeted. He was succeeded by opposition candidate Ernesto Pérez Balladares on September 1, 1994. Endara ran for office again in 2004 and 2009, but lost to Democratic Revolutionary Party candidate Martín Torrijos and to independent candidate Ricardo Martinelli. He died of a heart attack on September 28, 2009, several months after his last campaign. ## Early life and career Endara was born in 1936 in Panama City, Panama. His father, Guillermo Endara Paniza, was an ally of Authentic Panameñista Party founder Arnulfo Arias, and the family went into exile after Arias was overthrown in a 1941 coup. Endara went to school in Argentina and to Black-Foxe Military Institute in Los Angeles in the United States, where he was described as being a "brilliant student". He later attended the University of Panama Law School, where he graduated first in his class, and New York University. He returned to Panama in 1963 to practice law, and specialized in labor law. He co-founded the firm of Solis, Endara, Delgado and Guevara, one of Panama's most successful law firms. He won his first public office in 1964, but declined to take it due to evidence of voter fraud in the election. Endara later served two terms in the National Assembly. In 1968, Endara served as minister of planning and economic policy during Arias's very brief third term as president. When Arias was overthrown again in October 1968, Endara went underground, was jailed briefly in 1971, and joined Arias in exile until 1977. Endara remained politically engaged and when Arias died in 1988, Endara became a leading opposition figure. ## Opposition to Noriega In the presidential election of 1989, Endara ran as the candidate of the Democratic Alliance of Civic Opposition (ADOC), a coalition of parties opposed to military ruler Manuel Noriega. His rival was Carlos Duque, a candidate selected by Noriega. The US government contributed \$10 million to Panamanian opposition campaigns, though it was unknown whether Endara received any of this money. To safeguard against planned vote-rigging by Noriega, ADOC organized a count of results from the country's election precincts before they were sent to the district centers. It showed Endara trouncing Duque by a nearly 3-to-1 margin. Noriega's cronies took phony tally sheets to the district centers, but by this time the opposition's count was already out. International observers led by former US President Jimmy Carter and a separate group of observers appointed by US President George H. W. Bush also agreed that Endara had won a decisive victory. Noriega had planned to declare Duque the winner regardless of the actual results, but Duque knew he'd been routed and refused to go along. Regardless, Noriega annulled the results before counting was complete due to "foreign interference." The next day, Endara and his running mates, Ricardo Arias Calderón and Guillermo Ford, led a contingent of a thousand supporters to protest the annulment of the elections and urge that the ADOC candidates be recognized as the winners. The protest was attacked by a detachment of Dignity Battalions, a paramilitary group supporting Noriega, and the three candidates were badly beaten. Endara was struck with an iron club, leaving a gash on his head. He was briefly hospitalized and received eight stitches. Images of the attacks on Endara and Ford were carried by media around the world, and were credited with building public support in the US for the invasion that would soon follow. ## Presidency (1989–1994) The US armed forces overthrew Noriega's government during the US invasion of Panama in December 1989. Endara had by this time taken refuge in the military bases under US control. American officials told Endara that if he did not accept the presidency, the only alternative would be an undisguised American occupation. Though Endara had opposed US military action during his campaign, he accepted the presidency, stating later that, "morally, patriotically, civically I had no other choice". He was certified the winner of the election and inaugurated at Fort Clayton, a United States military base, on December 20, 1989. Arias was inaugurated as first vice president, and Ford as second vice president. Unlike previous rulers Omar Torrijos and Noriega, Endara appointed only whites to ministerial positions, excluding Panama's large mestizo population and other ethnicities. Seen as a restorer of democracy, Endara was later noted for having defended freedom of speech and democratic institutions. He also oversaw a reform of the Panamanian Defense Forces, purging Noriega loyalists, asserting the primacy of the civilian government, and returning the group from military to a national police force. In October 1994, the National Assembly passed an amendment abolishing the military at Endara's urging, becoming the second Latin American country to do so. In early 1991, the ADOC coalition began to unravel as Endara, Arias, and Ford publicly criticized one another. On April 8, accusing Arias's Christian Democratic Party of not rallying to his support during an impeachment vote, Endara dismissed Arias from the cabinet. Arias resigned from the vice presidency on December 17, 1992, stating at a news conference that Endara's government "does not listen to the people, nor does it have the courage to make changes". Endara responded that Arias's resignation was "demagoguery" and "merely starting his 1994 political campaign ahead of time". Endara's term in office saw marked economic recovery from the nation's years of military rule. During his presidency, Panama had an average annual economic growth of 8%. However, unemployment also rose near 19%. In February 1990, the overweight Endara began a hunger strike in the Metropolitan Cathedral to call attention to the nation's poverty and to pressure US President George H. W. Bush to dispense previously pledged American aid. In the course of the strike, he lost more than 14 kilograms (30 lb) of his 120 kilograms (260 lb). By May 1992, Endara's public approval rating had fallen from its initial 70% to only 10%. The Associated Press later described Endara's administration as being "tarnished by scandal". Among other financial scandals, Endara's wife Ana Mae Diaz was accused of reselling food that had been donated by Italy on the streets of Panama City. In 1992, Diaz won \$125,000 in the national lottery and indicated that she intended to keep the money rather than donating it; the incident was also cited as an example of the Endara's administration's lack of concern for Panama's poor. ## Later career In 2004, Endara broke with the Arnulfista party over differences of opinion with the party's leader, Panamanian president Mireya Moscoso, and accused the party of corruption. He ran in the 2004 presidential election as the candidate of the Solidarity Party, on a platform of reducing crime and government corruption. His primary rival was Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) candidate Martín Torrijos, son of the former military dictator Omar Torrijos. Martín Torrijos ran on a platform of strengthening democracy and negotiating a free trade agreement with the US, and was supported by popular musician and politician Ruben Blades. Endara finished second, receiving 31% of the vote to Torrijos' 47%. He later founded his own political party, the Moral Vanguard of the Fatherland, and in 2009 was again a candidate for the Panamanian general elections. Ricardo Martinelli of the Democratic Change party won the election with 61% of the vote, while PRD candidate Balbina Herrera won 37%. Endara placed a distant third, with 2% of the vote. Just a few months later, on September 28, 2009, Endara died at the age of 73 in his apartment in Panama City, of a heart attack while preparing dinner. He was given a state funeral on September 30 attended by President Martinelli as well as former presidents Perez Balladares, Moscoso, and Torrijos. ## Personal life Endara married his first wife Marcela, in 1961; the couple had one daughter, Marcelita, and three grandchildren, Javier, Marcela Victoria and Jacob. Marcela died of a heart attack in 1989 while Endara was hospitalized from the attack by the Dignity Brigades. He remarried on June 11, 1990, at the age of 54, to Ana Mae Diaz Chen, a 22-year-old law student of Chinese origin. Endara was reportedly so happy in the marriage that he would even leave cabinet meetings for "a quick cuddle". The marriage received widespread coverage and mockery in the Panamanian press, including a new nickname for Endara, El Gordo Feliz ("Happy Fatty").
69,877,896	Master of Middle-Earth	1,163,426,708	1972 book of literary criticism by Paul H. Kocher	[ "1972 books", "Books about Middle-earth" ]	Master of Middle-earth: The Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien, alternatively subtitled The Achievement of J.R.R. Tolkien, is a 1972 book of literary criticism of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth fantasy writings, written by Paul H. Kocher, and one of the few to be published in Tolkien's lifetime. It focuses especially on The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit, and also covers some of his minor works such as "Leaf by Niggle" and "Smith of Wootton Major". At a time when scholars were largely critical of Tolkien and his prose style, it both praised his writing and, in the absence of either The Silmarillion or Christopher Tolkien's The History of Middle-earth on the process of creation of Tolkien's fiction, it correctly inferred many of his major themes. It was one of the earliest book-length analyses of Tolkien's work, winning Kocher the 1973 Mythopoeic Society's Scholarship in Inkling Studies Award. ## Context J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973) was a scholar of English literature, a philologist and medievalist interested in language and poetry from the Middle Ages, especially that of Anglo-Saxon England and Northern Europe. His professional knowledge of Beowulf, telling of a pagan world but with a Christian narrator, helped to shape his fictional world of Middle-earth. His intention to create what has been called "a mythology for England" led him to construct not only stories but a fully-formed world, Middle-earth, with invented languages, peoples, cultures, and history. Among his many influences were his own Roman Catholic faith, and medieval languages and literature. He is best known as the author of the high fantasy works The Hobbit (1937), The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955), and The Silmarillion (1977), all set in Middle-earth. The early literary reception of The Lord of the Rings was divided between enthusiastic support by figures such as W. H. Auden and C. S. Lewis, and outright rejection by critics such as Edmund Wilson. Paul H. Kocher was a scholar of English literature. The book was published before The Silmarillion appeared to confirm several of Kocher's inferences about the mythical history of Middle-earth. ## Book ### Publication history The book was first published in hardback by Houghton Mifflin in the United States in October 1972. The first British edition was brought out by Thames & Hudson in hardback in 1973, with the title Master of Middle-earth: The Achievement of J.R.R. Tolkien. Paperback editions followed: by Penguin Books in 1974, Ballantine Books in 1977, Pimlico in 2002, and Del Rey in 2003. The book has been translated into Dutch, French, German, Italian, Polish, and Swedish. Versions include: —— published in Britain as Master of Middle-Earth: The Achievement of J. R. R. Tolkien. London: Thames and Hudson, 1973. —— reprinted several times, such as in New York: Ballantine Books, 1977; New York: Del Rey, 1982 and 2003; and London: Pimlico, 2002. Translations include: —— French by Jean Markale as Le royaume de la terre du milieu: Les clés de l'oeuvre de J.R.R. Tolkien. Paris: Retz, 1981. —— Italian, Il maestro della Terra di Mezzo, Rome: Bompiani, 2011. —— Swedish by Åke Ohlmarks, Tolkiens sagovärld: En vägledning. Stockholm: AWE/Geber, 1989; and Stockholm: Geber, 1973. —— Dutch by Max Schuchart, Tolkien: Meester van midden-aarde: Zijn romans en verhalen. The Hague: Bert Bakker, 1973. —— Polish by Radosław Kot as Mistrz Śródziemia. Warsaw: Amber, 1998. ### Synopsis The book has seven chapters, a "Bibliographical Note" on Tolkien's publications, academic notes, and a full index. The chapters cover: 1\. "Middle-earth: An Imaginary World" – how Tolkien blends fantasy and reality to create his world. Kocher quotes Tolkien's statement about creating secondary worlds, that they have to command a kind of belief, and while they may contain dwarfs, trolls, and dragons, these have to be set in a world with realistic features of sea and sky and earth. He notes that Middle-earth is "our earth as it was long ago". 2\. "The Hobbit" – on the quality of Tolkien's children's book. Kocher suggests that the key is to think of Tolkien sitting by the fireside telling the story to a group of children: in the text, he addresses the reader directly. "Jocular interjections" help to maintain "a playful intimacy", while the text "is full of sound effects". All the same, the intended readership is vague, as some passages, like Bard's claim to Smaug's treasure, are more for adults. He notes, too, the change in the "true story" of how Bilbo got the One Ring in the 1966 prologue to The Lord of the Rings, helping to smooth the transition between the two novels. 3\. "Cosmic Order" – on the cosmology of Middle-earth, from the role of Wizards to the godlike Valar. Kocher discerns a "moral dynamism in the universe to which each [protagonist] freely contributes, without exactly knowing how"; in his view the thoughtful characters say enough to imply clearly "the order in which they believe" and the unseen "planner operating through it". He considers, too, the nature of death and immortality for elves and men. 4\. "Sauron and the Nature of Evil" – on the questions of evil and the addictive nature of the temptation of the Ring, including other evil figures like Saruman and Shelob. Kocher discusses how Tolkien deals with the different theories of evil in Christianity, including the Manichean view (evil is as powerful as good), and the question of how Orcs were made evil if "the Shadow that bred them can only mock, it cannot make". 5\. "The Free Peoples" – on how Tolkien portrays different peoples, cultures, and languages by varying his prose. Kocher argues that far from using stereotyped characters or merely telling an adventure story, Tolkien explores both the individuals and the nature of their races, including Elves, Hobbits, Dwarves, Men, and Ents. In his view, "Tolkien's real mastery ... consists in his power to establish for each individual race a personality that is unmistakably its own." 6\. "Aragorn" – arguing that the ranger who becomes King is the real hero of The Lord of the Rings. Kocher writes that Aragorn is a "complex man", the most difficult to "know truly" of any of the major characters in The Lord of the Rings: not least because the reader does not "see him whole" with the details of his life and love until Appendix A's "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", which Kocher calls "beautiful". He examines how Aragorn wins his way into the Hobbits' childish expedition, keeping "powerful feelings under rein". He analyses, too, the rivalry of Aragorn and Boromir, and how "a combination of tact and boldness" wins Aragorn the recognition he wants from his rival; followed by his success with Éomer, and how he deals with Éowyn's love for him. Then "he grows in strength and sureness of touch with each passing test" until he regains the throne of Gondor. 7\. "Seven Leaves" – on seven of Tolkien's minor works: "Leaf by Niggle", The Lay of Aotrou and Itroun, Farmer Giles of Ham, The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son, Smith of Wootton Major, Imram, and The Adventures of Tom Bombadil. Kocher examines the varying techniques Tolkien uses in these diverse stories and poems, down to the "series of puns and comic touches" which keep "The Man in the Moon Came Down Too Soon" from seeming tragic. All the same, the tone of the poems in the collection grows "increasingly sombre" until "The Sea-Bell's" longing for another world becomes unmistakable. Kocher notes, too, the irony in the poem and play The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son, when Tolkien "lauds the dead [Anglo-Saxon] leader for that very quality that destroyed the people he was supposed to guard and guide". ## Impact ### Reception Perceptions of Kocher's work have changed with the publication of The Silmarillion and of The History of Middle-earth, which appeared after the contemporary reviews were written. ### Contemporary The scholar of English literature, Glenn Edward Sadler, reviewing the book in Christianity Today in 1973, wrote that Kocher had provided a "survey narrative", both scholarly and readable, of Tolkien's blend of reality and fantasy. The book ably described Tolkien's "theory of artistic creation (secondary world building), major philosophical and religious ideas, and moral imperatives", and evaluated his construction of myth. Veronica Kennedy, in her 1973 review for Extrapolation, praised Kocher's boldness in attempting to cover the whole of Tolkien's Middle-earth oeuvre, but thought that the origins of The Lord of the Rings in medieval "epics and romances" like The Faerie Queene and Sir Gawain should have been explored in more depth, as well as the influence of Tolkien's contemporaries like C. S. Lewis. Nicholas Tucker, writing in New Society in 1973, criticised the book, calling it "yet another undistinguished addition" to the body of literature on Tolkien. Tucker further wrote that "Nor is Master of Middle-Earth the type of book one could recommend 'for enthusiasts only'. I can't imagine many readers of Tolkien's mysterious, numinous story would want this sort of chattering commentary, ever-eager to analyse character, hand out good conduct marks for heroism, and really dig, say, the difference between a dwarf and an elf." Nancy-Lou Patterson, in Mythlore in 1975, welcomed the book, stating that "Kocher's Master of Middle-earth is just the sort of study of Tolkien's ability as a master 'sub-creator' which his admirers have often felt ought to be written and which many of them will probably wish they had had the good sense to write themselves. ... The result is a thorough, brilliant, and warmly sympathetic exploration of the several 'other worlds' of which Tolkien has become the master." ### Later Charles W. Nelson, in Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts, noting that the book was one of the first scholarly studies of Tolkien, wrote in 1994 that it contained "one of the most complete discussions of love and emotional attachments in the trilogy, including a fascinating treatment of self-love and its injurious affects on the evil characters". The science fiction author Karen Haber called the book the "highest point" of academic criticism of Tolkien during his lifetime. The scholar of religion Paul Nolan Hyde wrote in Religious Educator that Kocher was one of the early scholars who took Tolkien seriously, praising rather than decrying his prose style and his "real mastery as a writer" which (he quotes Kocher) "consists in his power to establish for each individual race a personality that is unmistakably its own... Further, each race has not only its gifts but also its private tragedy, which it must try to overcome as best it can." The Tolkien scholar Richard C. West wrote in The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia that Kocher had written "the finest book from this [early] period ... [it] looks closely and deeply at the whole body of Tolkien's work to that time. Its insights have held up well for decades." The evolutionary psychiatrist and Tolkien critic Bruce Charlton wrote that the book was the "first really good piece of book length critical work" on Tolkien, noting that it came out just before Tolkien's death. It thus embodied "a lost perspective", absent all Tolkien's posthumously-published writings, including the 12-volume The History of Middle-earth which appeared in the following decades. In Charlton's view, the book therefore has permanent value. He notes that Kocher flags up or discusses in detail nearly all the key points about Tolkien, making educated inferences that were later confirmed by Christopher Tolkien's lengthy research among his father's papers. Carol Leibiger, writing in Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts, commented that "Kocher ... was unable to include The Silmarillion ... in his study, and he never revised this work to include it, which diminishes its usefulness for any audience seeking to understand Tolkien's Middle-Earth works." ### Analysis The Jesuit priest John L. Treloar wrote in Mythlore that Kocher notices Tolkien's tendency to move away from personifying evil towards making it an abstract entity, but ascribes this to Tolkien's familiarity as a Roman Catholic with the writings of Thomas Aquinas. Treloar argues that Aquinas derived his concepts from Saint Augustine. He explains that Augustine had argued that God is entirely good, making it awkward to explain how evil could exist; Augustine wrestled with this, concluding that everything that God had created was good in the beginning. Treloar writes that the artist in Tolkien would have been attracted by Augustine's struggle. He notes that if Kocher had had the help of The Silmarillion, he might have seen that Tolkien's Augustinian view of evil as the absence of good was "even more pervasive [in Middle-earth] than Kocher realizes". ### Awards In 1973 Kocher won the Mythopoeic Society's Scholarship in Inkling Studies Award for Master of Middle-Earth. ## See also Published in Tolkien's lifetime - Tolkien: A Look Behind "The Lord of the Rings" (1969), an early non-scholarly book on Tolkien's writing Published soon after Tolkien's death - A Tolkien Compass (1975), an early collection of scholarly essays on Tolkien's writing - The Road to Middle-earth (1982), an early book of Tolkien scholarship
11,812	Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II	1,170,499,510	American stealth multirole combat aircraft	[ "2000s United States fighter aircraft", "Aircraft first flown in 2006", "Articles containing video clips", "Carrier-based aircraft", "Lift fan", "Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II", "Lockheed Martin aircraft", "Mid-wing aircraft", "Single-engined jet aircraft", "Stealth aircraft" ]	The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is an American family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather stealth multirole combat aircraft that is intended to perform both air superiority and strike missions. It is also able to provide electronic warfare and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities. Lockheed Martin is the prime F-35 contractor, with principal partners Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems. The aircraft has three main variants: the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) F-35A, the short take-off and vertical-landing (STOVL) F-35B, and the carrier-based (CV/CATOBAR) F-35C. The aircraft descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, which in 2001 beat the Boeing X-32 to win the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Its development is principally funded by the United States, with additional funding from program partner countries from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Italy, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. Several other countries have also ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft. The program has drawn much scrutiny and criticism for its unprecedented size, complexity, ballooning costs, and much-delayed deliveries. The acquisition strategy of concurrent production of the aircraft while it was still in development and testing led to expensive design changes and retrofits. The F-35 first flew in 2006 and entered service with the U.S. Marine Corps F-35B in July 2015, followed by the U.S. Air Force F-35A in August 2016 and the U.S. Navy F-35C in February 2019. The aircraft was first used in combat in 2018 by the Israeli Air Force. The U.S. plans to buy 2,456 F-35s through 2044, which will represent the bulk of the crewed tactical aviation of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps for several decades; the aircraft is planned to be a cornerstone of NATO and U.S.-allied air power and to operate until 2070. ## Development ### Program origins The F-35 was the product of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program, which was the merger of various combat aircraft programs from the 1980s and 1990s. One progenitor program was the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Advanced Short Take-Off/Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) which ran from 1983 to 1994; ASTOVL aimed to develop a Harrier jump jet replacement for the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) and the U.K. Royal Navy. Under one of ASTOVL's classified programs, the Supersonic STOVL Fighter (SSF), Lockheed Skunk Works conducted research for a stealthy supersonic STOVL fighter intended for both U.S. Air Force (USAF) and USMC; a key technology explored was the shaft-driven lift fan (SDLF) system. Lockheed's concept was a single-engine canard delta aircraft weighing about 24,000 lb (11,000 kg) empty. ASTOVL was rechristened as the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter (CALF) in 1993 and involved Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and Boeing. In 1993, the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program emerged following the cancellation of the USAF's Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and U.S. Navy's (USN) Advanced Fighter-Attack (A/F-X) programs. MRF, a program for a relatively affordable F-16 replacement, was scaled back and delayed due to post–Cold War defense posture easing F-16 fleet usage and thus extending its service life as well as increasing budget pressure from the F-22 Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program. The A/F-X, initially known as the Advanced-Attack (A-X), began in 1991 as the USN's follow-on to the Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) program for an A-6 replacement; the ATA's resulting A-12 Avenger II had been canceled due to technical problems and cost overruns in 1991. In the same year, the termination of the Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), a naval development of USAF's ATF program to replace the F-14, resulted in additional fighter capability being added to A-X, which was then renamed A/F-X. Amid increased budget pressure, the Department of Defense's (DoD) Bottom-Up Review (BUR) in September 1993 announced MRF's and A/F-X's cancellations, with applicable experience brought to the emerging JAST program. JAST was not meant to develop a new aircraft, but rather to develop requirements, mature technologies, and demonstrate concepts for advanced strike warfare. As JAST progressed, the need for concept demonstrator aircraft by 1996 emerged, which would coincide with the full-scale flight demonstrator phase of ASTOVL/CALF. Because the ASTOVL/CALF concept appeared to align with the JAST charter, the two programs were eventually merged in 1994 under the JAST name, with the program now serving the USAF, USMC, and USN. JAST was subsequently renamed to Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) in 1995, with STOVL submissions by McDonnell Douglas, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing. The JSF was expected to eventually replace large numbers of multi-role and strike fighters in the inventories of the US and its allies, including the Harrier, F-16, F/A-18, A-10, and F-117. International participation is a key aspect of the JSF program, starting with United Kingdom participation in the ASTOVL program. Many international partners requiring modernization of their air forces were interested in the JSF. The United Kingdom joined JAST/JSF as a founding member in 1995 and thus became the only Tier 1 partner of the JSF program; Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Canada, Australia, and Turkey joined the program during the Concept Demonstration Phase (CDP), with Italy and the Netherlands being Tier 2 partners and the rest Tier 3. Consequently, the aircraft was developed in cooperation with international partners and available for export. ### JSF competition Boeing and Lockheed Martin were selected in early 1997 for CDP, with their concept demonstrator aircraft designated X-32 and X-35 respectively; the McDonnell Douglas team was eliminated and Northrop Grumman and British Aerospace joined the Lockheed Martin team. Each firm would produce two prototype air vehicles to demonstrate conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL), carrier takeoff and landing (CV), and STOVL. Lockheed Martin's design would make use of the work on the SDLF system conducted under the ASTOVL/CALF program. The key aspect of the X-35 that enabled STOVL operation, the SDLF system consists of the lift fan in the forward center fuselage that could be activated by engaging a clutch that connects the driveshaft to the turbines and thus augmenting the thrust from the engine's swivel nozzle. Research from prior aircraft incorporating similar systems, such as the Convair Model 200, Rockwell XFV-12, and Yakovlev Yak-141, were also taken into consideration. By contrast, Boeing's X-32 employed direct lift system that the augmented turbofan would be reconfigured to when engaging in STOVL operation. Lockheed Martin's commonality strategy was to replace the STOVL variant's SDLF with a fuel tank and the aft swivel nozzle with a two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzle for the CTOL variant. This would enable identical aerodynamic configuration for the STOVL and CTOL variants, while the CV variant would have an enlarged wing to reduce landing speed for carrier recovery. Due to aerodynamic characteristics and carrier recovery requirements from the JAST merger, the design configuration settled on a conventional tail compared to the canard delta design from the ASTOVL/CALF; notably, the conventional tail configuration offers much lower risk for carrier recovery compared to the ASTOVL/CALF canard configuration, which was designed without carrier compatibility in mind. This enabled greater commonality between all three variants, as the commonality goal was important at this design stage. Lockheed Martin's prototypes would consist of the X-35A for demonstrating CTOL before converting it to the X-35B for STOVL demonstration and the larger-winged X-35C for CV compatibility demonstration. The X-35A first flew on 24 October 2000 and conducted flight tests for subsonic and supersonic flying qualities, handling, range, and maneuver performance. After 28 flights, the aircraft was then converted into the X-35B for STOVL testing, with key changes including the addition of the SDLF, the three-bearing swivel module (3BSM), and roll-control ducts. The X-35B would successfully demonstrate the SDLF system by performing stable hover, vertical landing, and short takeoff in less than 500 ft (150 m). The X-35C first flew on 16 December 2000 and conducted field landing carrier practice tests. On 26 October 2001, Lockheed Martin was declared the winner and was awarded the System Development and Demonstration (SDD) contract; Pratt & Whitney was separately awarded a development contract for the F135 engine for the JSF. The F-35 designation, which was out of sequence with standard DoD numbering, was allegedly determined on the spot by program manager Major General Mike Hough; this came as a surprise even to Lockheed Martin, which had expected the F-24 designation for the JSF. ### Design and production As the JSF program moved into the System Development and Demonstration phase, the X-35 demonstrator design was modified to create the F-35 combat aircraft. The forward fuselage was lengthened by 5 inches (13 cm) to make room for mission avionics, while the horizontal stabilizers were moved 2 inches (5.1 cm) aft to retain balance and control. The diverterless supersonic inlet changed from a four-sided to a three-sided cowl shape and was moved 30 inches (76 cm) aft. The fuselage section was fuller, the top surface raised by 1 inch (2.5 cm) along the centerline to accommodate weapons bays. Following the designation of the X-35 prototypes, the three variants were designated F-35A (CTOL), F-35B (STOVL), and F-35C (CV), all with a design service life of 8,000 hours. Prime contractor Lockheed Martin performs overall systems integration and final assembly and checkout (FACO) at Fort Worth, Texas, while Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems supply components for mission systems and airframe. Adding the systems of a fighter aircraft added weight. The F-35B gained the most, largely due to a 2003 decision to enlarge the weapons bays for commonality between variants; the total weight growth was reportedly up to 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg), over 8%, causing all STOVL key performance parameter (KPP) thresholds to be missed. In December 2003, the STOVL Weight Attack Team (SWAT) was formed to reduce the weight increase; changes included thinned airframe members, smaller weapons bays and vertical stabilizers, less thrust fed to the roll-post outlets, and redesigning the wing-mate joint, electrical elements, and the airframe immediately aft of the cockpit. The inlet was also revised to accommodate more powerful, greater mass flow engines. Many changes from the SWAT effort were applied to all three variants for commonality. By September 2004, these efforts had reduced the F-35B's weight by over 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg), while the F-35A and F-35C were reduced in weight by 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) and 1,900 pounds (860 kg) respectively. The weight reduction work cost \$6.2 billion and caused an 18-month delay. The first F-35A, designated AA-1, was rolled out at Fort Worth on 19 February 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006. In 2006, the F-35 was given the name "Lightning II" after the Lockheed P-38 Lightning of World War II. Some USAF pilots have nicknamed the aircraft "Panther" instead. The aircraft's software was developed as six releases, or Blocks, for SDD. The first two Blocks, 1A and 1B, readied the F-35 for initial pilot training and multi-level security. Block 2A improved the training capabilities, while 2B was the first combat-ready release planned for the USMC's Initial Operating Capability (IOC). Block 3i retains the capabilities of 2B while having new hardware and was planned for the USAF's IOC. The final release for SDD, Block 3F, would have full flight envelope and all baseline combat capabilities. Alongside software releases, each block also incorporates avionics hardware updates and air vehicle improvements from flight and structural testing. In what is known as "concurrency", some low rate initial production (LRIP) aircraft lots would be delivered in early Block configurations and eventually upgraded to Block 3F once development is complete. After 17,000 flight test hours, the final flight for the SDD phase was completed in April 2018. Like the F-22, the F-35 has been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft efforts, as well as potential vulnerabilities in the integrity of the supply chain. Testing found several major problems: early F-35B airframes had premature cracking, the F-35C arrestor hook design was unreliable, fuel tanks were too vulnerable to lightning strikes, the helmet display had problems, and more. Software was repeatedly delayed due to its unprecedented scope and complexity. In 2009, the DoD Joint Estimate Team (JET) estimated that the program was 30 months behind the public schedule. In 2011, the program was "re-baselined"; that is, its cost and schedule goals were changed, pushing the IOC from the planned 2010 to July 2015. The decision to simultaneously test, fix defects, and begin production was criticized as inefficient; in 2014, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition Frank Kendall called it "acquisition malpractice". The three variants shared just 25% of their parts, far below the anticipated commonality of 70%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns and for the total projected lifetime cost, as well as quality management shortcomings by contractors. The JSF program was expected to cost about \$200 billion for acquisition in base-year 2002 dollars when SDD was awarded in 2001. As early as 2005, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) had identified major program risks in cost and schedule. The costly delays strained the relationship between the Pentagon and contractors. By 2017, delays and cost overruns had pushed the F-35 program's expected acquisition costs to \$406.5 billion, with total lifetime cost (i.e., to 2070) to \$1.5 trillion in then-year dollars which also includes operations and maintenance. The F-35A's unit cost for LRIP Lot 13 was \$79.2 million. Delays in development and operational test and evaluation pushed full-rate production to 2023. ### Upgrades and further development The first combat-capable Block 2B configuration, which had basic air-to-air and strike capabilities, was declared ready by the USMC in July 2015. The Block 3F configuration began operational test and evaluation (OT&E) in December 2018, the completion of which will conclude SDD. The F-35 program is also conducting sustainment and upgrade development, with early LRIP aircraft gradually upgraded to the baseline Block 3F standard by 2021. The F-35 is expected to be continually upgraded over its lifetime. The first upgrade program, called Continuous Capability Development and Delivery (C2D2) began in 2019 and is currently planned to run to 2024. The near-term development priority of C2D2 is Block 4, which would integrate additional weapons, including those unique to international customers, refresh the avionics, improve ESM capabilities, and add Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver (ROVER) support. C2D2 also places greater emphasis on agile software development to enable quicker releases. In 2018, the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (AFLCMC) awarded contracts to General Electric and Pratt & Whitney to develop more powerful and efficient adaptive cycle engines for potential application in the F-35, leveraging the research done under the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP); in 2022, the F-35 Adaptive Engine Replacement (FAER) program was launched to integrate adaptive cycle engines into the aircraft by 2028. Defense contractors have offered upgrades to the F-35 outside of official program contracts. In 2013, Northrop Grumman disclosed its development of a directional infrared countermeasures suite, named Threat Nullification Defensive Resource (ThNDR). The countermeasure system would share the same space as the Distributed Aperture System (DAS) sensors and acts as a laser missile jammer to protect against infrared-homing missiles. Israel wants more access to the core avionics to include their own equipment. In September 2022, the F-35 delivery was temporarily suspended after determining Chinese sourced materials were used in Honeywell pumps. ### Procurement and international participation The United States is the primary customer and financial backer, with planned procurement of 1,763 F-35As for the USAF, 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs for the USMC, and 273 F-35Cs for the USN. Additionally, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Turkey, Australia, Norway, Denmark and Canada have agreed to contribute US\$4.375 billion towards development costs, with the United Kingdom contributing about 10% of the planned development costs as the sole Tier 1 partner. The initial plan was that the U.S. and eight major partner countries would acquire over 3,100 F-35s through 2035. The three tiers of international participation generally reflect financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. Alongside program partner countries, Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants (SCP). Sales to SCP and non-partner states, including Belgium, Japan, and South Korea, are made through the Pentagon's Foreign Military Sales program. Turkey was removed from the F-35 program in July 2019 over security concerns following its purchase of a Russian S-400 surface-to-air missile system. ## Design ### Overview The F-35 is a family of single-engine, supersonic, stealth multirole fighters. The second fifth generation fighter to enter US service and the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter, the F-35 emphasizes low observables, advanced avionics and sensor fusion that enable a high level of situational awareness and long range lethality; the USAF considers the aircraft its primary strike fighter for conducting suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD) missions, owing to the advanced sensors and mission systems. The F-35 has a wing-tail configuration with two vertical stabilizers canted for stealth. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, rudders, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); leading edge root extensions or chines also run forwards to the inlets. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the F-35A and F-35B is set by the requirement to fit inside USN amphibious assault ship parking areas and elevators; the F-35C's larger wing is more fuel efficient. The fixed diverterless supersonic inlets (DSI) use a bumped compression surface and forward-swept cowl to shed the boundary layer of the forebody away from the inlets, which form a Y-duct for the engine. Structurally, the F-35 drew upon lessons from the F-22; composites comprise 35% of airframe weight, with the majority being bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials as well as some carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy in later production lots. The F-35 is considerably heavier than the lightweight fighters it replaces, with the lightest variant having an empty weight of 29,300 lb (13,300 kg); much of the weight can be attributed to the internal weapons bays and the extensive avionics carried. While lacking the top speed of the larger twin-engine F-22, the F-35 is competitive with fourth generation fighters such as the F-16 and F/A-18, especially when they carry weapons because the F-35's internal weapons bay eliminates drag from external stores. All variants have a top speed of Mach 1.6, attainable with full internal payload. The powerful F135 engine gives good subsonic acceleration and energy, with supersonic dash in afterburner. The large stabilitors, leading edge extensions and flaps, and canted rudders provide excellent high alpha (angle-of-attack) characteristics, with a trimmed alpha of 50°. Relaxed stability and triplex-redundant fly-by-wire controls provide excellent handling qualities and departure resistance. Having over double the F-16's internal fuel, the F-35 has a considerably greater combat radius, while stealth also enables a more efficient mission flight profile. ### Sensors and avionics The F-35's mission systems are among the most complex aspects of the aircraft. The avionics and sensor fusion are designed to enhance the pilot's situational awareness and command and control capabilities and facilitate network-centric warfare. Key sensors include the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-81 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, BAE Systems AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system, Northrop Grumman/Raytheon AN/AAQ-37 Electro-optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS), Lockheed Martin AN/AAQ-40 Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) and Northrop Grumman AN/ASQ-242 Communications, Navigation, and Identification (CNI) suite. The F-35 was designed with sensor intercommunication to provide a cohesive image of the local battlespace and availability for any possible use and combination with one another; for example, the APG-81 radar also acts as a part of the electronic warfare system. Much of the F-35's software was developed in C and C++ programming languages, while Ada83 code from the F-22 was also used; the Block 3F software has 8.6 million lines of code. The Green Hills Software Integrity DO-178B real-time operating system (RTOS) runs on integrated core processors (ICPs); data networking includes the IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel buses. To enable fleet software upgrades for the software-defined radio systems and greater upgrade flexibility and affordability, the avionics use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components when practical. The mission systems software, particularly for sensor fusion, was one of the program's most difficult parts and responsible for substantial program delays. The APG-81 radar uses electronic scanning for rapid beam agility and incorporates passive and active air-to-air modes, strike modes, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) capability, with multiple target track-while-scan at ranges in excess of 80 nmi (150 km). The antenna is tilted backwards for stealth. Complementing the radar is the AAQ-37 DAS, which consists of six infrared sensors that provide all-aspect missile launch warning and target tracking; the DAS acts as a situational awareness infrared search-and-track (SAIRST) and gives the pilot spherical infrared and night-vision imagery on the helmet visor. The ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system has ten radio frequency antennas embedded into the edges of the wing and tail for all-aspect radar warning receiver (RWR). It also provides sensor fusion of radio frequency and infrared tracking functions, geolocation threat targeting, and multispectral image countermeasures for self-defense against missiles. The electronic warfare system is capable of detecting and jamming hostile radars. The AAQ-40 EOTS is mounted internally behind a faceted low-observable window under the nose and performs laser targeting, forward-looking infrared (FLIR), and long range IRST functions. The ASQ-242 CNI suite uses a half dozen different physical links, including the directional Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL), for covert CNI functions. Through sensor fusion, information from radio frequency receivers and infrared sensors are combined to form a single tactical picture for the pilot. The all-aspect target direction and identification can be shared via MADL to other platforms without compromising low observability, while Link 16 is present for communication with legacy systems. The F-35 was designed from the outset to incorporate improved processors, sensors, and software enhancements over its lifespan. Technology Refresh 3, which includes a new core processor and a new cockpit display, is planned for Lot 15 aircraft. Lockheed Martin has offered the Advanced EOTS for the Block 4 configuration; the improved sensor fits into the same area as the baseline EOTS with minimal changes. In June 2018, Lockheed Martin picked Raytheon for improved DAS. The USAF has studied the potential for the F-35 to orchestrate attacks by unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) via its sensors and communications equipment. A new radar called the AN/APG-85 is planned for Block 4 F-35s. According to the JPO the new radar will be compatible with all three major F-35 variants. However, it is unclear if older aircraft will be retrofitted with the new radar. ### Stealth and signatures Stealth is a key aspect of the F-35's design, and radar cross-section (RCS) is minimized through careful shaping of the airframe and the use of radar-absorbent materials (RAM); visible measures to reduce RCS include alignment of edges, serration of skin panels, and the masking of the engine face and turbine. Additionally, the F-35's diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI) uses a compression bump and forward-swept cowl rather than a splitter gap or bleed system to divert the boundary layer away from the inlet duct, eliminating the diverter cavity and further reducing radar signature. The RCS of the F-35 has been characterized as lower than a metal golf ball at certain frequencies and angles; in some conditions, the F-35 compares favorably to the F-22 in stealth. For maintainability, the F-35's stealth design took lessons learned from prior stealth aircraft such as the F-22; the F-35's radar-absorbent fibermat skin is more durable and requires less maintenance than older topcoats. The aircraft also has reduced infrared and visual signatures as well as strict controls of radio frequency emitters to prevent their detection. The F-35's stealth design is primarily focused on high-frequency X-band wavelengths; low-frequency radars can spot stealthy aircraft due to Rayleigh scattering, but such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and lack precision. To disguise its RCS, the aircraft can mount four Luneburg lens reflectors. Noise from the F-35 caused concerns in residential areas near potential bases for the aircraft, and residents near two such bases—Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, and Eglin Air Force Base (AFB), Florida—requested environmental impact studies in 2008 and 2009 respectively. Although the noise levels, in decibels, were comparable to those of prior fighters such as the F-16, the F-35's sound power is stronger—particularly at lower frequencies. Subsequent surveys and studies have indicated that the noise of the F-35 was not perceptibly different from the F-16 and F/A-18E/F, though the greater low-frequency noise was noticeable for some observers. ### Cockpit The glass cockpit was designed to give the pilot good situational awareness. The main display is a 20- by 8-inch (50 by 20 cm) panoramic touchscreen, which shows flight instruments, stores management, CNI information, and integrated caution and warnings; the pilot can customize the arrangement of the information. Below the main display is a smaller stand-by display. The cockpit has a speech-recognition system developed by Adacel. The F-35 does not have a head-up display; instead, flight and combat information is displayed on the visor of the pilot's helmet in a helmet-mounted display system (HMDS). The one-piece tinted canopy is hinged at the front and has an internal frame for structural strength. The Martin-Baker US16E ejection seat is launched by a twin-catapult system housed on side rails. There is a right-hand side stick and throttle hands-on throttle-and-stick system. For life support, an onboard oxygen-generation system (OBOGS) is fitted and powered by the Integrated Power Package (IPP), with an auxiliary oxygen bottle and backup oxygen system for emergencies. The Vision Systems International helmet display is a key piece of the F-35's human-machine interface. Instead of the head-up display mounted atop the dashboard of earlier fighters, the HMDS puts flight and combat information on the helmet visor, allowing the pilot to see it no matter which way they are facing. Infrared and night vision imagery from the Distributed Aperture System can be displayed directly on the HMDS and enables the pilot to "see through" the aircraft. The HMDS allows an F-35 pilot to fire missiles at targets even when the nose of the aircraft is pointing elsewhere by cuing missile seekers at high angles off-boresight. Each helmet costs \$400,000. The HMDS weighs more than traditional helmets, and there is concern that it can endanger lightweight pilots during ejection. Due to the HMDS's vibration, jitter, night-vision and sensor display problems during development, Lockheed Martin and Elbit issued a draft specification in 2011 for an alternative HMDS based on the AN/AVS-9 night vision goggles as backup, with BAE Systems chosen later that year. A cockpit redesign would be needed to adopt an alternative HMDS. Following progress on the baseline helmet, development on the alternative HMDS was halted in October 2013. In 2016, the Gen 3 helmet with improved night vision camera, new liquid crystal displays, automated alignment and software enhancements was introduced with LRIP lot 7. ### Armament To preserve its stealth shaping, the F-35 has two internal weapons bays each with two weapons stations. The two outboard weapon stations each can carry ordnance up to 2,500 lb (1,100 kg), or 1,500 lb (680 kg) for the F-35B, while the two inboard stations carry air-to-air missiles. Air-to-surface weapons for the outboard station include the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), Paveway series of bombs, Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), and cluster munitions (Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser). The station can also carry multiple smaller munitions such as