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62,078,350	Si Jiahui	1,173,280,410	Chinese snooker player	[ "2002 births", "21st-century Chinese people", "Chinese snooker players", "Living people" ]	Si Jiahui (Chinese: 斯佳辉 sí-tɕjá-xwéɪ; born 11 July 2002) is a Chinese professional snooker player. After training at the Wiraka Billiard Academy in Foshan, he moved to the United Kingdom aged 16 and earned a two-year tour card through Q School for the 2019–20 and 2020–21 seasons. He lost his tour card after ending the 2020–21 season outside the top 64 in the world rankings, and competed as an amateur during the 2021–22 season, during which he defeated Shaun Murphy 6–5 in the first round of the 2021 UK Championship. After rejoining the professional tour at the start of the 2022–23 season, he reached his first ranking quarter-final at the 2022 European Masters. At the 2023 World Snooker Championship, Si won three qualifying matches to reach the tournament's final stages at the Crucible Theatre for the first time. He defeated Murphy, Robert Milkins, and Anthony McGill as he progressed to the semi-finals, becoming the first Crucible debutant to reach the last four since Andy Hicks in 1995. Although he led 14–5 in the semi-final, he lost 15–17 to the eventual winner Luca Brecel; this nine-frame deficit was the largest lead overturned in the history of the World Championship. He advanced from 80th to 36th in the world rankings after the tournament. ## Early life Born on 11 July 2002, in the Dongbaihu [zh] district of Zhuji, in Zhejiang, Si resided with his parents in Hangzhou. He competed in table tennis tournaments as a child, winning second place in a school tournament and competing in other tournaments in the city. He became interested in cue sports after his father opened a pool club dedicated to Chinese eight-ball. Si showed talent at the sport, and his father pressured him to excel at it. By age 10, Si was practising for 13 hours a day under the supervision of his father and beating all other players at the club. Si entered a nine-ball tournament in Shanghai for elementary school students, where he was runner-up. At the tournament, his father met another father whose son was training at a snooker academy in Guangdong. In September 2013, aged 11, Si left school and moved to Guangdong, accompanied by his father, where he began playing snooker. At age 12, he began training at the Wiraka Billiard Academy in Foshan, where he was coached by Roger Leighton. At 14, he defeated former world number one Ding Junhui 3–2 in a national tournament. At age 16, Si moved to the United Kingdom. He joined Victoria’s Snooker Academy in Sheffield, a stable of mostly Chinese players managed by former snooker journalist Victoria Shi. Other players at the Academy upon Si's arrival included Zhao Xintong, Yan Bingtao, and Fan Zhengyi. ## Career In May 2019, Si received a two-year professional tour card through Q School for the 2019–20 and 2020–21 seasons. However, he was relegated from the World Snooker Tour after finishing the 2020–21 season 92nd in the snooker world rankings, below the cut-off at 64th position. Si spent the 2021–22 season competing as an amateur, but earned top-up places in ranking tournaments through his high placement in the Q School rankings. At the 2021 UK Championship, he defeated former world champion Shaun Murphy 6–5 in the first round. In a BBC radio interview after the match, Murphy objected to amateur players featuring in professional events, saying that he had "lost to someone who shouldn’t even be in the building". The World Snooker Tour issued a statement disagreeing with these remarks, and Murphy subsequently apologised for "taking the shine off" Si's win. Towards the end of the season, Si won the 2022 World Snooker Federation Open amateur event, defeating Lee Stephens 5–0 in the final. This win earned him a two-year professional tour card for the 2022–23 and 2023–24 seasons. At the 2022 European Masters, he defeated Anthony McGill and Daniel Wells to reach his first quarter-final at a ranking event, which he lost 2–5 to Kyren Wilson. Ranked 80th in the world rankings, he qualified for the main stage of the 2023 World Snooker Championship after defeating Florian Nüßle 10–7, Tom Ford 10–5, and Jordan Brown 10–7 in the qualifying rounds. In the first round at the Crucible Theatre, Si defeated Murphy 10–9. On this occasion, Murphy commented on how well Si had played, saying he had been "fabulous". Si defeated Robert Milkins 13–7 in the second round and McGill 13–12 in the quarter-finals, becoming the first Crucible debutant to reach the World Championship semi-finals since Andy Hicks in 1995 and the youngest player to do so since Ronnie O'Sullivan in 1996. Si lost 15–17 to Luca Brecel in the semi-finals after Brecel, from 5–14 down, won 12 of the last 13 frames. Si advanced from 80th to 36th in the world rankings as a result of his performance at the tournament. ## Personal life Si lives in Sheffield during the snooker season. He did not see his family or his girlfriend during the COVID-19 pandemic; after the 2023 Welsh Open, he visited China for the first time in three years. He enjoys music and movies. His favourite film is Green Book. During the 2020–21 season, he dyed his hair blue. ## Performance and rankings timeline ## Career finals ### Amateur finals: 3 (2 titles)
413,434	Baltimore–Washington Parkway	1,169,881,339	Highway in Maryland, United States	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Freeways in the United States", "Historic American Engineering Record in Maryland", "Limited-access roads in Maryland", "National Capital Parks-East", "National Park Service areas in Maryland", "National Register of Historic Places in Annapolis, Maryland", "National Register of Historic Places in Baltimore County, Maryland", "National Register of Historic Places in Prince George's County, Maryland", "Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland", "Roads in Anne Arundel County, Maryland", "Roads in Baltimore", "Roads in Baltimore County, Maryland", "Roads in Prince George's County, Maryland", "Roads on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland", "United States federal parkways" ]	The Baltimore–Washington Parkway (also referred to as the B–W Parkway) is a limited-access highway in the U.S. state of Maryland, running southwest from Baltimore to Washington, D.C. The road begins at an interchange with U.S. Route 50 (US 50) near Cheverly in Prince George's County at the Washington, D.C. border, and continues northeast as a parkway maintained by the National Park Service (NPS) to MD 175 near Fort Meade, serving many federal institutions. This portion of the parkway is dedicated to Gladys Noon Spellman, a representative of Maryland's 5th congressional district, and has the unsigned Maryland Route 295 (MD 295) designation. Commercial vehicles, including trucks, are prohibited within this stretch. This section is administered by the NPS's Greenbelt Park unit. After leaving park service boundaries the highway is maintained by the state and signed with the MD 295 designation. This section of the parkway passes near Baltimore–Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport. Upon entering Baltimore, the Baltimore Department of Transportation takes over maintenance of the road and it continues north to an interchange with Interstate 95 (I-95). Here, the Baltimore–Washington Parkway ends and MD 295 continues north unsigned on Russell Street, which carries the route north into downtown Baltimore. In downtown Baltimore, MD 295 follows Paca Street northbound and Greene Street southbound before ending at US 40. Plans for a parkway linking Baltimore and Washington date back to Pierre Charles L'Enfant's original layout for Washington, D.C. in the 18th century but did not fully develop until the 1920s. Major reasons surrounding the need for a parkway included high accident rates on adjacent US 1 and defense purposes before World War II. In the mid-1940s, plans for the design of the parkway were finalized and construction began in 1947 for the state-maintained portion and in 1950 for the NPS-maintained segment. The entire parkway opened to traffic in stages between 1950 and 1954. Following completion of the B–W Parkway, suburban growth took place in both Washington, D.C. and Baltimore. In the 1960s and the 1970s, there were plans to give the segment of the parkway owned by the NPS to the state and make it a part of I-295 and possibly I-95; however, they never came through and the entire road is today designated as MD 295, despite only being signed on the state-maintained portion. Between the 1980s and the 2000s, the NPS portion of the road was modernized. MD 295 is in the process of being widened from four to six lanes, with more widening and a new interchange along this segment planned for the future. ## Route description ### NPS segment The parkway begins at a large hybrid cloverleaf just outside the Washington, D.C. boundary at Tuxedo, Maryland that is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration. Two routes converge at the southern and western ends of the interchange: US 50, which heads west into Washington, D.C. to become New York Avenue; and MD 201, which begins at the D.C. line along the northern end of the Kenilworth Avenue Freeway (which continues into the District of Columbia as D.C. Route 295). US 50 continues east from this interchange as the John Hanson Highway, a freeway, and MD 201 continues north on Kenilworth Avenue, a surface road that closely parallels the B–W Parkway to the east past the interchange. The portion of the B–W Parkway between the southern terminus and MD 175 is maintained by the National Park Service (NPS). From its southern terminus, the road continues north as a six-lane limited-access parkway with the unsigned MD 295 designation, containing brown signs featuring the Clarendon typeface. Along this section of the parkway, commercial vehicles such as trucks are prohibited; however, buses and limousines are allowed. The parkway heads through wooded surroundings near industrial areas and passes over the Alexandria Extension of CSX's Capital Subdivision railroad line and MD 201, where there is a ramp from southbound MD 201 to the southbound B–W Parkway. It continues northeast, passing near Prince George's Hospital Center, to interchanges with MD 202 (Landover Road) in Cheverly and with MD 450 (Annapolis Road) in Bladensburg and Landover Hills and the former Capital Plaza Mall. Bladensburg itself is a historical waterfront town that consists of houses dating back to the mid-18th century. It continues north as a four-lane road with a wide, tree-filled median, and passes through woodland, skirting residential neighborhoods hidden by the trees. The road has a junction with MD 410 (Riverdale Road) west of New Carrollton. This route provides access to the towns of Riverdale Park, which features an 1801 mansion named Riversdale surrounded by suburban development, and Hyattsville, which has buildings dating back to the railroad days of the 1870s and the streetcar and automobile days of the early 20th century. North of here, the route runs near more residences before entering Greenbelt, a suburban garden community built as a model "green town" during the New Deal program in the 1930s, and Greenbelt Park, a park under the jurisdiction of the NPS that has the nearest public camping area to Washington, D.C. In the northeastern corner of the park, the Baltimore–Washington Parkway comes to an interchange with I-95 and I-495 (the Capital Beltway). This interchange is the only place where the park service has used green signs compliant with the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). Just past the Capital Beltway, the route heads into the heart of the city of Greenbelt, having an interchange with MD 193 (Greenbelt Road). The headquarters of the U.S. Park Police, which patrol this portion of the parkway, is located off this exit along MD 193. MD 193 provides access to College Park, which is home to the College Park Airport, a 1909 airport where the Wright Brothers taught the U.S. Army how to fly an airplane, and the University of Maryland, College Park, a public educational institution established in 1862. At the northern edge of the town, the route has employee-only access to the Goddard Space Flight Center, the first NASA space flight center opened in 1958 that contributed majorly to many space missions; from here, the route then enters the Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, the largest agricultural research center in the world owned by the United States Department of Agriculture. The parkway's only interchange within the center is at Powder Mill Road, south of Capitol College. Outside the Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, the parkway comes to MD 197 (Laurel–Bowie Road) south of Laurel. Near this exit of the parkway is the Montpelier Mansion, a Georgian mansion built by Major Thomas Snowden in 1783. Past MD 197, the road passes through the western edge of the Patuxent National Wildlife Research Refuge, a wildlife center established in 1936 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, crossing the Patuxent River into Anne Arundel County. Here the parkway continues northeast through dense woodland and comes to the exit for MD 198 (Fort Meade Road) to the east of Laurel, which itself is a suburb that originated in the 1830s as a mill town that contains many historical sites such as the Laurel Railroad Station (still used today by MARC Train), an 1844 Queen Anne house, and an 1840s millworkers house that is home to the Laurel Museum. Continuing north, the parkway encounters MD 32 (Savage Road) near Fort Meade. MD 32 offers northbound travelers direct access into the fort and to the National Security Agency, while the next interchange, another employee-only access road into Fort Meade, features only a southbound exit and northbound entrance. Fort Meade itself is a military installation opened in 1917 that trained 3.5 million troops during World War II and is still a major fort. To the west of the parkway off MD 32 is the Savage Mill, which was an operating cotton mill from 1822 to 1947 and is currently an antique mall, and the Bollman Truss Railroad Bridge, an 1869 cast and wrought iron bridge along the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which is now CSX's Capital Subdivision, line between Baltimore and Washington D.C. After this interchange, the road continues to a cloverleaf interchange with MD 175 (Jessup Road), where NPS maintenance of the parkway comes to an end at the south end of the interchange. ### Maryland Route 295 Past the MD 175 junction, MD 295 signage begins and the road continues north as a four-lane grade-separated freeway maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration, where the truck ban ends. This permits trucks to serve into Fort Meade from Baltimore and BWI Airport. This section of the road features standard MUTCD green signage. It heads through wooded areas and comes to a diverging diamond interchange with MD 713F (Arundel Mills Boulevard), which provides access to the Arundel Mills shopping mall and the Live! Casino & Hotel. Past this interchange, MD 295 comes to a cloverleaf interchange with MD 100. Continuing northeast, the route curves to the northwest of Baltimore–Washington International Airport (the largest airport in Maryland), passing near an industrial park before reaching I-195, the main access road to the airport. Within this interchange, before passing under I-195, the road crosses over Amtrak's Northeast Corridor. I-195 westbound provides access from the Baltimore–Washington Parkway to the Thomas Viaduct, which carries the B&O railroad line over the Patapsco River, and Patapsco Valley State Park, a 14,000-acre (57 km<sup>2</sup>) state park that preserves the valley of the Patapsco River for recreational purposes. Still on a northeast track, the route widens to six lanes and intersects West Nursery Road near Linthicum, adjacent to the BWI Hotel District. Past West Nursery Road, the road meets I-695 (the Baltimore Beltway) at a full cloverleaf interchange. Turning north, the route passes under MD 168 (Nursery Road) before crossing the Patapsco River into Baltimore County. Upon crossing into Baltimore County, MD 295 reaches a partial interchange with I-895 (Harbor Tunnel Thruway), with access from northbound MD 295 to northbound I-895 and from southbound I-895 to southbound MD 295. Past I-895, the road continues through wooded surrounding with residential developments behind the trees, before entering the city of Baltimore. In Baltimore, MD 295 continues as a limited-access freeway maintained by the Baltimore Department of Transportation, still surrounded by trees with urban residential and industrial neighborhoods nearby, passing under the Curtis Bay Branch of CSX's Baltimore Terminal Subdivision railroad line and coming to an interchange with MD 648 (Annapolis Road) and Waterview Avenue just beyond the city line. Now running due north, the parkway heads over CSX's Hanover Subdivision railroad line before it reaches its northern terminus at I-95. At the I-95 interchange, there are also ramps connecting to Monroe Street. MD 295 downgrades from a limited-access freeway to a six-lane divided city street called Russell Street. MD 295 continues northeast on Russell Street, where it is unsigned for the remainder of the route, through a mix of industrial and commercial areas, heading to the northwest of the Baltimore Greyhound Terminal at Haines Street and the Horseshoe Casino Baltimore. Farther north, the street passes over CSX's Baltimore Terminal Subdivision railroad line before it heads to the west of M&T Bank Stadium, where the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League play. Past here, the road features an interchange with Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard, which becomes I-395 south of Russell Street. After this interchange, MD 295 runs west of Oriole Park at Camden Yards, home to Major League Baseball's Baltimore Orioles, as a four-lane divided street. Immediately after Camden Yards, MD 295 splits into a one-way pair at the intersection with Washington Boulevard with northbound traffic following Eislen Street northeast briefly before heading north on Paca Street and southbound traffic following Greene Street. Along the one-way pair, the route intersects many major streets in downtown Baltimore, including Pratt Street, Lombard Street, Baltimore Street, Fayette Street, and Saratoga Street. Greene Street passes the University of Maryland Medical Center between Lombard Street and Baltimore Street, the Baltimore VA Medical Center between Baltimore Street and Fayette Street, and Westminster Hall and Burying Ground at the corner of Fayette Street. Paca Street passes by the Sonneborn Building north of Pratt Street; the Heiser, Rosenfeld, and Strauss Buildings north of Lombard Street; the historic Paca Street Firehouse and Sanitary Laundry Company Building just north of the intersection with Fayette Street; and Lexington Market at the intersection with Lexington Street. MD 295 reaches its northern terminus at US 40, which follows Mulberry Street eastbound and Franklin Street westbound, in downtown Baltimore. MD 129 continues north from the northern terminus of MD 295, following Paca Street northbound and Pennsylvania Avenue southbound. ## History ### Planning Plans for a parkway connecting Baltimore and Washington date back to the 1920s as a part of a system that was initially included in Pierre Charles L'Enfant's layout of Washington, D.C from the 18th century. In 1924, Harry W. Nice, who would later become Governor of Maryland, called for the parkway to be constructed. Early proposals made by the National Capital Park and Planning Commission involved a route that followed US 1 north to MD 198, then east to Fort Meade, but lack of funding led to simpler plans to widen US 1 instead. During the 1930s, the New Deal programs promulgated by President Franklin Roosevelt led to a heightened awareness of the parkway proposals; a 1937 report by the Maryland State Planning Commission increased awareness further. Increasing accident levels on US 1 (which was called one of the deadliest roads in the world at the time) along with awareness of the need to mobilize national defense before World War II provided additional motivation for construction of the parkway. In 1942, the Bureau of Public Roads began the process to start the construction design for the parkway. Federal and state officials commissioned the firm J. E. Greiner Company to create designs for the parkway, which included a large Y-junction at the southern terminus to connect with New York Avenue and the proposed Anacostia Freeway. Meanwhile, the northern end included a similar wye, with one end running to US 40 (Franklin Street) and the other end crossing the Inner Harbor, but this was modified in 1945 to the current configuration. ### Construction Construction on the northern portion of the highway began in 1947 by the state of Maryland, while construction on the NPS segment started in 1950. The land for the portion that was to be built by the NPS was acquired at the same time as Greenbelt Park, a park that is under the jurisdiction of the NPS. The state-maintained portion was completed in December 1950 between MD 46 (now I-195) and Hollins Ferry Road at the Baltimore city line and in 1952 from MD 175 to MD 46. The portion of the parkway within the city of Baltimore opened in 1951 while the NPS-maintained portion opened in October 1954. The portion of the road not maintained by the NPS was known as the Baltimore–Washington Expressway while the section maintained by the NPS was called the Baltimore–Washington Parkway. ### Post-construction Around the time the highway was completed, the federal government began to promote suburbanization by moving several federal agencies out of the capital in order to protect them against nuclear attack. As a result, suburban neighborhoods began to appear in Laurel, Severn, Bowie, and Greenbelt. In addition, the road became a prime commuting route into both Washington and Baltimore, leading to suburban growth that would eventually cause the two distinct cities to merge into one large metropolitan area. In 1963, the State Roads Commission, the National Park Service, and the Bureau of Public Roads (the predecessor of the Federal Highway Administration) (FHWA) created tentative plans to transfer the NPS segment of the parkway to the state of Maryland, who would then rebuild it to modern freeway standards, with trucks and buses permitted throughout. The plan collapsed due to the state's reluctance to spend the money necessary to reconstruct the parkway, which was one of the most dangerous roads in the NPS road system. In 1965, the Goddard Space Flight Center constructed the interchange for its employee entrance. In 1968, the State Roads Commission proposed to the FHWA that the parkway be included in the Interstate Highway System and designated Interstate 295 (in anticipation of the completion of the parallel-running I-95 that occurred in 1971). The designation was granted in 1969, but later withdrawn from all except the current portion signed as I-295 due to lack of funds available to modernize the route. As a result of the withdrawal of the Interstate designation, the parkway remained an unnumbered road south of I-695 while the portion north of there became a part of MD 3 by 1975. Despite this setback, however, plans still existed to widen the parkway to six or even eight lanes. Even though the 1970 Federal Highway Act provided \$65 million (equivalent to \$ in ) for this purpose, funding was insufficient to execute these projects. The cancellation of the North Central Freeway and the Northeast Freeway (I-95's routing between New York Avenue and the College Park Interchange) offered a chance for modernization, as plans existed to route I-95 via the B–W Parkway; however, this did not happen and trucks were banned from the parkway again. By 1973, MD 3 was designated along the Baltimore–Washington Expressway between I-695 and Monroe Street in Baltimore. MD 295 was designated along the state-maintained portions of the expressway, replacing the MD 3 designation between I-695 and Monroe Street, by 1981. By the 1990s, the portion of the road known as the Baltimore–Washington Expressway became known as the Baltimore–Washington Parkway. In the mid-1980s, the National Park Service, along with the Federal Highway Administration, began a reconstruction of the NPS segment to modernize the road, including the improvement of several interchanges. Around 2002, the federal government completed the project with the reconstruction of the MD 197 interchange. In 2004, Maryland Governor Robert L. Ehrlich announced plans to widen portions of MD 295 near Baltimore–Washington International Airport. The MDSHA widened the parkway from two lanes on each side to three lanes on each side from I-195 north to I-695. Construction on the \$12.4 million project, which began in late 2008, was completed in late 2011. The widening made use of the median as the extra travel lanes were to be added inside of each carriageway. The Maryland State Highway Administration closed the southbound ramps of the interchange between the Baltimore–Washington Parkway and Arundel Mills Boulevard starting Monday, May 7, 2012. The closure was for the expedited replacement of the existing dumbbell interchange with Maryland's first diverging diamond interchange. The new interchange was part of \$5 million in road upgrades being funded by the Cordish Company ahead of the June 6 opening of the company's Maryland Live! development, which features a casino, near Arundel Mills. The new interchange opened on June 11. ### Dedications In 1983, the NPS-maintained section of the Baltimore–Washington Parkway was named in honor of Gladys Noon Spellman, a congresswoman who represented Maryland's 5th congressional district from January 3, 1975, to January 3, 1981, after a bill introduced into the United States Senate by Senator Paul Sarbanes was signed into law. Gladys Noon Spellman was an educator in Prince George's County and chairperson of the National Mental Health Study Center before becoming the first woman to serve on the county's Board of Commissioners. She suffered a heart attack that ended her congressional career on October 31, 1980, leaving her in a coma until her death on June 19, 1988. On May 9, 1991, the Baltimore–Washington Parkway was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. ### Incidents In 1989, an overpass being built at MD 198 over the B–W Parkway just east of Laurel collapsed during rush hour, injuring fourteen motorists and construction workers. The incident was blamed on faulty scaffolding used to support the uncompleted span. On July 9, 2005, a sinkhole opened beneath the parkway at a construction site, leading to the complete closure of the northbound roadway. The sinkhole was filled with concrete to shore up the roadbed and prevent further collapse; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers attempted to expedite repairs, but the route remained closed until the next day. On August 24, 2007, both directions of the parkway were closed when chunks of concrete fell from the overpass at MD 193 (Greenbelt Road) onto the northbound lanes. ### Renovation MD 295 is planned to be widened to six lanes between MD 100 and I-195, and a new interchange is planned to be constructed at Hanover Road. The type of interchange has not yet been decided upon with choices including a diamond interchange, a single-point urban interchange, and a modified cloverleaf interchange. Planning for the \$24 million project concluded in 2012. In September 2017, Governor Larry Hogan announced a plan to widen the Baltimore–Washington Parkway by four lanes, adding express toll lanes to the median, as part of a \$9 billion proposal to widen roads in Maryland. The project would be a public-private partnership with private companies responsible for constructing, operating, and maintaining the lanes. As part of the proposal, the portion of the parkway owned by the National Park Service would be transferred to the Maryland Transportation Authority. In 2019, portions of the National Park Service segment of the Baltimore–Washington Parkway experienced significant pavement deterioration, including several potholes. In March 2019, the speed limit was reduced on the section of the parkway between MD 197 and MD 32 due to poor road conditions. After pressure from Governor Hogan and the state's congressional delegation, the National Park Service announced that emergency pothole repairs will take place from MD 197 to MD 198 on the weekend of March 30–31, 2019, with a complete repave to begin in April 2019, several months ahead of schedule. Repaving of the section between MD 198 and MD 175 occurred later in the year. ## Exit list ## See also - National Register of Historic Places listings in Anne Arundel County, Maryland - National Register of Historic Places listings in Prince George's County, Maryland - National Register of Historic Places listings in Baltimore County, Maryland - National Register of Historic Places listings in Baltimore, Maryland
31,433,778	Marry the Night	1,167,099,359	2011 single by Lady Gaga	[ "2011 singles", "2011 songs", "Electronic rock songs", "Interscope Records singles", "Kylie Minogue songs", "Lady Gaga songs", "Song recordings produced by Fernando Garibay", "Song recordings produced by Lady Gaga", "Songs written by Fernando Garibay", "Songs written by Lady Gaga" ]	"Marry the Night" is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Lady Gaga for her second studio album, Born This Way (2011). The track was initially released for promotion on FarmVille, six days before the release of Born This Way. It was released as the fifth and initially final single from the album before "Bloody Mary" in 2022 on November 11, 2011, by Interscope Records. The song was written and produced by Gaga and Fernando Garibay, and was recorded on the tour bus during The Monster Ball Tour. Revealed in February 2011, "Marry the Night" was inspired by the energy of Gaga's previous songs like "Dance in the Dark" and her love for her hometown, New York City. "Marry the Night" is a dance-pop and synth-pop song influenced by electro rock and house music. The track features electronic church bells, a driving electro organ sound, techno beats and a funk rock influenced breakdown. The lyrics are a tribute to Gaga's love of the nightlife and partying, while serving as a homage to her hometown. "Marry the Night" received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised its grand and euphoric dance nature. They furthermore found influences of Italian disco music producer Giorgio Moroder and American rock musician Bruce Springsteen in the song. After the release of Born This Way, "Marry the Night" charted in some nations due to digital sales from the parent album. Gaga directed the music video, which was filmed in New York City. It tells the story of when she was signed by her label Interscope Records after being dropped from her former record label, Def Jam Recordings, with scenes in a clinic, a dance studio, her own New York apartment and on a car's rooftop at a parking lot. She sports outfits by Calvin Klein Collection, Yves Saint Laurent and Stéphane Rolland. Prior to its release, the music video was teased with video stills and previews. Critics wrote positively on the clip, deeming it creative and ambitious, while lauding its narrative theme. Gaga has performed the song at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards, The X Factor, and as the final song of her Born This Way Ball tour (2012–2013). She also recorded an acoustic version for her Thanksgiving Day special, A Very Gaga Thanksgiving. ## Writing and recording "Marry the Night" was written by Lady Gaga and Fernando Garibay while on the road for The Monster Ball Tour, and was produced by both. It was first mentioned by Gaga as a track from her album, Born This Way on Ryan Seacrest's radio show, where she described it as one of her favorite songs from the album. Gaga and Garibay had worked previously on the song "Dance in the Dark" (2009), from Gaga's previous release, The Fame Monster. Before starting work on "Marry the Night", Gaga listened to "Dance in the Dark" and decided she wanted to top that song's energy with her new collaboration with Garibay. "I remember being backstage and hearing the concert start, so I go out there and hear 'Dance in the Dark' open up the whole concert, and I wanted to outdo that feeling. I wanted to outdo that moment that opens up the show. I'm just that way." Wanting to have a new style of music, Gaga made it clear she did not want her fans to like the song. She wanted to write a song that could define where she was with Born This Way and her life. In an interview with NME, Gaga explained that the main inspiration behind the song was singer Whitney Houston and also added: "This song is about me going back to New York. I wrote this about the courage it took for me to say 'I hate Hollywood, I just wanna live in Brooklyn and make music'". As Gaga performed on The Monster Ball Tour, Garibay started working on the music of the song. After the show was over, Gaga came back to her studio bus and asked him about the progress. Garibay then explained that he had concocted a different kind of music for the song, and played the church-bell inspired music to Gaga. After first hearing it, the singer said that she started to cry, noticing the vastness of the music, and she started writing the lyrics for "Marry the Night". "Marry the Night" was originally recorded on the Bus Studio in 2010, but was later mixed at The Mix Room in Burbank, California by Dave Russell, assisted by Paul Pavao. Gaga described the song as a "massive, gas-station, disco record", and she recorded it immediately after completing the lyrics. According to Garibay, Gaga meditated for a few minutes and then asked him to hand over a recording microphone to her, completing the process within an hour. ## Composition "Marry the Night" is a dance-pop and synthpop song with electro rock and house influences. The song starts out with electronic church bells and Gaga softly singing "I'm gonna marry the night/I won't give up on my life/I'm a warrior queen/Live passionately tonight." Soon the beat changes into a dance one, accompanied with techno beats, handclaps and funk music, and moves to the chorus, where Gaga stutters the line "Ma-ma-ma-marry/Ma-ma-ma-marry/Ma-ma-ma-marry the night". It was compared by Tim Jonze from The Guardian to the Eurodance song, "It's My Life" by Dr Alban, while Nicola James from MTV compared the chorus with Jennifer Lopez's 1999 single "Waiting for Tonight". In a pre-release review of certain album tracks, Peter Robinson from the NME blog wrote that Gaga channels "Whitney Houston-esque pop euphoria" into the song, notably that from the singer's musical peak. The chorus is followed by a funk-rock influenced breakdown, where Gaga sings the line: "Nothing's too cool/To take me from you/New York is not just a tan that you'll never lose." According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, "Marry the Night" was written in the time signature of common time, with a slow tempo of 64 beats per minute for the intro, followed by a driving pop beat of 132 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of A minor with Gaga's vocal range spanning from G<sub>3</sub> to E<sub>5</sub>. It follows a basic sequence of Am–Dm/A–F/A–G as its chord progression. The church bells in the song were meant to draw parallels between Gaga's fans and members of a religion or a cult. The lyrics are about partying and wreaking havoc during the night, and serves as a homage to the New York City downtown music scene. Evan Sawdey from PopMatters described the lyrics as a "'let's take the night' rallying cry." ## Release "Marry the Night" was planned to be the lead single from Born This Way, but was cancelled in favor of the title track. "Marry the Night" was then supposed to be the third single, but was cancelled yet again, this time in favor of "The Edge of Glory". Gaga first premiered "Marry the Night" on the HBO Monster Ball Special, which aired on May 7, 2011. While backstage, she sang a cappella: "I'm gonna marry the night/ I won't give up on my life/ I'm a warrior queen/ Live passionately tonight." During the promotional appearances for Born This Way, Gaga released "Marry the Night" to the online game FarmVille on May 17, 2011. The song was released on Gagaville, a subdivision of Farmville that Gaga helped design with game promotion company Zynga. Four months since the release of Born This Way, "Marry the Night" was confirmed as the fifth single from the album by Gaga herself. In September 2011, Interscope Records, Gaga's label, stated that while "Marry the Night" is sure to be released as the fifth single internationally, they were undecided which song would serve in its place in the US. Gaga confirmed the single's UK release for November 21, 2011, which included remixes. The date was pushed back to December 11, 2011, however. Gaga's label later decided to release "Marry the Night" in the United States as well; it was added to the playlists of rhythmic and mainstream music radio on November 15, 2011. On October 17, 2011, Gaga revealed the official artwork for "Marry the Night" via TwitPic, citing the lyrics from the bridge of the song, "New York Is Not Just A Tan That You'll Never Lose". The artwork shows her sitting atop a rain-soaked car while another vehicle burns in the background. She is wearing a pair of over-the-knee leather boots, a sculpted top and shorts while shaking her blond hair. AOL's Contessa Gayles described the artwork as a "mysterious night-crawler." ## Critical reception Since its release, "Marry the Night" has garnered generally positive reviews; Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the song a positive review, saying it "glistens with a neon pulse". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine named "Marry the Night" a stand-out track on the album and called it "a worthy successor to 'Dance in the Dark'". BBC Music's Mark Savage called "Marry the Night" as perfect as "a straightforward fist-pumping entry into a colossus can be." Christian Blauvelt of Entertainment Weekly compared the song with the work of Italian record producer Giorgio Moroder. Caryn Ganz of Spin was impressed with the track, calling it a "four-on-the-floor banger." Tim Jonze of The Guardian compared the chorus of the song "It's My Life" by Dr Alban and felt that it was easily forgotten compared to some of the bigger dance songs on the album. Rolling Stone's was impressed with the fact that "Marry the Night" just seemed to get "bigger, and bigger" to her, while listing pop and glam metal and artists like Pat Benatar, Bonnie Tyler and Bon Jovi as its influences. According to Kitty Empire of The Observer, "'Marry the Night', is a blowsy carpe [noctem] affair which draws on hi-NRG club-pop for its modus operandi." Evan Sawdey from PopMatters gave the song a negative review, saying "'Marry the Night' very much wants to be top-notch Justice knockoff, but by adding a bridge of upbeat platitudes and an utterly pointless instrumental section after the 3:30 mark, she ultimately winds up weakening the power of her 'let's take the night' rallying cry". Kerri Mason from Billboard found influences of gothic rock in it, but went on to call it an "unapologetic disco-powered pop" that could have been a production number on Gaga's debut album, The Fame (2008). Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph gave an analogy with rock musician "Meat Loaf going to the disco", while describing the song. NME's Dan Martin felt that the song, although impressive, was conservative as the opening song of Born This Way. He further found similarities to the work of Moroder and influences of Bruce Springsteen's 1975 single, "Born to Run". Robert Copsey of the website Digital Spy called the song an "electro-thumping number with euphoric synths and uplifting melody" which according to him further drew comparison to Gaga's own song "Born This Way". Copsey further stated that "This is no bad thing, as it's less in-yer-face, and it's 'M-m-m-marry the night' hook is equally as catchy." Awarding the song with four out of five stars Lewis Corner of the same website wrote: "'I'm gonna marry the night/ I won't give up on my life/ I'm a warrior queen, live passionately, tonight,' GaGa calls out over a suitably grand introduction of deistic bells and rumbling techno synths – the result not to dissimilar, we imagine, to Paul Van Dyk playing an organ at a wedding ceremony. Defiant and epic, the track feeds into Stef's cult-focused fan base like a prophet calling upon their disciples – and given it's the single they've been waiting for, we have no doubt they'll come in their droves." In 2019, Billboard ranked the song number four on their list of the 15 greatest Lady Gaga songs, and in 2020, The Guardian ranked the song number 11 on their list of the 30 greatest Lady Gaga songs. In 2021, an article from Billboard regarding the 100 best musical bridges of the 21st century featured "Marry the Night" at number 50, saying "the Born This Way leadoff is one of Gaga's most barnstorming singles, less of an album opener than a theatrical curtain-raiser, and the bridge makes sure that it doesn't spend so much time on the dancefloor it forgets its streetwise roots, giving it a little Bon Jovi muscle to match its Donna Summer sheen." ## Chart performance Following the release of Born This Way on May 23, 2011, "Marry the Night" debuted at number 57 on the United States Billboard Hot Digital Songs Chart with sales of 35,000 digital downloads, allowing it to enter the Billboard Hot 100 at number 79. On the issue dated December 3, 2011, "Marry the Night" re-entered the chart at number 97, and moved to number 59 the second week. For the fourth week on the chart, the song moved to number 32 on the Hot 100. It sold 20,000 digital downloads (up by 163%) and garnered 23 million audience impressions as per Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems. The song has peaked at number 29 on the chart, becoming Gaga's first radio-promoted single not to reach the top ten and ending her streak of eleven consecutive top ten hits. "Marry the Night" debuted at number 24 on the Pop Songs, which is the third-highest debut on that chart in 2011, following Gaga's "Born This Way" (number 14) and Britney Spears' "Hold It Against Me" (number 16). The following week, it jumped to number 18, becoming Gaga's twelfth consecutive top-twenty on the US pop chart; it has peaked at 14 on the chart. "Marry the Night" debuted at numbers 37 and 33 on the Adult Pop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs chart, and has reached peaks of 27 and the top of the chart respectively. The number-one peak of "Marry the Night" on Hot Dance Club Songs was achieved in five weeks, and was tied with Gaga's previous single "Telephone" as her second fastest ascent to the top of that chart. The song was Gaga's twelfth number-one single on Hot Dance Club Songs. In October 2017, "Marry the Night" was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and as of April 2015, it has sold 713,000 copies in the United States. In Canada, the song entered at number 91 on the Canadian Hot 100, while debuting on the Canadian Digital Songs chart at number 50. It has reached a peak of number 11 there. In South Korea, "Marry the Night" reached number eleven on the Gaon International Singles Chart. Its other chart positions included reaching number 38 on the Ultratop 50 chart of Belgium's Walloon region, and number 16 on the UK Singles Chart. In the United Kingdom, "Marry the Night" had initially entered the chart during the release of Born This Way for one week, but later re-entered after its single release. In Ireland, "Marry the Night" debuted at number 34 on the Irish Singles Chart on November 18, 2011, and has reached a peak of number 24. In Australia, "Marry the Night" debuted at number 88 on the ARIA Singles Chart and peaked at number 80. In Germany, the song debuted at number 44 on the German Singles Chart on November 23, 2011, and has reached a peak of number 17. ## Music video ### Background and development Gaga filmed parts of the music video for "Marry the Night" in Staten Island and Harlem, New York, from October 10 to 13, 2011. On October 17, Gaga posted on her Twitter account that she had finished filming and could not "wait to unfold all its secrets and share with you moments from my past I have yet to reveal". Talking about the filming of the video, Lynn Kelly, a CEO of the Snug Harbor Cultural Center, where the video was shot said, > We found both her and her crew to be easy to work with and low-key. I think we would have expected a lot of drama, and the truth is, she is probably the most down-to-earth person. It was endearing. She was friendly and kind. ... I think, for us, we're so excited to have someone of her talent, and to have somebody like that shoot here is a sheer honor. What her music does for music is so much more than entertainment. It's connecting to the arts on a much deeper level, and that's what I hope we can do here." On October 11, 2011, several publications announced that Gaga was seen during the filming of the video in Snug Harbor Cultural Center. She was wearing a custom-made double zip lambskin jumpsuit by New York City designer, Asher Levine which was said to go along with the video's "grungy" and "bloody" theme and with the "nod to New York downtown refinement." Dancers and extras were spotted dressed in multiple looks: some as ballerinas and others in leopard print while Gaga's mother was also seen on stage. Later, other photos of the filming were published on several websites and they showed Gaga with blue lipstick and a leather romper with several male dancers, in a long-sleeve red dress with padded shoulders, a satellite dish and a big black hat. Footage of the video was posted online on October 14, 2011. Gaga is seen dancing on the roof of a car as she sings the bridge from the song. She then slides down the car and begins running around the hood as the chorus starts. She's dressed in black, with a blond bob wig and black heels while rain is visible in the background, but she appears unfazed by the weather. During an interview with NDTV on October 31, Gaga revealed that she directed the video. She also worked with the director of photography Darius Khondji and art director Gideon Ponte. ### Release Gaga teased on Twitter that the video would be her longest and "the beginning of the story I never told you." On November 11, 2011, she posted a still from the video on Twitter that shows her as she is sent down a hallway on a stretcher by two nurses. The post was accompanied by the message "It's not that I've been dishonest, it's just that I loathe reality." James Montgomery of MTV News compared the scene—known as "The Prelude Pathétique"—to the 1975 drama film One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and the 1980 horror film The Shining. Gaga teased a two-minute opening sequence of the music video on November 17, 2011, after her performance at Children In Need Rocks Manchester. On November 20, Gaga went on Alan Carr: Chatty Man and explained the meaning behind the "Marry the Night" music video. "I know how rejection feels in the business. I got signed, I got dropped, I got signed again. That's actually what the 'Marry the Night' video is about. It's about one of the most horrible days of my life when I got dropped from my first record label and it's the story of what happened that day." A second preview of the music video, shot in a dance studio, premiered on November 25, 2011. Gaga told Vanity Fair magazine that the video is "autobiographical" and illustrates "the worst day of my life." The entire video premiered on December 1, 2011 on E! Online at 8.00 pm EST. However, the video appeared online several hours before its official release. Gaga took her Twitter to express dissatisfaction with the leak of the video, saying that it was "like an old tampon." The video for the song is 13 minutes long. ### Synopsis The autobiographical story begins as a brunette Gaga is taken through a clinic on a stretcher, while an inner monologue about her past memories is heard. The nurses wear Calvin Klein Collection uniforms and Giuseppe Zanotti shoes. A nurse awakens Gaga and checks her heart rate and blood pressure. The nurse then tells Gaga how beautiful she is and how she looked just like her mother when she delivered the former. Gaga then claims that her mother was a saint, before taking a cigarette out of her bag. The nurse, startled by this, quickly then takes the cigarette out of her mouth and puts it on a table. Gaga cries and tells the nurse that she will become a star. She asks the nurse to play music and the camera zooms out to show viewers several female patients treated and wandering off. A new scene shows Gaga practicing ballet dancing to piano music, and a following one shows her taken back from the hospital to her New York apartment by her best friend Bo. Ludwig van Beethoven's "Piano Sonata No. 8" plays. Gaga is undressed from an outfit designed by Stéphane Rolland and taken to bed, but is interrupted by a phone call that notifies her of being dropped from her record label. Frustrated, she makes a mess in her apartment, pours breakfast cereal on herself, and jumps in the bath with her heels on. The piano music ends and Gaga is seen bleaching her hair, bathing in a tub, and humming "Marry the Night". The monologue continues as Gaga says, "But I still had my bedazzler and I had a lot of patches, shiny ones from M&J Trimmings, so I wreaked havoc on some old denim. And I did what any girl would do—I did it all over again." According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV News, Gaga resembles pop artist Madonna in the film Desperately Seeking Susan. Gaga's dancers look down at her from a mezzanine as the clock chimes. The video later shifts to a night scene on a building rooftop, where half of Gaga's body is inside a Pontiac Firebird, while her legs protrude from the window and onto the roof of the car. She has blonde hair and wears a black plastic leather outfit. She gets her full body into the car, kissing a "Marry the Night" tape and inserting it into the audio player. The song begins playing as Gaga smokes on the driver's seat. As the chorus begins, vehicles in the background explode aflame and Gaga exits the car and dances. In a new dance studio setting as the second verse begins, Gaga enters with her dancers, and warms up to do an intricate choreography during the chorus with her team. During the bridge, she and her dance team take a break and warm up to perform another choreography. The rooftop car parking scene and a bath scene intersperse. Gaga and her dancers repeat the choreography during the final chorus, as one dancer falls and is helped up by Gaga. During the breakdown, Gaga and her team dance on a street while interspersing scenes show her causing chaos, including falling down the stairs, attempting to get into a car with a ridiculously oversized hat and pouring water over herself with a marble plant pot in the bath. She enters a car and reveals "Interscope Records; Hollywood, CA; 4 p.m." written on her palm. The last scene shows Gaga in couture and surrounded by flames. The video ends with Gaga suddenly vanishing. ### Reception and analysis Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented that the video "features the pop star at her most gloriously provocative, with extended dance sequences, explosions, nudity, and a violent attack on a box of Honey Nut Cheerios." Gin Sepre of E! Online compared the video with the book Girl, Interrupted noting that "with equal parts autobiography and pure spectacle, it truly has something for everyone." Sepre also praised the fact that the video is "certainly not hurting for a lack of creativity" with the scenes being shown in a "slightly more straightforward, [and] less metaphorical way". Jocelyn Vena from MTV opined that "with references to everything from Fame and Black Swan to The Bell Jar, the video is a sweeping look into Gaga's psyche. Entertainment Weekly's Tanner Stransky described the video as "quite the trip to Total Crazyville, population: 1, Lady Gaga... Leave it to Lady Gaga to unspool a mini-movie video that’s half the length of a sitcom episode." Gilly Ferguson of Daily Mirror noted that the video "still has the shock factor – she's naked for starters." Sarah Anne Hughes of The Washington Post commented that the video "is slightly NSFW because of one word and some censored skin." Oscar Moralde of Slant Magazine wrote that the video, "is one of her biggest epics not merely by length (a weighty 14 minutes), but by the breadth of its modes of expression." Michael Cragg of The Guardian gave a positive review for the video and wrote: "Superstars are at their best when they're simultaneously aware and unaware of their own ridiculousness and that's what Marry the Night delivers for Lady Gaga." Daily News' Kathryn Kattalia compared Gaga with Madonna in several scenes in the video. Kattalia further praised the dancing during the video, describing it as "her best". However, she criticized the scenes of nudity noting: "The rest of the video is pretty tame by Gaga standards." Spin's Marc Hogan wrote that "it's hard to tell where Gaga is winking at us and where she's simply fallen into a foxhole of unrestrained ego." Camille Mann of CBS News described the video as an "avant-garde short film" and noted that Gaga was "pushing [her] boundaries." Leah Collins of Dose compared Gaga's outfits with Christian Louboutin's designs. She further compared the set in the video to the cover artwork of Born This Way and called it a "very fashionable recreation of Girl, Interrupted." A writer of CNN commented, "Lady Gaga is known for creating evocative mini-movies to provide the visuals for her singles, and 'Marry the Night' is no different." Describing the video as "rough" and "enigmatic", Liz Raftery of People further commened that it "will certainly leave fans talking, if not scratching their heads." An editor of ABC News praised Gaga's "interesting perspective in the video." NME's Priya Elan wrote that Gaga sounds like "a lobotomized Carrie Bradshaw" during the introduction. He also commented, "It's definitely an improvement on 'Judas', but could it maybe have been snipped a bit to make it shorter?" ## Live performances On October 31, 2011, Gaga performed a Bollywood version of "Marry the Night" in India during a Formula One after party in Greater Noida. Before the performance, she announced "I feel like I've waited a long time to come here. And I feel very grateful. ... For the first time ever, I'm going to sing 'Marry the Night'." She sat on the piano and played a slow version of the song, accompanied by a sitar. At the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards, Gaga gave her first televised performance of "Marry the Night" dressed as a satellite landing on the Moon. Wearing a red bikini, and a large red disc around her, Gaga was perched atop a semi-circular replica of the Moon which was covered in silver chains. Flames erupted around the stage as Gaga revealed another circular disc covering her face. She sang the song from that vantage point and near the end of the performance, removed the metal disc and performed a choreographed dance routine with her back-up dancers. She also performed the song at the 2011 Bambi Awards in Wiesbaden, Germany, on November 10. The stage included a vintage convertible with a keyboard built into the side of the door and Gaga also won an award later that night at the gala. Gaga appeared on the eighth series of The X Factor on November 13, 2011, and performed the song. Whilst singing, she emerged from a confessional dressed as a decapitated corpse, carrying her own head. She sang most of the song before returning to the booth and re-appearing in a leotard-like outfit and performed the rest of the song and a dance routine with her dancers. At the Children in Need Rocks Manchester concert on November 17, 2011, "Marry the Night" was performed as the final song of her set list, along with "Born This Way" and "The Edge of Glory". The performance was fast-paced and included a dance routine by Gaga with her dancers, for the first time. On the British comedy show, Alan Carr: Chatty Man, Gaga performed a piano version of the song, while decked up in a pink dress and a gigantic bow on her head, which prompted Becky Bain from Idolator website to comment, "It's been some time since we’ve seen Lady Gaga rock a bow on top of her noggin', and though the one she wore during her [performance] wasn't her signature hairbow, it still made a big (as in HUGE) impression." On the ABC special, A Very Gaga Thanksgiving, the singer performed an acoustic version of "Marry the Night". Her look, consisting of a shoulder-less black dress with matching hand gloves, was compared by James Dinh of MTV News to actress Audrey Hepburn. The performance was shot on top of a balcony, with Gaga giving poses while holding the microphone. On the CBS special titled The Grammy Nominations Concert Live! – Countdown to Music's Biggest Night—where the nominations for the 54th Grammy Awards were revealed—Gaga opened the show with "Marry the Night", performing in a zombie-like costume. Todd Martens from Los Angeles Times described it as a "dance-meets-hair metal mix-up", while comparing the choreography of the dance to Michael Jackson's music video for "Thriller", and complimented Gaga's vocals. At the 2011 Jingle Ball in Los Angeles, Gaga performed the song in an imitation of the music video, by perching atop a hospital bed and singing from there. She also headlined Z100's Jingle Ball at Madison Square Garden. Her set included current hits from Born This Way and a hospital gown-clad "Marry the Night" finale that paid tribute to her music video. On December 9, 2011 she gave a ballet-themed performance of the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. Gaga also performed "Marry the Night" on the 2011 Music Station Super Live in Japan and she performed a medley of "Heavy Metal Lover/Marry the Night/Born This Way" on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve with Ryan Seacrest on December 31, 2011. The song was performed as the final song of her Born This Way Ball tour (2012–2013), where she played on a keytar during the song, and usually invited audience members onstage to join her for the finale. ## Cover versions In 2013, pop singer Adam Lambert performed a cover version on Glee'''s fifth-season episode "A Katy or a Gaga" as his character Elliot "Starchild" Gilbert. Lambert's cover would later chart at number 39 on the US Pop Digital Songs chart. In 2021, Australian singer Kylie Minogue covered the song for the tenth anniversary edition of Born This Way. Mike Wass of Variety described Minogue's take on the song as a "glittery, disco-tinged version". Also in 2021, American actress Camila Mendes performed the song as her role of Veronica Lodge in Riverdales sixth-season Rivervale episode "Chapter Ninety-Eight: Mr. Cypher". ## Track listing and formats Marry the Night – The Remixes 1. "Marry the Night" (Zedd Remix) – 6:14 2. "Marry the Night" (Sander van Doorn Remix) – 5:38 3. "Marry the Night" (Afrojack Remix) – 9:18 4. "Marry the Night" (John Dahlback Remix) – 5:19 5. "Marry the Night" (Sidney Samson Remix) – 4:44 6. "Marry the Night" (R3hab Remix) – 4:54 7. "Marry the Night" (Lazy Rich Remix) – 5:43 8. "Marry the Night" (Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike Remix) – 5:58 9. "Marry the Night" (Quitntino Remix) – 5:52 10. "Marry the Night" (Danny Verde Remix) – 7:45 CD single 1. "Marry the Night" (Album Version) – 4:24 2. "Marry the Night" (David Jost & Twin Radio Remix) – 3:31 UK 7" picture disc' 1. "Marry the Night" (The Weeknd & Illangelo Remix) – 4:04 2. "Marry the Night" (Totally Enormous Extinct Dinosaurs 'Marry Me' Remix) – 5:49 ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Born This Way. ### Recording and management - Recorded at Studio Bus in Europe (during The Monster Ball Tour) - Mixed at The Mix Room (Burbank, California) - Mastered at Oasis Mastering (Burbank, California) - Published by Stefani Germanotta P/K/A Lady Gaga (BMI) Sony ATV songs LLC / House of Gaga Publishing Inc. / GloJoe Music Inc. (BMI) Sony ATV / Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corp. (BMI) and Garibay Music Publishing (BMI) - All rights on behalf of itself and Garibay Music Publishing administered by Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corp. ### Personnel - Lady Gaga – vocals, songwriter, producer, background vocals - Fernando Garibay – songwriter, producer, programming, keyboards - DJ White Shadow – drum programming - Dave Russell – recording, audio mixing - Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering - Eric Morris – assistant - Paul Pavao – assistant ## Charts ### Weekly charts #### Adam Lambert version #### Kylie Minogue version ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of Billboard'' Dance Club Songs number ones of 2012 - List of number-one pop hits of 2012 (Brazil)
2,579,162	The Sweetest Apu	1,145,608,033	null	[ "2002 American television episodes", "Television episodes about adultery", "Television shows written by John Swartzwelder", "The Simpsons (season 13) episodes" ]	"The Sweetest Apu" is the nineteenth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 5, 2002. In the episode, Homer and Marge discover that convenience store owner Apu is having an affair with the Squishee delivery lady working in his store. "The Sweetest Apu" was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Matthew Nastuk. It features Inside the Actors Studio host James Lipton as himself. It also features references to The New Yorker, photographer Richard Avedon and the film Wild Wild West. In its original broadcast, the episode was seen by approximately 7.1 million viewers and finished in 37th place in the ratings the week it aired. Following its home video release on August 24, 2010, the episode received mixed reviews from critics. ## Plot Apu sells Homer a beer keg for the American Civil War reenactment of the Battle of Springfield. At the reenactment, Principal Skinner watches as Springfielders disobey him and hold a rather inaccurate battle (featuring an orange plaid clad "East" faction, a roller skating Stonewall Jackson portrayed by Disco Stu, and a giant steam-powered super spider made by Professor Frink). After the battle, Homer brings the empty, dented keg back to Apu at the Kwik-E-Mart in an attempt to get the deposit. There, he hears a giggle coming from a closet and finds Apu making love with the woman who delivers Squishees to Kwik-E-Mart, Annette. He then walks backwards in shock all the way home to his bed and then relives the encounter in his dreams when he falls asleep. Marge figures out what Homer saw from the movements of his pupil. They decide not to tell Manjula but while they are playing badminton, Homer and Marge act awkwardly with Manjula and Apu looking at them, trying not to give out hints Apu cheated on Manjula. They then confront Apu and he says he will break up with Annette. However, he breaks his promise. Later, Manjula watches the surveillance footage of Apu cheating and kicks him out. To help get them together, Homer and Marge invite them both to dinner, but do not tell them that the other one is coming. After a failed attempt with Bart and Lisa, Apu tries to promise to Manjula that he will change, but Manjula refuses to listen and demands a divorce. Homeless, Apu moves into the apartment complex where Kirk Van Houten lives. The octuplets then speak their first words, which put together, say "Mommy, will you let daddy come back...cookie!" Marge and Manjula go to Apu's and arrive in time to prevent him from committing suicide by hanging. Apu is then subjected to several tasks to redeem himself, including breaking up with Annette, though Manjula says it will take time for everything to get back to normal. In bed, Manjula, finally satisfied with what he has done, kisses Apu while Homer watches from the window, on a ladder. The couple continues and Homer, traumatized, hops backwards on the ladder all the way home, without falling, mimicking what he did earlier. ## Production and cultural references "The Sweetest Apu" was written by former Simpsons writer John Swartzwelder and directed by director Matthew Nastuk. It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 5, 2002. After seeing Apu cheating on Manjula with the squishee girl, an extensive scene in which Homer dramatically backs out of the room, into the Simpson house and into his bed is shown. The scene was conceived by episode writer Swartzwelder. Another scene in the episode shows Apu breaking up with the Squishee lady in front of her house. Originally, police chief Clancy Wiggum would be seen in a robe inside the house, implying that other men in Springfield cheat on their wives as well, however it was dismissed because the writers thought it would look "too sad". Originally, Swartzwelder wanted the kama sutra sex position in the episode to show several arms and legs "sticking out in crazy positions", however it received a censor note and the Simpsons staff were allowed to show "less and less" of it as time progressed. The episode features American writer and actor James Lipton, host of the television program Inside the Actors Studio, as himself. The divorce lawyer was portrayed by series regular voice actor Hank Azaria, and was based on "many lawyers that the writing staff had faced," according to current show runner Al Jean. Professor Frink's steam-powered "Super-spider" seen during the reenactment is a reference to the 1999 steampunk film Wild Wild West. One of Apu's promises to Manjula is to get a comic strip printed in The New Yorker. American photographer Richard Avedon is also mentioned in the episode. ## Release In its original American broadcast on May 5, 2002, "The Sweetest Apu" received a 6.7 rating, according to Nielsen Media Research, translating to approximately 7.1 million viewers. The episode finished in 37th place in the ratings for the week of April 29-May 5, 2002. On August 24, 2010, "The Sweetest Apu" was released as part of The Simpsons: The Complete Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu-ray set. Al Jean, Ian Maxtone-Graham, Matt Selman, Tim Long, Dan Castellaneta, James Lipton and Matt Warburton participated in the audio commentary of the episode. Following its home video release, "The Sweetest Apu" received mixed reviews from critics. DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote "I don’t recall ever being particularly excited by other Manjula episodes, and 'Sweetest' does nothing to alter that perception." He praised Homer's reaction to seeing Apu cheating on Manjula, but maintained that "much of the remaining gags tend to be lackluster." He concluded by writing "This ends up as a pretty flat, forgettable show." Project-Blu's Nate Boss called it "An average episode, by this season's standards," describing it as "a bit too cut and dried for my taste." Writing for Blu-ray.com, Casey Broadwater wrote that "The Sweetest Apu" is "near-laughless", and Ryan Keefer of DVD Talk wrote "The less said about this episode, the better." Ryan Keefer of DVD Talk wrote, "Does Jean manage to get The Simpsons to reclaim some of the tarnish off the crown? Sure, but it's not without its duds; 'The Sweetest Apu' and 'The Old Man and The Key' were borderline painful'. On the other hand, giving the episode a positive review, Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B, praising the "Badminton [scene] and its many double entendres" as the episode's "highlight".