the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDB), GBU-53/B SDB II, and SPEAR 3 anti-tank missiles; up to four SDBs can be carried per station for the F-35A and F-35C, and three for the F-35B. The inboard station can carry the AIM-120 AMRAAM and eventually the AIM-260 JATM. Two compartments behind the weapons bays contain flares, chaff, and towed decoys. The aircraft can use six external weapons stations for missions that do not require stealth. The wingtip pylons each can carry an AIM-9X or AIM-132 ASRAAM and are canted outwards to reduce their radar cross-section. Additionally, each wing has a 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) inboard station and a 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) middle station, or 1,500 lb (680 kg) for F-35B. The external wing stations can carry large air-to-surface weapons that would not fit inside the weapons bays such as the AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM) cruise missile. An air-to-air missile load of eight AIM-120s and two AIM-9s is possible using internal and external weapons stations; a configuration of six 2,000 lb (910 kg) bombs, two AIM-120s and two AIM-9s can also be arranged. The F-35A is armed with a 25 mm GAU-22/A rotary cannon mounted internally near the left wing root with 182 rounds carried; the gun is more effective against ground targets than the 20 mm cannon carried by other USAF fighters. The F-35B and F-35C have no internal gun and instead can use a Terma A/S multi-mission pod (MMP) carrying the GAU-22/A and 220 rounds; the pod is mounted on the centerline of the aircraft and shaped to reduce its radar cross-section. In lieu of the gun, the pod can also be used for different equipment and purposes, such as electronic warfare, aerial reconnaissance, or rear-facing tactical radar. Lockheed Martin is developing a weapon rack called Sidekick that would enable the internal outboard station to carry two AIM-120s, thus increasing the internal air-to-air payload to six missiles, currently offered for Block 4. Block 4 will also have a rearranged hydraulic line and bracket to allow the F-35B to carry four SDBs per internal outboard station; integration of the MBDA Meteor is also planned. The USAF and USN are planning to integrate the AGM-88G AARGM-ER internally in the F-35A and F-35C. Norway and Australia are funding an adaptation of the Naval Strike Missile (NSM) for the F-35; designated Joint Strike Missile (JSM), two missiles can be carried internally with an additional four externally. Nuclear weapons delivery via internal carriage of the B61 nuclear bomb is planned for Block 4B in 2024. Both hypersonic missiles and direct energy weapons such as solid-state laser are currently being considered as future upgrades. Lockheed Martin is studying integrating a fiber laser that uses spectral beam combining multiple individual laser modules into a single high-power beam, which can be scaled to various levels. The USAF plans for the F-35A to take up the close air support (CAS) mission in contested environments; amid criticism that it is not as well suited as a dedicated attack platform, USAF chief of staff Mark Welsh placed a focus on weapons for CAS sorties, including guided rockets, fragmentation rockets that shatter into individual projectiles before impact, and more compact ammunition for higher capacity gun pods. Fragmentary rocket warheads create greater effects than cannon shells as each rocket creates a "thousand-round burst", delivering more projectiles than a strafing run. ### Engine The single-engine aircraft is powered by the Pratt & Whitney F135 low-bypass augmented turbofan with rated thrust of 28,000 lbf (125 kN) at military power and 43,000 lbf (191 kN) with afterburner. Derived from the Pratt & Whitney F119 used by the F-22, the F135 has a larger fan and higher bypass ratio to increase subsonic thrust and fuel efficiency, and unlike the F119, is not optimized for supercruise. The engine contributes to the F-35's stealth by having a low-observable augmenter, or afterburner, that incorporates fuel injectors into thick curved vanes; these vanes are covered by ceramic radar-absorbent materials and mask the turbine. The stealthy augmenter had problems with pressure pulsations, or "screech", at low altitude and high speed early in its development. The low-observable axisymmetric nozzle consists of 15 partially overlapping flaps that create a sawtooth pattern at the trailing edge, which reduces radar signature and creates shed vortices that reduce the infrared signature of the exhaust plume. Due to the engine's large dimensions, the U.S. Navy had to modify its underway replenishment system to facilitate at-sea logistics support. The F-35's Integrated Power Package (IPP) performs power and thermal management and integrates environment control, auxiliary power unit, engine starting, and other functions into a single system. The F135-PW-600 variant for the F-35B incorporates the Shaft-Driven Lift Fan (SDLF) to allow STOVL operations. Designed by Lockheed Martin and developed by Rolls-Royce, the SDLF, also known as the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, consists of the lift fan, drive shaft, two roll posts, and a "three-bearing swivel module" (3BSM). The thrust vectoring 3BSM nozzle allows the main engine exhaust to be deflected downward at the tail of the aircraft and is moved by a "fueldraulic" actuator that uses pressurized fuel as the working fluid. Unlike the Harrier's Pegasus engine that entirely uses direct engine thrust for lift, the F-35B's system augments the swivel nozzle's thrust with the lift fan; the fan is powered by the low-pressure turbine through a drive shaft when engaged with a clutch and placed near the front of the aircraft to provide a counterbalancing thrust. Roll control during slow flight is achieved by diverting unheated engine bypass air through wing-mounted thrust nozzles called roll posts. An alternative engine, the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136, was being developed in the 2000s; originally, F-35 engines from Lot 6 onward were competitively tendered. Using technology from the General Electric YF120, the F136 was claimed to have a greater temperature margin than the F135 due to the higher mass flow design making full use of the inlet. The F136 was canceled in December 2011 due to lack of funding. The F-35 is expected to receive propulsion upgrades over its lifecycle to adapt to emerging threats and enable additional capabilities. In 2016, the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP) was launched to develop and test adaptive cycle engines, with one major potential application being the re-engining of the F-35; in 2018, both GE and P&W were awarded contracts to develop 45,000 lbf (200 kN) thrust class demonstrators, with the designations XA100 and XA101 respectively. In addition to potential re-engining, P&W also plans to improve the baseline F135; in 2017, P&W announced the F135 Growth Option 1.0 and 2.0; Growth Option 1.0 was a drop-in power module upgrade that offered 6–10% thrust improvement and 5–6% fuel burn reduction, while Growth Option 2.0 would be the adaptive cycle XA101. In 2020, P&W shifted its F135 upgrade plan from the Growth Options to a series of Engine Enhancement Packages along with some additional capabilities, while the XA101 became a separate clean-sheet design. The capability packages are planned to be incorporated in two-year increments starting in the mid-2020s. In December 2020, GE's XA100 (A100) completed its first successful run. GE's detailed design was completed in February 2019, and initial testing at GE's high-altitude test facility in Evendale, Ohio was concluded in May 2021. GE expects that the A100 can enter service with the F-35A and C in 2027 at the earliest. ### Maintenance and logistics The F-35 is designed to require less maintenance than prior stealth aircraft. Some 95% of all field-replaceable parts are "one deep"—that is, nothing else need be removed to reach the desired part; for instance, the ejection seat can be replaced without removing the canopy. The F-35 has a fibermat radar-absorbent material (RAM) baked into the skin, which is more durable, easier to work with, and faster to cure than older RAM coatings; similar coatings are being considered for application on older stealth aircraft such as the F-22. Skin corrosion on the F-22 led the F-35 using a less galvanic corrosion-inducing skin gap filler, fewer gaps in the airframe skin needing filler, and better drainage. The flight control system uses electro-hydrostatic actuators rather than traditional hydraulic systems; these controls can be powered by lithium-ion batteries in case of emergency. Commonality between variants led to the USMC's first aircraft maintenance Field Training Detachment, which applied USAF lessons to their F-35 operations. The F-35 was initially supported by a computerized maintenance management system named Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS). In concept, any F-35 can be serviced at any maintenance facility and all parts can be globally tracked and shared as needed. Due to numerous problems, such as unreliable diagnoses, excessive connectivity requirements, and security vulnerabilities, ALIS is being replaced by the cloud-based Operational Data Integrated Network (ODIN). From September 2020, ODIN base kits (OBKs) were running ALIS software, as well as ODIN software, first at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Yuma, Arizona, then at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California, in support of Strike Fighter Squadron (VFA) 125 on 16 July 2021, and then Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, in support of the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) on 6 August 2021. In 2022, over a dozen more OBK sites will replace the ALIS's Standard Operating Unit unclassified (SOU-U) servers. OBK performance is double that of ALIS. ## Operational history ### Testing The first F-35A, AA-1, conducted its engine run in September 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006. Unlike all subsequent aircraft, AA-1 did not have the weight optimization from SWAT; consequently, it mainly tested subsystems common to subsequent aircraft, such as the propulsion, electrical system, and cockpit displays. This aircraft was retired from flight testing in December 2009 and was used for live-fire testing at NAS China Lake. The first F-35B, BF-1, flew on 11 June 2008, while the first weight-optimized F-35A and F-35C, AF-1 and CF-1, flew on 14 November 2009 and 6 June 2010 respectively. The F-35B's first hover was on 17 March 2010, followed by its first vertical landing the next day. The F-35 Integrated Test Force (ITF) consisted of 18 aircraft at Edwards Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Patuxent River. Nine aircraft at Edwards, five F-35As, three F-35Bs, and one F-35C, performed flight sciences testing such as F-35A envelope expansion, flight loads, stores separation, as well as mission systems testing. The other nine aircraft at Patuxent River, five F-35Bs and four F-35Cs, were responsible for F-35B and C envelope expansion and STOVL and CV suitability testing. Additional carrier suitability testing was conducted at Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division at Lakehurst, New Jersey. Two non-flying aircraft of each variant were used to test static loads and fatigue. For testing avionics and mission systems, a modified Boeing 737-300 with a duplication of the cockpit, the Lockheed Martin CATBird has been used. Field testing of the F-35's sensors were conducted during Exercise Northern Edge 2009 and 2011, serving as significant risk-reduction steps. Flight tests revealed several serious deficiencies that required costly redesigns, caused delays, and resulted in several fleet-wide groundings. In 2011, the F-35C failed to catch the arresting wire in all eight landing tests; a redesigned tail hook was delivered two years later. By June 2009, many of the initial flight test targets had been accomplished but the program was behind schedule. Software and mission systems were among the biggest sources of delays for the program, with sensor fusion proving especially challenging. In fatigue testing, the F-35B suffered several premature cracks, requiring a redesign of the structure. A third non-flying F-35B is currently planned to test the redesigned structure. The F-35B and C also had problems with the horizontal tails suffering heat damage from prolonged afterburner use. Early flight control laws had problems with "wing drop" and also made the airplane sluggish, with high angles-of-attack tests in 2015 against an F-16 showing a lack of energy. At-sea testing of the F-35B was first conducted aboard USS Wasp. In October 2011, two F-35Bs conducted three weeks of initial sea trials, called Development Test I. The second F-35B sea trials, Development Test II, began in August 2013, with tests including nighttime operations; two aircraft completed 19 nighttime vertical landings using DAS imagery. The first operational testing involving six F-35Bs was done on the Wasp in May 2015. The final Development Test III on USS America involving operations in high sea states was completed in late 2016. A Royal Navy F-35 conducted the first "rolling" landing on board HMS Queen Elizabeth in October 2018. After the redesigned tail hook arrived, the F-35C's carrier-based Development Test I began in November 2014 aboard USS Nimitz and focused on basic day carrier operations and establishing launch and recovery handling procedures. Development Test II, which focused on night operations, weapons loading, and full power launches, took place in October 2015. The final Development Test III was completed in August 2016, and included tests of asymmetric loads and certifying systems for landing qualifications and interoperability. Operational test of the F-35C began in 2018. The F-35's reliability and availability have fallen short of requirements, especially in the early years of testing. The ALIS maintenance and logistics system was plagued by excessive connectivity requirements and faulty diagnoses. In late 2017, the GAO reported the time needed to repair an F-35 part averaged 172 days, which was "twice the program's objective," and that shortage of spare parts was degrading readiness. In 2019, while individual F-35 units have achieved mission-capable rates of over the target of 80% for short periods during deployed operations, fleet-wide rates remained below target. The fleet availability goal of 65% was also not met, although the trend shows improvement. Gun accuracy of the F-35A remains unacceptable. As of 2020, the number of the program's most serious issues have been decreased by half. Operational test and evaluation (OT&E) with Block 3F, the final configuration for SDD, began in December 2018. ### United States #### Training The F-35A and F-35B were cleared for basic flight training in early 2012, although there were concerns over safety and performance due to lack of system maturity at the time. During the Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) phase, the three U.S. military services jointly developed tactics and procedures using flight simulators, testing effectiveness, discovering problems and refining design. On 10 September 2012, the USAF began an operational utility evaluation (OUE) of the F-35A, including logistical support, maintenance, personnel training, and pilot execution. The USMC F-35B Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS) was initially based at Eglin AFB in 2012 alongside USAF F-35A training units, before moving to MCAS Beaufort in 2014 while another FRS was stood up at MCAS Miramar in 2020. The USAF F-35A basic course is held at Eglin AFB and Luke AFB; in January 2013, training began at Eglin with capacity for 100 pilots and 2,100 maintainers at once. Additionally, the 6th Weapons Squadron of the USAF Weapons School was activated at Nellis AFB in June 2017 for F-35A weapons instructor curriculum while the 65th Aggressor Squadron was reactivated with the F-35A in June 2022 to expand training against adversary stealth aircraft tactics. The USN stood up its F-35C FRS in 2012 with VFA-101 at Eglin AFB, but operations would later be transferred and consolidated under VFA-125 at NAS Lemoore in 2019. The F-35C was introduced to the Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor course, or TOPGUN, in 2020 and the additional capabilities of the aircraft greatly revamped the course syllabus. #### U.S. Marine Corps On 16 November 2012, the USMC received the first F-35B of VMFA-121 at MCAS Yuma. The USMC declared Initial Operational Capability (IOC) for the F-35B in the Block 2B configuration on 31 July 2015 after operational trials, with some limitations in night operations, mission systems, and weapons carriage. USMC F-35Bs participated in their first Red Flag exercise in July 2016 with 67 sorties conducted. The first F-35B deployment occurred in 2017 at MCAS Iwakuni, Japan; combat employment began in July 2018 from the amphibious assault ship USS Essex, with the first combat strike on 27 September 2018 against a Taliban target in Afghanistan. In addition to deploying F-35Bs on amphibious assault ships, the USMC plans to disperse the aircraft among austere forward-deployed bases with shelter and concealment to enhance survivability while remaining close to a battlespace. Known as distributed STOVL operations (DSO), F-35Bs would operate from temporary bases in allied territory within hostile missile engagement zones and displace inside the enemy's 24- to 48-hour targeting cycle; this strategy allows F-35Bs to rapidly respond to operational needs, with mobile forward arming and refueling points (M-FARPs) accommodating KC-130 and MV-22 Osprey aircraft to rearm and refuel the jets, as well as littoral areas for sea links of mobile distribution sites. For higher echelons of maintenance, F-35Bs would return from M-FARPs to rear-area friendly bases or ships. Helicopter-portable metal planking is needed to protect unprepared roads from the F-35B's exhaust; the USMC are studying lighter heat-resistant options. These operations have become part of the larger USMC Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO) concept. The first USMC F-35C squadron, VMFA-314, achieved Full Operational Capability in July 2021 and was first deployed on board the USS Abraham Lincoln as a part of Carrier Air Wing 9 in January 2022. #### U.S. Air Force USAF F-35A in the Block 3i configuration achieved IOC with the USAF's 34th Fighter Squadron at Hill Air Force Base, Utah on 2 August 2016. F-35As conducted their first Red Flag exercise in 2017; system maturity had improved and the aircraft scored a kill ratio of 15:1 against an F-16 aggressor squadron in a high-threat environment. The first USAF F-35A deployment occurred on 15 April 2019 to Al Dhafra Air Base, UAE. On 27 April 2019, USAF F-35As were first used in combat in an airstrike on an Islamic State tunnel network in northern Iraq. For European basing, RAF Lakenheath in the UK was chosen as the first installation to station two F-35A squadrons, with 48 aircraft adding to the 48th Fighter Wing's existing F-15C and F-15E squadrons. The first aircraft of the 495th Fighter Squadron arrived in 15 December 2021. The F-35's operating cost is higher than some older USAF tactical aircraft. In fiscal year 2018, the F-35A's cost per flight hour (CPFH) was \$44,000, a number that was reduced to \$35,000 in 2019. For comparison, in 2015 the CPFH of the A-10 was \$17,716; the F-15C, \$41,921; and the F-16C, \$22,514. Lockheed Martin hopes to reduce it to \$25,000 by 2025 through performance-based logistics and other measures. #### U.S. Navy The USN achieved operational status with the F-35C in Block 3F on 28 February 2019. On 2 August 2021, the F-35C of VFA-147, as well as the CMV-22 Osprey, embarked on their maiden deployments as part of Carrier Air Wing 2 on board the USS Carl Vinson. ### United Kingdom The United Kingdom's Royal Air Force and Royal Navy both operate the F-35B, known simply as the Lightning in British service; it has replaced the Harrier GR9, which was retired in 2010, and Tornado GR4, which was retired in 2019. The F-35 is to be Britain's primary strike aircraft for the next three decades. One of the Royal Navy's requirements for the F-35B was a Shipborne Rolling and Vertical Landing (SRVL) mode to increase maximum landing weight by using wing lift during landing. When operating on the aircraft carriers HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales, British F-35Bs use ski-jumps. The Italian Navy use the same process. British F-35Bs are not intended to use the Brimstone 2 missile. In July 2013, Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton announced that No. 617 (The Dambusters) Squadron would be the RAF's first operational F-35 squadron. The second operational squadron will be the Fleet Air Arm's 809 Naval Air Squadron which will stand up in April 2023 or later. No. 17 (Reserve) Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) stood-up on 12 April 2013 as the Operational Evaluation Unit for the Lightning, becoming the first British squadron to operate the type. By June 2013, the RAF had received three F-35s of the 48 on order, initially based at Eglin Air Force Base. In June 2015, the F-35B undertook its first launch from a ski-jump at NAS Patuxent River. On 5 July 2017, it was announced the second UK-based RAF squadron would be No. 207 Squadron, which reformed on 1 August 2019 as the Lightning Operational Conversion Unit. No. 617 Squadron reformed on 18 April 2018 during a ceremony in Washington, D.C., becoming the first RAF front-line squadron to operate the type; receiving its first four F-35Bs on 6 June, flying from MCAS Beaufort to RAF Marham. On 10 January 2019, No. 617 Squadron and its F-35s were declared combat ready. In April 2019, No. 617 Squadron deployed to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus, the type's first overseas deployment. On 25 June 2019, the first combat use of an RAF F-35B was reportedly undertaken as armed reconnaissance flights searching for Islamic State targets in Iraq and Syria. In October 2019, the Dambusters and No. 17 TES F-35s were embarked on HMS Queen Elizabeth for the first time. No. 617 Squadron departed RAF Marham on 22 January 2020 for their first Exercise Red Flag with the Lightning. As of November 2022, 26 F-35Bs were based in the United Kingdom (with 617 and 207 Squadrons) and a further three were permanently based in the United States (with 17 Squadron) for testing and evaluation purposes. ### Australia Australia's first F-35, designated A35-001, was manufactured in 2014, with flight training provided through international Pilot Training Centre (PTC) at Luke Air Force Base in Arizona. The first two F-35s were unveiled to the Australian public on 3 March 2017 at the Avalon Airshow. By 2021, the Royal Australian Air Force had accepted 26 F-35As, with nine in the US and 17 operating at No 3 Squadron and No 2 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown. With 41 trained RAAF pilots and 225 trained technicians for maintenance, the fleet was declared ready to deploy on operations. It is expected that Australia will receive all 72 F-35s by 2023. ### Israel The Israeli Air Force (IAF) declared the F-35 operationally capable on 6 December 2017. According to Kuwaiti newspaper Al Jarida, in July 2018, a test mission of at least three IAF F-35s flew to Iran's capital Tehran and back to Tel Aviv. While publicly unconfirmed, regional leaders acted on the report; Iran's supreme leader Ali Khamenei reportedly fired the air force chief and commander of Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps over the mission. On 22 May 2018, IAF chief Amikam Norkin said that the service had employed their F-35Is in two attacks on two battle fronts, marking the first combat operation of an F-35 by any country. Norkin said it had been flown "all over the Middle East", and showed photos of an F-35I flying over Beirut in daylight. In July 2019, Israel expanded its strikes against Iranian missile shipments; IAF F-35Is allegedly struck Iranian targets in Iraq twice. In November 2020, the IAF announced the delivery of a unique F-35I testbed aircraft among a delivery of four aircraft received in August, to be used to test and integrate Israeli-produced weapons and electronic systems on F-35s received later. This is the only example of a testbed F-35 delivered to a non-US air force. On 11 May 2021, eight IAF F-35Is took part in an attack on 150 targets in Hamas' rocket array, including 50–70 launch pits in the northern Gaza Strip, as part of Operation Guardian of the Walls. On 6 March 2022, the IDF stated that on 15 March 2021, F-35Is shot down two Iranian drones carrying weapons to the Gaza Strip. This was the first operational shoot down and interception carried out by the F-35. ### Italy Italy's F-35As were declared to have reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 30 November 2018. At the time Italy had taken delivery of 10 F-35As and one F-35B, with 2 F-35As and the one F-35B being stationed in the U.S. for training, the remaining 8 F-35As were stationed in Amendola. ### Japan Japan's F-35As were declared to have reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 29 March 2019. At the time Japan had taken delivery of 10 F-35As stationed in Misawa Air Base. Japan plans to eventually acquire a total of 147 F-35s, which will include 42 F-35Bs. It plans to use the latter variant to equip Japan's Izumo-class multi-purpose destroyers. ### Norway On 6 November 2019 Norway declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 15 F-35As out of a planned 52 F-35As. On 6 January 2022 Norway's F-35As replaced its F-16s for the NATO quick reaction alert mission in the high north. ### Netherlands On 27 December 2021 the Netherlands declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 24 F-35As that it has received to date from its order for 46 F-35As. In 2022, the Netherlands announced they will order an additional six F-35s, totaling 52 aircraft ordered. ## Variants The F-35 was designed with three initial variants – the F-35A, a CTOL land-based version; the F-35B, a STOVL version capable of use either on land or on aircraft carriers; and the F-35C, a CATOBAR carrier-based version. Since then, there has been work on the design of nationally specific versions for Israel and Canada. ### F-35A The F-35A is the conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) variant intended for the USAF and other air forces. It is the smallest, lightest version and capable of 9 g, the highest of all variants. Although the F-35A currently conducts aerial refueling via boom and receptacle method, the aircraft can be modified for probe-and-drogue refueling if needed by the customer. A drag chute pod can be installed on the F-35A, with the Royal Norwegian Air Force being the first operator to adopt it. ### F-35B The F-35B is the short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) variant of the aircraft. Similar in size to the A variant, the B sacrifices about a third of the A variant's fuel volume to accommodate the SDLF. This variant is limited to 7 g. Unlike other variants, the F-35B has no landing hook. The "STOVL/HOOK" control instead engages conversion between normal and vertical flight. The F-35B is capable of Mach 1.6 (1,976 km/h) and can perform vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL). ### F-35C The F-35C is a carrier-based variant designed for catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery operations from aircraft carriers. Compared to the F-35A, the F-35C features larger wings with foldable wingtip sections, larger control surfaces for improved low-speed control, stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier arrested landings, a twin-wheel nose gear, and a stronger tailhook for use with carrier arrestor cables. The larger wing area allows for decreased landing speed while increasing both range and payload. The F-35C is limited to 7.5 g. ### F-35I "Adir" The F-35I Adir (Hebrew: אדיר, meaning "Awesome", or "Mighty One") is an F-35A with unique Israeli modifications. The US initially refused to allow such changes before permitting Israel to integrate its own electronic warfare systems, including sensors and countermeasures. The main computer has a plug-and-play function for add-on systems; proposals include an external jamming pod, and new Israeli air-to-air missiles and guided bombs in the internal weapon bays. A senior IAF official said that the F-35's stealth may be partly overcome within 10 years despite a 30 to 40-year service life, thus Israel's insistence on using their own electronic warfare systems. Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has considered a two-seat F-35 concept; an IAI executive noted: "There is a known demand for two seats not only from Israel but from other air forces". IAI plans to produce conformal fuel tanks. ### Proposed variants #### CF-35 The Canadian CF-35 was a proposed variant that would differ from the F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute and the potential inclusion of an F-35B/C-style refueling probe. In 2012, it was revealed that the CF-35 would employ the same boom refueling system as the F-35A. One alternative proposal would have been the adoption of the F-35C for its probe refueling and lower landing speed; however, the Parliamentary Budget Officer's report cited the F-35C's limited performance and payload as being too high a price to pay. Following the 2015 Federal Election the Liberal Party, whose campaign had included a pledge to cancel the F-35 procurement, formed a new government and commenced an open competition to replace the existing CF-18 Hornet. The CF-35 variant was deemed too expensive to develop, and was never considered. The Canadian government decided to not pursue any other modifications in the Future Fighter Capability Project, and instead focused on the potential procurement of the existing F-35A variant. It has been speculated, however, that the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) would still include the drag chute pod as seen on RNoAF F-35As for shortened landing distances. On 28 March 2022, the Canadian Government began negotiations with Lockheed Martin for 88 F-35As to replace the aging fleet of CF-18 fighters starting in 2025. The aircraft are reported to cost up to CA\$19bn total with a life-cycle cost estimated at CA\$77bn over the course of the F-35 program. On 9 January 2023, Canada formally confirmed the purchase of 88 aircraft with an initial delivery of 16 aircraft to the RCAF in 2026 and the final batch in 2032. The additional characteristics confirmed for the CF-35 included the drag chute pod for landings at short/icey arctic runways, as well as the 'sidekick' system, which allows the CF-35 to carry up to 6 x AIM-120D missiles internally (instead of the typical internal capacity of 4 x AIM-120 missiles on other variants). #### New export variant In December 2021, it was reported that Lockheed Martin was developing a new variant for an unspecified foreign customer. The Department of Defense released US\$49 million in funding for this work. #### "F-35D" (notional concept) The "F-35D" was used as a notional 2035 aircraft to illustrate a hypothetical scenario as part of a 2015 USAF study called the Future Operating Concept. ## Operators Australia - Royal Australian Air Force – 50 F-35A delivered as of July 2022, of 72 ordered. Belgium - Belgian Air Component – 34 F-35A planned as of 2019. Canada - Royal Canadian Air Force - 88 F-35As ordered in January 2023. ; - Royal Danish Air Force – 7 F-35As delivered (including 6 stationed at Luke AFB for training) of the 27 planned for the RDAF. Finland - Finnish Air Force – F-35A Block 4 selected via the HX Fighter Program to replace the current F/A-18 Hornets. 64 F-35As on order as of 2022. Germany - German Air Force – 35 F-35A ordered as of 2022. ; - Israeli Air Force – 39 delivered as of July 2023 (F-35I "Adir"). Includes one F-35 testbed aircraft for indigenous Israeli weapons, electronics and structural upgrades, designated (AS-15). A total of 75 ordered. Italy - Italian Air Force – 17 F-35As and 3 F-35B delivered as of April 2023 of 60 F-35As and 15 F-35Bs ordered for the Italian Air Force. - Italian Navy – 3 delivered as of April 2023, out of 15 F-35Bs ordered for the Italian Navy. Japan - Japan Air Self-Defense Force – 27 F-35As operational as of March 2022 with a total order of 147, including 105 F-35As and 42 F-35Bs. Netherlands - Royal Netherlands Air Force – 24 F-35As delivered and operational, 52 F-35As ordered in total. ; - Royal Norwegian Air Force – 31 F-35As delivered and operational, of which 21 are in Norway and 10 are based in the US for training as of 11 August 2021 of 52 F-35As planned in total. They differ from other F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute. Poland - Polish Air Force – 32 F-35As on order. Plans for two more squadrons consisting of 16 jets each, for a total of 32 additional F-35s. South Korea - Republic of Korea Air Force – 40 F-35As ordered and delivered as of January 2022, with 20 more F-35As planned. - Republic of Korea Navy – about 20 F-35Bs planned. It has not yet been approved by South Korean parliament. Singapore - Republic of Singapore Air Force – 12 F-35Bs to be ordered as of February 2023. Switzerland - Swiss Air Force – 36 F-35A ordered to replace the current F-5E/F Tiger II and F/A-18C/D Hornet. Deliveries will begin in 2027 and conclude in 2030. United Kingdom - Royal Air Force and Royal Navy (owned by the RAF but jointly operated) – 32 F-35Bs received with 28 in the UK after the loss of one aircraft in November 2021; the other three are in the US where they are used for testing and training. 42 (24 FOC fighters and 18 training aircraft) originally intended to be fast-tracked by 2023; A total of 48 ordered as of 2021; a total of 138 were originally planned, the expectation in 2021 was to eventually reach around 60 or 80. In 2022, it was announced that the UK would acquire 74 F-35s, with a decision on whether or not to go beyond that number, including the possibility of reviving the original plan of 138 aircraft, to be made in the mid-2020s. United States - United States Air Force – 302 delivered with 1,763 F-35As planned - United States Marine Corps – 114 F-35B/C delivered with 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs planned - United States Navy – 26 delivered with 273 F-35Cs planned ### Order and approval cancellations Republic of China - Republic of China Air Force – Taiwan has requested to buy the F-35 from the US. However this has been rejected by the US in fear of a critical response from China. In March 2009 Taiwan again was looking to buy U.S. fifth-generation fighter jets featuring stealth and vertical takeoff capabilities. However, in September 2011, during a visit to the US, the Deputy Minister of National Defense of Taiwan confirmed that while the country was busy upgrading its current F-16s it was still also looking to procure a next-generation aircraft such as the F-35. This received the usual critical response from China. Taiwan renewed its push for an F-35 purchase under the Presidency of Donald Trump in early 2017, again causing criticism from China. In March 2018, Taiwan once again reiterated its interest in the F-35 in light of an anticipated round of arms procurement from the United States. The F-35B STOVL variant is reportedly the political favorite as it would allow the Republic of China Air Force to continue operations after its limited number of runways were to be bombed in an escalation with the People's Republic of China. In April 2018 however it became clear that the U.S. government was reluctant about selling the F-35 to Taiwan over worries of Chinese spies within the Taiwanese Armed Forces, possibly compromising classified data concerning the aircraft and granting Chinese military officials access. In November 2018, it was reported that Taiwanese military leadership had abandoned the procurement of the F-35 in favor of a larger number of F-16V Viper aircraft. The decision was reportedly motivated by concerns about industry independence, as well as cost and previously raised espionage concerns. Thailand - Royal Thai Air Force – 8 or 12 planned to replace F-16A/B Block 15 ADF in service. On 12 January 2022, Thailand's cabinet approved a budget for the first four F-35A, estimated at 13.8 billion baht in FY2023. On 22 May 2023, the United States Department of Defense implied it will turn down Thailand's bid to buy F-35 fighters, and instead offer F-16 Block 70/72 Viper and F-15E Strike Eagle fighters, a Royal Thai Air Force source said. Turkey - Turkish Air Force – 30 were ordered, of up to 100 total planned. Future purchases have been banned by the U.S. with contracts canceled by early 2020, following Turkey's decision to buy the S-400 missile system from Russia. Six of Turkey's 30 ordered F-35As were completed as of 2019 (they are still kept in a hangar in the United States as of 2023 and so far haven't been transferred to the USAF, despite a modification in the 2020 Fiscal Year defense budget by the U.S. Congress which gives authority to do so if necessary), and two more were at the assembly line in 2020. The first four F-35As were delivered to Luke Air Force Base in 2018 and 2019 for the training of Turkish pilots. On July 20, 2020, the U.S. government had formally approved the seizure of eight F-35As originally bound for Turkey and their transfer to the USAF, together with a contract to modify them to USAF specifications. The U.S. has not refunded the \$1.4 billion payment made by Turkey for purchasing the F-35A fighters as of January 2023. United Arab Emirates - United Arab Emirates Air Force – Up to 50 F-35As planned. But on 27 January 2021, the Biden administration temporarily suspended the F-35 sales to the UAE. After pausing the bill to review the sale, the Biden administration confirmed to move forward with the deal on 13 April 2021. In December 2021 UAE withdrew from purchasing F-35s as they did not agree to the additional terms of the transaction from the US. ## Accidents and notable incidents On 23 June 2014, an F-35A's engine caught fire at Eglin AFB. The pilot escaped unharmed, while the aircraft sustained an estimated US\$50 million in damage. The accident caused all flights to be halted on 3 July. The fleet returned to flight on 15 July with flight envelope restrictions. In June 2015, the USAF Air Education and Training Command (AETC) issued its official report, which blamed the failure on the third stage rotor of the engine's fan module, pieces of which cut through the fan case and upper fuselage. Pratt & Whitney applied an extended "rub-in" to increase the gap between the second stator and the third rotor integral arm seal, as well as design alterations to pre-trench the stator by early 2016. On 28 September 2018, the first crash occurred involving a USMC F-35B near Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina; the pilot ejected safely. The crash was attributed to a faulty fuel tube; all F-35s were grounded on 11 October pending a fleet-wide inspection of the tubes. The next day, most USAF and USN F-35s returned to flight status following the inspection. On 9 April 2019, a JASDF F-35A attached to Misawa Air Base disappeared from radar about 84 miles (135 km) east of the Aomori Prefecture during a training mission over the Pacific Ocean. The pilot, Major Akinori Hosomi, had radioed his intention to abort the drill before disappearing. The US and Japanese navies searched for the missing aircraft and pilot, finding debris on the water that confirmed its crash; Hosomi's remains were recovered in June. In response, Japan grounded its 12 F-35As. There was speculation that China or Russia might attempt to salvage it; the Japanese Defense Ministry announced there had been no "reported activities" from either country. The F-35 reportedly did not send a distress signal nor did the pilot attempt any recovery maneuvers as it descended at a rapid rate. The accident report attributed the cause to the pilot's spatial disorientation. On 19 May 2020, a USAF F-35A from the 58th Fighter Squadron crashed while landing at Eglin AFB. The pilot ejected and was in stable condition. The accident was attributed to a combination of pilot error induced by fatigue, a design issue with the oxygen system and the aircraft's more complex nature being distracting, as well as a malfunctioning head-mounted display and an unresponsive flight control system. On 29 September 2020, a USMC F-35B crashed in Imperial County, California, after colliding with a Marine Corps KC-130 during air-to-air refuelling. The F-35B pilot was injured in the ejection, and the KC-130 crash-landed gear up in a field. On 12 March 2021, during a close air support weapons training night-time flight near Marine Corps Air Station Yuma, Arizona, a round fired from the belly-mounted gunpod on a F-35B, a 25mm GAU/A gatling gun, detonated shortly after leaving the barrel of the gun. This specific round fired was a PGU-32/B SAPHEI-T (semi armor piercing high explosive incendiary-tracer), which is designed to detonate after the round has penetrated the target's armor, beginning a fuze delayed explosion and then spread the incendiary material. These rounds are also equipped with graze detection, meaning even with a slight grazing blow to a target they will explode and spread the incendiary substance. The mishap was classified as a Class C, meaning the damage incurred a cost of between \$60,000-\$600,000 to repair, and/or a nonfatal injury forcing lost time from work for the remainder of the working day that the injury occurred. The aircraft itself was grounded for maintenance for over three months, but the pilot was uninjured. The shrapnel from the round penetrated several parts of the aircraft, requiring their replacement. On 17 November 2021, a Royal Air Force 617 Squadron F-35B crashed during routine operations in the Mediterranean. The pilot was safely recovered to HMS Queen Elizabeth. The wreckage, including all security sensitive equipment, was largely recovered with the assistance of U.S. and Italian forces. The crash was officially determined to have been caused by an engine blanking plug left in the intake. On 4 January 2022, a South Korean Air Force F-35A made a belly landing after all systems failed except the flight controls and the engine. The pilot heard a series of bangs during low altitude flight, and various systems stopped working. The control tower suggested that the pilot eject, but he managed to land the plane without deploying the landing gear, walking away uninjured. On 24 January 2022, a USN F-35C with VFA-147 suffered a ramp strike while landing on the USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70) and was lost overboard in the South China Sea, injuring seven crew members. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered from the water. On 2 March 2022, the aircraft was recovered from a depth of approximately 12,400 ft (3,780 m) with the aid of a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and DSCV Picasso, a deep-diving ship. On 19 October 2022, an F-35A crashed at the North end of the runway at Hill Air Force Base in Utah. The pilot safely ejected and was unharmed. The cause of the crash is due to errors in the air data system from the wake turbulence of a preceding aircraft, which resulted in several rapid transitions between the primary and backup flight conditions data sources; these rapid transitions then caused the accumulation of reset values, resulting in the flight control laws operating on inaccurate flight conditions data and the departure from controlled flight. On 15 December 2022, an F-35B crashed during a failed vertical landing at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth in Texas. The pilot ejected on the ground and was not seriously injured. The aircraft was undergoing production test flying by a government pilot and had not yet been delivered by the manufacturer to the US military. ## Specifications (F-35A) ### Differences between variants ## Appearances in media ## See also
20,938,759	Gearheads (video game)	1,155,011,681	1996 video game	[ "1996 video games", "Cancelled Super Nintendo Entertainment System games", "Classic Mac OS games", "Real-time strategy video games", "Video games about toys", "Video games based on toys", "Video games developed in the United States", "Windows games" ]	Gearheads is a strategy video game developed by R/GA Interactive and Philips Media, and published by Philips Media for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS in June 1996. The player deploys wind-up toys to get them across an arena while attempting to prevent toys from crossing from the other side. Players can play against the computer or another player. Single, customisable games can be played, or the player can play a series of games with set rules and a limited number of lives in a tournament. The game was designed by Eric Zimmerman and Frank Lantz, and developed in eighteen months. A major part of the game's design was the toys' interaction with each other, and the effectiveness of certain toy setups led Zimmerman and Lantz to coin a term for them. Critical reception was mixed, with some reviewers praising its addictiveness and others criticising its sounds and artificial intelligence. ## Gameplay A strategy video game, Gearheads is played by releasing toys on an arena floor. The goal is to get them to the other side, and prevent the opponent's toys from reaching the player's side. In single-player mode, the player always plays on the right-hand side. Toys are charged while waiting before they are released. They stop when they run out of energy. There are different types of toys, such as robots, Father Christmas, and magicians. Each toy has its own specifications. These include speed, movement pattern (straight, diagonal, or erratic) and special abilities. For example, the Walking Timebomb explodes when it runs out of energy, destroying nearby toys. Deadhead, a skull toy, "scares" toys it comes into contact with so they reverse direction. A chicken toy called Clucketta has the ability to hatch fry toys. Some toys are primarily intended for offence, others for defence. Some are immune to the special abilities of other toys: for example, Big Al (a bulldozer) is unaffected by attacks from Disasteroids (a robot that can also destroy toys, like the Walking Timebomb). The player can switch between the available toys at any time. Once released, players have no direct control over them, and they do not belong to a player: a toy leaving the arena via the left side scores a point for the player on the right side and vice versa. The first player to score 21 points wins, unless he is only ahead by one point, in which case the game continues until there is a two-point difference. There is an unlimited supply of toys, and they are released in a row in the arena. Toys can be recharged by Handy, a glove toy. There are four main arenas: kitchen, garden, frozen pond, and factory. The kitchen has no obstacles. The garden's main obstacles are bugs, mud, and rocks. The frozen pond's main obstacles are cracks in the ice which, if crossed over enough times, become holes that destroy toys that fall into them. The factory levels can feature obstacles such as conveyor belts, teleporters, and stoppers. Occasionally, a Powerup Key (a metal winding key) will appear on one side of the arena. When crossed, a power-up is granted to the player on the opposite side. Powerups include a one-shot rocket, being able to release toys from halfway across the arena, and the opponent being unable to release toys. Most powerups last only for a limited time. There are two game modes: tournament and duel. In tournament, the player is assigned a selection of four toys (toy selections are referred to as "toyboxes") and must defeat the computer-controlled opponent. Every three victories, there is a challenge in a special arena where the player must defeat the opponent with only one toy in the toybox. A life is granted if won (the player starts with three). Duel is where players can practise a game against either a computer opponent or another player. The arena where the game takes place, the toys in the players' toyboxes, the difficulty level, and whether powerups are available can be customised. ## Development Frank Lantz and Eric Zimmerman at R/GA Interactive designed Gearheads; it was produced in co-operation with Philips Media. Susan Brand Studios handled art and animation. Other companies involved in the development included R/GA Interactive's parent company R/GA Digital Studios, XXCAL, and Elias Associates. The Windows and Mac OS versions were released in June 1996. A Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) version was developed and scheduled for late 1996, but never released. The game took 18 months to develop. Early in the design process, the designers were able to create new toys and tweak their attributes using a playable prototype. The prototype had menus that showed the statistics for each toy. Alterations took effect immediately, allowing the designers to see what effect a change would have even during a game. There was an iterative game testing process that assisted in balancing the game. An important aspect of the game's design was the interaction between the toys. Due to the discovery of effective toy combinations, Zimmerman and Lantz coined the term "engine" to describe them. The engines were given names including Punching Roaches, Bomb Shield, and Perpetual Motion. Toy attributes were set to make certain engines possible, although most were discovered as development progressed. The artificial intelligence (AI) included engine-based heuristics so the AI was aware of advantageous combinations. Engines were not written into the game's rules, but were playing patterns that arose from the attributes that defined the toys. During the testing, Zimmerman and Lantz kept increasing the difficulty so the game would challenge them, and at one point made the game too difficult. ## Reception Gearheads received mixed reviews. Reviewers praised the game's addictiveness, visuals, and entertainment value, but were conflicted over the sound and music. PC Zone lauded the game's addictiveness, saying it features the planning aspects of Tetris and plenty of options, including "bizarre" powerups. Another reviewer who found the game addictive wrote in Computer Gaming World that this was due to its "eclectic cast of characters". Michael Bertrand of Gamer's Zone also agreed the game was addictive. Steve Wartofsky of Computer Games Strategy Plus said that Gearheads is just what it claims to be: "a furious war of wind-up toys". Computer Gaming World agreed with this view of its entertainment value, describing the game as "hilarious and addictive". PC Team's reviewers called the game "great fun", and liked the gameplay's facility. These sentiments were echoed by Garrett Rowe of The Irish Times, who said the multiplayer mode's fun factor was "endless and chaotic". Critics thought highly of the graphics. PC Gamer's Dean Evans believed they were "pretty". This sentiment was echoed by other reviewers including Bob Strauss of Entertainment Weekly, and PC Team's reviewers, who said the game was "cute and well done". Similar views were held by Victor Lucas of The Electric Playground, who described the game as "sweet as honey" and praised the toys' animations. Other compliments included Lucas's approval of the music as "perfectly suited" to the action, and the sound as "truly wonderful". He said he was "immensely" impressed by the game. Garrett Rowe of The Irish Times described Gearheads as "unusual and original"; he also felt the game was "refreshingly different" from cloned games. Joystick's reviewers believed that Gearheads's concept was attractive to beginners. Criticisms included those of Mike McGrath of Coming Soon Magazine who commented that the game is "far too mindless", describing the sound and music as "annoying". Michael Bertrand of Gamer's Zone also criticised the sound and music as "repetitive", and disliked that the game only has four arenas. PC Gamer's Dean Evans believed that Gearheads has a "childish" nature and is "dull and overpriced". Bob Strauss of Entertainment Weekly's criticism was the difficulty of controlling the game with a keyboard due to the speed of the action. Another complaint came from GamePro's Air Hendrix who criticised the artificial intelligence as "moronic". The concept was found to be uninteresting for hardcore gamers by Joystick's reviewers, and one was not optimistic about the game's life span. Génération 4 cited the inability to increase the size of the game board as a fault. Hendrix of GamePro reviewed the SNES version and said the graphics were colourful and humorous. It was criticised by Electronic Gaming Monthly for having a "Lack of strategic depth".
44,008,600	Battle of Neuburg (1800)	1,162,254,818	Battle of the War of the Second Coalition	[ "1800 in France", "1800 in the Habsburg monarchy", "1800 in the Holy Roman Empire", "1800s in Bavaria", "Battles involving Austria", "Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars", "Battles of the War of the Second Coalition", "Campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars by year", "Conflicts in 1800", "War of the Second Coalition" ]	The Battle of Neuburg occurred on 27 June 1800 in the south German state of Bavaria, on the southern bank of the Danube river. Neuburg is located on the Danube between Ingolstadt and Donauwörth. This battle occurred late in the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802), the second war between Revolutionary France and the conservative European monarchies, which included at one time or another Britain, Habsburg Austria, Russia (until late 1799), the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), Portugal and Naples. After a series of reverses, several of the allies withdrew from the Coalition. By 1800, Napoleon's military victories in northern Italy challenged Habsburg supremacy there. French victories in the upper Danubian territories opened a route along that river to Vienna. In a series of battles in what is now southern Germany, the French pushed the combined Austrian and Coalition force back, first capturing Stockach, then Meßkirch, then Biberach. After his loss at Biberach, the Coalition commander Pál Kray withdrew to the fortress at Ulm, leaving detachments to secure the Danube crossings that lay further to the east, at Höchstädt, Blindheim, Donauwörth, and Neuburg. The battle at Neuburg was the last of the Danube campaign for the summer of 1800; the armistice between the Habsburgs and the French was signed a couple of days later and ended in late November, and the French ultimately defeated the Austrians at the battles at Ampfing and Hohenlinden. The heaviest action of the battle occurred in the village of Unterhausen, in the outskirts of Neuburg. ## Background By early 1799, the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria. The uprising in Naples raised further alarms, and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany. At the beginning of 1800, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine. Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. In addition to his Austrian regulars, his force included 12,000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg, 5,000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz, and 7,000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol. Of these, 25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance (Bodensee) to protect the Vorarlberg. Kray posted his main body of 95,000 soldiers in the L-shaped angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France. Unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach, near the northwestern end of Lake Constance, only a day's march from French-held Switzerland. ### Strategic importance of Danube Valley The French war goal, to occupy Vienna and force the Habsburgs to accept and comply with peace terms established in 1798, required a double-pronged invasion through northern Italy, which First Consul Napoleon commanded, and through southern Germany, a campaign that fell to Moreau. To secure access into Bavaria and, eventually, to Vienna, the French needed to control the Danube riverway. This was not a new tactic: The stretch of river between Ulm and Neuburg had been the site of major battles of the Thirty Years' War and War of the Spanish Succession. Between Ulm and Ingolstadt, the Danube grows significantly in volume, making it a wide and swift waterway. The Iller joins the Danube at Ulm, dumping massive amounts of water into the stream; at Donauwörth, the Lech enters the Danube. Neuburg, the first significant city on the river after Donauwörth, had been the family seat of the princes of Pfalz-Neuburg; taking it from a princely family of the Holy Roman Empire would be a blow to the morale and prestige of the Habsburgs, whose role it was to protect the small princely domains. Control of the bridges and passages between Ulm and Donauwörth, Neuburg, then Ingolstadt offered an advantage of both transport and prestige. ### Preliminary to battle After withdrawing from Biberach, Kray waited at Ulm for Moreau's assault, which did not come. Instead of striking directly at the well-fortified and supplied city, Moreau's first division, approaching Ulm from the south, suddenly veered to the east and struck at the smaller forces posted between Ulm and Donauwörth. Its commander, Claude Lecourbe, secured posts in Landsberg and Augsburg, and left sufficient rearguard troops to protect himself from Prince Reuss-Plauen, who remained in the Tyrol guarding mountain access to Vienna. Lecourbe then approached Dettingen, Blindheim (Blenheim) and Höchstädt. The corps of General Paul Grenier had been posted with its right flank to the Danube and Gunzburg, and their left flank at Kinsdorf. General Richepanse protected both shores of the Iller, covering the road from Ulm south to Memmingen, and secured communication with Switzerland; there, he withstood considerable skirmishing with the Austrians. Three divisions of reserve remained at the hamlets of Kamlack and Mindel, to support an attack made by General Lecourbe on Ulm, in a case it should succeed, or Grenier's attack upon Günzburg, in case Lecourbe should not succeed. At the battle at Höchstädt, a full Austrian corps maintained possession until dislodged by repeated attacks of carabiniers, cuirassiers and hussars, who took about 2,000 of the Austrians and Württembergers as prisoners, along with some cannons and standards. Once Höchstädt and its nearby bridges fell on 19 June, the French controlled the Danube crossings between Ulm and Donauwörth. Kray abandoned Ulm, and withdrew further downstream. The next French target would be Neuburg. ## Orders of battle ### French The exact order of battle of French forces is not clear, but contemporary sources suggest the presence of a portion of General Claude Lecourbe's Corps of 28,368, including the forces of generals Laval, Molitor, Jardon, and Vandamme. This is also confirmed in an extract of Moreau's dispatch to the French Minister of War, published in the London Chronicle, 10 June 1800. "The 6th Chasseurs, 13th Cavalry, 4th Hussars and 11th Chasseurs distinguished themselves in this affair. The rest of the division, and that of [Lecourbe], passed rapidly [along] the Danube...General Grenier was equally well prepared." In addition, the presence (and death) of Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne, the First Grenadier of France, suggests that the grenadier company of the 46th Demi-brigade infantry de ligne was at least engaged. In addition, General Espagne's 37th and 84th Regiments were engaged, as were grenadiers the 109th Regiment. Lecourbe mentions the 37th and the 109th several times in his own account of the battle, so apparently they were heavily engaged: this would include the brigades of François Goullus and François Bontemps. #### Lecourbe's Division, Armée du Danube Lecourbe's division was reformed in April 1800 while still in Switzerland. After the Battle of Messkirch, both Gouvion Saint-Cyr and Sainte-Suzanne had retired to the Rhine, taking many of their forces with them. Consequently, Moreau had assigned had the cavalry commanded by Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul to reinforce Lecourbe's division. Based on the mentions in the dispatches and Lecourbe's reconstituted division, portions of the following probably were either present or available: - General of Division Dominique Vandamme, Generals of Brigade Jardon, Laval, Molitor: - First Demi-Brigade de Légère - 36th 83rd, 94th Demi-Brigades de Ligne - 8th Hussar Regiment - Total 9,963 infantry, 540 cavalry - Generals of Brigade François Goullus and François Bontemps - 10th Demi-Brigade de Légère - 37th, 84th 109th Demi-Brigades de Ligne - 36th 93rd, 94th Regiments de Ligne - 9th Hussars - Total 8,238 infantry, 464 cavalry - General of Division Montrichard and General of Brigade Joseph Augustin Fournier - 10th Demi-Brigade de Légère - 38th, 67th Regiments de Ligne - Total 6,998 - General of Division Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty - Combined Grenadiers, 25th Cavalry, 11th Dragoons, 12th Chàsseurs - Total 1,500 infantry, 1,280 cavalry ### Austrian The Austrian force included: - FZM Baron von Kray, Commanding - Infanterie Regiments Wenkheim \#35, Erbach \# 42 (battalions each) - Kür Regiment Lothringen \#7, Hohenzollern \# 8, Kinsky \#12 (6 squadrons each) - Dragoon Regiment Latour \#11 (6 squadrons) Total Austrian force: 8,000 men. ## Battle On 26 June 1800, Kray's force held the remaining passages across the Danube between Neuburg and Inglostadt. On that morning, the divisions of Gudin and Montrichard marched toward the junction of the Danube and Lech rivers from Donauwörth. General Gudin's division followed a southward track toward Pöttmes and established a line north to Ehekirchen, approximately 5 kilometres (3 mi) (roughly along what is now road 2035). Montrichard's division, the 10th Demi-Brigade de Légère and the 38th and 67th Regiments de Ligne marched toward Neuburg, which he was instructed to occupy with his right wing connecting to Gudin's and covered the road between Augsburg and Neuburg. Gudin's division encountered some resistance before it could take possession of Pöttmes, but succeeded with several charges executed by the 6th and 8th Hussars, who also captured 100 horses from the Austrians. General Puthed, who commanded the brigade on General Gudin's left, took control of Ehekirchen with little opposition. General Montrichard's division approached Neuburg on the causeway that ran parallel to the river and took possession of the outskirts of the city with little problem. Kray's troops, joined with Prince Reuss-Plauen and emerged from Neuburg to defend the outskirts. Both Austrian forces were unprepared for battle at the moment, which allowed Montrichard's troops to penetrate within four miles of the city with little opposition. Espagne's brigade supported the advance guard, and after a brief action took the heights of Oberhausen with the 37th and the 84th Regiments. By early afternoon, the Austrians had recovered the village of Niederhausen, but the village of Unterhausen remained in French hands, defended by 100 marksmen, portions of the 37th Regiment and the 1st company of grenadiers of the 109th regiment. From this point on, combat centered on the village of Unterhausen, 6 km (3.7 mi) west-south-west of Neuburg center. A few French platoons drove the Austrians from the forest located between the village and the Danube with a bayonet charge by the grenadiers of the 109th. As French reserves arrived, the Austrians counterattacked and retook the woods, the heights at Oberhausen, and the village. According to Lecourbe's account, the Austrians, "embolden by this first success, soon covered all the surrounding heights, on which they planted about twenty-five or thirty pieces of cannon." At eight o'clock at night, after twelve hours of battle, companies of the 14th and 46th Regiments (French) moved along a small road on the right of the village, and another group proceeded on the left, enveloping the village. The subsequent simultaneous French attack at both flanks and the center convinced the Austrians that, despite the defensive barrages laid by their artillery in Oberhausen, the French had been massively reinforced. The attack on the village, executed without firing a shot, involved fierce hand-to-hand fighting in which the commander of the 46th Regiment and the First Grenadier of France, Latour D'Auvergne, were both killed. Outside the village, the French 46th and 14th Light Infantry mingled in combat with the Austrian cavalry, yet managed to hold their own, presumably in squares. This melee continued until about 2200, when the Austrians withdrew from Unterhausen. Lecourbe ordered his troops not to pursue, as nightfall was on them. ## Aftermath The battle had immediate implications. General Ney established his headquarters in the castle at Neuburg, which overlooks the battlefield. General Moreau ordered the establishment of a tomb on the location where the First Grenadier had fallen. Emperor Francis II dismissed Pál Kray, who had lost an impressive succession of battles, and appointed his brother, the 18-year-old general major Archduke John, to command the Austrian army. To compensate for John's inexperience, the emperor named FZM Franz von Lauer as deputy commander and the zealous Oberst (Colonel) Franz von Weyrother became Chief of Staff. In the broader scheme, the series of battles beginning with the losses at Stockach and Engen and ending at Neuburg broke the Austrian control along the strategic Danube. Similarly, in Italy, French successes at the battles at Montebello and Marengo forced Austrian withdrawal to the east. With France threatening Habsburg Austria from the northwest and southwest, the Austrians agreed to a cease fire. Subsequent peace negotiations were complicated by the alliance Austria had made with Britain, and which prevented her from signing any separate peace. The British entered the negotiations to bolster their weakened ally. Initially Britain, which had successfully blockaded French ports, refused the French terms and offered counter terms in September 1800. Napoleon later claimed that the Austrians did not negotiate in good faith, and sought only to gain time until "the rainy season" (winter), when army movements would be difficult, and the Habsburgs would have an entire season to recruit. ## Notes and citations
803,684	Who Do You Think You Are (Spice Girls song)	1,170,492,833	1997 single by Spice Girls	[ "1996 songs", "1997 singles", "Comic Relief singles", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Music videos shot in London", "Nu-disco songs", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Song recordings produced by Absolute (production team)", "Songs written by Andy Watkins", "Songs written by Emma Bunton", "Songs written by Geri Halliwell", "Songs written by Mel B", "Songs written by Melanie C", "Songs written by Paul Wilson (songwriter)", "Songs written by Victoria Beckham", "Spice Girls songs", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles", "Virgin Records singles" ]	"Who Do You Think You Are" is a song performed by British pop group Spice Girls. It was written by the group members with Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins—also known as Absolute—for the group's debut album Spice, released in November 1996. The song is heavily influenced by early 1990s dance-pop, and has a nu-disco-style beat that resembles the music of the late 1970s. Its lyrics are about the superstar life, and how someone can get trapped in the world of fame. In February 1997, the group opened the Brit Awards with "Who Do You Think You Are". The Union Jack dress that Geri Halliwell wore during the performance made the front page of various newspapers, and is now remembered as one of the most iconic symbols of Cool Britannia. "Who Do You Think You Are" became the official single of the 1997 Comic Relief. A video with the Sugar Lumps—a satirical version of the group—was released to help raise money for charitable causes and donated all the proceedings from the single. "Who Do You Think You Are" was a commercial and critical success, with Melanie Chisholm's vocals receiving praise from pop music critics. Released with "Mama" as a double A-side single in March 1997, it became the group's fourth consecutive single to top the UK Singles Chart, making them the first act in UK chart history to have its first four singles reach number one. Additionally, it was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), and performed well internationally, reaching the top ten in many European countries and New Zealand, and the top twenty in Australia, France, and Norway. ## Background In December 1994, the Spice Girls persuaded their former managers—father-and-son team Bob and Chris Herbert—to set up a showcase in front of industry writers, producers and A&R men at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd's Bush, London. Among the attendees was BMG Publishing's Mark Fox, former percussionist of the 1980s new wave band Haircut One Hundred. Since the showcase, Fox was unofficially helping the group to get contacts in the business. In May 1995, he introduced the group to Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins—the songwriters and production duo known as Absolute. Fox phoned the duo and told them: "You won't believe it, but I've got your act. They've just walked in the door. They're beautiful, everything you've been looking for. I'll bring them down straight away." Watkins remembers the first time they saw the group: "I saw Mark Fox. And then I saw these little girls skipping and running around. And they looked about thirteen. This can't be them. No way!". Nevertheless, the Spice Girls managed to impress them. They played a few of their tracks, but neither Watkins nor Wilson particularly liked them, except for a song the group wrote with Richard Stannard and Matt Rowe, called "Feed Your Love", which the duo thought was "dark and cool". A songwriting session was booked within the next days. ## Writing and recording The songwriting session—held at Absolute's studio located on Tagg's Island near Chertsey—did not seem to go well at the beginning, as the duo was heavily into R&B music at the time, while the group according to Wilson was "always very poptastic". After two sessions the duo phoned their managers and told them that the musical association between them and the group was not working. At this point, the duo heard "Wannabe" for the first time, Wilson remembers: "We listen to it, and we didn't get it at all. It was so different to what we were doing. We thought, 'How's this gonna work? We're not the right people to be doing this band.'" For the next session the group wanted to write something uptempo and a bit more fun. A full-on disco backing track came up, and "Who Do You Think You Are" evolved from there. Wilson commented about that session: > The thing is when they wrote they were also writing the dance routine, constructing the video, all at the same time as writing the song. And that's when the penny dropped. They say that the mother of invention is copying somebody and getting it wrong. Their sound was actually not getting R&B quite right. "Who Do You Think You Are" and three other tracks written by the group and Absolute appeared on the Spice album. The songs were produced and recorded for the most part at Olympic Studios in Barnes, London. At this time, the autotune facility was not available and most of the vocals were recorded with few adjustments made afterwards, as Wilson remembers: "Because of the fact we were not using computers, we had to work them very hard. They were in that recording booth for hours because we just had to get the right take". ## Composition "Who Do You Think You Are" is an uptempo dance-pop song, with influences of the early '90s Europop, and a disco–style beat that resembles the music of the late '70s. It is written in the key of F minor, with a time signature set on common time, and moves at a fast tempo of 120 beats per minute. The song is constructed in a verse-pre-chorus-chorus form, with a bridge before the third and final chorus. It starts with an instrumental introduction, with a simple chord progression of Fm<sub>7</sub>–Gm<sub>7</sub>, that is also used during the verses. In the first verse, Geri Halliwell and Emma Bunton trade lines in a wry manner, then the chord progression changes to G<sub>7</sub>–Bm–G<sub>7</sub>–Bm–G<sub>7</sub>–Fm<sub>7</sub> during the pre-chorus, which features Melanie Chisholm's vocals prominently. After the chorus, the same pattern occurs leading to the second chorus, with Victoria Beckham and Melanie Brown singing the second verse. Then the group sings the bridge, the pre-chorus, and repeats the chorus until the song gradually fades out, while Chisholm adds the high harmony—"Swing it, shake it, move it, make it". The inspiration for the lyrics comes from some of the people the group met in the music industry, and are about the presumptuous superstar life, and how someone can get trapped in the world of fame, much like the Temptations' 1971 classic "Superstar (Remember How You Got Where You Are)". ## Reception ### Critical response "Who Do You Think You Are" was generally well received by contemporary music critics. In a review of the group's debut album Spice, Chuck Campbell of the Star-News said it is "a slamming dance song". Daniel Incognito of Sputnikmusic said that with a "dynamite chorus harmonising the girls voices, 'Who Do You Think You Are' still feels relevant today", he added that "each girl excels in their solo-lines", and believed that Chisholm "provides [a] delicious contrast with her loud and spirited lines". The Daily Mirror called the song "a full-on disco number which would get to No. 1 even if it wasn't by Spice Girls and even if they weren't giving all the money to Comic Relief". Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times-Dispatch criticised the track, referring to it as "a quick blast of vapid fluff". AllMusic's Jason Elias complimented Chisholm's vocals and called her "the star of the show". He also said that "Who Do You Think You Are" was "one of their strongest and underrated songs", adding that it was "proof that the Spice Girls often had more savvy distilling different genres and styles than their American counterparts". In a review of the group's 2007 compilation album Greatest Hits, Talia Kraines of BBC Music called it "their piece de resistance [...][that] still manages to fill dancefloors". Dave Fawbert from ShortList noted it as "a perfect little funky, soulful pop song". ### Chart performance "Who Do You Think You Are" was released in the UK as a double A-side single with "Mama" on 3 March 1997. It debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number one, with sales of 248,000 copies, becoming the group's fourth consecutive chart-topper. This made the Spice Girls the first act in UK chart history to have its first four singles reach number one, breaking the record set by Gerry & The Pacemakers, Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers and Robson & Jerome with three number ones each. It spent three weeks at number one, nine weeks in the top forty, fifteen weeks in the top seventy-five, and sold 786,000 copies as of May 2019, earning a platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). "Who Do You Think You Are" was commercially successful in Europe. It peaked at number three on the Eurochart Hot 100, and performed similarly in other European charts. It became the group's third number-one single in Ireland, and peaked inside the top ten in Belgium (both the Flemish and French charts), Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland. In France, "Who Do You Think You Are" was released as a standalone single in June 1997. It debuted and peaked at number sixteen, and stayed ten weeks on the chart. In December 1997, it was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP). In New Zealand, it debuted on 23 March 1997 at number ten, while their three first singles were slowly descending from the chart. It peaked at number six and stayed fifteen weeks on the chart. In Australia, it did not perform as well as their previous releases. In July 1997, it debuted on the singles chart at number thirteen, but was unable to reach a higher position and dropped off the chart after fourteen weeks. ## Music video The music video for "Who Do You Think You Are" was directed in February 1997 by Gregg Masuak, and filmed in a theatre located in the north of London. There are two edited versions of the video: the original version and the director's cut. It features the Spice Girls singing and dancing solo in front of various colourful backgrounds whilst filmed with a Steadicam. Other scenes show the group performing on a stage in front of an energetic crowd. In addition, there are many background performers doing unusual tricks. Chisholm wrote about the shoot: "We shot the video for 'Who Do You Think You Are' in a really mad club—a real dive. The toilets were horrible and we had to have our make-up done in a Winnebago. The vibe was excellent, though—I think it was my favourite video because it was such good fun. I felt like a proper pop star. [...] It was just how you imagine it when you're young". A third version of the video (known as the Sugar Lumps version), which adds the Sugar Lumps—a satirical version of the Spice Girls played by Kathy Burke, Dawn French, Llewella Gideon, Lulu, and Jennifer Saunders—was filmed for the "Red Nose Day" of the 1997 Comic Relief, one of the two high-profile telethon events held in the United Kingdom. The video starts with the Sugar Lumps as schoolgirls dreaming of becoming Spice Girls, and ends with them joining the group on stage, while dancing and lip-synching the song. Halliwell commented about the shoot: "The women were all really warm and funny and nice. The freakiest thing about it was seeing Jennifer Saunders. She looked just like me and everyone said they thought she was me. It was absolutely bizarre–the make-up, everything. It was scary–like, do I really do that?". ## Live performances The song was performed on television in both the UK and Continental Europe, including An Audience with..., Top of the Pops, the Bravo Supershow, the 1997 Royal Variety Performance, and the "Red Nose Day" of the 1997 Comic Relief—alongside the Sugar Lumps. In February 1997, the group performed it at the 1997 Brit Awards. They started rehearsals a few days after they returned to the UK from a promotional tour in the US, with choreographer Priscilla Samuels, who worked with the group on Fuller's recommendation. On 24 February 1997, in front of a thousand VIPs at the Earls Court Exhibition Centre, the group opened the show with a lip-synched rendition of "Who Do You Think You Are". Halliwell's oufit, a black coloured mini dress emblazoned with a Union Jack on the front and a white peace symbol on the back, made the front page of various newspapers, and is now remembered as one of the most iconic symbols of Cool Britannia. For the Return of the Spice Girls, Italian fashion designer Roberto Cavalli designed Halliwell a new Union Jack dress modelled on the original. The new version appeared slightly longer and the flag was made out of rhinestones and Swarovski crystals. Thirteen years later, at the 2010 Brit Awards, the group's "Who Do You Think You Are" performance won the Most Memorable Performance award of the BRITS last thirty years. In October 1997, the group performed it as the second song of their first live concert at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul, Turkey. The performance was broadcast on Showtime in a pay-per-view event titled Spice Girls in Concert Wild!, and was later included in the VHS and DVD release Girl Power! Live in Istanbul. The Spice Girls have performed the song on their four tours, the Spiceworld Tour, the Christmas in Spiceworld Tour, the Return of the Spice Girls Tour and the Spice World – 2019 Tour. The performance at the Spiceworld Tour's final concert can be found on the video: Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium, filmed in London, on 20 September 1998. It remained in the group's live set after Halliwell's departure. The first verse had originally been sung by Halliwell with Bunton. After Halliwell's departure, her parts were taken by Chisholm on the Spiceworld Tour, and by Brown on the Christmas in Spiceworld Tour. In 2019 during Spice World – 2019 Tour Geri sang absent Victoria's original lines. ## Formats and track listings These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "Who Do You Think You Are": - UK CD2/Australian CD2/Brazilian CD/European CD2/South African CD/Digital EP 2 1. "Who Do You Think You Are" (Radio Version) – 3:44 2. "Mama" (Radio Version) – 3:40 3. "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Club Mix) – 9:30 4. "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Dub Mix) – 7:00 - French CD 1. "Who Do You Think You Are" (Radio Version) – 3:44 2. "Who Do You Think You Are" (Instrumental) – 3:44 - UK 12" promo vinyl single 1. A1: "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Club Mix) – 9:30 2. B1: "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Club Dub) – 7:00 3. B2: "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Bonus Mix) – 4:40 - Italian 12" vinyl single 1. A1: "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Club Mix) – 9:30 2. A2: "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Bonus Mix) – 4:40 3. B1: "Mama" (Album Version) – 5:03 4. B2: "Who Do You Think You Are" (Morales Club Dub) – 7:00 ## Credits and personnel - Spice Girls – lead vocals, lyrics - Absolute – lyrics, production, all instruments - Dave Way – audio mixing - Jeremy Wheatley – recording engineer - Adam Brown – assistant - Mary Pearce – additional background vocals Published by Windswept Pacific Music Ltd/19 Music/BMG Music Publishing Ltd. ## Charts All entries charted with "Mama" unless otherwise noted. ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
370,077	Euston tube station	1,169,225,486	London Underground station	[ "Former Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway stations", "Former City and South London Railway stations", "London Underground Night Tube stations", "Northern line stations", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1907", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1968", "Tube stations in the London Borough of Camden", "Victoria line stations" ]	Euston is a London Underground station. It directly connects with Euston main line station above it. The station is in Travelcard Zone 1. Euston was constructed as two separate underground stations. Three of the four Northern line platforms date from the station's opening in 1907. The fourth Northern line platform and the two Victoria line platforms were constructed in the 1960s when the station was significantly altered to accommodate the Victoria line. Plans for High Speed 2 and Crossrail 2 both include proposals to modify the station to provide interchanges with the new services. The station serves two branches of the Northern line and the Victoria line. On the Northern line's Bank branch, the station is between Camden Town and King's Cross St Pancras stations. On the Charing Cross branch, it is between Mornington Crescent and Warren Street stations. On the Victoria line, it is between Warren Street and King's Cross St. Pancras stations. The station is near Euston Square station allowing connections at street level to the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. ## History ### Northern line #### Planning An underground station to serve Euston station was first proposed by the Hampstead, St Pancras & Charing Cross Railway in 1891. The company planned a route to run from Heath Street in Hampstead to Strand in Charing Cross with a branch diverging from the main route to run under Drummond Street to serve Euston, St Pancras and King's Cross stations. Following parliamentary review of the proposals and a change in name to the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (CCE&HR), permission was granted for the route in 1893, although the branch line was only permitted as far as Euston. For the remainder of the 1890s, the CCE&HR struggled unsuccessfully to raise the necessary capital to fund construction of the new line. Whilst doing so it continued to develop its route proposals. In 1899, parliamentary permission was obtained to modify the route so that the Euston branch was extended northwards to connect to the main route at the south end of Camden High Street. The section of the main route between the two ends of the loop was omitted. In 1900, the CCE&HR was taken over by a consortium led by American financier Charles Yerkes which raised the necessary finance. The same year, a proposal was presented to Parliament by the Islington and Euston Railway (I&ER) for an extension of the City and South London Railway (C&SLR) from Angel to Euston. At the time, the C&SLR was in the process of constructing an extension to Angel from its recently opened terminus at Moorgate Street. The extension plan was initially permitted in 1901, but delays in the parliamentary process meant that it had to be re-submitted the following year. The second submission was opposed by the Metropolitan Railway, which saw the extension as competition to its service between King's Cross and Moorgate, and the plan was rejected. A third attempt, presented to parliament in November 1902 by the C&SLR itself, was successful and approved in 1903. #### Construction and opening With funding obtained, tunnelling for the CCE&HR was carried out between September 1903 and December 1905, after which the station buildings and fitting-out of the tunnels commenced. The C&SLR's Euston extension was constructed at the same time from the newly opened Angel station and opened on 12 May 1907, with the station building designed by Sidney Smith located on the east side of Eversholt Street. The CCE&HR opened on 22 June 1907; its building, designed by Leslie Green, is located at the corner of Drummond Street and Melton Street. Although built and initially operated as two separate stations by the two companies, the C&SLR and the CCE&HR platforms were sufficiently close together that a deep level interchange was constructed between the passages of the two stations with a small ticket office for passengers changing between the lines. Another passage led to lifts that surfaced within the main line station itself. With the entrance within the main line station able to serve both sets of platforms satisfactorily, the separate station buildings were considered unnecessary, and they both closed on 30 September 1914. The CCE&HR building remains (converted for use as an electrical substation), but the C&SLR's building was demolished in 1934 to enable the construction of Euston House for the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. #### Reconstruction and extension Most of the C&SLR's route had been constructed with tunnels 10 feet 2 inches (3.10 m) or 10 feet 6 inches (3.20 m) in diameter, smaller than the 11 feet 6 inches (3.51 m) diameter that had been adopted as the standard for the CCE&HR and other deep level tube lines. The smaller tunnel size restricted the capacity of the C&SLR's trains and, in 1912, the C&SLR published a bill for their enlargement. A separate bill was published at the same time by the London Electric Railway (LER), that included plans to construct tunnels to connect the C&SLR at Euston to the CCE&HR's station at Camden Town. Together, the works proposed in these bills would enable trains of each company to run over the route of the other, effectively combining the two separate railways. The reconstruction and extension works were postponed during World War I and did not begin until 1922. The C&SLR platforms and the tunnels between Euston and Moorgate were closed for the reconstruction on 8 August 1922. They reopened on 20 April 1924 along with the new link to Camden Town. ### London & North Western Railway In 1906, the London and North Western Railway (LNWR), operator of the main line station, announced proposals to construct an underground station of its own. The company planned to construct new tracks parallel with its line to Watford, the first section of which would have been constructed as a single-track loop 1,588 yards (1,452 m) long and 55 feet 6 inches (16.92 m) deep beneath the surface station. The single platform underground station would have been close to the CCE&HR's platforms. The proposal was presented to Parliament in November 1906 and received royal assent on 26 July 1907. The LNWR did not proceed with the loop plan and the underground station, which were dropped in 1911. ### Victoria line #### Planning Plans for the route that eventually became the Victoria line date from the 1940s. A proposal for a new underground railway line linking north-east London with the centre was included in the County of London Plan in 1943. Between 1946 and 1954, a series of routes were proposed by different transport authorities to connect various places in south and north or north-east London. Each of these connected the three main line termini at King's Cross, Euston and Victoria. A route was approved in 1955 with future extensions to be decided later, though funding for the construction was not approved by the government until 1962. #### Construction and opening At Euston, major reconstruction works were undertaken to incorporate the new Victoria line platforms so that cross-platform interchanges could be provided with the Northern line's Bank branch—the former C&SLR route to King's Cross and Bank. Unlike the Charing Cross branch tracks, which were in separate tunnels with side platforms, the Bank branch tracks served an island platform in a single large tunnel. These platforms suffered from dangerous overcrowding at peak times. To provide cross-platform interchange, a new section of tunnel was constructed for northbound Bank branch trains, which were diverted to a new platform south of the original alignment. The redundant northbound track bed in the station tunnel was filled in to form a wider southbound platform. The new Victoria line platforms were excavated between and parallel to the original and the new Bank branch tunnels. Each pair of platforms was linked via a concourse served by escalators. In conjunction with the reconstruction of the main line station above, a new ticket hall was excavated below the concourse with two sets of escalators replacing the lifts. The escalators provide access to and from an intermediate passenger circulation level, which, in turn, gives access to the Northern line Charing Cross branch platforms and two further sets of escalators; one set each serving the northbound and southbound Victoria and Northern line Bank branch platforms. Interchanges between the northbound and southbound Victoria and Northern Bank Line platforms are made via a passageway at the lower level so as to avoid the need to use the escalators. An emergency stair to the intermediate interchange level is located midway along the passageway. The Victoria line platforms opened on 1 December 1968 when the second section of the line was opened between Highbury & Islington and Warren Street. Disused passages remain with tiling and posters from the 1960s. ## Future proposals Unlike the neighbouring main line termini, St Pancras and King's Cross, Euston is not served by the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. Euston Square station, which is served by these lines, is approximately 250 metres (270 yd) to the south-west. Plans for the redevelopment of the main line station for High Speed 2 (HS2) include the construction of a direct connection to Euston Square. The CCE&HR station building on Melton Street sits within the HS2 development site area and will be demolished to make way for the station. Proposals for Crossrail 2 include an underground station serving Euston and St Pancras that will be integrated with the existing London Underground station. A new underground line between Euston and Canary Wharf has been suggested and is being considered by the government. ## Services The station is in Travelcard Zone 1. On the Northern line's Bank branch the station is between Camden Town and King's Cross St Pancras. On the Charing Cross branch it is between Mornington Crescent and Warren Street. On the Victoria line it is between Warren Street and King's Cross St. Pancras. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally, Northern line trains operate every 2–6 minutes from approximately 05:49 to 00:45 northbound and 05:49 to 00:28 southbound. Victoria line trains operate every 1–6 minutes from approximately 05:41 to 00:42 northbound and 05:31 to 00:26 southbound. ## Connections London Bus routes are served by Euston bus station outside the main line station.