30,718,808	0-8-4	1,173,359,037	null	[ "2013 American television episodes", "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (season 1) episodes", "Marvel Cinematic Universe crossover episodes", "Nick Fury in other media", "Television episodes directed by David Straiton", "Television episodes set in Peru", "Television episodes written by Jed Whedon", "Television episodes written by Jeffrey Bell", "Television episodes written by Maurissa Tancharoen" ]	"0-8-4" is the second episode of the first season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., it follows Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they travel to Peru to investigate an object of unknown origins. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the franchise's films. The episode was written by showrunners Maurissa Tancharoen, Jed Whedon, and Jeffrey Bell, and was directed by David Straiton. Clark Gregg reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, starring alongside Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. The episode is set in Peru, featuring guest star Leonor Varela as a member of the Peruvian military. Filming took place in July 2013 at the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden, with some location shooting in Peru. Composer Bear McCreary used ethnic instruments to support this setting. Tesseract technology is carried over from the films to tie-in with the conflict, while special guest star Samuel L. Jackson also reprises his film role of Nick Fury in a cameo appearance. "0-8-4" originally aired on ABC on October 1, 2013, and was watched by 13.17 million viewers within a week. The episode received a mostly positive critical response, with Jackson's appearance considered a highlight by many, but also seen as unearned. ## Plot Beginning immediately after "Pilot", "0-8-4" sees Skye accept Agent Phil Coulson's offer to join his S.H.I.E.L.D. team as a consultant. Though agents Melinda May and Grant Ward oppose this due to her hacktivist background and lack of S.H.I.E.L.D. training, Coulson believes that Skye can be an asset. The team travels to Peru to investigate a reported 0-8-4 (the S.H.I.E.L.D. designation for "an object of unknown origin"). They find the object within an ancient Incan temple, and agents Leo Fitz and Jemma Simmons determine that it is Hydra made: powered by the Tesseract and extremely volatile. The national military arrives to claim the weapon for the Peruvian government, led by Camilla Reyes, a former colleague of Coulson's. When they are all attacked by local rebels, the S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and soldiers escape with the weapon to the plane that serves as the agents' mobile base. En route to a classified S.H.I.E.L.D. facility, tensions among the agents are high due to poor communication during the fight. This concerns Reyes, who decides to double-cross Coulson and secure the 0-8-4 for her government. Together, the agents devise a plan to activate the weapon, blowing a hole in the Bus. The drop in pressure opens the interior doors, allowing the agents to subdue the soldiers. At the facility, Reyes and her men are incarcerated and the 0-8-4 is launched into the sun in a rocket. The team watch the launch together, celebrating their combined efforts, while Ward agrees to supervise Skye's S.H.I.E.L.D. training. Skye secretly confirms her allegiance to the hacktivist group the Rising Tide. In an end tag, S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Nick Fury scolds Coulson for the damage caused to the plane during the fight, and expresses his doubts over Skye's loyalty. ## Production ### Development and design ABC announced in May 2013 that it had ordered a full season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. based on the pilot episode. That September, Marvel Television revealed that the second episode in the series was titled "0-8-4", and had been written by the series' showrunners Maurissa Tancharoen, Jed Whedon, and Jeffrey Bell, with David Straiton directing. The 0-8-4 device was created by prop master Scott Bauer to be "stylistic" yet "timeless" and its design was inspired by Art Deco. ### Casting Marvel confirmed in September 2013 that the episode would star main cast members Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson, Ming-Na Wen as Melinda May, Brett Dalton as Grant Ward, Chloe Bennet as Skye, Iain De Caestecker as Leo Fitz, and Elizabeth Henstridge as Jemma Simmons. They also announced the episode's guest cast, which includes Leonor Varela as Camilla Reyes and Carlos Leal as an archaeologist. Samuel L. Jackson makes a surprise cameo appearance at the end of the episode, reprising his role of S.H.I.E.L.D. director Nick Fury from the MCU films. Jackson had previously expressed interest in appearing in the show in June 2013. Executive producer Jeph Loeb said there were "a number of places that we thought Nick Fury would have a big impact on the show," ultimately settling on a cameo in this episode as a way to "kind of christen the show, legitimize it in its own way." Bell highlighted Marvel's security team and the dedication of the cast and crew to keeping Jackson's cameo a surprise despite "this age of tweets and spoilers". ### Filming Filming for the episode occurred from July 17 to July 29, 2013. The Peru setting was filmed at the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden, which has gardens dedicated to specific areas of the world, with some location shooting also occurring in Peru. The sequence in which a hole is blown in the side of the Bus was filmed in one day. The final shots utilized stunts and wirework, rigged explosives, wind machines, and green screen. Much of the Nick Fury scene was scripted, but Gregg ad-libbed the line about a proposed fish tank for the Bus. ### Music Composer Bear McCreary had a larger orchestra to work with on "0-8-4" than he did with the pilot, allowing him to compose a much more traditional and "grandiose" score. He also opted to expand his synthesizer use to be "beefier and more aggressive". The South American setting allowed McCreary to add an ethnic component to the score, with his frequent collaborators M.B. Gordy and Chris Bleth playing tribal-sounding drums and ethnic woodwinds, respectively. Guitarist Ed Trybek also recorded various South American guitars for the episode, including timple and charango. ### Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins The titular weapon is powered by the Tesseract, the macguffin of the MCU films Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) and The Avengers (2012). The "0-8-4" was made by Hydra, a fictional organization that also appeared in Captain America: The First Avenger. It is stated in the episode that the last object of unknown origin that S.H.I.E.L.D. encountered was "a hammer", referring to Thor's weapon Mjolnir which Coulson discovered on Earth during the events of the film Thor (2011). Coulson also refers to Skye as a consultant, which is how S.H.I.E.L.D. classified Tony Stark during Iron Man 2 (2010), The Avengers, and the Marvel One-Shot short film The Consultant (2011). ## Release ### Broadcast "0-8-4" was first aired in the United States on ABC on October 1, 2013. It was aired alongside the US broadcast in Canada on CTV, while it was first aired in the United Kingdom on Channel 4 on October 4, 2013. It premiered on the Seven Network in Australia on October 2, 2013. ### Home media The episode, along with the rest of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s first season, was released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 9, 2014. Bonus features include behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel. On November 20, 2014, the episode became available for streaming on Netflix. ## Reception ### Ratings In the United States the episode received a 3.3/10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 3.3 percent of all households, and 10 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was watched by 8.66 million viewers. The Canadian broadcast gained 1.83 million viewers, the fourth highest for that day and the twelfth highest for the week. The United Kingdom premiere had 3.08 million viewers, and in Australia, the premiere had 2.8 million viewers, including 1.3 million timeshifted viewers. Within a week of its release, the episode was watched by 13.17 million U.S. viewers, above the season average of 8.31. ### Critical response MTV.com gave a positive review, saying "If tonight's installment is any indication, the cast will soon be able to support their own weight, make Coulson proud, and audiences sit up and pay attention", and comparing it positively to Tarzan, Beastmaster, and Mutant X. Terri Schwartz of Zap2it also gave a particularly positive review, praising both the connections to the films, including Jackson's cameo, and the internal development of the show, namely that of the character Skye and the team as a whole. Dan Casey of Nerdist called "0-8-4" "a strong second episode, [which] managed to course-correct from some of the missteps of the pilot". He praised the "solid mix of action, character development, and humor" and concluded that the episode was "genuinely enjoyable television". Eric Goldman of IGN scored the episode 7.5 out of 10, comparing it positively to The A-Team and Indiana Jones, praising its self-awareness, Jackson's cameo, and the development of Coulson's character, but criticizing the lack of development for other characters. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club called the episode "an adequate hour of action-adventure television, but the first 59 minutes are missing the spark of the final post-credits scene", seeing room for improvement for all the cast members, and concluding that the show falls "somewhere between Firefly and Dollhouse on the spectrum of Whedon TV influences". Graeme Virtue of The Guardian called Gregg "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s greatest asset", finding the Jackson cameo to be a "thrill", but that "plot-wise, things perhaps still feel a little inconsequential". The Hollywood Reporter's Marc Bernardin praised the scale of the episode, describing it as coming "out of the gate like a blockbuster", but criticized its ambitions, asking "Shouldn't this show be, well, nuttier? ... Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. needs to unhinge itself, but good, and not just be a procedural." He also singled out Skye and May as being unfocused and underdeveloped, respectively, as characters, and he felt the Jackson cameo "gave the whole thing a charge that, in truth, it didn't really earn." Jim Steranko, known for his work on Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., found the episode to be "smoother [than "Pilot"], although more formulaic". He criticized the plot and characters, but praised Jackson's cameo as "an electrifying reminder of what the series could and should be."
153,259	Edmund the Martyr	1,172,820,858	King of East Anglia from about 855 until 869	[ "869 deaths", "9th-century Christian martyrs", "9th-century Christian saints", "9th-century English monarchs", "9th-century births", "Anglican saints", "Anglo-Saxon warriors", "Bury St Edmunds", "East Anglian monarchs", "East Anglian saints", "Pre-Reformation Anglican saints", "Roman Catholic royal saints" ]	Edmund the Martyr (also known as St Edmund or Edmund of East Anglia, died 20 November 869) was king of East Anglia from about 855 until his death. Few historical facts about Edmund are known, as the kingdom of East Anglia was devastated by the Vikings, who destroyed any contemporary evidence of his reign. Coins minted by Edmund indicate that he succeeded Æthelweard of East Anglia, as they shared the same moneyers. He is thought to have been of East Anglian origin, but 12th century writers produced fictitious accounts of his family, succession and his rule as king. Edmund's death was mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which relates that he was killed in 869 after the Great Heathen Army advanced into East Anglia. Medieval versions of Edmund's life and martyrdom differ as to whether he died in battle fighting the Great Heathen Army, or if he met his death after being captured and then refusing the Viking leaders' demand that he renounce Christ. A popular cult emerged after Edmund's death, and he was canonised by the Church. A series of coins commemorating him was minted from around the time East Anglia was absorbed by the kingdom of Wessex in 918, and in about 986, the French monk Abbo wrote of his life and martyrdom. During the 10th century, Edmund's remains were translated from an unidentified location in East Anglia to Beodricesworth (modern Bury St Edmunds); they were temporarily moved to London for safekeeping in 1010. Edmund's cult flourished during the Early and High Middle Ages, and he and Edward the Confessor were regarded as the patron saints of medieval England until they were replaced by Saint George in the 15th century. Medieval manuscripts and works of art relating to Edmund include Abbo's Passio Sancti Eadmundi, John Lydgate's 15th-century Life, the Wilton Diptych, and a number of church wall paintings. ## King of the East Angles ### Accession and rule The existence of Edmund is known from coins minted by his moneyers, three of whom—Dudda, Eadmund, and Twicga—minted coins for Edmund's predecessor, Æthelweard which suggests that a smooth transition of power occurred. The earliest documentary reference to Edmund is in the 870 annal of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle compiled 20 years after his death. According to the historian Susan Ridyard, Edmund was born c. 841 and acceded to the East Anglian throne in c. 855. Nothing is known of his life or reign from contemporary written sources. The devastation in East Anglia that was caused by the Vikings destroyed all the charters that may have referred to Edmund. Edmund cannot be placed within any ruling dynasty. The 10th century French monk Abbo of Fleury stated that Edmund was ex antiquorum Saxonum nobili prosapia oriundus, which according to Ridyard "was probably Abbo's rather verbose way of saying he was descended from the ancient nobility of his race". A variety of different coins were minted by Edmund's moneyers during his reign. The letters AN, standing for 'Anglia', appear on the coins of only Edmund and Æthelstan, another 9th century king of the East Angles; the letters appear on Edmund's coins as part of the phrase + EADMUND REX AN[GLORUM] ("Edmund, King of the Angles"). Edmund's later coins read + EADMUND REX ("Edmund, King"). Otherwise, no chronology for his coins has been confirmed. ### Death and burial For decades after the Viking raid on Lindisfarne in 793, their attacks on England were mainly raids on isolated monastic communities. According to the Annales Bertiniani and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a larger-scale attack occurred in c. 844. By the end of the decade the Vikings had started to over-winter in England. A larger force still, known to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle chroniclers as the mycel heathen here (‘Great Heathen Army’), appeared in 865. Three thousand men in hundreds of ships arrived off the east coast of England, probably from bases in Ireland. The army's first winter was spent in East Anglia before they moved on, arriving in Northumbria by 866/867. The Great Heathen Army attacked Mercia by the end of 867 and made peaceful terms with the Mercians; a year later the Vikings returned to East Anglia. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which generally described few matters relating to the East Angles and their rulers, relates that "here the army rode across Mercia into East Anglia, and took winter-quarters at Thetford; and that winter King Edmund fought against them, and the Danish took the victory, and killed the king and conquered all that land". Where Edmund was killed and whether he died in battle or was murdered by the Danes afterwards is not known. The Great Heathen Army went on to invade Wessex in late 870, where they were confronted by Æthelred of Wessex and his brother, the future Alfred the Great. Edmund was buried in a wooden chapel near to where he was killed. At a date generally assumed by historians to have been during the reign of Æthelstan, who became king of the Anglo-Saxons in 924, Edmund's body was translated from Haegelisdun—the location of which has never been conclusively identified—to Beodricesworth, now modern Bury St Edmunds. In 925 Æthelstan founded a religious community to take care of Edmund's shrine. ## Memorial coinage Following the death of the Danish Guthrum, king of East Anglia, in around 890, the same moneyers who had minted his coins started to produce money in commemoration of Edmund. The coins, whose design was based upon those produced during Edmund's reign, provide the earliest evidence that he was venerated as a saint. All the pennies and (more rarely) half-pennies that were produced read SCE EADMVND REX—'O St Edmund the king!'. Some of them have a legend that provides evidence that the Vikings experimented with their initial design. The St Edmund memorial coins were minted in great quantities by a group of more than 70 moneyers, many of whom appear to have originated from continental Europe; over 1800 specimens were found when the Cuerdale Hoard was discovered in Lancashire in 1840. The coins were widely used within the Danelaw. They have mainly been found in the east of England, but the exact location of any of the mints they came from is not known with certainty, although scholars have assumed that they were made in East Anglia. ## Veneration ### Cult at Bury St Edmunds Edmund's cult was promoted and flourished, but it declined, with the production of St Edmund coins ceasing after around 910. The saint did not reappear in liturgical calendars from the 9th century until the appearance of Abbo of Fleury's Passio Sancti Eadmundi three centuries later. In 1010, Edmund's remains were translated to London to protect them from the Vikings, where they were kept for three years before being returned to Bury. The Danish king Canute, who ruled England from 1016, converted to Christianity and was instrumental in founding the abbey at Bury St Edmunds. The new stone abbey church was completed in 1032, having possibly been commissioned by Canute in time to be consecrated on the 16th anniversary of the Battle of Assandun, which took place on 18 October 1016. Edmund's shrine became one of the most famous and wealthy pilgrimage locations in England. The abbey's power grew upon being given jurisdiction over the western half of the county of Suffolk by the creation in 1044 of the Liberty of Saint Edmund, established by Edward the Confessor, and a larger church was built in 1095, into which Edmund's relics were translated. After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the abbot planned out over 300 new houses within a grid-iron pattern at a location that was close to the abbey precincts, a development which caused the town to more than double in size. King John is said to have given a great sapphire and a precious stone set in gold to the shrine, which he was permitted to keep upon the condition that it was returned to the abbey when he died. Edmund's shrine was destroyed in 1539, during the English Reformation. According to a letter (now in British Library's Cotton Collection), the shrine was defaced, and silver and gold to the value of over 5,000 marks was taken away. The abbot and his monks were expelled and the abbey was dissolved. ### Cult at Toulouse In 1664, a lawyer from the French city of Toulouse publicized a claim that Edmund's remains had been taken from Bury by the future Louis VIII of France following his defeat at the Battle of Lincoln in 1217. The relics had then been donated by Louis to the Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse. The first record of this is a relic list for Saint-Sernin of around 1425, which included St Edmund among the church's relics. In 1644, after the city was saved from the plague from 1628 to 1631, which the population ascribed to the intercession of a saint known to the church authorities as Aymundus, who they decided was Edmund. In gratitude for its deliverance, the city vowed to build a new reliquary for the saint's remains. Edmund's cult flourished there for over two centuries. The reliquary, designed by Jean Chalette, was silver and adorned with solid silver statues. In 1644, the relics were verified and catalogued for interment in the newly-completed shrine, by which time the cult's origins had been forgotten. Edmund's shrine was removed in 1794 during the French Revolution. The saint's relics were restored to the Basilica of Saint-Sernin in 1845 and placed in a new reliquary. ### Relics at Arundel In 1901 the Archbishop of Westminster, Herbert Vaughan, received "certain relics" from the Basilica of Saint-Sernin. The relics, believed at the time to be those of St Edmund, were intended for the high altar of London's Westminster Cathedral, which was then under construction. The acceptance of the relics required the intercession of Pope Leo XIII, after an initial refusal by the church in France. Upon their arrival in England they were housed in the Fitzalan Chapel at Arundel Castle prior to their translation to Westminster. Although their validity had been confirmed in 1874, when two pieces were given to Edward Manning, Archbishop of Westminster, concerns were raised about the authenticity of the Arundel relics by Montague James and Charles Biggs in The Times. The relics remained at Arundel under the care of the Duke of Norfolk while a historical commission was set up by Cardinal Vaughan and Archbishop Germain of Saint-Sernin. They remain as of 1993 at Arundel. In 1966 three teeth from the collection of relics from France were given to Douai Abbey in Berkshire. ### Commemoration and attributes The feast day of Edmund, King and Martyr in the Catholic Church is 20 November. He is also remembered in the Church of England, with a Lesser Festival on this day of the year. Edmund's particular attributes are the arrow and the sword, being an English king, his attributes include the orb and sceptre. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Saints, his attribute can also be a wolf. A stone cross at Hoxne in Suffolk marks one supposed location of Edmund's death. The monument records that it was built on the site of an ancient oak tree which fell in 1848 and was found to have an arrow head embedded in its trunk. Some fifty-five Church of England parish churches are dedicated to Edmund, perhaps the most notable being the Church of St Edmund, King and Martyr, Lombard Street in the City of London. The Benedictine community of Douai Abbey also has Edmund as its patron. ## Medieval hagiographies and legends ### Passio Sancti Eadmundi In about 986, the monks of Ramsey Abbey commissioned Abbo of Fleury to write Edmund's passio, or account of his martyrdom. According to Abbo, St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, was the source of the story of the martyrdom, which he had heard told long before, in the presence of Æthelstan, by an old man who swore an oath that he had been Edmund's sword-bearer. In Abbo's version of events, the king refused to meet the Danes in battle, preferring to die a martyr's death. According to Ridyard, Edmund's martyrdom cannot be proven and the nature of his fate—whether he died fighting or was murdered after the battle—cannot be read from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Ridyard notes that the story that Edmund had an armour-bearer implies that he would have been a warrior king who was prepared to fight the Vikings on the battlefield, but she acknowledges the possibility that such later accounts belong to "the realm of hagiographical fantasy". Abbo named one of Edmund's killers as Hinguar, who can probably be identified with Ivarr inn beinlausi (Ivar the Boneless), son of Ragnar Lodbrok. After describing the horrific manner of Edmund's death, the Passio continued the story. His severed head was thrown into the wood. As Edmund's followers searched for him, calling out "Where are you, friend?" the head answered, Her, her, her ("Here! Here! Here!") until at last they found it, clasped between a wolf's paws, protected from other animals and uneaten. The followers then recovered the head. Abbo failed to date these events surrounding Edmund's translation to Beodericsworth, although from his text it can be seen that he believed that the relics had been taken to Beodericsworth by the time that Theodred became Bishop of London in around 926. Upon exhumation of the body, a miracle was discovered. All the arrow wounds upon Edmund's undecayed corpse had healed and his head was reattached. The last recorded inspection of the body whilst at Bury St Edmunds was in 1198. The resemblance between the deaths of St Sebastian and St Edmund was remarked upon by Abbo: both saints were attacked by archers, although only Edmund is supposed to have been decapitated. His death bears some resemblance to the fate suffered by other saints: St Denis was whipped and beheaded and the body of Mary of Egypt was said to have been guarded by a lion. The English medievalist Antonia Gransden described Abbo's Passio as "little more than a hotch-potch of hagiographical commonplaces" and argues that Abbo's ignorance of what actually happened to Edmund would have led him to use aspects of the Lives of well-known saints such as Sebastian and Denis as models for his version of Edmund's martydom. Gransden acknowledged that there are some aspects of the story—such as the appearance of the wolf that guards Edmund's head—that do not have exact parallels elsewhere. ### Miracles of St Edmund Herman the Archdeacon, who was an excellent Latinist, wrote another hagiography of Edmund, the Miracles of St Edmund, at the end of the eleventh century. His original text does not survive, but a shortened version is part of a book dating to around 1100 produced by Bury St Edmunds Abbey, which is composed of Abbo's hagiography, followed by Herman's. The hagiographer and musician, Goscelin, soon afterwards produced a revised version of Herman's Miracles, which was hostile to Herman personally. Both versions are printed and translated by Tom Licence. ### Other legends De Infantia Sancti Edmundi, a fictitious 12th-century hagiography of Edmund's early life by the English canon Geoffrey of Wells, represented him as the youngest son of 'Alcmund', a Saxon king of Germanic descent. 'Alcmund' may never have existed. Edmund's fictitious continental origins were later elaborated upon in the 15th century by the poet John Lydgate in his The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund. Lydgate spoke of his parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his adoption by Offa of Mercia, his nomination as successor to the king and his landing at Old Hunstanton on the North Norfolk coast to claim his kingdom. Edmund was said to have been crowned by Humbert, bishop of Elmham on 25 December 855, at a location known as Burna, possibly Bures St Mary in Suffolk. At that time Burna functioned as the royal capital. Biographical details of Edmund in the Catholic Encyclopedia, published in 1913, include that "he showed himself a model ruler from the first, anxious to treat all with equal justice, and closing his ears to flatterers and untrustworthy informers". It was written that he withdrew for a year to his royal tower at Hunstanton and learned the whole Psalter, so that he could recite it from memory. Edmund may have been killed at Hoxne, in Suffolk. His martyrdom is mentioned in a charter that was written when the church and chapel at Hoxne were granted to Norwich Priory in 1101. Place-name evidence has been used to link the name of Hoxne with Haegelisdun, named by Abbo of Fleury as the site of Edmund's martyrdom, but this evidence is dismissed by the historian Peter Warner. The association of Edmund's cult with the village has continued into modern times. Dernford in Cambridgeshire, and Bradfield St Clare (near Bury St Edmunds) are other possible sites for where Edmund was martyred. In a preface to Lydgate's Life, in which Edmund's banner—depicting three crowns set on a blue background—is described, the crowns are said to represent Edmund's martyrdom, virginity and kingship. The ancient wooden St Andrew's Church, Greensted-juxta-Ongar in Essex, is said to have been a resting place for his body on the way to Bury St Edmunds in 1013. ## Patronages Edmund is the patron saint of pandemics as well as kings, the Roman Catholic diocese of East Anglia, and Douai Abbey. England did not ever have a single patron saint before the Tudor period; during the Middle Ages, several saints were considered to have a close association with England and to be nationally important: St Edmund; St Gregory the Great; St Edward the Confessor; St Thomas Becket; and St George. Of these saints, Edmund was the most consistently popular with English kings, although Edward III raised the importance of George when he associated him with the Order of the Garter. In 2006, BBC Radio Suffolk radio presenter Mark Murphy and David Ruffley, the Member of Parliament for Bury St Edmunds, failed in their campaign to reinstate Edmund as the patron saint of England. In 2013, BBC News reported a new campaign launched by Murphy and the brewer Greene King, which is based in Bury St Edmunds, to reinstate St Edmund as England's patron saint. Supporters of the campaign stated their hopes that a petition could be used to force Parliament to debate the issue. ## In art The veneration of Edmund throughout the centuries has created a legacy of noteworthy works of art. An illustrated copy of Abbo of Fleury's Passio Sancti Eadmundi, made at Bury St Edmunds in around 1130, is now kept at the Morgan Library in New York City. The copy of John Lydgate's 15th-century Life, written for Henry VI of England, is held at the British Library. The Wilton Diptych was painted during the reign of Richard II of England and is the most famous representation of Edmund in art. Painted on oak panels, it shows Edmund and Edward the Confessor as the royal patrons of England presenting Richard to the Virgin and Child. The poet John Lydgate (1370–1451), who lived all his life in Bury St Edmunds, presented his twelve-year-old king Henry VI of England with a long poem (now known as Metrical Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund) when Henry came to the town in 1433 and stayed at the abbey for four months. The book is now kept by the British Library in London. Edmund's martyrdom features on several medieval wall-paintings to be found in churches across England. The saint features in a romantic poem, Athelston, whose 15th-century author is unknown. In the climactic scene of the poem, Edyff, the sister of King 'Athelston' of England, gives birth to Edmund after passing through a ritual ordeal by fire. ## See also - List of Catholic saints - Ragener – reputedly a relative of St Edmund, who shared in his martyrdom.
30,397,405	British Library Philatelic Collections	1,130,243,373	Collection within the British Library	[ "British Library Philatelic Collections", "Philatelic libraries", "Philatelic museums" ]	The British Library Philatelic Collections is the national philatelic collection of the United Kingdom with over 8 million items from around the world. It was established in 1891 as part of the British Museum Library, later to become the British Library, with the collection of Thomas Tapling. In addition to bequests and continuing donations, the library received consistent deposits by the Crown Agency and has become a primary research collection for British Empire and international history. The collections contain a wide range of artefacts in addition to postage stamps, from newspaper stamps to a press used to print the first British postage stamps. ## History The first notable philatelic donation was in 1890 by Hubert Haes of two albums of postage stamps collected by himself and Walter Van Noorden. It was donated with the request that the British Museum library (now the British Library) would create a philatelic collection. The following year the Collections were established with the bequest of the Tapling Collection. The probate value of the Tapling Collection was set at £12,000 but on arrival Richard Garnett (Assistant Keeper of Printed Books) estimated their value at more than £50,000 and described the bequest as the most valuable gift since the Grenville Library in 1847. In 1900 the Crown Agents for the Colonies sent three albums of postage stamps made on their order for colonial governments and then sent specimens of all future stamps commissioned. In 1913, the Crawford Library was received which forms the cornerstone of the British Library's philatelic literature collection, containing about 4500 works. The Crawford Library was donated by the Earl of Crawford in his Will and was the foremost collection of philatelic books in the world at the time. In 1944 Mrs A. Cunningham donated her father's collection (Edward Mosely) of African stamps and in 1949 Mrs. Clement Williams donated her late brother's collection (H. L'Estrange Ewen) of railway letter stamps, valued at £10,000. After being offered in 1942 but delayed due to the Collections being in secure war storage, in 1951 it was announced that Mrs Augustine Fitzgerald had donated an extensive air mail collection. The Mosely and Fitzgerald collections were valued at the time at £30,000. The Department of Printed Books had been in charge of the Philatelic Collections by default rather than design. In 1936 there was an unsuccessful proposal to move the Collections to the Department of Prints and Drawings and in 1946 there was a further proposal for the Department of Coins and Medals to take charge. No decision could be agreed and Printed Books continued to manage the Collections until they were passed to the newly formed British Library in 1973. ## Curators From 1948, H.R. Holmes had been the curator but in the late 1950s had wished to relinquish the post. A replacement curator was not easily found and the care of the Collections was managed on a part-time basis. A security crisis in 1959 developed after it was discovered that the contents of one of the frames in the Tapling Collection was missing. In 1961 James A. Mackay was recruited as a research assistant to take care of the Collections. In 1971 the police arrested Mackay (promoted to Assistant Keeper in 1965) and charged him with stealing items from the British Museum Philatelic Collections on loan from the Crown Agents. The stolen progressive proofs (test prints of stamp designs) should have been returned to the Crown Agents for destruction and were valued at £7,600. Mackay had exchanged the proofs for Winston Churchill stamps worth £400. He was fined £1,000 and dismissed from the Museum. As a result of the thefts, security was improved by recruiting Bob Schoolley-West, one of the investigating police officers. The Crown Agents withdrew their agreement for lending new stamps for display in the King's Library. David Beech joined the British Library as a philatelic curator in 1983 and was appointed Head of the Philatelic Collections in 1991. Beech is a former President of The Royal Philatelic Society London and joint founder of the International Philatelic Libraries Association, he retired in 2013. Paul Skinner (philatelist) was appointed Curator in 2004 and became Lead Curator on the retirement of David Beech. Richard Morel joined as Curator in 2014. ## Description The material is organized in 50 collections and archives which have been acquired by donation, bequest, or transfer from Government Departments. The Collections include postage and revenue stamps, postal stationery, essays, proofs, covers and entries, "cinderella stamp" material, specimen issues, airmails, some postal history materials and official and private posts for almost all countries and periods. Philately is interpreted in its widest sense and the more unusual artefacts include original unused artwork, horse licences and the pilot's licence of Captain John Alcock. A permanent exhibit of items from the Collections is on display in the British Library entrance area upper ground floor, which may be the best gallery of diverse classic stamps and philatelic material in the world. Approximately 80,000 items on 6,000 sheets may be viewed in 1,000 display frames; 2,400 sheets are from the Tapling Collection. Other material, which covers the whole world, is available to students and researchers by appointment. `The British Library Philatelic Department Photograph Collection is a collection of photographs of philatelic material not in the Library's collections. Mostly composed of material donated by philatelic auctioneers, the collection is an important resource for researchers.` As well as these collections, the library actively acquires literature on the subject. This makes the British Library one of the world's leading philatelic research centres. ### Principal collections ## Selected notable items The Collections include a unique proof sheet of 26 Revenue 1765 Newspaper and Pamphlet one penny impressions showing the registration certificate, held in the Board of Inland Revenue Stamping Department Archive. These were issued to apply the Stamp Act of 1765 intended to raise taxes to fund the defence of the American Colonies from the French. The tax applied to legal documents, licences, newspapers, pamphlets and almanacs in the American Colonies, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Florida, the Bahamas and the West Indian Islands. The taxes resulted in public protest and rioting. The tax was abandoned after a few months due to its unpopularity but the political damage contributed to the War of Independence in 1775. The largest object in the British Library is the Perkins D cylinder press developed by Jacob Perkins and patented in 1819. This press was one of several used to print the first postage stamps of Great Britain and Ireland which were issued in 1840. The press was used for printing many early stamps for British Colonial territories from 1853 including for Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Mauritius, St Helena, Trinidad, Western Australia, Ionian Islands, New Brunswick, New South Wales, New Zealand and Victoria. The £1 stamp issued in Jamaica (1956–1958) in the reign of King George VI shows Tobacco Growing and Cigar Making. The first stamp for Queen Elizabeth II was to be in the same design (chocolate and violet) but was abandoned after printing. There are only seven examples in existence. The cover of the British Library pocket guide Treasures in Focus - Stamps features the 1913 King George V seahorse master dye proof, part of the Harrison Collection. The engraver, J.A.C. Harrison, took proofs during the creation of the die of which this image is one. The engraving was used on the high value stamps 2/6, 5/-, 10/- and £1. The Collections feature these rarities which demonstrate international scope: - Gold Coast: 1883 (May) 1d on 4d magenta, unique - India: 1854 4 annas blue and pale red, error head inverted, two used on a cover, unique. - Mauritius 1847 1d red used on cover and 2d blue, the "Post Office" issue 1d. orange-red, used on cover. The first British Colonial postage stamps were issued in Mauritius in 1847. - New South Wales: 1850 1d and 3d essays of the Sydney View issue. The first stamps of New South Wales, being 1d, 2d and 3d values, were issued in 1850. - Spain: 1851 2 reales, error of colour, one of three known. - St Helena: 1961 Tristan Relief Fund 5c.+6d., 71⁄2c.+9d., and 10c.+1/-, used on a postcard. Only the Colonial Office in London could authorize new stamps, a fact clearly unknown to the Governor, and the issue was withdrawn. These are among the rarest of modern stamps as only 434 sets were sold. - Switzerland: Zurich: 1843 4 rappen, the unique unsevered horizontal strip of five. - Uruguay: 1858 120 centavos blue and 180 centavos green, in tête-bêche pairs, two of five known. - Western Australia: 1854-55 4d blue, error frame inverted. - United States of America - Inverted Jenny, one of a set of 100 postage stamps first issued on May 10, 1918, with probably the most famous error in American philately and one of the most expensive stamps ever produced ## See also - List of philatelic libraries - National Philatelic Collection (United States) - Philately - Royal Philatelic Society London ## References and sources References Sources
34,878,034	Battle of Tabsor	1,150,563,398	1918 World War I battle	[ "1918 in British-administered Palestine", "Aerial operations and battles of World War I", "Battles of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk", "Battles of World War I involving Australia", "Battles of World War I involving British India", "Battles of World War I involving France", "Battles of World War I involving Germany", "Battles of World War I involving New Zealand", "Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire", "Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign", "Conflicts in 1918", "History of the Royal Air Force during World War I", "September 1918 events" ]	The Battle of Tabsor was fought on 19–20 September 1918 beginning the Battle of Sharon, which along with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought between 19 and 25 September in the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. During the infantry phase of the Battle of Sharon the British Empire 60th Division, XXI Corps attacked and captured the section of the front line nearest the Mediterranean coast under cover of an intense artillery barrage including a creeping barrage and naval gunfire. This Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) victory over the entrenched Ottoman Eighth Army, composed of German and Ottoman soldiers, began the Final Offensive, ultimately resulting in the destruction of the equivalent of one Ottoman army, the retreat of what remained of two others, and the capture of many thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory from the Judean Hills to the border of modern-day Turkey. After the end of the battle of Megiddo, the Desert Mounted Corps pursued the retreating soldiers to Damascus, six days later. By the time the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire five weeks later, Aleppo had been captured. During the Battle of Tabsor the 3rd (Lahore), 7th (Meerut) and 75th Divisions attacked the entrenched Ottoman Empire Eighth Army defending the Tabsor defences. These defences were located in the middle section of the front line, assigned to the XXI Corps. On their left the Battle of Tulkarm was being fought with the Battle of Arara fought on their right. Together with the cavalry phase, these battles make up the Battle of Sharon, which, with the Battle of Nablus, fought by the XX Corps and Chaytor's Force, have become known as the Battle of Megiddo. Megiddo developed into a major set piece offensive, when large formations of the Allied EEF, attacked and responded to the reactions of three Ottoman armies, each time following a predetermined plan. The offensive resulted in defeat for Ottoman forces in Palestine, Syria and the Transjordan. These operations began the Final Offensive, ultimately resulting in the destruction of the equivalent of an Ottoman army and the retreat in disarray of what remained of two armies. The defeat of the Yildirim Army Group, commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders, resulted in the capture of many thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory stretching from the Judean Hills. After the battle of Megiddo, Desert Mounted Corps pursued the retreating German and Ottoman soldiers to Damascus, which was captured six days later, when the pursuit continued on to close to the border of modern-day Turkey. Five weeks after the Final Offensive began and with Aleppo captured, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire ending the fighting in this theatre. The Battle of Tabsor began with an intense creeping bombardment, during which three infantry divisions of the XXI Corps attacked the Tabsor defences; the only continuous trench-and-redoubt system on the Ottoman front line. As they advanced, their left flank was protected by the 60th Division, which advanced up the coast to Nahr el Faliq, before capturing Tulkarm, the headquarters of the Eighth Army. Their right flank was secured by the 54th (East Anglian) Division, with the Détachement Français de Palestine et de Syrie pivoting on the Rafat salient. Defending the Ottoman front line against the attacks by the 3rd (Lahore), 7th (Meerut) and 75th Divisions were four divisions of the Ottoman Eighth Army: the 7th, 20th and 46th Infantry Divisions of the Ottoman XXII Corps and the 19th Division of the German Asia Corps. By the end of the first day of battle, the Ottoman 7th Division had ceased to exist and the Ottoman front line (which had previously stretched east-west from the coast) had been pushed and bent back to run north-south. The Seventh Army, further inland, was forced to withdraw when the Eighth Army was outflanked, to conform with the new Ottoman front line. ## Background By July, it was clear that the German Spring Offensive in France, which had forced the postponement of offensive plans in Palestine, had failed, resulting in a return to trench warfare on the Western Front. This coincided with the approach of the campaign season in Palestine and the Middle East. General Edmund Allenby, commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF), was "very anxious to make a move in September", when he expected to capture the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm and Nablus, the road to Jisr ed Damieh and Es Salt in the hills east of the Jordan River. "Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies." ### Reorganisation of EEF infantry After the 52nd (Lowland), the 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions and nine British infantry battalions from each of the 10th, 53rd, 60th and 75th Divisions were sent to France between May and August 1918, the remaining British infantry battalions were reinforced by British Indian Army battalions. Infantry brigades were now reorganised with one British battalion and three British Indian Army battalions, with the exception of one brigade in the 53rd Division which had one South African and three Indian battalions. The British Indian Army's 7th (Meerut) Division arrived from the campaign in Mesopotamia in January 1918, followed by the 3rd (Lahore) Division in April 1918. Only the 54th (East Anglian) Division remained, as previously, an all British division. By April 1918, 35 infantry and two pioneer battalions were being prepared to move to Palestine. Those battalions with identification numbers from 150 upwards were formed by removing complete companies from experienced regiments then serving in Mesopotamia and forming new battalions. The 2/151st Indian Infantry was one such battalion formed from one company each from the 56th Punjabi Rifles and the 51st, 52nd and 53rd Sikhs. One regiment, the 101st Grenadiers, formed a second battalion by dividing itself into two with two experienced and two new companies in each battalion. The parent battalions also supplied first line transport and experienced officers with war time service. The 3/151st Indian Infantry had the commanding officer, two other British and four Indian officers included in the 198 men transferred from the 38th Dogras. The sepoys transferred were also very experienced. In September 1918 the 2/151st Indian Infantry had to provide an honour guard for Allenby; among the men on parade were some who had served on five different fronts since 1914, and on eight pre-war campaigns. Of the 54 Indian battalions deployed to Palestine, 22 had recent experience of combat, but had each lost an experienced company, which had been replaced by recruits. Ten battalions were formed from experienced troops who had never fought or trained together. The other 22 had not seen any prior service in the war; in total, almost a third of the troops were recruits. Within 44 Indian battalions, the "junior British officers were green, and most could not speak Hindustani. In one battalion only one Indian officer spoke English and only two British officers could communicate with their men." Not all of the Indian battalions served in the infantry divisions, some were employed in defence of the lines of communication. ### Front line By September 1918 the front line held by the EEF began virtually at sea level at a point on the Mediterranean coast about 12 miles (19 km) north of Jaffa, just north of Arsuf, ran about 15 miles (24 km) south-east across the Plain of Sharon, then east over the Judean Hills for about 15 miles (24 km), rising to a height of 1,500–2,000 feet (460–610 m) above sea level. From the Judean Hills the front line fell steeply to 1,000 feet (300 m) below sea level in the Jordan Valley, where it continued for about 18 miles (29 km) to the Dead Sea and the foothills of the Mountains of Gilead/Moab. ## Prelude ### British plans and preparations On the first quarter of the front line, which stretched 15 miles (24 km) across the Plain of Sharon from the Mediterranean Sea, the XXI Corps deployed 35,000 infantry, the Desert Mounted Corps 9,000 cavalry and the artillery's 383 guns for their attacks on the Eighth Army. On the remaining three quarters of front line, ending at the Dead Sea, 22,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 157 guns of the XX Corps and Chaytor's Force were deployed facing the Ottoman Seventh and Fourth Armies. The Battle of Sharon was to begin with an attack on an 8-mile (13 km)-long stretch of front line between the Jaffa-Jerusalem railway running north from Lydda towards Tulkarm (cut at the front line) and the Mediterranean, where Allenby massed three mounted divisions behind three of the XXI Corps' infantry divisions supported by 18 densely deployed heavy and siege batteries. Together the five infantry divisions of the XXI Corps, commanded by the British Lieutenant General Sir Edward Bulfin, had an advantage of 4.4–to–1 in total numbers, and three times the defenders' heavy artillery. "Concentration, surprise and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby." The four infantry divisions of the XXI Corps were to begin the Battle of Sharon by attacking in overwhelming strength, supported by the greatest possible weight of artillery. The first objective of breaking the German and Ottoman front line was assigned to the 60th Division. They were to create a gap sufficiently large to enable the cavalry to safely advance to the rear of the German and Ottoman forces in the Judean Hills. The second objective of assaulting the Tabsor defences was assigned to the 3rd (Lahore), 7th (Meerut) and 75th Divisions. After their successful initial attack, they were to attack the Jiljulieh- Kalkilieh-Et Tire line. After the cavalry breakthrough on the coast, the XXI Corps would advance to capture the headquarters of the Ottoman Eighth Army at Tulkarm and cut the railway lines. Sections of the lateral rail line in the Judean Hills between Tulkarm and Nablus and a branch of the Jezreel Valley railway, were to be denied to the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies. These lines, including the important railway junction at Messudieh, transported their supplies into the Judean Hills. The British infantry divisions were to continue their attack by swinging north–east, pivoting on their right to push the defenders back out of their trenches away from the coast and back into the Judean Hills towards Messudieh. While the brigades of the XXI Corps' 3rd (Lahore), the 7th (Meerut) and the 75th Divisions attacked the Tabsor defences, the 54th (East Anglian) Division and the Détachement Français de Palestine et de Syrie defended and pivoted on the Rafat salient covering the right flank. Further to the right, the XX Corps would begin the Battle of Nablus in the Judean Hills in support of the main attack by the XXI Corps, by advancing to capture the Seventh Army headquarters at Nablus and blocking the main escape route from the Judean Hills to the Jisr ed Damieh. Together, these attacks would force the Central Powers to retreat back along their main line of communication on the roads and branch lines to the Jezreel Valley railway. These ran alongside each other out of the Judean Hills, through the Dothan Pass to Jenin, and across the Esdrealon Plain (also known as the Jezreel Valley and the ancient Plain of Armageddon), 40 miles (64 km) away, and on to Damascus. The plain was also the site of the important communication hubs at Afulah and Beisan and here thousands would be captured by the cavalry as they successfully exploited the infantry victories. The objectives of Desert Mounted Corps were the swift capture of Afulah by the 4th Cavalry Division, the swift capture the Yildirim Army Group's headquarters at Nazareth by the 5th Cavalry Division and the swift capture of Jenin by the Australian Mounted Division's 3rd Light Horse Brigade. Together, the occupation of the lowlands of the Plain of Sharon, the Esdrealon Plain and the southern Jordan Valley would form a semicircle round the positions of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills. ### British Empire deployments The actual frontage which would be directly attacked by the British Empire infantry was about 10 miles (16 km) long, but it was not continuous. There were about 5 miles (8.0 km) of gaps in their deployment, where the terrain was unfavourable for a frontal attack. During the advance, a planned right-flanking movement by all the infantry divisions aimed to bring them in touch with one another. At this point in their advance, Ottoman units in those areas unfavourable for frontal attack would be forced to withdraw by the threatening encirclement, be outflanked or be captured from the rear. The final deployment, which was made during 35 minutes of darkness between moon-set and dawn, placed the divisions at right angles to the direction of their advance. The XXI Corps' 60th Division was deployed closest to the coast with the 7th (Meerut) Division on their right and then the 75th Division with the longest frontage, followed by the 3rd (Lahore) Division, the 54th (East Anglian) Division and finally the Détachement Français de Palestine et de Syrie at Rafat, at the eastern end of the XXI Corps front line in the foothills of the Judean Hills. There was no corps reserve. ### German and Ottoman forces and preparations In August 1918, the Central Powers' Yildirim Army Group commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders consisted of 40,598 front-line infantrymen organised into twelve divisions defending a 56 miles (90 km) long front. They were armed with 19,819 rifles, 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns. The high number of machine guns reflects the Ottoman Army's new tables of organization. Cevat Pasha's Eighth Army of 10,000 soldiers, was supported by 157 guns. With its headquarters at Tulkarm, this army held a line from the Mediterranean coast just north of Arsuf to Furkhah in the Judean Hills. The Eighth Army was organised into the XXII Corps' 7th, 20th and 46th Divisions and the Asia Corps' 16th and 19th Divisions, three German battalion groups of the German "Pasha II" detachment, and the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division in reserve. The German Asia Corps, also known as the "Left Wing Group", with a high component of machine guns, was commanded by the German Colonel Gustav von Oppen. The Asia Corps linked the Eighth Army's XXII Corps on the coast with the Seventh Army's III Corps further inland, facing units of the British XX Corps. The 7th, 19th and 20th Divisions held the shortest frontage in the entire Yildirim Army Group. The 7th and 20th Divisions together held a total of 7.5 miles (12.1 km) of trenches. The 7th Division held 4.3 miles (6.9 km) nearest the coast while the 20th Division held 3.1 miles (5.0 km) and the Asia Corps' 19th Division held 6.2 miles (10.0 km) of trenches further inland. The 46th Division formed the reserve 7.5 miles (12.1 km) from the front line, near the Eighth Army's headquarters at Tulkarm. These divisions were some of the most highly regarded fighting formations in the Ottoman Army; in 1915 the 7th and 19th Divisions had fought as part of Esat Pasa's III Corps at Gallipoli. The 20th Division had also fought towards the end of the Gallipoli campaign and served for a year in Galicia fighting against Russians on the Eastern Front. This regular army division, which had been raised and stationed in Palestine, was sometimes referred to as the Arab Division. The XXII Corps was supported by the majority of the Yildirim Army's heavy artillery for counter battery operations. Here, three of the five Ottoman Army heavy artillery batteries in Palestine (the 72nd, 73rd and 75th Batteries) were deployed. Further, the Ottoman front line regiments had been alerted that a major attack was imminent. #### Other views of this force The Ottoman armies were understrength, overstretched, suffering greatly from a strained supply system, overwhelmingly outnumbered by the EEF by about two to one, and "haemorrhaging" deserters. The effective strengths of the nine infantry battalions of the 16th Infantry Division were each equal to a British infantry company of between 100 and 250 men while 150 to 200 men were assigned to the 19th Infantry Division without taking into account the large number of machine guns in these Asia Corps divisions. Problems with the supply system in February 1918 resulted in the normal daily ration in Palestine being 125 grains (0.29 oz) of bread and boiled beans in the morning, at noon, and at night, without oil or any other condiment. ### Tabsor defences The Tabsor defences consisted of the only continuous trench and redoubt system on the front line. Here the Ottomans had dug two or three lines of trenches and redoubts, varying in depth from 1–3 miles (1.6–4.8 km). These defences centred on the village of Tabsor, and stretched from Jaljulye to the coast. Another less developed system of defences was 5 miles (8.0 km) behind, and the beginnings of a third system ran from Tulkarm across the Plain of Sharon to Nahr Iskanderun. The Ottoman armies defences were inflexible defence relying on a line of trenches which required "every inch of ground ... to be fought for when a more flexible system would have better suited the situation". On 17 September 1918, Ottoman Army intelligence accurately placed five infantry divisions and a detachment opposite their Eighth Army. As a consequence, the 46th Infantry Division was moved up 8.1 miles (13.0 km) to the south–west to a new reserve position at Et Tire, directly behind the Ottoman XXII Corps's front line divisions. ## Battle ### 19 September #### Bombardment At 04:30 a bombardment by artillery, trench mortars and machine guns began firing at the German and Ottoman front and second lines of trenches in front of XXI Corps. This intense bombardment, which closely resembled a Western-Front-style bombardment, continued for a half-hour, with guns deployed one to every 50 yards (46 m) of front on the coastal sector. Under cover of this bombardment, the leading infantry advanced to the front line. Just before their arrival, the barrage lifted and began firing behind the Ottoman front line. There was no attempt at systematic attempt by the artillery to cut the wire; the leading units were to cut it by hand or carry some way of crossing or bridging it. The artillery was organised by weight and targets: heavy artillery was employed in counter-battery fire, with guns and 4.5-inch howitzers shelling objectives beyond the range of the field artillery's barrage and where the infantry advance was delayed. Field artillery bombarded the Ottoman front line until the infantry advance arrived; then, the 18-pounders and Royal Horse Artillery batteries lifted to form a creeping barrage in front of the infantry up to their range. This barrage began firing at a range of 4,000 yards (3,700 m) but by 08:00 it had been extended to 15,000 yards (14,000 m) as the guns lifted and moved forward at a rate of 50 yards (46 m) per minute, 75 yards (69 m) per minute or 100 yards (91 m) per minute in front of the three divisions' separate and uniquely timed advances. #### 7th (Meerut) Division attack western sector The 7th (Meerut) Division, consisting of the 19th, 21st and 28th Brigades, commanded by Major General V. B. Fane, advanced under cover of the bombardment; their creeping barrage moving forward at a rate of 100 yards (91 m) per minute. They were to assault the western end of the Tabsor defences, between a wadi west of Tabsor and the Wadi Hurab el Miske, on the right of the 60th Division's advance. Once these objectives had been captured, they were to advance and capture a second system of trenches defending Et Tire without artillery support, as the guns would be out of range and in the process of being moved forward. The 7th (Meerut) Division's 19th Brigade consisting of the 1st Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders, 28th Punjabis, 92nd Punjabis and 125th Napier's Rifles, with the 1st Guides and 20th Punjabis (21st Brigade) and the 134th Machine Gun Company attached, were formed into two columns in front of the British wire, each column on a frontage one battalion wide. The initial attack by the 28th and the 92nd Punjabis, under cover of the creeping barrage, was completely successful, and included the capture of a 150mm howitzer battery by five men of the 92nd Punjabis and the 1st Guides. The second attack on the Et Tire defensive line, by the 1st Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders and the 125th Napier's Rifles, met with more opposition but was eventually successful. Subsequently, 40 men from the 125th Napier's Rifles captured 200 soldiers and six machine guns defending the only crossing of the Zerquiye marshes. A second battery of 105mm howitzers behind the captured position and the trenches at Ayun el Basse, from which the German or Ottoman force had covered the Zerquiye crossing, was seized by the 1st Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders. The remaining two battalions of the 21st Brigade, the 2nd Battalion, The Black Watch (Royal Highlanders) and the 1/8th Gurkha Rifles, captured the front-line system of defences under cover of the creeping barrage, and then advanced to capture the Wadi Hurab el Miske and 350 prisoners. At 08:40, the 7th (Meerut) Division had advanced to a position to allow the 4th Cavalry Division to advance to capture Afulah and Beisan. By 09:00 the 21st Brigade was in the process of reforming at 'Ayun el Basse, with the return of the 1st Guides and 20th Punjabis from the 19th Brigade. The 1st Guides had still not arrived back to the 21st Brigade when, at 13:00, the brigade marched to Et Tire, which the 75th Division had captured at 11:00. Here they concentrated east of the village, while the 19th Brigade also moved towards Et Tire. At 16:30 the 21st Brigade continued their advance eastwards across the Tulkarm road, where their 20th Punjabis were heavily machine-gunned by a German battalion in the foothills of the Judean Hills. Their objective had been Felamiye, but they were stopped 0.75 miles (1.21 km) from that village. Meanwhile, the 2nd Battalion, Royal Highlanders came up to assist the 92nd Punjabis attack; together succeeding in the capture of El Majdal. The third brigade of the 7th (Meerut) Division (the 28th Brigade), consisting of the 2nd Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment, the 51st Sikhs, the 53rd Sikhs and the 56th Punjabi Rifles, were supported by the recently returned 264th Brigade Royal Field Artillery (RFA) on completion of the creeping barrage. By 12:30, this brigade had reached a point north-east of the Zerqiye marsh and had turned east to advance with its battalions in a diamond formation towards Et Taiyibe on the eastern side of the Tulkarm road. Their advance guard, the 56th Punjabi Rifles, drove in a rearguard position 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north west of Et Tire about 15:30. The survivors of this rearguard position re-established themselves 1,500 yards (1,400 m) further east on a lower ridge. This second rearguard position was captured soon after, and Taiyibe was occupied at 18:00 when the brigade bivouacked north-east and south of the village. #### 75th Division attack the centre Comprising the 232nd, 233rd and 234th Brigades, the 75th Division advanced (with the 233rd Brigade in reserve) under cover of the creeping barrage which lifted at a rate of 50 yards (46 m) per minute. The bombardment in front of their line was so accurate that the leading infantry units were able to keep within 40 yards (37 m) of the advancing line of shells, suffering only one casualty from their own fire. The 234th Brigade advanced with the leading companies of the 1/152nd Indian Infantry and the 58th Vaughan's Rifles on the left. In the centre, two companies of the 1/5th Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry (233rd Brigade) had been attached to the 234th Brigade. They formed an advance guard, to attack an isolated defensive line 600 yards (550 m) in front of the main defences. The 4th Battalion, Wiltshire Regiment and the 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles of the 232nd Brigade advanced on the right. These units attacked under the creeping barrage and successfully captured all objectives, including the isolated Ottoman front-line trenches, the main trenches and the Ottoman batteries beyond. While the advance guard consolidated its capture of the isolated trench line, the two main columns, formed by the 232nd and 234th Brigades, moved on to the main defensive works in front of Et Tire. This position was defended by the Ottoman Eighth Army's reserve division, the 46th Division commanded by Major Tiller. Here Tiller held an extensive fortified trench system surrounded by a network of cactus hedges, making a "formidable obstacle". As the 234th Brigade continued their advance with the 1/4th Battalion, Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry and the 123rd Outram's Rifles in artillery formation, two or three Ottoman batteries in the wadi south west of Miske fired on the 1/152nd Indian Infantry to within 60 yards (55 m). Shortly after 08:00 an Indian bayonet attack captured three 150mm howitzers, seven 77mm guns and their detachments, along with the trenches defending Et Tire. The 232nd Brigade (composed of the 4th Battalion, Wiltshire Regiment, the 72nd Punjabis, the 2/3rd Gurkhas Rifles and the 3rd Kashmir Imperial Service Infantry) advanced with their leading companies in line, the remainder in artillery formation: the 4th Battalion Wiltshire Regiment on the right and the 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles on the left. They had quickly captured the main front-line trenches under the creeping barrage before advancing to capture Miske at 07:00, supported by the South African Field Artillery Brigade, which had moved forward after completing its part of the creeping barrage. A firing line was established at the edge of Et Tire, after an advance of 5 miles (8.0 km) by the 4th Battalion, Wiltshire Regiment, the 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles and the 72nd Punjabis, which had been brigade reserve. Here they were targeted by the defenders; every exposed infantryman was shot. This stymied attack was eventually reinforced by the 232nd Brigade's fourth battalion, the 3rd Kashmir Imperial Service Infantry, some armoured cars and a cavalry squadron, which compelled the Ottoman defenders to evacuate Et Tire by 11:00 when Refet Bey's XXII Corps headquarters were captured. The retiring Ottoman force was pursued by armoured cars, while the reserve 233rd Brigade, comprising the remainder of the 5th Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry, the 3/3rd Gurkha Rifles, the 29th Punjabis and the 2/154th Indian Infantry, moved forward to Miske. The 75th Division suffered 518 casualties, 352 of whom were from the 232nd Brigade. #### 3rd (Lahore) Division attack eastern sector The objectives of the 3rd (Lahore) Division, consisting of the 7th, 8th and 9th Brigades, were to break through the Tabsor defences at Sabiye and advance east, capturing Jaljulye and the Railway Redoubt, before advancing towards Qalqilye, Kh. Kefir Thilth, 'Azzun and Jiyus in the foothills of the Judean Hills. The 9th Brigade, consisting of the 2nd Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment, the 1/1st Gurkha Rifles, the 93rd Burma Infantry and the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry, began their advance at 04:27, supported by a creeping barrage which lifted and moved forward at a rate of 100 yards (91 m) per minute. The brigade moved via taped stretches into no man's land, where a heavy Ottoman barrage of high explosive shells fell on them, with little rifle or machine-gun fire until they approached the trenches. West of Sabiye, the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry and 2nd Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment attacked German and Ottoman infantry, which attempted to stop their advance. Between 05:00 and 05:30, the 93rd Burma Infantry and the 1/1st Gurkha Rifles had advanced to cut the second trench line, running from Tabsor to Qalqilye. A threatened counter-attack from the north was stopped by a detachment from the 1/1st Gurkha Rifles, which captured 136 prisoners and two machine guns. Due to constant cutting of the telephone lines and bombardment haze making visual signalling impossible, the commander of the 9th Brigade rode forward to assess the situation and ordered the advance to continue towards Jiyus. The 9th Brigade moved eastwards, crossing the railway 1 mile (1.6 km) north-west of Qalqilye at 09:00 with the 93rd Burma Infantry in the centre, the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry on their right, the 1/1st Gurkha Rifles on their left and the 2nd Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment in reserve. Although the Ottoman 20th Division had been "completely overrun", progress on the left was slowed by reserves from the Asia Corps west of 'Azzun. Jiyus was eventually captured by the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry and two companies from the 93rd Burma Infantry about nightfall, when two German officers and 18 other prisoners were captured. The attack by the 8th Brigade, consisting of the 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment, the 47th Sikhs, the 59th Scinde Rifles and the 2/124th Duchess of Connaught's Own Baluchistan Infantry, began at 04:45 towards the Wadi Ishkar, west of Jaljulye. The 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment at Ras el 'Ain and the 2/124th Baluchistan Infantry at Tell el Murkhmar, advanced rapidly capturing the first line of defence, between Bir Adas and the Hadrah road. A company from the Manchester Regiment advanced on both sides of the railway, eventually reaching a bridge over the Wadi Ishkar west of Jaljulye. Here, they fired on the village and railway redoubt with two machine guns, while the Baluchistan Infantry advanced to occupy Byar Adas at 07:15. At 09:10 the 47th Sikhs reinforced the attack on the Railway Redoubt, supported by an intense five-minute bombardment. Shortly afterwards, the redoubt, along with a pack gun and two machine guns, was captured by the Baluchistan Infantry. At 10:45 a bombardment covered the 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment's attack on Jaljulye, which was easily captured after the Ottoman defenders had quickly withdrawn, in consequence of the advance by the 7th Brigade, 3rd (Lahore) Division, which was threatening to cut them off. At 12:30 artillery fire from the IV Brigade RFA was directed on Hable, which was captured 30 minutes later; the 8th Brigade's advance was resumed at 13:30 towards Kh. Ras et Tire and Tell Manasif. Both objectives were reached about 18:00, the brigade bivouacking for the night behind strong outposts. Meanwhile, the 7th Brigade advanced with the 2/7th Gurkha Rifles on the right, the 27th Punjabis on the left, the 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers in the left rear and the 91st Punjabis in support, under cover of the creeping barrage of heavy artillery and machine-gun fire. They attacked the Ottoman front-line defences, which at first were supported by high-explosive Ottoman artillery fire; the 27th Punjabis suffered more than 100 casualties in dense clouds of dust, smoke and shrapnel. Nevertheless, the brigade advanced to capture Kufr Saba at 07:12 and Qalqilye at 09:00. By 14:00 the brigade was ordered to support the 8th Brigade attack on 'Azzun, but the order was not received until 15:30 so most of their advance was made during the night, eventually halting at 24:00, 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Azzun. #### Ottoman defenders' reports By 05:45 telephone communication to the Ottoman front had been cut and five minutes later all German and Ottoman reserves had been ordered forward. At 08:50, Cevat's Eighth Army reported to Liman von Sanders, commander of the Yildirim Army Group at Nazareth, that its 7th Division (not to be confused with the 7th (Meerut) Division) was "out of the fight" and the 19th Division was under attack. Small groups of survivors from the 7th and 20th Divisions managed to continue fighting while retiring. They formed a rear guard of 100 soldiers with 2 machine guns and 17 artillery guns from the 7th Division and 300 soldiers, while four machine guns and seven guns from the 20th Division also made a desperate attempt to hold the British Empire attack. Liman von Sanders ordered the 110th Infantry Regiment to advance from Nablus in support of the Eighth Army. These forces were to stop the EEF advance to the Tulkarm to Nablus road at the easily defended narrow, steep-sided pass near 'Anebta. The 19th Division was forced to retreat towards Kefri Kasim and the XXII Corps (Eighth Army), threatened with encirclement, was in retreat towards Et Tire having lost most of its artillery. By 16:30 Cevat had been informed that Et Tire was captured and cut off from reports from his XXII Corps, he began to move his headquarters north at dusk. Cevat said, "The enemy has broken through our lines in spite of our counter–attacks ... Without assistance operations are impossible". A remnant from the 7th Division managed to establish a temporary divisional headquarters at Mesudiye that night. Liman von Sanders had no combat formations available to stop the cavalry advance up the coast, while in the Judean Hills the British Empire infantry attacks forced the Yildirim Army Group's two armies to retire. ### 20 September General Bulfin, commanding the XXI Corps, issued orders for the continuation of the battle on 20 September. The 7th (Meerut) Division's objectives were to attack and capture Deir Sheraf, Sebustiye and Burqa, while the 3rd (Lahore) Division's objective was to establish a position through Beit Udhen and Qusein commanding the Nablus-to-Deir Sheraf road. The 7th and 3rd Divisions advanced to the northeast, through the hills towards ancient Samaria, while the 60th Division moved east from Tulkarm along the Tulkarm to Nablus road with the 5th Light Horse Brigade, still attached to the 60th Division, advancing north of Tulkarm to cut the railway line between Messudieh and Jenin. The 75th Division continued in reserve at Et Tire, where they may have been assigned the management of thousands of prisoners. #### 7th (Meerut) Division The 7th (Meerut) Division advanced in two columns. The 21st Brigade, on the right, supported by a mixed field-artillery brigade of two 4.5-inch howitzer and one 18-pounder batteries and a machine-gun company, advanced through Felamiye and Kufr Zibad. The 19th Brigade, on the left, with the VIII Mountain Artillery Brigade and two machine-gun companies followed by the 28th Brigade, moved through El Majdal and Kufr Sur. The 21st Brigade advanced along a track beyond Kufr Zibad that proved impassable for the artillery, which was sent back to Et Tire, where it came under orders of the 75th Division. Meanwhile, the 19th Brigade captured a small rearguard position at Kufr Sur before advancing under fire at 11:00 to a point 1,000 yards (910 m) from the village of Beit Lid. The brigade's Lewis guns forced the Ottoman or German battery supporting the rearguard to withdraw, but heavy machine-gun fire stopped the 125th Napier's Rifles from crossing the gully between Sefarin and Beit Lid. Without artillery support, an attack by the 1st Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders, which began at 14:00, was held up by a strong rearguard position strengthened by cactus hedges 200 yards (180 m) from the village; they suffered 200 casualties during their attacks. After reinforcements from the 1st Guides (21st Brigade) arrived, the attack was renewed at 16:20. By 17:30, a battery of the VIII Mountain Artillery Brigade was able to get into position to cover an advance by the 28th Punjabis (19th Brigade) armed with grenades, which entered and cleared Beit Lid at 18:15. At 21:30 the 28th Brigade began their advance towards Masudiye Station and Sebustiye. #### 3rd (Lahore) Division The 3rd (Lahore) Division's 7th and 8th Brigades began their advance at 05:00. The 7th Brigade's 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) began their advance towards 'Azzun, while the 8th Brigade moved along the Wadi 'Azzun. As the 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment moved along the south bank, and the 47th Sikhs moved along on the north bank, with the 59th Scinde Rifles in the rear; they quickly found themselves in a critical position. The leading battalions encountered about 200 German soldiers and 12 machine guns in a well-sited rearguard position south of the wadi. Without any artillery support, an extended battle followed. The 59th Scinde Rifles were ordered to join the fight and a howitzer was rushed forward from the 428th Battery, coming into effective action at 12:30, when resistance almost immediately ceased. The 7th Brigade's 27th Punjabis followed the 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) along the Wadi 'Azzun and the 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) entered the village of 'Azzun at 08:10 where large quantities of stores were captured. The capture of 'Azzun, which had been the headquarters of the Asia Corps and the location of von Oppen's reserves, was claimed by the 47th Sikhs (8th Brigade) and the 91st Punjabis (Light Infantry) (7th Brigade). The 8th Brigade continued their advance without interruption to Jinsafut, which was occupied in the evening. The 1st Battalion, Connaught Rangers (7th Brigade) were ordered to pass through the 8th Brigade and capture the road junction northeast of El Funduq. Here they captured an artillery column of five field guns, horses, wagons and prisoners which had been held up by fire from the 9th Brigade. The 9th Brigade made their way along the rocky Wadi Sir to Baqa, where they saw German soldiers retiring along the road to Deir Sheraf. The brigade artillery came into action against this target, initially one section and then the whole of the IX Mountain Artillery Brigade and some machine guns, completely blocking the road with smashed vehicles. The 93rd Burma Infantry reached the road 2 miles (3.2 km) northeast of El Funduq at 15:10, where they captured about 250 prisoners, many of them German. A company of the 2nd Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment on the extreme left captured 151 prisoners north of Qaryat Hajja. #### German and Ottoman retreat After being forced out of his headquarters at Nazareth on the morning of 20 September, Liman von Sanders drove via Tiberias and Samakh late in the afternoon, arriving at Deraa during the morning of 21 September on his way to Damascus. Here he received a report from the Fourth Army (east of the Jordan holding Jisr ed Damieh, Shunet Nimrin, Es Salt and Amman), which he ordered to withdraw to the Deraa to Irbid line without waiting for their southern Hedjaz troops. #### Position of XXI Corps By the end of 20 September, the Eighth Ottoman Army had been pushed back out of the coastal Plain of Sharon and the Desert Mounted Corps was blocking the Seventh and what remained of the Eighth Armies' main lines of retreat northwards. The 60th Division held Tulkarm and Anebta, the 7th (Meerut) Division held the village of Beit Lid and controlled the crossroads at Deir Sheraf, while the 5th Light Horse Brigade had cut the Jenin railway south of Arrabe. Both the 3rd (Lahore) and 7th (Meerut) Divisions had continued to force the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies' retreat. During 19 and 20 September, the XXI Corps had destroyed the right wing of the Ottoman front line, capturing 7,000 prisoners and 100 guns. Remnants of the Eighth Army which had escaped were captured the next day by Desert Mounted Corps at Jenin, in the Esdrealon Plain to the north of the Judean Hills. During two days of fighting the XXI Corps' total casualties were 3,378, of whom 446 were killed. They captured 12,000 prisoners, 149 guns and large quantities of ammunition and transport. With the exception of the Asia Corps, the whole Ottoman Eighth Army had been destroyed. > My infantry yesterday captured Tulkeram, and are now pursuing the enemy eastwards to Nablus. This morning my cavalry occupied Afuleh, and pushed thence rapidly south–eastwards, entered Beisan this evening, thus closing to the enemy his last line of escape. ## Aftermath The 28th Brigade, 7th (Meerut) Division advanced from Beit Lid at 21:30 on an overnight march towards Masudiye Station and Sebustiye. They arrived at the 'Anebta road near Ramin at 01:30, and by 03:00 had advanced to capture the Masudiye Station along with an engine and 16 carriages, before continuing towards Sebustiye. During this march, a strong rearguard in the ruins of Samaria was attacked by the 51st and 53rd Sikhs. After working their way through an olive grove on the northwest side of the Central Powers' rearguard position, they attacked from the flank, with a platoon of 51st Sikhs gaining the crest from the southwest. The garrison of 181 German (or Ottoman) soldiers was captured with eight light and heavy machine guns. More than 400 sick were found in a hospital nearby. The 3rd (Lahore) Division continued its advance at 05:00, meeting some opposition near Rafidia 2,000 yards (1,800 m) west of Nablus. Here, they occupied a 5.5 miles (8.9 km) line stretching from Rafidia to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) east of Burqa. ### Seventh Army retreat The bulk of the Seventh Army had been retreating down the Wadi Fara road where guns and transport had to be abandoned when heavily bombed and machine-gunned from the air. This Army then turned north at 'Ain Shible, moving towards Beisan. During the night of 20/21 September a long column of retiring Ottoman forces was seen moving down the road from Nablus to Beisan, about 8 miles (13 km) north of Nablus. British and Australian aircraft subsequently bombed the column, at first just blocking one end of a defile, but later returning a number of times. Four hours later the area was covered with the wreckage of 90 guns, 50 lorries and more than 1,000 other vehicles. The Ottoman 53rd Division, which had managed to get down the Wadi Fara before it was blocked by the air attack, was captured by Chaytor's Force on 22 September during the fighting for the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh. During 23 and 24 September, 1,500 prisoners were captured by Chetwode's XX Corps in the Judean Hills. ### Eighth Army retreat #### XXII Corps The survivors from the Eighth Army's XXII Corps, which had retreated down the main Damascus road on 20 September, were captured by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin that night. At 15:00 on 21 September Cevat Pasa (also known as Jevat Pasa), the Eighth Army commander, left Nablus by car for Mustafa Kemal's Seventh Army headquarters with his chief of staff and some staff officers. It was the end of the Ottoman Eighth Army, the 20th and 21st Regiments existing only until that afternoon. #### Asia Corps During the night of 20/21 September Liman von Sanders had ordered the 16th and 19th Division west of Nablus, where they made contact with von Oppen's Left Wing Force. The next morning von Oppen formed the remnants of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions into one battalion with a rifle company, a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment, while the 701st Battalion and a cavalry squadron remained intact. At 10:00, von Oppen was informed the EEF was approaching Nablus and that the Wadi Fara road was blocked. As a result, he decided to retreat via Beit Dejan 7 miles (11 km) east-southeast of Nablus to the Jordan at Jisr ed Damieh, but this way was also found to have been cut. Von Oppen then ordered the Asia Corps to retreat without guns or baggage via Mount Ebal when they were attacked by British Empire artillery and suffered casualties. That night, von Oppen bivouacked at Tammun with the 16th and 19th Divisions at Tubas. Von Oppen was moving northwards from Tubas towards Beisan the next day, with about 700 German and 1,300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions, when he learned it had already been captured. He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh, where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order the establishment of a strong rearguard. However, Jevad, the commander of the Eighth Army, ordered him to cross the Jordan instead; he successfully got all the Germans and some of the Ottoman soldiers across before the 11th Cavalry Brigade attack, which closed the last Jordan River gaps. Those who had not crossed were captured.