17,214,488	U.S. Route 22 in New Jersey	1,173,766,887	Highway in New Jersey	[ "Limited-access roads in New Jersey", "Transportation in Essex County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Hunterdon County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Somerset County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Union County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Warren County, New Jersey", "U.S. Highways in New Jersey", "U.S. Route 22" ]	U.S. Route 22 (US 22) is a United States Numbered Highway stretching from Cincinnati, Ohio, in the west to Newark, New Jersey, in the east. In New Jersey, the route runs for 60.53 miles (97.41 km) from the Easton–Phillipsburg Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in Phillipsburg, Warren County, to Interstate 78 (I-78), US 1/9, and Route 21 at the Newark Airport Interchange in Newark, Essex County. The road first heads through the Phillipsburg–Alpha area as a surface divided highway before running concurrent with I-78 through mountainous and agricultural sections of western New Jersey between Alpha and east of Clinton in Hunterdon County. For the remainder of the route, US 22 runs to the south of I-78 through mostly suburban areas as a four- to six-lane surface divided highway, passing through Hunterdon, Somerset, Union, and Essex counties. Along this portion, it intersects US 202 and US 206 in Somerville, I-287 in Bridgewater Township, and the Garden State Parkway in Union. What became US 22 in 1926 was first designated as Route 9, a route running from Phillipsburg to Elizabeth, in 1916. In 1927, Route 9 west of Elizabeth became Route 28 while the portion within Elizabeth became Route 27-28 Link. By 1941, US 22 was moved to its current alignment in the Phillipsburg area, following Route 24 and Route 24-28 Link; Route 28 in Phillipsburg became US 22 Alternate (US 22 Alt.; now Route 122). Also, US 22 was moved off Route 28 east of Bridgewater Township to follow Route 28-29 Link and Route 29 to Newark. In 1953, the long concurrencies with the state highways were removed. In the 1960s, I-78 was constructed close to the US 22 corridor throughout New Jersey. US 22 was moved onto the new Interstate between Alpha and Clinton in 1969 with most of the old route becoming Route 173. ## Route description ### Phillipsburg to Annandale US 22 enters New Jersey from Easton, Pennsylvania, on the Easton–Phillipsburg Toll Bridge over the Delaware River and Norfolk Southern Railway's Portland Secondary line. It heads into Phillipsburg, Warren County, as a four-lane undivided road maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (DRJTBC), eventually becoming a divided highway. East of the bridge, the westbound lanes pass through the bridge toll plaza, and the route has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for Broad and Main streets. From the previous exit, US 22 runs eastward as a four-lane undivided road maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) that ends in an interchange with Morris Street and Hillcrest Boulevard. At this point, the route becomes at-grade Memorial Boulevard; a commercial four to six-lane divided thoroughfare with a wide median consisting of U-turn ramps and jughandles. The median narrows as the road forms the border between Lopatcong Township to the north and Phillipsburg to the south. The route fully enters Lopatcong Township and comes to an interchange with Route 57, with an eastbound exit and a westbound entrance. After passing the Route 57 junction, US 22 takes a southeasterly turn and passes over the Washington Secondary line that is owned by Norfolk Southern Railway and operated by the Dover and Delaware River Railroad before entering an agricultural area. The route forms the border between Pohatcong Township to the west and Greenwich Township to the east as it passes to the east of former Phillipsburg Mall. A short distance later, US 22 intersects County Route 519 (CR 519) before heading back into a business district and meeting CR 638. East of Alpha, the route intersects Route 122, which is the final junction of the at-grade section of US 22. Past the Route 122 intersection, US 22 has an interchange with exit 3 of I-78 and the western endpoint of Route 173. From there, US 22 is concurrent with I-78 through a mountainous and rural area of western New Jersey. I-78/US 22 follow a six-lane freeway east through Greenwich Township, coming to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with CR 637. The road turns southeast and has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with CR 632 in Franklin Township. Within the ramps for this interchange, there are weigh stations in both directions. A short distance after this interchange, I-78/US 22 crosses the Musconetcong River into Bloomsbury, Hunterdon County. In Bloomsbury, the road has an interchange with Route 173. After this interchange, the freeway enters Bethlehem Township, with Route 173 closely running to the north of I-78/US 22. The road comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southern Railway's Central Running Track line and has rest areas in both directions before it passes over Norfolk Southern Railway's Lehigh Line and turns southeast to cross Musconetcong Mountain. The freeway turns east again and enters Union Township, coming to an interchange with CR 614 and Route 173. From here, I-78/US 22 continue east directly to the south of Route 173, coming to another interchange with that route as well as CR 625. Entering more commercial areas, Route 173 merges onto I-78/US 22 at exit 13. At exit 15, the highway meets an interchange with CR 513, and Route 173 splits from I-78/US 22 by heading north on CR 513. At this point, the freeway runs along the border of Franklin Township to the south and Clinton to the north before entirely entering Clinton and crossing the South Branch Raritan River. I-78/US 22 turns northeast and leaves Clinton for Clinton Township, where it has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for Route 173 that also provides access to Route 31. Immediately after is the interchange with Route 31. At the next interchange near the community of Annandale, US 22 splits from I-78, heading closely to the south of that route. ### Annandale to Somerville Upon splitting from I-78, US 22 becomes a four-lane at-grade divided highway that runs through rural areas with some development and crosses NJ Transit's Raritan Valley Line. It enters Lebanon, passing to the north of the town center. Upon leaving Lebanon, the route heads back into Clinton Township. In the community of Potterstown, US 22 enters Readington Township and takes a southeasterly turn away from I-78. Here, the road passes to the southwest of the Merck Headquarters Building before reaching the community of Whitehouse Station, where it has a short concurrency with CR 523. Past Whitehouse Station, US 22 continues through a mix of residential and commercial areas. US 22 continues into Branchburg, Somerset County, where development near the road increases but remains mostly rural. CR 614 parallels US 22 to the north to pass through the community of North Branch before US 22 intersects CR 637 and crosses the North Branch Raritan River into Bridgewater Township. In Bridgewater Township, the route comes to an interchange with the eastern terminus of CR 614 and the western terminus of Route 28. Past this interchange, US 22 passes business parks and the Raritan Valley Country Club, widening to six lanes in the process. Afterward, it comes to an interchange with US 202 and US 206. Past this interchange, US 22 quickly transitions from a rural to a more suburban setting and heads east along the border of Somerville to the south and Bridgewater Township to the north, passing south of the Bridgewater Commons shopping mall. The median of the route widens as it runs immediately to the south of I-287, fully entering Bridgewater Township again as it comes to an interchange with I-287 at exits 14A and 14B. ### I-287 to Newark Airport Interchange East of I-287, US 22 continues east as a four-lane divided highway passing to the south of the Watchung Mountains. The road comes to an interchange with CR 675, where it also passes under Norfolk Southern Railway's Middle Brook Industrial Track line. The route then has an interchange with CR 525, where the wide grassy median narrows to a Jersey barrier. The road continues through wooded surroundings and passes through a portion of Bound Brook, widening back to six lanes before meeting CR 527 at an interchange. From here, the route takes a northeasterly course, entering Bridgewater Township again and narrowing to four lanes before crossing into Green Brook Township while designated a short distance north of the Middlesex–Somerset county border. US 22 continues through business areas as a highway with jughandles, crossing CR 529. In North Plainfield, the route widens to six lanes and has an interchange with CR 531. Past this interchange, the road continues along the border of Watchung to the west and North Plainfield to the southeast before crossing Green Brook. At this crossing, US 22 heads north-northeast into Scotch Plains, Union County, coming to an interchange with CR 655. The route continues northeast as a four- to five-lane highway, passing near former Bowcraft Amusement Park. The road continues east through Mountainside, turning northeast before entering Springfield, where it has an interchange with CR 577. Past this interchange, for 1.8 miles (2.9 km), US 22 has a wide median that contains commercial businesses and numerous U-turn ramps. In this area, the road comes to a level crossing with the abandoned Rahway Valley Railroad. It crosses the Rahway River into Union, where the wide median continues. The route briefly forms the northern border of Kenilworth before the median narrows back into a Jersey barrier. US 22 splits into two carriageways at the intersection with exits 140 and 140A of the Garden State Parkway and Route 82, site of the Union Watersphere. Past this interchange, the route comes to an exit for CR 630 before crossing the Elizabeth River into Hillside, where it heads east through more urban areas. The road has an interchange at Bloy Street before passing over CR 509 and Conrail Shared Assets Operations (CSAO)'s Irvington Industrial Track line. After an interchange with Broad Street, US 22 turns northeast as a limited-access roadway. It heads into Newark in Essex County, where the highway crosses under CSAO's Lehigh Line, which also carries NJ Transit's Raritan Valley Line, and passes through wooded Weequahic Park parallel to the railroad tracks. Past the park, US 22 turns to the east into urban areas and closely runs to the south of I-78, where it comes to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for Empire Street, which provides access to Route 27. A short distance later, the freeway has a direct westbound exit and eastbound entrance with Route 27. Past this interchange, US 22 continues parallel to I-78, passing over Amtrak's Northeast Corridor before reaching the Newark Airport Interchange; south of Downtown Newark and northwest of Newark Liberty International Airport. US 22 eastbound merges with US 1/9, with one southbound ramp and two northbound ramps (one for local and another for express lanes). The main line follows the US 1/9 local northbound ramp for another 0.4 miles (0.64 km), with an intermediate exit for Route 21. The official eastern terminus of US 22 is at the ramp split for I-78 and northbound US 1/9. ## History The portion of US 22 between Phillipsburg and Somerville roughly follows the alignment of the Jersey Turnpike, which was chartered in 1806 to run from New Brunswick to Philipsburg. This was originally built on a branch of the Great Minisink Trail that ran from what is now Metuchen to Lopatcong village in what is now Phillipsburg. The portion of the modern route that now enters Philipsburg was originally part of the Washington Turnpike, before being incorporated into the William Penn Auto Trail by 1916. What became US 22 across New Jersey was originally designated as Route 9 in 1916, a route that ran from Phillipsburg east to Elizabeth. When the U.S. Numbered Highway System was established in 1926, US 22 was designated through New Jersey from the Northampton Street Bridge in Phillpsburg and followed Route 9 east to US 1/9 in Elizabeth. A year later, in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 9 was replaced by Route 28, which itself was rerouted to continue to the Goethals Bridge. As a result, the alignment of US 22 in Elizabeth was designated Route 27-28 Link. By 1941, US 22 underwent two significant realignments within the state. In Phillipsburg, the route was moved from Route 28 to follow its current alignment on what was Route 24 between the Easton–Phillipsburg Toll Bridge and present-day Route 57 (then a part of Route 24) and Route 24-28 Link between there and Route 28. The approach to the Easton–Phillipsburg Toll Bridge, which opened in 1938, had been planned to be designated Route 24N, but instead became a part of Route 24. With the realignment of US 22 in Phillipsburg, the old alignment was designated as US 22 Alt. (now Route 122). In addition, US 22 was moved off from Route 28 east of Bridgewater Township to follow Route 28-29 Link and Route 29 to Newark; Route 29 had been legislated in the 1927 renumbering while Route 28-29 Link was legislated in 1938. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, the state highways running concurrent with US 22 were removed. With the planning of the Interstate Highway System in the 1950s, an Interstate Highway connecting the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, area to New York City was planned to run roughly along the US 22 corridor in New Jersey. This Interstate was designated as I-78 in the final plans in 1958. The new Interstate roughly followed the alignment of the unconstructed Route 11, which had been legislated in 1927 to run from US 22 between White House and Warrenville. Between the Alpha area and Annandale, I-78 was to directly follow US 22; the portion between exits 11 and 13 involved the creation of new eastbound lanes for I-78 and conversion of the eastbound lanes of US 22 into the westbound lanes of I-78. The westbound lanes of US 22 were turned into a two-lane frontage road. This construction took place during the 1960s. US 22 was moved to the I-78 alignment between these two points in 1969. The former alignment between Alpha and Clinton became Route 173 while the portion east of there became county-maintained Beaver Avenue (currently designated CR 626). Originally, I-78 had been planned to use the Easton–Phillipsburg Toll Bridge across the Delaware River and follow US 22 through Phillipsburg and along the Lehigh Valley Thruway west through the Lehigh Valley of Pennsylvania. However, opposition within Phillipsburg led to the cancelation of this routing, and I-78 was rerouted to head to the south of the Lehigh Valley. In addition to the construction of I-78 along the US 22 corridor, US 22 itself evolved into a multilane divided highway from a two-lane road. ## Major intersections ## See also
7,769,674	Fiji at the 1976 Summer Olympics	1,041,686,167	null	[ "1976 in Fijian sport", "Fiji at the Summer Olympics by year", "Nations at the 1976 Summer Olympics" ]	Fiji sent a delegation to compete at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, from 17 July to 1 August 1976. This was the nation's fifth appearance at a Summer Olympic Games. Their first appearance was at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia. Fiji's delegation consisted of two competitors. Tony Moore who made it to the quarter-finals of the 200m sprint and round 1 in the 100m sprint. After not starting in the 400m sprint, he only made the qualification stage of the long jump. The other athlete was Miriama Tuisorisori-Chambault who competed in the women's pentathlon and long jump. She finished 18th overall in the pentathlon and 27th in qualifying for the long jump. She would not start in the 100m hurdles. ## Background The Fiji Association of Sports and National Olympic Committee (FASNOC) was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1955. The following year the country debuted at the 1956 Summer Olympics held in Melbourne, Australia, with five athletes competing in three different sports. After competing in the following games in 1960, they missed the subsequent edition before returning for the 1968 Summer Olympics held in Mexico City and the following edition before the Olympics in 1976. The 1976 Summer Olympics were held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada from 17 July to 1 August 1976; a total of 6,084 athletes representing 92 National Olympic Committees took part. Fiji sent two athletes to Montreal, Tony Moore and Miriama Tuisorisori-Chambault who was also the flag bearer for Fiji. They competed in five events throughout the games (as both of them were in their respective long jump events) with both of them not starting in an event. ## Athletics Tony Moore was 24 years old at the time of the 1976 Summer Olympics, competing in his only Olympics. He competed in the men's 100 metres on 23 July where in heat nine he finished last with a time of 11.16 seconds. Two days later on 25 July, he competed in the heats of the men's 200 metres finishing in fourth place in the sixth heat. In the quarter-finals he competed in the third quarter final. He would go on to finish in seventh place in his heat being almost six tenths ahead of last place runner, Abdul Aziz Abdul Kareem from Kuwait. After not starting the 400 meters event on 26 July, his final event was the long jump with qualifying being held on 28 July. In his qualifying group he finished in 15th place in Group B and 31st overall with a jump of 6.81 metres. The other athlete who competed for Fiji was Miriama Tuisorisori-Chambault who competed in her first of two Olympic Games. Her first event was on 23 July in the preliminaries of the women's long jump. She finished in 14th place in her qualifying group and 27th overall with a jump of 5.79 metres. Two days later, she competed in the women's pentathlon which included five athletic disciplines held over two days. Her best result over the two days was in the 200 metres where she finished 13th with a time of 24.89. Her other results in the pentathlon was 19th (100m hurdles), 20th (Shot put), 20th (high jump) and 15th (long jump) to finish 18th overall with 3,827 points. On 28 July, she was entered for the 100 metres hurdles but she did not start. Track & road events Field events Combined events – Women's pentathlon ## See also - Fiji at the 1976 Summer Paralympics
43,118,452	Development of Fez	1,151,186,552	null	[ "Development of specific video games" ]	The high-profile and protracted five-year development of the video game Fez led to its status as an "underdog darling of the indie game scene". The 2012 puzzle-platform game built around rotating between four 2D views of a 3D space was developed by indie developer Polytron Corporation and published by Polytron, Trapdoor, and Microsoft Studios. Over the course of the game's development, Fez designer and Polytron founder Phil Fish received celebrity status for his outspoken public persona and prominence in the 2012 documentary Indie Game: The Movie, which followed the game's final stages of development and Polytron's related legal issues. The game was released to critical acclaim as an Xbox Live Arcade timed exclusive, and was later ported to other platforms. It had sold one million copies by the end of 2013. Fish and Shawn McGrath collaborated on a puzzle game that became Fez. When McGrath left the project due to creative differences, Fish, the game's artist, pursued a platform game direction with Renaud Bédard, the game's programmer, who wrote the game's level editor and game engine from scratch. Levels were built in 3D by extruding surfaces with Photoshop-created textures. Bédard and Fish were joined by three different animators and other collaborators. The game was first announced in June 2007 and won an award at the 2008 Independent Games Festival and entered the public spotlight. Fish created a studio, Polytron Corporation, and was later aided by nearby developer-publisher Trapdoor when Polytron ran out of money. Fez won several more prerelease awards, including the 2012 Seumas McNally Grand Prize. ## History `Fez's development cycle developed a reputation for its protracted five-year length and public exposure. Nathan Grayson of VG247 likened the game's rocky development process to "an indie Duke Nukem Forever". Polygon reviewer Arthur Gies wrote that the game was an "underdog darling of the indie game scene" for four years prior to its release. The game's designer, Phil Fish, became renowned in a way unusual for game developers due to his prominence in Indie Game: The Movie, which released in 2012. While the game was released to wide acclaim, Fish himself became known for his outspoken and acerbic public persona.` The game that became Fez began in a collaboration between Montreal-based Phil Fish and Toronto-based Shawn McGrath on McGrath's idea for a puzzle game: a four-sided 3D space with each side in 2D, similar to Fish's 3D pixels (voxels) as incorporated into Fez. The entirety of Fez's design, lore, and art descends from this game mechanic. Fish provided the project's art and credited his influence to Shigeru Miyamoto and Hayao Miyazaki. Fish and McGrath's partnership crumbled due to creative differences, as Fish wanted to create a platform game. Fish continued to work on the game in his spare time and announced his search for a programmer on DeviantArt, and the first person to reply, Renaud Bédard, became lead programmer. They were both the same age and living in Montreal. Though Bédard had some hobbyist experience in 3D graphics and was studying computer science, Fez was his first professional game development project. His first task was to write the level editor and game engine. Fez was first announced in July 2007 on The Independent Gaming Source. A trailer released in October 2007 convinced Jason DeGroot to join the development team as a producer. DeGroot, also known as "6955", first met Fish at a 2006 E3 party, and started work on the game's soundtrack and sound effects. The soundtrack was ultimately composed by Rich "Disasterpeace" Vreeland and the sound effects by Brandon McCartin. The game was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Independent Games Festival (IGF) at the Game Developers Conference (GDC): Excellence in Visual Art and the Design Innovation Award. As Fez was a side project, Fish was employed full-time at Artificial Mind and Movement in Montreal, where he worked on a tie-in game for a film. He was not permitted time off to attend the event and thus decided to quit his job in January 2008—a moment he later marked as "when I became indie". The game won "Excellence in Visual Art", and created a surge of public interest in the game concurrent to a similar swell of interest in indie game developers. Fish received a Canadian government loan to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company and began full-time work on Fez. In July 2009, Polytron announced a release for Xbox Live Arcade in early 2010. Polytron and Microsoft agreed to release Fez as an Xbox exclusive, a deal Fish later recalled as sensible. Fish designed the game as "a console game, not a PC game", and felt that the way he intended the game to be experienced—with a controller on a couch—was "part of the medium". Polytron ruled out a WiiWare release due to problems Fish had with their platform and developer options. Development continued with a more experimental ethos until the company began to run out of capital. The Canadian government loan that had funded Polytron's prototyping phase was not renewed for their production phase. They also lost funding from the organization that preceded the Indie Fund as Polytron's producer left the company. Fish borrowed money from friends and family for three months to keep the company open. In dire straits, he considered canceling the project. In March 2011, the nearby Québécois developer-publisher Trapdoor offered to help Polytron, having just signed a deal with Electronic Arts to publish their own game, Warp. Trapdoor assisted with Polytron's finances and operations and offered to treat them as part of their company and let them keep their intellectual property rights in exchange for a portion of Fez's earnings. Fish felt that partnership rescued the game. Fish is shown preparing for Fez's March 2011 PAX East booth in the 2012 documentary film Indie Game: The Movie, which chronicles the stories of several indie developers at various stages of their games' development cycles. As a subplot, the film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes the game's future. The partner, believed to be Jason DeGroot, is portrayed negatively and does not participate onscreen. The film's end credits were later corrected to reflect that Fish's business partner was not asked for input. Game Informer called Fish the film's "most memorable developer", and Rock, Paper, Shotgun wrote that Fish is portrayed as melodramatic, theatrical, and neurotic, in a way that exacerbates his outspoken public perception. Eurogamer said that the part where Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is "the film's most startling moment". Fez won the Audience Choice Award at the September 2011 Fantastic Arcade, Best in Show and Best Story/World Design at the October 2011 Indiecade, and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize at the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival. It was also a 2011 Penny Arcade Expo "PAX 10" selection. Fez was displayed in its entirety in a secluded lounge room at the October 2011 GameCity festival in Nottingham, England. Fish considered the demo their most fruitful yet. Fish told a Gamasutra reporter that he had received positive feedback from Independent Games Festival Chairman Brandon Boyer and Braid designer Jonathan Blow. Near the end of development, Fish felt "burnt out" and that his personal health had suffered. The final game included almost none of the original work from the first two years of development. After several delays, Fez was submitted for certification in February 2012. ### Release Fez was released on April 13, 2012, and sold 200,000 copies in its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform. Several months later, Polytron became embroiled in a high-profile dispute with Microsoft over the cost of patching the game. Polytron had released a fix that resolved many of the game's technical issues but introduced another that corrupted the saved games for about one percent of users. They withdrew the patch, but found Microsoft's fee for subsequent patch releases unviable, and chose to reinstate the withdrawn patch as their most utilitarian option. Polytron drew ire for the decision, which raised awareness for the business needs of indie developers. In July 2013, a year later, Microsoft announced that they no longer charged for patches, and Fish tweeted that Polytron's patch would take "a couple of months". Speaking in retrospect of the release, Fish "fiercely criticized" Fez co-publisher Microsoft Games Studios for botching the game's release. Fish cited a lack of promotion and publicity, and poor advertising of the game on Microsoft's digital market. In March 2013, Fish announced a May 1, 2013 release for the game's PC port, and opened preorders on GOG.com and Steam. The game's OS X and Linux ports debuted in the pay-what-you-want Humble Indie Bundle 9 on September 11, 2013. Polytron announced ports for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, and PlayStation Vita in August 2013 as in development through BlitWorks, which were released on March 25, 2014. The PlayStation releases include cross-console support for cross-buy (where one digital purchase allows access across multiple consoles) and "cross-save" (game save sharing between consoles), as well as support for 3D televisions, the DualShock 4 controller's decorative lightbar, and graphical upgrades due to the full port into the C++ programming language. Ports for Ouya and iOS were also announced. Fish announced eventual ports for "'pretty much' every platform" but the Nintendo 3DS. Bédard planned to leave Polytron after finishing Fez to experience work with a full development team, but stayed to port the Windows release before joining Toronto's Capybara Games. He credited the game's long development cycle to his own inexperience in game development (compounded by the team's small size and difficulty in setting reasonable milestones), the game's scope, and Fish's perfectionism. Fish had hoped that players would discuss Fez's nuances online after the game's release. Players collaborated online for a week to solve the final "monolith" puzzle by brute force. Ars Technica described the apparent end to the game's harder puzzles as "anticlimactic", but Fish told Eurogamer in March 2013 that hidden in-game secrets remain to be found. More than three years after its digital launch, Fez received a physical release designed by Fish and limited to a signed edition of 500 in December 2015. The deluxe package included the soundtrack and a stylized red notebook with gold foil inlay. An iOS port began development in April 2017 when a teaser trailer was released. It was released in December 2017. ## Design When Bédard joined the project, the game focused on the 2D–3D mechanic and did not yet have open world ambitions. He coded the game in Microsoft Visual C# Express and XNA Game Studio Express. His first task, the level editor Fezzer, was coded from scratch in XNA and inspired by SketchUp. Bédard also wrote the game engine, Trixel Technology, which turns 2D tiles ("triles") into sides of a 3D cube pixel. The engine tracks player-character Gomez in 3D space even though the game behaves as a 2D platformer. Bédard also built the game to resolve collisions when converting between 3D and 2D space. Fish created pixel art in Photoshop for each tiled side ("trile") of the 3D trixel that Bédard's custom software compiled into 3D game assets, which Fish would extrude as surfaces in Fezzer to build levels. Fish found the level design process "overwhelming", and Bédard has said he was relieved that it was not his job. Fish compared his design process to playing with Lego blocks, and planned the more involved levels in graph paper to first visualize the 2D views before building the levels in the 3D software. The levels and puzzles were not preordained in a design document, and many of the drafts levels scrapped in 2008 resurfaced to be used later in the production process. So as to fit the rotation mechanic, the levels were made tall instead of wide, and the first part of the game was designed to acclimate the player to 2D controls before introducing the 3D element. As they worked, Fish first proposed ideas that Bédard would implement. The two would then discuss and fine-tune the addition—they worked well together. Fish describes the game's changes during development as "organic"—they tested different kinds of levels and replicated the types of in-game exploration that the team appreciated most. It came to adopt Metroidvania mechanics, with "secret passages, warp gates, and cheat codes". Fish cited Myst as another touchstone and compared its open world, nonlinear narrative, and "obtuse metapuzzles" to Fez's own alphabet, numeric system, and an "almost unfairly hard to get" "second set of collectibles". Fish originally fought against having an in-game map because he wanted players to draft their own. After attempting to do so himself, he changed his mind. Fish later called the in-game map "probably one of the weakest aspects of the game". Fish also fought against including the navigational assistant, Dot, but later felt that the addition was successful and a positive contribution to the game's mythology. The fez itself, Fish described as an "ancient symbol of understanding the third dimension". Fez had three different animators through its development: Paul Robertson of Scott Pilgrim vs. the World: The Game, who did the game's animals and some of Gomez's animations, Adam Saltsman of Canabalt, and Graham Lackey, who did some character animations. The game's mechanics were inspired by the Nintendo Entertainment System games Fish played in his youth, particularly Super Mario and The Legend of Zelda. Fish cited Fumito Ueda's Ico as the game's third inspiration, and he sought to emulate its feeling of nostalgic and isolated loneliness. Fish also sought to emulate Ueda's "design by subtraction" philosophy, where the Ico development team would periodically remove parts of the game so as to leave only what was essential to their vision. In this way, ideas like player health and object weight puzzles were gradually struck from Fez. Fish made a personal challenge of designing a game without relying on "established mechanics". As such, Fez was always a peaceful game and there was never an enemy coded into the game. So as to better emulate Hayao Miyazaki's signature "open blue sky", "feel-good" atmosphere, Fish watched all of the director's films one weekend early in the development cycle. ## See also - Development of Duke Nukem Forever – another game with a protracted development cycle
326,967	British subject	1,154,689,035	Legal term that has evolved over time	[ "British nationality law" ]	The term "British subject" has several different meanings depending on the time period. Before 1949, it referred to almost all subjects of the British Empire (including the United Kingdom, Dominions, and colonies, but excluding protectorates and protected states). Between 1949 and 1983, the term was synonymous with Commonwealth citizen. Currently, it refers to people possessing a class of British nationality largely granted under limited circumstances to those connected with Ireland or British India born before 1949. Individuals with this nationality are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens, but not British citizens. The status under the current definition does not automatically grant the holder right of abode in the United Kingdom but most British subjects do have this entitlement. About 32,400 British subjects hold active British passports with this status and enjoy consular protection when travelling abroad; fewer than 800 do not have right of abode in the UK. Nationals of this class without right of abode are subject to immigration controls when entering the UK. If they hold no other citizenship, British subjects without right of abode in the UK are effectively stateless, as they are not guaranteed the right to enter the country in which they are nationals. ## Background ### Development from feudal allegiance Before the concept of nationality was codified in legislation, inhabitants of English communities owed allegiance to their feudal lords, who were themselves vassals of the monarch. This system of loyalty, indirectly owed to the monarch personally, developed into a general establishment of subjecthood to the Crown. Calvin's Case in 1608 established the principle of jus soli, that all those who were born within Crown dominions were natural-born subjects. After the Acts of Union 1707, English and Scottish subjects became British subjects. Natural-born subjects were considered to owe perpetual allegiance to the Crown, and could not voluntarily renounce British subject status until 1870, when it was first permitted. Prior to 1708, foreigners could only be naturalised through Acts of Parliament. Although procedures were created after this point for aliens to become subjects, personalised naturalising legislation continued to be enacted until 1975. Additionally, the monarch could personally make any individual a subject by royal prerogative. By this method, a foreigner became a denizen – although they were no longer considered an alien, they could not pass subject status to their children by descent and were barred from Crown service and public office. This mechanism was no longer used after 1873. Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether nationality regulations in Great Britain (the United Kingdom from 1801) were applicable elsewhere in the Empire. Individual colonies had each developed their own procedures and requirements for naturalisation, granting subject status at the discretion of those local governments. In 1847, Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who became British subjects in other territories. Individuals naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received the status by imperial naturalisation, which was valid throughout the Empire. Those naturalised in a colony were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory. However, when travelling outside of the Empire, British subjects who were locally naturalised in a colony were still entitled to imperial protection. British subject status was codified in statute law for the first time by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914, which formalised the status as a common nationality among the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the self-governing Dominions. Dominions that adopted this Act as part of their own nationality laws (Australia, Canada, Ireland, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa) were authorised to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation. During this time, British subject status was the principal form of British nationality. There were certain territories that came under British jurisdiction but were not formally incorporated as Crown territory proper. These included protectorates, protected states, League of Nations mandates, and United Nations trust territories. Because they were foreign lands, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status. Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons. ### Transition to Commonwealth citizenship Following the First World War, the Dominions developed distinct national identities. Britain formally recognised this at the 1926 Imperial Conference, jointly issuing the Balfour Declaration with all the Dominion heads of government, which stated that the United Kingdom and Dominions were autonomous and equal to each other within the British Commonwealth of Nations. Legislative independence of the Dominions was given legal effect after passage and ratification of the Statute of Westminster 1931. Diverging developments in Dominion nationality laws, as well as growing assertions of local national identity separate from that of Britain and the Empire, culminated with the creation of Canadian citizenship in 1946. Combined with the approaching independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, nationality law reform was necessary at this point to address ideas that were incompatible with the previous system. The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject as any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries. Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning. This alternative term was necessary to retain a number of newly independent countries in the Commonwealth that wished to become republics rather than preserve the monarch as head of state. The change in naming also indicated a shift in the base theory to this aspect of British nationality; allegiance to the Crown was no longer a requirement to possess British subject status and the common status would be maintained by voluntary agreement among the various members of the Commonwealth. British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with the citizenships of each Commonwealth country. A person born in Australia would be both an Australian citizen and a British subject. British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC). CUKC status was the principal form of British nationality during this period of time. There was also a category of people called British subjects without citizenship (BSWC). Irish citizens who fulfilled certain requirements could file formal claims with the Home Secretary to remain British subjects under this definition. Additionally, those who did not qualify for CUKC status or citizenship in other Commonwealth countries, or were connected with a country that had not yet defined citizenship laws, would transitionally remain British subjects in this group. All British subjects initially held an automatic right to settle in the United Kingdom, though non-white immigration into the United Kingdom was systemically discouraged. This entitlement was part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with certain Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia) and to moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth. It was thought that only a limited number of non-white colonial migrants would ever seek to settle in the UK. However, strong economic conditions in Britain after the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration. In response to growing anti-immigration sentiment, Parliament imposed immigration controls on subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962. The Immigration Act 1971 relaxed controls on patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in the United Kingdom, and gave effective preferential treatment to Commonwealth citizens from white-majority countries. Outside of the United Kingdom, British subjects already did not have an automatic right to settle. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa had immigration restrictions in place for British subjects from outside their jurisdictions targeted at non-white migrants since the late 19th century. After 1949, non-local British subjects under the new definition who were resident in these independent Commonwealth countries continued to retain certain privileges. This included eligibility to vote in elections, for preferred paths to citizenship, and for welfare benefits. British subjects were eligible to vote in New Zealand until 1975 and Australia until 1984 (though subjects on the electoral roll in that year are still eligible). In Canada, voting eligibility was revoked at the federal level in 1975, but not fully phased out in provinces until 2006. Because each country now defined British subject in separate pieces of legislation and these definitions were not always updated or kept at parity, individuals could have been British subjects in one country at a given time but not another. For example, a South African citizen in 1967 would have been considered a British subject in Canada, but not the United Kingdom or South Africa. The country was included in the list of Commonwealth nations in Canadian law, despite South Africa having left the Commonwealth in 1961 and not rejoining it until 1994. ### Redefinition as residual nationality class By the 1980s, most colonies of the British Empire had become independent. Parliament updated nationality law to reflect the more modest geographical boundaries of the United Kingdom. The British Nationality Act 1981 recategorised CUKCs into different nationality groups based on patriality and birthplace. CUKCs with the right of abode in the United Kingdom or those closely connected with the UK, Channel Islands, or Isle of Man became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (later renamed British Overseas Territories citizens). Those who could not be reclassified into either of these statuses and who were no longer associated with a British territory became British Overseas citizens. While all nationals under those categories continue to be Commonwealth citizens, the definition of British subject was limited to its present meaning. It currently only includes the category of people previously called British subjects without citizenship as well as women who married such persons and registered for the status. The term is no longer synonymous with Commonwealth citizen. British citizens are not British subjects as defined by the 1981 Act. In other Commonwealth countries that still retained it, British subject status under the previous definition was progressively abolished. The status remained in law in South Africa until 1961, Canada until 1977, New Zealand until 1977, and Australia until 1987. Though the British government has never conceded to suggestions that its policies and legislation concerning nationality were discriminatory or racist, Parliament has since revised nationality law to correct remaining cases of statelessness caused by deprivation of the right to settle in the UK after 1962. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 granted British subjects who do not hold and have not lost an alternative nationality the right to register as British citizens. ## Acquisition and loss Naturalisation as a British subject is not possible. It is expected that British subjects will obtain citizenship in the country they reside in and that the number of active status holders will eventually dwindle until there are none. It is currently only possible to transfer British subject status by descent if an individual born to a British subject parent would otherwise be stateless. The status was granted in 1949 to British subjects who did not become CUKCs or citizens of any other Commonwealth country or the Republic of Ireland. Irish citizens born before 1949 may make formal claims at any time to retain status as British subjects based on: Crown service in the UK, passports or certificates of entitlement describing holders as British subjects, or proof of other associations with the UK or any former British territory. Women married to British subjects were also able to register for the status before 1983. Virtually all other individuals with this status hold it by virtue of their own, or their father's, birth in former British India. British subjects automatically lose the status if they acquire any other nationality, including other British nationality classes, unless they possess the status through a connection with Ireland. It can also be voluntarily relinquished by a declaration made to the Home Secretary, provided that an individual already possesses or intends to acquire another nationality. British subjects may be stripped of the status if it was fraudulently acquired. There is no path to restore British subject status once lost. ## Rights and privileges British subjects who do not have right of abode in the United Kingdom are exempted from obtaining a visa or entry certificate when visiting the UK for less than six months. When travelling in other countries, they may seek British consular protection. British subjects are not considered foreign nationals when residing in the UK and are entitled to certain rights as Commonwealth citizens. These include exemption from registration with local police, voting eligibility in UK elections, and the ability to enlist in the British Armed Forces. British subjects are also eligible to serve in all Civil Service posts, be granted British honours, receive peerages, and sit in the House of Lords. If given indefinite leave to remain (ILR), they are eligible to stand for election to the House of Commons and local government. British subjects only have right of abode in the UK if they were born to at least one British subject parent who themself was born in the UK or, if they are female, were married to a person with right of abode before 1983. Almost every person who still retains British subject status has UK right of abode. About 32,400 people hold active British passports with the status, and fewer than 800 do not have right of abode. All British subjects may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing either right of abode or ILR for more than one year. Registration in this way confers citizenship otherwise than by descent, meaning that children born outside of the UK to those successfully registered will be British citizens by descent. British subjects with right of abode may also register for citizenship without residence requirements by virtue of their birth to a parent born in the UK. Applicants who successfully register in this way become British citizens by descent and cannot pass citizenship to their children born outside of the UK. Individuals who become British citizens would automatically lose British subject status if they are not connected with Ireland. Otherwise, British subjects may also be British citizens simultaneously. British subjects who do not hold and have not lost any other nationality on or after 4 July 2002 are entitled to register as British citizens. ## Restrictions In a case before Court of Justice of the European Union, it was argued by one of the parties that British subjects who hold no other nationality are de facto stateless because they do not have a right to enter the country that claims them as nationals. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 allowed these individuals to register as British citizens, after which statelessness was generally resolved for people who were solely British subjects. ### United Kingdom British subjects without right of abode are subject to immigration controls when entering the United Kingdom. They are required to pay an immigration health surcharge to access National Health Service benefits when residing in the UK for longer than six months and do not qualify for most welfare programmes. ### European Union Before the United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union on 31 January 2020, full British citizens and British subjects with right of abode in the UK were European Union citizens. British subjects without right of abode in the UK were not EU citizens and did not enjoy freedom of movement in other EU countries. They were, and continue to be, exempted from obtaining visas when visiting the Schengen Area.