60,991	University of Bristol	1,172,048,120	Research university located in Bristol, England	[ "1909 establishments in England", "Russell Group", "Universities UK", "Universities and colleges established in 1909", "University of Bristol" ]	The University of Bristol is a red brick Russell Group research university in Bristol, England. It received its royal charter in 1909, although it can trace its roots to a Merchant Venturers' school founded in 1595 and University College, Bristol, which had been in existence since 1876. Bristol is organised into six academic faculties composed of multiple schools and departments running over 200 undergraduate courses, largely in the Tyndalls Park area of the city. The university had a total income of £833.1 million in 2021–22, of which £186.4 million was from research grants and contracts. It is the largest independent employer in Bristol. Current academics include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences, 13 fellows of the British Academy, 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society. The University of Bristol's alumni and faulty include 9 Nobel laureates. Bristol is a member of the Russell Group of research-intensive British universities, the European-wide Coimbra Group and the Worldwide Universities Network, of which the university's previous vice-chancellor, Eric Thomas, was chairman from 2005 to 2007. In addition, the university holds an Erasmus Charter, sending more than 500 students per year to partner institutions in Europe. It has an average of 6.4 (Sciences faculty) to 13.1 (Medicine & Dentistry Faculty) applicants for each undergraduate place. ## History ### Foundation The earliest antecedent of the university was the engineering department of the Merchant Venturers' Technical College (founded as a school as early as 1595) which became the engineering faculty of Bristol University. The university was also preceded by Bristol Medical School (1833) and University College, Bristol, founded in 1876, where its first lecture was attended by only 99 students. The university was able to apply for a royal charter due to the financial support of the Wills, Fry and Colston families, who made their fortunes in tobacco plantations, chocolate, and (via Edward Colston) the transatlantic slave trade, respectively. A 2018 study commissioned by the university estimated 85% of the philanthropic funds used for the institution's foundation was directly connected with the transatlantic slave trade. The royal charter was gained in May 1909, with 288 undergraduates and 400 other students entering the university in October 1909. Henry Overton Wills III became its first chancellor. The University College was the first such institution in the country to admit women on the same basis as men. However, women were forbidden to take examinations in medicine until 1906. ### Historical development Since the founding of the university itself in 1909, it has grown considerably and is now one of the largest employers in the local area, although it is smaller by student numbers than the nearby University of the West of England. It is a member of the Russell Group of research-led UK universities, the Coimbra Group of leading European universities and the Worldwide Universities Network (WUN). #### Early years After the founding of the university college in 1876, government support began in 1889. Funding from mergers with the Bristol Medical School in 1893 and the Merchant Venturers' Technical College in 1909, allowed the opening of a new medical school and an engineering school — two subjects that remain among the university's greatest strengths. In 1908, gifts from the Fry and Wills families, particularly £100,000 from Henry Overton Wills III (£6m in today's money), were provided to endow a University for Bristol and the West of England, provided that a royal charter could be obtained within two years. In December 1909, the king granted such a charter and erected the University of Bristol. Henry Wills became its first chancellor and Conwy Lloyd Morgan the first vice-chancellor. Wills died in 1911 and in tribute his sons George and Harry built the Wills Memorial Building, starting in 1913 and finally finishing in 1925. Today, it houses parts of the academic provision for earth sciences and law, and graduation ceremonies are held in its Great Hall. The Wills Memorial Building is a Grade II\* listed building. In 1920, George Wills bought the Victoria Rooms and endowed them to the university as a students' union. The building now houses the Department of Music and is a Grade II\* listed building. At the point of foundation, the university was required to provide for the local community. This mission was behind the creation of the Department of Extra-Mural Adult Education in 1924 to provide courses to the local community. This mission continues today; a new admissions policy specifically caters to the 'BS' postcode area of Bristol. Among the famous names associated with Bristol in this early period is Paul Dirac, who graduated in 1921 with a degree in engineering, before obtaining a second degree in mathematics in 1923 from Cambridge. For his subsequent pioneering work on quantum mechanics, he was awarded the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics. Later in the 1920s, the H.H. Wills Physics Laboratory was opened by Ernest Rutherford. It has since housed several Nobel Prize winners: Cecil Frank Powell (1950); Hans Albrecht Bethe (1967); and Sir Nevill Francis Mott (1977). The laboratory stands on the same site today, close to the Bristol Grammar School and the city museum. Sir Winston Churchill became the university's third chancellor in 1929, serving the university in that capacity until 1965. He succeeded Richard Haldane who had held the office from 1912 following the death of Henry Wills. During World War II, the Wills Memorial was bombed, destroying the Great Hall and the organ it housed, along with 7,000 books removed from King's College London for safe keeping. It has since been restored, complete with oak panelled walls and a new organ. #### Post-war development In 1946, the university established the first drama department in the country. In the same year, Bristol began offering special entrance exams and grants to aid the resettlement of servicemen returning home. Student numbers continued to increase, and the Faculty of Engineering eventually needed the new premises that were to become Queen's Building in 1955. This substantial building housed all of the university's engineers until 1996, when the electrical engineering and computer science departments moved over the road into the new Merchant Venturers' Building to make space for these rapidly expanding fields. Today, Queen's Building caters for most of the teaching needs of the faculty and provides academic space for the "heavy" engineering subjects (civil, mechanical, and aerospace). With unprecedented growth in the 1960s, particularly in undergraduate numbers, the Students' Union eventually acquired larger premises in a new building in the Clifton area of the city, in 1965. This building was more spacious than the Victoria Rooms, which were now given over to the Department of Music. The University of Bristol Union provides many practice and performance rooms, some specialist rooms, as well as three bars: Bar 100, the Mandela (also known as AR2) and the Avon Gorge. Whilst spacious, the Union building is thought by many to be ugly and out of character compared to the architecture of the rest of the Clifton area, having been mentioned in a BBC poll to find the worst architectural eyesores in Britain. The university has proposed relocating the Union to a more central location as part of its development 'masterplan'. More recently, plans for redevelopment of the current building have been proposed. The 1960s were a time of considerable student activism in the United Kingdom, and Bristol was no exception. In 1968, many students marched in support of the Anderson Report, which called for higher student grants. This discontent culminated in an 11-day sit-in at the Senate House (the administrative headquarters of the university). A series of chancellors and vice-chancellors led the university through these decades, with Henry Somerset, 10th Duke of Beaufort taking over from Churchill as chancellor in 1965 before being succeeded by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1970 who spent the next 18 years in the office. As the age of mass higher education dawned, Bristol continued to build its student numbers. The various undergraduate residences were repeatedly expanded and, more recently, some postgraduate residences have been constructed. These more recent ventures have been funded (and are run) by external companies in agreement with the university. One of the few centres for deaf studies in the United Kingdom was established in Bristol in 1981, followed in 1988 by the Norah Fry Centre for research into learning difficulties. Also in 1988, and again in 2004, the Students' Union AGM voted to disaffiliate from the National Union of Students (NUS). On both occasions, however, the subsequent referendum of all students reversed that decision and Bristol remains affiliated to the NUS. In 1988, Sir Jeremy Morse, then chairman of Lloyds Bank, became chancellor. ### 21st century As the number of postgraduate students has grown (particularly the numbers pursuing taught master's degrees), there eventually became a need for separate representation on university bodies and the Postgraduate Union (PGU) was established in 2000. Universities are increasingly expected to exploit the intellectual property generated by their research activities and, in 2000, Bristol established the Research and Enterprise Division (RED) to further this cause (particularly for technology-based businesses). In 2001, the university signed a 25-year research funding deal with IP2IPO, an intellectual property commercialisation company. In 2007, research activities were expanded further with the opening of the Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS) and The Bristol Institute for Public Affairs (BIPA). In 2002, the university was involved in an argument over press intrusion after details of then-prime minister Tony Blair's son's application to university were published in national newspapers. In the same year, the university opened the new Centre for Sports, Exercise and Health in the heart of the university precinct. At a cost, local residents are also able to use the facilities. Brenda Hale, the first female Law Lord, became chancellor of the university in 2003. Sir Paul Nurse succeeded Lady Hale as chancellor on 1 January 2017. Expansion of teaching and research activities continues. In 2004, the Faculty of Engineering completed work on the Bristol Laboratory for Advanced Dynamics Engineering (BLADE). This £18.5m project is intended to further the study of dynamics and is the most advanced such facility in Europe. It was built as an extension to the Queen's Building and was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in March 2005. In January 2005, the School of Chemistry was awarded £4.5m by the Higher Education Funding Council for England to create Bristol ChemLabS: a Centre for Excellence in Teaching & Learning (CETL), with an additional £350k announced for the capital part of the project in February 2006. Bristol ChemLabS stands for Bristol Chemical Laboratory Sciences; it is the only chemistry CETL in the UK. September 2009 saw the opening of the university's Centre for Nanoscience and Quantum Information. This £11 million building is known as the quietest building in the world and has other technologically sophisticated features such as self-cleaning glass. Advanced research into quantum computing, nanotechnology, materials and other disciplines are being undertaken in the building. There is also a plan to significantly redevelop the centre of the University Precinct in the coming years. The first step began in September 2011, with the start of construction of a state-of-the-art Life Sciences building. In 2018 while building work was underway in the Fry Building, the building caught fire. In 2018 the University of Bristol Students' Union (Bristol SU) adopted a motion that banned trans-exclusionary radical feminists (TERFs) from appearing as speakers at Bristol SU events and that called upon the university to adopt the same policy. The motion said the TERF ban was necessary because TERF activity on the university campus "put[s] trans students' safety at risk ... in direct violation of the aims outlined in the Code of Conduct". In February 2021, University of Bristol professor David Miller called for the "end of Zionism", said that Israel is "trying to exert its will all over the world" and called members of the University of Bristol Jewish Society "political pawns by a violent, racist foreign regime", comments that the All-Party Parliamentary Group Against Anti-Semitism deemed to "incit[e] hatred against Jewish students". On 17 March, the university announced that it had begun an investigation of Miller, and observed that it did not endorse his remarks. The Avon and Somerset Police announced about a week later that they had opened a hate crime investigation. Miller's employment at the university was terminated "with immediate effect" at the beginning of October 2021. In 2021, Raquel Rosario-Sánchez, a Dominican graduate student at Bristol who had attended meetings of feminist groups that opposed allowing trans women into female-only spaces, filed a civil action against Bristol University; Rosario-Sánchez alleges that she was the victim of a campaign of bullying and abuse against her by other members of the university, and that the university failed to protect her because it was afraid of upsetting trans-rights activists. The case went to trial in February 2022. The judgment was delivered in April 2022. The judge acknowledged that she had been subject to threats of violence, but dismissed all her claims, saying that there had been no actionable breach of duty by the university. He said that his ruling focused on how the university managed her complaints rather than any judgment about gender rights. In February 2023, following its previous disciplinary action against Rosario-Sánchez and the Women Talk Back group, it emerged that the Bristol Students Union has agreed out-of-court that "affiliated clubs and societies may lawfully offer single-sex services and be constituted as single-sex associations". ## Campus ### Buildings and sites The university does not have a main campus but is spread over a considerable geographic area. Most of its activities, however, are concentrated in the area of the city centre, referred to as the "University Precinct". Some of the University of Bristol's buildings date to its pre-charter days when it was University College Bristol. These buildings were designed by Charles Hansom, and suffered being built in stages due to financial pressure. The first large scale building project the University of Bristol undertook on gaining a charter was the Wills Memorial Building. The armorials on the Founder's Window represent all of the interests present at the founding of the University of Bristol including the Wills and Fry families. Other notable buildings and sites include Royal Fort House, the University of Bristol Botanic Garden, many large Victorian houses which were converted for teaching in the Faculty of Arts, and the Victoria Rooms which house the Music Department and were designed by Charles Dyer. The tympanum of the building depicts a scene from The Advent of Morning designed by Jabez Tyley. Goldney gardens entered the property of the University of Bristol through George Wills who had hoped to build an all-male hall of residence there. This was prevented due to the moral objection of the then warden of Clifton Hill House who objected to the idea of male and female residences being in such close proximity. University records show that Miss Starvey was prepared to resign over the issue and that she had the support of the then Chancellor Conwy Lloyd Morgan. Eventually land was purchased in Stoke Bishop, allowing the building of what has been described as a "quasi-Oxbridge" hall, Wills Hall, to which was added the Dame Monica Wills Chapel by George Wills' widow after his death. When Goldney did become student accommodation in 1956, the flats were designed by Michael Grice who received an award from the Civic Trust for their design. Burwalls, a mansion house on the other side of the Avon Gorge, was used as a halls of residence in the past and was a home of Sir George Oatley. The building is now used to house the Centre for Continuing Education. Many of the more modern buildings, including Senate House and the newer parts of the HH Wills Physics Laboratory, were designed by Ralph Brentnall using funds from the University Grants Committee. He is also responsible for the extension to the Wills Memorial Building library which was completed to such standard that few now realise that is an extension to the original building. In May 2022, the university announced the opening of the Gambling Harms and Research Centre (GHRC). The centre worth £4 million aims to increase awareness and understanding of the dangers of gambling. The project was funded by the GambleAware charity, which chose the university for its history in researching gambling issues, and will integrate research from six facilities. ### Planned expansion In November 2016, the university announced that it plans to build a £300 million Temple Quarter Campus for c. 5,000 students, next to Bristol Temple Meads railway station within Bristol Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone. The new campus, which will include a business school, digital research facilities and a student village, is expected to open in 2021. For the existing campus, there are plans to remodel Tyndall Avenue, pedestrianise the surrounding area and build a new library and resource hub. ## Organisation and governance In common with most UK universities, Bristol is headed formally by the chancellor, currently Sir Paul Nurse and led on a day-to-day basis by the vice-chancellor, currently Professor Evelyn Welch, who is the academic leader and chief executive. There are four pro vice-chancellors and three ceremonial pro-chancellors. The chancellor may hold office for up to ten years and the pro-chancellors for up to three, unless the University Court determines otherwise, but the vice-chancellor and pro-vice-chancellors have no term limits. The vice-chancellor is supported by a deputy vice-chancellor. Responsibility for running the university is held at an executive level by the vice-chancellor, but the council is the only body that can recommend changes to the university's statutes and charter, with the exception of academic ordinances. These can only be made with the consent of the senate, the chief academic body in the university which also holds responsibility for teaching and learning, examinations and research and enterprise. The chancellor and pro chancellors are nominated by council and appointed formally by court, whose additional powers are now limited to these appointments and a few others, including some lay members of council. Finally, Convocation, the body of all staff, ceremonial officers and graduates of the university, returns 100 members to court and one member to council, but is otherwise principally a forum for discussion and to ensure graduates stay in touch with the university. The university is made up of a number of schools and departments organised into six faculties: ### Faculty of Arts - School of Arts - Anthropology and Archaeology - Film and Television - Music - Philosophy - Theatre (see also the University of Bristol Theatre Collection) - School of Humanities - Classics and Ancient History - English - History - History of Art - Religion and Theology - School of Modern Languages - French - German - Hispanic, Portuguese and Latin American Studies - Italian - Russian - Centre for English Language and Foundation Studies - Centre for Innovation ### Faculty of Engineering - School of Computer Science, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, and Engineering Mathematics - Computer Science - Electrical & Electronic Engineering - Engineering Mathematics - School of Civil, Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering - Aerospace Engineering - Civil Engineering - Mechanical Engineering - Engineering Design - Engineering with Management ### Faculty of Life Sciences - School of Biological Sciences - School of Biochemistry - School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine - School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience - School of Psychological Science ### Faculty of Science - School of Chemistry - School of Earth Sciences - School of Geographical Sciences - School of Mathematics - School of Physics - Centre for Device Thermography and Reliability - Centre for Nanoscience & Quantum Information - Interface Analysis Centre ### Faculty of Health Sciences - Bristol Dental School - Bristol Medical School - Population Health Sciences - Translational Health Sciences - Bristol Veterinary School - Centre for Health Sciences Education - Centre for Applied Anatomy - Master's in Teaching and Learning for Health Professionals ### Faculty of Social Sciences and Law - School of Education - School for Policy Studies - School of Economics - Centre for Market and Public Organisation - School of Sociology, Politics and International Studies - University of Bristol Business School - University of Bristol Law School ### Academic dress The university specifies a mix of Cambridge and Oxford academic dress. For the most part, it uses Oxford-style gowns and Cambridge-style hoods, which are required to be 'university red' (see the logo at the top of the page). ### Logo and arms In 2004, the university unveiled its new logo. The icons in the logo are the sun for the Wills family, the dolphin for Colston, the horse for Fry and the ship-and-castle from the medieval seal of the City of Bristol, as also used in the coat of arms. The shape of the whole logo represents the open book of learning. This logo has replaced the university arms shown, but the arms continue to be used where there is a specific historical or ceremonial requirement. The arms comprise: The inscription on the book is the Latin opening of the 124th Psalm, "If the Lord Himself had not (been on our side...)". The latin motto granted with the Arms below the shields is Vim promovet insitam, from the fourth Ode of Horace's fourth book meaning '[Learning] promotes one's innate power'. ## Academics ### Admissions Bristol had the 8th highest average entry qualification for undergraduates of any UK university in 2015, with new students averaging 485 UCAS points, equivalent to just above AAAaa in A-level grades. Competition for places is high with an average 7.7 applications per place according to the 2014 Sunday Times League Tables, making it the joint 11th most competitive university in the UK. The university gives offers of admission to 67.3% of its applicants, the 8th lowest amongst the Russell Group. According to the 2017 Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide, approximately 40% of Bristol's undergraduates come from independent schools. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 78:5:17 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 55:45. ### Rankings and reputation The University of Bristol ranks number 5 in the UK for research quality according to the most recent Research Excellence Framework assessment. Chemistry (1st), Physics (5th), Engineering (6th), Mathematical sciences (4th), Computer science and informatics (7th), Earth systems and environmental sciences (2nd), Biological sciences (8th), Geography and environmental studies (1st), Law (3rd), Economics and econometrics (7th), and Modern languages and linguistics (4th) are among the highly rated subjects. The Complete University Guide 2024 ranks Bristol 4th for the quality of its research. Bristol also ranks 5th for number of spin outs created and has the best business incubator in the world according to UBI Global. The University of Bristol was the fourth most targeted university by the UK's top 100 employers, according to the Graduate Market in 2023 report produced by High Fliers. It was ranked joint 7th in the U.K. for graduate employability. Internationally, the 2024 QS World University Rankings placed Bristol at 55th overall in the world and 9th in the UK.The Times Higher Education World University Ranking placed Bristol at 76th globally and 9th in the U.K. in 2023. Another international ranking, the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities, placed Bristol 88th globally and 8th in the UK in 2023. ### Degrees Bristol awards a range of academic degrees spanning bachelor's and master's degrees as well as junior doctorates and higher doctorates. The postnominals awarded are the degree abbreviations used commonly among British universities. The university is part of the Engineering Doctorate scheme, and awards the Eng. D. in systems engineering, engineering management, aerospace engineering and non-destructive evaluation. Bristol notably does not award by title any bachelor's degrees in music, which is available for study but awarded BA (although it does award MMus and DMus), nor any degree in divinity, since divinity is not available for study (students of theology are awarded a BA). Similarly, the university does not award BLitt (Bachelor of Letters), although it does award both MLitt and DLitt. In regulations, the university does not name MD or DDS as higher doctorates, although they are in many universities as these degrees are normally accredited professional doctorates. The degrees of DLitt, DSc, DEng, LLD and DMus, whilst having regulations specifying the grounds for award, are most often conferred as honorary degrees (in honoris causa). Those used most commonly are the DLitt, DSc and LLD, with the MA (and occasionally the MLitt) also sometimes conferred honorarily for distinction in the local area or within the university. ## Publishing and commercial activities University of Bristol has various activities including publication, joint ventures, and catering and accommodation services. ### Bristol University Press Bristol University Press is scholarly press based at University of Bristol. In 1996, the University of Bristol established Policy Press, an academic publisher based in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Law at the University of Bristol and specialising in the social sciences. In October 2016, Policy Press became an imprint of newly founded Bristol University Press. It is not-for-profit university press which publishes 15 journals and 200 books a year in subjects including: Ageing and Gerontology, Business and Management, Criminology, Economics and Society, Environment and Sustainability, International Development, Law, Politics and International Relations, Science, Technology and Society, and Sociology. It achieved journal citation metrics with gains in Journal Impact Factors and improved results in Journal Citation Indicator, Scopus CiteScore and SJR. ### Bristol is Open Bristol is Open, abbreviated as BiO, is a joint venture project between Bristol City Council and University of Bristol. It is for delivering research contributing to the development of a Smart City and deploying a city-scale open and programmable testbed for experimentation and digital innovation. The collaboration of two organisations started in April 2015 and ended in December 2019 with Bristol City Council taking full control of BiO's operations. It has completed many technical trials and experiments including open access to Wi-Fi as a reduction of the digital divide and development for Smart City technology. ## Student life ### Students' Union The University of Bristol Students' Union (Bristol SU) located on Queen's Road in the Richmond Building is a founding member of the National Union of Students and is amongst the oldest students' unions in England. The union oversees three media outlets: UBTV, the Bristol University Radio Station (BURST) and the student newspaper Epigram. There is also a local branch of The Tab. The Union is responsible for representing students' academic interests through elections of student representatives and democratic events. The Union is also responsible for the organisation of the annual Welcome Fair, the co-ordination of Bristol Student Community Action, which organises volunteering projects in the local community, and the organisation of entertainment events and over 400 student groups, societies and clubs. Previous presidents have included Sue Lawley and former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik. There is a separate union for postgraduate students, as well as an athletic union, which is a member of the British Universities & Colleges Sport. In distinction to the "blues" awarded for sporting excellence at Oxford and Cambridge, Bristol's most successful athletes are awarded "reds". ### Halls of residence Accommodation for students is primarily in the central precinct of the university and two areas of Bristol: Clifton and Stoke Bishop, known respectively as the West and North Villages. In Stoke Bishop, Wills Hall on the edge of the Clifton Downs was the first to be opened, in 1929, by the then chancellor, Winston Churchill. Its original quadrangle layout has been expanded twice, in 1962 and 1990. Churchill Hall, named for the chancellor, followed in 1956, then Badock Hall in 1964. At the time of Badock Hall's establishment, some of the buildings were called Hiatt Baker Hall, but two years later, Hiatt Baker moved to its own site and is now the largest hall in the university. The first self-catering hall in Stoke Bishop was University Hall, established in 1971 with expansion in 1992. In Clifton, Goldney Hall was built first in the early 18th century by the wealthy merchant Goldney family and eventually became part of the university in 1956. It is a popular location for filming, with The Chronicles of Narnia, The House of Eliott and Truly, Madly, Deeply, as well as episodes of Only Fools and Horses and Casualty, being filmed there. The Grotto in the grounds is a Grade I listed building. Clifton Hill House is another Grade I listed building now used as student accommodation in Clifton. The original building was constructed between 1745 and 1750 by Isaac Ware, and has been used by the university since its earliest days in 1909. Manor Hall comprises five separate buildings, the principal of which was erected from 1927 to 1932 to the design of George Oatley following a donation from Henry Herbert Wills. Manor Hall houses the largest and most dated rooms, some dating back to the early 20th century. One of its annexes, Manor House, has recently been refurbished and officially 'reopened' in 1999. On the central precinct sits The Hawthorns, a student house accommodating 115 undergraduate students. The house started life as a collection of villas built somewhere between 1888 and 1924 that were later converted, bit by bit, into a hotel by John Dingle. The Hawthorns also houses conferencing facilities, the staff refectory and bar, the Accommodation Office and the Student Houses Office. 33 Colston Street was opened in the city centre in October 2011 after the university acquired the property in 2009. Several of the residences in the central precinct are more recent and have been built and are managed by third-party organisations under exclusivity arrangements with the university. These include New Bridewell House, opened in 2016, which is in the former police HQ, it includes en-suite bedrooms and studios and is operated by Fresh Student Housing, Unite House and Chantry Court, opened in 2000 and 2003 respectively by the UNITE Group, as well as Dean's Court (2001, postgraduates only) and Woodland Court (2005), both run by the Dominion Housing Group. All of the main halls elect groups of students to the Junior Common Room to organise the halls social calendar for the next year. Residents of student houses, private accommodation and students living at home become members of Orbital – a society organising social events for students throughout the year. ### Sport The University of Bristol has a rich heritage and reputation for sports. Sports membership at Bristol University totals up to 4,000 students across a wide range of unique teams and individual pursuits. Its network of over 70 sports clubs and four sites are run by the university's Student Union and its Sport,Exercise and Health Department. Competing with other universities in the British Universities and Colleges Sport league (BUCS), Bristol university is placed 8th in the country. The university caters to its students with sporting facilities split across four primary complexes: Bristol University Indoor Sports Centre- The Indoor Sports Centre is located at the heart of the university campus and is home to a fully equipped two-storey gym, fitness studios, sports hall and Sports Medicine Clinic. Coombe Dingle Sports Complex- This 38-acre site in the heart of Stoke Bishop, features the only indoor tennis centre in Bristol and is where the university's more traditional outdoor sports reside. Coombe Dingle is typically used for training and competition. Throughout the year Coombe Dingle hosts a variety of competitive fixtures, including inter-university BUCS matches, plus local and national league matches.: Facilities available at Coombe Dingle Sports Complex: • 3G pitch • Artificial pitches (sand dressed and floodlit) • Grass pitches (football and rugby) • Cricket squares and nets (including grass) • Tennis courts, indoor and outdoor (floodlit) • Lacrosse pitch • Netball courts (outdoor) • Olympic weight lifting gym • Softball and rounders facilities • Pavilion, lounge bar and meeting rooms • Sports Medicine Clinic Richmond Building- The university swimming pool is located inside the student union (Richmond Building). This six-lane swimming pool has a moveable bulkhead, creating a competition-length main pool, alongside a comfortable teaching pool for lessons. The pool is available to students, staff and the community for lane and casual swimming, or lessons, on a membership or pay-as-you-go basis. Saltford Boathouse- The University Boathouse is based at Saltford, halfway to Bath on the River Avon. Used for term-time training/competition and out-of-term recreational water sport, the Boathouse moors up the universities rowing and sailing boats. ## Controversy ### 2003 admissions controversy The university has been regarded as being elitist by some commentators, taking 41% of its undergraduate students from non-state schools, according to the most recent 2009/2010 figures, despite the fact that such pupils make up just 7% of the population and 18% of 16+ year old pupils across the UK. The intake of state school pupils at Bristol is lower than many Oxbridge colleges. The high ratio of undergraduates from non-state school has led to some tension at the university. In late February and early March 2003, Bristol became embroiled in a row about admissions policies, with some private schools threatening a boycott based on their claims that, in an effort to improve equality of access, the university was discriminating against their students. These claims were hotly denied by the university. In August 2005, following a large-scale survey, the Independent Schools Council publicly acknowledged that there was no evidence of bias against applicants from the schools it represented. In 2016, the 93% Club was established at Bristol University after students from a working-class state-school were criticised for their background and upbringing. The university has a new admissions policy, which lays out in considerable detail the basis on which any greater or lesser weight may be given to particular parts of an applicant's backgrounds – in particular, what account may be taken of which school the applicant hails from. This new policy also encourages greater participation from locally resident applicants. ### Simon Hall and Bristol Innocence Project In the late 2000s, Bristol law students in the University of Bristol Innocence Project (UoBIP) wrongly campaigned for a convicted murderer, who later went on to formally confess to the murder he was convicted of and prove he was rightly convicted. The students helped produce a Rough Justice programme promoting his false claims of innocence, and continued to assert he had been wrongly convicted even after his appeal was rejected in 2011. In 2013, Hall confessed to the crime to police and dropped his appeals, and one year later was found dead in an act of suicide. His case was described as an embarrassment for such 'miscarriage of justice' activists and greatly undermined the claims of many prisoners who claim their innocence. ### Student Mental Health Crisis In November 2016, three first-year students died within a few weeks of joining the university. All three deaths were suspected suicides. The Guardian attributed the deaths to a mental health crisis caused by academic and social pressure. Between October 2016 and January 2018, seven students died by suicide. In May 2018, three students died suddenly during exam season. The university has received increasing criticism for its handling of these deaths and confirmed suicides. In March 2017, it was reported that five students committed suicide in the 2016/2017 academic year. Between August 2017 to 2019, a reported 11 university students committed suicide. A further student suicide was reported in August 2019. In September 2017, the university spent £1 million on well-being advisers following a string of students suicides. In April 2018, a suicidal student, Natasha Abrahart, also died by suicide after not having her anti-depressants for a month. The student in question was found dead on the day she was due to take a "terrifying" oral exam. The coroner criticised the Avon and Wiltshire Mental Health Partnership NHS Trust whilst her parents blamed the university for lack of measures for her during the six-month period she was struggling. In 2019, her parents were due to sue the university after the suicide. The case was heard at Bristol County Court in March 2022. Judgment was given in May 2022. The judge found that the university had breached its duties under the Equality Act to make reasonable adjustments for disability in the way it had assessed Natasha Abrahart, and had treated her unfavourably. He awarded her parents £50,000 in damages. Another death by suicide, James Murray, occurred in May 2018. He had been dismissed from his course in February 2018 due to lack of attendance. Around late 2018, the university launched a new opt-in emergency contact system for students' parents, friends and guardians. The system, which was pressurised by the parents of Murray, alerts those concerned if the student if there were severe concerns about their wellbeing. The system, in which 94% of students opted in, was used 36 times in its first year. The former vice-chancellor Hugh Brady, in February 2018, blamed the social media and "the cult of perfectionism" for the mental health crisis among young people following a string of student suicides. In 2019, students who attended a course based around the "science of happiness" by the university was found to have "significantly higher mental wellbeing than a control group". The course has both academic and practical elements and give academic credits with no exams. However, those who took the course online during the COVID-19 pandemic did not feel happier but were more resilient than a control group. In addition there were certain caveats as most participants were white women. ### The Forced Swim Test The University of Bristol has been subject to criticism for its use of the controversial 'forced swim test', an experiment popularised in the 1970s which has involved scientists at the University placing rodents in inescapable containers of cold water for 15 minutes to observe their responses to what the scientists call a "life-threatening situation". Once they are removed from the water they are killed via decapitation. The research can be dated as far back as 1998 by scientists from the University of Bristol and they have released at least 11 research papers using the test have been released in this time. The University of Bristol was one of only two universities known to have used the forced swim test in 2022, the other being University College London. In October 2022 the University of Bristol renewed its license to carry out this experiment until 2027. More than half of the UK's Russell Group universities have shunned the test with Newcastle University's animal welfare ethics review body describing the test as "outdated and ethically unacceptable" adding that it "cannot foresee any research where this test would be proposed or could be scientifically or ethically justified". The University faced particular opposition from animal rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. The campaign of opposition has seen several University events disrupted by activists, including the Vice Chancellor, Evelyn Welch being confronted on two occasions, once on 16 May 2023 at an alumni event in New York and again on 13th July at a panel event which included Labour MP Matt Western, and University of Birmingham Vice Chancellor Adam Tickell. ## Notable people ### Academics Current academics at the University of Bristol include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences, 13 fellows of the British Academy, 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society. These include, Sir Michael Berry, one of the discoverers of quantum mechanics' "geometric phase", John Rarity international expert on quantum optics, quantum cryptography and quantum communication, David May, computer scientist and lead architect for the transputer, Mark Horton, a British maritime and historical archaeologist and Bruce Hood, a world-leading experimental psychologist. Academics in computer science include, David Cliff, inventor of the seminal "ZIP" trading algorithm, Peter Flach, Mike Fraser, professor of human-computer interaction, Julian Gough and Nigel Smart. Academics in engineering include the materials scientist Stephen Eichhorn. Past academics of the university include, Patricia Broadfoot, vice-chancellor of the University of Gloucestershire, Nigel Thrift, vice-chancellor of the University of Warwick, and Wendy Larner, provost of Victoria University of Wellington. Anthony Epstein, co-discoverer of the Epstein-Barr virus, was Professor of Pathology at the university from 1968 to 1982, Sir John Lennard-Jones, discoverer of the Lennard-Jones potential in physics and Alfred Marshall, one of the University College's principals and influential economist in the latter part of the 19th century. Mathematicians and philosophers Rohit Parikh and Brian Rotman lectured in the mathematics department, and philosophers of science Paul Feyerabend and Alexander Bird taught in the department of philosophy. Another notable current academic in the department of philosophy includes Havi Carel. Notable mathematicians who have worked in the department of mathematics include Hannes Leitgeb, Philip Welch, Ben Green, Andrew Booker, Julia Wolf, Jens Marklof, John McNamara, Howell Peregrine, Christopher Budd John Hogan, Jeremy Rickard, Richard Jozsa, Corinna Ulcigrai, David Evans and the statistician Harvey Goldstein. The University of Bristol is associated with three Ig Nobel Prizes, an award for unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research. Sir Michael Berry shared the award (with Andre Geim, a Nobel Laureate) for using magnets to levitate a frog. Gareth Jones also shared an Ig Nobel prize for scientifically documenting fellatio in fruit bats. Dr. Len Fisher was awarded the 1999 prize for physics for calculating the optimal way to dunk a biscuit. ### Alumni Bristol alumnus Paul Dirac went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933 for his contribution to the formulation of quantum mechanics and is considered one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century. Other notable scientists include Dani Rabaiotti, an environmental scientist and science communicator, and Eliahu Nissim, a professor of aeronautical engineering, and the president of the Open University of Israel. Writers to have studied at Bristol include Dick King-Smith; Sarah Kane; Angela Carter; Dorothy Simpson; David Gibbins; Julia Donaldson; Olivier award-winning playwright Laura Wade; Maddie Mortimer; and David Nicholls, author of the novel Starter for Ten, turned into a screenplay set in the University of Bristol. In government and politics, notable alumni include Albert II, Prince of Monaco; Prime Minister Hun Manet of Cambodia; former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik, who was president of Bristol University Students' Union; Sir Jonathan Evans, former head of MI5; Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, Chairperson of the African Union Commission from October 2012 to January 2017; and Paul Boateng, the UK's first Black Cabinet Minister. In current affairs, former students include journalist and McMafia author Misha Glenny; BBC News Chief Political Correspondent James Landale (who founded the university independent newspaper Epigram); author and journalist Julie Myerson; editor-in-chief of the Telegraph Media Group William Lewis; editor-in-chief of The Observer Will Hutton; Radio 4 presenter Sue Lawley; newsreader Alastair Stewart; and Sky News US Correspondent Dominic Waghorn. BBC Breakfast and Good Morning Britain anchor Susanna Reid was an editor of Epigram. In entertainment, former students include rapper Shygirl; singer James Blunt; illusionist Derren Brown; comedians Jon Richardson, Marcus Brigstocke (who did not graduate), Matt Lucas and David Walliams; actors Simon Pegg, Chris Langham and Pearl Mackie; anime YouTuber Gigguk; Brass Eye creator Chris Morris; and Stath Lets Flats creator Jamie Demetriou. Notable alumni from the Film and Television Production department include film directors Mick Jackson; Michael Winterbottom; Marc Evans; Christopher Smith; Alex Cox; Peter Webber; and Maddie Moate. Other alumni include Anne McClain, member of the 2013 NASA Astronaut Class; mathematician Iain Gordon; long jumper Jazmin Sawyers; Luke Bond, an organist at Windsor Castle; and baker Kim-Joy Hewlett. ## Gallery ## See also - Armorial of UK universities - CHOMBEC - Education in Bristol - List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945) - List of universities in the United Kingdom - University of Bristol Theatre Collection
45,082,337	St. Elmo (1910 Thanhouser film)	1,168,621,248	null	[ "1910 drama films", "1910 films", "1910s American films", "1910s English-language films", "American black-and-white films", "American drama short films", "American silent short films", "Films based on American novels", "Films directed by Barry O'Neil", "Lost American drama films", "Silent American drama films", "Thanhouser Company films" ]	St. Elmo is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company. The scenario was adapted by Lloyd Lonergan from Augusta Jane Evans's 1866 novel of the same name. Frank H. Crane and Anna Rosemond play the leading roles in the simplified plot that was reliant on inter-titles to tell the story. The film follows St. Elmo who is engaged to his cousin Agnes, being betrayed by his friend Dick Hammond who has an affair with Agnes. St. Elmo challenges and kills Hammond in a duel. A young girl, Edna witnesses the duel and leads Agnes and the sheriff off the trail. St. Elmo disappears and returns five years later to woo Edna. She rejects then accepts his affections only to stop him from committing suicide. The production was met with mixed reviews by critics, but was successful. The film is presumed lost. ## Plot The plot was adapted from Augusta Jane Evans's 1867 novel St. Elmo. The actual production was greatly shortened for the purposes of conveying the plot of the film. The synopsis in The Moving Picture World states: "St. Elmo, a wealthy young man, is betrothed to his cousin Agnes. Dick Hammond, St. Elmo's chum, is studying for the ministry. As soon as he is ordained he is to take charge of a church built for him by St. Elmo. Hammond, however, takes St. Elmo's friendship lightly and makes love to Agnes in secret. The affair is discovered by St. Elmo, who, in a rage at Hammond's perfidy, challenges him to a duel. The false friend loses his life in the ensuing combat. Edna, the granddaughter of the village blacksmith, strays upon the scene of the duel, an uninvited witness. St. Elmo is forced to flee the country. He is pursued by Agnes and the sheriff. Edna tells her first lie when she deceives St. Elmo's pursuers as to his direction and leads them completely off the trail. St. Elmo makes good his escape. On the day that Edna witnesses the duel her grandfather dies, leaving her alone in the world. She is adopted by St. Elmo's mother. Five years later the fugitive returns. Edna recognizes him as the victor of the dual but he does not remember having met her. He discovers that he loves the girl. Edna rejects his suit, declaring that she never would marry a man who had taken a human life. In desperation, St. Elmo attempts suicide, choosing as a spot the grave of Dick Hammond, but is swerved from his purpose by Edna, who relents and promises him her love and sympathy. St. Elmo decides that life is worth living if but for her sake." ## Cast - Frank H. Crane as St. Elmo - Anna Rosemond as Agnes - Gertrude Thanhouser - Carey L. Hastings ## Production Written in 1866, Augusta Jane Evans domestic novel St. Elmo became one of the best-selling novels of the 19th century. Its popularity would spur the creation of popular consumer products, parodies and even the names of several towns. Evans was concerned about how the novel's themes would be portrayed on the stage and did not approve the first script for a St. Elmo play until 1909. It is also unknown if Evans was aware of any intention to adapt the novel for the screen. Lloyd Lonergan adapted the play for the Thanhouser Company. The Book News Monthly said that Lonergan received a share of interest in the company for his good work in producing the scenario. Lonergan already had a single share of 100 total shares of the company from the initial \$10,000 in capital in 1909. The director of the film is uncertain. The film has been credited to both Barry O'Neil and/or Lloyd B. Carleton by film historian Q. David Bowers. It is not known for certain who directed or if both them played a directorial a role in the production. Barry O'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy, who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures, including its first two-reeler, Romeo and Juliet. Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little, a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time, moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910. The confusion between the directing credits stems from the industry practice of not crediting the film directors, even in studio news releases. There is also dispute over the cameraman credit for the film. Bower credits Blair Smith as the cameraman, but the American Film Institute adds that Carl Louis Gregory also could have been the cameraman. Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company, but he was soon joined by Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer. Bowers believes that numerous releases were produced with Gregory operating the camera, but the role was uncredited in the 1910 era. Anna Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company. Rosemond joined in the autumn of 1909 and in their first year of productions. Frank H. Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909. Crane's was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser. Bowers notes that St. Elmo was filmed in a mansion built in 1759, but the name and location of the structure is unknown. The actual date of the filming is unknown. During the weeks leading up to the release, a spy for Thomas Edison's production company recorded details surrounding Thanhouser's production, including the filming of Thanhouser's first release, The Actor's Children. The spy, W. E. Lowenkamp, had a New York State Detective license. Lowenkamp's reports suggest the possibility of filming in a house on March 10, 1910 and the intention to film the following morning, but it is unknown if this was related to St. Elmo's filming. Lowenkamp would speak to Edwin Thanhouser's sister in law, Carey L. Hastings, who took him as a real estate salesman was in film. Bower's reprints the report, "The sister-in-law said the house they were using to take pictures would just suit Mr. Thanhouser, so I called a real estate office and gave them the tip so they will try and sell the house to Mr. Thanhouser and cover me." The film also included Gertrude Thanhouser, the wife of Edwin Thanhouser. According to family tradition, she only appeared in this one film. ## Release and reception The single reel drama, approximately 860 ft, was released on March 22, 1910 by the Thanhouser Company. The film was shown in Tennessee, Ohio, Washington, and Pennsylvania. An advertisement in Indiana lists "St. Elmo" in apparent reference to a "great Thanhouser film". Edwin Thanhouser later stated that there were ten copies of the film at first and the films were primarily distributed to the exchanges that had purchased the first work, The Actor's Children. The desire for St. Elmo resulted in the production of fifteen more copies to meet the demand. Reviews for the film were mixed. The New York Dramatic Mirror provided a positive review which praised the ability of the writer to adapt the work to film, but this was diminished slightly because of the films dependence on title-cards. The review also stated that the acting was excellent, but not expressive enough and concluded that the film was "a notable one among the Independent releases". The Moving Picture World provided another positive review, praising the adaptation that simplified the plot and found no fault with the production. The Morning Telegraph found no fault with the story, but found fault with the excessive use of inter-titles. The reviewer also noted that the only strong scene in the film is the duel scene, but Edna's wanderings made her appear to be insane. The edition of April 16, 1910 of The Moving Picture World provided three testimonials that the film was of excellent quality and one attributed a doubling of patrons because of the film. The film is presumed lost. ## See also - List of American films of 1910
1,298,429	Julius Schreck	1,171,059,120	Nazi officer, first commander of the SS	[ "1898 births", "1936 deaths", "20th-century Freikorps personnel", "Chauffeurs of Adolf Hitler", "Deaths from meningitis", "German Army personnel of World War I", "Military personnel from Munich", "Nazi Party officials", "Nazis who participated in the Beer Hall Putsch", "People from the Kingdom of Bavaria", "Reichsführer-SS", "Sturmabteilung officers" ]	Julius Schreck (13 July 1898 – 16 May 1936) was an early senior Nazi official and close confidant of Adolf Hitler. Born in Munich, Schreck served in World War I and shortly afterwards joined right-wing paramilitary units. He joined the Nazi Party in 1920 and developed a close friendship with Adolf Hitler. Schreck was a founding member of the Sturmabteilung ("Storm Detachment"; SA) and was active in its development. Later in 1925, he became the first leader of the Schutzstaffel ("Protection Squadron"; SS). He then served for a time as a chauffeur for Hitler. Schreck developed meningitis in 1936 and died on 16 May of that year. Hitler gave him a state funeral. ## Early life Julius Schreck was born on 13 July 1898 in Munich in Bavaria. He served in the German Army during World War I. After the war ended, Schreck became an early member of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party; NSDAP), having joined in 1920 and documented as member \#53. Schreck developed a friendship with the party's leader Adolf Hitler during its early years. ## Career in the SA Schreck was a founding member of the Sturmabteilung ("Storm Detachment"; SA), being involved in its growth and development. This was a paramilitary wing of the party designed to disrupt political opponents and provide muscle for security tasks. Hitler, in early 1923, ordered the formation of a small separate bodyguard dedicated to his service and protection rather than an uncontrolled mass of the party, such as the SA. Originally the unit was composed of only eight men, commanded by Schreck and Joseph Berchtold. It was designated the Stabswache ("Staff Guard"). The Stabswache were issued unique badges, but at this point the Stabswache was still under overall control of the SA, whose membership continued to increase. Schreck resurrected the use of the Totenkopf ("death's head") as the unit's insignia, a symbol various elite forces had used in the past, including specialized assault troops of Imperial Germany in World War I who used Hutier infiltration tactics. In May 1923, the unit was renamed Stoßtrupp-Hitler ("Shock Troop-Hitler"). The unit was solely responsible for Hitler's personal protection. On 9 November 1923 the Stoßtrupp, along with the SA and several other paramilitary units, took part in the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. The plan was to seize control of the city in a coup d'état and then challenge the government in Berlin. The putsch was quickly crushed by the local police and resulted in the death of 16 Nazi supporters and 4 police officers. In the aftermath of the failed putsch both Hitler, Schreck, and other Nazi leaders were incarcerated at Landsberg Prison. The Nazi Party and all associated formations, including the Stoßtrupp, were officially disbanded. ## Career in the SS After Hitler's release from prison on 20 December 1924, the Nazi Party was officially refounded. In 1925, Hitler ordered Schreck to organise the formation of a new bodyguard unit, the Schutzkommando ("Protection Command"). Hitler wanted a small group of tough ex-soldiers such as Schreck, who would be loyal to him. The unit included old Stoßtrupp members such as Emil Maurice and Erhard Heiden. The unit made its first public appearance in April 1925. That same year, the Schutzkommando was expanded to a national level. It was also successively renamed the Sturmstaffel ("Storm Squadron") and then finally the Schutzstaffel ("Protection Squadron"; SS) on 9 November 1925. Schreck became SS member \#5. He was asked by Hitler to command the bodyguard company. Schreck never referred to himself as Reichsführer-SS, but the title was retroactively applied to him in later years. In 1926, Schreck stood down as commander of the SS and Berchtold took over the leadership. Berchtold changed the title of the office position, which became known as the Reichsführer-SS. Schreck remained on the SS rolls as an SS-Führer and worked as Hitler's private chauffeur after Maurice until 1934. In 1930, after the SS had begun to expand under Heinrich Himmler, Schreck was appointed an SS-Standartenführer, but had little actual power. He continued to serve at Hitler's side and they were on very good terms. ## Death Schreck continued as Hitler's personal driver until 1936. That spring Schreck developed meningitis and died on 16 May in Munich. He was a well-liked man and Hitler was distraught when Schreck died. His final rank was SS-Brigadeführer, a rank equivalent to that of a Generalmajor in the Wehrmacht. Schreck was accorded a Nazi state funeral. Himmler referred to him as "Adolf Hitler's first SS man."
10,301,408	Theodor Weissenberger	1,152,962,819	German World War II flying ace	[ "1914 births", "1950 deaths", "German Formula Three Championship drivers", "German World War II flying aces", "German racing drivers", "Luftwaffe pilots", "Military personnel from Hesse", "People from Mühlheim am Main", "People from the Grand Duchy of Hesse", "Racing drivers from Hesse", "Racing drivers who died while racing", "Recipients of the Gold German Cross", "Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves", "Sport deaths in Germany" ]	Theodor Weissenberger (21 December 1914 – 11 June 1950) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II and a fighter ace credited with 208 enemy aircraft shot down in 375 combat missions. The majority of his victories were claimed near the Arctic Ocean in the northern sector of the Eastern Front, but he also claimed 33 victories over the Western Front. He claimed eight of these victories over the Western Allies while flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter. Born in Mühlheim am Main in the German Empire, Weissenberger, who had been a glider pilot in his youth, volunteered for service in the Luftwaffe of Nazi Germany in 1936. Following flight training, he was posted to the heavy fighter squadron of Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing) in 1941. He claimed his first aerial victory over Norway on 24 October 1941. After 23 aerial victories as heavy fighter pilot, he received the German Cross in Gold and was then posted to Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5—5th Fighter Wing) in September 1942. There he received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 13 November 1942 after 38 aerial victories. In June 1943, Weissenberger was appointed Staffelkapitän of 7. Staffel of JG 5. Following his 112th aerial victory, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 2 August 1943. He was appointed Staffelkapitän of 6. Staffel in September 1943 and in March 1944 he was given command of II. Gruppe of JG 5 which was operating in Defense of the Reich missions. In June 1944 he took command of I. Gruppe of JG 5 which defended against the Invasion of Normandy. Weissenberger claimed 25 aerial victories in this theater, which included his 200th victory on 25 July 1944. After conversion training to the Me 262 jet fighter, he was appointed commander of I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 7 "Nowotny" (JG 7—7th Fighter Wing), the first operational jet fighter wing in the world, in November 1944. Promoted to Major (major), he took command of JG 7 "Nowotny" as a Geschwaderkommodore in January 1945, a position he held until the end of hostilities. He was killed in a car racing accident on 11 June 1950 at the Nürburgring. ## Early life and career Weissenberger, the son of a plant nursery owner, was born on 21 December 1914 in Mühlheim am Main in the Grand Duchy of Hesse of the German Empire. He had a brother Otto who also served as a pilot in Luftwaffe. As a glider pilot with the German Air Sports Association (Deutscher Luftsportverband), he made his maiden flight on 16 November 1935. On 20 July 1941 he logged his 645th flight as a glider pilot, in total 196 hours and 46 minutes of powerless flight. Most of these flights were made as an instructor over the Rhön Mountains, Silesia and Bavaria. He joined the military service of the Luftwaffe with 2./Flieger-Ersatz-Abteilung 14 (2nd Company of Flier Replacement Unit 14) in Detmold on 19 October 1936. There he was promoted to Feldwebel of the Reserves on 1 December 1940. ## World War II Weissenberger was posted to a front-line unit on 27 August 1941, almost two years after the start of World War II. His unit, 1.(Z)/Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing) was a Zerstörer (Z—heavy fighter or destroyer) Staffel (squadron) flying the twin-engine, up to three-seat, Messerschmitt Bf 110. The unit was stationed in Norway, operating in the Murmansk area in support of Finnish operations against the Soviet Union during the Continuation War. Germany regarded its operations in the region as part of its overall war efforts on the Eastern Front, and it provided Finland with critical material support and military cooperation. There he flew his first combat mission of the war on 13 September 1941. ### War on the Arctic Front Weissenberger claimed his first aerial victory, a Polikarpov I-153 biplane fighter, on 24 October 1941 and was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class (Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse) on 6 November 1941. He was promoted to Oberfeldwebel of the Reserves on 1 February 1942. During this phase of his military career, he often got into trouble with his superiors regarding his lack of discipline. A few times his comrades had to intervene to save him from punishment. On 24 January 1942, Weissenberger and Oberleutnant Max Franzisket flew on a ground attack mission against the Kirov Railway line. Weissenberger claimed a Polikarpov I-18 shot down at 13:35, roughly 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) northwest of the railway station of Bojaskoje. At 13:40, he claimed a Hawker Hurricane shot down, his third aerial victory. In February 1942 he mostly flew escort fighter missions for Junkers Ju 87 and Ju 88 bombers attacking the harbors at Ferosero, Polyarnoye, present-day Polyarny, and Murmansk. Weissenberger received the Iron Cross 1st Class (Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse) on 17 February 1942. On 25 February he claimed two more Hurricanes shot down at 11:15 and 11:22, his fourth and fifth victories. His Staffel was redesignated as 10.(Z) of Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5—5th Fighter Wing) on 16 March 1942 and subordinated to JG 5. In April 1942 he claimed eight victories, three of which were shot down on 15 April during two combat missions west of Murmansk. On 25 April at 07:20 Weissenberger took off at Kirkenes for an emergency intercept mission against 20 Soviet Petlyakov Pe-2 bombers. He shot down two bombers before his aircraft was hit by the defensive fire. The right engine started burning and he was forced to disengage from the enemy. Returning to the German lines, he made a safe belly landing. Weissenberger became an "ace-in-a-day" for the first time on 10 May 1942 when he shot down five enemy aircraft, aerial victories 14–18, between 16:45 and 16:57 while on a Ju 87 escort mission. These victories were claimed over aircraft of 2 Gvardeyskiy Smeshannyy Aviatsionny Polk (2 GSAP—2nd Soviet Guards Composite Aviation Division), which lost ten Hurricanes destroyed and three damaged. He claimed his 20th victory on 15 May when he shot down a Hurricane 4 km (2.5 mi) west of Murmansk. In June 1942, JG 5 was augmented by another group, VI. Gruppe (4th Group) under the command of Hauptmann Hans Kriegel. This led to a number of Staffel redesignations. Weissenberger's 10.(Z) Staffel was renamed as 13.(Z) Staffel and remained subordinated to JG 5. He transferred from the reserve force to active service and was promoted to Leutnant (second lieutenant) on 1 July 1942. In early September he was transferred to 6. Staffel of JG 5, now flying the single-engine, single-seat, Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter. By this date, Weissenberger, as a Zerstörer pilot, had claimed 23 aerial victories in addition to 15 locomotives, 2 FLAK installations, a radio station, a railway station and other ground targets destroyed and was awarded the German Cross in Gold (Deutsches Kreuz in Gold) on 8 September 1942. ### Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross At the time, 6. Staffel at the time was based in Petsamo, present-day Pechenga in Murmansk Oblast, Russia. Weissenberger took off on his first Bf 109 combat mission at 14:00 on 15 September 1942 after he had spent a few days familiarizing himself with the single-engine fighter aircraft. The mission, flown by 10 Bf 109 fighters from 6. Staffel, was a combat air patrol in the vicinity of Murmashi. The flight encountered enemy aircraft and Weissenberger filed claims over two Curtiss P-40 Warhawk Lend-Lease fighters shot down at 14:31 and 14:33. These were his first victories claimed on the Bf 109, taking his total to 25 victories. A week later, on 22 September, Weissenberger and 6. Staffel were again patrolling the airspace near the Soviet airfield at Murmashi. During this mission, he claimed three more aerial victories, over Hurricanes shot down between 14:59 and 15:05. On 27 September 1942, Weissenberger claimed five victories during the course of two combat missions. During the first mission, he shot down a Bell P-39 Airacobra at 11:36. On his second mission, which began at 15:00, he encountered a formation of roughly 30 aircraft, claiming four Hurricanes shot down from 15:49 to 15:56, a time space of seven minutes. This "ace-in-a-day" achievement took his total to 33 aerial victories. On 22 October 1942, Weissenberger was tasked with fighter protection for a reconnaissance aircraft. The engine of his Bf 109 F-4 seized up just west of Murmansk. He managed to nurse his aircraft back to the German lines before bailing out. He was picked up eight hours later by a Gebirgsjäger (mountain infantry) patrol and brought back to his Staffel. Following this event he was given one week of rest. He returned to combat on 30 October 1942, and during two combat missions again achieved "ace-in-a-day" status. He claimed three victories on his first mission and two P-40s at 15:00 and 15:06 on his second mission of the day. This took his total to 38 aerial victories and he was honored with the presentation of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes) on 13 November 1942. That day, Feldwebel Heinrich Bartels from 8. Staffel of JG 5 was also awarded the Knight's Cross. Following the winter break, Weissenberger claimed 33 further victories between 6–28 March 1943. Often he achieved multiple victories per day; six claims on 10 March, victories 43 to 48 on 10 March, victories 49 to 53 on 12 March, and numbers 54 to 57 on 13 March. A ground attack mission against the airfield at Salmiyarvi on 28 March was his last action of the month. Weissenberger claimed three P-39s shot down during this mission, but was himself hit by anti-aircraft fire and had to make a forced landing. He was picked up and returned by a Fiesler Fi 156 "Storch". On 13 April 1943, a flight of five aircraft from 6. Staffel claimed 18 Soviet aircraft destroyed without loss. Six of the enemy aircraft were credited to Weissenberger, shot down between 17:05 and 17:16. This took his score to 77 aerial victories. On 13 May, he claimed four P-39s destroyed, representing victories 83 to 86, and he was promoted to Oberleutnant on 1 June 1943. ### Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross Weissenberger claimed another five victories on 8 June 1943 north of Murmansk between 17:15 and 17:23. This brought his score to 91 aerial victories and on 15 June he was appointed Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 7. Staffel of JG 5. In the period 15 June to 4 July, 7. Staffel claimed 122 aerial victories under his leadership. The heaviest fighting occurred on 22 June over the Karelia Front, during which his Staffel claimed 13 victories, of which three were Hurricanes shot down by Weissenberger. A day later, he again claimed three aircraft shot down, comprising victories 95 to 97. On 4 July 1943, Weissenberger led 7. Staffel to 16 aerial victories, while providing fighter cover for a departing German naval task force. First, Weissenberger claimed a Pe-2 reconnaissance aircraft shot down at 21:07. A flight of 25 to 30 enemy bombers and torpedo bombers was then spotted at 21:50. Weissenberger claimed an Ilyushin Il-2 "Sturmovik" at 21:54, his 100th aerial victory. He was the 43rd Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark. The Staffel returned to its airfield at 22:19 without having sustained any losses during the encounter. Weissenberger alone had claimed seven victories during this mission, taking his total to 104 victories. He achieved "ace-in-a-day" status for the fourth time on 25 July 1943, claiming aerial victories numbers 108 to 112. Following his 112th victory, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub) on 2 August 1943, the 266th member of the Wehrmacht to be so honored. The presentation was made by Adolf Hitler at the Wolf's Lair, Hitler's headquarters in Rastenburg, present-day Kętrzyn in Poland. Five other Luftwaffe officers were presented with awards that day by Hitler, Hauptmann Egmont Prinz zur Lippe-Weißenfeld, Hauptmann Manfred Meurer, Hauptmann Heinrich Ehrler, Oberleutnant Joachim Kirschner, Hauptmann Werner Schröer were also awarded the Oak Leaves, and Major Helmut Lent received the Swords to his Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves. Weissenberger was placed in command of 6. Staffel on 14 September 1943 and in October and November added five more victories to his score, four of which were achieved on 3 November over the Rybachy Peninsula. At the end of 1943, II. Gruppe (2nd Group) was ordered to relocate further south to the front near Nevel, Leningrad and Lake Ilmen. Relocating from Pskov, 6. Staffel arrived at their new airfield at Idritsa on 11 November 1943 and was in action again on 17 November. In January 1944, II. Gruppe was subordinated to Luftflotte 2 (2nd Air Fleet) in the middle sector of the Eastern Front in support of the defensive battles at Vitebsk. The Staffel flew combat missions from Orsha and Polotsk. Between 10:50 to 10:58 on 1 February 1944, Weissenberger achieved his fifth "ace-in-a-day", taking his total to 124. On 28 February, he claimed his 140th aerial victory. At the end of February 1944, II. Gruppe relocated again to Polotsk and then to Jakobstadt, present-day Jēkabpils in Latvia, and on 16 March Weissenberger claimed his 141st victory. Among his four victories claimed on 20 March were three Il-2 ground attack aircraft. On 25 March 1944, another "ace-in-a-day" achievement saw his total increase to 153 aerial victories. In late March 1944, II. Gruppe was transferred to the far north again, and was based at Alakurtti. Here they defended against the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive. Weissenberger was appointed Gruppenkommandeur (group commander) of II. Gruppe of JG 5 on 26 March 1944, succeeding Hauptmann Horst Carganico who was transferred. Command of 6. Staffel was passed to Oberleutnant Ernst Scheufele. He claimed three aircraft shot down on 4 April, and four more on 9 April, taking his victories from 159 to 162. At the end of April 1944, II. Gruppe relocated to Jakobstadt, withdrawing from the Arctic Front for the last time. On 17 May he claimed victories 169 to 172, and the next day shot down three Yakovlev Yak-9s, taking his total to 175. These were his last victories on the Eastern Front. At the end of May 1944, II. Gruppe was transferred to Defense of the Reich duties and was relocated to Gardelegen Airfield in Germany. ### Combat on the Western Front Weissenberger was promoted to Hauptmann on 1 June 1944. On 3 June he arrived in Herzogenaurach to take over command of I. Gruppe (1st Group) of JG 5. The former Gruppenkommandeur Major Horst Carganico had been killed in a flying accident on 27 May 1944. Three days after Weissenberger took command, the Allied invasion of Normandy began. To counter the invasion, elements of I./JG 5 were transported to France by train that afternoon. The ground personnel were flown on Junkers Ju 52s to their airfield at Montdidier, 35 km (22 mi) south of Amiens. The following day, Weissenberger took I. Gruppe into combat, achieving "ace-in-a-day" status once again on his first day of combat on the Western Front. His 176th victory was over a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt shot down at 09:05. He claimed two further P-47s shot down 20 minutes later. I. Gruppe was scrambled again in the afternoon which resulted in aerial combat with roughly 12 P-47s near Beauvais. During the course of this encounter, which ended at 17:39, Weissenberger claimed two P-47s shot down. On 8 June the final elements of I. Gruppe arrived in Montdidier, making the unit complete. In the evening Weissenberger again claimed two P-47s shot down, his 181st and 182nd aerial victories. The airfield at Montdidier came under heavy fighter bomber attack on 11 June followed by another attack on 12 June resulting in significant damage to the airfield. On 12 June Weissenberger filed a claim for three aerial victories. Together with his wingman, Unteroffizier (Sergeant) Alfred Tichy, he took off at 06:00 and during the course of 12 minutes shot down three P-47s. After his first victory, Tichy was killed in action, crashing near Évreux. At 07:02 Weissenberger shot down his third P-47 of the day but his Bf 109 G-5 (Werknummer 110256—factory number) was hit in the engine forcing him to bail out near Saint André. The airfield in Montdidier was rendered unserviceable and I. Gruppe was forced to relocate. It was first moved to Péronne, then to Chauny, a makeshift airfield between Noyon and Tergnier. The constant attacks against German airfields forced another move in July 1944, this time to Frières in the vicinity of Laon. II\. Gruppe flew a combat air patrol on 6 July 1944, resulting in the claim of three Lockheed P-38 Lightnings destroyed. Weissenberger was credited with two of these victories, the first at 08:48 and the second at 08:49, both shot down south of Cambrai. The next day, the Gruppe took off heading for the airspace south of Rosières where they engaged a formation of 15 to 20 P-47s. During this encounter, Weissenberger claimed three victories, numbers 188 to 190. The Gruppe was given a few days of rest and on 13 July were ordered to operate against enemy fighter bombers attacking German positions in the area Rouen – Bernay – Évreux. During this mission, he shot down a Hawker Typhoon at 18:24 near Trouville and another one two minutes later. They were then tasked with a fighter bomber mission on 14 July, attacking enemy positions near Caen. After a number of ground strafing attacks they themselves came under attack of numerous Supermarine Spitfires and P-47s. Flying at a height of 10 meters (33 feet), Weissenberger managed to shoot down one Spitfire 5 km (3.1 mi) south of Bayeux. The commanding general of II. Jagdkorps (2nd Fighter Corps), Generalleutnant Alfred Bülowius, accompanied by Oberstleutnant Herbert Ihlefeld inspected II. Gruppe at their airfield in Frières on 15 July 1944. On 17 July, Weissenberger led his Gruppe on a number of missions in the combat area near Caen without encountering any enemy aircraft. On their last mission of the day, having taken off at 19:00, they encountered enemy fighter bombers near Caen – Le Mesnil. During aerial combat, the Gruppe lost three pilots without any success for themselves. On 19 July 1944, I. Gruppe was tasked with flying top cover for Jagdgeschwader 2 "Richthofen" and Jagdgeschwader 26 "Schlageter". During this mission, Weissenberger claimed four aerial victories. At 20:22 he shot down his first Typhoon of the mission north of Lisieux, another Typhoon one minute later and his third at 20:25 northwest of Cormeilles. His fourth victory was over a North American P-51 Mustang, shot down at 20:35 near Charleval. On 25 July 1944, the Gruppe was again tasked with a combat air patrol mission in the greater Caen area. Weissenberger received the order to take off at 10:30 and at 11:00 they spotted Spitfires in the vicinity of Rouen. In the ensuing aerial encounter at an altitude of 3,800 m (12,500 ft), Weissenberger shot down a Spitfire 15 km (9.3 mi) south of Rouen. This was his 199th aerial victory. Two minutes later, at 11:02, he shot down his 200th opponent. Weissenberger left the Gruppe on 30 July 1944 and went on vacation to Bad Wiessee. His I. Gruppe was withdrawn from combat and moved to Wunstorf for a period of rest and conversion training to the Bf 109 G-14. The ground personnel were transferred to II. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 6 (JG 6—6th Fighter Wing). Conversion training ended in October 1944 and I. Gruppe was disbanded shortly after and became III. Gruppe (3rd Group) of JG 6 on 14 October. On 24 October 1944 Weissenberger was ordered to Königsberg in der Neumark, present-day Chojna in Poland. At Königsberg, he was given command of the newly forming I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 7 "Nowotny" (JG 7—7th Fighter Wing). ### Flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 JG 7 "Nowotny" was the first operational jet fighter wing in the world and was named after Walter Nowotny, who was killed in action on 8 November 1944. Nowotny, a fighter pilot credited with 258 aerial victories and recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub, Schwertern und Brillanten), had been assessing the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft under operational conditions. JG 7 "Nowotny" was equipped with the Me 262, an aircraft which was heavily armed and faster than any Allied fighter. General der Jagdflieger (General of the Fighter Force) Adolf Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the Allies' numerical superiority. On 12 November 1944, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL—Air Force High Command) ordered JG 7 "Nowotny" to be equipped with the Me 262. Galland appointed Oberst Johannes Steinhoff as its first Geschwaderkommodore (wing commander). JG 7 "Nowotny" was initially formed with the Stab (headquarters unit) and III. Gruppe at Brandenburg-Briest from the remnants of Kommando Nowotny. I. Gruppe was created on 27 November from pilots and personnel from II. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 3 "Udet" (JG 3—3rd Fighter Wing) and placed under the command of Weissenberger. Weissenberger's appointed Staffelkapitäne in I. Gruppe were Oberleutnant Hans Grünberg, Oberleutnant Fritz Stehle, and Oberleutnant Hans Waldmann, commanding 1.–3. Staffel respectively. On New Year's Day 1945, Weissenberger married his teenage-love Cilly Vogel in Langenselbold near Hanau. Best man at his wedding was his former JG 5 comrade and friend Walter Schuck. Schuck succeeded Waldmann as Staffelkapitän of the 3. Staffel following the latter's death in a flying accident on 18 March 1945. Weissenberger was promoted to Major on 1 January 1945 and replaced Steinhoff as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 7 "Nowotny" shortly after. Both Galland and Steinhoff, among others, were relieved of their commands in the aftermath of the Fighter Pilots' Revolt in early 1945. Under his command, JG 7 "Nowotny" achieved some success before the end of World War II in Europe on 8 May 1945. On 18 March 1945, JG 7 "Nowotny" claimed 25 aerial victories over Berlin, among them three Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses shot down by Weissenberger. On 4 April, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Eighth Air Force dispatched 1,431 heavy bombers, escorted by 850 fighter aircraft, to northern Germany. The bombers targets included the harbor and residential areas of Kiel and Hamburg and five Luftwaffe airfields, including Parchim Airfield where III. Gruppe of JG 7 was based. Defending against this attack, Weissenberger shot down a B-17 bomber near Bremen, his last claim. Over all, he achieved eight confirmed victories, seven B-17 bombers and a P-51 fighter, while flying the Me 262. Weissenberger survived the war and was credited with a total of 208 aerial victories, including 33 over the Western Front, claimed in 375 combat missions. ## Later life Weissenberger became a motor racing driver after the war, and was killed at the Nürburgring circuit on 11 June 1950, when his modified BMW 328 single seater (Veritas), start number 15, crashed on the first lap of the XV Eifelrennen, a Formula Three motor race. ## Summary of career ### Aerial victory claims According to US historian David T. Zabecki, Weissenberger was credited with 208 aerial victories. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 208 aerial victory claims, plus two further unconfirmed claims. This figure of confirmed claims includes 175 aerial victories on the Eastern Front and 33 on the Western Front, including seven four-engined bombers and 8 victories with the Me 262 jet fighter. Victory claims were logged to a map-reference (PQ = Planquadrat), for example "PQ 36 Ost 3914". The Luftwaffe grid map (Jägermeldenetz) covered all of Europe, western Russia and North Africa and was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about 360 square miles (930 km<sup>2</sup>). These sectors were then subdivided into 36 smaller units to give a location area 3 km × 4 km (1.9 mi × 2.5 mi) in size. ### Awards Weissenberger received the following awards: - Iron Cross (1939 variant) - 2nd Class (6 November 1941) - 1st Class (17 February 1942) - Honorary Cup of the Luftwaffe on 1 July 1942 as Oberfeldwebel and pilot - German Cross in Gold on 8 September 1942 as Oberfeldwebel in the 10.(ZS)/JG 5 - Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves - Knight's Cross on 13 November 1942 as Leutnant (war officer) and pilot in the 6./JG 5 - 266th Oak Leaves on 2 August 1943 as Oberleutnant (war officer) and Staffelkapitän of the 7./JG 5 Weissenberger was recommended for the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern) by Steinhoff after his 200th aerial victory. The recommendation was received by the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe/Luftwaffenpersonalamt (OKL/LP—Air Force High Command/Air Force Staff Office) on 29 January 1945, but was declined on 20 February 1945. At the time, 240 aerial victories were required for the Swords to be awarded. ### Dates of rank
27,804,813	Luis Muriel	1,173,595,859	Colombian footballer (born 1991)	[ "1991 births", "2015 Copa América players", "2018 FIFA World Cup players", "2019 Copa América players", "2021 Copa América players", "ACF Fiorentina players", "Atalanta BC players", "Categoría Primera A players", "Colombia men's international footballers", "Colombia men's under-20 international footballers", "Colombia men's youth international footballers", "Colombian expatriate men's footballers", "Colombian expatriate sportspeople in Italy", "Colombian expatriate sportspeople in Spain", "Colombian men's footballers", "Colombian people of African descent", "Deportivo Cali footballers", "Expatriate men's footballers in Italy", "Expatriate men's footballers in Spain", "Granada CF footballers", "La Liga players", "Living people", "Men's association football forwards", "People from Atlántico Department", "Segunda División players", "Serie A players", "Sevilla FC players", "UC Sampdoria players", "US Lecce players", "Udinese Calcio players" ]	Luis Fernando Muriel Fruto (born 16 April 1991) is a Colombian professional footballer who plays as a forward for club Atalanta and the Colombia national team. Having started his professional career with Colombian side Deportivo Cali, Muriel joined Udinese. His first two seasons at the club saw him loaned out to Granada and Lecce respectively before returning to the club in 2012, during which year he won the Serie A Best Young Revelation award alongside Stephan El Shaarawy. After scoring 15 league goals in 57 appearances, Muriel joined fellow Serie A side Sampdoria in January 2015. He spent two-and-a-half seasons with the club, scoring 21 goals in 79 league appearances before joining Sevilla in 2017. In January 2019, he was sent back to Italy on loan with Fiorentina. In June 2019, Muriel signed for Serie A side Atalanta for a reported €18m. In his first season, Muriel secured 18 league goals and guided Atalanta to UEFA Champions League qualification for the first time in the club's history. The following season, he finished as the third top goalscorer in the Serie A, behind Romelu Lukaku and Cristiano Ronaldo. Consequently, Atalanta qualified for two consecutive Champions League tournaments; for his efforts, Muriel was included in the 2020–21 Serie A Team of the Year. Muriel is currently a Colombian international, having represented his nation at a full international level since 2012. He made his senior debut in June 2012, in a World Cup qualifying match against Ecuador and scored his first goal the following year, netting against Guatemala. He later took part at the 2015, 2019, and 2021 editions of the Copa América, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup. ## Club career ### Deportivo Cali Having spent his formative years with Atlético Junior, Muriel joined Colombian Primera A side Deportivo Cali in January 2009. He made his debut against Envigado FC on 12 July 2009 in what would be his only appearance for the year before scoring nine goals in 10 appearances the following season. Muriel's early form for Deportivo Cali, which included a hat-trick against Once Caldas in his third match, earned him the nickname "the Colombian Ronaldo", in comparison to former Brazil striker Ronaldo, and midway through the season he was signed by Italian Serie A side Udinese. ### Udinese Udinese officially completed the signing of Muriel on 30 May 2010 for a reported fee of €1.5m. In terms of the transfer agreement, Udinese obtained 70% of Muriel's playing rights with the remaining 30% being retained by Deportivo. Shortly after his arrival in Udine, however, he was loaned to Segunda División side Granada. #### Loans to Granada & Lecce Muriel completed his loan move to Granada on 12 July 2010. The club achieved promotion to La Liga for the first time in 35 years but it was an unsuccessful spell for Muriel, as he made only seven appearances for the season and failed to score. Upon the expiration of his loan with Granada, Muriel was loaned out again for the following season to fellow Serie A side, Lecce. He made his debut for the club on 27 October 2011, coming on as a second-half substitute for Daniele Corvia in a 2–0 loss to Palermo. On his first start for the club the following month, against Cesena, Muriel was sent off for two bookable offences. Lecce hung on to claim a 1–0 victory, however, thanks to a goal from fellow countryman and Udinese-loanee, Juan Cuadrado. He improved to end the campaign with a return of seven goals in 29 appearances, though his efforts were not enough to prevent Lecce from being relegated to Serie B. His form during the course of the season garnered the attention of A.C. Milan and Internazionale, with both clubs making official offers to sign him, but Muriel confirmed that he would be returning to Udinese. #### Return to Udinese Muriel's poor physical condition upon his return to Udinese drew the ire of Francesco Guidolin, with the club manager insisting that he needed to lose 5 pounds (2.3 kg), despite the player scoring four goals against Arta Cedarchis in a pre-season friendly. He was able to get in shape for the start of the season and made his debut in a 2–1 defeat against Fiorentina on 25 August 2012, providing the assist to Maicosuel for the opening goal. He signed a contract extension the following month, signing an improved five-year deal with the club. In January 2012, Muriel was awarded the Serie A Best Young Revelation award alongside Milan's Stephan El Shaarawy in recognition of his form with Lecce and Udinese the previous year. By the conclusion of the season, he had contributed a return of 11 goals in 22 Serie A appearances, despite having missed nearly four months of football because of a hairline fracture of his left femur. The following season, in the qualifying playoff rounds of the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, Muriel scored his first ever European goals, netting twice in a 3–1 victory over Široki Brijeg and in his first league match of the season, scored against reigning Coppa Italia champions, Lazio in a 2–1 loss. His form declined however, as he struggled with weight and injury issues, and over the course of the next season-and-a-half he scored only four goals in 35 league appearances, including a spell without any goals in 11 matches from the start of the 2014–15 Serie A season. He ultimately amassed 15 goals in 57 appearances for the club, before leaving to join Sampdoria in 2015. ### Sampdoria In spite of his struggles with Udinese, Sampdoria completed the double loan signings of Muriel and teammate Andrea Coda on 22 January 2015, with an obligation to purchase both players at the end of the season for a combined sum of €12m. In terms of the agreement, Muriel signed a contract with Sampdoria until 30 June 2019. He scored four times in 16 appearances during his loan spell before completing a permanent transfer at the end of the season. In his final campaign with the club he recorded a career best return of 11 league goals and five assists, which prompted Sevilla to break their club record to sign him at the end of the season. ### Sevilla On 11 July 2017, La Liga side Sevilla announced the signing of Muriel for a reported club-record fee €20m, with potential add-ons. He made his debut on 19 August, starting in a 1–1 draw with Espanyol and scored his first goal for the club on 17 September, netting the winner in a 1–0 victory over Girona. Following a disappointing debut campaign, in which he only scored 9 goals in 46 appearances, Muriel found himself behind Wissam Ben Yedder and new club signings André Silva and Quincy Promes in the pecking order for Sevilla the following season. #### Loan to Fiorentina On 2 January 2019, Muriel returned to Serie A after signing with Fiorentina on loan for the remainder of the season. He scored a hat-trick on his non-competitive debut a week later in a win over Maltese side, Hibernians before making his official debut on 14 January in a 2–0 Coppa Italia win over Torino. He then scored twice on his league debut on 20 January during a 3–3 draw with former club, Sampdoria. He ultimately scored six league goals during his loan spell but was not signed permanently after the club underwent a change in ownership. ### Atalanta On 21 June 2019, after a successful loan spell with Fiorentina, Muriel returned to Serie A after signing with Atalanta in a permanent deal worth a reported €18m. ## International career ### Youth team Muriel represented Colombia at U20 level and featured for the nation at the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup for which Colombia were the host nation. On 6 August 2011, having previously scored twice against France, he scored the only goal of the match as Colombia defeated Korea Republic 1–0 to progress from the group stages with a perfect record. Muriel ultimately scored four goals for the tournament before Colombia were knocked out by Mexico in the quarter-finals. ### Senior team Muriel was called up to the senior side for the first time in 2012 by new manager José Pékerman and made his debut in a 1–0 World Cup qualifier loss to Ecuador on 10 June. He scored his first goal the following year, scoring in a friendly against Guatemala on 6 February 2013. The following year, he was one of seven players cut from Colombia's extended squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. He was a member of Colombia's squad for the 2015 Copa América but was overlooked for the Copa América Centenario the following year. In May 2018 he was named in Colombia's preliminary 35-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He featured sporadically as Colombia reached the Round of 16 where they were eliminated following a penalty shoot-out defeat to England. The following summer, Muriel was included in the 23-man Colombia squad for the 2019 Copa América in Brazil. On 9 July 2021, Muriel assisted Luis Diaz's match–winning goal in a 3–2 victory over Peru in the third-place match of the 2021 Copa América. ## Style of play In his youth, Muriel was often praised in the media for his precocious performances during his early career in Italy, which led him to win the Serie A Best Young Revelation Award in 2012. Several footballing figures in Italy, such as manager Massimiliano Allegri, have recognised Muriel for his speed and technique on the ball, as well as the potential which he already demonstrated as a youngster; his former Udinese teammate Antonio Di Natale even compared him to Alexis Sánchez in 2013. Although Muriel is usually deployed as a centre-forward, he is a versatile forward, who is capable of playing in several offensive positions; indeed, during the 2012–13 season, under his former Udinese manager Francesco Guidolin, he also demonstrated his creative capabilities in a more withdrawn, central role behind another striker, which frequently saw him operate as either a second striker or attacking midfielder. He is also capable of playing as a winger. A fast, talented, creative, two-footed, and technically gifted striker, with good dribbling skills, pace, agility, acceleration, movement, and an eye for goal, Muriel's playing style, physical build, and appearance have led him to be compared to former Brazil striker Ronaldo. Muriel has stated that this comparison is likely due to the fact that, as a youngster, he was an admirer of Ronaldo during the latter's time with Inter Milan. Muriel went on to say that he supported Inter Milan because Ronaldo was playing for them at the time, and that he was initially a Milan fan. Coincidentally, Muriel also stated that, like his childhood idol, he also suffers from weight issues, and even had to lose five kg at one point during the 2012–13 season. This meant that he had to be consistent with his fitness regime, which enabled him to achieve a similar level of athletic ability to Ronaldo. Aside from Ronaldo, another one of Muriel's major influences as a footballer in his youth was compatriot Iván Valenciano. Despite his ability, he is also known to be inconsistent. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International Scores and results list Colombia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Muriel goal. ## Honours Colombia U20 - Toulon Tournament: 2011 Individual - Serie A Best Young Revelation: 2012 - Serie A Player of the Month: April 2021 - Serie A Team of the Year: 2020–21
53,863,015	Mississippi Highway 41	1,054,759,821	Highway in Mississippi	[ "State highways in Mississippi", "Transportation in Chickasaw County, Mississippi", "Transportation in Monroe County, Mississippi", "Transportation in Pontotoc County, Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 41 (MS 41) is a state highway in northeastern Mississippi. The route starts at U.S. Route 45 (US 45) and US 278 north of Wren and travels westwards. It then intersects US 45 Alt. east of Okolona. The road enters Okolona, and intersects MS 32 and MS 245. MS 41 then turns northwest and travels toward Pontotoc. Once inside the city, the route turns north at MS 15 and travels through downtown Pontotoc. MS 41 ends at its intersection with MS 9 and MS 338. The route that became MS 41 was first used as an Indian trail. The route was designated by 1932 from Amory to Pontotoc, and it was truncated from Amory to US 45 by 1955. The entirety of MS 41 was paved by 1958. ## Route description MS 41 is located in Monroe, Chickasaw, and Pontotoc counties. The route is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3, and all of it is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT), as part of the Mississippi State Highway System. The route starts at a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 45 and US 278 north of Wren, and travels westward from the interchange. MS 41 intersects McAllister Road and Camargo Road within farmland, before entering a diamond interchange with US 45 Alt. The route enters Chickasaw County past the interchange, at Chickasaw County Road 139 (CR 139). The road enters Okolona west of CR 139, and passes through a residential area within the city as East Monroe Avenue. West of South Child Street, MS 41 crosses over a railroad operated by Kansas City Southern Railway and becomes West Monroe Avenue. The route continues westward and intersects MS 32 and MS 245 at the center of the city. West of the intersection, MS 32 and MS 41 are concurrent for two city blocks. At McDonnell Street, MS 41 turns north and ends the concurrency with MS 32. The road turns northwestwards at Main Street, and it leaves the city limits past Academy Street. The route continues traveling through farmland, intersecting CR 137 and smaller driveways. Southeast of CR 243, MS 41 enters the northeastern edge of the Tombigbee National Forest. On the forest boundary, the road enters Pontotoc County at Chickasaw Line Road. Inside Pontotoc County, the road intersects the Natchez Trace Parkway at a quadrant roadway intersection on the northern end of the Tombigbee National Forest. MS 41 continues northwestwards and intersects CR 97 in Troy, which leads to Woodland. The route then meets CR 115, a road that ends at Chiwapa. Between CR 113, the road crosses Garrett Creek and Chiwapa Creek, and Calloway Creek north of CR 134. MS 41 then intersects the western terminus of MS 342 near Webster Creek. The route enters the city of Pontotoc east of Country Village Lane, and it turns north at MS 15. Past Tenth Street, the road crosses over the Mile Branch. As South Main Street, MS 41 enters downtown Pontotoc and intersects multiple city streets, the majority within the Pontotoc Historic District. The road becomes North Main Street at Reynolds Street, and it passes by schools that are part of the Pontotoc City School District, including Pontotoc High School. MS 41 ends at MS 9 and MS 338 at Oxford Street, and the road continues as MS 9. ## History The road that became part of MS 41 first existed as an Indian trail, later used by both belligerents in the Civil War. By 1928, it was a gravel road from Amory to Pontotoc. Part of it was designated as MS 41 by 1932, from Okolona to Pontotoc. The remaining part of the road was added to the route by 1935. Around 1936, the section of MS 41 from Okolona to US 45 was rerouted southwards, creating a one mile (1.6 km) concurrency at US 45. The route from Amory to US 45 was paved by 1940, and a small part east of Okolona by 1945. By 1955, MS 41 was paved from Okolona to US 45. US 278 was designated during that time, and it replaced MS 41 east of US 45. One year later, half of MS 41 in Pontotoc County was paved, and the remaining parts of the route were paved by 1958. The eastern terminus at US 45 was also rerouted northwards to the US 45's intersection with US 278. By 1962, the Natchez Trace Parkway was connected to MS 41. Interchanges were added at US 45 and US 45 Alt. by 1999 and 2000 respectively. ## Major intersections ## See also
37,945,810	Architecture of Scotland in the Roman era	1,128,333,679	Buildings of Scotland in the Roman era	[ "Architecture in Scotland", "Architecture in Scotland by period or style", "Scotland in the Roman era" ]	The architecture of Scotland in the Roman era includes all building within the modern borders of Scotland, from the arrival of the Romans in northern Britain in the first century BCE, until their departure in the fifth century CE. Ptolemy indicated that there were 19 "towns" in Caledonia, north of the Roman province of Britannia, but no clear evidence of urban settlements has been found and these were probably hillforts. There is evidence of over 1,000 such forts, most south of the Clyde-Forth line, but the majority seem to have been abandoned in the Roman period. There is also evidence of distinctive stone wheelhouses and small underground souterrains. From about 71 CE the Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland, building forts, like that at Trimontium, and probably pushing north as far as the River Tay where they created more fortifications, like those at Inchtuthil. These were soon abandoned, and the Romans settled for the occupation of the Southern Uplands by the end of the first century, south of a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth. This resulted in more fortifications and the building of Hadrian's Wall across what is now northern England. Around 141 CE they moved up to construct a new limes, a sward-covered wall made of turf known as the Antonine Wall, the largest Roman structure in modern Scotland. They soon retreated to Hadrian's Wall, with occasional expeditions that involved the building and reoccupation of forts, until the collapse of Roman power in the early fifth century. ## Caledonia Caledonia was the name that the Romans gave to the land north of their province of Britannia. In his Geographia, Ptolemy, possibly drawing on earlier sources of information as well as more contemporary accounts from the Agricolan invasion, identified 19 "towns" in Caledonia. No archaeological evidence of any truly urban places has been found from this time, and the names may have indicated hill forts, temporary markets or meeting places. Most of the names are obscure: Devana may be the modern Banchory, Alauna (meaning "the rock") in the west is probably Dumbarton Rock and the place of the same name in the east of the Lowlands may be the site of Edinburgh Castle. Lindon may be Balloch on Loch Lomond side. There is evidence for about 1,000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland, most located below the Clyde-Forth line. The majority are circular, with a single palisade around an enclosure. However, they appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period. There are also numerous vitrified forts, whose walls have been subjected to fire, which may date to this period, but an accurate chronology has not been created. Extensive studies of this type of fort at Finavon Hill near Forfar in Angus, suggest dates for the destruction of the site in either the last two centuries BCE, or the mid-first millennium CE. Many of these forts were reoccupied after the Roman departure. Beyond the area of Roman occupation, in the west and north, there are over 60 sites identified of wheelhouses. Perhaps a development of earlier Atlantic roundhouses, these have a characteristic outer wall surrounding a circle of stone piers (bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel). Over 400 souterrains, small underground constructions, have been discovered in Scotland, many of them in the south-east, and although few have been dated, those that have suggest a construction date in the second or third centuries CE. They are usually found close to settlements (whose timber frames are much less well-preserved) and may have been for storing perishable agricultural products. ## Early Roman constructions The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 CE. In 78 CE Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain as the new governor and began a series of major incursions. Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose. He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the "River Taus" (usually assumed to be the River Tay) and established forts there, including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil. After his victory over the northern tribes at Mons Graupius in 84 CE, a series of forts and towers were established along the Gask Ridge, which marked the boundary between the Lowland and Highland zones, probably forming the first Roman limes or frontier in Scotland. Agricola's successors were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion, and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge were abandoned within a few years. By 87 CE the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands, and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and the Solway Firth. Elginhaugh fort, in Midlothian, dates to about this period, as may Castle Greg in West Lothian. The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England, building the fortification known as Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast. ## The Antonine Wall and later invasions Around 141 CE the Romans undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland, moving up to construct a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. The resulting Antonine Wall is the largest Roman construction inside Scotland. It is a sward-covered wall made of turf, around 20 feet (6 m) high, with nineteen forts and extending for 37 miles (60 km). The stone foundations and wing walls of the original forts demonstrate that the intention was to build a stone wall similar to Hadrian's Wall, but this was quickly amended. There is a wide ditch on the north side, and a military way on the south. The Romans initially planned to build forts every 6 miles (10 km), but this was soon revised to every 2 miles (3 km). One of the best preserved forts, but also one of the smallest, is Rough Castle Fort. In addition to the forts, there are at least nine smaller fortlets, probably on Roman mile spacings, which formed part of the original scheme, some of which were later replaced by forts. The most visible fortlet is Kinneil, at the eastern end of the Wall, near Bo'ness. Having taken twelve years to build, the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after 160 CE. The Romans retreated to the line of Hadrian's Wall. Roman troops penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times, with at least four major campaigns. The Antonine Wall was occupied again for a brief period after 197 CE. The most notable invasion was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus led a major campaign. A string of forts was constructed in the north-east (some of which may have been begun in the earlier Antonine campaign). These include camps associated with the Elsick Mounth, such as Normandykes, Ythan Wells, Deers Den and Glenmailen. Only two forts in Scotland, at Cramond and Carpow (in the Tay valley) are definitely known to have been permanently occupied during this incursion. There is evidence that these campaigns are coincident with the wholesale destruction and abandonment of souterrains in southern Scotland. This may have been due either to Roman military aggression or the collapse of local grain markets in the wake of Roman withdrawal. After the death of Severus in 210 the Romans withdrew back to Hadrian's Wall, which would be the frontier until Roman authority in Britain collapsed in the fifth century. ## See also - Architecture of Scotland in the Prehistoric era - Architecture in Medieval Scotland - Architecture of Scotland
25,894,275	Battle of Frenchman's Creek	1,157,021,903	Battle of the War of 1812	[ "Battles involving Canada", "Battles of the War of 1812 in Ontario", "Battles on the Niagara Frontier", "November 1812 events", "War of 1812 National Historic Sites of Canada" ]	The Battle of Frenchman's Creek took place during the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States in the early hours of November 28, 1812, in the Crown Colony of Upper Canada, near the Niagara River. The operation was conceived as a raid to prepare the ground for a larger American invasion. The Americans succeeded in crossing the Niagara and landing at both of their points of attack. They achieved one of their two objectives before withdrawing but the invasion was subsequently called off, rendering useless what had been accomplished. The engagement was named, "the Battle of Frenchman's Creek" by the Canadians, after the location of some of the severest fighting. To contemporary Americans, it was known as, "the Affair opposite Black Rock". The battle site was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1921. ## Background After the American defeat at the Battle of Queenston Heights, command of the U.S. Army of the Centre on the Niagara Frontier passed from Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer of the New York Militia to his second-in-command, Brigadier General Alexander Smyth of the Regular U.S. Army. Smyth had deeply resented being subordinated to a militia officer and this was the opportunity for which he had been waiting. He immediately planned to invade Canada with 3,000 troops. Assembling his forces at Buffalo, he directed a two-pronged attack in advance of his main invasion. Captain William King, with 220 men, was to cross the Niagara and spike the batteries at the Red House, beside Fort Erie, in order to enable Smyth's main invasion force to land without facing artillery fire. At the same time, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler, with 200 men, was to land in Canada between Fort Erie and Chippawa and destroy the bridge over Frenchman's Creek in order to hinder the bringing-up of British reinforcements to oppose Smyth's landing. The British commander-in-chief in North America, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, had forbidden any offensive action on the Niagara Frontier. This left the local British forces with no alternative but to wait for the Americans to make the first move and try to counter any attempt at invasion. The regular troops were distributed among the defensive outposts and supplemented with militia and Native American forces. In a floridly worded proclamation, published on 10 November and addressed "To The Men of New York", Smyth wrote that, "in a few days the troops under my command will plant the American standard in Canada" and he urged New Yorkers not to "stand with your arms folded and look on in this interesting struggle" but to "advance...to our aid. I will wait for you a few days." Smyth's statement of intent appears to have attracted no attention from his opponents across the border. ## Opposing forces Captain William King of the 13th U.S. Regiment of Infantry was detailed to attack the Red House with 150 troops and 70 U.S. Navy sailors under Lieutenant Samuel Angus. King's soldiers came from Captain Willoughby Morgan's company of the 12th U.S. Regiment of Infantry and Captains John Sproull and John E. Wool's companies of the 13th Regiment. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler was directed against Frenchman's Creek with 200 men of his own 14th U.S. Regiment of Infantry. Colonel William H. Winder, commander of the 14th Regiment, was in reserve, with 350 of his own regiment. The British local commander, Lieutenant Colonel Cecil Bisshopp, was stationed at Chippawa, with a company of the 1st Battalion, 41st Regiment of Foot, two infantry companies of the 5th Lincoln Militia and a small detachment of Lincoln Militia Artillery. More of the 5th Lincoln Militia under Major Richard Hatt were posted nearby. In the area that would face attack on December 26, Bisshopp had several different detachments under his overall command. At Fort Erie were 80 of the 49th Regiment of Foot under Major Ormsby and 50 of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment under Captain Whelan. At Black Rock Ferry were two companies of Norfolk Militia under Captain John Bostwick. At the Red House, two-and-half miles from Fort Erie on the Chippawa Road, were 38 of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant Thomas Lamont, some men of the Royal Regiment of Artillery under Lieutenant King, and some militia artillerymen. Lamont's battery mounted two guns: an 18-pounder and a 24-pounder; while King's battery mounted a 6-pounder and a 3-pounder. Further along the Chippawa Road, about four-and-a-half miles from Fort Erie, lay the post at Frenchman's Creek, garrisoned by 38 more men of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant J. Bartley. Not far away were 70 of the light infantry company of the 41st Regiment under Lieutenant Angus McIntyre. ## Battle ### King's Attack Only part of Captain King's force, including 35 of Lieutenant Angus's 70 sailors, succeeded in making a landing at the Red House. Under fire from the defenders, the invaders charged Lieutenant Lamont's detachment of the 49th Regiment. The sailors, armed with pikes and swords, closed in for hand-to-hand fighting. Lamont's troops drove back the attackers three times but King made a fourth assault which hit the British left flank and overwhelmed them; capturing Lamont and killing, taking or dispersing all of his men. The victorious Americans set fire to the post, spiked the guns and set off back to the landing-point, where they expected their boats to have re-landed in order to evacuate them. However, in the moonless darkness, King's force became dispersed and split into two parties: one led by King and the other by Lieutenant Angus. Angus returned to the landing-point and found only four of the party's ten boats there. Unaware that the six missing boats had not in fact landed, Angus assumed that King had already departed, and he re-crossed the river in the remaining boats. When King's party reached the landing-point, they found themselves stranded. A search downriver found two unattended British boats, in which King sent half of his men, and the prisoners that he had captured, over the Niagara while he waited with his 30 remaining men for more boats to come from Buffalo and pick him up. ### Boerstler's Attack Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler made for Frenchman's Creek but four of his eleven boats, "misled by the darkness of the night or the inexperienced rowers being unable to force them across the current, fell below, near the bridge and were forced to return". Nevertheless, Boerstler's seven remaining boats forced a landing, opposed by Lieutenant Bartley and his 37 men of the 49th Regiment. Boerstler led the attack, shooting with his pistol a British soldier who was about to bayonet him. Bartley's outnumbered force retired, pursued to the Frenchman's Creek Bridge by the Americans, who took two prisoners. Boerstler's men were then attacked by Captain Bostwick's two companies of Norfolk Militia, who had advanced from Black Rock Ferry. After an exchange of fire in which Bostwick's force lost 3 killed, 15 wounded and 6 captured, the Canadians retreated. Boerstler now encountered another problem: many of the axes provided for the destruction of the Frenchman's Creek bridge were in the four boats that had turned back and those that were in the seven remaining boats had been left behind when the Americans fought their way ashore. Boerstler dispatched eight men under Lieutenant John Waring to "break up the bridge by any means which they could find". Waring had torn up about a third of the planking on the bridge when it was learned from a prisoner that "the whole force from Fort Erie was coming down upon them". Boerstler quickly re-embarked his command and rowed back to Buffalo, leaving behind Waring and his party at the bridge. ### British response In response to the attack, Major Ormsby advanced from Fort Erie to Frenchman's Creek with his 80 men of the 49th Regiment, where he was joined by Lieutenant McIntyre's 70 light infantrymen, Major Hatt's Lincoln Militia and some British-allied Native Americans under Major Givins. Finding that Boerstler's invaders had already gone, and being unable to determine any other enemy presence in the pitch dark, Ormsby's 300 men remained in position until daybreak, when Lieutenant Colonel Bisshopp arrived from Fort Erie. Bisshopp led the force to the Red House, where they found Captain King and his men still waiting to be evacuated. Outnumbered by ten-to-one, King surrendered. ### Winder's reinforcement When the news arrived in Buffalo that King had spiked the Red House batteries, General Smyth was overjoyed. "Huzza!" he exclaimed, "Canada is ours! Canada is ours! Canada is ours! This will be a glorious day for the United States!" and he dispatched Colonel Winder with his 350 men across the river to evacuate King and the rest of his force. Winder collected Lieutenant Waring and his party and then landed. However, he had only disembarked part of his force when Bisshopp's 300 men appeared. Winder ordered his men back to their boats and cast off for Buffalo but his command came under a severe fire as they rowed away, costing him 28 casualties. In spiking the guns at the Red House battery, the Americans had accomplished the more important of their two objectives: an invading force could now land between Chippawa and Fort Erie without facing artillery fire. However, subsequent events would render their service useless. ## Casualties The British official casualty return gave 15 killed, 46 wounded and 30 missing. As was often done in casualty returns with officers (but not with enlisted men), Lieutenant King of Royal Artillery and Lieutenant Lamont of the 49th were included in the "wounded" category although they were also taken prisoner. The Americans took 34 prisoners, including Lamont and King, which would indicate that two of the enlisted men who were thought to have been killed were in fact captured. This gives a revised British loss (with Lamont and King counted among the prisoners rather than the wounded) of 13 killed, 44 wounded and 34 captured. Eaton's Compilation states that Captain King's command had 8 killed and 9 wounded; that Colonel Winder's detachment had 6 killed and 22 wounded but that the losses of Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler's detachment were unknown, being "nowhere stated" in the records. The New York Gazette of December 15, 1812, reported that, of Lieutenant Angus's 35 sailors who assaulted the Red House, 28 were killed or wounded, 2 were captured and only 5 escaped unscathed. Captain King (who was slightly wounded in the foot) and 38 other prisoners were taken by the British, The British reported that King and Angus's detachment left 12 killed behind them at the Red House (4 of whom were presumably from Angus's naval detachment) and that 18 American dead were recovered altogether. Since only 30 prisoners had surrendered along with King and since Winder's detachment did not come under fire until they had re-embarked and cast off for Buffalo, it would appear that 6 of the dead left on the battlefield and 8 of the prisoners belonged to Boerstler's command. The known American casualties (which include the killed and captured but not the wounded in Boerstler's detachment) therefore appear to have been 24 killed, 55 wounded and 39 captured. ## Aftermath With the Red House batteries out of action, Smyth immediately pressed on with his invasion plans. However, attempts to embark his 3,000 men ended in chaos; with only 1,200 men managing to board because of a shortage of boats and the artillery taking up an unexpected amount of space on board. Amid torrential rain and freezing cold, a council of war headed by Smyth decided to postpone the invasion pending more thorough preparations that would enable the embarkation of whole force. On November 30, Smyth tried again, ordering his men to embark two hours before dawn in order to avoid enemy fire. This time, the embarkation was so slow that, two hours after daylight, only 1,500 men were on board. Rather than attempt an amphibious landing in broad daylight, Smyth once again postponed the invasion. By this time, morale in Smyth's command had plummeted: "all discipline had dissolved; the camp was a bedlam". This, and widespread illness among the troops, persuaded a second council of war called by Smyth to suspend all offensive operations until the army was reinforced. The Army of the Centre went into winter quarters without attempting any further offensive operations and General Smyth requested leave to visit his family in Virginia. Three months later, without Smyth either resigning his commission or facing a court-martial, his name was dropped from the U.S. Army rolls by President James Madison. Unaware of the American intentions, the British and Canadians thought that King, Boerstler and Winder had been intended as the first wave of Smyth's invasion rather than as a preparatory raid. The Canadian press praised the "gallant achievement" of the defenders in apparently repulsing the Americans and singled out Bisshopp for particular congratulation. In his dispatch to Prevost, Major General Sir Roger Hale Sheaffe, the British commander in Upper Canada, wrote that "Lieut.-Colonel Bisshopp deserves high commendation for the spirit and activity he displayed, and great credit is due the officers and men who acted under his orders." Bisshopp was killed the following summer while leading the Raid On Newport. Seven active infantry battalions of the Regular Army (1-2 Inf, 2-2 Inf, 1-4 Inf, 2-4 Inf, 3-4 Inf, 1-5 Inf and 2-5 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of several American infantry regiments (the old 13th, 20th and 23rd Infantry Regiments) that were at the Battle of Frenchman's Creek.