63,222,037	Valerie Rodway	1,170,705,302	Guyanese composer	[ "1919 births", "1970 deaths", "20th-century classical composers", "20th-century educators", "20th-century women educators", "Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music", "Guyanese Africanists", "Guyanese composers", "Guyanese educators", "Guyanese schoolteachers", "People from New Amsterdam, Guyana", "Political music artists", "Women classical composers", "Women composers", "Women music educators" ]	Valerie Muriel Rodway (February 12, 1919 – August 1970) was a Guyanese composer of cultural and patriotic songs, inspired by the events leading up to Guyana's independence in 1966. She is best known for composing music to accompany Guyana national poetry, like Arise, Guyana, Kanaïma, and the Martin Carter's Guyanese Independence poem Let Freedom Awaken. For the next two decades, school children were taught the songs she and others composed to inspire patriotism and cultural affinity. She selected the poetry for her compositions based upon her principles and values, first developed among her parents and siblings. She has been considered Guyana's greatest composer of patriotic and national music, and among the best composers from Guyana of the 20th century, generally and among composers of classical music. She was awarded the Wordsworth McAndrew Award posthumously in 2002. In 2019, she was awarded the Cacique Crown of Honor, one of the highest honors of Guyana. The National Trust of Guyana building in Cummingsburg, Georgetown, has been renamed the Valerie Rodway House in her honor. She was married twice, yet had no children of her own. She was described as a caring, good mother by her stepdaughter, Dr. Cicely Rodway, the daughter of James Rodway. James, her second husband, created Guyana the Free with her. She taught music at a school in Georgetown, Guyana, and was a pianist who jammed with other Guyanese musicians. ## Personal life Valerie Fraser, born on February 12, 1919, in New Amsterdam, East Berbice-Corentyne, Guyana, was the fifth of eight children and the fourth daughter. Her mother, Jane Elizabeth Fraser, was born in Berbice-Corentyne. Her father, Newton Berthier Fraser, was born in Essequibo (now part of Guyana). Among the fourth generation of mariners in his family, he was known as "Capo" because he was a captain and owner of schooners and sloops that transported goods in and out of the Caribbean. Within British Guiana, sugar was transported to Georgetown from plantations in Berbice. He transported rice, supplies, and passengers from British Guiana to Barbados. White marl was transported from Barbados to British Guiana, where it was used for Georgetown's streets. Parris Britton, her maternal ancestor, bought and held land that, following his death, became a source of income to his descendants. In the 1930s, the income-earning property helped the Frasers recover following devastating hurricanes—which destroyed her father's schooners and sloops—and throughout the Great Depression. According to her sister Lucille Wharton, Valerie, then a toddler, would wander away from the family’s home and visit a neighbour to "tinkle the keys" of the piano. Valerie had an interest in music, and her musical ability was developed by her music teachers—Edna Jordan, Eleanor Kerry, Winifred McDavid, and Ruby McGregor. She obtained a Licentiate of the Royal Academy of Music (LRCM) from the Royal Academy of Music in London. She became a good friend of future musician Lynette Dolphin who, with her sister, were taken into the Fraser family home after the death of her mother, Clarice de Weever Dolphin, in 1936. Lynette influenced Rodway's musical focus. The Fraser family valued service to the nation, respect, tenacity, and concern for others. In 1958, as Valerie Warner, she married the poet and teacher James "Sonny" Rodway, a grandson of the Guyanese historian James Rodway. James Rodway's children were her stepchildren. Dr Cicely Rodway, her stepdaughter, called her a good mother who was gentle and kind. She had no children of her own. She died in August 1970 and was survived by one sibling, Ovid Fraser. ## Career Rodway was a music teacher at the St. Ambrose Primary School in Alberttown, Georgetown for many years. She composed some of the country's most recognized cultural and patriotic songs and has been considered Guyana's greatest composer of national music. Guyana the Free, written by Rodway and her husband James Rodway, was submitted for the competition for the national song of Guyana. She composed the music for Walter MacArthur Lawrence's poem "O Beautiful Guyana"; J. W. Chinapen's poem "Arise, Guyana"; and Vere T. Daly's "Hymn for Guyana's Children", considered one of the country's national songs. The poem "Let Freedom Wake Him" by Martin Carter, which she put to music in a combined syncopated-blues style, was a call for solidarity and action: "Give me your hand Comrade! Do not cry little one do not cry. This is the bond we made in the dark gloom about us, Hand in Hand, Heart in heart, strength in strength." She composed the music for "There Runs a Dream"; "Kanaima"; "The Weeding Gang", where the words were written by C. E. J. Ramcharitar-Lalla; and "Water Music", with words written by A. J. Seymour. She composed most of her music during the 1960s, as Guyana moved towards and achieved its independence from the United Kingdom in 1966. For the next two decades, school children learned national, patriotic songs in schools, like "Guyana the Free". School children copied the words to national songs into special exercise books. Her music—composed for schools, music festivals, and large choirs—was influenced by her civic values, creativity, and the changes that her country experienced as it transitioned from a colonial territory to an independent country. She selected poetry that supported the racially-diverse new country with the values of "service to the nation, respect for the heritage, [and] the creation of a just and caring society", according to Vibert Cambridge, President of the Guyana Cultural Association of New York. According to the Stabroek News, her work represents pride in her country, its natural resources, and first peoples—expressed through diverse musical genres. She composed test pieces for the British Guiana Music Festival, which was established in 1952 by Lynette Dolphin, and music festivals held by other organizations. She "jammed", or played jazz music, with Sonny Rodway and the jazz pianist Douglas Harper before 1950. She also played jazz with Robert Frank and Iggy Quail. She was a member of the British Guiana Music Teachers' Association, where she lectured on classical composers Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, and Franz Schubert around 1949. In 1978, a book was published of three of her classical compositions and twenty of her songs entitled National Songs Composed by Valerie Rodway. ## Awards and legacy She was awarded the Wordsworth McAndrew Award posthumously in 2002 and the Cacique Crown of Honor (CCH), one of the highest honours of Guyana, in 2019. The National Trust of Guyana building was renamed the Valerie Rodway House in 2019 to honor her work and life. Renamed in conjunction with a celebration of the 100th anniversary of her birth, the event was led by the Ministry of the Presidency (MoTP). A speaker at the occasion, Dr. Vibert Cambridge, Professor in the School of Media Arts Studies at Ohio University, called her a "national treasure" who "found her inspiration in nature, the human struggle and Guyanese poetry". President David A. Granger said of her, "Valerie Rodway’s talent is that she moved beyond ethnicity; she moved beyond religion; she moved beyond the prejudices of being urban or rural and she helped us to discover our Guyanese-ness. When you read what she wrote and listen to what was played, there's no trace of prejudice. This is all about Guyana; all about us." The Postmaster General of Guyana announced the release of 2019 commemorative stamps of Rodway by the Guyana Post Office Corporation (GPOC). The manuscript for O Beautiful Guyana was presented to the National Archives for preservation.
32,464,297	Droungarios of the Watch	1,115,391,923	Senior Byzantine military, and later judicial, post	[ "Byzantine court titles", "Byzantine judicial offices", "Byzantine military offices", "Lists of office-holders in the Byzantine Empire" ]	The Droungarios of the Watch (Greek: δρουγγάριος τῆς βίγλης/βίγλας, droungarios tēs viglēs/viglas), sometimes anglicized as "Drungary of the Watch", was originally a senior Byzantine military post. Attested since the late 8th century, the droungarios commanded the Vigla or "Watch", one of the elite professional cavalry regiments (tagmata) of the middle Byzantine period, and was in charge of the Byzantine emperor's personal security. From c. 1030, the office was disassociated from its military origin and was transformed into a senior judicial position, thereafter usually referred to as the Grand Droungarios of the Watch (μέγας δρουγγάριος τῆς βίγλης/βίγλας, megas droungarios tēs viglēs/viglas). The office continued to exist as a mostly honorific court dignity in the Palaiologan era, until the very end of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century. ## Military office The Droungarios of the Watch was originally the commander of the Vigla ("guard watch") or Arithmos ("number"), the third of the tagmata, professional cavalry regiments headquartered in and around Constantinople, and distinct from the provincial or thematic troops. The title of droungarios itself means "commander of a droungos", a term of Gaulish origin which came to be used as a term for a kind of tactical cavalry formation in the East Roman army of Late Antiquity. The term droungarios (Greek: δρουγγάριος) is not documented before the early 7th century but might have been used as an informal or unofficial designation before that date. The office and the corresponding unit appear to have initially referred to ad hoc arrangements, but during the early 7th century these were formalized, like much of the East Roman army's rank structure. Judging from the unit's name and the peculiar titles of its officers, it also had a considerable ancestry, dating back to the East Roman army, but it is unknown exactly when it was constituted as a tagma. The office of the Droungarios of the Watch at any rate is first attested c. 791, when Alexios Mosele is recorded as "spatharios and droungarios of the Watch". In contrast to the other tagmata, the Watch and its commanders had special duties related to the safety of the Emperor and the imperial palace. Within Constantinople, the Watch provided guards for the palace precinct, and kept a permanent garrison at the Covered Hippodrome (which was also the droungarios's seat). As detailed in the De Ceremoniis, the Droungarios of the Watch always accompanied the Emperor and was a frequent participant in various imperial ceremonies, often accompanied by his principal aide, the akolouthos. His ceremonial dress is indicated as the skaramangion tunic and a red sagion cloak, while on some occasions he bore a sword, a mace and an axe. The latter weapon was highly unusual for a Byzantine officer, and the French scholar Rodolphe Guilland suggests that this was connected to his command of foreign troops via the akolouthos (who later notably became the commander of the axe-bearing Varangian Guard). In the 10th century, when several holders of the post were scions of the most prominent families of the military aristocracy, including Eustathios Argyros, John Kourkouas and Manuel Kourtikes, the droungarios occupied the 36th place in the imperial hierarchy and usually held the senior court dignities of anthypatos, patrikios or prōtospatharios. ### List of known holders Note: the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified, or anonymous holders. ## Judicial office In c. 1030, the office changed from military to purely judicial, and was further distinguished by acquiring the epithet "Grand" (megas) in the 1070s. It seems that the droungarios took over the Court of the Hippodrome, extant since the mid-9th century and so known after its location in the Covered Hippodrome (or, according to an alternative interpretation, in the substructures of the main Hippodrome of Constantinople). This was followed by the creation of new courts and the restructuring of the Byzantine judicial system, so that in the Komnenian period (1081–1185), the Court of the Hippodrome or "Court of the Droungarios" (τὸ δρουγγαρικὸν δικαστήριον, to droungarikon dikastērion) was one of the seven superior civil courts, alongside those of the Eparch of the City, the dikaiodotēs, the koiaistōr, the epi tōn kriseōn, the prōtasēkrētis and the katholikos, who headed the court for fiscal affairs (dēmosiaka pragmata). The droungarios also served as an appellate court for the decisions of the epi tōn kriseōn. The holders of the post belonged to some of the most distinguished families of the civil aristocracy, including such men as Eustathios Rhomaios, John Skylitzes and Andronikos Kamateros. ### List of known holders Note: the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified, or anonymous holders. ## Palaiologan era Following the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the office's continuity was broken, and when it reappears in the sources of the Palaiologan period, it had lost any judicial functions and resembled more its original military character: according to the mid-14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo-Kodinos, the Grand Droungarios of the Watch was a subordinate of the Grand Domestic, charged with the night watch and with supervising the army's scouts. In reality, however, it had become more of a sinecure and was essentially a court dignity devoid of any but ceremonial duties. In Pseudo-Kodinos' work, the Grand Droungarios of the Watch ranks 24th in the imperial hierarchy, between the Eparch and the megas hetaireiarches. The Grand Droungarios's distinctive court dress, as reported by Pseudo-Kodinos, consisted of a gold-brocaded hat (skiadion), a plain silk kabbadion tunic and a staff (dikanikion) with a gilded knob on top, and covered with golden-red braid below. For ceremonies and festivities, he bore the domed skaranikon, of yellow and golden silk and decorated with gold wire embroidery, and with a portrait of the emperor seated on a throne in front and another with the emperor on horseback on the rear. The dignity survived until the end of the Byzantine Empire. The historian Sphrantzes equated the Ottoman post of Agha of the Janissaries to the Grand Droungarios of the Watch. ### List of known holders Note: the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified, or anonymous holders.
5,063,428	Joginder Singh (soldier)	1,173,743,137	Indian soldier, recipient of Param Vir Chakra, born 1921	[ "1921 births", "1962 deaths", "Indian military personnel killed in action", "Military personnel from Punjab, India", "Punjabi people", "Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra", "Sikh warriors" ]	Subedar Joginder Singh Sahnan, PVC (26 September 1921 – 23 October 1962), was an Indian Army soldier who posthumously received India's highest military gallantry award, the Param Vir Chakra. Singh joined the British Indian Army in 1936 and served in the 1st battalion of the Sikh Regiment. During the 1962 Sino-Indian War, he was commanding a platoon at the Bum La Pass in the North-East Frontier Agency. Though heavily outnumbered, he bravely led his troops against a Chinese assault and defended his post until he was wounded and captured. Singh died from his injuries while in Chinese custody. He single-handedly killed more than 50 Chinese soldiers, and became a war hero within the Indian Armed forces. ## Early life Joginder Singh was born on 26 September 1921 in Mahla Kalan, Moga district, Punjab, British India. He spent his childhood in the same village. His father Sher Singh Sahnan belonged to an agricultural Saini Sikh family which had relocated to Mahla Kalan in Moga district from the village Munak Kalan (often pronounced as Munaka) in Hoshiarpur district. His mother was Bibi Krishan Kaur Bhela. Joginder Singh married Bibi Gurdyal Kaur Banga, who was from a Saini family in the village Kothay Rara Singh, near Kotkapura. He went to primary school in Nathu Ala village and went to middle school in Daroli village. He decided to join the army, considering that it would give him an "identity and purpose". ## Military career On joining the British Indian Army, Singh was posted to the 1st battalion of the Sikh Regiment (1 Sikh) on 28 September 1936. After joining the army, he identified his interest in education, and soon passed the Army Education Examination. He was subsequently appointed as the Unit Education Instructor. He served in the Second World War on the Burma front, and in Srinagar during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948. ### Sino-India War There had long been disagreement between India and China over disputed borders in the Himalayas region. To counter the increasing Chinese intrusions into the disputed territory, then Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru asked for strategies for dealing with them. However, the proposal put forward by the Indian Army was rejected. Instead, he approved a plan proposed by a bureaucrat called the "Forward Policy". This called for the establishment of several small posts facing the Chinese positions. Due to the severe rise in public criticism against Chinese intrusions, Nehru implemented the "Forward Policy" against the advice of the army. The army's concern was that the Chinese had a geographical advantage. Additionally, maintaining numerous small posts would be untenable if the superior Chinese forces attacked. This was ruled out by Nehru who believed the Chinese would not attack. However, the Chinese did attack and this initiated the Sino-India War. #### Battle at Bum La On 9 September 1962, then Defence Minister of India Krishna Menon decided to evict the Chinese troops south of Thala Ridge. This decision was endorsed by Nehru, who was in London to attend the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. Subsequently, the 7th Infantry Brigade, which included 1 Sikh, was ordered to move to Namka Chu, which was considered militarily unsound and an advantageous ground for the Chinese. This move was strongly criticized by the Indian media, who publicized it with "sensational headlines", arguing India's military offensive capability. The Chinese, aware of these developments, attacked the unprepared Indian post at Namka Chu. Though the Indian troops resisted the attack, they took heavy casualties due to inadequate ammunition and weak communication lines. Soon after the attack, the Chinese advanced to Tawang. Midway they encountered an Indian post at the Bum La Pass, held by a platoon of 20 men from 1 Sikh. The post was under the command of Singh, now a subedar. The Chinese attacked the post in three waves, each comprising 200 men. Though the initial two attacks were repelled successfully, by that time, the platoon was depleted to half of its original strength. Singh was also wounded but refused evacuation. Soon the ammunition was exhausted, and the survivors were only left with their bayonets. The Sikh soldiers then charged toward the Chinese, shouting the war cry Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh. The Chinese lines were scattered at this sight and many were bayoneted. Due to heavy numbers and superior weapons, the Chinese were able to withstand the last charge by Singh and his remaining soldiers. Before Singh was overpowered and captured by the Chinese, he single-handedly killed 56 Chinese soldiers with his bayonet. He later succumbed to his injuries and died in Chinese captivity. ### Param Vir Chakra Though being heavily outnumbered, Singh led his men, and kept their morale up, in the face of the enemy. For his action of gallantry on 23 October 1962, he was awarded the Param Vir Chakra. The citation reads: > Subedar Joginder Singh was the commander of a platoon of the Sikh Regiment holding a defensive position at a ridge near Tongpen La in NEFA. At 0530 hours on 23 October 1962, the Chinese opened a very heavy attack on the Bum la axis to break through to Towang. The leading battalion of the enemy attacked the ridge in three waves, each about 200 strong. Subedar Joginder Singh and his men mowed down the first wave, and the enemy was temporarily halted by the heavy losses it suffered. Within a few minutes, a second wave came over and was dealt with similarly. But the platoon had, by then, lost half its men. Subedar Joginder Singh was wounded in the thigh but refused to be evacuated. Under his inspiring leadership, the platoon stubbornly held its ground and would not withdraw. Meanwhile, the position was attacked for the third time. Subedar Joginder Singh himself manned a light machine gun and shot down a number of the enemy. The Chinese however continued to advance despite heavy losses. When the situation became untenable Subedar Joginder Singh and the few men that were left in the position fixed bayonets and charged the advancing Chinese, bayoneting a number of them before he and his comrades were overpowered. Throughout this action, Subedar Joginder Singh displayed devotion to duty, inspiring leadership and bravery of the highest order. The Chinese sent his ashes with full military honors to the battalion on 17 May 1963. The urn was later brought to the Sikh Regimental Centre at Meerut, and eventually handed over to his wife. ## Other honours In the 1980s, the Shipping Corporation of India (SCI), a Government of India enterprise under the aegis of the Ministry of Shipping, named fifteen of its crude oil tankers in honor of the PVC recipients. The tanker MT Subedar Joginder Singh, PVC was delivered to SCI in 1984, and served for 25 years before being phased out. In Singh's honour, a memorial statue has been built near the Office of District Collector in Moga, and a monument has been built at IB Ridge by the Indian Army. ## In popular culture The 2018 biopic Subedar Joginder Singh is based on Singh's life and his action during Sino-Indian War. The lead role was played by Punjabi actor and singer Gippy Grewal.
71,955,308	Keith Taylor-Cannon	1,128,830,698	New Zealand flying ace	[ "1921 births", "1945 deaths", "New Zealand World War II flying aces", "New Zealand military personnel killed in World War II", "Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)", "Royal Air Force pilots of World War II", "Shot-down aviators", "University of Otago alumni" ]	Keith Granville Taylor-Cannon (20 December 1921 – 13 April 1945) was a New Zealand flying ace of the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) during the Second World War. He was credited with the destruction of five German aircraft as well as one V-1 flying bomb. Born in Omakau, Taylor-Cannon joined the RNZAF in April 1941. After completing his flight training, he was posted to the United Kingdom to serve with the Royal Air Force. He was sent to No. 486 Squadron in 1942 and for the next two years flew extensively on a variety of operations. Rested in February 1944, after six months he returned to operational duties with No. 486 Squadron during the RAF's operations to intercept V-1 flying bombs launched at England. Once the threat of the V-1s receded, the squadron flew in support of the Allied advance into the Low Countries and then Germany. He became commander of No. 486 Squadron in February 1945 but was killed two months later after he was shot down while strafing German transport. ## Early life Keith Granville Taylor-Cannon was born on 20 December 1921 in Omakau, New Zealand, to Lewis Lear Taylor-Cannon and Alice Louisa Taylor-Cannon. He was educated at Alexandra District High School, where he was an active sportsman, playing rugby and cricket. He went on to the University of Otago, where he studied at the School of Mines. ## Second World War Still a tertiary student at the time, Taylor-Cannon joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) in April 1941 as an airman pilot with the service number 412284. He received basic training at the Initial Training Wing at Levin, before going to No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School at Taieri in May. He soloed for the first time on 7 June. In July 1941, he embarked for Canada for further flight training. This commenced on 18 August at No. 6 Service Flying Training School near Dunnville. He earned his flying badge in November and was promoted to sergeant. Later that month he embarked for England to serve with the Royal Air Force (RAF). Once in England, Taylor-Cannon was assigned to No. 56 Operational Training Unit for familiarisation on the Hawker Hurricane fighter. ### Service with No. 486 Squadron In March 1942, Taylor-Cannon, nicknamed 'Hyphen', was posted to No. 486 Squadron. This had been formed earlier in the month as the second New Zealand squadron in Fighter Command. It initially operated Hawker Hurricanes from Kirton-in-Lindsey in a night-fighting capacity. However, its regular night-fighting operations were mostly uneventful. It soon moved to Wittering where it was tasked with working in conjunction with No. 1453 Flight. This involved radar-equipped but unarmed Turbinlite aircraft, Douglas A-20 Havoc medium bombers with a searchlight in the nose, locating and illuminating enemy aircraft at which point an accompanying Hurricane could make the attack. These experimental trials with No. 1453 Flight were not particularly successful and were soon abandoned. After a number of weeks the squadron was switched to day-fighters, converting to the Hawker Typhoon. In September, Taylor-Cannon was briefly attached to No. 1529 Beam Approach Training Flight. From October 1942, and now operating from Tangmere, the squadron was regularly flying patrols along the south coast of England, intercepting incoming Luftwaffe Rhubarb missions. The squadron was responsible for the stretch between St Catherine's Point, on the Isle of Wight, and Shoreham. Initially there was little success but following the installation of low-level radar stations at intervals along the coast, earlier detection of incoming raids was possible and results began to improve. On 17 December, Taylor-Cannon and his wingman intercepted two Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter-bombers and he shot down one, his first aerial victory, around 3 miles (4.8 km) south of St Catherine's Point. His wing man destroyed the other Bf 109. His second victory was on 17 January 1943, and was another Bf 109 shot down over the English Channel, 40 miles (64 km) from the Isle of Wight. In April he was commissioned as a pilot officer. With the Luftwaffe easing its sneak raids on England, the RAF tactics changed in the summer of 1943. No. 486 Squadron was now flying offensive operations to occupied Europe, patrolling and attacking shipping. It also escorted fighter-bombers attacking airfields and ports. In addition, during this period the squadron also performed air-sea rescue missions, guiding rescue launches to airmen who had come down in the English Channel. Later in the year the squadron was performing in a fighter-bomber role itself, beginning with an attack on Maupertus Airfield on 25 October. The same month Taylor-Cannon was promoted to flying officer. By February 1944, Taylor-Cannon had flown 256 operations with No. 486 Squadron and, now in the rank of flight lieutenant, was rested with a posting to No. 3 Tactical Exercise Unit in Annan as an instructor. The following month, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) for "gallantry and devotion to duty in the execution of air operations". Taylor-Cannon returned to operational flying with No. 486 Squadron, now equipped with the Hawker Tempest fighter, on 3 August 1944. He was given command of the squadron's 'B' Flight. Because the Tempest was the fastest fighter plane available to the RAF at the time, the squadron was tasked with intercepting German-launched V-1 flying bombs targeting England. Along with No. 3 Squadron, also equipped with Tempests, it formed No. 150 Wing, operating from Newchurch as part of Operation Diver, the British countermeasure program to the V-1s. On 15 August, Taylor-Cannon destroyed a V-1 over southern England. The following month, No. 486 Squadron was sent to Grimbergen in Belgium to join the 2nd Tactical Air Force, where its operations were now in support of the Allied armies as they moved across the Low Countries. Operating as part of No. 122 Wing, the squadron was quickly moved to Volkel Air Base, in Holland. On 19 November, he and Flying Officer Owen Eagleson engaged a Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter taking off from Rheine Airfield and claimed it as probably destroyed. On 26 November, he shared in the destruction of a Junkers Ju 88 medium bomber over Münster. The following month, on 27 December, he shot down a Focke Wulf Fw 190 fighter, also near Münster. ### Squadron command Poor weather affected operations for the first weeks of 1945 but No. 486 Squadron soon began flying well into Germany to attack transportation infrastructure and seek out targets of opportunity. On 15 February, following the death of Arthur Umbers, the commander of No. 486 Squadron, Taylor-Cannon was promoted to squadron leader and appointed to lead the unit. On 24 February he destroyed a Bf 109 to the northeast of Bramsche. In March, he was awarded a Bar to his DFC; the citation published in The London Gazette read: > Squadron Leader Taylor-Cannon has participated in a large number of sorties, and has led his flight and often the squadron with skill and determination, always pressing home his attacks whatever enemy opposition was encountered. The success achieved by the squadron has been mainly due to his brilliant leadership. A typical example of this occurred recently when his formation of seven aircraft was attacked by 30 enemy aircraft. Although outnumbered, Squadron Leader Taylor-Cannon with dauntless courage unhesitatingly led the squadron in to attack. In the ensuing fight he personally destroyed one enemy aircraft of the four brought down by his squadron. The squadron switched tactics at this time; casualties in No. 122 Wing's operations against ground targets had been high and it was decided that the Tempests would now carry out wide ranging sweeps, hunting out the Luftwaffe. No. 486 Squadron flew in support of the crossing of the Rhine on 23 March, dealing with anti-aircraft guns that were firing upon the Allied gliders involved in the operation. From 10 April, the squadron began moving to the Rheine Airfield near Hopsten, within Germany itself. It became operational from there on 12 April. The following day, Taylor-Cannon led a flight of the squadron's Tempests in an attack on a German transport column along the east bank of the Elbe, at Dömitz. His aircraft was hit by flak and he bailed out. According to Jim Sheddan, another pilot with the squadron, Taylor-Cannon's parachute was on fire and he landed heavily. Accounts of what happened next vary; a British prisoner of war reported that Taylor-Cannon was wounded, taken away and subsequently died. Another was that he was murdered by German troops from the transport column that he had attacked. Regardless, despite postwar investigations into how he died, Taylor-Cannon's body was never located. At the time of his death, Taylor-Cannon was credited with having shot down five German aircraft, with one of these shared with another pilot. He is also credited with a share in one aircraft probably destroyed. He is responsible for having destroyed one V-1 flying bomb. With no known grave, he is commemorated on the Runneymeade Memorial at Englefield Green.
68,117,015	Cadet scandal	1,173,726,672	Sex and political scandal in Argentina 1942	[ "1940s in LGBT history", "1942 crimes", "1942 in Argentina", "1942 in military history", "LGBT culture in Buenos Aires", "LGBT history in Argentina", "LGBT people and military service", "LGBT-related political scandals", "Moral panic", "Police raids to LGBT venues", "Political scandals in Argentina", "Political sex scandals", "September 1942 events", "Sex scandals" ]	The cadet scandal (Spanish: escándalo de los cadetes), also known as the Ballvé Case (Spanish: Caso Ballvé), was a sex and political scandal that broke out in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in September 1942, regarding the involvement of young cadets from the Colegio Militar de la Nación in alleged sex parties held by gay men of the upper classes. The main defendant was amateur photographer Jorge Horacio Ballvé Piñero, who held small gatherings in his Recoleta apartment and took erotic pictures of the attendees, which became the main evidence used against him. In 1942, Ballvé Piñero and his group of friends, including Adolfo José Goodwin, Ernesto Brilla, Romeo Spinetto and Sonia—the only woman—among others, started to pick up cadets off the streets for their private parties, with some even developing romantic relationships. An internal investigation in the Colegio Militar de la Nación uncovered the incidents, which resulted in the expulsion, discharge and punishment of 29 cadets. Ballvé Piñero served as a scapegoat for the scandal and was sentenced to twelve years in prison for the charge of "corruption of minors", as he had recently reached the age of majority of 22 years and his lover was only 20 years old. The news of the incident made a great impact on the society and yellow press of Buenos Aires, to the extent that lists of prominent alleged homosexuals were disseminated anonymously among the population, and cadets were regularly ridiculed in the streets. The scandal led to the most violent persecution against gay men in Argentine history up to that point, with a series of police raids and defamations that managed to imprison many homosexuals, led others into exile and resulted in two suicides. Several historians point out that the scandal was used as an excuse for the 1943 coup d'état that put an end to the so-called "Infamous Decade" and had the self-proclaimed objective of "moral sanitation". Under the new regime, the persecution of homosexuals increased, and one of its first policies was the deportation of the Spanish singer Miguel de Molina, an event that was commented on throughout the country. The repression of homosexuality deepened with the rise of Peronism in 1946, although some authors suggest that their relationship was rather ambivalent. The legacy of the scandal has been compared to that of Oscar Wilde's trial in the United Kingdom, the Dance of the Forty-One in Mexico and the Eulenburg affair in Germany, and is considered a turning point in the country's history of homophobia. Nevertheless, the cadet scandal and its ensuing persecution have been historically ignored by historians, and was not reclaimed by the local LGBT culture as the Mexican LGBT community did with the Dance of the Forty-One. In 2019, playwright Gonzalo Demaría became the first person to have access to the case files—the contents of which had been a great source of speculation for Argentine LGBT historians such as Juan José Sebreli, Jorge Salessi and Osvaldo Bazán—and published his research in the first book focused on the scandal the following year. ## Background ### Political and military context The cadet scandal occurred during a complex transitional period of Argentine history, between the end of the so-called "Infamous Decade" and the rise of Peronism, in the context of the Second World War. In 1930, the first coup d'état in Argentine 20th century history established the military regime of nationalist General José Félix Uriburu, which ended the democratic rule of President Hipólito Yrigoyen. Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the so-called "agro-export" economic model of Argentina was strongly impacted, since core countries reduced their purchases of raw materials. Uriburu was a conservative who disbelieved in liberal democracy and the party system, representing an authoritarian elitism that sought to replace democracy with a corporatist regime similar to Italian fascism. Under Uriburu's coup, the cadets from the Colegio Militar de la Nación reached the peak of their prestige, as they marched with Uriburu that day; in fact, the event is sometimes referred to as the Golpe de los Cadetes (English: "Cadet Coup"). The recognition of the cadets was given in the construction of a larger and more opulent headquarters in the neighboring town of El Palomar, in Buenos Aires Province. Uriburu called for presidential elections in 1931, in which officer Agustín Pedro Justo was declared the winner through electoral fraud. Justo was part of the Concordancia (Spanish for "concordance"), a political alliance that included his own National Democratic Party, the Anti-Personalist Radical Civic Union (an anti-Yrigoyen offshoot of the Radical Civic Union) and the Independent Socialist Party. The Concordancia ruled the country until 1943, avoiding the coming to power of the Radical Civic Union through continuous electoral fraud. The Infamous Decade saw the development of a policy of import substitution industrialization, which caused a new wave of immigrants from the interior of the country to Buenos Aires in search of work opportunities. Justo was succeeded as President of Argentina by Roberto María Ortiz in 1938, who died four years later, resulting in the assumption of Ramón Castillo on June 27, 1942. The first documentary evidence regarding accusations of homosexuality in the Argentine Army date back to 1880, when two sixteen-year-old cadets, Felipe Goulou and César Carri, abused several peers. Homosexuality became a main interest for the Argentine Army in 1905, when more than a hundred homosexuals belonging to the German Army were discovered, during the time in which German officers were advisers at the Escuela Superior de Guerra and Argentine soldiers studied in Germany. The following year, there was a homosexuality scandal in the Argentine Army itself, when Captain Arturo Macedo was killed by a gunshot perpetrated by Major Juan Comas, who later tried to commit suicide in an episode regarded at the time as a "crime of passion" that was little concealed by the press. While Uriburu was the de facto president of the country, he "turned a blind eye" to another scandal that this time involved his family, when the Prince George, Duke of Kent, spent a night with his cousin, José Evaristo Uriburu Roca, during an official visit to Buenos Aires alongside his brother, future king Edward VIII. ### Gay culture in Buenos Aires At the turn of the 20th century, Buenos Aires was the site of a Great European immigration wave, becoming a great cosmopolitan city and changing the customs of both the working and upper classes. There was also internal immigration of peasants to the margins of the city, where workers and the underclass coexisted. The criminals of these areas developed their own language, lunfardo, a name which also came to describe its speakers. During this time, the lower-class neighborhoods of Buenos Aires became the place of origin of tango music and dance, which was initially danced between men. The emergence of tango was accompanied by a new male youth subculture, known as compadritos (lit. 