32,572,237	Roses in Portland, Oregon	1,171,411,549	History of roses in Portland, Oregon, U.S.	[ "Culture of Portland, Oregon", "Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition", "Roses" ]	The city of Portland, Oregon is ideal for growing roses outdoors due to its location within the marine west coast climate region, its warm, dry summers and rainy but mild winters, and its heavy clay soils. Portland has been known as the City of Roses, or Rose City, since 1888, after Madame Caroline Testout, a large pink variety of hybrid tea rose bred in France, was introduced to the city. Thousands of rose bushes were planted, eventually lining 200 miles (320 km) of Portland's streets in preparation for the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in 1905. The Rose City Park neighborhood in northeast Portland was formed in 1907, the same year of the first annual Portland Rose Festival. During World War I, nursery owners in Portland began planning a large rose garden to protect European rose species from the war. The garden was established in Washington Park as the International Rose Test Garden in 1917. Today, the Portland Rose Festival takes place each June with a carnival, parades, and navy ships docked along the Tom McCall Waterfront Park to promote the city. The International Rose Test Garden is currently one of the oldest public rose test gardens in the United States, covering 4.5 acres (1.8 ha) with over 8,000 rose plants, and more than 550 different species. In 2003, Portland adopted the "City of Roses" as its official nickname. ## History In 1888, Georgiana Burton Pittock, the wife of Oregon newspaper publisher and business tycoon Henry Pittock, invited friends and neighbors to display their roses in a tent set up in her garden in the area now known as Pittock Block. In 1889, lawyer and civic leader Frederick Van Voorhies Holman helped found the Portland Rose Society. The rose cultivar Mme. Caroline Testout, a hybrid tea rose variety named after a French dressmaker, was introduced by French rosarian Joseph Pernet-Ducher in 1890. The cultivar gained popularity, and by 1905 Portland had 20 miles (32 km) of rose-bordered streets, with about half-a-million rose bushes planted, attracting visitors to the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition. In 1915, rose hobbyist and Oregon Journal editor Jesse Currey convinced city officials to establish a rose test garden to protect hybrid roses grown in Europe during World War I. Portland's Park Bureau approved the idea in 1917, allowing rose enthusiasts in England to send roses to Portland for preservation. City landscape architect Florence Holmes Gerke began designing the International Rose Test Garden and accompanying amphitheatre in 1921. The garden was dedicated in June 1924 with Currey as the first curator. He served until his death in 1927. A stone bench in the garden honors Currey's work as founder. ## City of Roses The official and most common nickname for Portland is the "City of Roses", or "Rose City". According to Charles Paul Keyser, Portland Parks Superintendent from 1917 to 1950, the first known reference to Portland as "The City of Roses" was made by visitors at an Episcopal Church convention in 1888. The city's first annual rose show was held the following year, and by 1904, the Portland Rose Society began sponsoring fiestas to accompany the shows. The nickname grew in popularity after the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition, when mayor Harry Lane suggested that the city needed a "festival of roses". The first Portland Rose Festival was held two years later and remains the city's major annual festival a century later. The Portland Rose Society, which offers educational programs on "rose culture" and advocates the use of roses in the landscape, remains in operation today. In Portland, the nickname is often attributed to Leo Samuel, who founded the Oregon Life Insurance Company in 1906 (known today as Standard Insurance Company). Samuel grew roses outside his home and placed a pair of shears outside his garden, so people could snip a rose from his garden to take for themselves. On June 18, 2003, the city council unanimously approved a resolution adopting "the City of Roses" as the city's official nickname. ## Gardens Many rose gardens are found throughout Portland, the most prominent of which is the International Rose Test Garden. Peninsula Park became the city's first public rose garden in 1909 when it was purchased for \$60,000 (\$ in 2023) with funds raised in a 1908 bond measure. Designed by Emanuel L. Mische, the 2-acre (0.81 ha) garden contains 8,900 plantings featuring 65 rose varieties. Mme. Caroline Testout, the official rose of Portland, was grown at Peninsula Park. In 1913, the park was chosen as the location for an annual rose show, where it remained until Washington Park was selected as the location of the International Rose Test Garden in 1917. The park remains a popular Portland tourist destination, with more than 9,500 rose bushes representing over 600 varieties. The Ladd's Addition neighborhood contains four diamond-shaped rose gardens originally designed by William Sargent Ladd in the 1890s. Emanuel Mische designed landscaped areas in the park in 1909. Mische planted roses in the diamond gardens giving it a "stained glass effect". The park was acquired by Portland Parks & Recreation in 1981 and currently features 3,000 roses representing sixty varieties that were popular in the early 20th century. Other rose gardens surrounding the Portland metropolitan area include Esther Short Park in Vancouver, Washington, Avery Park Rose Garden in Corvallis, Owen Rose Garden in Eugene, and Heirloom Roses in St. Paul. ## Events The Portland Rose Festival is an annual civic festival held during the month of June. Events, including multiple parades, a carnival, fleet week, and the crowning of a queen, are organized by the volunteer non-profit Portland Rose Festival Association with the purpose of promoting the Portland region. Coinciding with the festival is the Annual Spring Rose Show, considered to be one of the largest and longest-running in the nation. The Portland's Best Rose event, sponsored by the Portland Rose Society, began in 1996. The competition includes 100 judges ranking varieties in a blind contest. One day prior to the competition, the public is invited to vote for the People's Choice award recipient. ## Local namesakes Rose City Park is a neighborhood and park in northeast Portland. The neighborhood formed in 1907, the year of the first Portland Rose Festival. The headquarters of the rose festival are at the Visitors Information Center, also known as the Rose Building. The building was designed by architect John Yeon in 1948 and served as a chamber of commerce office and visitor center, city offices, and a restaurant, as well as the rose festival's headquarters. Located along Tom McCall Waterfront Park, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2010 and features a rose garden and neon rose sign. Other namesakes include murals depicting roses painted on sides of buildings in Portland, and the private company Rose City Transit, which provided most mass transit service in Portland from 1956 to 1969. Roses have long been associated with sports in Portland. The Moda Center, known as the Rose Garden for many years, is an indoor sports arena in the Rose Quarter, a sports and entertainment center in the Lloyd District neighborhood. The venue was one of the last National Basketball Association (NBA) facilities to have its naming rights sold. In addition, three professional sports teams were named the Portland Rosebuds during the first half of the 20th century; they were two professional men's ice hockey teams that played home games at the Portland Ice Arena and one Negro league baseball team in the West Coast Baseball Association that was also known as the "Portland Roses". The first hockey team played in the Pacific Coast Hockey Association from 1914–1918. During the 1915–1916 season the Rosebuds became the first American team to participate in the Stanley Cup finals. The second hockey team played in the Western Hockey League's fifth and final season (1925–1926). Other teams have incorporated the "Rose City" nickname into their brand. The Rose City Rollers, an all-female roller derby league within the Women's Flat Track Derby Association, was established in 2004 and supports four local teams and two traveling teams. The Rollers support a junior league known as the Rosebuds. Two women's professional football teams have been named the Rose City Wildcats, the first formed for the 2001 season of the Women's American Football League and the second for the 2011 season of the Women's Spring Football League. A women's soccer team named the Portland Thorns FC was formed in 2012 by the Portland Timbers and have played in the National Women's Soccer League since 2013. ## Music Portland born recording artist Esperanza Spalding has a song called "City of Roses" on her album Radio Music Society. ## See also - Portland Japanese Garden, another garden within Washington Park - Rose trial grounds - Royal Rosarians
198,766	Greylag goose	1,171,878,196	Species of bird	[ "Anser (bird)", "Articles containing video clips", "Birds described in 1758", "Birds of Eurasia", "Geese", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	The greylag goose or graylag goose (Anser anser) is a species of large goose in the waterfowl family Anatidae and the type species of the genus Anser. It has mottled and barred grey and white plumage and an orange beak and pink legs. A large bird, it measures between 74 and 91 centimetres (29 and 36 in) in length, with an average weight of 3.3 kilograms (7 lb 4 oz). Its distribution is widespread, with birds from the north of its range in Europe and Asia migrating southwards to spend the winter in warmer places. It is the ancestor of most breeds of domestic goose, having been domesticated at least as early as 1360 BCE. The genus name is from anser, the Latin for "goose". Greylag geese travel to their northerly breeding grounds in spring, nesting on moorlands, in marshes, around lakes and on coastal islands. They normally mate for life and nest on the ground among vegetation. A clutch of three to five eggs is laid; the female incubates the eggs and both parents defend and rear the young. The birds stay together as a family group, migrating southwards in autumn as part of a flock, and separating the following year. During the winter they occupy semi-aquatic habitats, estuaries, marshes and flooded fields, feeding on grass and often consuming agricultural crops. Some populations, such as those in southern England and in urban areas across the species' range, are primarily resident and occupy the same area year-round. ## Taxonomy Anser anser, the greylag goose, is a member of the waterfowl family Anatidae. It was first described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 as Anas anser, but was transferred two years later to the new genus Anser, erected by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson, where it is the type species. Two subspecies are recognised; A. a. anser, the western greylag goose, which breeds in Iceland and northern and central Europe; A. a. rubrirostris, the eastern greylag goose, which breeds in Romania, Turkey, and Russia eastwards to northeastern China. The two subspecies intergrade where their ranges meet. The greylag goose sometimes hybridises with other species of goose, including the barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) and the Canada goose (Branta canadensis), and occasionally with the mute swan (Cygnus olor). The greylag goose was one of the first animals to be domesticated; this happened at least 3,000 years ago in Ancient Egypt, the domestic subspecies being known as A. a. domesticus. As the domestic goose is a subspecies of the greylag goose they are able to interbreed, with the offspring sharing characteristics of both wild and domestic birds. ## Description The greylag is the largest and bulkiest of the grey geese of the genus Anser, but is more lightly built and agile than its domestic relative. It has a rotund, bulky body, a thick and long neck, and a large head and bill. It has pink legs and feet, and an orange or pink bill with a white or brown nail (hard horny material at tip of upper mandible). It is 74 to 91 centimetres (29 to 36 in) long with a wing length of 41.2 to 48 centimetres (16+1⁄4 to 19 in). It has a tail 6.2 to 6.9 centimetres (2+7⁄16 to 2+11⁄16 in), a bill of 6.4 to 6.9 centimetres (2+1⁄2 to 2+11⁄16 in) long, and a tarsus of 7.1 to 9.3 centimetres (2+13⁄16 to 3+11⁄16 in). It weighs 2.16 to 4.56 kilograms (4 lb 12 oz to 10 lb 1 oz), with a mean weight of around 3.3 kilograms (7 lb 4 oz). The wingspan is 147 to 180 centimetres (58 to 71 in). Males are generally larger than females, with the sexual dimorphism more pronounced in the eastern subspecies rubirostris, which is larger than the nominate subspecies on average. The plumage of the greylag goose is greyish brown, with a darker head and paler breast and belly with a variable amount of black spotting. It has a pale grey forewing and rump which are noticeable when the bird is in flight or stretches its wings on the ground. It has a white line bordering its upper flanks, and its wing coverts are light coloured, contrasting with its darker flight feathers. Its plumage is patterned by the pale fringes of the feathers. Juveniles differ mostly in their lack of black speckling on the breast and belly and by their greyish legs. Adults have a distinctive 'concertina' pattern of folds in the feathers on their necks. The greylag goose has a loud cackling call similar to that of the domestic goose, "aahng-ung-ung", uttered on the ground or in flight. There are various subtle variations used under different circumstances, and individual geese seem to be able to identify other known geese by their voices. The sound made by a flock of geese resembles the baying of hounds. Goslings chirp or whistle lightly, and adults hiss if threatened or angered. ## Distribution and habitat This species has a Palearctic distribution. The nominate subspecies breeds in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic States, northern Russia, Poland, eastern Hungary and Romania. It also breeds locally in the United Kingdom, Denmark, Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and North Macedonia. The eastern race extends eastwards across a broad swathe of Asia to China. European birds migrate southwards to the Mediterranean region and North Africa. Asian birds migrate to Azerbaijan, Iran, Pakistan, northern India, Bangladesh and eastward to China. In North America, there are both feral domestic geese, which are similar to greylags, and occasional vagrant greylags. Greylag geese seen in the wild in New Zealand probably originated from the escape of farmyard geese, and a similar situation has occurred in Australia, where feral birds are now established in the east and southeast of the country. In their breeding quarters, they are found on moors with scattered lochs, in marshes, fens and peat-bogs, besides lakes and on little islands some way out to sea. They like dense ground cover of reeds, rushes, heather, bushes and willow thickets. In their winter quarters, they frequent salt marshes, estuaries, freshwater marshes, steppes, flooded fields, bogs and pasture near lakes, rivers and streams. They also visit agricultural land where they feed on winter cereals, rice, beans or other crops, moving at night to shoals and sand-banks on the coast, mud-banks in estuaries or secluded lakes. Large numbers of immature birds congregate each year to moult on the Rone Islands near Gotland in the Baltic Sea. Since the 1950s, increases in winter temperatures have resulted in greylag geese breeding in central Europe, reducing their winter migration distances. Wintering grounds closer to home can therefore be exploited, meaning that the geese can return to set up breeding territories earlier the following spring. In Great Britain, their numbers had declined as a breeding bird, retreating north to breed wild only in the Outer Hebrides and the northern mainland of Scotland. However, during the 20th century, feral populations have been established elsewhere, and they have now re-colonised much of England. These populations are increasingly coming into contact and merging. The greylag goose has become a pest species in several areas where its population has increased sharply. In Norway, the number of greylag geese is estimated to have increased three- to fivefold between 1995 and 2015. As a consequence, farmers' problems caused by goose grazing on farmland have increased considerably. This problem is also evident for the pink-footed goose. In the Orkney islands the population has increased dramatically: there were 300 breeding pairs, increasing to 10,000 in 2009, and 64,000 in 2019. Due to extensive damage caused to crops, the hunting season for the greylag goose in the Orkney islands is now most of the year. ## Behaviour Greylag geese are largely herbivorous and feed chiefly on grasses. Short, actively growing grass is more nutritious and greylag geese are often found grazing in pastures with sheep or cows. Because of its low nutrient status, they need to feed for much of their time; the herbage passes rapidly through the gut and is voided frequently. The tubers of sea clubrush (Bolboschoenus maritimus) are also taken as well as berries and water plants such as duckweed (Lemna) and floating sweetgrass (Glyceria fluitans). In wintertime they eat grass and leaves but also glean grain on cereal stubbles and sometimes feed on growing crops, especially during the night. They have been known to feed on oats, wheat, barley, buckwheat, lentils, peas and root crops. Acorns are sometimes consumed, and on the coast, seagrass (Zostera sp.) may be eaten. In the 1920s in Britain, the pink-footed goose "discovered" that potatoes were edible and started feeding on waste potatoes. The greylag followed suit in the 1940s and now regularly searches for tubers on ploughed fields. They also consume small fish, amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs and insects. Greylag geese tend to pair bond in long-term monogamous relationships. Most such pairs are probably life-long partnerships, though 5 to 8% of the pairs separate and re-mate with other geese. Birds in heterosexual pairs may engage in promiscuous behavior, despite the opposition of their mates. Homosexual pairs are common (14 to 20% of the pairs may be ganders, depending on flock), and share the characteristics of heterosexual pairs with the exceptions that the bonds appear to be closer, based on the intensity of their displays. Same-sex pairs also engage in courtship and sexual relations, and often assume high-ranking positions in the flock as a result of their superior strength and courage, leading some to speculate that they may serve as guardians of the flock. The sexual preference of the birds is generally flexible, as more than half of widowers re-pair with a bird of the opposite sex. The nest is on the ground among heather, rushes, dwarf shrubs or reeds, or on a raft of floating vegetation. It is built from pieces of reed, sprigs of heather, grasses and moss, mixed with small feathers and down. A typical clutch is four to six eggs, but fewer eggs or larger numbers are not unusual. The eggs are creamy-white at first but soon become stained, and average 85 by 58 millimetres (3+3⁄8 by 2+5⁄16 in). They are mostly laid on successive days and incubation starts after the last one is laid. The female does the incubation, which lasts about twenty-eight days, while the male remains on guard somewhere near. The chicks are precocial and able to leave the nest soon after hatching. Both parents are involved in their care and they soon learn to peck at food and become fully-fledged at eight or nine weeks, about the same time as their parents regain their ability to fly after moulting their main wing and tail feathers a month earlier. Immature birds undergo a similar moult, and move to traditional, safe locations before doing so because of their vulnerability while flightless. Greylag geese are gregarious birds and form flocks. This has the advantage for the birds that the vigilance of some individuals in the group allows the rest to feed without having to constantly be alert to the approach of predators. After the eggs hatch, some grouping of families occur, enabling the geese to defend their young by their joint actions, such as mobbing or attacking predators. After driving off a predator, a gander will return to its mate and give a "triumph call", a resonant honk followed by a low-pitched cackle, uttered with neck extended forward parallel with the ground. The mate and even unfledged young reciprocate in kind. Young greylags stay with their parents as a family group, migrating with them in a larger flock, and only dispersing when the adults drive them away from their newly established breeding territory the following year. At least in Europe, patterns of migration are well understood and follow traditional routes with known staging sites and wintering sites. The young learn these locations from their parents which normally stay together for life. Greylags leave their northern breeding areas relatively late in the autumn, for example completing their departure from Iceland by November, and start their return migration as early as January. Birds that breed in Iceland overwinter in the British Isles; those from Central Europe overwinter as far south as Spain and North Africa; others migrate down to the Balkans, Turkey and Iraq for the winter. ## In human culture The greylag was once revered across Eurasia. It was linked with the goddess of healing, Gula, a forerunner of the Sumerian fertility goddess Ishtar, in the cities of the Tigris-Euphrates delta over 5,000 years ago. In Ancient Egypt, geese symbolised the sun god Ra. In Ancient Greece and Rome, they were associated with the goddess of love, Aphrodite, and goose fat was used as an aphrodisiac. Since they were sacred birds, they were kept on Rome's Capitoline Hill, from where they raised the alarm when the Gauls attacked in 390 BCE. The goose's role in fertility survives in modern British tradition in the nursery rhyme Goosey Goosey Gander, which preserves its sexual overtones ("And in my lady's chamber"), while "to goose" still has a sexual meaning. The tradition of pulling a wishbone derives from the tradition of eating a roast goose at Michaelmas, where the goose bone was once believed to have the powers of an oracle. For that festival, in Thomas Bewick's time, geese were driven in thousand-strong flocks on foot from farms all over the East of England to London's Cheapside market, covering some 13 or 14 kilometres (8 or 9 mi) per day. Some farmers painted the geese's feet with tar and sand to protect them from road wear as they walked. Greylag geese were domesticated by at least 1360 BCE, when images of domesticated birds resembling the eastern race, Anser anser rubirostris (which like modern farmyard geese, but unlike western greylags, have a pink beak) were painted in Ancient Egypt. Goose feathers were used as quill pens, the best being the primary feathers of the left-wing, whose "curvature bent away from the eyes of right-handed writers". The feathers also served to fletch arrows. In ethology, the greylag goose was the subject of Konrad Lorenz's pioneering studies of imprinting behaviour. ## Gallery
32,678,123	Holmes' Revelation	1,095,508,962	217th story arc in the Case Closed series	[ "2010 manga", "Case Closed" ]	Holmes' Revelation (Japanese: ホームズの黙示録, Hepburn: Holmes no Mokushiroku) is the 217th story arc of the Japanese manga series Case Closed, known as in Japan. The arc was published in Shogakukan's Weekly Shōnen Sunday magazine between August and October 2010 in issues 36 to 46 and consisted of 10 chapters. The individual chapters were then collected into tankōbon volumes 71 and 72 which were released in Japan on February 18, 2011 and June 17, 2011 respectively. The majority were encapsulated into the 71st volume which became the 21st best selling manga in the first half of 2011. The Case Closed anime adapted the arc into episodes 616–621 and was broadcast on Nippon Television Network System between May 21, 2011 and June 25, 2011. The episodes were the top six watched anime during its run. The arc follows Shinichi Kudo as he visits London and becomes involved in a bombing case. In the beginning of the series, Shinichi was poisoned and turned into a child. Since then, he had been using the identity Conan Edogawa whilst keeping his true identity a secret. Viz Media localized and published the two volumes on July 9, 2019 and October 8, 2019 as The Game Is Afoot and In the Cards. ## Plot Conan and his caretakers, Ran Mori and Kogoro Mori, are given a free trip to London after finding a cat that belongs to Diana Kingstone, a rich British woman. For the trip, Conan is given two pills by Ai Haibara; the pills will temporarily suppress the poison which turned him into a child allowing him to use his teenage identity, Shinichi Kudo, to bypass airport security. After the medicine wears off, Conan rendezvous with Ran and Kogoro to visit the Sherlock Holmes Museum at 221B Baker Street. There, Ran phones Shinichi (Conan using his voice-changing bowtie) and is upset about his apathy. Shortly after, Conan overhears a child named Apollo Glass who is searching for Holmes. Posing as Holmes' apprentice, Conan befriends Apollo who reveals a man has given him a list of riddles which needs to be solved in return for sparing someone's life. Meanwhile, Ran is walking by the Statue of Sherlock Holmes where she meets Minerva Glass, a professional tennis player and Apollo's elder sister; Minerva tells Ran to give up on love relating it to the tennis mantra "Love is Zero". Ran decides to call Shinichi; during the conversation, the latter accidentally reveals he is by Big Ben. Ran corners Conan forcing him to take the medicine for the return trip to protect his identity. Believing that Shinichi was hiding from her, Ran is hurt and repeats Minerva's words. In return Shinichi confesses his love for her and rebukes Minerva's statement by exclaiming that everything starts from zero. The next day, the man distributing the riddles in London is identified as Sabara Hades, an international serial bomber. Conan begins decoding the riddles in order: "A rolling bell rises me" refers to Big Ben; "My portion is like a chilled boiled egg like a corpse," leads them to City Hall where dolls engraved with Mazarin Stone are found. Referring to The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone, the group beheads the doll where they discover the letter T; "I finished up with a whole pickle," leads them to 30 St Mary Axe where they find scratched up pens labeled as Dancing Men. As in The Adventure of the Dancing Men, matching the top and bottom caps to reveal the letter N; "It rings again for my hatred" leads them to cross the Westminster Bridge towards Big Ben. On the bridge, they find a drain engraved with Valley of Fear. Referring to The Valley of Fear, they find a drain cover with the letter A in the river; "Now I remember to ask a cake to celebrate in advance" leads them to St Bride's Church where they find envelopes entitled A Scandal in Bohemia. Soaking the envelope in water reveals the letter S; "I'm a long nosed wizard in a castle" leads them to Elephant & Castle tube station where they find a man carrying a suitcase with the word identity on it. Referring to A Case of Identity, they find the letter U on the inside of the man's pants; "It tells me to finish everything piercing a white back with two swords" refers to the logo of a local porcelain store which displays an ornament with strings and bells attached on the end. Referring to A Study in Scarlet, they locate a red string with the letter R. Rearranging the letters results in Saturn, a reference to Saturday. Connecting the riddle's locations on a map forms a tennis racquet referencing the Wimbledon championships. Conan enters the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club during the Wimbledon finals. Minerva has been serving "help" in braille into the court. Conan calls out to her revealing he understood her message. In response, Minerva serves more messages revealing Hades intends to kill her mother with a bomb when the match ends. Conan deduces Hades is directly opposite of Minerva's mother, as he intends to record her death, and is able to locate him. Conan coincidentally finds his parents, Yusaku Kudo and Yukiko Kudo, who assists him in apprehending Hades; Conan is then given another pill, by his parents, to bypass airport security to return home. With Hades incarcerated, Minerva is able to focus and win her match. As Conan and friends prepare to return home, Ran converses with Minerva and repeats Shinichi's words. Minerva, having made up with her lover, acknowledges that everything starts from love. ## Production and release In 2003, the creator of the Case Closed series, Gosho Aoyama, had stated he would draw a story arc taking place in London. To this end, he traveled to London and visited the sites that would appear in the story arc; for sites he had not visited, he used Google Maps. During his trip, Aoyama took special note of a phone booth near Big Ben and a drain pipe, engraved with the words "Valley of Fear", on the Westminster Bridge; these two aspects were used in the story. While creating the story, Aoyama expressed difficulty incorporating English in the text. He also revealed Minerva Glass, a fictional tennis player in the story, was based on professional tennis player Steffi Graf and the scene where Conan calls out to Minerva during her tennis match was inspired by an event during the 1996 Wimbledon Championships where a fan jokingly shouted his proposal to Graf during her semi-finals match. For Shinichi's confession to Ran, Aoyama created the scene with Sherlock Holmes' poor ability with relationships and the phrase in mind. The arc was published in Shogakukan's Weekly Shōnen Sunday magazine between August and October 2010 from issues 36 to 46 and consisted of 10 chapters. The individual chapters were then collected into tankōbon volumes 71 and 72 which were released in Japan on February 18, 2011 and June 17, 2011 respectively. ## Anime adaptation The Holmes no Mokushiroku story arc was aired on the Case Closed anime series as episodes 616–621 and aired between May 21, 2011 and June 25, 2011 on Nippon Television Network System. The episodes were later encapsulated into two DVD volumes released on March 23, 2012 and April 27, 2012. The opening theme music for the episodes were "Don't Wanna Lie" by B'z and the ending theme was by Breakerz. Episodes 616–617 were directed by , 618–619 by , 620–621 by . Each episode had different producers; in episode order, the six producers were: , , , and . The guest characters, , , , , and were voiced by , , Motoko Kumai, , Masashi Sugawara, and Osamu Hosoi respectively. ## Reception The majority of the arc was collected into volume 71, which sold 262,116 copies in its release week. It reached 526,693 in May 2011 and was the 21st top-selling manga between November 22, 2010 and May 22, 2011. The anime episodes of the story arc ranked in the top six anime watched during their respective week of broadcast. The two DVD volumes containing the episodes both appeared on Oricon's charts. Manga-News reviewed the story arc positively. They praised several aspects of the story arc: the plot and narration for being captivating and for including famous London settings, references to Sherlock Holmes, and the Wimbledon competition; the characterization for the antagonist Sabara Hades; and the romance between Shinichi and Ran which was described as an event readers had been waiting for. Manga-News however criticized how Shinichi and Ran's interaction were covered by flashbacks instead of happening chronologically. AnimeLand reviewed volume 71 and called it the best since volume 59.
66,937,175	Squatting in Ukraine	1,150,724,137	Occupation of unused land or derelict buildings in Ukraine	[ "Housing in Ukraine", "Squatting in Ukraine" ]	Squatting (Ukrainian: сквот, romanized: skvot) is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. From the 17th century onwards, there have been waves of squatting in Ukraine. In the 21st century, squatting has been practiced by different groups such as artists, anarchists, Ukrainian nationalists, displaced Crimean Tatars returning to the region and refugees created by the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation. ## History Ukraine has experienced waves of squatting. From the 17th century onwards, squatters claimed land on the steppe in what was then Muscovy and were legalized by the authorities in Moscow. Peasants were then given land and expanded what they owned through squatting. In the 18th century, squatters settled land along the banks of the Inhulets and Tiasmyn rivers. In addition, Russian traditionalist historians have refused to acknowledge Ukraine as a state and regard all Ukrainians as "squatters" on Russian lands. At the beginning of World War II, refugees came to Ukraine from Poland and squatted in cities such as Lviv. Following the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the USSR, people made informal shelters along the Dnieper, for example on the edge of Kremenchuk. The shacks often had telephone numbers written on a sign, to indicate ownership. Between 1990 and 1994, there was the Parkomuna art squat in Kyiv, at Mykhailivska Street 18A (previously known as Paris Commune street). Artists associated with the space include Arsen Savadov. A book was published to accompany an exhibition about the project in 2019. From 2005 onwards, there was the SOSka art squat in Kharkiv. ## Crimean Tatars Crimean Tatars were deported from their homes as part of the Stalinist program of population transfer in the Soviet Union in the 1940s. When they returned, they found their properties lived in by others and thus began a movement of self-settlement (Ukrainian: Самозахват, romanized: Samozakhvat) in which they squatted land and hoped to stay long enough to gain legal tenure. Around 1,000 occupations occurred in southern Crimea between 1990 and 1995, of which 270 were permitted by the local authorities (and of these 147 proved to be uninhabitable). The Soviet-era Criminal Code of Ukraine, enacted in 1961, did not legislate against squatters since the phenomenon was not widespread. After the protests of the returning Crimean Tatars, a new legal code was introduced in 2003 (retroactive to 2001) on the appeal of the Crimean Parliament. Following the change in the law, squatting in Crimea became punishable by fines, two years of hard labour and imprisonment. In addition, the use of dogs, chemicals and weapons was mandated to evict squats. Matters then came to a head in Simeiz in 2004, when Tatars occupied land owned by a politician and he reacted by summoning Cossack mercenaries. The Cossacks demolished the informal settlement and a number of squatters were fined and imprisoned. The following year, another conflict occurred in Koktebel when 2,000 soldiers were mobilized, but the squatters were not evicted. Protests continued in 2009, when Daniyal Ametov led a demonstration of 2,000 Tatars outside the Council of Ministers of Crimea. After the 2014 annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, around 10,000 Tatars were forced to flee the area by the new government. ## Recent events Following the Euromaidan protests in 2013, the government was concerned by armed militants who continued to squat in buildings near Maidan Nezalezhnosti, the central square of Kyiv, the capital city of Ukraine. The Revolution of Dignity followed, in which the president, Viktor Yanukovych, fled and the government was toppled. The opulent Honka clubhouse at Yanukovych's Mezhyhirya Residence was occupied by activists wanting to preserve it for the people of Ukraine. It is owned by Tantalit, a company connected to Yanukovych which has had its assets frozen, and as of 2020 was still squatted. During the war in Donbas, people displaced by conflict from places such as Pisky squatted in neighbouring villages such as Pervomaysk. During the Euromaidan, a squat was used as the headquarters of the Azov Battalion. Autonomia was an anarchist self-managed social centre established in Kharkiv in 2014. It provided aid to refugees from the Donbas and the Crimea and organised cultural events such as poetry readings, concerts and exhibitions. It was supported by artists such as Hito Steyerl, Serhiy Zhadan and Petr Pavlensky, but the people were evicted and the building was demolished in 2018. Economic instability caused by war led to dozens of squats in Kyiv. One well-known project is the 17b yard cafe. ## See also - Squatting in Romania
6,697,169	Weapon dance	1,170,214,740	Form of dance using weapons	[ "Folk dance", "Historical martial arts", "Ritual dances", "Theatrical combat", "War dances" ]	The weapon dance employs weapons—or stylized versions of weapons—traditionally used in combat in order to simulate, recall, or reenact combat or the moves of combat in the form of dance, usually for some ceremonial purpose. Such dancing is quite common to folk ritual on many parts of the world. Weapon dancing is certainly ancient; among the earliest historical references we have are those that refer to the pyrrhichios, a weapon dance in ancient Sparta, in which the dance was used as a kind of ritual training for battle. There are virtually no parts of the world left where the weapon dance is directly connected with imminent or recent combat. This is especially true of European states, which have long since moved away from the tribalism that usually gives rise to such folk dances. It is, however, also true of parts of the world where tribal traditions have succumbed to colonialism and the forces of globalism. The dances that one sees today are often part of general movements to preserve and rejuvenate tribal or local traditions. Some of these movements are quite strong now, such as those among native North American tribes and the aboriginal peoples of Australia. Related to weapon dances and war dances is the dance of the hunt. A very early reference to a weapon dance of the hunt comes in the form of a rock carving at Çatal Höyük, the large neolithic settlement in south-central Anatolia. It depicts a hunting ritual involving dancers holding their bows; one figure has a bow in each hand, two perform artistic leaps and another holds a horn-shaped stick and is striking a frame drum. ## Function In the modern world, dance has come to be regarded as something one does for recreation, thus distancing dance from the important place it has held in many human cultures throughout history—that is, a method of expression, preservation and transmission of the culture and history of a people. Many of the activities that humans have engaged in for millennia (religion and courtship, for example) have traditionally found expression in various kinds of dance. Another activity—combat—has obviously been central to the life of most human cultures; thus, one expects to find dances that celebrate skill in the use of weapons. Indeed, there is a wide range of such weapon dances in the world; they vary from general displays of prowess in the use of weapons to reenactments of real episodes of combat specific to a given culture. ## Examples ### Europe Early examples of sword and spear dances can be found amongst the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe, such as those mentioned by Tacictus, the Norse peoples and the Anglo-Saxon tribes. The Sutton Hoo is thought to show figures dancing with spears. Other references to such traditions include that in "Constantine VII Porphrogenitus’ Book of Ceremonies" (from c. 953) which describes the Varangian Guard (a group made up of Norse and later English and Anglo-Danish warriors) dancing in two circles, with some wearing skins or masks, along with chants of “Toúl!” and clashing staves on shields. Sword dancing exists in some parts of Europe. The weapon may be used to act out mock combat during the dance, or may be incorporated as an element of the dance itself, intertwining with other swords. In some places, sticks are used instead of swords. Iberian stick dances (paulitos, paloteos, ball de bastons) display two opposite rows of dancers. A common sword dance in Europe is the moresca in Spain, in which the dance recalls the strife between Christians and Muslims in that country from the 12th to 15th centuries. The gun parade of Moros y Cristianos also celebrates these battles, as does the British morris dance. In North Macedonia and Northern Italy, weapon dances may be used to exorcise evil spirits before a wedding. Sabre dancing exists in the Balkans; the most famous of these is from Albania, where two male rivals simulate a duel over a woman. Northern-Portuguese jogo do pau involves two rivals with long sticks. Other weapons, such as axes (or wooden versions thereof) may be used in some places. In parts of Europe, there are lance dances, dagger dances, and even rifle dances. In the Scottish Highlands, there are dances that used the Lochaber axe, the broadsword, targe & dirk, and the flail. The Highland Dirk Dance, resembles a combative dance similar to those of Indonesian pencak silat, which has the performer executing knife techniques combined with wrestling style kicks, trips, and sweeps. Hilt-and-point sword dances exist in many places in Europe. In this kind of dance, the swords interlock to form a “rose,” or “lock,” that is placed around the neck of a participant to simulate decapitation. As well, crossed-sword dances are common in Europe. Typically, dancers execute complicated patterns of steps over and between the swords. In some variations, clay pipes may replace the swords. Many European sword dances were appropriated by trade guilds, with tools replacing the swords. In Turkey and Greece there exists a butchers’ dance called the hassapikos. It is now a social dance but goes back to a battle mime in the Middle Ages performed with swords and performed by members of by the butchers' guild. Also in Turkey are the so-called “guerrilla dances”, performed by dances arranged in a circle who make swishing and whiffling sounds with their swords (possibly to clear the area of evil spirits), followed by mock combat. Chain-sword dance is a group dance in which the dancers first use a sword or other implement (stick, stave, etc.) to link themselves in a chain. In the Hungarian tradition, the Erdőbénye cooper dance represents this form of dance. Moreška, a sword dance on the Croatian island of Korčula in the Adriatic, recalls combat between Christians and Moros (Moors), though in the 19th century the dance changed from Christians vs. Moors to Turks vs. Moors. Historically, the Hungarian heyduck dance was a soldiers' dance that involved virtuoso whirling of weapons and free-form compositions with battle practice motifs. Such dances also appear in Gypsy, Slovak, Ruthenian, and Transylvanian folklore. In many of these areas, the so-called "stick dancing" of shepherds is a reenactment of combat with real weapons. In a few isolated sections of Europe, a rather savage male combat dance survives. In the villages of the Transylvania Alps and Carpathian mountains, before Twelfth Night and Whitsunday, nine men from nine villages assemble for the Joc de căluşari or căluş, a rite of initiation. The men engage in fierce battle with sticks, which used to be bloody and sometimes fatal. #### Basque dances Some of the Basque dances feature weapons. The ezpatadantza ("sword dance") comes from the Durango area and is danced for authorities and in the feast of Corpus Christi. After the dance, both opposing rows of dancers raise their weapons and form a corridor for the authorities. The ezpatadantza and the makildantza ("stick dance") employs makila (traditional Basque walking sticks), and ends with the dancers raising one of them, lying as a fallen warrior, over their heads. In the Basque province of Gipuzkoa in Spain, the Okrabario Dantza is performed in Legazpi—a sword dance in which a participant dances atop a grid of crossed swords held aloft. In Tolosa, on Midsummer Day, the Bordon-Dantza ("walking stick dance") is performed with the figures of the ezpatadantza; some point its origins to the border fights in the Middle Ages, when the Castilian troops from Gipuzkoa won an important victory over the troops from Navarre at the Battle of Beotibar. Sticks simulate some weapons, and halberds—a combination of a spear and a battle-axe—are also used. ### Asia Baris is a traditional dance of Bali, in which a solo dancer depicts the feelings of a young warrior prior to battle. Originally, Baris was performed as a religious ritual. The dancer may bear a kris, a spear, a bow, or other weapons, depending on the variant performed. The word "Baris" literally means "line" or "file", and referred to the line of soldiers who served the rajas of Bali. The dance is usually performed by men in a group with as few as four dancers and as many as sixty. The ritualistic function of the dance is to show physical maturity by demonstrating military skills, particularly the use of weapons. In China, dances with weapon have been recorded for a long time. The founder of the Han dynasty Liu Bang was said to be fond of the war dance of the Ba people. Large-scale performances of the dance involved the brandishing of various weapons to the accompaniment of drums and songs in the Ba language. It remained popular through the Tang dynasty and spread as far as Central Asia. The development of art dance, in general, in China reached its peak during the Tang dynasty and then was largely integrated into Chinese Opera practice. Tribal weapon dancing may also be present among the original aboriginal tribes on Taiwan (The Republic of China). The Shaolin martial arts employ weapons in ways that are sometimes enjoyed for aesthetic reasons, however, similar to a dance. Shaolin spear, Yezhan spear, Lanmen spear, and sword and stick exercises may be included. T'ai chi ch'uan also incorporates sword practise in a similar way. The Dayak people of Borneo are renowned for their solo sword dances, which show the skill of a young man using a sharp mandau. Also, on the island of Borneo one finds the Lotud, an indigenous ethnic group residing in Sabah. The Lotud are well known for their very colourful costumes and their dances, one of which is the Bakanjar, a war-like dance with a man holding a sword and a shield, originally performed to portray the sword fight and heroic exploits of the headhunting days. In the Indian subcontinent, the sword dance Choliya or Saraon of the Kumaon region of the hills of the Indian state of Uttarakhand started partly due to their long martial tradition and also to give protection to marriage processions. It was also held auspicious and, according to Hindu tradition, warded off evil spirits. It has a very beautiful and graceful form and has techniques which give it the status of a martial art. Among the traditional weapon dances of India is the Shad Sukmynsiem, performed in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya. Both Christians and Hindus may take part as long as they belong to Khasi community. Young lads clad in colourful silk dhotis dance around with a sword or spear in one hand and a plume in the other. The move in a protective circle around an inner circle of young maidens. A popular dance in Mizoram in the north-east corner of India is Sawlakin, a word that "means spirit of the slain." Traditionally, the dance was led by the warrior who had hunted a big game or killed a man. He would wear his best clothes and a plume of red feather. He would wield a gun or dao and a shield. He would be followed by other dancers in a row, who would also carry weapons, or cymbals or gongs. The Pashtuns of Afghanistan practice a wide range of weapon dances, including the Khattak Wal Atanrh (named after the Khattak tribe) and the Mahsood Wal Atanrh (which, in modern times, involves the juggling of loaded rifles). A sub-type of the Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great skill to successfully execute. ### Middle East and Asia Minor There are a number of Arab weapon dances, including the razfah. It was originally practiced at Manga in Muscat, prior to going out on a raid; the object of the dance was to "warm up" for the combat to come. Also, on the Arabian Peninsula a dance named Ardah recalls pre-Islamic tribal battles. Two rows of men face one another, clapping, singing, and dancing in a lively manner, accompanied by large frame drums. At the peak of the dance two swordsmen perform a duel between the rows of dancers. The Assyrian minority in Syria have a dramatic folk dance called Shora, which commemorates the bloody battles fought by the Ancient Assyrians back in their time consisting of a leader (usually a man) in front with a sword otherwise known as a saypa and a line of men joining together. Generally speaking, a number of dances (known as razfah or yowlah) of Bedouin origin use weapons and have achieved modern popularity in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and are associated with festive occasions among the non-Bedouin sedentary population. In Iran there exists the Çûb-Bâzî ("stick game"; or raqs-e çûb, "stick dance"), a dance form that probably has its origins in reenactments of combat. Essentially, an attacker and a defender duel with poles. The çûb-bâzî is “...both a dance and a show of skill and bravery; participants are judged by their abilities in the combat aspects, as well as by their grace in executing the dance movements.” ### Africa In South Africa, such dances as the Zulu Indlamu, the traditional dance most often associated with Zulu culture, is performed with drums and full traditional attire and is derived from the war dances of the warriors. Also, the military influence of the warrior King Shaka is reflected in demonstrations of stick fighting (umshiza) with which the male teenagers and men settle their personal differences in a public duel. The Jerusema (or Mbenede) dance of the Zezuru people in Zimbabwe is an interesting kind of hybrid war dance—"hybrid" in the sense that music and dance formed a part of the actual battle-field preparations, themselves, as well as of the ritual dance recalling the battle. (The Zezuru are one of the Shona peoples who were the builders of the great monuments of the Monomotapa kingdom in Zimbabwe between the 10th and 15th centuries.) The dance is a re-creation of a battle strategy developed by the Zezuru in the 19th century against incursions of other tribes in the wake of colonialist expansion of the Boers. The dance, itself, recalls the music and dance used as a diversionary tactic on the battlefield to distract the enemy while Zezuru warriors maneuvered into position; thus, the ritual dance involves the music and dance of the “distractors” as well as warriors with weapons moving into position. Ethiopia has a long, historical reputation as a place where the weapon dance plays an important cultural role. According to Lucian, a Greek writer from the 2nd century, “The Ethiopians dance also during the battle. The Ethiopian never shoots his arrow without dancing and making a menacing gesture beforehand. He wants to frighten the enemy by his dance beforehand.” The broad range of weapon dances includes the hota jumping dance of Amharic males; the attack dance of the Hailefo; the stick-dance of the Kullo; the Beroronsi Hama Haban, a dramatic dagger dance of the Esa; and the shire, the saber dance of the Tigrean nomadic shepherds. ### Australia, New Zealand and Polynesia In Australia, there are aboriginal dances that reenact hunting and combat using traditional weapons such as the boomerang. Sometimes two boomerangs are clapped together as a musical instrument to provide sounds for dances. In New Zealand, Maori have raised the martial art associated with the taiaha and mere to the level of a weapon dance. The haka could also be considered as a weapon dance, as it includes elements of warlike challenge to chanting and musical (sung) accompaniment. The Nifo oti, or Samoan fire knife dance, is also a kind of weapon dance. The kailao is a standing male war dance of Tonga. The kailao is performed by men (less commonly women also perform it with the men as a mixed dance), who carry clubs or fighting sticks. The performers dance in a fierce manner to emulate combat, all to the accompaniment of a slit drum or a tin box. Additional idiophonic percussion is provided by strung rattles worn on the anklets of the dancers, and the clashing together of the wooden implements of war, which today are either sticks or mock weapons. The dance is unusual for Tonga in that it lacks recited poetry as accompaniment, which fact is taken to mean that it was imported to Tonga from elsewhere. ### North and Central America So-called “war dances” of indigenous North American tribes may also be classified as weapon dances. Recent interest in preserving Native American traditions has led to such groups as The Warriors of AniKituhwa, a Cherokee dance group who recreate Cherokee dances, including the war dance, do research and offer dance workshops for their community. A dance such as the Comanche Sun Dance of the 1870s was an invocation of invulnerability to the White Man's bullets; the dance was a preliminary ritual to battle and would be a war dance and, hence, a weapon dance. Also, the moresca (or morisca) (above) exists in some areas in the Americas that used to be Spanish colonies—Mexico, for example. In the Jamiltepec region of Mexico, there exists perhaps the most colorful version of that kind of dance, the Chareos dance. It represents a battle between Moors, led by Pilate, and Christians, led by James, the apostle. Sixteen male dancers take part and the dancer who plays the part of James appears as a horse rider and wears a costume that incorporates a white horse. The dancers wear ostrich feathers on their heads, a peacock feather at the front, white cotton square over their shoulders, velvet trousers decorated with gold brocade over white cotton pants and carry a machete. In addition, the leader has a hat with a small mirror and a white feather headdress. Two men at the front carry two red flags and two white flags, red symbolizing the blood spilt by James' soldiers and white symbolizing the peace that reigned after the Christian victory. The sounds of drums and flutes accompany the dance. These dances that pit Christian against Moor are almost certainly Christianized versions of earlier, pre-Cortez dances that ritualized the battle between the tiger and the eagle. Similar to the Moor-Christian confrontation of the morisca—whether in Spain or in transplanted versions in Central America—there are also elaborate ritual dances in Mexico such as the Danza de la Pluma that exploit the trauma of the Spanish conquest of indigenous America. Weapons employed may be swords (and shields) whips, even firearms. These representations take place over a large area of Mesoamerica and, in part, are an obvious adaptation of Spanish tradition, but in Mexico will pit the native Aztec against the Spanish invader. The most interesting aspect of these dances is that—depending on where one sees them and under what conditions—it is plausible to read into the dances an outcome other than the historical Spanish victory. That is, indigenous performers may take inspiration from the fact that the natives of Spain drove out the Moorish invaders; thus, the natives of Mesoamerica, too, shall one day drive out the invaders. Some dances that abound at Carnival and Corpus Christi fiestas go back to pre-Conquest ritual combat dances of the Aztecs. For example, during the 15th month of the Aztec calendar, Huitzilopochtli, god of the sun and war was honored by real duels between slave victims and mimed battles among masked boy votaries. Also, among the Náhuatl-speaking people in the Pacific Ocean region of Michoacán, there is the cuauileros" dance (the cudgelers' dance). The performance of this dance represents a battle between Aztecs and Spaniards, and dancers perform with rattles made of thin metal plates and wooden cudgels. ### South America The landscape of all dance in a large country such as Brazil is rich and complex due to the mixing of three separate traditions—Indian native, Black African, and Portuguese. In Brazil, the African influence on Brazilian folkdances is considerable. For example, capoeira—a dance-like fighting style—and the maculelê fighting dance are strongly reminiscent of African dances. Capoeira is of particular interest. In the 19th century, Capoeira was played mostly by African slaves who had been brought from West Central Africa, making them the original capoeiristas and making the art a complex form of social interaction, expressing the participants' physical skills and spiritual essence, involving the gods and the spirits of the ancestral fathers. The participants played during festivals and holidays, jumping and leaping in front of musical bands, military troops, and religious processions. This dance “game” was considered dangerous to public order and was eventually criminalized in the late 19th century. Today, capoeira has staged somewhat of a comeback and is even studied in dance academies as part of a general movement to rejuvenate folk traditions. Capoeira may be played unarmed or with blades held in the hands or feet. The sticks used as mock weapons in some of these dances also serve as percussion instruments. In the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, the machete, a tool used to cut jungle brush, is used in a dance called dança dos facões (dance of the machetes). In this dance (historically performed only by men, although this trend changes as the dance spreads), the dancers knock their machetes while dancing, simulating a battle. Machete are sometimes used in place of sticks in maculelê. ## Weapon dance as art Since dance is already an art form, “weapon dance as art” may seem redundant; yet, “art” is used here to mean the re-creation, say, of a folk weapon dance in a more professional staged venue, such as a ballet, or when an Australian, Native American, or African troupe of professional musicians and dancers present a reenactment on stage of a weapon dance, or when the use of weapons is introduced in stylized dance enactments of fighting. For example, recent ballets such as the New York City Ballet's version of Romeo and Juliet (to the music of Sergei Prokofiev) employ highly choreographed sword-fight/dance sequences. Additionally, there is overlap between weapon dance and stylized forms of stage combat, i.e., choreographed enactments of “real fights,” from bar-room brawls to sword-fighting to large-scale battle scenes. Stage combat uses the services of professionals called “fight directors,” “weapon choreographers,” etc. An early example of this kind of staged combat in Europe was in Italy in the late 19th century, where the term tramagnini came to be used generically in the sense of “extra” or “stunt man” for those who fought on the stage in enactments of battle scenes in grand opera, for example. Tramagnini was originally a family name in Florence and referred to members of the family who started a gymnastics club and soon wound up appearing on stage in enactments of fighting, both bare-handed and with weapons. Elsewhere, the kabuki theater tradition in Japan employs ritualized representations of violence on the stage. While kabuki is technically theater and not dance, the movements, for example, of the sword-fighting termed tachimawari'' in kabuki are gymnastic to the point even of employing somersaults, and elaborate fight scenes are so deliberate and stylized that they provide at least an area of overlap between theater and dance. Also, the Communist revolution in China produced the view that art—including dance—must support the “armed struggle of the proletariat.” By the 1970s, weapons commonly appeared in such works as "Red Detachment of Women,’’ a ballet about a women’s revolutionary armed force in the 1930s in China. Interesting, perhaps, in the use of weapons in these recent “revolutionary” works is that they are, generally speaking, not reenactments of traditional folk dances. The introduction of weaponry into Chinese ballet—regardless of the revolutionary message—was, itself, a revolution. ## See also - Geommu - Long Sword dance - Stick dance (African-American) - Exhibition drill - Tahtib - Border Morris
37,930,179	Höchsterwünschtes Freudenfest, BWV 194	1,136,910,824	Church cantata by J. S. Bach	[ "1723 compositions", "Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach" ]	Höchsterwünschtes Freudenfest (Most highly desired festival of joy), BWV 194, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed it in Leipzig for dedication of the church and organ at Störmthal on 2 November 1723. The cantata text was written by an anonymous poet, including two stanzas of Johann Heermann's hymn "Treuer Gott, ich muß dir klagen" (1630) and two stanzas of Paul Gerhardt's "Wach auf, mein Herz, und singe" (1647). Bach used an earlier secular cantata as a base for a structure in two parts of six movements each, beginning with an extended choral movement and concluding both parts with chorale stanzas. The inner movements are alternating recitatives and arias. The chorales are the only movements which were certainly newly composed for the occasion. Bach scored the work for three vocal soloists, a four-part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of three oboes, bassoon, strings and continuo. After the first performance in Störmthal, Bach performed the cantata again in Leipzig for Trinity Sunday, first on 4 June 1724, a shortened version in 1726, and the complete version in 1731. ## History and text The first known performance of the cantata was at Störmthal, a village near Leipzig. The church there had been rebuilt, and a new organ been built on a commission by Statz Friedrich von Fullen. The organ was an early work by Zacharias Hildebrandt. Von Fullen requested an approval of the instrument from Johann Sebastian Bach, who was then Thomaskantor in Leipzig. Bach was satisfied and composed this cantata for the dedication service for the church and the organ on 2 November 1723. The text deals with the inauguration of the church. The organ has no solo function in the cantata. The cantata text was written by an anonymous poet, who took Solomon's prayer for the dedication of the temple as a starting point to reflect the church as the house of God. Frequent Biblical references throughout the text suggest that the author was a theologian. He included as movement 6, ending Part I, stanzas 6 and 7 of Johann Heermann's hymn "Treuer Gott, ich muß dir klagen" (1630), and as the closing chorale, stanzas 9 and 10 of Paul Gerhardt's "Wach auf, mein Herz, und singe" (1647). Scholars such as John Eliot Gardiner assume that Bach based the cantata on a lost work (BWV 194a), probably composed at Köthen for an unknown occasion. The music of movements 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 10 is lost, and only instrumental parts of the other movements are extant. Bach added the chorales for the 1723 dedication service. Höchsterwünschtes Freudenfest shows musical similarities also to Preise, Jerusalem, den Herrn, BWV 119, written for the inauguration of the Leipzig town council a few weeks earlier. Bach led the first performance at the dedication service in Störmthal. The printed text mentions Bach as "Hochfürstl. Anhalt-Cöthenischen Capell-Meister, auch Directore Chori musici Lipsiensis" (Kapellmeister to the Prince of Anhalt-Köthen and Director of the Choir at Leipzig), referring to his appointments in the service of Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen. The organ of Störmthal is notable as one of few such instruments still mostly unaltered since Bach's time. A restorer in 1934 remarked that it was tuned about a whole tone lower than 440, which may account for the unusually high vocal ranges. Bach demanded "top Cs" from the sopranos, which is unique in his sacred cantatas. The organ part prepared for the Leipzig revival is notated a minor third lower than the other instruments. Bach revived the cantata for performances in Leipzig for Trinity Sunday. The prescribed readings for Trinity were , and , the meeting of Jesus and Nicodemus. The general topic and even an "invocation of the Trinity" in movement 6 made for an easy transition. On 4 June 1724, Bach concluded his first cantata cycle with this work. On 16 June 1726, he presented a shortened version, with movements appearing in the order 12, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10. The 12-movement version was again performed on 20 May 1731. ## Structure and scoring Bach structured the cantata in two parts of six movements each. It is scored for three vocal soloists (soprano (S), tenor (T) and bass (B)), a four-part choir (SATB), and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of three oboes (Ob), bassoon (Fg), two violins (Vl), viola (Va) and basso continuo. In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings, while the continuo, playing throughout, is not shown. ## Music The music has an often dance-like character. All recitatives, the majority of the solo movements, are secco, accompanied only by the continuo. Most of them are followed by an aria performed by the same voice type. Part I begins with a chorus in the style of a French overture with a solemn opening and a fast fugal central section. The bass sings a recitative and an aria, accompanied by solo oboe and strings. The soprano sings a modulating recitative and an aria in the style of a gavotte. A four-part harmonization of the chorale ends the first part. Part II begins with the tenor singing a recitative and a da capo aria in a minor mode, characterized by its extensive use of dotted rhythms. A dialogue recitative for bass and soprano leads to a duet aria with oboes and continuo. After a declamatory bass recitative, the work ends with another four-part chorale setting. ## Recordings The entries are taken from the listing on the Bach Cantatas Website. Ensembles with period instruments in historically informed performance are marked by green background.
626,839	Herdwick	1,083,106,406	Breed of sheep	[ "British products with protected designation of origin", "Cumbria", "Sheep breeds", "Sheep breeds originating in England" ]	The Herdwick is a breed of domestic sheep native to the Lake District in North West England. The name "Herdwick" is derived from the Old Norse herdvyck, meaning sheep pasture. Though low in lambing capacity and perceived wool quality when compared to more common commercial breeds, Herdwicks are prized for their robust health, their ability to live solely on forage, and their tendency to be territorial and not to stray over the difficult upland terrain of the Lake District. It is considered that up to 99% of all Herdwick sheep are commercially farmed in the central and western Lake District. The wool of a Herdwick has unique qualities relating to durability. Thick bristle type fibres will often protrude from garments made from the wool, forming a protective layer in blizzards—most likely the same qualities that protect the sheep in similar conditions. Herdwicks have been known to survive under a blanket of snow for three days while eating their own wool. Severely threatened by the 2001 outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in England and Wales, the breed has survived due to the intent to preserve this unique animal as a crucial part of traditional Lakeland agriculture. Still far fewer in number than most commercial breeds, Herdwicks survive largely due to farming subsidies. ## History ### Early history The root word of the breed's name, herdvyck, "sheep pasture", is recorded in documents dating back to the 12th century. The origin of the breed itself is unknown, but the most common theory is that the ancestors of Herdwick sheep were introduced by early Norse settlers. According to this, it was brought to the region somewhere between the 10th and 11th centuries during the Viking invasions of western England. Although a piece of local folklore once suggested that it came from a wrecked Spanish Armada ship, it appears that the Herdwick was an important breed in the Lake District by the end of the 12th century. For centuries, the husbandry of Herdwick sheep has been a large factor in shaping the culture and terrain of the Lake District. Topographically, grazing by sheep continues to keep the hillsides of fells largely treeless, and the ubiquitous dry stone walls of the valleys were built to protect grazing land and to confine livestock. Linguistically, many words of Lakeland speech relate to sheep husbandry. The ancient Yan Tan Tethera counting system for sheep is a survival of Brittonic counting systems. #### Beatrix Potter In the later years of her life (over 50), the children's author Beatrix Potter was involved with keeping and breeding Herdwicks, even acting as president of the breed association for a time. Between 1930 and 1938 she won a number of prizes for Herdwick ewes at shows across Cumbria. Upon her death in 1943, she bequeathed fifteen farms—a total of approximately 4,000 acres (16 km<sup>2</sup>) to the National Trust and, as per her instruction, all continue to graze Herdwick flocks. ### Modern history In the modern era, the main industry of the Lake District has shifted from agriculture to tourism. The subsequent influx of tourists to the District has at times conflicted with traditional life, including the raising of Herdwicks. One Lake District farmer summed the problem up as, "We get 100,000 visitors across our land every year... If just one in a thousand forgets to shut a gate or can't be bothered, that's a hundred times we have to go out and round up our sheep." In the late 20th century, the keeping of Herdwicks became economically unviable without outside support; open market prices for Herdwick fleeces sometimes drop as low as a penny a kilogram (which is about the weight of wool from a single sheep). Without direct monetary guarantees for wool prices from the National Trust, it actually costs farmers a considerably larger amount of money to shear their Herdwicks than they would receive in compensation; the majority of farmers once burned their fleeces as waste products. The Trust now acts as a wool merchant itself, thus being able to bargain for better prices directly with the British Wool Marketing Board and operate a Herdwick wool trademark. Most farmers survive through the sale of lambs, as well as both National Trust and European Union farm subsidies. Lake District farmers in particular receive subsidies for operating in a designated Less Favoured Area from the England Rural Development Programme. Those who agree to maintain their land in accordance with sustainable farming practices also receive additional subsidies. Ninety-five percent of all 50,000 or so Herdwicks live within 14 miles of Coniston, Cumbria, and this makes them particularly vulnerable to outbreaks of disease. The outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in 2001 led to the destruction of many flocks, and to fears for the survival both of the breed and of the typical Lakeland sheep farming industry. Of the estimated 100,000 Herdwick sheep present before the outbreak, a full 25% were lost. They were not easily replaceable because long-standing herds are hefted so the introduction of new stock to the fells would have required extensive fencing. The call for vaccination rather than culling to preserve what is considered a part of the traditional identity of the fells and moors was led by parties such as the Duke of Westminster, Earl Peel, Lord Barnard and Lord Lonsdale, who wished to save the hill sheep on their lands. Many Lake District residents saw the breed as an indispensable icon of the region. Longtime resident and writer for The Guardian A. Harry Griffin expressed this feeling: > There are other mountain sheep on the Lakeland fells, notably Swaledales and Rough-Fells, but the hardy Herdwick is the sheep most likely to be seen in and around the Duddon valley, the Coniston fells, the Buttermere fells and, through Borrowdale or Wasdale, up to the highest land in England, the Scafells. More than the old drystone walls that quarter the fells, the packhorse bridges or the whitewashed farmsteads, the little grey Herdwick sheep typify the Lakeland. > > If they and their shepherds go, that is the end of the Lakeland where I have climbed, walked, skied and skated for nearly 80 years; of the Lakeland I have written about nearly all my life. The destruction of entire flocks meant that the shepherds were forced to undergo the process of again heafing (the local term for hefting) their new sheep to the hills. Normally, ewes teach this behaviour to their lambs, but with no more ewes left acquainted with a particular heaf the behaviour had to be taught all over again to new ewes, inevitably involving much rounding up of flocks that had strayed over the often inaccessible fells. Unheafed sheep might also cause overgrazing by wandering if they replaced the original Herdwicks. The Cumbria Hill Sheep Initiative was set up to "reassess the position and circumstances" in the aftermath of the disease; tough government restrictions in order to prevent another outbreak are still in place. In 2008, an Oregon sheep farmer began importing semen from Herdwick rams into the United States to begin a breeding programme using artificial insemination and designed to bring the breed to the country for the first time. In 2013, Lakeland Herdwick meat received a Protected Designation of Origin from the European Union. ## Characteristics Herdwicks are a dual-purpose breed, producing strongly flavoured lamb and mutton and a coarse, grey wool. The slowly maturing breed is one of the most hardy of all the British hill sheep breeds, withstanding the cold and relentless rain of the Lake District at heights upwards of 3,000 feet (about 1,000 metres). Most Herdwicks spend winter on the fells, from approximately December to April. They are normally left to graze freely on the hillsides (without any additional feed), but each ewe tends to stay in her heaf (the local term for heft), the same small area of fell. Due to the rough conditions on fells, lambing losses can be as high as 25%. This ability to thrive unassisted is part of the reason fell farmers so highly value Herdwicks over much higher-producing lowland breeds. A Herdwick's grey fleece is not easily dyed and is coarse, so it is best suited to use as carpet wool. The wool is also an excellent natural insulator; it is possible to buy sheets of fireproofed wool to fit as loft insulation. Herdwick lamb and mutton has a very distinct taste, and was eaten at Queen Elizabeth II's 1953 coronation banquet. Herdwick ewes also commonly produce desirable market lambs and mules by cross-breeding with Suffolk, Cheviot, Charollais and Texel sheep. Herdwick lambs are born black and, after a year, they lighten to a dark brown colour (the sheep are called hoggs or hoggets at this stage). After the first shearing, their fleece lightens further to grey. Rams are horned and ewes polled. For shows and auctions, Herdwicks traditionally have their wool ruddied up (the local term for raddled) with dye. Rams are also ruddied when put out with the ewes to show which have been mated and the dye is also one method (called a smit) of marking sheep for ownership. Before chemical dyes became available, this dye was made from either iron ore or graphite mixed with grease. For many years the legal method of identifying a particular shepherd's sheep were notches cut out of a sheep's ear, called lug marks—now replaced by ear tags.
37,944,898	Joyas Prestadas	1,173,584,855	null	[ "2011 albums", "2011 video albums", "Covers albums", "Fonovisa Records albums", "Fonovisa Records video albums", "Jenni Rivera albums", "Jenni Rivera video albums", "Spanish-language albums", "Spanish-language video albums" ]	Joyas Prestadas: Pop and Joyas Prestadas: Banda (Borrowed Jewels) are the 12th and final studio albums by recording artist Jenni Rivera, released on November 21, 2011, by Fonovisa Records. Joyas Prestadas consists of a double album with eleven cover songs, each recorded with two distinct styles of music. The first half being recorded in pop, while the second was recorded in the Regional Mexican subgenre of banda. The album was produced by Enrique Martinez. According to Rivera, the songs she chose to cover were those she was enamored with while working as a cashier in a record store. Joyas Prestadas: Pop reached number one on the Mexican Albums Chart and number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart in the United States while Joyas Prestadas: Banda peaked at number three on the Mexican Albums Chart and number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart. Three singles were released from the album: "¡Basta Ya!", "A Cambio de Qué", and "Detrás de Mi Ventana". David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album a positive review and called the productions "polished". Joyas Prestadas: Pop received a Lo Nuestro award for Pop Album of the Year and Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Latin Pop Album of the Year and a nomination for Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist at the 2013 Oye! Awards. Joyas Prestadas: Banda was awarded two Oye! awards for Banda Albums of the Year and Popular Album of the Year and a Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Regional Mexican Album of the Year. ## Background On August 23, 2011, Jenni Rivera renewed her contract with Universal Music Latin Entertainment/Fonovisa Records. To celebrate this event, she performed at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California, becoming the first female Regional Mexican singer to do so. Rivera also announced she would be recording two albums in pop and banda titled Joyas Prestadas. The album was her first production to include ballads in a recording. ## Recording and covers Joyas Prestadas is a double album consisted of eleven tracks originally performed by other singers. Rivera recorded these songs on two versions: pop and banda. According to her, the songs she chose were recordings she listened to while working as a record store cashier. The albums were produced by Enrique Martinez and were recorded at the Twin Recording Studio in Burbank, California. A deluxe version of Joyas Prestadas: Pop was released on August 28, 2012, which contains a DVD of her performing the album live at the Teatro de la Ciudad in Mexico City, Mexico. The first track, "A Cambio de Qué", was first recorded by Mexican singer Marisela on her album Completamente Tuya (1985). The second track, "A Que no le Cuentas", was first performed by Puerto Rican singer Ednita Nazario on her album, Ednita (1982). "Así Fue" and "Resulta" were both composed by Mexican singer-songwriter Juan Gabriel and originally performed by Isabel Pantoja and Lucha Villa respectively. Rivera also covers Pantoja's song, "Porque Me Gusta a Morir". "¡Basta Ya" and "Como Tu Mujer" were composed by Mexican singer-songwriter Marco Antonio Solís and first performed by Olga Tañón and Rocío Dúrcal. Rivera had previously collaborated with Tañón with their cover of "Cosas del Amor" on the latter's album Exitos en 2 Tiempos (2007). Solís himself appears on both tracks. The sixth track, "Detrás de Mi Ventana", was written by Ricardo Arjona in 1993 and included in Nueva era (1993), a studio album by Mexican singer Yuri, who performed the song for the first time. Melina Leon also performed the song for Arjona in his compilation album Trópico, released in 2009. "Lo Siento Mi Amor" and "Señora" are covers of Rocío Jurado's songs. "Que Ganas de No Verte Más" was first performed by Argentine singer Valeria Lynch. ## Promotion Jenni Rivera performed the pop version of "¡Basta Ya!" live at La Voz... México on November 27, 2011. Four months later at the end of Yuri's concert at the National Auditorium, Rivera was invited to sing with her. After which Rivera took over the concert and performed ballads from the album as well as songs from her career. At the 19th Latin Billboard Awards ceremony, Rivera performed the pop versions of "Como Tu Mujer" and "Asi Fue". The tour for the album officially began on May 18, 2012, where she performed throughout concerts Mexico and the United States. It abruptly ended on December 9, 2012, after her concert in the Monterrey Arena when a plane carrying her and five other members crashed near Near Iturbide, Nuevo León killing her and everyone else on board. ## Commercial performance ### Album In Mexico, Joyas Prestadas: Pop peaked at number one on the Top 100 Mexico albums chart while Joyas Prestadas: Banda peaked at number three on the Top 100 Mexico albums chart. Joyas Prestadas: Pop was certified quadruple platinum and gold by AMPROFON for shipping 270,000 copies in the country while Joyas Prestadas: Banda was certified triple platinum by AMPROFON for shipping 180,000 copies. In the United States, Joyas Prestadas: Pop peaked at number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums and number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums charts. Similarly, Joyas Prestadas: Banda peaked at number two on the Top Latin Albums chart and number one on the Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart. Within the week of her death, sales for both albums soared in the United States selling over 2,000 copies. Both albums were certified double platinum (Latin field) by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 200,000 copies. Joyas Prestadas: Pop was the best-selling Latin pop album of 2013 in the United States. As of December 2013, both albums have sold over 300,000 copies combined. ### Singles Both versions of "¡Basta Ya!" were released as the lead single from the album on August 29, 2011. In the United States, the song peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and number six on the Billboard Regional Mexican Songs chart. In Mexico, the song reached number one the Monitor Latino charts and number three on the Billboard Mexican Airplay chart. A music video was released for the pop version of the song which was directed by Ricardo Moreno and filmed in Los Angeles, California. "A Cambio de Qué" was the second single to be released from the album on February 28, 2012. In the United States, the song peaked at number forty-nine on the Hot Latin Songs chart and at number twenty-one on the Regional Mexican Songs chart. In Mexico, the song peaked at number twenty-one on the Mexican Airplay chart. "Detrás de Mi Ventana" was the final single released from the album on July 3, 2012. The song peaked at number sixteen on the Hot Latin Songs chart and number six on the Regional Mexican Songs chart. ## Reception David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album a 3.5 of 5 stars and called the productions for both album "polished". At the 2012 Juventud Awards, the album received a nomination for Best Music Album. At the second Billboard Mexican Music Awards in 2012, Joyas Prestadas: Banda received an award for Banda Album of the Year and a nomination for Album of the Year. At the 25th Lo Nuestro Awards in 2013, Rivera was posthumously awarded Pop Female Artist of the Year, Pop Album of the Year for Joyas Prestadas: Pop and Pop Song of the Year for her cover of "A Cambio de Qué". A tribute to Rivera was made during the ceremony. At the 2013 Latin Billboard Awards, Joyas Prestadas: Pop was awarded Album of the Year by a Female Artist while both albums were nominated Latin Pop Album of the Year and Regional Mexican Album of the Year. At the 2013 Mexican Oye! Awards, Joyas Prestadas: Banda was recognized Popular Album of the Year and Banda Album of the Year by a Soloist or Group, while Joyas Prestadas: Pop was nominated Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist. Joyas Prestadas: Banda was nominated Album of the Year and Banda Album of the Year at the third Billboard Mexican Music Awards. Joyas Prestadas: Pop was nominated Top Latin Album of the Year and Latin Pop Album of the Year at the 2014 Billboard Latin Music Awards. ## Track listing ## Credits and personnel The following credits are from Allmusic: - Federico Ramos - acoustic and electric guitars - Peggy Baldwin - cello - Oscar Benavides - chorus - Robert Bernstein - dobro, pedal steel - Jorge Brauet - saxophone, soloist - Alan Busteed - violin - Mark Cargill - violin - Juan Pablo Castillo - coros - Susan Chapman - violin - Rebecca Chung - violin - Gustavo Farias - Fender Rhodes, Hammond B3 - Paula Fehrenbach - cello - Martín Flores- drums - Alfredo "Pollo" Fuentes - mixing - Nicole Garcia - violin - Ilona Geller - viola - Terry Glenny - violin - Paul Grundman - mastering - Rob Hardt - saxophone - Juan Manuel Cortez - conductor - Pablo Hopenhaya - violin - Ami Levy - violin - Enrique Martinez - arrangements, chorus, director, Fender Rhodes - Sylvana Martínez - chorus - Neli Nikolaeva - violin - Boryana Popova - violin - Shelly Ren - violin - Jenni Rivera - vocals (main), primary artist - Kathleen Robertson - violin - Carlos Rodgarman - synthesizer - Javier Rodriguez - flugelhorn - Kathleen Sloan- violin - Jean Smit - mixing - Arturo Solar - conductor, flugelhorn, soloist - Marco Antonio Solís - guest vocals ("¡Basta Ya!", "Como Tu Mujer") - Marisa Ann Sorajja - violin - Allison Speith - viola - Jenny Takamatsu - violin - Jonathan Thomson - cello - Francisco Torres - trombone - Ina Veli - violin - Javier Vergara - sax (alto), sax (tenor) - Dynell Weber - violin - Dorthy Won - violin - Chris Woods - viola - Alwyn Wright - violin - Nick Yee - viola - Amanda Zidow - cello - Ito Serrano – guitar - Charlie Sierra – percussion, bongos, timbales - William Thompson – conga - Maximo Torres – guitar, requinto - Raffi Torres – trombone - Yanira Torres – vocals, coro ## Charts ### Weekly charts Joyas Prestadas: Pop Joyas Prestadas: Banda ### Year-end charts Joyas Prestadas: Pop Joyas Prestadas: Banda ## Certifications Joyas Prestadas: Pop Joyas Prestadas: Banda ## Release history ## See also - 2011 in Latin music - List of number-one albums of 2013 (Mexico) - List of number-one Billboard Latin Albums from the 2010s - List of number-one Billboard Latin Pop Albums from the 2010s
1,020,494	The Computer Wore Menace Shoes	1,163,584,680	null	[ "2000 American television episodes", "Parodies of television shows", "Parody television episodes", "Television episodes set on fictional islands", "Television shows written by John Swartzwelder", "The Simpsons (season 12) episodes" ]	“The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" is the sixth episode of the twelfth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 3, 2000. In the episode, Homer buys a computer and creates his own website to spread gossip and fake news. However, when Homer starts writing conspiracy theories about flu shots, he is sent to an island where people who know too much are imprisoned. "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Kirkland. The title of the episode is a reference to the 1969 Disney comedy film The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes, but the episode isn't related to the film in any other way. The episode's third act features many references to the 1967 science fiction series The Prisoner. The episode features Patrick McGoohan as Number Six, the main character from The Prisoner. In its original broadcast, the episode was seen by approximately 9.1 million viewers, finishing in 28th place in the ratings the week it aired. Following its broadcast, the episode received mixed reviews from critics; commentators were divided over the episode's third act. ## Plot After finding out that all of the nuclear power plant's staff members had been informed of the plant's closure for maintenance via e-mail, Homer decides to buy a computer. After Lisa sets up the computer for him, Homer starts his own webpage, which contains copyrighted material from other pages. To avoid getting sued, Homer calls himself "Mr. X". Late at night, unable to sleep until someone visits his page, Homer hears a rumor from Bart started by either Nelson Muntz or Jimbo Jones that Mayor Quimby spent the street repair fund on a secret swimming pool. He posts this rumor on his page, which is seen by several of Springfield's citizens, and reporters find a luxurious pool along with many scantily dressed women in Quimby's office building. Homer keeps anonymously investigating and posting more scandals, including Mr. Burns selling uranium to terrorists, resulting in Burns getting arrested by the FBI. Eventually, Mr. X wins the Pulitzer Prize for his journalistic achievements, despite no-one knowing who he is. When he hears that the prize money will be given to starving children, Homer reveals himself as Mr. X. However, this ends up alienating Homer from the rest of the town, as no-one feels comfortable confessing their secrets now that they know he is Mr. X, and his fame soon plummets. To boost his popularity, Homer begins posting outrageous stories on his webpage. Regaining his fame, Homer celebrates by going to a Kwik-E-Mart which turns out to be fake, and he ends up being kidnapped. Homer wakes up on the "Island", a place where the inhabitants are people who have been exiled from society for harboring dangerous secrets. Homer learns from the organization's leader, Number Two, that a story he wrote about flu vaccinations containing a mind-control serum is true; the mind control drug is calibrated to drive people into a frenzy of shopping, which is why flu shots are administered shortly before Christmas. While Homer is trapped on the Island, he is replaced by a doppelgänger who looks identical to him but speaks with a thick German accent and wears a dark tie. Number Six, who is trapped on the Island for inventing the bottomless peanut bag, tells Homer about a makeshift boat he spent thirty-three years making, which Homer steals and escapes the Island with. When he gets home, Homer tries to contact the police through his computer, only for the computer to be hacked remotely by Number Two. Homer is attacked by his doppelgänger but then defeats him by kicking him in the crotch. Marge and the kids are happy that the real Homer has returned, but then a fake Santa's Little Helper spouts a gas that drugs the entire family. The episode ends with everyone in the family enjoying their strange, new life on the Island. ## Production "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Kirkland. It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 3, 2000. Originally, the episode was about Homer becoming Matt Drudge, the creator and an editor of the news aggregation website the Drudge Report, of which Swartzwelder is a fan. At that point, the episode was called "Homer the Drudge". The chalkboard gag was written by staff writer Don Payne, and the couch gag was conceived by producer Laurie Biernackie. The third act of "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" is a pastiche of the 1967 science fiction television series The Prisoner. In order to "get the feel" of The Prisoner, the writers watched its opening sequence, which summarizes the story of the series. Kirkland, who had seen a couple of episodes as a child, watched several episodes of the series with The Simpsons' animators in order to make "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" resemble it. They were also influenced by 1960s modernism and furniture designs from the 1971 science fiction film A Clockwork Orange. The episode features American-born actor Patrick McGoohan as Number Six, the central character in The Prisoner, which McGoohan played. "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" was the only time McGoohan reprised his role as Number Six. In the DVD commentary for the episode, Payne said that McGoohan was "very funny", and that all the writers wanted to meet him when he came to record his dialogue for the episode. McGoohan was reportedly very pleased with his role in the episode; when his wife Joan McGoohan, who is a real estate broker, helped staff writer Max Pross buy a house, she told him that Patrick McGoohan was as proud of the episode as anything in his career. ## Cultural references "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" makes fun of use of the Internet, which was rapidly growing in popularity at the time. "[...] The Internet was just starting to turn into a serious waste of time around this point in history", staff writer Matt Selman said in the episode's DVD commentary. The news website that Homer creates is based on the Drudge Report, a news aggregator created by journalist Matt Drudge. The episode was also written at a time when several The Simpsons producers invested in an animated web series' company called icebox.com, which was co-created by two former The Simpsons writers. Although the title of the episode is a reference to the 1969 Disney film The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes, the episode itself has "essentially nothing" to do with the film, according to M. Keith Booker in his book Drawn to Television: Prime-Time Animation from The Flintstones to Family Guy. In the episode, the slogan of Homer's webpage is "All the muck that's fit to rake". This is a reference to the American newspaper The New York Times, whose slogan is "All the News That's Fit to Print". The word "muck" refers to muckrakers, a term closely associated with reform-oriented journalists who wrote largely for popular magazines after 1900. The episode's third act, which serves as a parody of The Prisoner, features several references to the series. When the secret organization finds out about Homer's discovery, he is taken to a secret location called the "Island". The "Island" is modeled after the "Village", where Number Six is taken in The Prisoner. While he is in the "Island", Homer is repeatedly gassed by unexpected objects, a reference to the way Number Six would often be gassed in The Prisoner. "George [Meyer] and I used to laugh a lot about how often [Number Six] would be gassed by unexpected devices in the show", Scully said in the episode's DVD commentary. "And we wanted to cram as many in as we could." While escaping the "Island", Homer is chased by a "big balloon". The balloon is a reference to Rover, a floating white ball in The Prisoner that was created to keep inhabitants in the "Village", which was also featured in the season 9 episode "The Joy of Sect". The music heard in the scene is based on The Prisoner's theme music. ## Release and reception In its original American broadcast on December 3, 2000, "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" received a 9.0 rating, according to Nielsen Media Research, translating to approximately 9.1 million viewers. The episode finished in 28th place in the ratings for the week of November 27-December 3, 2000, tying with an episode of the news magazine Dateline NBC and the CBS sitcom The King of Queens. After the episode was released, The Simpsons' writers created a website called mrxswebpage.com, which was made to resemble Homer's website in the episode. This was at a time when many television shows created websites to promote episodes; earlier that year, Fox created a website called whatbadgerseat.com in conjunction with the season premiere, in which badgers played an important role. On August 18, 2009, the episode was released as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons: The Complete Twelfth Season. Mike Scully, Ian Maxtone-Graham, Don Payne, John Frink, Matt Selman, Tom Gammill, Max Pross, Mark Kirkland and Joel H. Cohen participated in the audio commentary for the episode. Following its broadcast, "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes" received mixed reviews from critics. Giving it a positive review, DVD Talk's Jason Bailey described the episode as a "smart piece of social satire". He especially enjoyed Homer's part in the episode, and found that his incompetence at handling computers is "comedic gold". Casey Burchby, another reviewer for DVD Talk, also enjoyed the social satire in the episode, and although he found the parody of The Prisoner "bizarre", he maintained that it was "bold". Writing for DVD Verdict, Mac MacEntire argued that the episode is "hilarious", provided one has seen The Prisoner. DNA Smith described the episode as "memorable". The episode is also often considered to be a fan favorite, according to Matt Haigh of Den of Geek. On the other hand, DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson was less impressed with the episode. In his review of The Simpsons: The Complete Twelfth Season, Jacobson wrote that he enjoyed the episode's take on "Internet idiocy". He wrote, "Some parts of it feel dated, but the web features even more ill-informed opinions today than it did nine years ago, so much of it remains timeless and on target." However, he was critical of the episode's third act. "The side of the show feels like it was intended to amuse a few fans and it doesn’t show a lot of real cleverness or wit", he wrote. He summarized the episode as being decent, but inconsistent.
24,228,496	SpongeBob's Truth or Square	1,172,662,614	2009 made-for-television comedy special	[ "2000s American animated films", "2000s English-language films", "2009 American television episodes", "2009 animated films", "2009 films", "2009 television films", "American children's animated adventure films", "American children's animated comedy films", "American films with live action and animation", "American television films", "Animated films based on animated series", "Anniversary television episodes", "Nickelodeon animated films", "SpongeBob SquarePants", "SpongeBob SquarePants episodes" ]	SpongeBob's Truth or Square (also known as Stuck in the Freezer) is a 2009 made-for-television comedy television film and an hour-long episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants that was produced as the 123rd and 124th episodes of the series. The special originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 6, 2009, celebrating the tenth anniversary of the television series. This is the second SpongeBob SquarePants television film, following SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis. Its animation was directed by supervising director Alan Smart, Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi. In the special, SpongeBob and his friends are accidentally locked inside the Krusty Krab on the day of its "Eleventy-Seventh" anniversary celebration. As they crawl through the ventilation system trying to escape, they look back on shared memories through flashback moments. Meanwhile, Patchy the Pirate is holding a TV Extravaganza, and is waiting for SpongeBob to show up to it, but with no reply, Patchy sets out to Bikini Bottom in a fit of rage. Truth or Square was written by Luke Brookshier, Nate Cash, Steven Banks, and Paul Tibbitt. Guest stars include Rosario Dawson, Eddie Deezen, Triumph the Insult Comic Dog, LeBron James, Tina Fey, Will Ferrell, Craig Ferguson, Robin Williams, and P!nk, with Ricky Gervais having an uncredited voice cameo as the narrator. Upon release, the special attracted an estimated 7.7 million viewers, but was met with mixed reviews from critics; although some generally spoke positively of the special's main animated segments, most criticized the Patchy the Pirate segments, which were described as unfunny and filler. ## Plot SpongeBob wakes up one morning and realizes that the Krusty Krab is celebrating its "Eleventy-Seventh" anniversary. He remembers his first visit to the Krusty Krab and tells his pet snail Gary all about it. SpongeBob then leaves to go to the restaurant, but as soon as he exits his house, he bumps into the back of a long line of customers waiting to get inside. SpongeBob jumps on top of every customer in the line, eventually reaching the Krusty Krab. Mr. Krabs tells SpongeBob and Squidward that the anniversary celebration will be the perfect opportunity for Plankton to steal the Krabby Patty formula. To prevent Plankton from breaking in, Mr. Krabs has hired Patrick Star as a security guard, so he does not have to pay for a real one. SpongeBob spectacularly decorates the Krusty Krab with ketchup, toilet paper, and mustard. When he shows Patrick, Squidward, and Mr. Krabs a Krabby Patty ice sculpture that he made himself, they accidentally trap themselves inside the freezer during an unsuccessful attempt to take the sculpture outside. Mr. Krabs remembers a way out of the freezer through the ventilation system. While finding their way through the maze of air vents, they look back at some memorable moments in their lives. To get out of the air vents, SpongeBob molds Squidward, Patrick, and Mr. Krabs into a battering ram and breaks out of the shaft, only to find that all the customers have left after waiting for so long without getting any food. Mr. Krabs is heartbroken, but SpongeBob manages to summon all the customers back as he sings a song called "O Krusty Krab". Meanwhile, Plankton finds the perfect opportunity to steal the Krabby Patty secret formula, but fails, having been caught by Mr. Krabs. The "Eleventy-Seventh" anniversary celebration then goes ahead. Throughout the special, Patchy the Pirate attempts to hold a celebration of the tenth anniversary of when he started the SpongeBob fan club, and attempts to bring in SpongeBob himself. When Patchy is told SpongeBob is not coming, he vows to get him by any means necessary. He travels to Bikini Bottom, but ends up getting eaten by a whale. Inside the whale, he watches some old tapes of the show before the whale sneezes him out, sending him flying back to the studio, where he dreams of meeting SpongeBob. He wakes up and decides he will never meet his hero, but his guests assure him otherwise, causing him to faint again. ## Cast ## Production Production began and ended in 2009. ### Writing and music Truth or Square was written by Luke Brookshier, Nate Cash, Steven Banks, and Paul Tibbitt. The writers have described the television movie as "Seinfeld-esque" that parodies the recycled flashback episodes seen in Seinfeld, Friends and other U.S. shows. The featured song, "We've Got Scurvy", was sung by American singer and actress Pink. ### Cast Truth or Square stars most of the series' main cast members including Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mr. Lawrence, Jill Talley, and Carolyn Lawrence (Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan's characters both appear, but they do not speak). In addition to the series' cast, it features Rosario Dawson, Eddie Deezen, Craig Ferguson, Will Ferrell, Tina Fey, LeBron James, Triumph the Insult Comic Dog (Robert Smigel), and Robin Williams as guest actors appearing as themselves in the live-action sequences, while Ricky Gervais provided an uncredited vocal cameo as the narrator. Nickelodeon animation president Brown Johnson said "Over the past decade, SpongeBob has become one of the most beloved characters in television history[...] And we're excited to cap off the year's celebration with this star-studded special anniversary event." ### Directing and animating Andrew Overtoom, supervising director, Alan Smart, and Tom Yasumi served as the special's animation directors while Luke Brookshier and Nate Cash handled the storyboard direction. This was the first episode of the series to be produced in 1080i widescreen, this would later be used in "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" from the eighth season before permanently switching over in the ninth season. It was a part of the series' tenth anniversary celebration. The title sequence of SpongeBob for the special was made exclusively for the series' tenth anniversary. It was animated in stop-motion animation, with Cee Lo Green performing the theme. Mark Caballero, Seamus Walsh and Chris Finnegan of Screen Novelties animated its opening titles. Finnegan claimed that the crew were "thrill[ed]" to do the title sequence because "the original title sequence is so recognizable and everyone seen it over and over and it's so great in its own way." Executive producer and the episode's writer Paul Tibbitt said "We don't just want to redraw it [the original title sequence], we want it to be something special and different[...] So we thought we would do it in three dimensions[...]" Nickelodeon animation president Brown Johnson lauded the new title sequence and said it is "SO great!" Some traditional animation on scraps of brown paper are intermixed into the stop-motion. Tibbitt said that the "biggest surprise" for him in the new title sequence was "the treatment of Painty the Pirate in the beginning" as seen in a fortune-teller machine. Mark Caballero, one of its animators, explained "our idea was like our goal is like the more disturbing, the better because I don't think there is a fortune telling machine out there that doesn't disturb when you see it. Tibbitt said "it was a great idea[...] I was just expecting maybe a 3D version of the painting but we got something totally different and it's very cool." ## Release In a press release, Nickelodeon officially announced the special "event" on October 13, 2009. According to the network, the special include "SpongeBob's first visit to the Krusty Krab as a baby, a vintage Krusty Krab TV commercial, how SpongeBob found his beloved pineapple house, and the time that SpongeBob and Sandy got married!" Prior to the official announcement of the television special, Entertainment Weekly broke the news by releasing a clip featuring a scene where SpongeBob and Sandy getting married. It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 6, 2009, as one of many SpongeBob TV events to air that year (with April featuring "SpongeBob vs. The Big One", and July featuring "The Ultimate SpongeBob SpongeBash" marathon, Square Roots: The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants documentary, and a special episode titled "To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants"). ### Marketing In late 2009, Burger King released tie-in toys based on the episode, featuring the characters in block shapes. A book adaptation of the special, titled The Great Escape!, was also released. The book was written by Emily Sollinger, published by Simon Spotlight/Nickelodeon, and was released on September 8, 2009. Another tie-in book to the special was also released. The book titled Good Times! was written by Erica David, illustrated by the Artifacts Group, and published by Simon Spotlight/Nickelodeon. Good Times! was first released on September 8, 2009, then re-released in 2011. On November 10, 2009, it was released on a DVD compilation of the same name in the United States and Canada, on November 16, 2009, in region 2, and on October 29, 2009, in region 4. The DVD consists of five season six episodes, a short called Behind the Scenes of the SpongeBob Opening, and karaoke-mode songs: "F.U.N.", "Campfire Song", and "We've Got Scurvy". It was also released in the series' season six DVD compilation. On June 4, 2019, "Truth or Square" was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: The Next 100 Episodes DVD, alongside all the episodes of seasons six through nine. On April 28, 2020, "Truth or Square" was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: Bikini Bottom Bash DVD. ## Reception ### Ratings The premiere of Truth or Square on Friday, November 6 drew 7.7 million total viewers, ranking as basic cable's number-one entertainment show for the week. It was also ranked as the week's number one program among children in the demographic groups ages 6–11 and 2–11. ### Critical response Truth or Square received generally polarized reviews from critics and fans, and was criticized mainly due to the Patchy the Pirate segments, with many comparing them to the segments from "Christmas Who", "The Sponge Who Could Fly", and "Ugh". Paul Mavis from DVD Talk said "Truth or Square is a strange mix of some truly memorable animated SpongeBob moments interrupted unfortunately by the largely unfunny Patchy the Pirate segments." He added "All of those amusing moments in Truth or Square, along with the Charlie Brown Christmas ending, make one forget the patchy Patchy segments in Truth or Square." Roy Hrab of DVD Verdict gave the episode a negative review saying "Wow... This is without a doubt the lamest SpongeBob episode I have ever seen[...] In fact, nothing interesting happens at all. The Patchy interludes and reliance on cameos merely draws attention to the episode's lack of substance." However, the special did garner some positive reception. Nancy Basile of the About.com gave the special positive reviews and wrote, "I had doubts that the recent Truth or Square special of SpongeBob SquarePants would be funny or clever. I was quite wrong." She added that "My kids and I were mesmerized." Jose Strike of the Animation World Network positively reacted to the special and wrote "Truth or Square is a major treat; in fact, I'm so happy I think I'll drop on the deck and flop like a fish..." Ian Jane of DVD Talk said "Truth or Square isn't your typical episode, as it mixes up a lot of live action material in with the more traditional animated sequences to very unusual effect." He added "[...]but there's enough here in terms of the gags and the jokes that even if it's not a classic episode, it's still one worth seeing." Nickelodeon animation president Brown Johnson said that the special is her favorite among the series. In 2010, Tom Kenny won at the 37th Annie Awards for the Best Voice Acting in a Television Production category for his performance as the voice of SpongeBob SquarePants in the special. ## Video game The video game SpongeBob's Truth or Square that was based on the SpongeBob SquarePants television special was released for PlayStation Portable, Wii, Xbox 360, and Nintendo DS. The game was first announced by THQ on May 21, 2009, and was originally titled SpongeBob SquarePants: Happiness Squared before being changed early in development. It was published by THQ, developed by Heavy Iron Studios, and was released on October 26, 2009, in North America. ## See also - SpongeBob's Big Birthday Blowout
4,083,551	Jaffna Kingdom	1,172,309,648	Tamil kingdom in present-day Sri Lanka (1215–1619)	[ "1215 establishments in Asia", "13th-century establishments in Sri Lanka", "1624 disestablishments in Asia", "17th-century disestablishments in Sri Lanka", "Former Portuguese colonies", "Former countries in South Asia", "Former monarchies of South Asia", "Hindu states", "Indianized kingdoms", "Jaffna kingdom", "Kingdoms of Sri Lanka", "Medieval Hindu kingdoms", "States and territories established in 1215", "Transitional period of Sri Lanka" ]	The Jaffna Kingdom (Tamil: யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு, Sinhala: යාපනය රාජධානිය; 1215–1624 CE), also known as Kingdom of Aryachakravarti, was a historical kingdom of what today is northern Sri Lanka. It came into existence around the town of Jaffna on the Jaffna peninsula and was traditionally thought to have been established after the invasion of Kalinga Magha from Kalinga in India. Established as a powerful force in the north, northeast and west of the island, it eventually became a tribute-paying feudatory of the Pandyan Empire in modern South India in 1258, gaining independence when the last Pandyan ruler of Madurai was defeated and expelled in 1323 by Malik Kafur, the army general of the Delhi Sultanate. For a brief period in the early to mid-14th century it was an ascendant power in the island of Sri Lanka, to which all regional kingdoms accepted subordination. However, the kingdom was overpowered by the rival Kotte Kingdom around 1450 when it was invaded by Prince Sapumal under the orders of Parakramabahu VI. It gained independence from Kingdom of Kotte control in 1467, and its subsequent rulers directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from pearls, elephant exports and land revenue. It was less feudal than most of the other regional kingdoms on the island of Sri Lanka of the period. During this period, important local Tamil literature was produced and Hindu temples were built, including an academy for language advancement. The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Jaffna Kingdom, including parts of the modern Trincomalee District, was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala-pattanama (Tamil city). In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the Jaffna, Mullaitivu and Trincomalee districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattanama. The arrival of the Portuguese on the island of Sri Lanka in 1505, and its strategic location in the Palk Strait connecting all interior Sinhalese kingdoms to South India, created political problems. Many of its kings confronted and ultimately made peace with the Portuguese. In 1617, Cankili II, a usurper to the throne, confronted the Portuguese but was defeated, thus bringing the kingdom's independent existence to an end in 1619. Although rebels like Migapulle Arachchi—with the help of the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom—tried to recover the kingdom, they were eventually defeated. Nallur, a suburb of modern Jaffna town, was its capital. ## History ### Founding The origin of the Jaffna kingdom is obscure and still the subject of controversy among historians. Among mainstream historians, such as K. M. de Silva, S. Pathmanathan and Karthigesu Indrapala, the widely accepted view is that the Kingdom of the Aryacakravarti dynasty in Jaffna began in 1215 with the invasion of a previously unknown chieftain called Magha, who claimed to be from Kalinga in modern India. He deposed the ruling Parakrama Pandyan II, a foreigner from the Pandyan Dynasty who was ruling the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa at the time with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modern Kerala and Damila (Tamil Nadu) regions in India. After the conquest of Rajarata, he moved the capital to the Jaffna peninsula which was more secured by heavy Vanni forest and ruled as a tribute-paying subordinate of the Chola empire of Tanjavur, in modern Tamil Nadu, India. During this period (1247), a Malay chieftain from Tambralinga in modern Thailand named Chandrabhanu invaded the politically fragmented island. Although King Parakramabahu II (1236–1270) from Dambadeniya was able to repulse the attack, Chandrabhanu moved north and secured the throne for himself around 1255 from Magha. Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I invaded Sri Lanka in the 13th century and defeated Chandrabhanu the usurper of the Jaffna Kingdom in northern Sri Lanka. Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I forced Chandrabhanu to submit to the Pandyan rule and to pay tributes to the Pandyan Dynasty. But later on when Chandrabhanu became powerful enough he again invaded the Singhalese kingdom but he was defeated by the brother of Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I called Veera Pandyan I and Chandrabhanu lost his life. Sri Lanka was invaded for the 3rd time by the Pandyan Dynasty under the leadership of Arya Cakravarti who established the Jaffna kingdom. ### Aryacakravarti dynasty When Chandrabhanu embarked on a second invasion of the south, the Pandyas came to the support of the Sinhalese king and killed Chandrabhanu in 1262 and installed Aryacakravarti, a minister in charge of the invasion, as the king. When the Pandyan Empire became weak due to Muslim invasions, successive Aryacakravarti rulers made the Jaffna kingdom independent and a regional power to reckon with in Sri Lanka. All subsequent kings of the Jaffna Kingdom claimed descent from one Kulingai Cakravarti who is identified with Kalinga Magha by Swami Gnanaprakasar and Mudaliar Rasanayagam while maintaining their Pandyan progenitor's family name. Politically, the dynasty was an expanding power in the 13th and 14th century with all regional kingdoms paying tribute to it. However, it met with simultaneous confrontations with the Vijayanagar empire that ruled from Vijayanagara, southern India, and a rebounding Kingdom of Kotte from the south of Sri Lanka. This led to the kingdom becoming a vassal of the Vijayanagar Empire as well as briefly losing its independence under the Kotte kingdom from 1450 to 1467. The kingdom was re-established with the disintegration of Kotte kingdom and the fragmentation of Vijayanagar Empire. It maintained very close commercial and political relationships with the Thanjavur Nayakar kingdom in southern India as well as the Kandyan and segments of the Kotte kingdom. This period saw the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit. ### Kotte conquest and restoration The Kotte conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom was led by king Parakramabahu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. This battle took place in many stages. Firstly, the tributaries to the Jaffna Kingdom in the Vanni area, namely the Vanniar chieftains of the Vannimai were neutralised. This was followed by two successive conquests. The first war of conquest did not succeed in capturing the kingdom. It was the second conquest dated to 1450 that eventually was successful. Apparently connected with this war of conquest was an expedition to Adriampet in modern South India, occasioned according to Valentyn by the seizure of a Lankan ship laden with cinnamon. The Tenkasi inscription of Arikesari Parakrama Pandya of Tinnevelly who saw the backs of kings at Singai, Anurai, and elsewhere, may refer to these wars; it is dated between 1449–50 and 1453–54. Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan the Aryacakravarti king fled to South India with his family. After the departure of Sapumal Kumaraya to Kotte, Kanakasooriya Cinkaiarian re-took the kingdom in 1467. ### Decline & dissolution Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 where their initial forays were against the south-western coastal Kotte kingdom due to the lucrative monopoly on trade in spices that the Kotte kingdom enjoyed that was also of interest to the Portuguese. The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons which included their interference in Roman Catholic missionary activities, (which was assumed to be patronizing Portuguese interests) and their support to anti-Portuguese factions of the Kotte kingdom, such as the chieftains from Sittawaka. The Jaffna Kingdom also functioned as a logistical base for the Kandyan kingdom, located in the central highlands without access to any seaports, as an entrypot for military aid arriving from South India. Further, due to its strategic location, it was feared that the Jaffna kingdom may become a beachhead for the Dutch landings. It was king Cankili I who resisted contacts with the Portuguese and even massacred 600–700 Parava Catholics in the island of Mannar. These Catholics were brought from India to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings. #### Client state The first expedition led by Viceroy Dom Constantino de Bragança in 1560 failed to subdue the kingdom but wrestedMannar Island from it. Although the circumstances are unclear, by 1582 the Jaffna king was paying a tribute of ten elephants or an equivalent in cash. In 1591, during the second expedition led by André Furtado de Mendonça, king Puvirasa Pandaram was killed and his son Ethirimanna Cinkam was installed as the monarch. This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom and a monopoly in elephant exports to the Portuguese, which the incumbent king however resisted. He helped the Kandyan kingdom under kings Vimaladharmasuriya I and Senarat during the period 1593–1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese. He however maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overly provoking the Portuguese. #### Cankili II the usurper With the death of Ethirimana Cinkam in 1617, his 3-year-old son was the proclaimed king with the late king's brother Arasakesari as regent. Cankili II, a usurper, and nephew of the late king killed all the princes of royal blood including Arasakesari and the powerful chief Periya Pillai Arachchi. His cruel actions made him unpopular leading to a revolt by the nominal Christian Mudaliyars Dom Pedro and Dom Luis (also known as Migapulle Arachchi, the son of Periya Pillai Arachchi) and drove Cankili to hide in Kayts in August–September 1618. Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship and to suppress the revolt, Cankili II invited military aid from the Thanjavur Nayaks who sent a troop of 5000 men under the military commander Varunakulattan. Cankili II was supported by the Kandy rulers. After the fall of the Jaffna kingdom, the two unnamed princesses of Jaffna had been married to Senarat's stepsons, Kumarasingha and Vijayapala. Cankili II expectably received military aid from the Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom. On his part, Raghunatha Nayak of Thanjavur made attempts to recover the Jaffna Kingdom for his protege, the Prince of Rameshwaram. However, all attempts to recover the Jaffna Kingdom from the Portuguese met with failure. By June 1619, there were two Portuguese expeditions: a naval expedition that was repulsed by the Karaiyars and another expedition by Filipe de Oliveira and his 5,000 strong land army which was able to inflict defeat on Cankili II. Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family were captured and taken to Goa, where he was hanged. The remaining captives were encouraged to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as most obliged, it avoided further claimants to the Jaffna throne. In 1620 Migapulle Arachchi, with a troop of Thanjavur soldiers, revolted against the Portuguese and was defeated. A second rebellion was led by a chieftain called Varunakulattan with the support of Raghunatha Nayak. ## Administration According to Ibn Batuta, a traveling Moroccan historian of note, by 1344, the kingdom had two capitals: one in Nallur in the north and the other in Puttalam in the west during the pearling season. The kingdom proper, that is the Jaffna peninsula, was divided into various provinces with subdivisions of parrus meaning property or larger territorial units and ur or villages, the smallest unit, was administered on a hierarchical and regional basis. At the summit was the king whose kingship was hereditary; he was usually succeeded by his eldest son. Next in the hierarchy stood the adikaris who were the provincial administrators. Then came the mudaliyars who functioned as judges and interpreters of the laws and customs of the land. It was also their duty to gather information of whatever was happening in the provinces and report to higher authorities. The title was bestowed on the Karaiyar generals who commanded the navy and also on Vellalar chiefs. Administrators of revenues called kankanis or superintendents and kanakkappillais or accountants came next in line. These were also known as pandarapillai. They had to keep records and maintain accounts. The royal heralds whose duty was to convey messages or proclamations came from the Paraiyar community. Maniyam was the chief of the parrus. He was assisted by mudaliyars who were in turn assisted by udaiyars, persons of authority over a village or a group of villages. They were the custodians of law and order and gave assistance to survey land and collect revenues in the area under their control. The village headman was called talaiyari, pattankaddi or adappanar and he assisted in the collection of taxes and was responsible for the maintenance of order in his territorial unit. The Adappanar were the headmen of the ports. The Pattankaddi and Adappanar were from the maritime Karaiyar and Paravar communities. In addition, each caste had a chief who supervised the performance of caste obligations and duties. Relationship with feudatories Vannimais were regions south of the Jaffna peninsula in the present-day North Central and Eastern provinces and were sparsely settled by people. They were ruled by petty chiefs calling themselves Vanniar. Vannimais just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the eastern Trincomalee district usually paid an annual tribute to the Jaffna kingdom instead of taxes. The tribute was in cash, grains, honey, elephants, and ivory. The annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna. During the early and middle part of the 14th century, the Sinhalese kingdoms in western, southern and central part of the island also became feudatories until the kingdom itself was briefly occupied by the forces of Parakramabahu VI around 1450 for about 17 years. Around the early 17th century, the kingdom also administered an exclave in Southern India called Madalacotta. ## Economy The economy of the Kingdom was almost exclusively based on subsistence agriculture until the 15th century. After the 15th century, however, the economy became diversified and commercialized as it became incorporated into the expanding Indian Ocean. Ibn Batuta, during his visit in 1344, observed that the kingdom of Jaffna was a major trading kingdom with extensive overseas contacts, who described that the kingdom had a "considerable forces by the sea", testifying to their strong reputed navy. The Kingdom's trades were oriented towards maritime South India, with which it developed a commercial interdependence. The non-agriculture tradition of the kingdom became strong as a result of large coastal fishing and boating population and growing opportunities for seaborne commerce. Influential commercial groups, drawn mainly from south Indian mercantile groups as well as other, resided in the royal capital, port, and market centers. Artisan settlements were also established and groups of skilled tradesmen—carpenters, stonemasons, wavers, dryers, gold and silver smiths—resided in urban centers. Thus, a pluralistic socio-economic tradition of agriculture marine activities, commerce and handicraft production was well established. Jaffna kingdom was less feudalized than other kingdoms in Sri Lanka, such as Kotte and Kandy. Its economy was based on more money transactions than transactions on land or its produce. The Jaffna defense forces were not feudal levies; soldiers in the kings service were paid in cash. The king's officials, namely Mudaliayars, were also paid in cash and the numerous Hindu temples seem not to have owned extensive properties, unlike the Buddhist establishments in the South. Temples and the administrators depended on the king and the worshippers for their upkeep. Royal and Army officials were thus a salaried class and these three institutions consumed over 60% of the revenues of the kingdom and 85% of the government expenditures. Much of the kingdom's revenues also came from cash except the Elephants from the Vanni feudatories. At the time of the conquest by the Portuguese in 1620, the kingdom which was truncated in size and restricted to the Jaffna peninsula had revenues of 11,700 pardaos of which 97% came from land or sources connected to the land. One was called land rent and another called paddy tax called arretane. Apart from the land related taxes, there were other taxes, such as Garden tax from compounds where, among others, plantain, coconut and arecanut palms were grown and irrigated by water from the well. Tree tax on trees such as palmyrah, margosa and iluppai and Poll tax equivalent to a personal tax from each. Professional tax was collected from members of each caste or guild and commercial taxes consisting of, among others, stamp duty on clothes (clothes could not be sold privately and had to have official stamp), Taraku or levy on items of food, and Port and customs duties. Columbuthurai, which connected the Peninsula with the mainland at Poonakari with its boat services, was one of the chief port, and there were customs check posts at the sand passes of Pachilaippalai. Elephants from the southern Sinhalese kingdoms and the Vanni region were brought to Jaffna to be sold to foreign buyers. They were shipped abroad from a bay called Urukathurai, which is now called Kayts—a shortened form of Portuguese Caes dos elephantess (Bay of Elephants). Perhaps a peculiarity of Jaffna was the levy of license fee for the cremation of the dead. Not all payments in kind were converted to cash, offerings of rice, bananas, milk, dried fish, game meat and curd persisted. Some inhabitants also had to render unpaid personal services called uliyam. The kings also issued many types of coins for circulation. Several types of coins categorized as Sethu Bull coins issued from 1284 to 1410 are found in large quantities in the northern part of Sri Lanka. The obverse of these coins have a human figure flanked by lamps and the reverse has the Nandi (bull) symbol, the legend Setu in Tamil with a crescent moon above. ## Culture ### Religion Saivism (a denomination of Hinduism) in Sri Lanka has had continuous history from the early period of settlers from India. Hindu worship was widely accepted even as part of the Buddhist religious practices. During the Chola period in Sri Lanka, around the 9th and 10th century, Hinduism gained status as an official religion in the island kingdom. Kalinga Magha, whose rule followed that of the Cholas is remembered as a Hindu revivalist by the native literature of that period. As the state religion, Hinduism enjoyed all the prerogatives of the establishment during the period of the Jaffna kingdom. The Aryacakravarti dynasty was very conscious of its duties as a patron towards Hinduism because of the patronage given by its ancestors to the Rameswaram temple, a well-known pilgrimage center of Indian Hinduism. As noted, one of the titles assumed by the kings was Setukavalan or protector of Setu another name for Rameswaram. Setu was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty. Sapumal Kumaraya (also known as Chempaha Perumal in Tamil), who ruled the Jaffna kingdom on behalf of the Kotte kingdom is credited with either building or renovating the Nallur Kandaswamy temple. Singai Pararasasegaram is credited with building the Sattanathar temple, the Vaikuntha Pillaiyar temple and the Veerakaliamman temple. He built a pond called Yamuneri and filled it with water from the Yamuna river of North India, which is considered holy by Hindus. He was a frequent the visitor of the Koneswaram temple, as was his son and successor King Cankili I. King Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan had the traditional history of the temple compiled as a chronicle in verse, entitled Dakshina Kailasa Puranam, known today as the Sthala Puranam of Koneshwaram Temple. Major temples were normally maintained by the kings and a salary was paid from the royal treasury to those who worked in the temple, unlike in India and rest of Sri Lanka, where religious establishments were autonomous entities with large endowments of land and related revenue. Most accepted Lord Shiva as the primary deity and the lingam, the universal symbol of Shiva, was consecrated in shrines dedicated to him. The other Hindu gods of the pantheon such as Murugan, Pillaiyar, Kali were also worshipped. At the village level, village deities were popular along with the worship of Kannaki whose veneration was common amongst the Sinhalese in the south as well. Belief in charm and evil spirits existed, just as in the rest of South Asia. There were many Hindu temples within the Kingdom. Some were of great historic importance, such as the Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee, Ketheeswaram temple in Mannar, Naguleswaram temple in Keerimalai along with hundreds of other temples that were scattered over the region. The ceremonies and festivals were similar to those in modern South India, with some slight changes in emphasis. The Tamil devotional literature of Saiva saints was used in worship. The Hindu New Year falling on the middle of April was more elaborately celebrated and festivals, such as Navarattiri, Deepavali, Sivarattiri, and Thaiponkal, along with marriages, deaths and coming of age ceremonies were part of the daily life. Until ca. 1550, when Cankili I expelled the Buddhists of Jaffna, who were all Sinhalese, and destroyed their many places of worship, Buddhism prevailed in the Jaffna kingdom, among the Sinhalese who had remained in the territory. Some important places of Buddhist worship in the Jaffna kingdom, which are mentioned in the Nampota are: Naga-divayina (Nagadipa, modern Nainativu), Telipola, Mallagama, Minuvangomu-viharaya and Kadurugoda (modern Kantharodai), of these only the Buddhist temple at Nagadipa survive today. ### Society Caste structure The social organization of the people of the Jaffna kingdom was based on a caste system and a matrilineal kudi (clan) system similar to the caste structure of South India. The Aryacakravarti kings and their immediate family claimed Brahma-Kshatriya status, meaning Brahmins who took to martial life. The Madapalli were the palace stewards and cooks, the Akampadayar's formed the palace servants, the Paraiyar were the royal heralds and the Siviyar were the royal palanquin bearers. The army and navy generals were from the Karaiyar caste, who also controlled the pearl trade and whose chiefs were known as Mudaliyar, Paddankatti and Adapannar. The Mukkuvar and Thimilar were also engaged in the pearl fishery. The Udayars or village headmen and landlords of agriculture societies were mostly drawn from the Vellalar caste. The service providing communities were known as Kudimakkal and consisted of various groups such as the Ambattar, Vannar, Kadaiyar, Pallar, Nalavar, Paraiyar, Koviyar and Brahmin. The Kudimakkal had ritual importance in the temples and at funerals and weddings. The Chettys were well known as traders and owners of Hindu temples and the Pallar and Nalavar castes composed of the agriculturist labours who tilled the land. The weavers were the Paraiyars and Sengunthar who gave importance to the textile trade. The artisans also known as Kammalar were formed by the Kollar, Thattar, Tatchar, Kaltatchar and the Kannar. Foreign mercenaries & traders Mercenaries of various ethnic and caste backgrounds from India, such as the Telugus (known locally as Vadugas) and Malayalees from the Kerala region were also employed by the king as soldiers. Muslim traders and sea pirates of Mapilla and Moor ethnicities as well as Sinhalese were in the Kingdom. The kingdom also functioned as a refuge for rebels from the south seeking shelter after failed political coups. According to the earliest historiographical literature of the Kingdom of Jaffna, Vaiyaapaadal, datable to 14th–15th century, in verse 77 lists the community of Papparavar (Berbers specifically and Africans in general) along with Kuchchiliyar (Gujaratis) and Choanar (Arabs) and places them under the caste category of Pa’l’luvili who are believed to be cavalrymen of Muslim faith . The caste of Pa’l’luvili or Pa’l’livili is peculiar to Jaffna. A Dutch census taken in 1790 in Jaffna records 196 male adults belonging to Pa’l’livili caste as taxpayers. That means the identity and profession existed until Dutch times. But, Choanakar, with 492 male adults and probably by this time generally meaning the Muslims, is found mentioned as a separate community in this census. Laws During the rule of the Aryacakravarti rulers, the laws governing the society was based on a compromise between a matriarchal system of society that seemed to have had deeper roots overlaid with a patriarchal system of governance. These laws seemed to have existed side by side as customary laws to be interpreted by the local Mudaliars. In some aspects such as in inheritance the similarity to Marumakattayam law of present-day Kerala and Aliyasanatana of modern Tulunadu was noted by later scholars. Further Islamic jurisprudence and Hindu laws of neighboring India also seemed to have affected the customary laws. These customary laws were later codified and put to print during the Dutch colonial rule as Thesavalamai in 1707. The rule under earlier customs seemed to have been females succeeded females. But when the structure of the society came to be based on patriarchal system, a corresponding rule was recognized, that males succeeded males. Thus, we see the devolution of muthusam (paternal inheritance) was on the sons, and the devolution of the chidenam (dowry or maternal inheritance) was on the females. Just as one dowried sister succeeded another, we had the corresponding rule that if one's brother died instate, his properties devolved upon his brothers to the exclusion of his sisters. The reason being that in a patriarchal family each brother formed a family unit, but all the brothers being agnates, when one of them died his property devolved upon his agnates. ### Literature The kings of the dynasty provided patronage to literature and education. Temple schools and traditional gurukulam classes in verandahs (known as Thinnai Pallikoodam in Tamil language) spread basic education in languages such as Tamil language and Sanskrit and religion to the upper classes. During the reign of Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan rule, a work on medical science (Segarajasekaram), on astrology (Segarajasekaramalai) and on mathematics (Kanakathikaram) were authored by Karivaiya. During the rule of Gunaveera Cinkaiariyan, a work on medical sciences, known as Pararajasekaram, was completed. During Singai Pararasasegaram's rule, an academy for Tamil language propagation on the model of ancient Tamil Sangams was established in Nallur. This academy performed a useful service in collecting and preserving ancient Tamil works in manuscripts form in a library called Saraswathy Mahal. Singai Pararasasekaran's cousin Arasakesari was credited with translating the Sanskrit classic Raghuvamsa into Tamil. Pararasasekaran's brother Segarajasekaran and Arasakesari collected manuscripts from Madurai and other regions for the Saraswathy Mahal library. Among other literary works of historic importance compiled before the arrival of European colonizers, Vaiyapatal, written by Vaiyapuri Aiyar, is well known. ### Architecture There were periodic waves of South Indian influence over Sri Lankan art and architecture, though the prolific age of monumental art and architecture seemed to have declined by the 13th century. Temples built by the Tamils of Indian origin from the 10th century belonged to the Madurai variant of Vijayanagar period. A prominent feature of the Madurai style was the ornate and heavily sculptured tower or gopuram over the entrance of temple. None of the important religious constructions of this style within the territory that formed the Jaffna kingdom survived the destructive hostility of the Portuguese. Nallur, the capital was built with four entrances with gates. There were two main roadways and four temples at the four gateways. The rebuilt temples that exist now do not match their original locations which instead are occupied by churches erected by the Portuguese. The center of the city was Muthirai Santhai (market place) and was surrounded by a square fortification around it. There were courtly buildings for the Kings, Brahmin priests, soldiers and other service providers. The old Nallur Kandaswamy temple functioned as a defensive fort with high walls. In general, the city was laid out like the traditional temple town according to Hindu traditions. ## See also - Jaffna Palace ruins - Sangiliyan Statue - List of Jaffna monarchs - Sri Lankan Tamil people - Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka
33,388,051	Hurricane Hilary (1993)	1,172,395,165	Category 3 Pacific hurricane in 1993	[ "1993 Pacific hurricane season", "1993 in Mexico", "1993 natural disasters", "1993 natural disasters in the United States", "Category 3 Pacific hurricanes" ]	Hurricane Hilary was a Category 3 hurricane during the 1993 Pacific hurricane season that brought significant rainfall to the Sonoran Desert region of Mexico and the United States in August of that year. Additionally, its remnants in part caused significant flooding in the Midwestern United States. A westward moving tropical depression gradually developed on August 17 south of the Mexican coast, attaining hurricane status two days later. The storm further intensified into a Category 3 hurricane, attaining peak winds of 120 mph (195 km/h). By August 23, the hurricane nearly stalled while interacting with Tropical Storm Irwin. Executing a small counter-clockwise loop, Hilary degraded to tropical storm intensity and took a northerly track for the remainder of its existence. The storm made two landfalls in Mexico, one in Baja California Sur on August 25 and one in Sonora the following day. Tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for much of the southern Mexican coastline; however, they were later discontinued when the threat ended, but were issued again when the system posed a threat to the Baja California Peninsula. Hilary dropped in excess of 5 in (130 mm) rain along its path in some areas, and flash flooding in California and Iowa. ## Meteorological history Several small areas of convection developed in association with a tropical wave on August 14 near Central America. Over the next two days, the convection migrated across Central America, and then entered the Gulf of Tehuantepec on August 16. The next morning, Tropical Depression Nine-E formed south of an upper-level low that was located in the Gulf of Mexico. Banding features slowly increased in coverage, and on August 18, the depression intensified, becoming Tropical Storm Hilary about 100 mi (160 km) south of the Pacific coast of Mexico. Hilary steadily gained strength, but its outflow remained restricted. Moving northwest on a track parallel to the coast of Mexico at around 10 mi (16 km) due to a complex steering pattern, Hilary was initially poorly organized and its low-level circulation was tough to find. The storm failed to intensify further until August 19, when the storm was upgraded into a hurricane after the cyclone developed very cold cloud tops. Even though most computer models expected Hilary to remain offshore, meteorologists suggested there was a possibility of making landfall near Manzanillo. The next day, an eye formed; subsequently, Hilary reached Category 2 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. By the time, the hurricane had grown into a large cyclone with gale-force winds extending out 130 mi (210 km) from the center. Under weak steering currents, Hilary became a major hurricane, a cyclone with winds of 111 mph (190 km/h) or higher, early on August 21. Shortly thereafter, Hilary reached its peak intensity with winds of 120 mph (155 km/h). Around this time, Hurricane Hilary developed a 15 mi (24 km) eye. Later that day, however, the eye had shrunk to about 9 mi (14 km) in diameter. The eye, which was very well-defined, was surrounded by a central dense overcast, a large mass of deep convection. Shortly after its peak, Hurricane Hilary's motion became unsteady. After nearly stalling, the hurricane turned to the west on August 22, only to become nearly stationary again the next day. Slowly executing a small counter-clockwise loop, Hilary underwent a Fujiwhara interaction with Tropical Storm Irwin which was several hundred miles southeast. Meanwhile, Hilary began to weaken, by early on August 22, the eye became poorly defined and convection diminished. The eye dissipated within 12 hours, and the winds quickly diminished to 85 mph (130 km/h). Later that day, the thunderstorm activity became partially exposed from the center, and on August 23, Hilary was downgraded to a tropical storm due to lack of organization. The interaction continued to weaken Hilary, leaving it with little thunderstorm activity and winds of just 40 mph (60 km/h) on August 24, before resuming a northerly motion. Around this time, Hilary finally absorbed Irwin. While Hilary began to traverse cooler waters, the environment became more favorable. Upon developing a 200 mb anticyclone, Hilary began to revive based on data from satellite imagery and ship reports. Tropical Storm Hilary made landfall in Baja California Sur on two separate occasions as a strong tropical storm on August 25. Weakening over land, the cyclone regenerated deep convection over the Gulf of California. As a tropical depression, Hilary made its final landfall on August 26 just west of Hermosillo in Sonora. While most of the mid to upper level moisture associated with the storm got pulled inland by a shortwave trough, the low level center dissipated in the northern Gulf on August 27. ## Preparations and impact Due to Hilary's proximity to Mexico on August 20, hurricane watches were issued for much of the southern coastline; however, they were later discontinued. Once the system began its northward track, further watches and warnings were issued for the Baja California Peninsula and the Gulf of California coastline. Heavy rains, with a maximum recorded amount of 11.35 in (288 mm) in Derivorda Jale, Colima, were accompanied the storm. Along the Baja California Peninsula, a statewide rainfall total of 4.33 in (110 mm) fell in Huerta Vieja. However, no damage or loss of life took place. Winds along the peninsula were strong, though not as strong as Hurricane Calvin, a hurricane which struck the peninsula during July 1993. The outer bands of Hurricane Hilary also brought localized downpours to parts of California, resulting in flash floods. In Arizona, 3.75 inches (95 mm) of rain fell on Green Valley, and 3.50 inches (89 mm) of precipitation was recorded at Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, resulting in flash flooding. Hilary produced a surge of moisture that dropped over 25% of the summer rainfall in portions of New Mexico. The remains of Hilary combined with a cold front to produce widespread flooding across the Midwestern United States. About 10 in (250 mm) fell in some areas of Iowa, forcing rivers and streams to overflow its banks. Hundreds of people evacuated their homes. ## See also - 1993 Pacific hurricane season
9,097,556	John Deere House and Shop	1,169,229,535	null	[ "Blacksmith shops", "Historic house museums in Illinois", "History of Illinois", "Houses completed in 1836", "Houses in Ogle County, Illinois", "Industry museums in Illinois", "John Deere", "Museums in Ogle County, Illinois", "National Historic Landmarks in Illinois", "National Register of Historic Places in Ogle County, Illinois" ]	The John Deere House and Shop is located in the unincorporated village of Grand Detour, Illinois, near the Lee County city of Dixon. The site is known as the location where the first steel plow was invented by John Deere in 1837. The site includes Deere's house, a replica of his original blacksmith shop, a gift shop, and an archaeological exhibit showing the excavation site of his original blacksmith shop. The Deere House and Shop is listed on the National Register of Historic Places; it joined that list in 1966, the year the Register was established. Prior to that, it was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 19, 1964. ## History In 1836, native Vermonter John Deere set out from Rutland, Vermont to Grand Detour, Illinois, founded by his friend and fellow Vermont native Leonard Andrus. The town lacked a local blacksmith, Deere's trade, and within two days Deere had a forge and new business established. In Vermont, Deere produced plows made from cast-iron and when he first arrived in Illinois he produced the same plows. Soil conditions in Illinois differ from those in Vermont. In Vermont the soil is sandy and falls easily away from the plow blade but in Illinois the soil is thicker and wetter; it stuck to the plow and had to be scraped off by the farmer as he plowed. There are varying tales as to the inspiration for Deere to create the invention he is famed for, the steel plow. In one version he recalled the way the polished steel pitchfork tines moved through hay and soil and thought that the same effect could be obtained for a plow. Deere learned the technique polishing sewing needles for his mother, a seamstress. By early 1838, Deere completed his first steel plow and sold it to a local farmer, Lewis Crandall. Crandall spread word of his success with Deere's plow quickly, and two neighbors soon placed orders with Deere. By 1841 he was manufacturing 75 plows per year, and 100 plows per year in 1876. ## John Deere Historic Site The John Deere Historic Site in Grand Detour, Illinois is operated by the John Deere Company and has five components. Outside of the perimeter, which is surrounded by a white, wooden fence, are 2 acres (0.81 ha) of prairie restoration. Inside of the fenced area is the replica blacksmith shop, the John Deere House and the visitor's center which is a gift shop. Also on the grounds is a building which houses the 1960s archaeological dig site. The blacksmith shop is a replica of the original Deere Shop, unearthed during the 1960s dig. The shop recreates Deere's shop and includes a demonstration by a modern blacksmith using antique tools of the trade and an open furnace. The visitor's center is inside an 1843 home built by a Deere neighbor, it houses a gift shop which has an original Deere family wall clock on display. The home was originally owned by William Dana. The house is furnished with period items as well as the gift shop's merchandise. The entire site is operated by John Deere Company employees. Part of the John Deere Historic Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places along with being designated a National Historic Landmark. The only contributing property on the National Register listing for the site is the John Deere House. The house is also the only "property type" listed on the National Historic Landmarks' online database entry for the site. The house obtained National Historic Landmark status on July 19, 1964 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places soon after its inception on October 15, 1966. ## House The John Deere House was built in 1836 when Deere arrived in Grand Detour and the building was added onto as his family grew. It is furnished with period furniture and household objects that would have been common around the time the Deere family occupied the home. The house has two levels with four rooms on the main level and two rooms upstairs. Each of the upstairs rooms is accessible via a private staircase and it is believed one of the rooms was used by Deere's apprentices while the other was used as a children's bedroom. The front entry leads into the living room where polished wood is found throughout as well as 19th century furnishings. The front room is part of the original building which consisted of one room. The room acted as the Deere's kitchen, living room, bedrooms, essentially everything. Deere eventually added onto the house, including a bedroom and an upstairs loft. The first floor bedroom would have been used for John and his wife, and possibly a couple of the children while the upstairs room would was used for the rest of the children. The Deeres left the home in 1847 when they moved to Moline, Illinois. ## Shop The original blacksmith shop on the site is long gone, however, in 1962 an archaeological team made of students from the University of Illinois approached the Deere Company about excavating the site where the shop once stood. The team unearthed the location of the original Deere Blacksmith Shop where the first successful steel plow was developed in 1837. The dig site is preserved beneath a building, known as the pavilion. The site is surrounded by museum exhibits which include artifacts, news clippings, and photographs. A blacksmith shop does occupy the current John Deere Historic Site grounds. Archaeologists used a magnetometer to locate the position of the forge in the original blacksmith shop, thus, the current shop shares an interior which is an exact replica of the original. The exterior of the building has the same dimensions as the original as well. ## Historic significance The John Deere House and Shop is historically significant for its influence in the areas of commerce, agriculture, industry, and invention. The site was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark on July 19, 1964. The Landmark designation was assigned by the U.S. Department of Interior because of the House and Shop's association with John Deere, founder of the John Deere Company and inventor of the first steel plow. His invention was of significance to the entire United States and made large scale cultivation of areas in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio possible. When the U.S. National Register of Historic Places was established in 1966 the John Deere House and Shop was among the first properties to join that list. It was added to the National Register on October 15, 1966, the same day the National Register was established.