'little buddies'), who were criticized as "effeminate" and "amoral" for dancing with other men and for their meticulousness with personal grooming and fashion. In the early 20th century, the main area for gay cruising in Buenos Aires (locally known as yire or yiro) were the gardens of Paseo de Julio street, a wooded area that separated the now demolished Recova building from what is now Alem avenue and the Río de la Plata. This southern neighborhood, known as el Bajo, became a partying place for bohemians, sailors, delinquents and prostitutes. The yire area ran from the Casa Rosada—where the monument Las Nereidas by Lola Mora was inaugurated in 1903—to Temple street, where the Central Station of railways was located. Within el Bajo, the main meeting point for gay men was the white marble statue of Giuseppe Mazzini in the square that, at that time, bore his name. Medical and police documents of the time speak of the presence of homosexuals in the brothels of el Bajo, coexisting peacefully with all kinds of lunfardos. Another popular gay cruising spot in the early 20th century was the Avenida de Mayo avenue—inaugurated in 1894—which was very close to the main yire area of Paseo 9 de Julio's gardens. The yire was organized under the dynamic of categories loca (or marica) and chongo. In the argot developed by Argentine gay male culture—the so-called "language of the locas" (Spanish: "habla de las locas")—the still popular word chongo was used to denote masculine, straight passing men that played the active role. In opposition, loca was the term with which openly effeminate homosexuals called each other. While Buenos Aires was turning into a "melting pot" of immigrants during the late 19th century, the governing elite known as the Generation of '80 sought to modernize the country, taking France as a model. Seeking to control the huge influx of lower-class European immigrants, they implemented a wide-scale state apparatus based on the social hygiene movement, led by doctors José María Ramos Mejía, Francisco de Veyga and José Ingenieros. These hygienists typified the new classes of criminals emerging in Buenos Aires, and were particularly interested in homosexuality. In 1908, criminalist Eusebio Gómez wrote: "The group of homosexuals in Buenos Aires is numerous. They have come to form their own branch of prostitution, because the exercise of their traffic obeys, in an immense majority, not only the desire to satisfy the impositions of their nature, but, very especially, to obtain a profit." The journal Archivos de Psiquiatría, Criminología y Ciencias Afines (English: "Archives of Psychiatry, Criminology and Related Sciences")—edited by de Veyga and Ingenieros—contains the best historical sources on Argentine homosexual life of the beginning of the century. At that time, a group of crossdressing burglars became known, and their biographies and medical profiles written by hygienists constitute one of the first records of gay life in Buenos Aires. The only individuals at the disposal of de Veyga and Ingenieros were prisoners of lunfardo origin (i.e. the underclass), thus creating a cliché that linked homosexuality to criminal life and parodic imitations of women. Although most historical sources focus on homosexuality in the lower classes, the phenomenon was also known to exist in the upper classes, so hygienists proposed the theory that in the former it was congenital, while on the latter it was acquired, mainly by the "perverse" influence of the lower classes. The so-called "aristocrat homosexuality" remained hidden and discreet, being part of a broader decadent-inspired dandy subculture. Between the Belle Époque and the 1940s, Argentine upper-class gay men frequented closed circles of homosexuals in European high society, while at the same time Buenos Aires became a place of refuge for many prominent homosexuals such as Jean-Michel Frank, Federico García Lorca, Witold Gombrowicz and Virgilio Piñera. The middle- and upper-class gay men of Buenos Aires lived with relative ease until 1943. The two most popular areas for yire at that time were the surroundings of Plaza Italia in Palermo and el Bajo, the area of the city that bordered the Río de la Plata, which stretched from Retiro to behind the Casa Rosada, and many English sailors spent their time at the bar Mission to Seamen on Paseo Colón street, where at night they mingled with the locas. By 1941, the lively homosexual nightlife of Buenos Aires included train stations, the port and cabarets frequented by drag queens (known as transformistas) and young male prostitutes. The police only dealt with underclass homosexuals and there even existed some procureurs, older gay men who organized dates in clandestine brothels with poor young men. Up until the sexual revolution of the 1960s, the men of Buenos Aires were homosocial and the city's nightlife was male-exclusive, which gave it the "suspicious air of a city of single men", making it easier for homosexuals to go unnoticed. In the 1930s, the repression of "deviant sexualities" was increased, although homosexuality as such was not criminally prosecuted. Following the 1930 coup d'état, the new authorities started a series of "moralizing" reforms due to their proximity with the Catholic Church, which put an end to the buoyant nightlife of Buenos Aires. In 1932, the first police edict alluding to homosexuality appeared, punishing "finding a subject known to be a pervert in the company of a minor." In this trend, brothels were closed in 1936—as part of the so-called Social Prophylaxis Law (Spanish: Ley de Profilaxis Social)— and censorship began to be implemented with respect to sexual issues in journalism, radio, cinema, theater and literature. This anti-homosexual trend was crowned with the cadet scandal in 1942, which ended the relatively peaceful lives of the middle- and upper-class homosexuals of Buenos Aires. ## Ballvé Piñero's parties Jorge Horacio Ballvé Piñero was born on July 14, 1920, in Buenos Aires, to aristocrat parents Horacio Ballvé Pallejá—a sea captain—and Leonor Piñero Stegmann—who was 18 years his junior. During the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas—who ruled Buenos Aires in the 1830s and 1840s—his mother's German great-grandfather, Klaus Stegmann, amassed a great fortune, with an estate that had thousands of fertile hectares. After the death of her husband in 1925, Piñero Stegmann took five-year-old Jorge and her other two children—Horacio and Héctor—and moved to Paris, France, where they resided throughout his childhood. The only sources about Ballvé Piñero's childhood are an autobiographical account that was included at the closing of his court case and a medical examination carried out by Doctor Oscar Blanchard, who examined him in November 1942, shortly after his incarceration. He returned with his family to Argentina in 1931 and moved to a house in the Recoleta neighborhood. When he was eighteen years old, Ballvé Piñero began to frequent the homosexual scene in the lower-class neighborhoods of Buenos Aires, as he recalled to Doctor Blanchard: "I began to know people and places and to contract vices and customs and all my longings for joys, pleasures and knowledge overflowed in them." He also started experimenting with drugs, including Aktedol (a phosphate stimulant), cocaine and opium. Alarmed by his abuse of the latter, Ballvé Piñero's mother decided to admit him at the Loudet sanatorium in November 1938. Although the original reason was drug addiction, during his hospitalization he underwent medical procedures to try to "cure" his homosexuality, which included applying injectable testosterone to his testicles. In December 1938, he was transferred to the National Colony of the Alienated in Open Door—named for the "open door" system that opposed the prison model of asylums—where he stayed for six months. Ballvé Piñero left the facility in 1939 but was quickly admitted by his mother to the prestigious Chacot sanatorium in Martínez, where he remained another six months treating his homosexuality. In March 1940, Ballvé Piñero abruptly left the Chacot sanatorium after being subjected to insulin shock therapy, a novel treatment for schizophrenia. In early 1941, the 21-year-old Ballvé Piñero went to live with his maternal grandparents on Santa Fe Avenue, where he began, in his own words, "a [new life] of pleasure and freedom in which my sole concern would be for my personal pleasure and my sole purpose to procure it." His social relations changed substantially, leaving his schoolmates behind to hang out with locas, chongos and prostitutes. As part of this new life, Ballvé Piñero started renting a bachelor pad in the city center, and later, following the death of his grandfather, moved altogether to an apartment on 1381 Junín street, in Recoleta. It was there where his amateur photography project took shape, which became one of his biggest hobbies. Ballvé Piñero's photographs were a collection of black-and-white erotic portraits of male models—many of them naked—with detailed handwritten inscriptions of the location and approximate date and details of the model, their job and indications of where they had met. To medical experts from 1941, Ballvé Piñero explained his modus operandi for picking up young men consisted of driving at low speed along Corrientes avenue, between Alem and Esmeralda streets, at two or three in the morning until he found someone that drew his attention. Many chongos frequented the avenue in search of other men, out of need for money or simply for sex. The established discourse maintains that crowded orgies and sex parties were held in Ballvé Piñero's department, which has been dismissed by more recent research as an "urban legend", describing them instead as more or less improvised meetings with dances between several young men, drinks and political discussions. Nevertheless, this type of parties did take place according to various testimonies, including one cross dressing ball—only attended by locas—and another held around 1937 by the so-called "Barón Hell"—German spy Georg Helmut Lenk—in aristocrat Pepo Dose's palace on Avenida Alvear. Celebrations were also held in the houses in the south of Buenos Aires of architect Daniel Duggan and an unidentified man known as Horacio Hercout Zamborain. In Hercout Zamborain's parties, group photographs were purportedly taken by a portraitist known as Prado from photographic studio Estudio Fotográfico F. de Renoir, which was raided after the scandal broke out in September 1942. The tradition of nude photography had arrived to Buenos Aires from the huge market for erotic or openly pornographic postcards that were distributed from France at the beginning of the 20th century. Both the portraitists and their models were generally anonymous, although the investigation sparked by the cadet scandal led to other photographers dedicated to the traffic of postcards for the homosexual public, including the so-called Prado, Ítalo Sala Salas (under the pseudonym "Gil") and Gustavo Torlich. Along with Ballvé Piñero, these men are now regarded as pioneers of homoerotic photography in Argentina. Ballvé Piñero's close group of friends included Adolfo José Goodwin, Ernesto Brilla, Romeo Spinetto and young model Sonia (pseudonym of Blanca Nieve Abratte), the only woman involved. Other mutual friends of the bourgeois circle to which he belonged included Pepe Emery, Raúl Herrán Molina and renowned architect Daniel Duggan. Ballvé Piñero, Goodwin and Spinetto had a fetish for uniforms and started dating cadets through Brilla, with whom they shared a taste for military men. By mid-1942, Mario Indalecio Villafañe and Javier Calvo Reyes joined the group of friends. Between June and July, the young men began to dedicate themselves almost exclusively to seducing cadets, traveling through Santa Fe avenue and using young Sonia to capture their interest in the parties. Ballvé Piñero met his first cadet, Pedro, on the night of June 15, 1942—who had been picked up by Brilla on Corrientes avenue earlier that afternoon—and they soon developed a romantic relationship. Pedro introduced the group of friends to fellow cadets Juan Carlos and Jorge, and they all began to go out together. For his part, Goodwin also began a courtship with cadet Juan Carlos. According to artist Fernando Noy—who got his version from Paco Jamandreu and one of the cadets involved—ten or twelve well-off ladies used to take part in the reunions as "camouflage", interspersed with their designers such as Jamandreu himself, and the cadets invited by Abratte. Once these women left at midnight, the locas arrived to the party in luxury cars—many of them while cross-dressing—to have encounters with the chongos. The guests to the parties were recruited directly or through some procureurs such as Jorge Olchansky (under the pseudonym Celeste Imperio), and also by the young Sonia. Besides Junín street, many of the parties took place at Rómulo Naón's apartment on Beruti street, another upper-class young man. ## Investigation and arrest On June 19, 1942, Pedro's roommate Angelito grew suspicious and decided to spy on Brilla, meeting him and then secretly following him to watch as he seduced other cadets. Then he decided to speak with a superior, corporal Díez, who asked him to collaborate in a discreet investigation. While his partner was away, Angelito searched his wardrobe, finding boxes of chocolates and candies, a gold ring and a money deposit, in packages that had Ballvé Piñero's name written on them. In parallel, after attending a party in Junín street on July 10, two indignant cadets spoke to their superior, sergeant Inchauspe, who decided to attend Ballvé Piñero's upcoming birthday party with them on the 19th to investigate the matter. At the reunion, Inchauspe ended up beating up Spinetto, as he tried to touch his penis in the bathroom, and later brought the facts to the attention of the superiors of the Colegio Militar de la Nación. Earlier versions—such as a contemporary account by La Nación—attributed the outbreak of the scandal to an alleged extortion of some cadets with Ballvé Piñero's photographs, something that was recently confirmed to be false by not appearing in the case files, besides that he was a rich man that willingly gifted money and gifts to the cadets. On August 21, first lieutenant Noms wrote a report with the data collected by Inchauspe and, that same day, the Federal Police carried out a raid on Ballvé Piñero's department, where they confiscated 121 photos involving cadets, which had the direct consequence of the expulsion, discharge and punishment of those involved. On September 2, colonel Daul signed an order in which nine cadets were expelled, six were discharged, and fourteen others were punished with varying amounts of days of arrest. A second raid on Ballvé Piñero's department took place on September 3; by then, a complaint before the civil justice had just been filed by three upper-class men— Fernando Cullen, Andrés Bacigalupo Rosende and Franklin Dellepiano Rawson—who formalized a lawsuit for corruption of minors, taken by prosecutor Luciano Landaburu and investigating judge Narciso Ocampo Alvear. Ballvé Piñero was arrested on September 6. He served as a scapegoat, and was presented as the "head of the gang", with any new case of homosexuality in the armed forces being added to his file. The role of Ballvé Piñero in the cadet scandal was such that it was known as the "Ballvé Case" (Spanish: "Caso Ballvé"), both by the press and by the prosecutors. Tabloid Ahora, for instance, dedicated an extensive article in which all the blame fell on him. ## Impact ### Society and politics The scandal broke out in September 1942 and made a great impact on Argentine society, causing a moral panic. By September 11, the rumor had begun to spread around the general public, which speculated the identities of the men involved. Cadets became the object of regular homophobic ridicule by civilians, so they began to go out dressed without their uniform. As a result, the Ministry of War (Spanish: Ministerio de Guerra) issued a resolution that forced them to publicly wear the uniform despite any incident, and to "not tolerate any joke that would injure military honor." On the night of September 26, a large street fighting occurred in the city center between cadets and civilians and, the following week, they came out in small groups ready to attack anyone who insulted them, badly injuring a young man. On October 2, a revue play titled ¡Para Río me voy! premiered at the Maipo theatre, which included a number parodying the scandal. Both in its premiere and in the following function, there were physical fights between cadets and civilians, an altercation that was not disclosed by the press. Argentine society interpreted the cadet scandal as evidence of an increase in homosexuality, supposedly caused by the closure of brothels, which did not allow men to satisfy their "sexual instincts". In addition, it was believed that the coexistence and confinement of people of the same sex in closed places favored the expansion of homoerotic practices. Researchers Karina Inés Ramacciotti and Adriana María Valobra note that the scandal "had a symbolic impact, accentuating a past homophobia and questioning the effectiveness of [the Social Prophylaxis Law]." Influenced by this, de facto president Edelmiro Julián Farrell enabled the operation of brothels in the vicinity of military barracks in 1944. News of the scandal broke out in the press on October 30 and 31, 1942, and divided it among those who did not dare to publish more than a short paragraph full of euphemisms and, on the other hand, sensationalist, yellow journalism illustrated with fictitious photos. Both the police and the press made reference to a "secret sect" of homosexuals that sought to corrupt the youth and especially the members of one of the "most prestigious institutions" of the country. The newspaper La Prensa—which until then had barely allowed the mention of homosexuality in its pages—was specially entertained by the case and set the precedent for how the Argentine press would present homosexuality for the rest of the 20th century, solely through scandal. Tabloid Ahora—controlled by nationalist militaries—took advantage of the case to attack not only the Conservative Party, but democracy itself. Several writers consider that the cadet scandal served as one of the justifications for the military coup d'état that took place nine months later on June 4, 1943, which had the self-proclaimed objective of "moral sanitation" and promoted the idea of a "corrupt oligarchy". Most historians agree that the military secret society United Officers Group (Spanish: Grupo de Oficiales Unidos; GOU) played a decisive role in both the organization of the coup and the military government that emerged from it. Historians Omar Acha and Pablo Ben claim that: "the [cadet] scandal was soon neutralized and had no role in legitimizing the coup d'état of June 1943." Acha and Ben point out that even though the criticism of the "corruption" of politicians and the defense of morality are mentioned in GOU's documents, the "sexual invert" accusation was only used following the coup, within the internal struggles of the military sectors, in which the group sought to displace an official from the Ministry of Justice and Public Instruction (Spanish: Ministerio de Justicia e Instrucción Pública). The GOU wanted to evict politicians who had built an "immoral" state and had "prostituted" the Armed Forces. Soon, this image of an indecent state associated with a corrupt political class became established under the concept of "Infamous Decade", with which the previous government began to be described as. ### Ensuing gay persecution The outbreak of the scandal led to the most violent raid against homosexuals in Argentine history up to that point, an episode widely ignored by historians. The great raid managed to arrest men of great social prestige, while three of the participants—Naón, Ostwald and Subercaseaux—managed to go into exile in Montevideo, Uruguay until the penalty was outlawed. In the two weeks that followed Ballvé Piñero's arrest, the rest of the "gang" were captured one by one. Goodwin was apprehended the same day as his friend, while Spinetto and Naón were arrested the following day on September 7, 1942. On September 9, Brilla, Villafañe and Calvo testified at the Palace of Justice and were arrested immediately after. Judge Ocampo ordered the search for the people who appeared in Ballvé Piñero's photographs, as well as those mentioned by the other detainees in their testimonies. In particular, they were looking for men who played the passive sexual role—known as "inverts"—while the active ones—not condemned by society for exercising penetration—were only questioned to reach more of them. The charge of corruption of minors has been described as a "subterfuge to hide the persecution of gay men", as main defendant Ballvé Piñero did not reach the age of majority (which, at the time, was 22 years old) until July and in some cases the alleged corrupted were not only of legal age but also older than the alleged corrupters. The judges pressured those arrested to delate and divulge the names of other homosexuals in order to find them. During the testimonies, several high-ranking figures in business, arts, the armed forces and the executive and judicial systems were mentioned, including Hernán Pacheco Bosch, Alejandro Lamarca Martínez de Hoz and Miguel Cullen Crisol, with the latter two only being cited to give a testimonial statement. Many of the men mentioned in the prosecution ended up with preventive detention, including writer Carlos Zubizarreta, Miguel Ángel Bres Miranda, Raúl Padilla and choreographer Rafael García. A secret session was held in the Senate on September 17, where a special commission was formed to investigate homosexuals, made up of the person who had requested the formation of the commission, Sánchez Lago, plus González Iramaín and future candidate for the presidency in 1946, Radical Civic Union's José Tamborini. On November 6, 1942, the prosecutor Landaburu raised his request for preventive detention to Ballvé Piñero, Goodwin, Spinetto, Villafañe, Calvo Reyes, Brilla, Sonia, Olchansky Horacio Alberto Arata, Andrés Augusto Lucantis and Carlos Podestá Méndez for the charges of "corruption of minors and illicit association"; as well as to Naón, Duggan, Eduardo Crempien, Barón Hell, Miguel ÁngelBres Miranda, Rafael Ponferrada, Rafael Edmundo García, Horacio Alberto Cabrera, Raúl Padilla, Fernando Emery, Juan Bautista Mihura, Alberto Ricardo Frías, Ítalo Sala Salas, Walter Cabeza Serrano and Horacio González for "corruption of minors". He also requested the capture of some fugitives, such as Guillermo Simón Ostwald or Raúl Herrán Molina, as well as new rounds of statements and the location of various witnesses. Judge Ocampo decided three days later, ratifying the prosecutor's requests and aggravating Naón's situation by including him in the first group. The judge's resolution does not refer at any time to the crimes involved, but simply to homosexuality, and has been described as "worthy of appearing in histories and studies on gender issues in the country and even in the world." Among the only defense pleas to openly defend homosexuality was that of Spinetto's attorney—Horacio Monje—who cited Marcel Proust's Sodom and Gomorrah and André Gide's Corydon, claiming that homosexuals suffer from an innate and therefore not punishable disease. In 1944, Brilla's lawyer Eduardo Howard made similar statements. At the end of March 1943, the case passed from the hands of investigating judge Ocampo to those of sentencing judge Aquileo González Oliver. On March 3, 1944, the new prosecutor of the case Roberto Ferández Speroni requested the following penalties: two years of prison for Padilla and Emery; two years and six months for Lenk; three years for Sonia, Arata, Calvo, Naón, Villafañe, Bres Miranda, Crempien, Mihura, Duggan and García; three years and six months for Podestá Méndez; four years for Lucantis and Sala Salas; five for Olchansky; eight for Goodwin; twelve for Brilla and eighteen for Ballvé Piñero, whom he considered the "central axis of this true organization." For his role as host of parties, Duggan was one of the main targets of the case. Footballer Jose Manuel "Charro" Moreno was one of the most famous figures questioned by the law, due to his friendship with the architect, who possessed nude photos of him. Moreno stated that the reason for those photos was to exalt his athletic build, and that he had no knowledge of Duggan's homosexuality. It has not been proven that Duggan's relationship with Moreno was sexual in nature. After serving his sentence, Duggan committed suicide. In 1945, Naón escaped from his arrest during a visit to the Palace of Justice, and was not captured again. On June 26, 1947, judge Tolosa Castro dictated his sentence on the Ballvé Case, ordering the following punishments: twelve years in prison for Ballvé Piñero; nine for Brilla; four years and nine moths for Sonia, Arata, Calvo and Villafañe; five years for Goodwin and Podestá Méndez; four years and ten months for Lucantis; six years for Olchansky and Spinetto; and four years and eight months for Bres Miranda. The final sentence was drawn up by Speroni on May 28, 1948, ratifying the sentences handed down by Tolosa Castro and considering those of Sonia, Goodwin and Bres Miranda to be completed. The persecution of homosexuals unleashed in mid-September 1942 intensified in the following years. As soon as the scandal broke out, anonymous prints began to circulate where prominent politicians, officers of the Armed Forces, high prelates, ladies of the high society and professionals were listed as participants in the orgies. In the face of massive rumors, the press published long lists of highly regarded people that allegedly were homosexuals. Roberto Noble—future founder of newspaper Clarín—released a public statement denying his participation in orgies after being mentioned in these lists. Noble was involved in the case due to having an affair with Sonia; the fact that he was not accused of corruption of minors—despite having slept with the 19-year-old—points to the real motive of a homosexual persecution. In 1947, Clarín deleted all reference to Noble when it reported on the Ballvé Case ruling. Adolfo De Bruyn—a 54-year-old aristocrat that was a member of various business and philanthropic societies—committed suicide on December 14 out of public shame. He had not been investigated by the police, but his name was spread by newspaper Crónica in October. The repression of homosexuality increased with the new military regime installed on June 4, 1943, as part of the censorship and control that it exercised over radio broadcasting, periodicals, theater, trade unions and political activity. Although during the rest of 1942 homosexual activities were more closely watched than usual as a result of the scandal, it was the new regime who carried out the first anti-homosexual operation of great repercussion: the deportation of Spanish singer and actor Miguel de Molina, who had settled in Buenos Aires in 1942. During the mid-1930s, de Molina was the most popular actor in Spain, but had to go into exile due to the coming to power of dictator Francisco Franco, after which he began to be attacked for his political ideas and his sexuality. In the port of Buenos Aires, de Molina was farewelled by renowned actresses Iris Marga, Gloria Guzmán and Sofía Bozán, although no men attended due to the stigma of homosexuality. The episode was commented on throughout the country and, for the first time, homosexuality was publicly discussed in all social sectors. Writer Osvaldo Bazán noted that: "The punishment for the cadet scandal and the [deportation] of Miguel [de Molina] sought to discipline the locas of Buenos Aires. Fear did the rest." In 1944—during the de facto government of Pedro Pablo Ramírez—an anti-homosexual science book written by doctor J. Gómez Nerea became a bestseller, which described Argentine homosexuality in the following terms: > It is known that in the literary and artistic environment of Buenos Aires there is a very high percentage of inverts. Actors, poets, renowned politicians [and] magistrates practice the terrible vice, and although society has pointed the finger of stigmatization on them, nothing can be done against them... (...) ... the percentage of sexual inversion among us reaches extremely high figures, perhaps astronomical ones. Not in vain it is heard in foreign countries, especially in neighboring countries, that Buenos Aires disputes the great capitals of the world, Berlin, for example, the first place in terms of the number of homosexuals. (...) ... if we do not enumerate and nominate them, it is simply to avoid the prosecution of a law more aimed at protecting inverts than at repressing or containing their anomaly. In fact, I consider that one of the most appropriate ways to put a shortcut to this evil would be the publication of the names of homosexuals, since this way the youth could be as cautious as they are with the leper and avoid the spread of the vice. One of the first measures taken by the military dictatorship in 1944 was an Internal Regulation of the Armed Forces, the first military public document to explicitly mention homosexuality as a cause for imprisonment and expulsion. In 1952—under the democratic government of Juan Perón—a military law was approved by the Congress where not only the "act" was condemned, but rather simply "being" homosexual was now a cause for discharge. Between 1946 and 1949, the Peronist government closed the cabarets in el Bajo, including the few existing gay bars. In Buenos Aires Province, governor Domingo Mercante banned voting for homosexual political candidates in 1946. The nodal point of the persecution of homosexuality was in the Regulation of Contraventional Procedures, which gave the Federal Police the power to sanction its own laws on security, including homosexuality, which did not exist as a crime in the Penal Code. After collecting testimonies from Argentine travestis over the age of seventy, anthropologist Josefina Fernández found in 2004 that most of them regarded the first period of Perón's government as "the one that most clearly began the persecution of gay men and travestis, whether or not they practiced street prostitution." In those years, travestis (identified at that time as mariconas) began to be regularly imprisoned at the Devoto prison, as "sex offenders." According to Omar Acha and Pablo Ben, the definition of gay men as a singular group was established during Perón's first government, even though the concept of homosexuality that characterized the time was different from the one that prevails today. Adrián Melo characterized Peronism's relationship with homosexuality as "ambiguous", pointing out that it meant a certain relaxation in customs. According to writer Pablo Gasparini: "Peronism seems to have, however, something of a party. The eroticism that arises from this meeting of classes is powerful. The relationship of the middle-class marica with the chongo from the villa not only filled lamentations but also saunas. Personal testimonies show the existence of gay saunas in Buenos Aires in the 1950s, when there were none in New York." The close relationship between first lady Eva Perón—an iconic figure for several gay authors—and her designer Paco Jamandreu is well known, and the latter's memoirs are a testimony of the concealed gay life of the era. ## Legacy Ballvé Piñero's photographs have been reappraised for their artistic merit and as pioneers of homoerotic portraiture. Writing for Soy in 2009, Alejandro Modarelli noted that the scandal opened "ajar the door to a quartered homoeroticism that had not begun to exist then and that did not end that day either." Regarding the persecution that followed the scandal, artist Fernando Noy stated in 2009: "It must have been like a scene from The Damned. What would Visconti not have given to be a witness. With María Luisa Bemberg we began to dream of a film script. But soon after she died, and the idea was frozen." The legacy of the scandal has been related to that of the trial of Oscar Wilde in the United Kingdom, the Dance of the Forty-One in Mexico and the Eulenburg affair in Germany. After drawing a connection between the cadet scandal and these last two, Adrián Melo wrote in Soy magazine in 2019: "Each country has a founding fact and a landmark that represents a turning point in the history of homophobia, which condenses prejudices and scientific, medical and legal knowledge about homosexuality and legitimizes repression." However, Melo also pointed out in another publication that, while the Dance of the Forty-One has been reclaimed by the Mexican LGBT community, the cadet scandal has been historically silenced in Argentina—except for the pioneering researches of Juan José Sebreli and the more recent ones of Jorge Salessi, among others—probably due to the involvement of members from both the Armed Forces and families of the oligarchy. Playwright and researcher Gonzalo Demaría wrote the 2017 play Juegos de amor y guerra, which premiered in Buenos Aires and represents the events of the cadet scandal. In 2019, he received access to the case files—including the infamous photographs—which were long believed to be lost and had been widely sought after by gay journalists and social scientists, including Sebreli, Salessi, Osvaldo Bazán and Alejandro Modarelli. Although the photos of the cadets were destroyed, one of the files attached to the case preserves more than 200 pictures of civilians, most of them from the working class. However, the judge who allowed Demaría to access the files did so on the condition that he did not reproduce the famous photos, due to the possible living relatives of those involved. Following his research, he published the first book focusing on the scandal in February 2020, titled Cacería. In July, it was announced that Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer acquired the rights to the book and intended to make a fiction series inspired by the real event. ## See also - History of homosexuality - History of LGBTQ in journalism - LGBT in Argentina - LGBT rights in Argentina - Sexual orientation and gender identity in military service - Timeline of LGBT history, 20th century
67,758,783	Antonio Dini	1,167,227,649	New Zealand fighter pilot (1918–1940)	[ "1918 births", "1940 deaths", "Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in England", "Military personnel from Christchurch", "New Zealand World War II flying aces", "New Zealand people of Corsican descent", "Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II", "Royal Air Force pilots of World War II", "Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1940" ]	Antonio Simmons Dini (7 January 1918 – 31 May 1940) was a New Zealand fighter pilot and flying ace who flew in the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. He is credited with at least five aerial victories. Born in Christchurch, Dini joined the RAF in 1938. After a period of service on loan to the Fleet Air Arm and then flying with No. 66 Squadron, in early May 1940 he was posted to No. 607 Squadron. Flying a Hawker Hurricane fighter, he destroyed a number of German aircraft during the Battle of France. After returning to England later in the month, he was transferred to No. 605 Squadron. He was killed when his aircraft crashed near Folkestone shortly after taking off for the flight to join his new unit. ## Early life Born on 7 January 1918 in Christchurch, Antonio Simmons Dini was one of seven children of Pietro Antonio Dini and his wife Minnie née Moorhouse. Of Corsican descent, he was educated at Christchurch Technical College after which he found employment at the Post & Telegraph Department. ## Royal Air Force Dini made a successful application to join the Royal Air Force (RAF) on a short service commission with the serial number 40609, leaving for England in December 1937. Dini started flight training early the following year at the de Havilland flying school at Hatfield Aerodrome, proceeded to the RAF station at Uxbridge, and then on to No. 3 Flying Training School at South Cerney. After gaining his wings, Dini was loaned to the Fleet Air Arm, the aviation branch of the Royal Navy, in October 1938. Assigned to the RAF's School of Naval Co-operation operating from Ford in Sussex, he flew Supermarine Walrus amphibious aircraft. His rank of pilot officer was confirmed early the following year. When the school was reorganised on 24 May 1939, Dini was posted to 751 Naval Air Squadron. Just over a week later, he was involved in a fatal incident when, as the pilot of a Walrus, he crashed the aircraft into the sea off Littlehampton. He was the only survivor of the three-man crew and, having being concussed, had no recollection of the crash, with its cause being unable to be determined. ## Second World War By the time of Dini's return to active duty after recovering from the injuries arising from his crash, the Second World War had broken out. On 4 September, he was posted to No. 66 Squadron, which flew Supermarine Spitfire fighters from Duxford. From here it was occasionally scrambled to intercept incoming German aircraft and also carried out patrols over the North Sea. On 1 May 1940, Dini was posted to No. 607 Squadron, which had been sent to France the previous November as part of the Air Component of the British Expeditionary Force. At the time, the squadron, equipped with Hawker Hurricane fighters, was based at Vitry-en-Artois, near Arras. ### Battle of France No. 607 Squadron saw little activity for much of its time in France. However, once the Battle of France commenced on 10 May, Dini was promptly in action. At around 4:15 am, he and two other pilots from his squadron engaged Heinkel He 111 medium bombers that were attacking the airfield at Vitry. He damaged one of the bombers. Dini made three more sorties that day; in the afternoon, he shared in the destruction of a He 111, had sole credit for another shot down He 111 and on his last flight of the day, damaged yet another He 111. Dini helped shoot down another He 111 on 11 May northeast of Brussels and then two days later destroyed a Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter close to Diest. He engaged and claimed to have shot down a Dornier Do 17 medium bomber on 16 May, although this could not be conclusively confirmed. The next day, Vitry was raided again and Dini's Hurricane was damaged during the attack, forcing his return to the airfield. Despite this, later in the day he destroyed a Do 17 bomber east of Cambrai and then shot down two He 111s near Binche, in Belgium. He may have shot down another two Do 17s the following day, but this was unable to be verified. By 22 May, No. 607 Squadron had been withdrawn to England and was reassembling at Croydon. However, on his return to England, Dini was posted to No. 605 Squadron, another Hurricane-equipped unit and based at Hawkinge at the time but about to move to Scotland, where it was to operate from Drem. On 31 May he was killed when he crashed near Folkestone soon after taking off in his Hurricane for the flight to Scotland. He had experienced an engine failure and his aircraft rolled into a dive. He is buried at Hawkinge Cemetery in Kent. According to aviation historians Christopher Shores and Clive Williams, Dini is credited with destroying five enemy aircraft, and shared in the destruction of two more, two damaged, and three inconclusive.
43,005,282	Trial of Thomas Paine	1,084,084,925	Libel trial in England in 1792	[ "1792 in case law", "Thomas Paine", "Trials in the United Kingdom" ]	The trial of Thomas Paine for seditious libel was held on 18 December 1792 in response to his publication of the second part of the Rights of Man. The government of William Pitt, worried by the possibility that the French Revolution might spread to England, had begun suppressing works that espoused radical philosophies. Paine's work, which advocated the right of the people to overthrow their government, was duly targeted, with a writ for his arrest issued on 21 May. Paine fled to France in September since he had been elected a member of the National Convention in France. He was instead represented in absentia by Thomas Erskine, a noted lawyer and orator who was severely criticised by government supporters in the months leading up to the trial. At the trial, Archibald Macdonald, representing the prosecution, argued that Paine's work served only to inflame the populace and distribute radical ideas to those without the experience to understand them in context. Erskine's reply opened with a defence of the freedom of lawyers to represent whichever clients came to them, and it followed with an exposition of his views on the nature of the freedom of the press that argued that the publication of radical tracts served only to improve the government by highlighting its weaknesses and could not be seditious if published in good faith. Despite Erskine's speech later receiving a rapturous response, Paine was found guilty before Macdonald replied. The verdict was seen by the government as legitimising their repression of radicalism, and paved the way for the 1794 Treason Trials, in which Erskine played a prominent role. ## Background ### French Revolution After involving itself in the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War, France found itself financially ruined. Attempts to pass an economic plan to alleviate that in the Estates-General of 1789 led instead to the Third Estate forming the National Assembly. Succeeded, in turn, by the National Constituent Assembly and the Legislative Assembly, the various legislative bodies succeeded in rendering the monarchy constitutional, limited by democratic institutions. Attempts to remove the monarch entirely, although thwarted on 20 June 1792, led to the effective overthrow of Louis XVI on 10 August. On 21 October, France was formally declared a republic. Britain was initially sympathetic to the revolutionaries of France, but the sympathy dissolved with the execution of Louis XVI and was replaced by hostility and a growing schism within the Whigs. While the Foxite branch argued for the Revolution as a source of general liberty, the administration of William Pitt became increasingly repressive, fearing the spread of Jacobinism to the United Kingdom and the overthrow of the government. The split was reflected in the behaviour of the people. While some joined societies dedicated to parliamentary reform, others formed mobs under the banner of "Church and King" and attacked the homes of liberals and those who sympathised with the French Revolution, including that of Joseph Priestley. The Association for Preserving Liberty and Property against Republicans and Levellers was formed and served as "an organised body of private agents engaged in ferreting out sedition wherever it raised its inky head". ### Paine and the Rights of Man Thomas Paine was a noted writer and political theorist whose work had influenced and helped drive the American Revolution. Having returned to England, he decided to write a book, Rights of Man, addressing the arguments of Edmund Burke, a prominent conservative strongly fearful of the French Revolution. The first part was published in 1791 and attracted no attention from Pitt's administration. The second, published on 16 February 1792, advocated, amongst other things, the right of the people to replace their government if they thought it appropriate. The work was an immediate success, selling a million-and-a-half copies, generated public support for various reform movements. It also brought Paine to the attention of the government and made him a subject to its crackdown. While Paine was visiting an aunt in Kent, Pitt had a writ issued against J.S. Jordan, Paine's publisher, prosecuting him for seditious libel, which carried a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. Paine returned to London and began to campaign for Jordan, finding him a lawyer and agreeing to pay his legal fees. Jordan, however, pleaded guilty and turned his files over to the court. With that additional evidence, a writ was issued for Paine on 21 May, charging him with the same crime. His trial date was set for 8 June, and later rescheduled for 18 December. Paine left England before he could be tried since he had been elected a member of the National Convention in France, tasked with writing a new constitution. He departed England on 13 September, never to return, but he further infuriated the government remotely by republishing the Rights of Man and writing Letter Addressed to the Addressors of the Late Proclamation in which he defended his actions and beliefs against those who had chosen to side with the government. Paine was instead represented in absentia by Thomas Erskine, a famous lawyer and orator who served as Attorney General to the Prince of Wales. As the trial date approached, both Erskine and Paine were targeted by vicious personal attacks. Paine's writ was followed by hundreds of loyal addresses, many of which targeted him, the burning of an effigy in Exeter and the banning of the sale of any of his books in Chester. Pamphlets slandering him were widely published, and both Paine and Erskine had their personal lives dug into. ## Trial The trial was finally held on 18 December 1792 in front of the Court of King's Bench. Lord Kenyon presided, with Erskine representing the defence, and the government represented by Archibald Macdonald, John Scott and Spencer Perceval. Macdonald opened for the prosecution, expressing outrage at the publication of the Rights of Man and his concern that it would be made available to so many members of the public who were unfamiliar with political philosophy. He also read excerpts from a letter that Paine had written to him after his arrival in Paris, which contained "everything with which to inflame a jury". He then presented various witnesses, starting with Thomas Haynes, to testify that the works had indeed been published, and following with Thomas Chapman, who had printed the first part of the Rights of Man. Chapman testified that he had intended to print the second part until he came upon a passage that "appeared of a dangerous tendency" and that, after an argument with a drunken Paine, he then returned the book. Erskine offered no evidence, admitting that Paine had written both the Rights of Man and the letter to Macdonald and instead chose to begin speaking. He opened with a statement against those who had pressured him to refuse Paine's case and stated, in a "brilliant exposition of the principles involved", that: > I will for ever, at all hazards, assert the dignity, independence and integrity of the English Bar, without which impartial justice, the most valuable part of the English Constitution, can have no existence. From the moment that any advocate can be permitted to say that he will, or will not, stand between the Crown and the subject arraigned in the court where he daily sits to practise, from that moment the liberties of England are at an end. If the advocate refuses to defend, from what he may think of the charge or of the defence, he assumes the character of the Judge; nay, he assumes it before the hour of judgment; and in proportion to his rank and reputation, puts the heavy influence of, perhaps, a mistaken opinion into the scales against the accused, in whose favour the benevolent principle of English law makes all presumptions. He then moved on to addressing the freedom of the press and the limits on it, arguing that freedom of speech was necessary to identify the flaws in the structure of the government and the constitution, even if the author was mistaken about the flaws. As long as a writer intended only to enlighten others, prohibiting their speech would serve only to undermine the government by harming the opportunities to improve it. While Macdonald had argued that the book was problematic because it was circulated amongst all classes of society, Erskine argued that this was not the test of whether the Rights of Man was seditious. Instead, the test was whether Paine had exclusively dealt with what he believed to be in the best interests of England, its government and its people. While Paine's opinions ran counter to the existing system of government, Erskine argued that "opinion is free and... conduct alone is amenable to the law". For a libel claim to succeed, the Libel Act 1792 required the prosecution to show the publication was motivated by malice. Since Paine had intended only to help mankind, and this was a pure motive, he could not be guilty. Despite the speech, the jury found Paine guilty before Macdonald replied to Erskine's argument. ## Aftermath Although it failed to sway the jury, Erskine's speech was given a rapturous response. After he left the court, he was confronted by a mob that cheered him and shouted, "Damn Tom Paine, but Erskine for ever, and the Liberty of the Press; the King, the Constitution, and Erskine for ever". The crowd proceeded to unhitch the horses from his carriage and carry the carriage (with him inside) to his lodgings at Serjeant's Inn. Over 30 transcripts or reports of the trial were printed, all of which contained Erskine's speech, and many editions emphasised Erskine's name and the theme of his speech on the title pages, using it to sell copies. Other reactions were less positive; William Godwin wrote a letter to Erskine shortly after the trial arguing that his statement that individuals were free to publish works attacking or criticising the Constitution "had a considerable share in prosecuting the verdict of guilty". Paine himself found Erskine's speech and conduct during the trial disappointing, expecting him to do more to defend the principles in the Rights of Man than he had. Pitt's administration took the guilty verdict in Paine's trial as a sign that further prosecutions for sedition were possible and so began many. In the 17 months following the trial, 11 publishers of the Rights of Man were prosecuted, receiving prison sentences of up to four years. They acted as a prelude to the 1794 Treason Trials in which a dozen reformers were indicted for allegedly conspiring to bring about a revolution. Erskine played a prominent role in defending many of them, including Thomas Hardy, John Horne Tooke and John Thelwall, all three of whom were acquitted.
31,254,951	RTL7 Masters	1,089,253,219	2011 professional darts tournament	[ "2011 disestablishments in the Netherlands", "2011 establishments in the Netherlands", "2011 in Dutch sport", "2011 in darts", "Darts in the Netherlands", "Professional Darts Corporation tournaments" ]	The RTL7 Masters (also called the RTL7 International Masters) was a professional darts tournament held at the Hotel Zuiderduin in Egmond aan Zee, Netherlands, between 18 and 21 March 2011. It was the second of the seven non-ranking Professional Darts Corporation (PDC) events in the 2011 season. The competition was created by RTL 7 as a new darts tournament to be staged in the Netherlands and was contested by 12 players: six from the Netherlands and six foreigners in four groups of three. Phil Taylor defeated Raymond van Barneveld by eight legs to three in the final. He achieved the highest average in a televised final of 113.6 points, improving on the record he set in the 2010 Premier League Darts final. Before his match with Van Barneveld, Taylor won his group with victories over Adrian Lewis and Terry Jenkins, beat James Wade in the quarter-finals and Gary Anderson in the semi-finals. ## Background and format RTL 7 established the RTL7 Masters as a new darts tournament to be held in the Netherlands after it acquired the rights of darts from SBS6. On 22 February 2011, RTL 7 announced the tournament would be staged by the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC) at the Hotel Zuiderduin in Egmond aan Zee, from 18 to 21 March. It was the second of seven non-ranking PDC competitions in the 2011 season, and had a total prize fund of €80,000. The tournament would be broadcast live in the Netherlands on RTL 7 with commentary from Albert Mantingh and Jacques Nieuwlaat. A total of 12 players would enter the competition: six from the Netherlands and six from other countries. This would be the first televised darts tournament in the Netherlands to feature non-Dutch players since the 2007 World Darts Trophy. Every match was the best-of-15 legs, and all players were divided into three groups of four. If there was a tie on points in a group, the order would be determined by a game between the tied players. The first quarter-final victor would play the third quarter-final winner in the first semi-final with the second and fourth quarter-final victors in the other semi-final. The order in which the semi-finals would be held would be decided after all four quarter-finals. The final on 21 March would be contested by a Dutchman and a non-Dutch participant. ### Prize fund The breakdown of prize money is shown below: - Winner: €20,000 - Runner-up: €12,000 - Semi-finalists (×2): €8,000 - Quarter-finalists (×4): €5,000 - Group stage (×4): €3,000 - Total: €80,000 ## Group stages Group A took place on 18 March. Co Stompé played the first match against Jelle Klaasen. Tied at 2–2, Stompé took five legs in a row as Klaasen failed to strike a double ring three times. Stompé won the game 8–3 on his sixth try at finishing on the double seven ring. The next match featured Stompé and the 2004 UK Open winner Roland Scholten. Stompé achieved finishes on the double 4 and top rings, a 161 checkout in leg seven and two maximum scores to win 8–1 and qualify for the quarter-finals. The final match of the group was between Klaasen and Scholten. The first ten legs were shared to enter a five-leg shootout. Scholten won 8–5 with finishes on the double 8, 7 and 10 rings in the final three legs to knock out Klaasen and qualify for the quarter-finals. Group B was played on 19 March. The first match was between 15-time world title winner Phil Taylor and Terry Jenkins. Taylor led 3–0 on checkouts of 84 and 124 in legs two and three before Jenkins took leg four on a 100 checkout. Taylor won the next two legs on the double 4 and 20 rings. Jenkins took leg seven in 12 throws and the eighth on a 104 checkout completed on the double 12 ring. Taylor won three of the next four legs to win 8–4. Taylor and world champion Adrian Lewis played the group's second fixture. The first two legs were shared before Taylor took a 4–1 lead. Checkouts of 124 and 100 gave Lewis legs six and seven before Taylor won four of the next five legs to win 8–4 and a quarter-final spot. Both men each made six maximum scores. The final game between Lewis and Jenkins went to 2–2 before the former won three legs in a row to go 5–2 ahead. Jenkins won leg eight after Lewis failed to complete a 103 checkout. Lewis took three more legs to win 8–3 and a quarter-final spot. Group C was staged on the same day. Raymond van Barneveld and the 2007 UK Open runner-up Vincent van der Voort played the group's first game. The match was tied 1–1 and later 4–4 and 5–5 before Van Barneveld won the 11th and 12th legs to lead by two legs. The 13th leg was won by Van Der Voort after Van Barneveld missed three attempts to win the game. Van Barneveld completed a 8–6 victory on the double 20 ring after Van Der Voort failed to hit the bullseye ring. The next group match was between Michael van Gerwen and Van Barneveld. Tied at 2–2, checkouts of 64 and 88 and a 13-dart finish gave Van Barneveld a 5–2 lead. The next two legs were shared before Van Gerwen took legs 10 and 11 on checkouts of 114 and 66. Van Barneveld made a 116 checkout and a 13-dart finish to claim the next two legs for a 8–5 win and a quarter-final entry. Van Der Voort began the final third group match against Van Gerwen by leading 4–1 until the latter won three legs in a row to equal at 4–4. Van Der Voort took four consecutive legs to win 8–4 and reach the quarter-finals. Group D was held on 20 March. Gary Anderson and James Wade played the group's first match, which was tied at 3–3 after six legs. Anderson moved two legs ahead with 12 and 14-dart finishes respectively before Wade finished on the double ten ring in leg nine. Anderson used two misses from Wade on the bullseye ring to claim legs 10 and 11 and achieved a finish of 15 throws in the 12th to win 8–4. Simon Whitlock began Group D's second game against Anderson by winning the first three legs on checkouts of 161 and 165 in legs one and two and hitting the double 16 ring to claim leg three. Anderson took leg four on the double 11 ring. Anderson subsequently won the next six legs to lead 7–3. Whitlock won one further leg and Anderson took an 8–4 victory for entry to the quarter-finals with a finish on the double 10 ring. The final group game was between Wade and Whitlock. The first four legs were shared before Wade won the next four to lead 6–2. Whitlock took legs 9 to 12 to level at 6–6 until legs 13 and 14 were shared to force a final leg decider. Wade won the final leg on the double top ring for a 8–7 victory and the last quarter-final spot. ## Knockout rounds ### Quarter-finals The four quarter-finals took place on 20 March. Stompé played Van Der Voort in the first quarter-final, which was tied at 5–5 after ten legs. Van Der Voort made a maximum score and won the 11th leg on a 36 checkout after Stompé could not strike a double ring. He took leg 12 after Stompé was unable to win it four times before the latter claimed leg 13 on a 106 checkout. Van Der Voort took leg 14 on the double 19 ring to win the first semi-final spot 8–6. The second quarter-final was between Taylor and Wade. Taylor took the first three legs before Wade took two legs in a row to be 3–2 behind. Taylor claimed four more legs and needed one more for victory but Wade made an 83 checkout in leg 10. A missed opportunity for Wade at a 116 checkout allowed Taylor to achieve a 108 checkout and win 8–3. Taylor said while he appeared serious playing Wade he was enjoying the event, adding: "My finishing was superb against James and it had to be because he was coming off the back of a great win against Simon." Scholten and Van Barneveld contested the third quarter-final. The first four legs were shared; Van Barneveld made checkouts of 161 and 170 in legs one and three and Scholten won legs two and four on the double 4 and 20 rings. Van Barneveld achieved finishes on the double 16, 18, 6, 8 and 19 rings to be within one leg of victory. Scholten achieved a 13-dart finish in leg ten before Van Barneveld won the match 8–3 on the double 8 ring. Van Barneveld observed his performance in the competition and said it was important to maintain his finishing in the next round. The last quarter-final was between Anderson and Lewis. The first four legs were won by Lewis and Anderson took the next four to equal at 4–4. Lewis took leg nine on the double 9 ring to retake the lead until Anderson made an 80 checkout to again level. Anderson took the next three legs to earn the last semi-final spot 8–5. He beat Lewis for the first time since 2009 and requited losses to him in the 2011 World Championship final and the 2011 Premier League Darts Glasgow meet. ### Semi-finals and final Both of the semi-finals were held on 21 March. The first semi-final was between Van Barneveld and Van Der Voort. Van Barneveld won the first four legs from an 89 checkout, a finish on the double 20 ring, an 86 checkout and a finish on the double 8 ring. Van Der Voort ended the streak in leg five with a finish on the double 16 ring after Van Barneveld twice failed to hit the double 12 ring. The sixth leg was won by Van Barneveld on the double 20 ring in 13 throws and the seventh by Van Der Voort on the double 10 ring. Van Barneveld took three legs in a row to win 8–2 and enter the final. The other semi-final was between Anderson and Taylor. Both players shared the first six legs of the match. Taylor took leg seven on the double 16 ring after Anderson failed to hit the bullseye ring for a 130 checkout. Taylor took a two-leg lead on the double 20 ring in leg eight and consecutive finishes on the double 8 ring in legs nine and ten before Anderson took leg 11 on the double 20 ring. Taylor won the match 8–4 at his fourth try at hitting the double 9 ring to qualify for the final. The final between Taylor and Van Barneveld was held that same day. Taylor achieved a maximum score before Van Barneveld won the first leg with an 80 checkout completed in two throws. Van Barneveld made the checkout after Taylor failed to finish on the double 20 ring. Taylor tied the match with a 11-dart finish completed on the double 20 ring and took the lead with a finish on the double 16 ring in 14 throws. He achieved an 89 checkout in 11 throws to increase his lead before Van Barneveld clinched leg five on the double 16 ring. Taylor won the following three legs to go 6–2 ahead. Van Barneveld won the ninth leg on the double 17 ring in 14 throws after Taylor failed to complete a 167 checkout on the bullseye ring. Taylor made an 84 checkout in leg 10 and finished on the double 18 ring in the 11th to win the match 8–3. Taylor earned €20,000 prize money for winning the tournament, and achieved a 113.6-point three-dart average, the highest for the final of a televised event. He improved on the 111.67 average over Wade in the 2010 Premier League Darts final. It was Van Barneveld's seventh loss in a row to Taylor in the final of a competition. Taylor said he was pleased to win the event and enjoyed the final with Van Barneveld because it showed his best traits, adding: "The key leg was the sixth when Raymond missed two darts to take out 98, and after that I dug in and got the job done. I've really enjoyed the tournament and it's a great way to finish." ## Draw and results The players highlighted in bold text in the table indicate who progressed to the quarter-finals. Players in bold to the right of the tables denote match winners. ### Group A - Co Stompé (NED) 87.57 8 – 3 Jelle Klaasen (NED) 87.59 - Roland Scholten (NED) 87.07 1 – 8 Co Stompé (NED) 95.47 - Jelle Klaasen (NED) 87.13 5 – 8 Roland Scholten (NED) 83.48 ### Group B - Phil Taylor (ENG) 106.69 8 – 4 Terry Jenkins (ENG) 98.72 - Adrian Lewis (ENG) 108.78 4 – 8 Phil Taylor (ENG) 113.92 - Terry Jenkins (ENG) 94.08 3 – 8 Adrian Lewis (ENG) 100.76 ### Group C - Raymond van Barneveld (NED) 97.63 8 – 6 Vincent van der Voort (NED) 95.88 - Michael van Gerwen (NED) 97.65 5 – 8 Raymond van Barneveld (NED) 103.31 - Vincent van der Voort (NED) 93.46 8 – 4 Michael van Gerwen (NED) 94.96 ### Group D - Gary Anderson (SCO) 94.91 8 – 4 James Wade (ENG) 88.60 - Simon Whitlock (AUS) 99.00 4 – 8 Gary Anderson (SCO) 104.73 - James Wade (ENG) 97.51 8 – 7 Simon Whitlock (AUS) 94.96 ### Knockout rounds Figures given to the left of player's names state their finishing position in a group. The figures in brackets to the right of a competitor's name are their three-dart averages in a match. Players in bold denote match winners.
59,837,968	Vailuluʻu	1,167,454,527	Volcanic seamount in the Samoa Islands	[ "Calderas of Oceania", "Eastern Samoan Volcanic Province", "Submarine calderas", "Submarine volcanoes", "Volcanoes of American Samoa" ]	Vailuluʻu is a volcanic seamount discovered in 1975. It rises from the sea floor to a depth of 593 m (1,946 ft) and is located between Taʻu and Rose islands at the eastern end of the Samoa hotspot chain. The basaltic seamount is considered to mark the current location of the Samoa hotspot. The summit of Vailuluʻu contains a 2 km wide, 400 m deep oval-shaped caldera. Two principal rift zones extend east and west from the summit, parallel to the trend of the Samoan hotspot. A third less prominent rift extends southeast of the summit. Eruptions at Vailuluʻu were recorded in 1973. An earthquake swarm in 1995 may have been related to an eruption from the seamount. Turbid water above the summit shows evidence of ongoing hydrothermal plume activity. Vailuluʻu may breach the surface of the ocean and officially become an island if a high rate of eruptions continue. ## Name and research history The seamount was first discovered in 1975 after seismic activity, including earthquakes, was noted in the area and was originally known as either Rockne Volcano or Faʻafafine seamount. The name Vailuluʻu refers to a sacred rain that supposedly fell with every gathering for the Tui Manuʻa, the paramount chief of the Manuʻa Islands. It was coined by the American Samoa student Taulealo Vaofusi, the winner of a naming competition, and assigned in 2000. The Nafanua cone is named after a Samoan war goddess, Nafanua. Today the seamount is part of the National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa. ## Geography and geomorphology Vailuluʻu is located east of American Samoa; the easternmost island Taʻu is located 43 kilometres (27 mi) west of Vailuluʻu. Even farther west lie Ofu-Olosega and Muli, while Malumalu Seamount is located south of Ofu-Olosega. Rose Atoll and Malulu Seamount are located southeast from Vailuluʻu. Vailuluʻu is a conical seamount and reaches a depth of 593 metres (1,946 ft) and features a 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) wide and 0.4 kilometres (0.25 mi) deep crater; the shallowest part of the seamount is located on the western crater rim which has a scalloped appearance. Two additional summits and three breaches can be found in the crater rim; the deepest breach lies in the southeast and is 795 metres (2,608 ft) deep. The seamount has a star-like shape, with two prominent ridges east and west and a somewhat less prominent ridge south of the volcano; it also features smaller ridges at its foot and amphitheatre-shaped scars from landslides. The total volume of the volcano is estimated to be about 1,050 cubic kilometres (250 cu mi) and its height above the seafloor is comparable with that of major isolated volcanoes such as Fuji, although much smaller than compound volcanic islands such as Hawaii. The seafloor around Vailuluʻu lies at a depth of about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi); the foot of the seamount has a diameter of about 35 kilometres (22 mi). A saddle at a depth of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) depth connects it to Taʻu. A 300 metres (980 ft) high cone in the crater bears the name Nafanua, and formed in 2004 in the western half of the crater. Prior to the formation of the cone, the crater contained several pit craters; it is possible that the crater was once occupied by a higher cone, which might have risen to shallow depths. The Nafanua cone consists mostly of pillow lavas. ### Hydrothermal vents Hydrothermal vents are found at a number of sites within the crater with varied characteristics, including high and low temperature vents. The bulk of the venting occurs through the a complex known as the Northern Moat Hydrothermal Complex and reaches temperatures of 80 °C (176 °F), while another complex, called the South Wall Fe Chimney, vents water with temperatures of 20 °C (68 °F) in massive vents. The hydrothermal activity influences the waters within the crater, making them turbid and warmer than the water in the free ocean. Low temperature hydrothermal vents are found on the western ridge of Vailuluʻu as well. The hydrothermal fluids vented at the Northern Moat Hydrothermal Complex appear to be rich in sulfides, and droplets of carbon dioxide have been observed in the vented fluids. Particles emitted by the vents in some places reduce visibility underwater to less than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), and the vented fluids are subject to complicated buoyancy, ocean current and mixing processes once they enter the seawater. The total flow is estimated at 0.13 cubic kilometres per day (1,500 m<sup>3</sup>/s). The total power of the hydrothermal system is estimated to be 610-760 megawatts and it forms substantial hydrothermal plumes in the crater; the altered water extends some distance from the volcano. ## Geology Vailuluʻu lies at the eastern end of the Samoan volcanic chain and is considered to be the present-day location of the Samoa hotspot; this interpretation is based on both the position of the seamount and the isotope ratios of rocks taken from it. Young rock ages have also been observed on Malumalu Seamount, implying that the hotspot is currently feeding both volcanoes and forming two separate volcanic chains. These two volcanoes are the endpoints of two separate volcano lineaments in the Samoa islands. Samoa is located just northeast of the northern corner of the Tonga Trench, where the Pacific Plate is subducting. This proximity to the trench is probably the reason why the older volcanic islands all display recent volcanic activity, such as activity from 1905 to 1911 on Savaii and originally led to proposals of a non-hotspot origin of the Samoa islands. However, the islands' formation shows an eastward trend and evidence of age progression, which has been interpreted as reflecting an age progressive chain of volcanoes that begins at Vailuluʻu and at Malumalu Seamount. The Malulu Seamount and Rose Island east of Vailuluʻu do not appear related to the Samoa hotspot system,. On the other side of the volcanic chain are the seamounts Lalla Rookh Bank, Combe Bank and Alexa Bank which are older products of the Samoa hotspot. The origin of the Samoan volcanic chain has been explained with either a hotspot influenced by the Tonga Trench or by cracking of the Pacific crust; today the preferred theory is that the Samoan chain is a hotspot-generated volcanic chain while the "anomalous" younger volcanism is produced through an interaction between the islands and the Tonga Trench and a neighboring transform fault. This hotspot is under the influence of the mantle flows triggered by the Tonga Trench, which distort the rising plume and also changes its upwelling flux. This interaction has only begun recently. ### Composition Alkali basalts and picrites have been dredged from the volcano. The volcanic rocks on Vailuluʻu reflect a magma suite called "end-member magma type 2" (EM2) although there are noticeable differences between the geochemistries of various volcanic units at Vailuluʻu. Evidence of hydrothermal alteration includes quartz in rock samples. Iron oxide chimneys with sizes measured in centimetres to metres have been formed by low temperature hydrothermal venting. A total mass flux of 5.5 tonnes per day (0.063 long ton/ks) of manganese has been estimated. Hydrothermal sulfide and oxide deposits may become targets for mining. ## Biology Various bacteria live on Vailuluʻu, including in microbial mats on basalts, which are related to bacteria from Tangaroa Seamount in the Kermadec Ridge, Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount in Hawaii and in the East Pacific Rise. A number of mostly pigmented yeasts and other fungi have been identified in deposits from the Nafanua Cone and in iron mats and might play important roles in the ecosystems of Vailuluʻu. Microbial mats with thicknesses of 2–4 centimetres (0.79–1.57 in) (though possibly thicker in depressions) have been found at Vailuluʻu; they often contain iron hydroxide/iron oxide deposits. The widespread production of siderophores by microorganisms may not only serve to make iron available to them but also to reduce the trapping of the organisms within iron oxides. Sulfur, manganese and iron may serve as electron donors in organism metabolism at Vailuluʻu; hydrogen sulfide, iron, manganese and methane-oxidizing Gammaproteobacteria have been encountered. Demosponges have been observed in breaches of the crater rim and presumably rely on incoming nutrient-rich water from the ocean, while crinoids, gorgonians, ophiuroids and sponges have been found on the western rift zone of Vailuluʻu. In non-hydrothermal areas, echinoderms, octocorals and sponges dominate the surfaces, and crabs, eels, octocorals and octopuses have been observed in the summit areas. The eel populations have given that part of the volcano the nickname "Eel City"; the eels subsist on food species transported by ocean currents, such as crustaceans. There are differences between the animal fauna in various parts of the volcano. For example, the oxygenated waters and availability of shrimp as food source attract eels to the summit of Nafanua, while the crater floor displays a high animal mortality and is called the "moat of death"; polychaetes feeding on dead fish have been found on the crater floor. This is due to the very low availability of oxygen for respiration at the crater floor, unlike at the summit of Nafanua cone. ## Eruption history Vailuluʻu is an active volcano, with earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and hydrothermal activity recorded. In particular, the seamount is a site with common earthquakes in this otherwise mostly aseismic part of the Pacific Plate and away from the earthquakes of the Tonga Trench, recording an average 4 earthquakes per day. Seismic swarms were observed in 1973 and 1995; an earthquake swarm took place in 2000. The hypocentres of these earthquakes appear to coincide with the hydrothermal areas and the earthquakes correlate with the southeastern ridge, which is a rift zone. Disequilibria in thorium and uranium isotopes of rock samples taken from the seamount indicate that Vailuluʻu was frequently active in the last 8,000 years and that eruptions within the summit crater took place in the last hundred years. Dredge samples showed fresh rocks; radiometric dating produced ages of less than ten years according to 1984 and 1999 publications. The seismic swarm in 1973 appears to have been a major submarine eruption. The last eruption, between 2001 and 2004, went unobserved and formed the Nafanua volcanic cone; for the most part, the shape of the volcano has not changed over time. Repeated eruptions like the one that formed Nafanua could cause Vailuluʻu to emerge from the sea. The summit of Vailuluʻu is shallow enough that explosive eruptions may occur which can affect coastal communities and ships. It appears that isostatic effects from the growth of the seamount may have altered shorelines on Tutuila. ## Gallery
944,549	Minor v. Happersett	1,166,161,417	null	[ "1875 in Missouri", "1875 in United States case law", "History of St. Louis County, Missouri", "History of voting rights in the United States", "Legal history of Missouri", "Missouri elections", "Privileges or Immunities case law", "United States Supreme Court cases", "United States Supreme Court cases of the Waite Court", "Women's suffrage in the United States" ]	Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 162 (1875), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that, while women are no less citizens than men are, citizenship does not confer a right to vote, and therefore state laws barring women from voting are constitutionally valid. The Supreme Court upheld state court decisions in Missouri, which had refused to register a woman as a lawful voter because that state's laws allowed only men to vote. The Minor v. Happersett ruling was based on an interpretation of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court readily accepted that Minor was a citizen of the United States, but it held that the constitutionally protected privileges of citizenship did not include the right to vote. The opinion infamously concluded with the poorly crafted statement that "...the Constitution of the United States does not confer the right of suffrage upon anyone". This was clarified in Ex parte Yarbrough 110 U.S. 651 (1884) stating that "the Constitution adopts as the qualification for voters of members of Congress that which prevails in the State where the voting is to be done; therefore... the right is not definitely conferred on any person or class of persons by the Constitution alone, because you have to look to the law of the State for the description of the class. But the court did not intend to say that when the class or the person is thus ascertained, his right to vote for a member of Congress was not fundamentally based upon the Constitution." The Nineteenth Amendment, which became a part of the Constitution in 1920, effectively overruled Minor v. Happersett by prohibiting discrimination in voting rights based on sex. Minor v. Happersett continued to be cited in support of restrictive election laws of other types until the 1960s, when the Supreme Court started interpreting the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause to prohibit discrimination among citizenry in voting rights. ## Background Virginia Minor, a leader of the women's suffrage movement in Missouri, attempted to register to vote on October 15, 1872, in St. Louis County, Missouri, but was refused on the grounds that she was a woman. With the assistance of her husband, Francis Minor (a lawyer), she brought an action in state courts against Reese Happersett, the registrar who had rejected her application to register to vote, alleging that the provisions of the Missouri state constitution which allowed only men to vote were in violation of the United States Constitution, and specifically the Fourteenth Amendment. The key to the Minors' argument was that citizenship entailed voting rights—an assertion with enough rhetoric on both sides to make it an open question. The Missouri Supreme Court ruled in favor of the registrar and against Minor. The state court observed that the "almost universal practice of all of the States ... from the adoption of the Constitution to the present time" was to restrict voting rights to men only; and, additionally, that the clear intent of the Fourteenth Amendment was to give the rights of citizenship to the former slaves, and not to force other changes in state laws. The court noted, in particular, that the second section of the Fourteenth Amendment (penalizing states which denied the right to vote to any of its citizens) referred specifically to male citizens, and concluded that "this clearly recognizes the right, and seems to anticipate the exercise of the right, on the part of the States to restrict the right of suffrage to the male inhabitants." Minor appealed the Missouri ruling to the United States Supreme Court, presenting the same arguments before the Supreme Court as had been unsuccessfully put forth before the state court, and additionally proposing that women's suffrage was consistent with the original intent of the framers of the Constitution. The Supreme Court observed that the sole point at issue was whether the Constitution entitled women to vote despite state laws limiting this right to men only. The State of Missouri did not send counsel to defend its decision before the Supreme Court, choosing instead to justify its decision in a three-sentence demurrer. The case was argued on February 9, 1875 and decided March 29, 1875. ## Opinion of the Court The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the Missouri voting legislation, saying that voting was not an inherent right of citizenship, that the Constitution neither granted nor forbade voting rights for women, and that allowing only male citizens to vote was not an infringement of Minor's rights under the Fourteenth Amendment. The opinion (written by Chief Justice Morrison Waite) first asked whether Minor was a citizen of the United States, and answered that she was, citing both the Fourteenth Amendment and earlier common law. Exploring the common-law origins of citizenship, the court observed that "new citizens may be born or they may be created by naturalization" and that the Constitution "does not, in words, say who shall be natural-born citizens." Under the common law, according to the court, "it was never doubted that all children born in a country of parents who were its citizens became themselves, upon their birth, citizens also. These were natives, or natural-born citizens, as distinguished from aliens or foreigners." The court observed that some authorities "include as citizens children born within the jurisdiction without reference to the citizenship of their parents"—but since Minor was born in the United States and her parents were U.S. citizens, she was unquestionably a citizen herself, even under the narrowest possible definition, and the court thus noted that the subject did not need to be explored in any greater depth. The court then asked whether the right to vote was one of the "privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States" at the time of the Fourteenth Amendment's adoption in 1868. Citing a variety of historical sources, it found that it was not. The court reasoned that the Constitution of the United States did not explicitly give citizens an affirmative right to vote and that, throughout the history of the nation from the adoption of the Constitution, a wide variety of persons—including women—were recognized as citizens but denied the right to vote. For example, at the time of the adoption of the Constitution, none of the original Thirteen Colonies gave all citizens the right to vote, all attaching restrictions based on factors such as sex, race, age, and ownership of land. The opinion continues that "it cannot for a moment be doubted that if it had been intended to make all citizens of the United States voters, the framers of the Constitution would not have left it to implication. So important a change in the condition of citizenship as it actually existed, if intended, would have been expressly declared." ## Subsequent history The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1920, prohibited sex-based denial or abridgment of any United States citizen's right to vote—thus effectively overruling the key holding in Minor v. Happersett. In some later voting rights cases, however, Minor was cited in opposition to the claim that the federal Constitution conferred a general right to vote, and in support of restrictive election laws involving poll taxes, literacy tests, and the role of political parties in special elections. In the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In a dissenting opinion of a 1964 Supreme Court case involving reapportionment in the Alabama state legislature, Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II included Minor in a list of past decisions about voting and apportionment which were no longer being followed. ## See also - Women's suffrage in the United States - List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 88
3,964,955	Salil Ankola	1,171,631,570	Indian cricket player	[ "1968 births", "Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series) contestants", "Cricketers at the 1996 Cricket World Cup", "Cricketers who have acted in films", "India One Day International cricketers", "India Test cricketers", "Indian cricketers", "Living people", "Maharashtra cricketers", "Mumbai cricketers", "People from Solapur", "West Zone cricketers" ]	Salil Ashok Ankola (; born 1 March 1968) is a former international cricketer who played one Test match and 20 One Day Internationals (ODIs) from 1989 to 1997 for India. A right-arm fast-medium bowler, he played first-class cricket for Mumbai, regularly opening the bowling. Ankola's consistency for Mumbai team earned him a spot for representing India during their tour of Pakistan in 1989–90. After the first Test match at Karachi, he was dropped for the subsequent matches in the series owing to injuries. After a brief phase of playing first-class cricket, Ankola was called for the Indian ODI team during 1993, eventually led to being a part of the 1996 Cricket World Cup. His reputation as a poor fielder, resulted in being dropped from the side after subsequent series. At 28, Ankola retired from international cricket to pursue acting. Since then he went on to appear in a number of Indian soap operas and a few Bollywood movies. In 2020, he was selected as the chief selector of the Mumbai Cricket Association. ## Cricketing career ### Early achievements Born in 1968 into a south Indian Konkani-speaking family which hails from the town of Ankola in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, Salil Ankola made his first-class debut at the age of 20 for Maharashtra in 1988–89. Playing against Gujarat he scored 43 runs and took a six-wicket haul (six wickets in an innings) that included a hat-trick. He followed with another six-wicket haul; six wickets for 51 runs in an innings against Baroda. Overall, he collected 27 wickets at an average of 20.18 including three five wicket hauls during the season. Owing to the consistent performances during the season, Ankola caught the attention of the selectors, as he was selected for the India's tour of Pakistan in 1989–90. In a warm up match against BCCP Patron's XI he took six wickets for 77 runs in the first innings and collecting two more wickets in the second innings, thus taking his tally to eight wickets. ### First class cricket Ankola made his Test debut during the first test of the tour at Karachi, alongside Sachin Tendulkar and Waqar Younis, both would go on to become successful cricketers later in their careers. In a match that was drawn, Ankola took two wickets for 128 runs. Injuries sustained thereafter and prevented him from appearing in the remaining Tests of the series. Soon after the Test series, that was drawn, Ankola was called for the ODI series. He made his ODI debut in the second of the three-match series; the first ODI was abandoned due to bad lights. Ankola picked up two wickets conceding 26 runs. He arrived at number 10 in the second innings at a stage where India needed 15 runs of one over. Ankola hit a six of the first ball that he faced off Imran Khan but eventually ended on the losing side. In the next match, he bowled just 2.3 overs (15 balls) before the match was called off due to crowd disruption. Despite being selected in the Test squads on domestic series and overseas tours, he never got an opportunity to play for the team. Being dropped from the team without getting a game was known in cricket circles as being "Ankolad". However, Ankola continued to play ODI cricket. In the early 1990s, he along with other bowlers such as Abey Kuruvilla, Paras Mhambrey, Nilesh Kulkarni and Sairaj Bahutule was trained under Frank Tyson. Ankola mainly worked on altering his style rather than pace. During this period, Ankola married Parineeta; the couple has two children—a daughter and a son. After a period of three years, Ankola was selected for the Charms Cup against England and Zimbabwe at home. In a match against South Africa during the 1993 Hero Cup, he captured three wickets for 33 runs, which remained his career-best bowling figures in ODIs. In 1996, Ankola was selected in the Indian team for the World Cup. In the tournament he played just one match against Sri Lanka. In a match that India lost, he conceded 28 runs off five overs without claiming any wicket. Shortly after the World Cup, the selectors with immediate effect dropped Ankola along with Vinod Kambli and all-rounder Manoj Prabhakar—all were a part of the squad earlier—for the Singer cup and Pepsi Sharjah Cup. Ankola was replaced by medium-fast bowler Prashant Vaidya. However, Ankola was subsequently selected for the Indian team that toured South Africa in 1996—97. Despite being a part of the squad, he was never given a chance to represent the playing XI in any of the Test matches. Following the Test series, he was picked up for the Standard Bank International ODI tournament; he played five games in the tournament against South Africa and Zimbabwe. In the finals against South Africa that India lost, Ankola conceded 50 runs in seven overs in what became his last match; the spell included a catch being taken off a no-ball and a dropped chance. The tour remained his last in international cricket as he was never selected for the team again. Following that, Ankola declared his retirement from international cricket the same year. ### Post retirement contributions to cricket In March 2010, BCCI granted Ankola a benefit matchTwenty20 benefit match between Sachin Tendulkar XI and Sourav Ganguly XI at the Andheri Sports Complex, Mumbai. The squad included Ankola himself along with Mahendra Singh Dhoni, captain of the Indian national cricket team then. A writer noted that, "Salil Ankola is indeed fortunate. Not many players get to witness an unexpected visitor in the form of the current India captain turning up for his benefit match". In 2020, Salil Ankola was selected as the chief selector of the Mumbai Cricket Association. He wanted to come back to cricket and give back to the game what the game has given him so much and in 2020 he applied for the selection committee post for MUMBAI CRICKET ASSOCIATION and he was appointed the CHAIRMAN OF MUMBAI SENIOR & U25 COMMITTEE on 16 December 2020 When Salil Ankola was appointed the chief selector of MUMBAI TEAM the team has not being doing well and had not won a single trophy in 6 years, he was given the job of rebuilding the team and getting back MUMBAI CRICKET's lost glory. Under his Chairmanship MUMBAI won the VIJAY HAZARE TROPHY in 2021/22 season after a long gap . In 2022/23 season MUMBAI senior team reached the finals of the Ranji trophy and also won the U25 CK NAYUDU TROPHY Also in 2022/23 season MUMBAI SENIOR TEAM won the SYED MUSTAQ ALI TROPHY CHAMPIONSHIP for the first time since its commencement in 2006/07. In his Chairmanship the team rebuilding process started as average age of present Mumbai team is 25 and results speak for itself. So it's right to say that Salil Ankola has done a good job as Chairman of Mumbai Selection Committee in his appointment for last 3 seasons. ## Acting career After retiring from cricket, Ankola shifted his focus towards entering films. He made his cinematic debut through the 2000 Hindi film Kurukshetra, where he played the role of a cop accompanying his senior officer played by Sanjay Dutt. He followed that with Pitaah (2002), and his last major release Chura Liyaa Hai Tumne (2003) featured him alongside Esha Deol and Zayed Khan. The following year he acted in Silence Please...The Dressing Room, where he played the character of a cricket captain. The film did not fare well at the box-office, nonetheless Ankola's performance was highly appreciated. He also participated in the first season of Bigg Boss, Indian version of the reality show Big Brother in 2006. Prior to that, he acted in the Indian soap opera titled Karam Apna Apna, where he signed a contract with Balaji Telefilms that "[Ankola] would not act in any television show on any channel apart from those produced by Balaji Films". Since he appeared in Bigg Boss before the contract would expire—one year from June 2006—the Bombay High Court ordered him not to act in any TV shows on other channels that are considered rivals for Sony Television. Ssshhhh...Koi Hai and Kora Kagaz are some of the other soap operas that he has acted. Ankola went through a bad patch in the period 2008–12. Neither his cricket career nor his acting career had brought in enough money to support his growing family expenses. Financial issues and frustration led to a combination of alcoholism and breakdown of marital relations. The BCCI (India's apex cricket board) arranged a benefit match for him in 2010, to boost his finances, but it was too little. His first marriage of 19 years (1992-2011) ended in divorce in 2011, after which he slowly recovered enough to resume acting on television. In February 2013, Salil was seen as Savitri's father in the daily show Savitri but was replaced by Shahbaz Khan in August 2013 after a revamp of the show. Rumors are that he will be seen in an episode of the popular Zee TV show, Fear Files. He and his wife were a part of the reality show POWER COUPLE in 2015 and Salil Ankola went on to act in the super hit show KARAMPHALDATA SHANI in 2016 which had a good run for 2 years and also the show was dubbed in almost 12 different languages across the world . This was his last appearance in television shows as post this show he acted in South films and in 2020 returned to cricket as CHAIRMAN OF MUMBAI SENIOR U25 SELECTION COMMITTEE. ### Filmography - 2000: Kurukshetra - 2002: Pitaah - 2003: Chura Liyaa Hai Tumne - 2004: Silence Please...The Dressing Room - 2012: Riwayat - 2018: Tera Intezaar - 2019: Ekta - 2021: The Power - 2022: Paambattam (Tamil) ### Television #### As an actor - 1997 Saturday Suspense - The Tenant - Episode 31 - 1998–1999 Chahat Aur Nafrat as Vishal - 1998–2000: Lekin... Woh Sach Tha - 1998 - 1999 Kora Kagaz as Ravi - 1999: Rishtey - 2000 - 2001: Noorjahan as Yusuf Chak - 2002 - 2005 Kehta Hai Dil as Ranveer Rathore / Sandeep Jain / Shakti Singh - 2003 - 2004 Ssshhhh...Koi Hai as Vikraal - 2003 - 2004 Vikraal Aur Gabraal as Vikraal - 2005 Zindagi Teri Meri Kahani - 2005 - 2006 CID: Special Bureau as Senior Inspector Akshay - 2006 Ak...tion Unlimited Josh - 2006 - 2009 Karam Apnaa Apnaa as Mahen Kapoor - 2009 - 2010 Pyaar Ka Bandhan as Vikram - 2013 Savitri - EK Prem Kahani as Maharaj - 2013 Savdhaan India as Kunal Singh - 2016 - 2018 Karmaphal Daata Shani as Surya Dev - February 10, 2020 – December 26, 2020 Devi Adi Parashakti as Surya Dev (Replacement by Sanjay Sharma) #### Reality television ## Background and personal life Salil was born in 1968 into a Karnataka Konkani-speaking family which hails from the town of Ankola in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka. In 2008, it was reported that Ankola has been suffering from depression and was enrolled in a rehabilitation centre in Pune. The reason behind the illness was believed to be his severe addiction to alcohol. As a result of this his wife Parineeta decided to settle with her parent in Pune with their children, leaving Ankola isolated. After his recovery in January 2010, Ankola sent a legal notice to his wife demanding mutual consent for separation. His wife responded that, "there was [no] problem or a marital breakdown ... wanted to work on a reconciliation, not divorce." Ankola, when asked about reconciliation, said he was not willing to do so. The couple finally got divorced in 2011. On 22 December 2013, Parineeta's body was found hanging from the ceiling fan of her room at her residence in Geeta Society, Salisbury Park, in Pune. ## See also - One Test Wonder
61,874,469	Wave (Meghan Trainor song)	1,123,233,907	null	[ "2019 singles", "2019 songs", "Epic Records singles", "Meghan Trainor songs", "Songs written by Meghan Trainor", "Songs written by Mike Sabath" ]	"Wave" is a song by American singer-songwriter Meghan Trainor, featuring producer Mike Sabath, from her third major-label studio album Treat Myself (2020). The track, which was written by the duo and produced by Sabath, was released on September 27, 2019, as the second single from the album. Backed by panoramic piano and ostentatious background vocals, the electropop and house song lyrically tells the story of the emotional fallout of a failed relationship. The song received mixed reviews from critics, with some of them praising the lyrics as mature and anthemic, while others were critical of its production. Commercially, it charted at number 35 on the New Zealand Hot Singles chart. Mathew Cullen directed the music video for "Wave", which features an earthy color palette and Trainor dancing atop a group of people that rock around her like waves. Trainor has performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and The Voice. ## Background and release Meghan Trainor delayed her August 2018-scheduled third major-label studio album, Treat Myself, to January 25, 2019, because she wanted to add more songs to it, and removed it from iTunes that month. Trainor had written "Wave" in 2016, and held onto it until 2019. She approached Mike Sabath to produce the song. As the two became close while working on it in the studio, Trainor asked him to record a verse for the song. Sabath stated that he was "super inspired" by her voice and the energy of the people in the studio, and finished his verse in one take and filled in the lyrics, concluding the recording of the song on March 5, 2019. Sabath went on to produce five of the fifteen tracks from the album, co-writing four of them. About the inspiration for "Wave", Trainor said that "there was this guy that was -- this poor dude, I'm probably talkin' 'bout him everywhere. But he was like, 'We can't ever be together 'cause it won't last!' But he'd be like, 'I love you' and I was like 'Ok, why are you calling then? Like why is this a thing?' So I don't know how to express myself with words, so I wrote this song and I sent it to him". She has stated that she has "never worked harder on a song" and that Sabath took it to a whole new level. Trainor announced the release date along with the single artwork for "Wave" on September 25, 2019. The song was digitally released two days later, as the second single from Treat Myself. On October 7, 2019, a solo version of it was serviced to hot adult contemporary radio stations in the United States. A Remix EP to promote "Wave" was released on November 22, 2019, featuring remixes of the song by R3hab, Justin Caruso and Arkadi. ## Composition An electropop and house song, According to Dani Blum of Pitchfork, "Wave" begins with Trainor delivering "titanic vocals over a panoramic piano" instrumentation, which transitions into an electronic dance music pulse that was compared to the work of Cascada. The song features "ostentatious" background vocals with gospel-inflected harmonies that she stated were inspired by her visits to Kanye West's Sunday Service Choir shows. Described as a "frothy electro-bop", its lyrics detail the highs and lows of a dramatic love story. "Wave" talks about the emotional fallout of a relationship that has failed, with lyrics like "And I shouldn't beg for more/But I don't want it to end". It has been called a drastic departure from Trainor's traditional doo-wop sound by PopMatters' Jessica Brant. ## Critical reception The song received mixed reviews from music critics. Idolator's Mike Nied wrote that "Wave" finds "the duo [riding] the waves of their love story", adding that "the end result feels more mature and graceful than some of Meghan's more saccharine bops" and that he loved the creative direction. Nied stated that it may very well be Trainor's best song yet, and is the "sort of mature anthem that could very easily take her career to another level". Heran Mamo of Billboard opined that "the backing choir adds an ethereal layer over the electronic impressions" on "Wave", and that "the chorus is a powerfully sweeping recital that emphasizes just how overwhelming her desire to get this love back is". Writing for Entertainment Tonight Canada, Corey Atad described it as "anthemic and danceable". In a negative review, Hannah Mylrea of NME stated that the song "starts slow before erupting into a tacky house mess that would sound at home soundtracking Love Island. Pitchfork's Dani Blum called it "a Cascada remix for a middle school dance in a sweaty gym". ## Promotion ### Music video Directed by Mathew Cullen and choreographed by Charm La'Donna, the music video for "Wave" was released on October 7, 2019. It features an earthy color palette and depicts Trainor in an abstract dance party where she glides above the hands of several people. Trainor, who is dressed in a nude-colored leotard, dances atop a group of people that rock back and forth. They catch and release her body in rhythm with quivering synths, so as to simulate a human wave. The dancers are dressed in neutral tones and form a giant pyramid shape. The dancers crash like waves around Trainor, as if she were a rock in the water. Sabath joins in later, donning a leopard print headband. The music video received positive reviews from critics. Rolling Stone's Claire Shaffer wrote that the abstract dance party in the video "transform[s] into an almost spiritual experience for Trainor". Writing for MTV News, Madeline Roth described the choreography as "pristine", adding that the singer looked "absolutely ethereal in a tulle gown". Jessica Brant of PopMatters was positive of the video, stating that the dance moves were executed with "short, military precision" and elaborated that the visuals see Trainor "evocatively stage a physical representation of the enduring power of a shipwrecked romance shared between two partners". ### Live performances Trainor and Sabath performed "Wave" for the first time, on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, on November 6, 2019. They also performed the song at The Voice on December 3, 2019. Trainor performed a stripped-back version of it during her Billboard Live At-Home concert on April 10, 2020, which aimed to raise money for Feeding America. ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "Wave" (featuring Mike Sabath) – 2:56 - Remix EP 1. "Wave" (featuring Mike Sabath) (R3hab Remix) – 3:13 2. "Wave" (featuring Mike Sabath) (Justin Caruso Remix) – 4:04 3. "Wave" (featuring Mike Sabath) (Arkadi Remix) – 3:35 ## Personnel Credits adapted from the album liner notes, Treat Myself (2020). - Mike Sabath – producer, featured vocals, bass, drums, recording engineer, synthesizer, songwriter - Meghan Trainor – lead vocals, background vocals, synthesizer, songwriter - Camila Viola – background vocals - Daryl Sabara – background vocals - Jordan Federman – background vocals - Ryan Trainor – background vocals - Serban Ghenea – mixing engineer - Randy Merrill – mastering engineer ## Charts ## Release history