30,350,408	New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project	1,165,755,412	American organization found in 2003	[ "2003 establishments in New York City", "Aftermath of the September 11 attacks", "Organizations based in New York City", "Organizations established in 2003", "Scientology organizations", "Scientology properties", "Scientology-related controversies" ]	The New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project was founded in New York City in 2003 with the stated purpose of treating rescue workers for toxins inhaled from the smoke of the September 11 attacks. It has two clinics: Downtown Medical on Fulton Street, two blocks from the site of the World Trade Center, and another at Williston Park, Long Island. The project's co-founder and top fundraiser is actor Tom Cruise. It uses the Purification Rundown, a "detoxification" program invented by L. Ron Hubbard as part of Scientology's Bridge to Total Freedom. This rundown has been criticized by many doctors as pseudoscientific and medically dangerous. It was reported in October 2007 that 838 people had completed the program. The project has been supported by some public officials, and received some public funding, but received criticism for its financial ties to the Church of Scientology, for exposing rescue workers to potential medical dangers, and for discouraging their use of orthodox medicine. Sources in the Fire Department told a reporter that several participants had joined Scientology, even disconnecting from their families. ## Background ### Scientologists criticise EPA Tom Cruise explained his motivation for setting up the project in a Scientology promotional video that leaked onto the internet in January 2008. The Environmental Protection Agency had stated after the World Trade Center attack that the air was safe to breathe. The video narration contradicted this, saying, "The devastation had spread an unprecedented combination of toxins through the air — and it was lethal." Cruise is seen dismissing the EPA's all-clear: > Of course, as a Scientologist, you go, that's a lie. Outright lie. Liar. Fine. Finally you say, dammit, just go there and do it. Put it there, let's go, here's the money, let's go. Let's just get one person treated. I can't sleep another night. In an appearance on CNN's Larry King Live, Cruise said that he founded the project out of concern that 9/11 survivors would suffer leukemia, Parkinsonism, multiple sclerosis or cancer as a result of toxins in their fatty tissue. He advocated Hubbard's "research" as the only way to deal with these problems, claiming, "Doctors do not know how to diagnose chemical exposures ... You go to a doctor and now he's going to put you on more and more drugs, steroids and things that are ineffective." ### "Detoxification" in Scientology The "detoxification" program was created by L. Ron Hubbard, who set out the procedure in Clear Body, Clear Mind, one of the canonical texts of Scientology. Known as the "Purification rundown" or "Purif", it is promoted through various groups affiliated with the Church of Scientology, including Narconon drug rehabilitation and the Second Chance Program. It claims to flush poisons from the body's fat stores using exercise, saunas, and high doses of vitamins, particularly niacin. Medical professionals have judged it to be unproven, ineffective and/or potentially dangerous. A report for the Department of Health in California described the mega-doses of vitamins as "hazardous" and "in some cases lethal." Scientology's own literature reports dehydration, electrolyte disturbances including hyponatremia (low sodium level) and hypokalemia (low potassium level), and heat-related illnesses as being frequent side-effects of the program. Testimonials from some participants credit it with improvements in physical and mental health, but several families blame the Rundown for the death of a relative. The project's clients were required to attend this programme three hours each day, for between twenty-one and forty days. This was promoted as a way to treat memory loss, respiratory problems, fatigue and other problems suffered by the Ground Zero workers. ## Finances and organization From 2003 to 2007, Downtown Medical received US\$900,000 in public funding, including \$630,000 from the City of New York. The project also received private funding, the biggest supporter being Tom Cruise. Other celebrity donors included Paul Newman, Paul McCartney, Adam Sandler, Leah Remini, Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith. By late 2004, these donations amounted to \$2.3 million. The detoxification program has been offered for free to rescue workers, and also offered to other New York City residents, some of whom paid \$5,000. According to tax filings, the project pays on some of its money to two bodies, related to the Church of Scientology, that promote the Purification Rundown. These are the Association for Better Living and Education (ABLE), which receives 5% of all contributions, and the Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education (FASE). The Executive Director of the Church of Scientology was involved in creating the Foundation and later described it as a "front group". In one year, \$173,300 of Downtown Medical's income went to Dr. Steven Lager, a Scientologist. As of 2007, the director of the project was Jim Woodworth, a former drug addict who credits his recovery to the Purification Rundown. He was formerly the executive director of HealthMed, a Sacramento, California, group which promotes Hubbard's approach to detoxification. ## Endorsements and criticism The project had a mixed response from public officials. Margarita López, a former member of the New York City Council, endorsed the program and helped it to win public funding. Subsequently, she received nearly \$115,000 in campaign contributions from Scientologists. Another councillor, Joseph Addabbo, Jr., also supported the project, telling reporters, "The project seems to work. I've seen it firsthand." Mayor Michael Bloomberg spoke out against Addabbo and López for their connections with the program, saying that Scientology is "not science, and we should only fund those programs that reputable scientists believe will stand the light of day". Another supportive member of the City Council was Hiram Monserrate. Monserrate went through the program himself, and drafted official proclamations honoring both Tom Cruise and L. Ron Hubbard. Describing himself as a Christian, he distanced himself from Scientology but said he believes in the Purification Rundown. Another councillor (and chair of the Public Safety Committee), Peter Vallone, Jr., vocally criticized the detoxification project and argued that public money should not be spent on it. He accused Monserrate of crossing the line between "cult and state". The project's publicity included favorable quotations from Senator Charles Schumer and from Michael Balboni, New York's deputy secretary for Public Security, though Schumer later withdrew his support and Balboni denied ever making the statement. Council speaker Christine C. Quinn denounced the program as meritless. U.S. Representative Carolyn B. Maloney wrote a letter supporting the project. Dr. Bob Hoffman of the New York City Poison Control Center warned that the Purification Rundown is potentially dangerous, calling it "hocus pocus". Mayor Doreen Ehrbar of Williston Park took part in the opening ceremony for the Long Island clinic. Neither the police nor the fire department officially supported the project. The Uniformed Firefighters Association initially supported it, but withdrew when the connection to the Church of Scientology was revealed. Firefighter Union President Patrick Bahnken said his members' lives had benefited from the program, and that it had involved no religious rhetoric. Deputy Fire Commissioner Frank Gribbon of the FDNY told The New York Times, "while we are aware some members of the department have availed themselves of the program, we in no way endorse it.” Officials at the department raised concerns that firefighters were giving up existing medications in order to take part. The department's deputy chief medical officer Dr. David Prezant said, "It's not our job to say you can't go. All we can do is say there's no proven evidence it works." Actress and radio show host Janeane Garofalo drew criticism by allowing actress Leah Remini, then a Scientologist, to promote the project on her Air America Radio show. ## Outcomes It was reported in October 2007 that 838 people had completed the program. The clinic displayed towels with colored stains, as evidence that toxic material had been sweated out in the saunas. According to its Director, Jim Woodworth, during the Purification Rundown firefighters had passed odd-colored bowel movements and sweated out mercury, aluminium and magnesium. The Fire Department's chief medical officer, Dr. Kerry Kelly, criticized the lack of objective evidence, saying, "I have trouble believing in these purple-stained towels." An investigation by the New York Press asked a number of independent doctors about the evidence for the Purification Rundown. None of them endorsed the program's effectiveness and some explicitly described it as dangerous. Several said that no peer-reviewed research on the rundown had been published in any medical journal. Some apparently supportive studies have been published, but these lack control groups and have other scientific failings. According to Deputy Fire Commissioner Frank Gribbon, doctors investigating the program on behalf of the Fire Department concluded that it was not detoxifying. University of Georgia bioterrorism expert Cham Dallas also denied that the procedure could detoxify, saying "It sounds great and they mean well, but it just doesn't work." In 2007, James Dahlgren and colleagues published a small-sample pilot study assessing the project. Dahlgren is a doctor who promotes the Purification Rundown as a method of detoxification. The study claimed to find evidence both of elevated levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in the rescue workers and improvement during the regime. Two scientists from Cambridge Environmental, Inc. published a thorough critique of the study. They questioned the premise that WTC rescue workers needed detoxification, citing studies that had found that their blood concentration of toxins was no greater than normal. > [W]ith few exceptions, people's body burdens of PCBs and other 'dioxin-like compounds' are determined almost exclusively by the food we eat, not by the air we breathe. Firefighters may occasionally receive on-the-job exposures to PCBs and PCDFs, but these would be from having fought PCB-containing electrical transformer fires, not from 9/11. The paper argues that the project never properly tested its outcomes and concludes that application of the "potentially dangerous" Purification Rundown to the health problems of 9/11 workers is "unconscionable". Many of the participants spoke favorably of the program and reported improved physical and mental health. Others said they were just taking advantage of the free saunas. One Fire Department lieutenant was quoted describing colleagues as desperate for help with the distress they felt in the aftermath of the attacks, to the point that they would try anything. Fire Department officials raised concerns about the project, saying that firefighters were being required to give up inhalers, pills and other orthodox medication. Two weeks into the program, one firefighter passed out and was taken to an emergency room with severe asthma, later saying that he had been asked to stop using his inhaler. According to the clinic's associate medical director, Dr. Kawabena Nyamekye, participants were being helped off medication at their own insistence, not at the request of Downtown Medical. A former worker at Downtown Medical told reporters that staff were discouraged from calling for an ambulance even in an emergency, and that one of them had been required to break off contact with her boyfriend because he had left Scientology. A spokesman responded that the clinic had "a clear policy of calling 911 when needed." ## See also - Purification Rundown - Narconon - Clear Body, Clear Mind - All About Radiation - Dianazene
28,262,214	Jet Moto (video game)	1,154,376,456	1996 video game	[ "1996 video games", "Fictional motorsports", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "PlayStation (console) games", "PlayStation Network games", "Science fiction racing games", "Sony Interactive Entertainment games", "Video games developed in the United States", "Water sports video games", "Windows games" ]	Jet Moto (known as Jet Rider in Europe) is a 1996 racing video game developed by SingleTrac and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation video game console and PC. The PlayStation version was released in North America on October 31, 1996; in 1997 for Europe in February and Japan on August 7. The PC version was released on November 13, 1997. Jet Moto was made available for the PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Network in February 2007. Developers chose fictional hovering bikes instead of wheeled motorcycles initially to resolve performance concerns. Other performance concerns led the team to develop two different physics systems—one for the player, and one for the 19 computer racers. Gameplay in Jet Moto revolves around the use of hoverbikes to traverse a race course, similar to modern day motorcross, but with the added ability to traverse water. Reviews for the game were mixed, with the PC version holding 75% and the PlayStation version 78.9% at gaming aggregator GameRankings. Reviewers felt the game had solid gameplay, but criticized its high difficulty. Jet Moto's popularity would earn it a spot in the PlayStation Greatest Hits in August 1998, and it went on to gain two additional sequels, Jet Moto 2 and Jet Moto 3. ## Gameplay Jet Moto differs from that of a traditional racing game with cars or motorcycles. Players are introduced to the fictional sport of Jet Moto. The bikes, known as jet motos, are hovercraft which can traverse both land and water. The bikes race in groups of twenty in the game's equivalent of motorcross. Characters are split into teams, and bikes are adorned with logos of products such as Mountain Dew, Butterfinger and K2 Sports similar to real-life sponsored racing. In Jet Moto players control hoverbikes in a fictional motor sport. Players race three laps on a given course and earn series points based on their placement at the end of the race. Players can choose to race a single race, a season of races, or a custom season. Players can also unlock additional tracks and a stunt mode by doing well in season competitions. Courses range from beaches with debris-littered water to swamps and ice-covered mountains. The game has its variant of the traditional race track, but also introduces a new course type known as a Suicide course. Instead of being a continuous loop, these tracks have checkpoints at either end of the course, and the starting grid in the center. Riders race to one end, then turn around to head for the other checkpoint, repeating the process until all laps are complete. This provides a new gameplay dynamic as often the player must navigate oncoming traffic. The PlayStation version of the game allows for two player splitscreen multiplayer; however, no AI racers are present, which limits the competitors to two. A cheat code would allow two human players to race with the entire field. The PC version allows for fourteen players over an IPX network, Internet TCP/IP and modem-to-modem connections. ## Development Jet Moto was conceived as a "science fiction motorcross". The developers chose to create jet motos instead of wheeled motorcycles due to concerns over polygon limitations. Travis Hilton, one of the programmers for the game designed Jet Moto's physics engine. Due to hardware limitations of the PlayStation, only the player used this physics system. Programmer Jay Barnson was tasked with developing a simpler physics system to handle the nineteen AI riders. During development a set of courses set in a stadium were dropped as the developers felt it did not fit the theme of the game. Developers originally intended for players to be permanently out of a race when falling far off a track, however they came to realize that it was not fun for players "to be forced to go slow or suffer an instant defeat". An attempt was made to give three "strikes" to a rider. Once the rider fell for the third time they were out of the race. Once implemented, the developers noticed that the number of racers remaining at the end of the race was too random to be deemed any fun. In the end the decision was made to simply respawn the character on the track. The PC version was ported in large part by John Olsen, who worked on the port as his first task at SingleTrac. The PC version also features 3Dfx hardware acceleration, which allows for higher resolution gameplay and visual enhancements such as reflective water. Axiom Design created the user interface shell for the game, which has a comic book-inspired feel. The music for Jet Moto was produced by Big Idea Music Productions. Another SingleTrac game released for the PlayStation at roughly the same time, Twisted Metal 2, allows players to race on a track from Jet Moto by entering a code which appeared in advertisements for the game. ## Reception Jet Moto received varied reviews among critics, with the PC version averaging 75% and the PlayStation version averaging 78.9% at gaming aggregator GameRankings. Due to the game's popularity it was re-released on Sony's budget line, PlayStation Greatest Hits, in August 1998. The game was most often criticized for its controls and unusual physics, which some reviewers said never feel quite right no matter how long the game is played. Both a Next Generation critic and Air Hendrix of GamePro likened the overall sensation to riding through an atmosphere made of molasses. The controls, along with the opponent AI, contributed to some reviewers concluding the game had an excessively high degree of difficulty. However, the grappling feature was praised for its innovation and for adding greater depth to the challenge. Several reviewers commented that the graphics are highly uneven, looking impressive in some points and embarrassingly poor in others. GameSpot's review of the PC port praised the 3Dfx support. Several reviewers praised the soundtrack to the game. Mark Cooke of Game Revolution said the spy film-like title screen music in particular both sounded cool and was appropriate for the game. The surf guitar was a strong point for Electric Playground's Victor Lucas, who cited it as one of the best video game soundtracks of 1996. GameSpot reviewer Shane Mooney also praised the energy of the soundtrack. Air Hendrix said that though the menu music is decent, the in-game music is weak. While Lucas and GameSpot's Glenn Rubenstein compared Jet Moto unfavorably to Wave Race 64, Next Generation's reviewer argued that "in all fairness, the comparison isn't truly appropriate: where Wave Race is based around an existing vehicle that provides a basis of reference, there is no actual criterion for criticism on whether a jet moto game accurately emulates the 'jet motoing' experience". He concluded that "despite [its] odd control and graphic characteristics, Jet Moto remains a lot of fun. With intense, challenging races featuring twenty competitors on ten unique tracks, it never fails to be compelling". Chris Roper of IGN called it one of the best racing games available for the PlayStation. In contrast, Air Hendrix assessed that it "wipes out all over the pavement with finicky, mushy controls and painful gameplay". Lucas praised the design of the jet moto bikes, stating the design was imaginative and vibrant. Todd Mowatt and Joe Rybicki of Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the game laudatory reviews, saying the track design is its best aspect. Rubenstein concluded that while devout racing game enthusiasts would be pleased at how long it takes to complete the game, the general gamer would have more fun with a game that's easier to learn. In its PlayStation 3 Retro Roundup, IGN opined the game held up well to its direct competitors at the time, Wave Race 64 and the Wipeout series, then stated Jet Moto was "still a pretty fun experience more than 10 years after its original release". ## Legacy Jet Moto's popularity would spawn two additional sequels, Jet Moto 2, also developed by SingleTrac, and Jet Moto 3, developed by Pacific Coast Power & Light. Two other titles were cancelled during their development. Pacific Coast Power & Light was also developing Jet Moto 2124 for the PlayStation, set over a century after the first three games, however the game was cancelled when Jet Moto 3 showed poor sales. Jet Moto: SOLAR, developed by RedZone Interactive, was also cancelled. SOLAR would have been the first title in the series to appear on the PlayStation 2. Present-day wishlists for video game sequels have often included Jet Moto. 1UP.com listed a fourth Jet Moto in their "Sequels We Want, and the Formulas They Need" feature, stating that Jet Moto "symbolized everything that made the original PlayStation cooler than anything else at the time". IGN felt similarly, listing Jet Moto in their "Dirty Dozen: Revival of the Fittest" feature, calling the game "a novel racer with enough staying power to make it an instant hit".
44,184,888	Italian cruiser Dogali	1,169,830,655	Protected cruiser of the Italian Royal Navy	[ "1885 ships", "Cruisers of the Regia Marina", "Ships built by Armstrong Whitworth", "Ships of the National Navy of Uruguay" ]	Dogali was a unique protected cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) in the 1880s. Notably, she was the first warship equipped with triple-expansion engines. The ship was originally ordered by the Greek Navy and named Salamis, but she was sold to the Regia Marina before she was completed and renamed for the Battle of Dogali. She was armed with a main battery of six 15-centimeter (5.9 in) guns and reached a speed of 19.66 knots (36.41 km/h; 22.62 mph) on her sea trials, making her one of the fastest cruisers at the time. Dogali's career was uneventful; she served with the main Italian fleet for the first few years of her career and visited the United States in 1893 for the start of the World's Columbian Exposition. In January 1908, the ship was sold to Uruguay and renamed 25 de Agosto and later Montevideo. In 1914, the cruiser was withdrawn from service, but she was not disposed of until 1932 when she was sold for scrap. ## Design Dogali was designed by the British naval architect William Henry White and built at the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard at Elswick. The ship was 76.2 meters (250 ft) long and had a beam of 11.28 m (37 ft) and a draft of 4.42 m (14 ft 6 in). She displaced 2,050 long tons (2,080 t). The ship was fitted with two pole masts, and originally, a sailing rig that was later removed. Revolving, armored spotting tops were mounted on the masts. She had a crew of 224 officers and enlisted men, though this was later increased to 247. Dogali was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion engines, the first set of this kind of machinery ever installed in a warship. Steam for the engines was provided by four coal-fired cylindrical fire-tube boilers that were trunked into two funnels on the centerline. The engines were rated at 5,012 indicated horsepower (3,737 kW) and could produce a top speed of 17.68 knots (32.74 km/h; 20.35 mph), though on trials her engines reached 7,179 ihp (5,353 kW) and 19.66 knots (36.41 km/h; 22.62 mph). Dogali had a cruising radius of 4,000 nautical miles (7,400 km; 4,600 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). At the time of her commissioning, {{lang\\|it\\|Dogali was among the fastest cruisers in the world. The ship was armed with a main battery of six 152-millimeter (6 in) L/32 guns all mounted individually in sponsons, with two side by side forward, two astern, and one amidships on each broadside. These were Pattern M guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth, and they weighed 2 t (2.0 long tons; 2.2 short tons) apiece. Dogali was the only ship equipped with guns of this type. These were supplemented by a secondary battery of nine 57 mm (2.2 in) L/40 guns and six Gatling guns. She was also equipped with four 356 mm (14 in) torpedo tubes. The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 50 mm (2 in) thick, and the conning tower had the same thickness of armor plating on the sides. The main guns were protected by 110 mm (4.3 in) thick gun shields. ## Service history The keel for the new cruiser was laid down at Armstrong Whitworth on 13 February 1885, and the completed hull was launched on 23 December that year. The ship was originally ordered by the Greek Navy and was to be named Salamis'', but she was purchased by Italy during construction. She was first renamed Angelo Emo, and then Dogali before being commissioned on 28 April 1887. On 10 June, the annual fleet maneuvers began; Folgore was assigned to the "defending squadron", along with the ironclads Enrico Dandolo, Palestro, Castelfidardo, and Affondatore, the torpedo cruiser Folgore, and several smaller vessels. The first half of the maneuvers tested the ability to attack and defend the Strait of Messina, and concluded in time for a fleet review by King Umberto I on the 21st. In 1890, Dogali participated in the annual fleet maneuvers in the First Squadron, along with the ironclad Lepanto, the protected cruiser Piemonte, and several torpedo boats. The exercises were conducted in the Tyrrhenian Sea, where the First Squadron was tasked with defending against an attacking "hostile" squadron. Dogali and the protected cruisers Etna and Giovanni Bausan represented Italy at the international naval review in New York, held at the start of the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. The Exposition marked the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in North America. Contingents from France, Germany, Britain, Spain, and several other nations also participated in the celebration. Later that year, Dogali and Giovanni Bausan were present in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil during the Revolta da Armada (Revolt of the Fleet), along with cruisers from Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Argentina. The foreign warships were all tasked with protecting the interests of their respective nationals in the area. After returning to Italy later in 1893, she was assigned to the 3rd Department, which was stationed in Venice; she remained there through the following year. On 1 February 1897, Dogali was assigned to the Cruiser Squadron of the main Italian fleet, along with the cruisers Marco Polo, Umbria and Liguria. Later that year, she cruised off the eastern coast of South American in company with Umbria. She remained in the Cruiser Squadron through 1903, by which time the unit also included the armored cruiser Vettor Pisani, Giovanni Bausan and the protected cruiser Etruria. In 1906, while cruising in North American waters, Dogali stopped at the Pensacola Navy Yard, where she had some maintenance done on her engines. Later that year she was present for a ceremony in Capitán Pastene, Chile, a town founded by Italian immigrants. In January 1908, the Italian government sold Dogali to Uruguay. She was renamed 25 de Agosto for the date Uruguay declared its independence. At the time, she was the largest warship in the Uruguayan Navy. In 1910, the ship was renamed Montevideo after the country's capital city. She was decommissioned in 1914, but remained in the Uruguayan Navy's inventory until 1932, when the old cruiser was finally sold to be broken up.
5,231,203	George Toogood Smith	1,172,400,433	John Lennon's uncle (1903–1955)	[ "1903 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American musicians", "20th-century British musicians", "Lennon family", "People from Woolton", "Place of death missing" ]	George Toogood Smith (13 March 1903 – 5 June 1955) was the maternal uncle, through marriage, of John Lennon. Smith operated his family's two dairy farms and a retail outlet with his brother, Frank Smith, in the village of Woolton, Liverpool. The farms had been in the Smith family for four generations, but after the start of the Second World War, they were taken over by the British Government for war work. Smith started courting Mimi Stanley in the spring of 1932, but was thwarted by her indifference and her father's interference. After delivering milk to the hospital where she worked he gave her an ultimatum that she must marry him, "or nothing at all!" On 15 September 1939, she finally married him. They bought a semi-detached house called Mendips, named after the range of hills, at 251 Menlove Avenue, Liverpool. Lennon lived with Smith and his wife for the majority of his childhood, and Smith taught the young Lennon to read, read him nursery rhymes at night, and later taught Lennon how to solve crossword puzzles. He also taught him to draw and paint and bought him his first mouth organ. Smith collapsed and died on a Sunday at his home of a liver haemorrhage, aged 52, and was buried in St Peter's Church graveyard, Woolton. ## Early years George Toogood Smith's parents, Francis and Alice Smith, had eight children in total; Mary, Eleanor, Francis, Robert, Alice, George, Alfred and one other who died. Robert was killed in action on 30 August 1918 in World War I. George's paternal grandmother's maiden name was Toogood which was given to George as a middle name. His mother died in 1949. Smith operated his family's two dairy farms and a shop with his brother Frank in the village of Woolton. The farms had been in the Smith family for four generations. Smith delivered milk by horse and cart in the Woolton area. The raw milk he provided was stored in a large churn and was ladled out into the bottles and receptacles of customers. When other girls were thinking of marriage, Mimi Stanley talked of challenges and adventures. She once confided that she never wanted to get married, as she hated the idea of being "tied to the kitchen sink". She became a resident trainee nurse at the Woolton Convalescent Hospital, to which Smith delivered milk every morning. Smith started seriously courting Mimi in the spring of 1932, but was constantly thwarted by her indifference and her father's interference. George Stanley (Mimi's father) would only allow the couple to sit in the back room of the family home in Newcastle Road when he or his wife were in the front room, and before it grew too late he would burst into the back room and loudly order Smith home. The courtship lasted almost seven years, but Smith grew tired of waiting, so after delivering milk to the hospital one morning he gave her an ultimatum that she must marry him, "or nothing at all!" The youngest sister of the Stanley family, Julia Stanley, had married Alfred Lennon nine months before, on 3 December 1938. ### Marriage On 15 September 1939, Mimi finally married Smith. They bought a semi-detached house called Mendips (named after the range of hills) at 251 Menlove Avenue (across the road from the Allerton Park golf course) in a middle-class area of Liverpool. After World War II started the British Government took over the Smith family's farmland for war work, and they had to find other sources of income. Menlove Avenue suffered extensive damage during the war, and Smith and his wife often had to throw a wet blanket on incendiary bombs that fell in their garden. Smith was called up for military service, but was discharged three years later, and subsequently worked in an aircraft factory in Speke until the end of the war. Smith later left the milk trade and started a small bookmaker's business, which led his wife to complain that Smith was a compulsive gambler, and had lost most of their money. During 1942–1943, Mimi's sister Julia lived with Lennon at The Dairy Cottage; 120a Allerton Road, Woolton, which was owned by the Smith family. ### John Lennon Lennon lived with Smith and his wife for the majority of his childhood when his mother Julia (under pressure from the local authorities, Mimi, and the Stanley family) was told that she was unable to care for her son. Julia was eventually forced to hand the care of Lennon over to Mimi and George, who had no children of their own. Lennon then lived continuously at Mendips in the smallest bedroom, which was located above the front door. Lennon later talked about Mendips and the area around it: "I lived in the suburbs in a nice semi-detached place with a small garden and doctors and lawyers and that ilk living around... not the poor slummy kind of image that was projected in all The Beatles' stories". Smith was very fond of Lennon, and his softer approach to parenting was in stark contrast to his stern wife, who based everything on decorum, honesty and a black-and-white attitude; either you were good enough or you were not. Pete Shotton—Lennon's school friend—later commented that "Mimi had a very strong sense of what was right or wrong". In contrast, Smith used to give the young Lennon "squeakers" (kisses) that his wife did not approve of. Smith taught the four-year-old Lennon to read by reading aloud the headlines of the Liverpool Echo, read him nursery rhymes at night, and later taught Lennon how to solve crossword puzzles. Smith told Lennon that words did not have to be taken at face value, as they had many different meanings, something Lennon would later use in his writing. He also taught Lennon to draw and paint and bought him his first mouth organ. Mimi admitted that she never had the time to "go playing ducks in the bath with him" (Lennon) but that Smith would put Lennon to bed nearly every night. Mimi later said: "John [Lennon] loved his uncle George. I felt quite left out of that. They'd go off together, just leaving me a bar of chocolate and a note saying: 'Have a happy day.'" Though he worked at night and early in the morning on the farm and his milkround, Smith often took Lennon and his cousins to the cinema or the park. When the cousins played outside Smith allowed them to eat meals with their hands in the garden shed. During the school holidays Lennon and his cousins were allowed to accompany Smith on his milk rounds, and every year he allowed Lennon to place a bet on the Grand National. ## Death Smith collapsed and died on a Sunday in 1955 at home of a liver haemorrhage (aged 52) and was buried in the graveyard of St. Peter's Church, Woolton, in the Smith family grave. At the time of Smith's death, the fourteen-year-old Lennon was visiting members of the Stanley family in Sango Bay, Durness, Scotland, and was not informed until he returned home. Lennon's first reaction was to laugh hysterically, but then to privately grieve and cry. He would do the same after hearing about the death of his mother three years later, and the death of Stuart Sutcliffe (The Beatles' first bass player), which, with Smith's death, were all major factors in Lennon's early life. In the same year as Smith's death, the McCartney family moved to 20 Forthlin Road, just three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) from Mendips. Lennon would later meet Paul McCartney for the first time at St. Peter's Church, where Smith was buried. After Smith's death, Lennon insisted on wearing a large overcoat that had belonged to Smith, and even though it became worn and threadbare, Lennon wore it throughout his art college years. Mimi never used the downstairs sitting room again after Smith's death, using only the breakfast room and the kitchen, and never replaced the furniture, which became old and faded. Lennon continued to live at Mendips (and also for a time with his first wife Cynthia Lennon) until his early 20s, before moving to London. When Lennon was living in the United States, he asked his half-sister, Julia Dykins, to send the clock that was previously in the living room at Mendips, which had been passed down through Smith's family, and was inscribed with the words "George Smith, Woolton Tavern", on a metal plate on the back. In Lennon's last published interview, he said: "This image of me being an orphan is garbage, because I was well protected by my auntie and uncle [Smith and Mimi] and they looked after me very well, thanks". ## Portrayal on film Smith, his wife, and Lennon were portrayed by David Threlfall, Kristin Scott Thomas, and Aaron Johnson in the film Nowhere Boy, which was released in the US on 8 October 2010.
56,284,051	Thomas Johnston (engraver)	1,148,275,509	American painter, japanner, and printmaker, 1708–1767	[ "1708 births", "1767 deaths", "18th-century American artists", "18th-century American male artists", "American illustrators", "American pipe organ builders", "Artists from Boston", "Musical instrument manufacturing companies of the United States", "Pipe organ building companies" ]	Thomas Johnston (1708–1767) was an American engraver, japanner, and heraldic painter in Colonial Boston. Johnston engraved the first print of an historical event in the Colonial America and was also the first manufacturer of church organs in the colonies. The pipe organ he built in 1758–1759 for Boston's Old North Church was in use for over a hundred years until another organ replaced it in 1886. ## Pipe organ manufacturing Johnston's workshop was in his home's backyard. While he advertised his businesses as being organ making, engraving, and furniture merchant, he also worked as a japanner, painted coats of arms, and published books. He was an engraver of skill and a heraldic painter whose works included views of Boston. His furniture skills included japanning, a technique of rendering "elaborate applied decorations" onto furniture. Though at least one other person had created a singular organ in the colonies before him, Johnston is considered to have been the first Bostonian to build an organ and had the earliest church organ manufacturing business in Colonial America. Boston's Old North Church's first organ was one imported by William Claggett in 1736. In 1752, the church decided to buy a replacement organ from Johnston that they wanted to be as loud as the Boston Trinity Church organ. Johnston finishing constructing the organ in 1759. This Johnston pipe organ was in regular use until the 1820s. The present casing is the completely-restored case from the Johnston instrument. The organ's inner workings – the pipes, pedals, bellows and so on (though of Johnston's type) – are completely new and date to the complete renovation/restoration that was started in 1992. In 1754, Johnston built an organ for St. Peter's in Salem, Massachusetts. Johnston is also known to have built organs for Boston's Deblois Concert Hall and for St. John's Church (in Portsmouth, New Hampshire). Some of his organs originally installed in a first church or venue were then later re-used secondhand in other churches. After Johnston's death, his estate included various items from his many businesses, among them an incomplete organ, numerous pictures, various paintings, artist supplies, and copper plates for engraving and printing. In his will, he gave his wife Bathsheba the engraved copper plates for printing music for the psalms stating “I Thomas Johnston Give to my Wife Bathsheba Johnston all my psalm Tune plates together with the Press besides what her proportionable part of my Estate may be.” ## Engravings Patricia E. Kane, writing in Colonial Massachusetts Silversmiths and Jewelers, says that though "the identity of his master is not known" theorizes that Johnston may have been trained by the craftsman William Burgis. Kane's evidence for this is that the map of Boston published by Burgis in 1728 was engraved for Burgis by Johnston "just at the time that Johnston would have been finishing his apprenticeship". Johnston's earliest known engraving is that map of Boston, titled Plan of Boston in New England, with its dedication to Massachusetts Governor William Burnet, governor of the Massachusetts Colony from 1727–1729. Johnston's various engravings include prints of scenes, business cards for tradesmen, legal certificates, currency, and even noted music scores. One of his apprentices was John Greenwood, whose varied artistic career included an early period assisting Johnston with painting and engraving. Johnston engraved the first known print of an historical event in the colonies, an overview of the Battle of Lake George. The battle scene —A prospective plan of the battle fought near Lake George on the 8th of September 1755 – was originally drawn by Samuel Blodgett, a sutler who had witnessed the Battle. Johnston engraved Blodgett's sketch onto a copper plate with Boston printer Richard Draper printing it, with the print then being sold by Blodgett in December 1755. Johnston's engraving of the battle is divided into different sections. On the left an above view of marching soldiers, on the right the view of the soldiers' camp and of the battle itself. The engraving also pictures the Hudson River, Fort William Henry and the New York town of Fort Edward. A pamphlet consisting of five pages describing the Battle plus a single page of advertisements accompanied this engraving. Johnston's print was reprinted in London by Thomas Jefferys, being published six weeks later in February 1756, along with an explanatory eight-page pamphlet. Many of Johnston's print engravings along with various images can be found in the Colonial Society of Massachusetts' publication Boston Prints and Printmakers 1670–1775, including his engraving of artist John Greenwood's Yale College view, Prospect of Yale College. ## Personal life Johnston was born in 1708 in Boston, Massachusetts. He became a member of the Brattle Street Church on June 5, 1726. Johnston's first wife was Rachel Thwing, they married on June 22, 1730. His second wife was Rachel's first cousin Bathsheba Thwing and that marriage took place 17 years later in 1747. Many of the sons developed careers based on skills adjacent to their father's various crafts and livelihoods. Three of Johnston's sons by his first wife Rachel — Thomas Jr., William, and Benjamin —all became artists or craftspeople of varying kinds, their skills including japanning, portrait painting, organ-building, and engraving. Rachel, a daughter from Johnston's first marriage, married Daniel Rea Jr. in 1764. After Johnston's death, Rea purchased his father-in-law's business and ran it until the early 1800s. John and Samuel Johnston, two of Johnston's sons from his second marriage, worked as portrait painters. ## Death Johnston died (from what was called a fit of apoplexy) on May 8, 1767. His grave is located in Boston's historic King's Chapel Burying Ground.
36,346,376	Donn Cabral	1,162,581,289	American steeplechase runner (born 1989)	[ "1989 births", "American male long-distance runners", "American male steeplechase runners", "Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics", "Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics", "Living people", "Olympic track and field athletes for the United States", "People from Glastonbury, Connecticut", "Princeton Tigers men's track and field athletes", "Sportspeople from Hartford County, Connecticut", "World Athletics Championships athletes for the United States" ]	Donald Cabral (born December 12, 1989) is an American cross country and track runner from Connecticut who went on to star at Princeton University. He has been most successful in the steeplechase, but has also been a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) All-American in cross country and the 5000 meters, as well as the Ivy League champion at the 3000 meters. He is a former American collegiate steeplechase record holder and was the 2012 NCAA steeplechase champion. He competed in the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics in the steeplechase. At Princeton, Cabral was an eight-time NCAA All-American and ten-time individual Ivy League champion. He was a long distance running champion in high school for Glastonbury High School, winning two Class LL championships as a sophomore and then open state and New England championships as a junior and senior. ## Running career ### High school Early on, Cabral showed interest in Olympic competition and high caliber racing. After watching patriotic flag waving during the 1996 Summer Olympics, Cabral requested that his father wave the American Flag during one of his swim meets as a six-year-old. In his first Manchester Road Race at age 12, Cabral's parents placed him in the starting position with the runners who run at an 8–9 minute per mile pace, but he complained, "How am I going to win from back here?" At Glastonbury High School in Glastonbury, Connecticut, Cabral excelled in track and cross country. He was a two-time State Open and New England cross country champion. He was also the indoor track Connecticut 2 mile champion. He ran the fastest high school 1500 meters in the country during his senior year. He also established state records in the 5,000 m (14:32.60) and the 2 mile run (8:56.35). As a freshman, Cabral was the second slowest runner on the soccer team. He tried out for track to work on his speed. At first he ran the 400 meters in 68 seconds. By the end of the spring, he broke 10 minutes in the 2 mile and was considering joining the cross country team instead of participating in his usual fall sport, soccer. In the summer of 2005, the cross country coach sent him a letter of encouragement. During his sophomore year, he won the boys Connecticut Interscholastic Athletic Conference (CIAC) class LL indoor track 3200 meters race and placed third in the New England Championships two mile race. He finished third in the CIAC Cross Country Open Championships and 19th in the New England Championships. His cross country performance earned him the Class LL championship that year. As a junior, Cabral won the CIAC Cross Country Open Championships. He also won the 72nd New England Cross Country Championships at Ponaganset High School with a 5K race time of 15:29. Glastonbury finished second to Danbury High School in the team competition. At the Foot Locker National Cross Country Championship, Cabral finished 21st with a time of 15:57. In his senior season, Cabral won the 2007 boys CIAC State Open Cross Country Championships. He also won the New England Cross Country Championships. At the Foot Locker National Cross Country Championship at Balboa Park in San Diego, Cabral finished 8th with a time of 15:19, which tied the best ever finish by a Connecticut runner. In May, his 4:09.80 became the best mile time of the school year for an American high schooler. Cabral placed second in the 10,000 meters (30:50.28) at the 2008 USA Junior Track & Field championships, qualifying him for the at the IAAF World Junior Championships in Poland. ### Collegiate During his Princeton running career, Cabral was a three-time NCAA All-America in the steeplechase, two-time outdoor NCAA All-America in the 5000 meter, two-time cross country NCAA All-America, and one-time indoor NCAA All-America in the 5000 meter. As a senior, Cabral became the 2012 NCAA champion in the steeplechase after having been the runner-up to Matt Hughes in the two prior NCAA steeplechase championships. As a freshman, Cabral endured a plantar fascia tear while waterskiing and did not compete in cross country. He did not compete in the steeplechase until his sophomore season at Princeton. In his second time running the event, he won at the 2010 Penn Relays. That year he was the Ivy League outdoor 10,000 meter and steeplechase champion and the indoor runner-up in the 3000 meters and 5000 meters. He finished second at the NCAA championships with a time of 8:38.90. As a junior in 2010–11, he placed 34th at the November 22, 2010 NCAA Men's Cross Country Championship, earning All-American recognition for his top-40 finish. Then, he repeated as the Ivy League outdoor 10,000 meter and steeplechase champion and became the indoor champion in the 3000 meters and 5000 meters. He was selected as the most outstanding performer at both the indoor and outdoor Heps meets. That fall, he had been the 2010 Ivy League cross country champion. He finished second at the NCAA championships with a time of 8:32.14. At the NCAA national outdoor 5,000 meter race, he established a school record of 13:40.62 that would stand for less than a year. He spent the summer of 2011 training in Park City, Utah. During his senior season, Cabral purchased a high-altitude tent on craigslist that he used in his dormitory room for five months leading up to the 2012 Olympic Trials. This enabled him to sleep and study at a simulated altitude of 12,000 feet (3,700 m) with the goal of making his body more efficient by depriving himself of oxygen. He spent 10–12 hours per day in the tent. At the November 21, 2011, NCAA Men's Cross Country Championship, he placed 19th, again earning All-American status. In 2012, he won his third consecutive Ivy League outdoor 10,000 meter and steeplechase championships. He also repeated as the indoor champion in the 5000 meters. He won at the NCAA championships with a time of 8:35.44. On May 18, 2012, while running in the OXY High Performance meet in California, Cabral completed the 3000 m steeplechase in 8:19.14, surpassing Farley Gerber's American Collegiate record of 8:19.27, set for Weber State University in 1984 and smashing his own personal best time of 8:32. The previous Ivy League record of 8:29.01 had been set by Michael Fadil of Dartmouth College in 1985. Cabral also holds the Ivy League record for the indoor 5000 meters. Cabral became the 2012 NCAA steeplechase champion on June 8, 2012, winning by five seconds and capping an undefeated season in the event. Cabral is Princeton's first individual track event NCAA champion since William Bonthron's 1934 championship in the mile run in 1934. This does excludes field event champions such as Tora Harris (2002 high jump) who had been Princeton's last NCAA Outdoor Track and Field champion. When combined with the men's squash team and epeeist Jonathan Yergler, it marked the first academic year that Princeton had three national champions since 2003. Harris had also been the last track and field Olympian, although no Princeton distance runner had qualified for the Olympics since class of 1906 Princetonian John Eisele earned a silver medal in the steeplechase and a bronze medal in the three-mile at the 1908 Summer Olympics. No Princeton runner had made the Olympics since Bill Stevenson went to the 1924 Summer Olympics. Because athletes in Ivy League competition only have four years of athletic eligibility, Cabral could not participate in NCAA competition for Princeton to use his final year of cross country eligibility. As a result, he intended to enroll in business school at the University of Colorado, where he would continue training with Billy Nelson coach Mark Wetmore. He opted to turn pro rather than attend Colorado. ### International Cabral finished 17th in the 10,000 meters at the 2008 World Junior Championships. In the 2010 NACAC Under-23 Championships, he won the steeplechase with at time of 8:52.67. Although a competitive collegiate runner, Cabral has focused his training on the Olympics. On June 28, 2012, Cabral qualified for the 2012 United States Olympic team as a steeplechase participant by finishing second to Evan Jager with a time of 8:19.81 in the 2012 United States Olympic Trials and surpassing the Olympic A standard time of 8:23.10. In an August 3, 2012 Olympic heat, Cabral finished 4th with a time of 8:21.46 in his 13-man heat, earning the last automatic berth to the August 5 finals. Cabral's time was 10th fastest of the 15 advancing runners (and of all 39 entrants), slower than all six qualifiers from heat 1 and faster than all 4 qualifiers from heat 2. In the finals, he led at the 1000 meter split with a time of 2:52.70, but he finished in eighth place with a time of 8:25.91. Instead of continuing his collegiate career at another institution, he decided to go pro as a runner in the summer of 2012. After graduating from Princeton University in 2012, he signed with Nike; Following the 2012 Olympics and a little time off, Cabral moved to Bellingham, Washington, where he trained with former coach Peter Oviatt. In 2017 he signed with Hoka One One. He currently trains with the HOKA New Jersey\*New York Track Club. At the 2015 World Championships in Beijing, China, Cabral placed 10th in the 3000 m steeplechase with a time of 8:24.94. Donn Cabral placed third in the steeplechase in a time of 8:26.37 at the 2016 United States Olympic Trials behind Team USA teammates Hillary Bor and Evan Jager to qualify to represent the United States at Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil. He placed eighth in the steeplechase at the 2016 Olympics. ## Personal His parents are John Cabral and Deborah Hadaway. His father coached him in soccer. At Princeton, Cabral earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. After Princeton, Cabral earned both Master of Business Administration and Juris Doctor degrees from the University of Connecticut as part of a double degree program. In 2022, Donn married his longtime love Vruksha. They share a dog, Chiku, together. ## See also - List of Princeton University Olympians - 2017 in the sport of athletics
1,114,328	Chandramukhi	1,173,753,977	2005 film by P. Vasu	[ "2000s Tamil-language films", "2000s ghost films", "2000s supernatural horror films", "2005 comedy horror films", "2005 films", "Films about dissociative identity disorder", "Films about exorcism", "Films about telekinesis", "Films directed by P. Vasu", "Films scored by Vidyasagar (composer)", "Films set in Andhra Pradesh", "Films set in ancient India", "Films shot in Hyderabad, India", "Films shot in Karnataka", "Films shot in Kochi", "Films shot in Turkey", "Indian comedy horror films", "Indian ghost films", "Indian horror film remakes", "Indian nonlinear narrative films", "Indian supernatural horror films", "Religious horror films", "Tamil remakes of Kannada films", "Tamil remakes of Malayalam films" ]	Chandramukhi () is a 2005 Indian Tamil-language comedy horror film written and directed by P. Vasu. It is an official remake of the Kannada film Apthamitra (2004) which itself remake of Malayalam film Manichitrathazhu (1993). The film stars Rajinikanth and Jyothika (who played the titular role) in the principal roles along with an ensemble supporting cast. It revolves around a woman who suffers from dissociative identity disorder that affects a family, and a psychiatrist who intends to solve the case while risking his life. Chandramukhi was produced by Prabhu and his brother Ramkumar Ganesan through their company Sivaji Productions, and is the company's 50th film. The soundtrack album and background score were composed by Vidyasagar. Cinematography was handled by Sekhar V. Joseph and editing was done by Suresh Urs. Principal photography began on 24 October 2004 and was completed in March 2005. The film was made on a budget of ₹19 crores. Chandramukhi was released on 14 April 2005 on the eve of the Tamil New Year. The film became a major box office success, with a theatrical run of 890 days at Shanti Theatre. The film won five Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, four Film Fans' Association Awards and two Filmfare Awards. Jyothika and Vadivelu were each awarded a Kalaimamani Award for their work on the film. A sequel entered production in 2022. ## Plot Saravanan, a psychiatrist from the United States, comes to meet his friend Senthilnathan, and his wife Ganga while on vacation. Senthil's mother Kasthuri wanted Senthil to marry Priya, the daughter of his father's cousin Kandaswamy, to reunite the two branches of the family after 30 years of separation because Senthil's father chose to marry Kasthuri instead of Kandaswamy's sister, Akhilandeshwari, who is also his cousin. Saravanan learns that Senthil had bought the Vettaiyapuram mansion, despite attempts by the local village elders to dissuade them, and moves in with them. Akhilandeshwari is jealous of Saravanan and plots to kill him with the help of her assistant Oomaiyan. When the family visits their ancestral temple, the chief priest reveals the reason everyone fears the mansion. Around 150 years ago, a king named Vettaiyan travelled to Vizianagaram in Andhra Pradesh, where he met and fell in love with a dancer named Chandramukhi. However, she did not reciprocate his feelings as she was already in love with another dancer named Gunasekaran. As a result, Vettaiyan took her back to his palace by force. Unknown to him, Chandramukhi made Gunasekaran stay in a house opposite and met him secretly. When Vettaiyan discovered this, he beheaded Gunasekaran on Durgashtami and burnt Chandramukhi alive. As a result, Chandramukhi's ghost tried to take revenge on Vettaiyan, who with the help of various priests and sorcerers from all over the country, tamed the ghost by locking it in an urn, which is kept at the shelf up in a room located in the palace's south-west corner which is guarded by a king cobra. Vettaiyan too died after a few days. Priya is in love with Vishwanathan, a dance professor who reciprocates her feelings. Their love is supported by Saravanan, who requests Kandaswamy to arrange their marriage. After hearing Chandramukhi's story, Ganga, who thinks that the story was fabricated to keep thieves from stealing treasures in the room, wishes to go there. Saravanan receives an email to attend a patient and assures Senthil to call him if anything happens before leaving. Ganga gets the duplicate room key from the gardener's granddaughter Durga and opens the door to the room. Subsequently, strange things begin to happen in the household: a ghost frightens the people in the house, things inexplicably break, and Ganga's sari catches fire. Suspicion turns towards Durga. Senthil immediately calls Saravanan to solve the case. As soon as Saravanan returns, a mysterious being tries to kill Priya. Saravanan also investigates other incidents such as the attempts to kill Senthil are made with poisoning his coffee and by pushing a glass fish tank to fall on his head. Also another mysterious happening is the sound of someone singing and dancing coming from Chandramukhi's room during the night. Ganga mysteriously disappears during Priya and Viswanathan's engagement. Saravanan notices her absence and searches for her, but is attacked by Oomaiyan—who has been sent by Akhilandeshwari. Saravanan subdues Oomaiyan and with Senthil's help finds Ganga, who is supposedly being sexually harassed by Viswanathan. Saravanan reveals to Senthil and Viswanathan that Ganga suffers from split personality disorder, following the death of her parents. He also reveals that she heard stories from her grandmother, which worsened her disorder. Ganga's mischievous behaviour made her enter into Chandramukhi's room and Chandramukhi possessed her after the urn fell down and broke while she was cleaning the room. Saravanan tells them that Ganga who turned into Chandramukhi tried to kill Priya and Senthil, as they are the only obstacles and that the former was Viswanathan's fiancee and the latter was Ganga's husband. She framed Viswanathan for sexual harassment, as she thinks that Viswanathan is her lover Gunasekaran since he stays at the same place Gunasekaran did. By framing Vishwanathan and also framing Durga via possession, Chandramukhi planned to stop the engagement. The only way to stop Chandramukhi is to make her believe she killed Vettaiyan on Durgashtami since Saravanan impersonated Vettaiyan and disrupted one of the pujas conducted by the exorcist Ramachandra Acharya by conversing with Chandramukhi to know its wish. Before carrying out his plan, Saravanan asks Senthil to trigger Ganga to see for himself whether she turns into Chandramukhi or not. When Senthil does so, she turns into Chandramukhi, which shocks him. A worried Senthil shouts at Ganga, turning her back to normal. Akhilandeshwari overhears Saravanan's idea of self-sacrifice and apologises to him. On Durgashtami, in the dance hall, the family and Ramachandra Acharya allow Chandramukhi to burn Saravanan alive. Ramachandra Acharya then blows smoke and ash on Ganga's face when she is given a torch to burn Saravanan. Senthil then opens a trapdoor to let Saravanan escape, and an effigy of Vettaiyan gets burnt instead. Convinced that Vettaiyan is dead, Chandramukhi leaves Ganga's body, curing her. The two families are reunited after 30 years, Saravanan and Durga fall in love, and the couple Swarna and Murugesan become parents after eight years of marriage. ## Cast - Rajinikanth in a dual role as Dr. Saravanan and Vettaiyan Raja - Prabhu as Senthilnathan - Jyothika in a dual role as Ganga Senthilnathan and Chandramukhi - Nayanthara as Durga - Vadivelu as Murugesan - Nassar as Kandaswamy - Vineeth as in a dual role as Viswanathan and Gunasekaran - Vijayakumar as Durga's grandfather - Sheela as Akhilandeswari - K. R. Vijaya as Kasthuri - Avinash as Ramachandra Acharya - Suvarna Mathew as Swarna Murugesan - Malavika as Priya Viswanathan - Vinaya Prasad as Lakshmi Kandaswamy - Manobala as a fake exorcist - Sonu Sood as Oomaiyan - Thyagu as Kumar - Madhan Bob as a car owner - T. P. Gajendran as Senthilnathan's assistant - Sudha Rani as Ganga's mother - Sujibala as Kandaswamy's youngest daughter - Unnikrishnan Namboothiri as the temple priest - Mohan Raj as the property owner - Sivaji Ganesan as Senthilnathan's father (uncredited, only shown in photo) - Praharshitha as Bommi Director P. Vasu, producer Ramkumar Ganesan and Raj Bahaddur make guest appearances in the song "Devuda Devuda". ## Production ### Development During the success meet of Mannan (1992), Rajinikanth announced that he would act in Sivaji Productions' 50th film, which would eventually become Chandramukhi. In September 2004, Rajinikanth congratulated P. Vasu on the success of his Kannada film Apthamitra (2004),which was the remake of the Malayalam Film Manichitrathazhu (1993) and was impressed with the film's screenplay. Vasu then requested to remake the film in Tamil with Rajinikanth, who in turn, called Ramkumar Ganesan and asked him to produce it under Ramkumar's banner, Sivaji Productions. Ramkumar telephoned Vasu, who was offering worship in a temple in Guruvayur at that time, informing him of Rajinikanth's wish to do Apthamitra in Tamil under his direction. Vasu reworked the script he wrote for Apthamitra to suit Rajinikanth's style of acting. The film dealt mainly with the concept of dissociative identity disorder, commonly known as "multiple personality disorder" (MPD) or "split personality disorder". Another film titled Anniyan (2005), which was released two months after Chandramukhi, was also based on the same disorder. Thota Tharani was the film's art director, and also designed the costumes. Regarding the designing of the Vettaiyapuram palace, he watched both Apthamitra and the original Malayalam film Manichitrathazhu (1993) to get the basic idea of the film's plot. Vasu wanted Tharani to make the sets more colourful and grand and did not want the realistic look of the original film. Tharani designed Chandramukhi's room and placed a corridor in it, which was quite different from the original and its Kannada remake. The corridor resembled those commonly seen in palaces in Kerala. Sidney Sladen did additional costume designing in the film. ### Casting Rajinikanth played the roles of Dr. Saravanan and King Vettaiyan. He sported a wig for his role. Both Rajinikanth and P. Vasu discussed every scene featuring the former and added necessary inputs before they were shot. Rajinikanth appears in the beginning of the film unlike Manichitrathazhu, where the same character, played by Mohanlal, appears in the middle of the film. Rajinikanth requested Vasu to change the dancer's name from Nagavalli, which was the name of the danseuse in Apthamitra, to Chandramukhi since the latter sounded more royal. While Vishnuvardhan uttered "Haula Haula" in the original, Rajinikanth used "Lakka Lakka", which was based on the mannerisms of a villain in a Marathi play Rajinikanth watched in his childhood days. Ramkumar's brother Prabhu played Senthilnathan, a civil engineer and owner of Ganesh Constructions. Prabhu co-produced the film with Ramkumar. For the roles of Ganga and Chandramukhi, several actresses were considered.But Vasu impressed with actress Jyothika. The role finally went to Jyothika, who allotted 50 days of her schedule. Vasu wanted her to perform her scenes in a manner different from that of Shobana in Manichitrathazhu, enacting the scenes himself before they were shot featuring Jyothika. Nayanthara was selected to portray the role of Durga after Vasu was impressed with her performance in the Malayalam film Manassinakkare (2003). Vadivelu portrayed the comic role of Murugesan. Rajinikanth, at the film's 200th day theatrical run celebration function, said that it was he who recommended Vadivelu to Vasu for the role and had asked Ramkumar to get Vadivelu's dates before planning the filming schedules. Sheela played Akhilandeswari, the intimidating older sister of Kandaswamy (Nassar) and Murugesan. When Sheela was signed on for the role, she was requested by the producers not to divulge details about her role to the media. Avinash reprised his role of the exorcist Ramachandra Acharya who talks with the spirit Chandramukhi from Apthamitra. ### Filming Principal photography commenced on 24 October 2004 with a puja ceremony for the muhurat shot at Annai Illam, the residence of Sivaji Ganesan. Ramkumar Ganesan said the filming would be finished by 15 February 2005, giving the crew two months to complete the post-production work, including visual effects. The first shooting schedule began two days later with a fight scene choreographed by Thalapathy Dinesh and filmed at Ramavaram in Chennai. More than 25 Toyota Qualis and 30 stunt artists were involved in the fight sequence that featured Rajinikanth. The Vettaiyapuram mansion was erected in Hyderabad. The song sequences, one picturised on Rajini alone, two songs in which he appears with the other principal cast members, and the climax song, which was picturised on Jyothika, were filmed in Ramoji Film City. Vasu said the film had taken only 78 days to be completed instead of the planned 120 days. The picturisation of the song "Devuda Devuda" focused on a variety of professions, especially janitors, sewage cleaners, farmers and washer folk. According to Ramji, who helped the production unit look for locations for the song "Konjam Neram", Ramkumar Ganesan and Vasu chose Turkey, making Chandramukhi the first Tamil film to be shot there. The production unit flew to Istanbul from Chennai via Dubai on 25 February 2005. The filming of the song was completed after the audio launch. "Konjam Neram" was shot in segments in Ephesus and Pamukkale. Shooting in Ephesus took six hours. The segment in Pamukkale was filmed in an amphitheatre in the ancient city of Hierapolis, which is located close to Pamukkale. The last segment was shot in the Cappadocia region, a 10-hour drive by bus from Istanbul. "Raa Raa" was choreographed by Kala and took four days to be completed instead of the planned seven days. ## Music Vidyasagar composed the soundtrack album and the background score of Chandramukhi. The soundtrack album consists of six tracks. Vaali, Yugabharathi, Pa. Vijay, Na. Muthukumar and Bhuvana Chandra wrote the lyrics. The track "Raa Raa" was based on the Surya raaga, which is also known as the Sallabham raaga. Asha Bhosle was engaged to sing a song for the film and to attend the film's audio launch. The audio rights for the film were sold to Sanjay Wadhwa of AnAK audio, later known as AP International for ₹11 million. Tata Indicom and Sunfeast Biscuits were the sponsors for the audio launch and marketing. The album was released on 5 March 2005 at the Taj Connemara hotel in Chennai. An overseas audio launch took place the next day in Malaysia. At the Music World shop in Chennai, 437 cassettes and 227 compact discs were sold on the first day of its stock release. The cassettes were priced at ₹45 each and CD's at ₹99 each. The original soundtrack of the film and a video CD titled "The making of Chandramukhi", were released on 27 September 2005 in Chennai. The film's background score was released as a separate album. The album received positive reviews from critics. Siddhu Warrier of Rediff said that "Devuda Devuda" "finds S. P. Balasubramanian in top form". He called "Konjam Neram" "melodious in a forgettable kind of way", "Athinthom" a "soft, melodious song", "Kokku Para Para" as "insipid", "Raa Raa" "a rather listenable track", and said "Annonda Pattu" is "vintage Rajni, and gets your feet tapping. One can almost picture Rajni brandishing his trademark cigarette and sunglasses as he gyrates to the beat. If one is a die-hard Rajni fan, then one is likely to go beserk [sic] dancing to this." Singer Charulatha Mani, writing for The Hindu called the song "Konjam Neram", which was based on the Sriranjani raga, an "attractive take on the raga" and said the song "is contemporary in feel and traditional at the roots". ## Release The film was released on 14 April 2005, a Tamil New Year's Day release, alongside Kamal Haasan-starrer Mumbai Xpress and Vijay-starrer Sachein. Chandramukhi was released in 37 theatres in Malaysia, 15 in Europe, nine in Sri Lanka, seven in the United States, four each in Canada and the Persian Gulf countries and two each in Australia and Singapore. The film was released with 23 prints in Coimbatore, 12 more than Rajinikanth's Padayappa (1999). Chandramukhi was screened at the 18th Tokyo International Film Festival in Japan on 23 October 2005 and 28 October 2005 as part of the 'Winds of Asia' section. It was the first public screening of the film in Japan. It was met with positive response from audiences there. The film opened the 7th IIFA Awards Film Festival held at the Dubai International Convention Centre in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, becoming the first South Indian film to open the Film Festival. In November 2011, it was screened at the International Tamil Film Festival held in Uglich, Russia alongside Thillana Mohanambal (1968), Sivaji: The Boss (2007), Angadi Theru (2010), Boss Engira Bhaskaran (2010), Thenmerku Paruvakaatru (2010) and Ko (2011). Though the film was a remake, Madhu Muttam, who wrote the story for Manichithrathazhu, was not mentioned in either the opening or closing credits. Instead, the story was credited to the director P. Vasu. Vasu defended himself by stating the script was not a scene-by-scene remake of the original and that only the basic plot was used. ## Marketing The producers entered into a business dealing with Tata Indicom to promote the film; ringtones of the songs from the film's soundtrack and special screensavers were issued. Sunfeast Biscuits also helped in the film's promotion; They launched special merchandise which consists of cards, featuring Rajinikanth and some stills of Chandramukhi. Giant cutouts of Rajinikanth and movie release posters were posted all over the state as a run-up for the release. The promotional campaign started in early March 2005 and continued mid-May that year. The film was screened in eight city theatres in Chennai. The theatrical rights of the film in the Coimbatore and Nilgiris districts combined were sold to local theatre owners Tirupur Balu and Seenu for ₹2.25 crore (US\$280,000). ## Home media The film's original negative was damaged because of poor care and ill treatment. AP International started a restoration project, which scanned the film frame-by-frame in a 2K workflow. They were able to remove all wear and tear and retain the natural film grain. This restored version was released on 2 August 2012 on Blu-ray format. The satellite rights of the film is sold to Sun TV. Its television premiere occurred on the occasion of Diwali in 27 October 2008. ## Reception ### Critical response Writing for The Hindu, Malathi Rangarajan said, "As you watch the film you cannot but admire the ingenuity of writer-director P. Vasu in choosing a story that is bound to sell and at the same time helping Rajini maintain his image of an invincible hero", before concluding that, "The 'Mannan' team proves a winner again". Another critic from The Hindu, Sudhish Kamath, said Rajinikanth is "at his vintage best". A reviewer from The Times of India called the film "Entertaining, stylish, respectful of ritual, and always massively larger than life". Arun Ram of India Today said, "With Chandramukhi, Rajnikant revives his fading career and fortunes of Tamil cinema". G. Ulaganathan, writing for the Deccan Herald praised the chemistry between Rajinikanth and Vadivelu, saying "Rajinikanth is back in full form, comedy comes naturally to him and he finds an able ally in Vadivelu. Some of the best scenes in the movie are when both are together." Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan said in its review, "Rajni's films normally revolve around him but in this case, Rajni is in a script which goes around several people ... Rajni as Vettaiyan is the highlight of the film ... After many years, Rajni has shown that he does not confine to his personality cage through this film." and gave the film 40 marks out of 100. The Sify reviewer wrote that Chandramukhi was simply "a remake of P. Vasu's Apthamitra from Kannada with some additional songs, fights and comedy scenes thrown in to further boost the superstar's image" but like Ulaganathan, commended the comedy scenes of Rajinikanth and Vadivelu, terming them the film's highlight. A. Ganesh Nadar of Rediff said the film would become "a certain hit" and,"[t]he star will be happy, his fans will be happy and producer Prabhu will giggle all the way to the bank". V. Gangadhar of The Tribune wrote, "As in all Rajni films, Chandramukhi is a one-star attraction and Rajni plays to the gallery, There are no political messages in the film and that should come as some relief. With Nayanthara and Jyothika in the female leads, there is plenty of glamour in the film. But the message is clear, King Rajni is back. His legion of fans can not ask for more." Karthiga Rukmanykanthan writing for Daily News Sri Lanka said, " ... the long anticipated delight Chandramukhi has made itself the box-office hit of the year". Grady Hendrix of Slate appreciated Rajinikanth's characterisation in the film, calling the character, Saravanan's ability to read minds "well-trained" before concluding, "Rajinikanth's movies are crammed with comedy, action, and musical numbers and they take great delight in kicking narrative logic in the face." ### Box office Chandramukhi was a box office success, selling 20 million tickets worldwide and earning ₹150 million in salary and profit share for Rajinikanth. The film's distributors made a 20 per cent profit over the ₹25 million for which they bought the rights to the film. Its 365th day was celebrated at Sivaji Ganesan's family-owned Shanthi Theatre in Chennai; the celebrations were organised by LIC unit of Rajinikanth fan club. The film's 804th day celebration function was held at Kamaraj Arangam in Chennai on 25 June 2007. The then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, director K. Balachander, film producer and owner of AVM Productions M. Saravanan, Kamal Haasan and Sridevi attended the function. Karunanidhi presented the "Shivaji" sword to the film's cast and crew, and awards were given to everyone involved in the film. #### India Chandramukhi grossed ₹8.4 million in 11 days in eight screens in Chennai. In the Santham screen of Sathyam Cinemas, around 22,000 tickets were sold for the first 10 days of its release. Chandramukhi grossed ₹30 million in Coimbatore, beating the ₹24.5 million record set there by Padayappa. Chandramukhi received ₹60 million as Minimum Guarantee (MG) from theatres in North Arcot, South Arcot and Chengalpattu districts collectively. It was also a hit in Kerala where it grossed ₹711,545 in four days, doing better than the Mohanlal starrer Chandrolsavam, which also released on 14 April 2005, but grossed ₹523,340 during the same period of time. The film's theatrical run lasted 890 days at Shanthi Theatre, beating the 62-year record set by the 1944 film Haridas, which ran for 784 days at the Broadway theatre, also in Chennai. The New Indian Express estimates that it grossed ₹650 million (US\$14.3 million in 2005). It was the longest running South Indian film, until surpassed by the Telugu film Magadheera (2009), which completed a theatrical run of 1000 days in April 2012. #### Overseas Chandramukhi was screened in Tokyo in October 2005 to packed houses. Chandramukhi completed a 100-day theatrical run in South Africa. It collectively earned ₹43 million in Malaysia, UAE and the US during the first month of its theatrical run. The film collected ₹62.78 million (US\$1.4 million in 2005) in Malaysia; it was the only Indian film to feature in that country's top ten grossing films of the year. ## Accolades The awards for the film mainly went to Vadivelu and Jyothika for their performances. Rajinikanth and Jyothika has won a Tamil Nadu State Film Awards for their roles. In an interview with The Hindu, Binny Krishnakumar said: > I will forever remain indebted to composer Vidyasagar, who gave me the song when I was a nobody in playback singing. I had given a cassette of my songs to Vidyasagar, who knew Krishnakumar. Then, about six months later, Vidyasagar invited me to record "Ra ra...". The way that song has helped me in my career—both as a playback and classical singer—has been incredible. I was lucky I got a song in a Rajnikanth film so early in my career and the Filmfare award for my very first song." ## Scientific accuracy In an August 2005 seminar on revisiting psychiatric disorders which centred around Chandramukhi and Anniyan, psychiatrist Asokan noted that there were many logical faults in both films; Vasu said he knew nothing about psychiatric disorders. Writing for PopMatters in 2014, Kumuthan Maderya criticised Vasu for confusing "spirit possession with Dissociative Identity Disorder, conflating both to create pop psychology" and "Ostensibly fusing modern science and demonology for the sake of intellectualism". ## Legacy Split personality disorder became well known after the film's release. MIOT hospital, in a blog description of the syndrome, called it The Chandramukhi syndrome. Film artist, trainer and film-maker L. Satyanand said Chandramukhi is a classic example of the subgenre "horror of the demonic" and of "brilliance", ranking it alongside The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Psycho (1960). The film became a trendsetter for later horror films such as the Muni series, Yavarum Nalam (2009), Eeram (2009), Pizza (2012), Yaamirukka Bayamey (2014), Aranmanai (2014), Darling (2015) and Demonte Colony (2015). Sivaji Productions joined Galatta Media and eBay for an online auction of the film's memorabilia, becoming the first South Indian film to auction film merchandise. Ramkumar Ganesan said the proceeds of the auction would be given to the Sivaji Prabhu Charity Trust and that ₹300,000 (US\$6,650 in 2005) would be given to Papanchatram Middle School. Sophie Atphthavel from France bought Rajinikanth's sunglasses, which he sported in the film, for ₹25,000 (US\$554 in 2005). According to Girish Ramdas, chief operating officer of Galatta Media, all the items had certificates of authenticity signed by the film's producers. Bidding for the items ranged between ₹10,000 (US\$222 in 2005) and ₹20,000 (US\$444 in 2005). In a statement by eBay, the articles made available for bidding were Rajinikanth's blue shirt worn in the song "Devuda Devuda", Jyothika's saree worn for the climax scenes, the peach-coloured saree worn by Nayanthara in the song "Konja Neram", and the Vettaiyan Raja costume and ornaments worn on set by Rajinikanth. Rajinikanth's dress, which he wore in "Devuda Devuda", was sold for ₹25,000 (US\$554 in 2005). His Vettaiyan costume and ornament set were sold for ₹32,000 (US\$709 in 2005). The saree worn by Nayanthara in the song "Kokku Para Para" was also auctioned. ## In popular culture Some scenes, lines and expressions from the film, such as the "Lakka Lakka..." sound that Rajnikanth's character makes, became very popular, especially with children. Vadivelu's expressions and scenes—especially those with Rajinikanth—and lines including "Maapu?...Vachittandaa Aapu!!!" (Dude?...He screwed me up!!!), also became popular. A line spoken by Rajinikanth to Prabhu, Naan gunda irundha nalla irukkadhu...nee elachcha nalla irukkadhu, which translates into "I won't look good if I put on weight...but you won't look good if you have reduced weight" evoked a lot of laughter among audiences. Prabhu's line, "Enna kodumai Saravanan idhu?", which means "What atrocity is this, Saravanan?" became popular. It is usually used to express irony or surprise. The line was often parodied by actor Premgi Amaren, who altered it slightly to "Enna Kodumai, Sir Idhu?" and used it in all of his featured films, subsequently becoming the actor's catchphrase. Prabhu said in an interview with Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu that: > "I hope I get to play light roles. Incidentally, I quite like the way in which these young actors have made a joke of my serious line in Chandramukhi—'Enna Kodumai Saravanan Idhu'". ### Parodies Chandramukhi was parodied in various films. In a comedy scene from Englishkaran (2005), Theeppori Thirumugam (Vadivelu) invents an idea to frighten Thamizharasu (Sathyaraj) but the ruse backfires on him as he witnesses Thamizharasu in a garb similar to that of Chandramukhi's. In a scene from Thalaimagan (2006), Erimalai (Vadivelu), after entering an old abandoned bungalow, gets frightened when he hears the "Lakka Lakka" sound, and says Yaaro Telugula Koopuddrangga! ( "Someone is calling in Telugu!"). In Vallavan (2006), Vallavan (Silambarasan) is seen singing "Konja Neram" to Swapna (Nayanthara). In Sivaji (2007), Thamizhselvi (Shriya Saran) would be seen dancing for the song "Raa Raa", Sivaji (Rajinikanth) and Arivu (Vivek) are seen uttering the last lines of the song. Livingston who appears as a police inspector, utters the sound "Lakka Lakka" which Rajinikanth makes in Chandramukhi. Rajinikanth and Nayanthara's characters act in a film titled Chandramukhi 2 in a scene from Kuselan (2008), which P. Vasu also directed. In Thamizh Padam (2010), Shiva (Shiva) would be seen imitating the film's introduction scene by stretching his leg when it is revealed that Siva has a split seam in his pants. Sundar C.'s role in the film Aranmanai (2014) was inspired by Rajinikanth's role in Chandramukhi. Chandramukhi was parodied in the Star Vijay comedy series Lollu Sabha, in an episode named Sappamookki. ## Other versions Chandramukhi was later dubbed in Hindi, Telugu and Turkish with the same title and in Bhojpuri under the title Chandramukhi Ke Hunkaar. It is the first Tamil film to be dubbed into German. It was released in Germany under the title, Der Geisterjäger (). Despite the release of Bhool Bhulaiyaa (2007), Chandramukhi's Hindi dubbed version was released on 29 February 2008 by Dilip Dhanwani, owner of the production house Royal Film Company. The Hindi version was released in collaboration with producer A. M. Rathnam. ## Sequel In April 2020, a sequel, Chandramukhi 2, to be produced by Sun Pictures was announced, but was eventually taken over by Lyca Productions in June 2022, owing to the delays from the COVID-19 pandemic. P. Vasu will return as the director, while confirmed cast members include Kangana Ranaut, Raghava Lawrence and Vadivelu. Principal photography began in mid-July 2022. ## Spin off A spin off to Chandramukhi, named Nagavalli, was made in Telugu. It was a remake of Aptharakshaka (2010), which itself was a direct sequel to Apthamitra (2004). It was directed by P. Vasu and released on 16 December 2010. ## See also - Muni (film series) - Aranmanai (film series) - List of ghost films