391,788	Brigid's cross	1,161,379,675	Cross woven from rushes, arms offset	[ "Cross symbols", "Culture of Ireland", "National symbols of Ireland", "Straw art" ]	Brigid's cross or Brigit's cross (Irish: Cros Bhríde, Crosóg Bhríde or Bogha Bhríde) is a small variant of the cross often woven from straw or rushes. It appears in many different shapes, but the most popular designs feature a woven diamond or lozenge in the centre. The cross is named for the Christian saint Brigid of Kildare. Brigid's cross is typically woven on 1 February, her feast day, as well as the festival of Imbolc in pre-Christian Ireland. Hanging Brigid's cross from the rafters of one's house was believed to bring the blessing and protection of the saint for the remainder of the year. The practice of crafting Brigid's crosses declined in the 20th century, however, in part due to house renovations that made hanging them difficult. In addition to the shamrock and Celtic harp, Brigid's cross is a national symbol of Ireland. From 1962 to 1995, it was incorporated into the Raidió Teilifís Éireann logo. A collection of Brigid's crosses collected by the Irish Folklore Commission is on display at the National Museum of Ireland – Country Life. ## Design Brigid's crosses broadly refer to a type of cross woven out of straw or rushes. They are defined by building material more than appearance, and the exact shape of a Brigid's cross varies greatly. The National Museum of Ireland has identified seven basic categories of cross: diamond, which is subdivided into single or multiple; "swastika" type, with four or three arms; wheel type; interlaced type; traditional Latin crosses made from straw or rush; bare wooden crosses in the Latin or Greek style which are bound with straw; and a final "miscellaneous" category. The most popular of these is the diamond or lozenge cross, the dominant variant throughout Munster and Connacht. Two sticks are crossed over one another to provide a wooden framework for this cross, and at its centre, straw is woven into the shape of a diamond. Sometimes, additional woven diamonds are added to the four arms of the cross. Some historians have compared the lozenge shape at the centre of the diamond cross to that of the Mexican god's eye or the Eurasian "magic square". Another popular variant is the "swastika" cross. Rather than being set parallel to one another like a traditional cross, the arms of the swastika cross are set at right angles from a lozenge or diamond at the centre. These offset angles evoke the image of a wheel in motion and may have originally represented the sun, or "the great wheel in the sky". In certain regions of Ulster, this wheel spinning in a circle imagery is evoked with a three-armed woven cross. This three-armed variant has been compared to the triskelion, a popular motif in Celtic imagery. In rare cases, Brigid's cross may be set fully inside a circle; this is known as a "wheel cross" or "St. Brigid's Bow". Unlike other Brigid's crosses, which were typically made of straw, the interlaced cross is often made of rushes. Unlike other forms of the cross which contain a woven shape in the centre, the interlaced cross consists only of rush or straw strands woven into a Christian cross shape. While straw is the more popular weaving material for most variants of Brigid's cross, the interlaced cross is more frequently made from rushes. An even simpler variant is the bare cross, which consists either of two bound plaits of straw or of two planks of wood bound together in the centre by straw. Occasionally, no straw is used at all: the Sheaf-Cross, located in eastern County Galway and County Roscommon, involves two small sheathes of unthreshed corn are bound together by a split thatching branch. ## Folklore Brigid's cross is named for Brigid of Kildare, the only female patron saint of Ireland, who was born c. 450 in Leinster. Unlike her contemporary, Saint Patrick, Brigid left no historical record, and most information about her life and work derives from a hagiography written by the monk Cogitosus some 200 years after her birth. The prevailing Christian folklore surrounding Brigid's cross involves the deathbed conversion of an Irish pagan chieftain, in some stories her father. While telling the pagan about the Crucifixion of Jesus, Brigid collected rushes from the ground and wove them into a cross, after which the chieftain requested a Christian baptism. In another story, Brigid was given a poisoned drink by a woman of ill intent, and she wove the cross to neutralise the toxins. Many of the folk attributes ascribed to Brigid of Kildare bear similarities to the pagan grain goddess Brigid, and it is likely that the legends and rituals attributed to the goddess were later mapped onto the saint. In pre-Christian Ireland, 1 February, later Brigid of Kildare's feast day, was the date of the Imbolc festival, a holiday associated with agrarianism and the beginning of spring. It is therefore possible that diamonds and lozenges were Celtic symbols associated with Imbolc, and that Christian missionaries added arms to evoke the shape of a cross, appropriating these symbols with a Christian meaning and attributing them to the saint. ## Ritual use One of the customs associated with Brigid of Kildare's feast day was to hang Brigid's crosses in the rafters or over entryways of buildings, thus invoking the saint's blessing and protection for the remainder of the year. Families would gather rushes on 31 January, the eve of Brigid's feast day. After an evening feast, the head of household would supervise the rest of the family as they wove crosses from the collected material. These crosses were left out overnight to receive Brigid's blessing, and on 1 February, crosses would be mounted in the main dwelling place, outhouses, and stables. While the direction in which the crosses were hung remains unknown, that the centre shape is frequently described as a lozenge rather than a square suggests that Brigid's cross is properly displayed in a saltire style rather than that of the Latin cross. Crosses were either taken down annually and replaced, or they accumulated between feasts. If they were discarded, they were burned or buried, with the latter preferred due to Brigid's associations with agriculture. The weaving of Brigid's crosses was popular throughout Ireland, particularly in the north and midland, but its popularity dwindled during the 20th century. Some families attributed the decline of Brigid's crosses to house renovations that inhibited the ability to hang them appropriately. Outside of Ireland, Brigid's crosses are also customarily hung in Glastonbury, England, in accordance with a local legend that says Brigid of Kildare visited the town in 488 CE. Families may also send woven crosses to their friends and relatives who live abroad, or they will carry a cross with them when they leave Ireland. The weaving of crosses was not restricted to Brigid's feast day: friends would often gift crosses to incur blessings and strengthen their bond, while newlywed couples would often receive "womb crosses" to hang above their door, as Brigid was also a patron of fertility. Although they take place at different points of the season, the weaving of Brigid's cross is associated with other rituals in which the last sheaf of that year's harvest is woven into intricate shape. In County Armagh, for instance, the harvest season involves the weaving of Harvest Knots and Harvest Stars, the former of which involves a lozenge shape similar to that of Brigid's cross. These "last sheaf" celebrations are collectively known as the Cailleach. ## As a national symbol Shortly after the Irish Free State gained its independence in 1922, Brigid's cross became one of several nationalist symbols, alongside such other motifs as the shamrock and Celtic harp, used by Irish artists in order to create a national cultural identity separate from that of Britain. In the 1950s, Brigid's cross was incorporated into the logo of the Irish Department of Health, and as of 2009, the cross remained a part of the logo of the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Ireland, who frequently incorporate Brigid into their imagery for her associations with midwifery. Brigid's cross was selected as the first station identification marker for Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ) in 1962, with Alice Curtayne writing that the cross was selected to evoke "the image of quiet, serene places in the springtime of our history, of rush-bordered rivers in a serene arcadian landscape". The RTÉ logo underwent nine redesigns between 1962 and 1987, with the cross taking varying levels of prominence compared to the station name. It was removed from the RTÉ logo in 1995 in favour of "a clean striking piece of modern design", a decision which Carol Coulter of The Irish Times opined, "Saint Brigid's cross has lost its place as a symbol of our national identity, well at least as far as our national broadcasting station is concerned." In 1942, the Irish Folklore Commission created a questionnaire regarding the Feast of Saint Brigid, during which they collected several hundred Brigid's crosses. In 2022, the Commission selected a sample of 21 of these crosses to be displayed at the National Museum of Ireland – Country Life in Castlebar. The display coincided with an announcement from the Irish government that 1 February would be declared a national holiday. ## See also - Celtic cross - Corn dolly
20,047,323	U-5-class submarine (Austria-Hungary)	1,171,374,237	Austro-Hungarian Navy submarines during WWI	[ "Submarine classes", "U-5-class submarines" ]	The U-5 class was a class of three submarines or U-boats that were operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy (German: Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine) before and during World War I. The class was a part of the Austro-Hungarian Navy's efforts to competitively evaluate three foreign submarine designs. The design of the boats was based upon John Philip Holland's submarine design and featured a single, teardrop hull, which resembled the design of modern nuclear submarines. The class members were just over 105 feet (32 m) long and displaced 240 tonnes (240 long tons) surfaced and 273 tonnes (269 long tons) submerged. All were originally equipped with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes. The first two boats, U-5 and U-6, built specifically for the Austro-Hungarian Navy, to the same design as the United States C-class submarine were partially constructed in the United States and completed at Whitehead & Co. at Fiume. The third was completely constructed by Whitehead's at Fiume and purchased by Austria-Hungary to bolster their U-boat fleet after the outbreak of World War I. All three boats had successes during World War I; between them they sank five ships with a combined tonnage of 22,391. In addition they captured seven ships as prizes and damaged Jean Bart, a French dreadnought of 22,189 tons displacement. All three boats were sunk during the war, though U-5, the lead boat of the class, was raised and recommissioned after her sinking. After the war's end, U-5, the only survivor of the class, was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and was broken up in 1920. ## Design and construction In 1904, after allowing the navies of other countries to pioneer submarine developments, the Austro-Hungarian Navy ordered the Austrian Naval Technical Committee (MTK) to produce a submarine design. The January 1905 design developed by the MTK and other designs submitted by the public as part of a design competition were all rejected by the Navy as impracticable. They instead opted to order two submarines each of designs by Simon Lake, Germaniawerft, and John Philip Holland for a competitive evaluation. The two Holland submarines comprised the U-5 class. The Navy authorized two boats, U-5 and U-6, from Whitehead & Co. of Fiume in 1906. The U-5 class was built to the same design as the C class for the US Navy and was built by Robert Whitehead's firm of Whitehead & Co. under license from Holland and his company, Electric Boat. Components for the first two Austrian boats were manufactured by the Electric Boat Company and assembled at Fiume, while the third boat was a speculative private venture by Whitehead that failed to find a buyer and was purchased by Austria-Hungary upon the outbreak of World War I. The U-5-class boats had a single-hulled design with a teardrop-shape that bore a strong resemblance to modern nuclear submarines. The boats were just over 105 feet (32 m) long and displaced 240 tonnes (240 long tons) surfaced, and 273 tonnes (269 long tons) submerged. The torpedo tubes featured unique, cloverleaf-shaped design hatches that rotated on a central axis. The ships were powered by twin 6-cylinder gasoline engines while surfaced, but suffered from inadequate ventilation which resulted in frequent intoxication of the crew. While submerged, they were propelled by twin electric motors. The first two boats, U-5 and U-6, were ordered by the Austro-Hungarian Navy for evaluation and were partially assembled in the United States, shipped to Fiume, and riveted together by Whitehead & Co., which, author Edwin Sieche reports, "caused a lot of trouble". U-5 was launched in February 1909 and was followed in June by the launch of U-6. Both boats were commissioned by April 1910. The third boat, originally named SS-3, was built on speculation entirely at Whitehead's in Fiume. The boat's design featured improvements in the electrical and mechanical systems. Gibson and Prendergast report that, when built, SS-3 was powered by electric motors for both surface and submerged running. When the surface performance of the electric motors proved disappointing in trials, SS-3's power-plant was rebuilt to match the gasoline/electric combination used in U-5 and U-6. SS-3 was launched in March 1911 and was offered to the Austro-Hungarian Navy, but because the evaluation of the first two U-5-class boats was still underway, they declined to purchase. As built, the U-5-class boats were armed with two 45-centimeter (17.7 in) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a supply of four torpedoes. By 1915, all had received a 3.7 cm/23 (1.5 in) deck gun. ## Service career U-5 and U-6 were both commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy by April 1910, and served as training boats through 1914, making as many as ten training cruises per month. During their early years, each boat was demonstrated to a foreign naval delegation; U-5 to a Peruvian detachment in 1911, U-6 to a Norwegian group in 1910. At the beginning of World War I in August 1914, U-5 and U-6 comprised half of the operational U-boat fleet of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. In the three years after SS-3's March 1911 launch, Whitehead's attempted to sell the boat to the navies of Peru, Portugal, the Netherlands, Brazil, and Bulgaria, before the Austro-Hungarian Navy rejected an offer for the second time. With the outbreak of war, however, the Austro-Hungarian Navy purchased the unsold submarine to quickly bolster its fleet. Although provisionally commissioned as U-7, she was commissioned as U-12 in August 1914. By late December 1914, all three of the U-5-class boats were based at the naval base at Cattaro and all took part in combat patrols. Between the three boats, they sank five ships with a combined tonnage of 22,391, captured seven ships, and damaged one dreadnought. U-6 was the least successful, sinking a single ship of 756 tons; U-5 was the most successful, sinking three ships with of a combined tonnage of 20,570, including the French armoured cruiser Léon Gambetta. U-12 damaged, but did not sink, the largest ship torpedoed by any of the U-5 class when she hit the French battleship Jean Bart on 21 December 1914. Of the three boats of the class, only U-5 survived the war intact. U-12 was sunk with the loss of all hands when she hit a mine near Venice in August 1915, while U-6 was scuttled by her crew in May 1916 after becoming trapped in an anti-submarine net that was a part of the Otranto Barrage. U-5 herself sank after hitting an Austro-Hungarian mine during a training exercise, but was raised, repaired and recommissioned before the war's end. U-5 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. ## Class members ### SM U-5 SM U-5 was laid down in April 1907 and launched in February 1909. She was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy in April 1910, and served as a training boat—sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month—through the beginning of the First World War in 1914. The submarine scored most of her wartime successes during the first year of the war while under the command of Georg Ritter von Trapp. The French armoured cruiser Léon Gambetta, sunk in April 1915, was the largest ship sunk by U-5. In May 1917, U-5 hit a mine and sank with the loss of six men. She was raised, rebuilt, and recommissioned, but sank no more ships. At the end of the war, U-5 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation, and scrapped in 1920. In all, U-5 sank three ships totaling 20,570 combined tonnage. ### SM U-6 SM U-6 was laid down in February 1908 and launched the following June. She served as a training boat after her July 1910 commissioning into the Austro-Hungarian Navy. She served in that capacity through the beginning of World War I in 1914, making as many as ten training cruises a month. U-6 scored only one wartime success, sinking a French destroyer in March 1916. In May that same year, she became entangled in anti-submarine netting deployed as part of the Otranto Barrage. Coming under fire from drifters running the nets, U-6 was abandoned and sunk. All of her crewmen were rescued and were held in captivity through the end of the war. ### SM U-12 SM U-12 was built on speculation by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume under the name SS-3. She was laid down in 1909 and launched in March 1911 and featured improvements in the electrical and mechanical systems from the Holland design of her older sister boats, U-5 and U-6. Whitehead's tried selling SS-3 to several different navies, but she was finally bought by the Austro-Hungarian Navy after the outbreak of World War I, despite having been rejected twice before. She was commissioned as U-12 in August 1914. She sank only one ship during the war, a Greek cargo ship in May 1915, but had earlier captured six Montenegrin sailing vessels as prizes in March. U-12 also damaged, but did not sink, the French battleship Jean Bart in December 1914. While searching for targets in the vicinity of Venice in August 1915, U-12 struck a mine that blew her stern off, and sank with all hands, becoming the first Austro-Hungarian submarine sunk in the war. Her wreck was salvaged the next year by the Italians, who interred the bodies of U-12's crewmen in a Venetian cemetery.
26,689,927	John Hummer	1,157,908,102	American basketball player (born 1948)	[ "1948 births", "American men's basketball players", "American venture capitalists", "Basketball players from Virginia", "Basketball players from Washington, D.C.", "Buffalo Braves players", "Centers (basketball)", "Chicago Bulls players", "Living people", "Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)", "Power forwards (basketball)", "Princeton Tigers men's basketball players", "Seattle SuperSonics players", "Sportspeople from Arlington County, Virginia", "Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni", "Washington-Liberty High School alumni" ]	John Hummer (born May 4, 1948) is an American venture capitalist and retired professional basketball player who was an original member of the Buffalo Braves after starring for the Princeton Tigers men's basketball team. He also led his high school to the 1966 Virginia State 1A championship and helped Princeton earn a 1967–68 co-Ivy League Championship as well as a 1968–69 outright Ivy League Championship. Over the course of his basketball career, he was coached by four National Basketball Hall of Fame members. In college, Hummer was a three-time All-Ivy League selection (first-team: 1969 and 1970, second team: 1968). He played for two Ivy League champion teams and served as team captain as a senior. He was a part of the first of head coach Pete Carril's thirteen Ivy League champions (1968), eleven NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament teams (1969) and three undefeated conference champions (1969). Although Hummer set no statistical records, his name continues to be ranked high in the Princeton record book by many statistical measures. He played six seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Braves, Chicago Bulls and Seattle SuperSonics. He was the 15th overall selection in the 1970 NBA draft and the first draft choice in the history of the Braves franchise. As a Braves draft choice, he was a somewhat controversial pick in a draft year with two All-American local products available. During his NBA career, he played for Hall of Famers Dolph Schayes, Bill Russell and Jack Ramsay. After his professional basketball career ended, he went to Stanford University to get an MBA in 1980. In 1989, Ann Winblad and he founded Hummer Winblad Venture Partners, a venture capital firm focusing on software companies. ## Amateur career Hummer attended Washington-Lee High School in Arlington, Virginia. Following in the footsteps of his brother Ed Hummer, he led W-L to the 1966 Virginia 1A state title as a high school senior. Ed had led the team to the 1962 and 1963 titles. His nephew (Ed's son Ian) was a freshman on the 2009–10 Princeton team. In Hummer's sophomore season at Princeton, the team was co-champion of the Ivy League with a 20–6 (12–3 Ivy) record. Despite the fact that Princeton had three of the five first-team All-Ivy team members, plus second-team member Hummer, they lost the one-game league playoff to the Jim McMillian-led 1968 Columbia Lions. That year the team rose to as high as 8th in the AP Poll. This was the first of thirteen Ivy League championships for head coach Pete Carril. The following season, the team accumulated a 19–7 (14–0) record and participated in the 1969 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. They lost to St. John's in the tournament, but Hummer was joined by Geoff Petrie on the first-team All-Ivy squad. This was the first of eleven NCAA tournament appearance for Carril. It was also the first of three 14–0 conference champions for Carril. As a senior, Hummer was first-team All-Ivy, but the Tigers placed third in the conference to the undefeated (in Ivy League games) Corky Calhoun-led Penn Quakers and McMillian's Lions. Although Princeton did not appear in the 1970 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament, they hosted Penn's game. All three of his varsity years were spent under Carril. Again, following in the footsteps of his brother who had served as Princeton captain of the 1966–67 team, John was co-captain for the 1969–70 team along with classmate Petrie. Hummer was honored with the team's B. Franklin Bunn ’07 Award for play, sportsmanship and influence that contributed most to the sport. During his career, he shared the spotlight with Petrie and did not set any statistical records at a school and conference where Bill Bradley continues to dominate the record books. Over the course of his career, Hummer was the 9th Tiger to accumulate 1000 career points (1031 in 67 games) and he continued to rank seventh in school history with a 15.4 points/game average through the 2009–10 season. Since his career ended in 1970 only Brian Taylor has posted a higher average. He stands eighth in career free throws made (297), having only been passed since his career ended by Craig Robinson and Kit Mueller. He is tenth in career rebounds. ## Professional basketball career Following his senior season, Hummer was one of three first-round Ivy League selections in the 1970 NBA Draft (Petrie – 8th, McMillian 13th and Hummer 15th). Hummer was also drafted by The Floridians in the 1970 American Basketball Association draft. The 1970 draft included two promising All-American local-Buffalo area talents: St. Bonaventure University's Buffalo-born Bob Lanier and Niagara University's Calvin Murphy. Murphy was a fan favorite that many local fans hoped the Braves would select. However, Braves General Manager Eddie Donovan doubted the 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) Murphy could make it in the NBA. The Baltimore Bullets traded to improve their draft position on the day of the March 23, 1970 NBA draft. They traded their \#15 selection and Mike Davis to the expansion Buffalo Braves for the \#9 selection. That day, the Braves selected Hummer with the 15th pick. Hummer averaged 11.3 points and 8.9 rebounds for the 1970–71 Buffalo Braves during an average of 32.6 minutes in 81 games played for coach Dolph Schayes. The 22–60 Braves finished fourth in the four-team Atlantic Division. Hummer and the Braves struggled for two more seasons with 60-loss seasons. The 1972–73 Braves were Jack Ramsay's first coaching season with his second NBA team. After the Braves selected Ernie DiGregorio in the 1973 NBA draft to complement 1972 NBA draft selection Bob McAdoo, it was clear the team was going to change to fast-paced offense to leverage DiGregorio's skills. Hummer was more of a defensive player. Prior to the 1973–74 NBA season, Hummer was packaged with a 1974 NBA draft 2nd round pick and a 1975 NBA draft 2nd round pick in a trade that sent him to the Chicago Bulls in exchange for Gar Heard and Kevin Kunnert. The deal was part of the resume that earned Donavan the NBA Executive of the Year Award. That season the 54–28 Dick Motta-coached 1973–74 Bulls team that he was traded to initially would make the playoffs, but the 36–46 Bill Russell-coached 1973–74 SuperSonics that he would finish the season with would not. During the season (on January 7), he was traded by the Bulls to the Seattle SuperSonics in exchange for a 1975 NBA draft 2nd round selection. Russell's SuperSonics (1974–75 and 1975–76) were the only playoff teams for whom he played in the postseason. In the 1975 NBA Playoffs, the Sonics defeated the Detroit Pistons 2–1 in the first round before losing to the Golden State Warriors 4–2. Hummer appeared in six of the nine playoff games that year, but accumulated no points. The following season the Sonics earned a bye in the first round of the 1976 NBA Playoffs where they lost to the Phoenix Suns. Hummer appeared in three of these games. Never a strong free throw shooter, Hummer failed to make 50% of his free throws during his last three seasons in the NBA. In the 1974–75 season, he shot an unusually low 0.275 from the free throw line. ## Education Hummer graduated from Princeton University in 1970 with an A.B. in English and in 1980 with an MBA from Stanford Graduate School of Business. ## Venture capitalism In 1989 Ann Winblad and Hummer founded Hummer Winblad Venture Partners, which claims to have been the first venture capital firm to focus exclusively on the Software industry. The company has financed over 100 ventures that have been on the forefront of trends that have gone from personal computer (PC) software to enterprise computing to Internet applications. The company's investments have now spanned generations of software applications, architectures, delivery methods, and business models, including Omniture, Voltage Security, MuleSoft, Wind River Systems and Hyperion Solutions. Other notable companies that Hummer Winblad Venture Partners did provide venture capital for, that no longer exist, are Napster, Pets.com, and HomeGrocer.
53,206,194	Spring Day (song)	1,172,011,214	2017 single by BTS	[ "2010s ballads", "2017 singles", "2017 songs", "BTS songs", "Gaon Digital Chart number-one singles", "Hybe Corporation singles", "Korean-language songs", "Music videos directed by Lumpens", "Pop ballads", "Pop rock songs", "Rock ballads", "Songs written by Adora (singer)", "Songs written by Arlissa", "Songs written by Bang Si-hyuk", "Songs written by Pdogg", "Songs written by RM (musician)", "Songs written by Suga" ]	"Spring Day" (Korean: 봄날; RR: Bomnal) is a song recorded by South Korean boy band BTS for their 2017 album You Never Walk Alone, a repackage of their second Korean-language studio album, Wings (2016). The song was written by "Hitman" Bang, RM, Suga, Adora, Arlissa Ruppert, Peter Ibsen, and its producer Pdogg. It was released for digital download and streaming on February 13, 2017, as the album's lead single by Big Hit Entertainment. A remix of the song was subsequently released for free via SoundCloud on June 4, 2018. A Japanese version of the song was issued on May 10, 2017, through Universal Music Japan, as a B-side of the single album that included the tracks "Blood Sweat & Tears" and "Not Today", both also in Japanese. The song is an alternative hip hop and pop rock power ballad, which relies on rock instrumentation. The lyrics revolve around the themes of loss, longing, grief, and moving on. The song received universal acclaim from music critics, who praised its production, sentimental lyrics and BTS' vocal delivery. "Spring Day" received several accolades, including Song of the Year at the 2017 Melon Music Awards, and appeared on the decade-end list of best K-pop songs by Billboard. Rolling Stone named it one of the greatest boy band songs of all time. Commercially, the song was a success in South Korea debuting at number one on the Gaon Digital Chart, and it has since sold over 2.5 million copies in the country. The song also peaked at number 15 on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100. The music video for the song was directed by YongSeok Choi and premiered on February 12, 2017. Inspired by Ursula K. Le Guin's novella "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas" (1973) and Bong Joon-ho's movie Snowpiercer (2013), the video explores the concepts of death, afterlife and closure. The visual was acclaimed by critics for its heavy symbolism and was awarded Best Music Video at the 2017 Mnet Asian Music Awards. BTS promoted "Spring Day" with televised live performances on various South Korean music programs, including M! Countdown, Music Bank, and Inkigayo. The song was also included on the set list of the band's second worldwide concert tour, The Wings Tour (2017). ## Background and release BTS released their second Korean-language studio album Wings in October 2016, which charted at number one on South Korea's Gaon Album Chart and became the best-selling album of 2016 in the country. Following the success of Wings, Big Hit Entertainment announced in January 2017 that a sequel to the album, titled You Never Walk Alone, would be served as a reissue. "Spring Day" was confirmed to be slated for release on the reissue when the band subsequently shared the track-listing of the album. On February 10, 2017, the song was announced as the lead single from the album. Band member RM created the main melody of the song, which he wrote between November and December 2016 during a walk at Saetgang Eco Park in Yeouido, taking inspiration from the dried leaves that were blown off trees by the wind. "Hitman" Bang, RM, Suga, Adora, Arlissa Ruppert, Peter Ibsen, and Pdogg are credited as songwriters on "Spring Day", with the latter of the seven solely handling production. BTS recorded vocals for the track at Big Hit Studios, Seoul, South Korea. The track was engineered by Pdogg, Jeong Wooyeong, and Ibsen, while mixing was handled by James F. Reynolds at Schmuzik Studios. "Spring Day" was released for digital download and streaming in various countries by Big Hit Entertainment on February 13, 2017, as the lead single from You Never Walk Alone. A "Brit Rock" remix version of the track was released for free to SoundCloud on June 4, 2018. The remix has identical songwriting credits to the original version, though "Hitman" Bang serves as the producer. A Japanese version of the song was recorded, which was issued digitally for purchase on May 10, 2017 by Universal Music Japan as a B-side track of BTS' seventh Japanese-language single album, together with the versions of their Korean singles "Blood Sweat & Tears" (2016) and "Not Today" (2017) in the same language. The single album was simultaneously released as a CD single in Japan. The lyrics for the Japanese version of "Spring Day" were written by KM-MARKIT. It was subsequently included as the tenth track on the band's third Japanese-language studio album Face Yourself (2018). ## Music and lyrics Musically, "Spring Day" is a midtempo alternative hip hop and pop rock power ballad, with Brit rock and electronic influences. The song is composed in the time signature of time and the key of E major, with a tempo of 108 beats per minute. Constructed in verse–chorus form, the verses have an Eb–Gm–Cm/Cm7–Ab chord progression, whilst the chorus follows an Eb-Gm-Ab-Abm sequence. The song relies on rock instrumentation that consists primarily of keyboards, synthesizer, guitar and bass. Band member Jungkook provided backing vocals for the track alongside Arlissa Ruppert. The production of the song makes use of EDM synths, thick compressed bass and piano. It further utilizes a "mechanical hissing" percussion and "whining" electronic sounds, which provide "an enveloping airlock." The song consists of "rap-breaks," "dreamy" vocals and "half-spoken" deliveries, for which BTS' vocal range spans from B<sub>3</sub> to B<sub>5</sub>. The verses are driven by "dense" chords, "pain-shredding" guitar strums and "whirring" synths. A reviewer from The Singles Jukebox compared the chords in the composition to that of Flo Rida"s song "Wild Ones" (2011). Speaking about the concept and meaning behind "Spring Day" during a V Live broadcast, RM stated that he wrote the lyrics when thinking of his middle and high-school mates, from whom he hadn't heard in a long time. RM compared the song's mood to that of the band's 2015 singles, "I Need U" and "Run". Lyrically, the song uses a seasonal metaphor to compare the longing and separation from loved ones to "internal winter." The verses use "snow-y imagery" to explore themes of loss, yearning, grief, and moving on: "I wanna hold your hand/ And go to the other side of the earth/ Wanna put an end this winter/ How much do I have to long for you like snow piles up on the ground/ Until the spring days come?" The line, "Like a snowpiercer, I was left alone" is a reference to Bong Joon-ho's movie Snowpiercer (2013), while "I hate even this moment that is passing by" is a line used to suggest the "ephemerality" of life. The track's lyrics also speak of "a mature society that can embrace the wounds of others," and they touch upon themes of mental health and depression. During the chorus, the line "I want to see you" is repeated several times. Towards the end of the song, the band relay comfort and warmth to the listener by being hopeful of a reunion: "No darkness, no season/ Can last forever." ## Critical reception "Spring Day" was met with widespread critical acclaim from music critics and fans. Jeff Benjamin of Billboard praised the track's lyrical content and BTS' vocal delivery, writing that the song "showed an artistic turning point for the band, who have now evolved past a one-track mind with their music and lyrics, as the guys set the groundwork for their biggest material to date." In another review for the same magazine, Benjamin stated that while the song keeps up with the "hard-hitting beats, buttery vocals and punchy rap verses-- as one would expect from any BTS release, it's "newfound maturity and enlightenment that makes the single stand out so much." Caitlin Kelley, also of Billboard, cited the track as one of the best songs by BTS and said that it "packs an emotional wallop as the lyrics hover in the bargaining stage of coping with the absence of a loved one." Taylor Glasby of Dazed lauded the song's production and the band's vocal delivery, regarding the track as "an intelligent, compelling and elegantly restrained study of loss and longing" that "deliberately avoids cliché pomp and drama." Glasby also wrote an article for Vogue, in which she called the song an "epic ballad." IZM's Hyo-beom Jeong acclaimed the track, highlighting the "high degree of perfection" in its music and he regarded the track as a "smooth lyric progression, easy listening melody, and lyrical song that spans generations." Jeong added, "this is a delicate and sad sensibility different from the intense 'BTS' hip-hop style. Among the songs they released this year, 'Spring Day' was the reason why they consistently received popular love." Jacques Peterson of Idolator said the band "tugged on the heartstrings with this hit," which he felt is "K-pop's answer to the Mariah Carey classic 'One Sweet Day'." In The Malaysia Star, Chester Chin regarded the song as "the most vulnerable cut" on You Never Walk Alone and opined that it "sees the boys baring their soul, shedding light on a more sentimental side of the group." Reviewing for Vulture, T.K. Park and Youngdae Kim felt that the song "opened a new chapter in [BTS'] aesthetics" by "substituting the group's previous calling card in hip-hop with the romanticism in pop and rock." They further wrote that "each component of the song contains a clear melody, evoking overwhelming nostalgia and longing." Music journalist Youngdae Kim said that the track displayed significant growth in the band's sound, lyricism and aesthetics by embodying nostalgia and sorrow. Rhian Daly of NME listed it as BTS' best song, labelling the track an "absolutely gorgeous, a stirring piece of alt-pop." He also praised the track's lyrical content and said that it is "a classic – a glistening jewel in a canonical crown bedazzled with them." Hyun-su Yim from The Korea Herald acclaimed the song, stating that it "has beautiful melodies without getting too soppy, as crisp vocals and clean guitar riffs aided by sentimental lyrics make for easy listening." On the other hand, Sungmi Ahn, of the same publication, described the song as an "emotional pop rock tune." Theresa Reyes of Vice was impressed by "the ballad's complex metaphors on love, life, and death." Malvika Padin from Clash also enjoyed the track and considered it "always-emotive." Billboard, Dazed and IZM selected "Spring Day" as one of the best K-pop songs of 2017 on their respective lists. The former of the three ranked it at number 37 on their decade-end list of the 100 best K-pop songs of the 2010s. On behalf of the publication, L. Singh wrote that the existence of the song "is probably the most accurate representation of BTS's artistry." Rolling Stone placed it at number 19 on their 2020 list of the greatest boy-band songs of all time and called the song "a sentiment as timeless as BTS have become." ### Awards "Spring Day" won the Song of the Year award at the 2017 Melon Music Awards. It won the Digital Bonsang at the 32nd Golden Disc Awards. The song also achieved the top spot on various South Korean weekly music programs, garnering a total of four awards. It also achieved a Melon Weekly Popularity Award for the week of February 20, 2017, due to the substantial success of the song on digital platforms. ## Commercial performance "Spring Day" was a commercial success in South Korea. Upon release, it topped the charts of all eight major domestic music streaming services, including Melon, Mnet, Genie Music, and Olleh, and went on to debut atop the Gaon Digital Chart chart issue for the week of February 12–18, 2017. It also peaked at number one on the component Download Chart, selling 215,224 digital units in its release week. Per Gaon's monthly digital chart update, "Spring Day" was the sixth best-performing song of February based on digital sales, streaming, and background music (instrumental track) downloads. On the year-end chart, it was the 13th best-performing song overall in South Korea. By September 2018, the song had sold over 2.5 million digital copies in the country. "Spring Day" is the longest-charting song on Melon's digital chart to date. In the United States, "Spring Day" sold 14,000 copies in its opening week, earning BTS their third number one on the World Digital Song Sales chart, for the week of March 4, 2017; it also charted on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 at number 15. Elsewhere, the song peaked at numbers 24 and 38 on the UK Independent Singles Chart and Billboard Japan Hot 100 respectively. ## Music video ### Background The music video for "Spring Day" premiered via Big Hit's YouTube channel on February 12, 2017; it was preceded by a teaser, which was released to the same platform on February 9. The video was directed by YongSeok Choi of Lumpens, with WonJu Lee serving as the assistant director. HyunWoo Nam of GDW was credited as the director of photography, while Emma SungEun kim received credit as the producer. HyunSuk Song served as the gaffer and JinSil Park was the art director. Filming for the music video took place in Hwaseong, Yangju, and Gangneung. The video was inspired by Ursula K. Le Guin's 1973 short philosophical fiction "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas", as well as the movie Snowpiercer. The five-minute long visual is heavily loaded with symbolism and explores the concepts of "death, afterlife and closure." ### Synopsis The music video opens with V standing in the middle of a snow-capped railway station, which has rusty signboards and a faded slate roof. In the station, he steps onto the tracks and leans down to the ground to listen to an oncoming train. The clip then zooms out to depict a train running in the middle of winter, carrying suitcases of passengers who are not present themselves. The scene switches to show Jungkook sitting inside the train as he waits for someone, while Jimin is seen alone on an empty beach. The following scene begins with a close-up shot of RM, who stands inside an empty train compartment as the opening line of "Spring Day" starts playing. He runs out of the train towards J-Hope and Suga, while they are sitting in front of a building with a neon signboard that reads "Omelas". RM opens a green door that leads him back to the train and he passes by the chamber in which Jungkook is sitting. RM opens another door when inside the train, which leads to a room where the rest of the members are enjoying a birthday party, throwing cakes and playing with each other. The video then zooms in to depict a close-up shot of Jin gazing up a staircase, on which the other members are ascending, eventually leaving him alone at the bottom. Jungkook is seen standing in front an old, rusty amusement park ride that has the words "You Never Walk Alone" written on it. The clip alternates between lonely, muted shots of each member, and contrasting bright and cordial group-shots of BTS as they spend time with one another. In one scene, Suga is seen rapping as he sits on a mountain of laundry, while in another, J-Hope sits on top of the moving train as he flies a paper plane into the air. At one point, Jungkook opens the door to the Omelas, as he reunites with the other members. He wakes up inside the train to see the members sitting together with him. As the train stops, they step out into the daylight on a field where the snow is gradually melting. The band walk together towards a solitary, bare tree that stands in the middle of the field, even though Jimin is the only member who is physically present there. He hangs a pair of shoes on the tree's branches, which he had picked up from the shore. The reunion of the seven members alludes to the beginning of "a new journey with their friendship as their salvation." To end the visual, a closing shot is shown of the tree blooming with cherry blossom leaves, against the backdrop of blue spring sky, with the pair of shoes hanging from the branches. ### Reception Several fans and media publications speculated that the visual references the Sewol Ferry Disaster that took place on April 16, 2014, which left more than 300 students missing or dead. In this regard, RM stated that the video focuses on the visual representation of the song's lyrics and can be interpreted in many ways. Tamar Herman of Billboard wrote that the music video "reflects the album's title and transmutes 'Spring Day' from a love song into an ode dedicated to the dead." In his review for Fuse, Benjamin labelled the visual as "gorgeously cinematic and moving." Glasby deemed the visual as a "slow motion, cinematic landscape of memories and wishes." Though she lauded the "external devices" used to "illustrate certain points," Glasby felt that "the most devastatingly evocative moments" in the video are "quietly simple." Emlyn Travis of PopCrush opined that the clip "stunningly" captures "the idea of a loss of innocence that changes one's life forever." The music video was awarded Best Music Video at the 2017 Mnet Asian Music Awards and Fuse Video of the Year at the 2018 Annual Soompi Awards. It was an instant success on YouTube, garnering over 10 million views in 24 hours, becoming the fastest K-pop video to do so at the time. A week later, the music video for BTS' follow up single "Not Today" overtook the record with 10 million views in a shorter period of time. The video for "Spring Day" also became the fastest K-pop group music video to reach 20 million views, achieving the feat in less than four days. It was the sixth most viewed K-pop music video of 2017 on YouTube. As of April 2021, the video has over 400 million views on the platform. ## Live performances BTS performed "Spring Day" live for the first time on February 18, 2017, as part of their setlist for the band's two-day stop during The Wings Tour at Gocheok Sky Dome, Seoul. To promote the song and You Never Walk Alone, BTS made several appearances on South Korean music programs in February 2017. The band gave their first televised live performance of the song for M! Countdown on February 23, 2017. The following three days, they appeared on Music Bank, Show! Music Core, and Inkigayo, where they also performed "Not Today". BTS performed the song at the 2017 Melon Music Awards alongside "DNA" (2017) on December 2, 2017. On December 29 of that year, the band performed the remix version of the track at the KBS Song Festival. They performed the song at the 32nd Golden Disc Awards on January 10, 2018. BTS sang it as part of their three-song set for YouTube's Dear Class of 2020 online graduation ceremony on June 7, 2020, at the National Museum of Korea, with the band wearing soft pastel-coloured outfits. It was also included in the setlist at the 2020 iHeartRadio Music Festival on September 18. A studio live band rendition of the track was performed at NPR's Tiny Desk (Home) Concert on September 21 with an intro from RM, "It's been the roughest summer ever, but we know that spring will come," offering comfort and optimism during the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Track listings ## Credits and personnel ### Korean / Japanese version Credits are adapted from the CD liner notes of You Never Walk Alone and Chi, Ase, Namida. - BTS – primary vocals - "Hitman" Bang – songwriting - RM – songwriting - Suga – songwriting - Adora – songwriting - Arlissa Ruppert – songwriting, chorus - Peter Ibsen – songwriting, record engineering - Pdogg – songwriting, production, synthesizer, keyboard, vocal arrangement, rap arrangement, record engineering - KM-MARKIT – songwriting (Japanese version) - Jungkook – chorus - Jeong Jaepil – guitar - Lee Jooyeong – bass - Jeong Wooyeong – record engineering - James F. Reynolds – mix engineering ### Brit Rock Remix Credits are adapted from SoundCloud. - BTS – primary vocals - "Hitman" Bang – production, songwriting - RM – songwriting - Suga – songwriting - Adora – songwriting - Arlissa Ruppert – songwriting - Peter Ibsen – songwriting, record engineering - Hiss Noise – additional rhythm programming - DOCSKIM – band arrangement - KHAN – band arrangement - Yang Ga – mix engineering ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history ## See also - List of Gaon Digital Chart number ones of 2017

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