61,267,718	Esing Bakery incident	1,167,167,411	1857 poisoning case in Hong Kong	[ "Arsenic poisoning incidents", "British Hong Kong", "Mass poisoning", "Murder in Hong Kong", "Scandals in Hong Kong", "Second Opium War" ]	The Esing Bakery incident, also known as the Ah Lum affair, was a food contamination scandal in the early history of British Hong Kong. On 15 January 1857, during the Second Opium War, several hundred European residents were poisoned non-lethally by arsenic, found in bread produced by a Chinese-owned store, the Esing Bakery. The proprietor of the bakery, Cheong Ah-lum, was accused of plotting the poisoning but was acquitted in a trial by jury. Nonetheless, Cheong was successfully sued for damages and was banished from the colony. The true responsibility for the incident and its intention—whether it was an individual act of terrorism, commercial sabotage, a war crime orchestrated by the Qing government, or purely accidental—both remain a matter of debate. In Britain, the incident became a political issue during the 1857 general election, helping to mobilise support for the war and the incumbent Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston. In Hong Kong, it sowed panic and insecurity among the local colonists, highlighting the precariousness of imperial rule in the colony. The incident contributed to growing tensions between Hong Kong's European and Chinese residents, as well as within the European community itself. The scale and potential consequences of the poisoning make it an unprecedented event in the history of the British Empire, the colonists believing at the time that its success could have wiped out their community. ## Background In 1841, in the midst of the First Opium War, Captain Charles Elliot negotiated the cession of Hong Kong by the Qing dynasty of China to the British Empire in the Convention of Chuenpi. The colony's early administrators held high hopes for Hong Kong as a gateway for British influence in China as a whole, which would combine British good government with an influx from China of what were referred to at the time as "intelligent and readily improvable artisans", as well as facilitating the transfer of coolies to the West Indies. However, the colonial government soon found it difficult to govern Hong Kong's rapidly expanding Chinese population, and was also faced with endemic piracy and continued hostility from the Qing government. In 1856, the Governor of Hong Kong, John Bowring, supported by the British Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, demanded reparations from the Qing government for the seizure of a Hong Kong Chinese-owned ship, which led to the Second Opium War between Britain and China (1856–1860). At the opening of the war in late 1856, Qing imperial commissioner Ye Mingchen unleashed a campaign of terrorism in Hong Kong by a series of proclamations offering rewards for the deaths of what he called the French and British "rebel barbarians", and ordering Chinese to renounce employment by the "foreign dogs". A committee to organise resistance to the Europeans was established at Xin'an County on the mainland. At the same time, Europeans in Hong Kong became concerned that the turmoil in China caused by the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) was producing a surge of Chinese criminals into the colony. Tensions between Chinese and European residents ran high, and in December 1856 and January 1857 the Hong Kong government enacted emergency legislation, imposing a curfew on Hong Kong Chinese and giving the police sweeping powers to arrest and deport Chinese criminals and to resort to lethal force at night-time. Well-off Chinese residents became increasingly disquieted by the escalating police brutality and the level of regulation of Chinese life. ## Course of events On 15 January 1857, between 300 and 500 predominantly European residents of the colony—a large proportion of the European population at the time—who had consumed loaves from the Esing Bakery (Chinese: 裕成辦館; Cantonese Yale: Yuhsìhng baahngún) fell ill with nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, and dizziness. Later testing concluded that the bread had been adulterated with large amounts of arsenic trioxide. The quantity of arsenic involved was high enough to cause the poison to be vomited out before it could kill its victims. There were no deaths immediately attributable to the poisoning, though three deaths that occurred the following year, including that of the wife of Governor Bowring, would be ascribed to its long-term effects. The colony's doctors, led by Surgeon General Aurelius Harland, dispatched messages across the town advising that the bread was poisoned and containing instructions to induce vomiting and consume raw eggs. The proprietor of the bakery, Cheong Ah-lum (Chinese: 張霈霖; Cantonese Yale: Jēung Puilàhm), left for Macau with his family early in the day. He was immediately suspected of being the perpetrator, and as news of the incident rapidly spread, he was detained there and brought back to Hong Kong the next day. By the end of the day, 52 Chinese men had been rounded up and detained in connection to the incident. Many of the local Europeans, including the Attorney General, Thomas Chisholm Anstey, wished Cheong to be court-martialled—some called for him to be lynched. Governor Bowring insisted that he be tried by jury. On 19 January ten of the men were committed to be tried at the Supreme Court after a preliminary examination. This took place on 21 January. The other detainees were taken to Cross Roads police station and confined in a small cell, which became known as the 'Black Hole of Hong Kong' after the Black Hole of Calcutta. Some were deported several days later, while the rest remained in the Black Hole for nearly three weeks. ### Supreme Court trial The trial opened on 2 February. The government had difficulty selecting appropriate charges because there was no precedent in English criminal law for dealing with the attempted murder of a whole community. One of the victims of the poisoning was selected, and Cheong and the nine other defendants were charged with "administering poison with intent to kill and murder James Carroll Dempster, Colonial Surgeon". Attorney General Anstey led the prosecution, William Thomas Bridges and John Day the defence. Chief Justice John Walter Hulme, who had himself been poisoned, presided. The arguments at the trial focused more on Cheong's personal character than on the poisoning itself: the defence argued that Cheong was a highly regarded and prosperous member of the local community with little reason to take part in an amateurish poisoning plot, and suggested that Cheong had been framed by his commercial competitors. The prosecution, on the other hand, painted him as an agent of the Qing government, ideally positioned to sabotage the colony. They claimed he was financially desperate and had sold himself out to Chinese officials in return for money. The defence noted that Cheong's own children had shown symptoms of poisoning; Attorney General Anstey argued that they had merely been seasick, and added that even if Cheong were innocent, it was "better to hang the wrong man than confess that British sagacity and activity have failed to discover the real criminals". Hulme retorted that "hanging the wrong man will not further the ends of justice". Cheong himself called for his own beheading, along with the rest of his family, if he were found guilty, in accordance with Chinese practice. On 6 February, the jury rejected the arguments of the prosecution and returned a 5–1 verdict of 'not guilty'. ### Banishment of Cheong The verdict triggered a sensation, and despite his acquittal, public opinion among the European residents of Hong Kong remained extremely hostile to Cheong. Governor Bowring and his Executive Council had determined while the trial was still underway that Cheong should be detained indefinitely regardless of its outcome, and he was arrested soon afterwards under emergency legislation on the pretext of being what the authorities called a "suspicious character". William Tarrant, the editor of the Friend of China, sued Cheong for damages. He was awarded \$1,010. Before the sentence could be executed, Bridges, now Acting Colonial Secretary, accepted a petition from the Chinese community for Cheong to be allowed to leave peaceably from Hong Kong after putting his affairs in order. Cheong was accordingly released and left the colony on 1 August, abandoning his business. Tarrant blamed Bridges publicly for permitting Cheong to escape, but was himself consequently sued for libel by Bridges and forced to pay a fine of £100. ## Analysis ### Responsibility Modern scholars have been divided in attributing the responsibility for the incident. The historian George Beer Endacott argued that the poisoning was carried out on the instruction of Qing officials, while Jan Morris depicts Cheong as a lone wolf acting out of personal patriotism. Cheong's own clan record, written in China in 1904 at the command of the imperial court, states that the incident was entirely accidental, the result of negligence in preparing the bread rather than intentional poisoning. Yet another account says that the poisoning was carried out by two foremen at the bakery who fled Hong Kong immediately afterwards, and Cheong was uninvolved. Lowe and McLaughlin, in their 2015 investigation of the incident, classify the plausible hypotheses into three categories: that the poisoning was carried out by Cheong or an employee on orders from Chinese officials; that the poisoning was an attempt by a rival to frame Cheong; and that the poisoning was accidental. Lowe and McLaughlin state that the chemical analyses conducted at the time do not support the theory that the incident was accidental. Cheong's clan record reports that "one day, through carelessness, a worker dropped some 'odd things' into the flour", even though the arsenic was found only in the bread itself, and in massive quantities—not in the flour, yeast, pastry, or in scrapings collected from the table, all of which were tested. If these results are correct, the poison must have been introduced shortly before baking. Moreover, despite its ultimate failure, Lowe and McLaughlin argue that the incident had certain characteristics of careful strategic planning: the decision to poison European-style bread, a food generally not eaten by Chinese at the time, would have served to separate the intended targets of the plot, while white arsenic (arsenic trioxide) was a fast-acting poison naturally available in China, and so well-suited to the task. In June 1857, the Hong Kong Government Gazette published a confiscated letter written to Chan Kwei-tsih, the head of the resistance committee in Xin'an County, from his brother Tsz-tin, informing him of the incident. The second-hand report in the missive suggests that the committee was unlikely to have instigated the incident directly. ### Toxicology Aurelius Harland, the Surgeon General, conducted the initial tests on the bread and other materials recovered from the bakery. He recorded: > Soon after the first alarm, I endeavoured to ascertain in a hasty way what was in the bread, and Dr Bradford coming in, he and I satisfied ourselves that it was arsenic. Next day, at the request of the Colonial Secretary, we made a more careful analysis of each piece of bread separately, and found they all indicated the presence of arsenic. ... we found that one pound [0.45 kg] loaf of bread contained nearly a drachm of arsenic, sixty grains to the drachm, common white arsenic. ... I also, on the afternoon of the 16th, had two jars brought me by a policeman, one containing yeast used on the night of the 14th, the other the materials for making yeast, together with some flour and some pastry from the bakery, paste scraped from the table, and some pastry in tin moulds. I found no trace of arsenic or other metallic poison in any of the materials. Portions of the poisoned bread were subsequently sealed and dispatched to Europe, where they were examined by the chemists Frederick Abel and Justus von Liebig, and the Scottish surgeon John Ivor Murray. Murray found the incident to be scientifically interesting because of the low number of deaths that resulted from the ingestion of such a massive quantity of arsenic. Chemical tests enabled him to obtain 62.3 grains of arsenous acid per pound of bread (9 parts per thousand), while Liebig found 64 grains/lb (10 parts per thousand). Liebig theorised that the poison had failed to act because it was vomited out before digestion could take place. ## Effects and aftermath ### Reception in Britain News of the incident reached Britain during the 1857 general election, which had been called following a successful parliamentary vote of censure of Lord Palmerston's support for the Second Opium War. Mustering support for Palmerston and his war policy, the London Morning Post decried the poisoning in hyperbolic terms, describing it as a "hideous villainy, [an] unparalleled treachery, of these monsters of China", "defeated ... by its very excess of iniquity"; its perpetrators were "noxious animals ... wild beasts in human shape, without one single redeeming value" and "demons in human shape". Another newspaper supportive of Palmerston, the Globe, published a fabricated letter by Cheong admitting that he "had acted agreeably to the order of the Viceroy [Ye Mingchen]". By the time the news of Cheong's acquittal was published in London on 11 April, the election was all but over, and Palmerston was victorious. In London, the incident came to the attention of the German author Friedrich Engels, who wrote to the New York Herald Tribune on 22 May 1857, saying that the Chinese now "poison the bread of the European community at Hong Kong by wholesale, and with the coolest premeditation". "In short, instead of moralizing on the horrible atrocities of the Chinese", he argued, "as the chivalrous English press does, we had better recognize that this is a war pro aris et focis, a popular war for the maintenance of Chinese nationality, with all its overbearing prejudice, stupidity, learned ignorance and pedantic barbarism if you like, but yet a popular war." Others in England denied that the poisoning had even happened. In the House of Commons, Thomas Perronet Thompson alleged that the incident had been fabricated as part of a campaign of disinformation justifying the Second Opium War. Much of the disbelief centred on Cheong's name, which became an object of sarcasm and humour—bakers in 19th-century Britain often adulterated their dough with potassium alum, or simply 'alum', as a whitener —and Lowe and McLaughlin note that "a baker named Cheong Alum would have been considered funny by itself, but a baker named Cheong Alum accused of adding poison to his own dough seemed too good to be true". An official of the Colonial Office annotated a report on Cheong from Hong Kong with the remark, "Surely a mythical name". ### Hong Kong Both the scale of the poisoning and its potential consequences make the Esing bakery incident unprecedented in the history of the British Empire, with the colonists believing at the time that its success could have destroyed their community. Morris describes the incident as "a dramatic realization of that favourite Victorian chiller, the Yellow Peril", and the affair contributed to the tensions between the European and Chinese communities in Hong Kong. In a state of panic, the colonial government conducted mass arrests and deportations of Chinese residents in the wake of the poisonings. 100 new police officers were hired and a merchant ship was commissioned to patrol the waters surrounding Hong Kong. Governor Bowring wrote to London requesting the dispatch of 5,000 soldiers to Hong Kong. A proclamation was issued reaffirming the curfew on Chinese residents, and Chinese ships were ordered to be kept beyond 300 yards (270 m) of Hong Kong, by force if necessary. Chan Tsz-tin described the aftermath in his letter : > ... the English barbarians are in very great perplexity; that a proclamation is issued every day, and three sets of regulations come out in two days. People out at night are taken up in a haste, and let go in a hurry; no one is allowed out after 8 o'clock; the shops are forced to take out tickets at sixteen dollars each. The Esing Bakery was closed, and the supply of bread to the colonial community was taken over by the English entrepreneur George Duddell, described by the historian Nigel Cameron as "one of the colony's most devious crooks". Duddell's warehouse was attacked in an arson incident on 6 March 1857, indicative of the continuing problems in the colony. In the same month, one of Duddell's employees was reported to have discussed being offered \$2,000 to adulterate biscuit dough with a soporific—the truth of this allegation is unknown. Soon after the poisoning, Hong Kong was rocked by the Caldwell affair, a series of scandals and controversies involving Bridges, Tarrant, Anstey, and other members of the administration, similarly focused on race relations in the colony. Cheong himself made a prosperous living in Macau and Vietnam after his departure from Hong Kong, and later became consul for the Qing Empire in Vietnam. He died in 1900. A portion of the poisoned bread, well-preserved by its high arsenic content, was kept in a cabinet of the office of the Chief Justice of the Hong Kong Supreme Court until the 1930s.
26,482,137	2010 São Paulo Indy 300	1,172,405,846	null	[ "2010 in Brazilian motorsport", "2010 in IndyCar", "March 2010 sports events in South America", "São Paulo Indy 300" ]	The 2010 São Paulo Indy 300 was the first race of the 2010 IZOD IndyCar Series season. The race took place on March 14, on the 2.536-mile (4.081 km) temporary street circuit in São Paulo, Brazil, and was telecast by Versus in the United States. Originally scheduled for 190.2 miles (306.1 km), the race was shortened to 154.696 miles (248.959 km) due to a two-hour time limit brought about by an extended red-flag period due to heavy rain. The race was won by Australian driver Will Power for Team Penske. Power was making his race return after an incident during a practice session at the 2009 Indy Grand Prix of Sonoma, which left him with two broken vertebrae in his back. Second place went to Ryan Hunter-Reay, who was making his first start for Andretti Autosport, and third place went to another returnee, A. J. Foyt Enterprises' Vítor Meira. Meira was making his first start since suffering similar injuries to Power, during the 2009 Indianapolis 500. Four drivers made their IndyCar Series débuts in the race. Former Formula One driver Takuma Sato, Firestone Indy Lights graduates Ana Beatriz and Mario Romancini, and Atlantic Championship title contender Simona de Silvestro were all classified outside the top ten at the conclusion of the race, with de Silvestro leading four laps during the race. ## Report ### Background Plans for an IndyCar Series race in Brazil were confirmed on 25 November 2009, with authorities in São Paulo and the Indy Racing League agreeing to a deal for the city to host the series. Race details for the São Paulo Indy 300 were announced on 25 January 2010. It was the first American open-wheel race in the country since the Rio 200 at Jacarepaguá in 2000. Despite a lengthy distance to travel from most team bases, the event promoters offered each team a six-figure sum of money, as well as paying for all expenses. A total of seven Brazilian drivers would compete in the race, including Ana Beatriz, Hélio Castroneves, Tony Kanaan, Raphael Matos, Vítor Meira, Mario Moraes and Mario Romancini. Of those seven, four drivers—Beatriz, Castroneves, Moraes and Romancini—are natives of São Paulo. The race weekend was scheduled to have two practice sessions on Saturday morning, qualifications on Saturday afternoon with the race on Sunday afternoon. In preparation for the race weekend, the public roads that made up areas of the track were closed off just before midnight on Friday evening. ### Practice and qualifying In the first practice session, Chip Ganassi Racing driver Scott Dixon recorded the fastest lap, ahead of Team Penske's Ryan Briscoe, the Andretti Autosport car of Tony Kanaan and Briscoe's teammate Will Power. Due to the slippery nature of the circuit, drivers were caught out and ended up inflicting damage to their cars. Defending series champion Dario Franchitti ventured down the escape road before damaging his suspension against the Turn 8 wall. He ended the session in seventeenth position. Other drivers to hit the wall included Romancini and Milka Duno. Incidents continued in the second practice session, with no less than five drivers spinning or making contact with the outside retaining walls. The session saw the same top four drivers as the first session. Having observed the sessions and received feedback from the drivers and the teams about the circuit conditions, the series' president of competition Brian Barnhart and course designer Tony Cotman opted to postpone the qualification session to race morning, with the running of a third practice session and a Sunday morning warm-up instead of it. Power topped this extra session, ahead of Kanaan and Ryan Hunter-Reay, with Justin Wilson—a new arrival at Dreyer & Reinbold Racing—in fourth position. After the session, track officials started grinding down the concrete in order to provide a track surface that was suitable for racing the following day. Hunter-Reay topped the Sunday morning warmup before qualifying, setting the fastest lap time by over half a second ahead of second-year driver Mike Conway in another Dreyer & Reinbold car. Qualifying followed the usual road and street course system, with the field being split into two groups. In the first group of twelve runners, Wilson topped the session, 0.46 seconds ahead of the HVM Racing machine of Switzerland's Simona de Silvestro—one of four female drivers in the race—with Alex Tagliani in third position. Other drivers to make it into the second session of qualifying were Power, Takuma Sato and Raphael Matos. The remaining twelve drivers took part in the second group, with Hunter-Reay topping his second session of the day. Hélio Castroneves, Briscoe, Franchitti, Dixon and Kanaan were the other competitors in the top six, and thus progressed to the second round of qualifying. In the Top 12, Power recorded the fastest lap time, holding off the British pair Wilson and Franchitti. Hunter-Reay, Kanaan and Tagliani finished between fourth and sixth, and would be the other half of the drivers that progressed to the Fast Six. Franchitti saved his best lap of qualifying to the last possible moment, taking his thirteenth career IndyCar Series pole position, and his 24th in American open-wheel racing. Tagliani took second on the grid, on his début with the FAZZT Race Team. Wilson took third ahead of Hunter-Reay, Power and Kanaan. ### Race Minutes before the race start, reports of rain falling on the track caused the start to be delayed by around ten minutes. Race control eventually deemed the race to be dry enough to be called a dry race, thus the rain tyres were not necessary, but would be required later in the race. Dario Franchitti and Alex Tagliani led the field to the line, with the circuit still being dusty from the previous night's repair work. Dust clouds engulfed the start-finish straight, blinding many of the midfield runners. The top five runners managed to negotiate the first chicane cleanly, while behind, half a dozen cars were involved in a first-corner crash. Takuma Sato misjudged his braking into the first corner and clipped the rear of Will Power's Penske machine, which spun him into Scott Dixon. Hélio Castroneves could not avoid running into Dixon's stationary car at the first corner. After many drivers went down the escape road to avoid being involved in the crash, a separate accident took place between Marco Andretti and Mario Moraes. Moraes lost control of his KV Racing Technology car behind Ana Beatriz, hit Andretti and became airborne before coming to rest across the cockpit of Andretti's car. It took several minutes to extricate Andretti from his damaged machinery, but was uninjured and very critical of Moraes' driving. The crash resulted in a seven-lap caution period, and eliminated Sato, Moraes and Andretti from the race. Dixon and Castroneves both recovered to the pit lane to repair damage. Franchitti led the field to the restart on lap eight, ahead of Tagliani, Hunter-Reay (up from fourth), Kanaan (up from sixth), and Matos, who advanced seven positions while avoiding the mêlée at turn one. Franchitti became only the third driver in series history to lead the final lap of one season and the first lap of the next, having won the championship by winning the 2009 Firestone Indy 300 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. The top five remained the same until lap 15 when Dan Wheldon passed the De Ferran Luczo Dragon Racing car of Matos for fifth place. Hunter-Reay took second place from Tagliani into the final hairpin on lap 19, before Milka Duno brought out the second caution of the afternoon on lap 22 by nudging her Dale Coyne Racing car into the wall at turn four. The entire field except for Simona de Silvestro headed to pit road for the first of two scheduled pit stops. De Silvestro became the first rookie driver since Graham Rahal in 2008 to lead at least one lap on début. When the race returned to green flag conditions on lap 26, de Silvestro held the lead ahead of Franchitti, Hunter-Reay and Kanaan with Tagliani in fifth position. De Silvestro kept the lead for a further two laps, with Hunter-Reay's Andretti Autosport car moving ahead of Franchitti on lap 27, repeating his move on Tagliani on the defending series champion. Not long after, Hunter-Reay moved ahead of de Silvestro as the pair were under braking for turn five. Hunter-Reay nearly lost control of his car as his car bottomed out on the straight, with lifted the car slightly airborne. Franchitti further demoted the young Swiss driver to third, moving ahead on lap 29. Behind them, Hideki Mutoh hit Vítor Meira which saw his retirement from the race, and Wheldon hit the back of Tagliani which sent him into Kanaan, resulting in the retirement of the Canadian driver. Rain started falling once again, more heavily than before and much of the field pitted to change from dry-weather tyres to wet-weather ones. Alex Lloyd aquaplaned into the wall in the second Dale Coyne car, bringing out the caution for the third time, and with rain falling relentlessly, series officials brought out the red flag to allow the weather conditions to pass. After a 36-minute red flag delay, cars returned to the circuit with slicks being the choice of tyre for the track, despite a few wet patches remaining on the circuit. Some cars gambled on wets thinking that the circuit would not dry quickly enough for their tyres to drop off compared to the slicks.As the green flag flew on lap 38, Chip Ganassi Racing held a one–two with Franchitti leading Dixon, with two of the Dreyer & Reinbold cars—Conway and Wilson—holding third and fourth places, with the only remaining KV car of E. J. Viso holding fifth, the Venezuelan disposing of Castroneves just after the restart. Realising that the gamble had backfired, the lead quintet pitted on laps 41 and 42, which cycled Hunter-Reay back through to the lead. Power made an error which allowed Matos and Briscoe to move ahead of him. Briscoe moved ahead of Matos on lap 45 and set off in chase of Hunter-Reay. Four laps later, the Australian was on the American's tail, and moved ahead after an outbraking move into the final hairpin. Hunter-Reay immediately regained the position into the first chicane on Lap 51, before Briscoe sealed the place with a similar final hairpin move at the end of the lap. Briscoe's luck would run out, however, when he overcooked it into turn five on lap 54, and nudged the barriers with his nose assembly, bringing out the fourth and final caution of the race. The time limit meant that only six laps remained at the restart, with Hunter-Reay leading Power, Matos, Meira and Wheldon. Meira soon passed his fellow Brazilian for third on Lap 57, and began to chase down the lead duo, who had changed positions after Power used the slipstream to overtake Hunter-Reay into the final corner. Power moved away from Hunter-Reay in the final laps, taking the chequered flag to cap his return from injury with a victory. Hunter-Reay took his best result for a year in second, with another injury returnee, Meira, finishing third. Matos was fourth, holding off seven other cars, as fourth to eleventh were covered by 3.49 seconds at the race's conclusion. Wheldon led those seven in fifth, ahead of the Ganassis, Conway, Castroneves, Kanaan and Wilson. Viso finished twelfth ahead of top rookie Beatriz, a recovering Briscoe, Danica Patrick and de Silvestro, the final two off the lead lap. ## Classification ### Qualifying - All cars were split into two groups of twelve, with the fastest six from each group going through to the "Top 12" session. In this session, the fastest six runners progressed to the "Firestone Fast Six". The fastest driver in the final session claimed pole, with the rest of the runners lining up in session order, regardless of qualifying times. (Fast Six from 1–6, Top 12 from 7-12 and Round 1 from 13 to 24, with Group 1 drivers occupying the odd-numbered grid positions, and Group 2 drivers occupying the even-numbered grid positions). ### Race ## Championship standings after the race - Note: Only the top five positions are included.
34,964,813	Dinner by Heston Blumenthal	1,131,847,751	Restaurant in London, England	[ "2011 establishments in England", "2011 in London", "British cuisine", "European restaurants in London", "Historical foods", "Michelin Guide starred restaurants in the United Kingdom", "Restaurants established in 2011" ]	Dinner by Heston Blumenthal is a restaurant in London, England, created by Heston Blumenthal. Opened in January 2011, it received a Michelin star within a year and earned its second in 2014. In April 2014, it was listed fifth on The World's 50 Best Restaurants in Restaurant. Dinner was initially headed by Ashley Palmer-Watts, formerly the head chef of another Blumenthal restaurant, the Fat Duck. When he left in December 2019, Jon Miles-Bowring became head chef. Menu items are based on historical British dishes, which were researched by food historians and through the British Library. The restaurant's opening drew interest within the industry, and reviews have been positive. Particular dishes have received praise, including the "meat fruit", a chicken liver mousse created to look like a mandarin orange. ## Description The opening of Dinner was announced in August 2010, to open in early 2011 to replace the Michelin-starred restaurant Foliage at the Mandarin Oriental Hyde Park. The opening was originally planned for 1 December, but delays occurred, which would have resulted in the restaurant being ready to open during Christmas week. The decision was made to push back the opening until after the Christmas period was over. Reservations began to be accepted on 1 December 2010 for the restaurant's opening on 31 January 2011. There were 42 phone lines set up on the opening day of reservations, which received over 600 telephone bookings. Prior to opening, the first three months were solidly booked. A Valentine's day booking was sold on auction site eBay, which went for £250. The head chef was Ashley Palmer-Watts. Palmer-Watts had worked with Blumenthal since 1999, and for five years was head chef at Blumenthal's other restaurant, the three-Michelin-starred Fat Duck. The two chefs researched historical menu choices with help of food historian Polly Russell, curator at the British Library. When he left in December 2019, Jon Miles-Bowring became head chef. Blumenthal's first experience of historical cuisine was in 2000 when he discovered a recipe for roast chicken which required the bird to be plucked alive, and then cooked with a small volume of mercury. This was further enhanced as he filmed Heston's Feasts for Channel 4, in which he created a variety of feasts from different historical eras including Tudor, Medieval and Victorian. Despite being called Dinner, the restaurant is also open for lunch as the meaning of the name is intended to be the main meal of the day, regardless of the time at which it is eaten. The interior of the restaurant was designed by Adam Tihany, and features full length windows allowing diners to see straight into the kitchen. It features a pulley system based on a 16th-century design used for the British Royal Court. The brand identity items such as the logo and the menus were designed by design agency Seymourpowell. A clockwork spitroast cooks pineapples for one of the restaurant's desserts. ### Menu The restaurant intends to change the menu every three months, each menu containing historical dishes ranging from the 14th to 19th centuries. Prior to opening, there were rumours regarding the dishes to be served at Dinner, including one report from The Guardian which said an ice-cream meat pie was to appear on the menu. Dishes that do appear include scallops and peas with cucumber ketchup and bergamot cured mackerel salad. Each item has been based on a historical recipe, such as the scallop dish which dates from 1826 and was published in The Cook and Housewife's Manual by "Meg Dodds" (Christian Isobel Johnstone). One item which was reported in multiple reviews was the meat fruit, a chicken liver mousse made to look like a textured mandarin orange. The meat fruit was proving so popular that by November 2011, some 900 were being sold per week and the restaurant was aiming to increase production to be able to supply up to 1200 a week. The ice cream trolley holds a contraption created by Blumenthal and his team, and constructed from Corian by Mike Smith Studio at a cost of £25,000. Powered by a hand crank, it mixes custard and liquid nitrogen to create instant ice cream at the tableside. A variety of sprinkles, popping candy, apple jelly and so forth are available as toppings. The menus themselves include details such as the year from which the menu item originates. ## Reception In The Independent, the chef Mark Hix said Dinner produced the best meal he had he had eaten in "at least two years". He described the meat fruit starter as "astonishing", and said it could have been seen as gimmicky, but "when it tastes that good, it's difficult to complain". Tracey Macleod dined with Hix, and also praised the restaurant describing it as "no-fuss" and "direct". She also wrote that Hix remarked that the restaurant "could change the face of poncey dining". Zoe Williams for The Daily Telegraph gave the restaurant a rating of nine out of ten, saying that the meat fruit made her want to "stand up and cheer", but again said that although everything served was of the highest quality, the meal did not have a surprise like courses can sometimes have at the Fat Duck. For the same newspaper, Matthew Norman described it as a "theatrical tour de force". He described the restaurant's opening as flawless and described it as the "hottest ticket in town for a very long time to come" with a rating of ten out of ten. Chef Jason Atherton said that he could not recall a comparable buzz raised by a restaurant, and that he was relieved that the opening of his Pollen Street Social restaurant was not going to take place until late March 2011, a reasonable gap after the opening of Dinner. Richard Vines, whilst writing for Bloomberg, advised readers to not be put off the hype; he felt that while the courses are not as life changing as those served at the Fat Duck, there are stand out dishes such as the meat fruit and the tipsy cake. He also noted that the meat fruit was a favourite of Pierre Koffmann. Marina O'Loughlin visited the restaurant twice for the Metro newspaper, once just after opening and again several months later to compare how it had settled in. She thought it was a well-oiled operation, but a little too much so, and questioned the originality of it as a version of the meat fruit had previously been available at the restaurant Amber in another Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hong Kong and little touches as the years of origin which appear next to the menu items have been used before by Marco Pierre White. Jay Rayner for The Observer described the food as "seriously good", and concluded: "Dinner by Heston Blumenthal may be expensive, but it's also bloody lovely. Save up." In the 2012 Michelin guide, the restaurant was awarded its first Michelin star some nine months after opening, becoming one of only four restaurants in London to gain a star in 2012. It has also been awarded the Restaurant of the Year title by Tatler in 2011, and won the BMW Square Meal Award for Best New Restaurant. The Zagat guide awarded the restaurant the title of Best Newcomer in 2011. In 2012 at number 9 it was the highest new entry in The World's 50 Best Restaurants list by the UK magazine Restaurant, also the highest in the UK. The restaurant received a second Michelin Star in the 2014 Michelin guide, becoming Blumenthal's sixth star.
27,212,249	2011 World Snooker Championship	1,151,462,229	Snooker tournament	[ "2011 in English sport", "2011 in snooker", "April 2011 sports events in the United Kingdom", "May 2011 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Sports competitions in Sheffield", "World Snooker Championships" ]	The 2011 World Snooker Championship (officially the 2011 Betfred.com World Snooker Championship) was a professional snooker tournament that took place between 16 April and 2 May 2011 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. It was the 35th consecutive year that the World Snooker Championship had been held at the Crucible and was the last ranking event of the 2010–11 snooker season. The event was organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association and had a total prize fund of £1,111,000, with £250,000 going to the winner of the event. The tournament was sponsored by sports betting company Betfred. Neil Robertson was the defending champion, but lost 8–10 against Judd Trump in the first round. Trump became the youngest player since 1990 to reach the final where he lost to John Higgins. This was Higgins' fourth world title, becoming only the fourth man to win four or more championships in the modern era. Ding Junhui meanwhile became the first player from China to reach the semi-finals. Mark King and Ding Junhui made the highest breaks at the Crucible with 138; while James Wattana compiled the highest break of the tournament during qualifying with 141. An audience of 3.93 million viewers watched the fourth session in Great Britain with 2.03 million watching the third session of the final. The second and fourth sessions of the final were the most watched programmes on BBC Two for their particular weeks. Viewing figures on the BBC peaked at 6.6 million viewers. The figure of 3.9 million who watched the final session was up 50% on the year before. It was estimated that nearly half of the UK population watched the tournament at some point. In China, Ding Junhui's semi-final had an average watch of 19.4 million with a peak audience of 30 million over seven television networks. A record number of fans bought tickets, with the last four days and other sessions sold out with sales up 15% on 2010. ## Overview The World Snooker Championship is an annual cue sport tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. Invented in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India, the sport was popular in Great Britain. In modern times it has been played worldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations such as China, Hong Kong and Thailand. In the 2011 tournament, 32 professional players competed in one-on-one snooker matches played over several , using a single-elimination tournament format. The 32 players were selected for the event using the snooker world rankings and a pre-tournament qualification competition. In 1927, the first world championship was won by Joe Davis. The event's final took place in Camkin's Hall, Birmingham, England. Since 1977, the event has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England. The event was organised by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association. Australian Neil Robertson was the defending champion, having defeated Graeme Dott 18–13 in the previous year's final. The event was sponsored by sports betting company Betfred. ### Format The 2011 World Snooker Championship took place from 16 April to 2 May 2011 in Sheffield, England. The tournament was the last of eight ranking events in the 2010–11 snooker season on the World Snooker Tour. It featured a 32-player main draw that was held at the Crucible Theatre, as well as a qualifying draw that was played at the World Snooker Academy in Sheffield from 3 to 13 March. This was the 35th consecutive year that the tournament had been staged at the Crucible. The main stages of the event were broadcast by the BBC in the United Kingdom. The top 16 players in the latest world rankings automatically qualified for the main draw as seeded players. Robertson was seeded first overall as the defending champion, and the remaining 15 seeds were allocated based on the latest world rankings. The number of frames required to win a match increased throughout the tournament. The first round consisted of best-of-19-frames matches, with the final match being played over a maximum of 35 frames. All 16 non-seeded spots in the main draw were filled with players from the qualifying rounds. ### Prize fund For the 2011 tournament there was a £1,111,000 prize fund with the winner receiving £250,000. World Snooker offered no additional prize money for a maximum break, whereas in previous years the prize money for this achievement was £147,000. The breakdown of prize money for this year is shown below: - Winner: £250,000 - Runner-up: £125,000 - Semi-final: £52,000 - Quarter-final: £24,050 - Last 16: £16,000 - Last 32: £12,000 - Last 48: £8,200 - Last 64: £4,600 - Stage one highest break: £1,000 - Stage two highest break: £10,000 - Total: £1,111,000 ## Tournament summary ### Opening rounds (first round—quarter-finals) The first round was played from 16 to 21 April as the best of 19 frames held over two . Defending champion Neil Robertson led Judd Trump 7–6, but lost the match 8–10. Trump, having recently won the 2011 China Open, commented "I'm on a high at the moment and I don't want it to finish. I want to make winning a habit". There were two debutants at the main stages of the event: Andrew Pagett and Jimmy Robertson. This was also the first time that either had qualified for the main draw of a ranking tournament. Both players lost their opening round match, as Pagett lost 7–10 against Jamie Cope and Jimmy Robertson lost 1–10 against Mark Selby. Both Barry Hawkins and Rory McLeod reached the second round of the World Championship for the first time. Hawkins defeated Stephen Maguire on a 10–9 and McLeod defeated Ricky Walden 10–6. Ronnie O'Sullivan attempted to withdraw from the event one week before it started, but later, when asked for a written confirmation, changed his decision. He compiled his 100th century break at the venue in his first round match against Dominic Dale, as he won 10–2. Previous winner Graeme Dott led Mark King 7–3, but was reduced to a 7–6 lead. Dott won three of the next four frames to complete a 10–7 victory. Seven-time winner Hendry defeated Joe Perry 10–9 on a deciding frame, but hinted that he might retire after the event. In total, five out of the sixteen seeded players lost their first round matches: Neil Robertson, Maguire, Walden, Marco Fu and Peter Ebdon. Fu lost 8–10 against Martin Gould and Ebdon lost 8–10 against Stuart Bingham. The second round was played as the best of 25 frames, held over three sessions. Selby made six century breaks during his 13–4 victory over Hendry. This was the first time six century breaks had been made in a match at the event, and also for a best of 25 frames match at any event. Trump defeated Gould 13–6, with his opponent considering him to be a favourite to win the event, and Trump commenting "I feel I've got the game to go out and win it". Dott and Carter were tied at 11–11 in their second round match, before Dott won the next two frames to complete a 13–11 victory. Ding came back from 9–12 to defeat Stuart Bingham on a deciding frame. This was the first time that he had qualified for the quarter-finals of the world championships. Eleventh seed Mark Allen also went to a deciding frame, as he defeated Hawkins 13–12. In a long eight-hour match, John Higgins overcame Rory McLeod 13–7. The quarter-finals were played as the best of 25 frames. Mark Williams defeated Allen 13–5 to reach the semi-finals of the World Championship for the first time since winning the 2003 World Snooker Championship. Trump, rated an 80–1 outsider at the beginning of the tournament, defeated previous year's runner up Dott 13–5 to reach the semi-finals. Ding won his match 13–10 against Selby to become the third Asian player to reach the semi-finals of the world championship, following James Wattana and Fu. As a result of Selby's exit, Williams became the new world number one after the event. O'Sullivan led Higgins 8–5 in their quarter-final match, but won just two of the next ten frames, as Higgins won the match 13–10. O'Sullivan commented "I had enough chances to win, more than I expected. I just didn't take them", whilst Higgins suggested that O'Sullivan missing was the only way he could have won the match. ### Later rounds (semi-finals—final) The semi-finals were played as the best of 33 frames, held over four sessions. Trump defeated Ding 17–15 to become the second youngest player (after Hendry in 1990) to reach the final of the event. Trump also reached his second consecutive ranking final after winning the China Open at the start of the month. In China, the second session of the match drew a peak audience of nearly 30 million viewers and averaging over 19 million, with the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association claiming it was the highest rated sports programme of 2011 up to that point; however, the Women's Tennis Association claimed that the women's singles final of the Australian Open held earlier in the year drew an audience of 60 million viewers on Chinese television. Williams led Higgins 5–3 after the first session, and maintained his lead after the second session, which ended 9–7. Higgins, however, then won six of the next eight frames, to lead 13–11 after the third session. Higgins won the match 17–14 to reach his third final in five years. During the 28th frame Higgins was heckled by a member of the audience, "How did you swallow that £300,000, John? ... You're a disgrace to snooker." in reference to the News of the World allegations the previous year of match fixing, for which the heckler was later ejected from the venue. Higgins had only returned from a six month suspension due to the incident in November. The final was played as the best of 35 frames, held over four sessions. The final was contested between Higgins and Trump, and officiated by Jan Verhaas, who was taking charge of his fourth World Championship final. Ted Lowe, BBC commentator for many years and the deviser of the long-running snooker programme Pot Black, died at the age of 90 on the morning of 1 May. Before the start of the final that day, a minute's applause in honour of Lowe took place. After the first session was tied at four frames all, Trump won the second session 6–3 to take a 10–7 lead into the second day's play. Higgins took a 13–12 lead after the third session of the final, which he won 6–2. Trump levelled the match at 14–14, before Higgins won four of the last five frames to win the match 18–15. This was Higgins 24th ranking title, and the fourth time he had won the event. Only Ray Reardon, Steve Davis and Hendry had won the event as many times. Higgins complemented Trump "He was the better player. He was playing a brand of snooker I have never seen before in my life." The pair would also contest the 2019 World Snooker Championship final, with Trump winning 18–9. The highest of the tournament was 138 made by both King and Ding. This was the first time that the highest break of the tournament was lower than 140 since 1987, when it was 127 made by Davis. ## Main draw Below is the full draw for the main stage of the tournament. The numbers in brackets denote player seeding, whilst those in bold denote match winners. The draw for the first round took place on 21 March 2011, one day after the Players Tour Championship Finals. ## Qualifying ### Preliminary qualifying The preliminary qualifying rounds for the tournament took place on 3 March 2011 at the World Snooker Academy in Sheffield. Round 1 Round 2 ### Main qualifying The qualifying rounds 1–4 for the tournament took place between 4 and 10 March 2011 at the World Snooker Academy in Sheffield. The final round of qualifying took place between 12 and 13 March 2011 at the same venue. Round 1 Rounds 2–5 ## Century breaks ### Televised stage centuries There were 74 century breaks in the televised stage of the World Championship. - 138, 128, 121, 119, 117, 114, 102 – Ding Junhui - 138 – Mark King - 137, 125, 115, 113, 109, 106, 105, 104, 103 – Mark Williams - 135, 132, 131, 124, 123, 121, 120, 113, 101 – John Higgins - 134, 101 – Stuart Bingham - 133, 117, 114 – Stephen Hendry - 129, 127, 125, 124, 117, 108, 107, 100 – Mark Selby - 128, 119, 116, 115, 113, 105, 100 – Ronnie O'Sullivan - 127, 100 – Neil Robertson - 123, 122, 110, 108, 105, 104, 104, 103, 102, 102 – Judd Trump - 122, 120, 111, 102 – Graeme Dott - 117 – Barry Hawkins - 115, 112, 104 – Ali Carter - 115, 100 – Marco Fu - 114, 103, 102, 100 – Mark Allen - 101 – Stephen Lee - 100 – Shaun Murphy ### Qualifying stage centuries There were 73 century breaks in the qualifying stage of the World Championship. - 141 – James Wattana - 135, 108, 106, 100 – Xiao Guodong - 133, 125, 124, 120, 103 – Sam Baird - 132, 129, 118, 118, 115 – Jamie Burnett - 130, 114 – Kurt Maflin - 130 – Rory McLeod - 129 – David Gilbert - 129 – Matthew Stevens - 127 – Anthony McGill - 127 – Liu Chuang - 127, 122 – Ryan Day - 126, 114 – Stuart Bingham - 124 – Joe Swail - 124 – Gerard Greene - 123, 113 – Michael Holt - 123, 101, 100 – Matthew Selt - 122 – Ian McCulloch - 121 – Jack Lisowski - 119, 115, 100, 100 – Patrick Wallace - 117 – Liu Song - 116 – Andy Hicks - 113, 112, 107 – Kuldesh Johal - 113, 112 – David Gray - 112 – Thanawat Thirapongpaiboon - 112 – James McBain - 112 – Tom Ford - 111 – Jamie O'Neill - 111 – Barry Pinches - 111 – Jimmy Robertson - 109, 103 – Paul Davison - 109, 102 – Ken Doherty - 108 – Stephen Rowlings - 108, 101 – Dominic Dale - 107, 105 – Michael White - 106, 100 – Fergal O'Brien - 105, 101 – Steve Davis - 105 – Stephen Lee - 103 – Anthony Hamilton - 102 – Kyren Wilson - 101 – Zhang Anda - 101 – Mike Dunn - 101 – Liang Wenbo - 100 – Judd Trump
2,050,495	Princess Fiona	1,172,866,301	Fictional character in the Shrek franchise	[ "Animated characters introduced in 2001", "Animated human characters", "Characters created by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio", "Female characters in animated films", "Female characters in film", "Female characters in musical theatre", "Fictional female martial artists", "Fictional feminists and women's rights activists", "Fictional ogres", "Fictional princesses", "Fictional shapeshifters", "Film characters introduced in 2001", "Martial artist characters in films", "Ogres in animated film", "Shrek (franchise) characters", "Universal Pictures cartoons and characters" ]	Princess Fiona is a fictional character in DreamWorks' Shrek franchise, first appearing in the 1990 book Shrek! as the ugly princess and subsequently in the animated film adaption of the same name as Princess Fiona. One of the film series' main characters, Fiona is introduced as a beautiful princess placed under a curse that transforms her into an ogre at night. She is initially determined to break the enchantment by kissing a prince, only to meet and fall in love with Shrek, an ogre, instead. The character's origins and relationships with other characters are further explored in subsequent films; she introduces her new husband Shrek to her parents in Shrek 2 (2004), becomes a mother by Shrek the Third (2007), and is an empowered warrior in Shrek Forever After (2010), much of which takes place in an alternate reality in which Fiona and Shrek never meet. Created by screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio, Fiona is loosely based on the unsightly princess in William Steig's children's book Shrek! (1990), from which her role and appearance were significantly modified. The screenwriters adapted the character into a princess under a shapeshifting enchantment, an idea initially greatly contested by other filmmakers. Fiona is voiced by actress Cameron Diaz. Comedian and actress Janeane Garofalo was originally cast as the character until she was fired from the first film with little explanation. Fiona was one of the first human characters to have a lead role in a computer-animated film, thus the animators aspired to make her both beautiful and realistic in appearance. However, an early test screening resulted in children reacting negatively towards the character's uncanny realism, prompting the animators to re-design Fiona into a more stylized, cartoonish heroine. Several revolutionary achievements in computer animation were applied to the character to render convincing skin, hair, clothing and lighting. The character is considered a parody of traditional princesses in both fairy tales and animated Disney films. Reception towards Fiona has been mostly positive, with critics commending her characterization, martial arts prowess and Diaz's performance. However, reviewers were divided over the character's human design, some of whom were impressed by her technological innovations, while others found her realism unsettling and too similar to Diaz. Several media publications consider Fiona a feminist icon, crediting her with subverting princess and gender stereotypes by embracing her flaws. Diaz also became one of Hollywood's highest-paid actresses due to her role in the Shrek franchise, earning \$3 million for her performance in the first film and upwards of \$10 million for each sequel. ## Development ### Creation and writing Shrek is loosely based on William Steig's children's book Shrek! (1990), but significantly deviates from its source material, particularly pertaining to its main characters. In Steig's story, a witch foretells that Shrek will marry an unnamed princess, who she describes as uglier in appearance than Shrek himself, enticing the ogre to seek her. Described as "the most stunningly ugly princess on the surface of the planet", Steig's princess bears little resemblance to Fiona, but the two characters are immediately attracted to each other and wed with little conflict. Animation historian Maureen Furniss, writing for Animation World Network, identified the fact that Shrek's love interest is altered from "a really ugly woman" into a beautiful princess as the film's most significant modification. In an effort to expand the plot while making its characters more visually appealing and marketable "from a Hollywood" perspective, the writers decided to adapt Shrek!'s princess into a beautiful maiden who has been cursed to become ugly only during evenings, which she is forced to conceal from the film's other characters, thus providing "narrative motivation for not showing her ogre manifestation." Furthermore, Furniss observed that Lord Farquaad's romantic interest in Fiona is more practical since he is vain and only attracted to her beauty, while his main motivation remains to marry a princess so that he can rule Duloc. Feeling that her curse remaining undiscovered until the end was unsuitable for a feature-length film, screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio introduced the concept of a shapeshifting princess, which was rejected by the other filmmakers for six months because they found it "too complex" for a fairy tale. Elliot and Rossio contested that similar ideas had been used successfully in Disney's The Little Mermaid (1989) and Beauty and the Beast (1991), ultimately convincing the studio by referring to Fiona as an enchanted princess instead. Some writers expressed concerns over whether turning Fiona into an ogre full-time once she professes her love for Shrek suggested "that ugly people belong with ugly people." Rossio explained that since Fiona shape-shifts, the best moral is "'Even princesses who change their shapes can find love too.' And Shrek would love her in all of her varied forms." Elliot elaborated that this prompts audiences to debate if Fiona's "true form" is beautiful or unattractive: "Her true form is beautiful by day, ugly by night.' ... and she was trying to rid herself of part of who she truly was, because society maintained that was wrong." The studio ultimately conceded that Fiona remain an ogre, which Elliot considers to be "a more conventional idea". In early drafts of the script, Fiona is born an ogre to human parents, who lock her in a tower to conceal the true nature of their daughter's appearance, lying to the kingdom that she is a beautiful princess. One day, Fiona escapes and seeks assistance from a witch named Dama Fortuna, who offers her a choice between two potions: one will turn the princess beautiful, while the other guarantees Fiona's happily ever after. Fiona ignorantly drinks the "Beauty" potion for which she does not realize there is a catch, as the potion renders her human during the day only to revert her to an ogre every night. The writers originally intended for Fiona's backstory to be fully animated and used as the film's prologue, but discarded the idea after test audiences deemed it too depressing. Entitled "Fiona's Prologue", the sequence was storyboarded but never animated. A second abandoned scene entitled "Fiona Gets Them Lost" follows Fiona, Shrek and Donkey after she is and they become trapped in a cave; an action sequence inspired by the film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984) ensues. In the writers' original draft, Fiona's monstrous form was to have a physical altercation reminiscent of Hong Kong action films with Shrek once he discovers her, assuming that the monster has harmed Fiona. The idea was abandoned because, according to Elliot, few were familiar Hong Kong cinema's "emphasis on action and physicality" in comparison to more violent American films, explaining, "no matter how much we described it, [the studio] ... imagined this violent, knock-down, Steven Segal-type, bone-cracking fight", while some female crew members protested that the concept was misogynistic towards Fiona. Elliott and Rossio had suggested revisiting the discussion about Fiona's true nature is beautiful or an ogre in a potential sequel, but the idea was rejected. The directors spent four months brainstorming several new ideas for the sequel, before ultimately determining that the only logical "jump off point" was one of the few areas not explored in the first film: Fiona's parents' reaction to their daughter both marrying and remaining an ogre. Shrek 2 director Kelly Asbury explained that introducing Fiona's parents presented an entirely "new story to go on, and a whole new place to go." Additionally, Shrek 2 reveals why Fiona was locked in a tower in the first place, with the filmmakers realizing they could use some of the first film's abandoned concepts to gradually uncover more details about Fiona's story throughout the remainder of the series. For Shrek 2, the filmmakers decided to resurrect the idea of Dama Fortuna, re-imagining her as Fiona's conniving fairy godmother and the sequel's main villain, who uses magic against Fiona and Shrek's marriage. ### Voice Fiona is voiced by American actress Cameron Diaz, one of the franchise's three main cast members. Diaz voiced Fiona in all four installments of the film series over the course of ten years. The role was originally intended for comedian and actress Janeane Garofalo, who was fired from the first film and ultimately replaced with Diaz. Although Garofalo maintains that she was fired without explanation, it is believed that Fiona's re-casting resulted from the death of comedian Chris Farley, who was originally cast as Shrek and had already recorded most of the character's dialogue until he died during production, at which point he was replaced with actor Mike Myers. According to film historian Jim Hill, the filmmakers originally cast Garofalo as Fiona because they had felt that the actress' "abrasive, sarcastic comic persona" would serve as an ideal foil to Farley's positive approach to the titular character, but eventually relented that Garofalo was "too downbeat" for the film's lighter tone, offering the role to Diaz. With a "sweeter" version of Fiona introduced, Shrek was developed into a more pessimistic character in turn. Fiona was Diaz's first animated role. DreamWorks invited Diaz to star in an animated film about an ogre and a princess who learn to accept both themselves and each other. In addition to the film's positive message, Diaz was drawn to the idea of co-starring alongside Myers, Eddie Murphy and John Lithgow. Approaching her role as though it were a dramatic performance, Diaz recorded most of her dialogue before a full script had been written, working closely with director Andrew Adamson to stage scenes before the film had been storyboarded. Prior to Shrek, Diaz starred in the action comedy film Charlie's Angels (2000), a role for which she had undergone martial arts training. While recording the scene in which her character fights Monsieur Hood and his Merry Men, Diaz became quite animated, gesturing and occasionally uttering Cantonese phrases; her martial arts background is credited with benefiting the sequence. Diaz once burped during a recording session, which was written into a scene for Fiona. Without a proper screenplay to aid her, Diaz found the improvisation required for some scenes one of the most challenging aspects of the recording process. The actress did not see the film's completed story until after she had finished working on the project on-and-off for two years, by which point she finally truly understood her "character and ... what she was going through". Myers was both impressed with and inspired by Diaz's commitment to her role, to the point that he felt he was acting opposite Fiona herself. Asbury recalled that Diaz immediately "nailed" her character, elaborating, "She had this certain thing about her voice where she could be headstrong and know exactly what she wants and be confident, but also have this touch of sweet naivete and all make it completely believable." Despite admiring the performances of her predominately male co-stars, Diaz seldom worked directly with them throughout the Shrek series. Diaz enjoyed playing Fiona, and preferred voicing the character as an ogre over a human. Apart from Charlie's Angels, Shrek is the only franchise in which Diaz reprised a role. Because the origins of Fiona's parents had not yet been disclosed in the first film, Diaz voiced Fiona using an American accent. After discovering that English actors Julie Andrews and John Cleese would voice her parents Queen Lillian and King Harold, respectively, in Shrek 2, Diaz regretted voicing her character with her default Californian accent as opposed to a British accent, identifying this as one of the few things she would change about her performance in retrospect. Although admitting that working on the films for only a few hours at a time sporadically sometimes resulted in her feeling as though she is not "100 per cent involved ... at the same time, that character is so my character. I feel very possessive of Fiona. It's interesting to see something that's not actually tangible so fully embody your essence. It feels like I've lent something to this film that I could never give to any other film, in a weird way". Diaz would often defend Fiona's appearance from the press asking how she feels about playing an "ugly" character, explaining, "It's shocking to me that that's the perception, just because she's big and round ... Her body is everything that she is inside. I love that she is the princess who isn't like all the other princesses. She doesn't look like them, and she's just as beloved and accepted." In Shrek the Third (2007), Diaz co-starred alongside her ex-boyfriend, singer Justin Timberlake, with whom she had broken up the previous year. Timberlake plays her character's cousin Arthur Pendragon, heir to her late father's throne. Shrek 2 features a brief reference to Timberlake; a picture of a young knight named "Sir Justin" appears in Fiona's childhood bedroom, which is believed to be a reference to their relationship. Diaz was unaware of Timberlake's cameo until watching the film, believing it had been finalized before they were a couple. Although Timberlake was initially cast as Arthur while he was still dating Diaz, producer Aron Warner maintains that Timberlake's involvement was not influenced by their relationship, insisting that he earned the role based on his own merit and comedic timing. The film's May 2007 premiere in Los Angeles was the first media event at which the former couple had been photographed since the end of their relationship. Director Mike Mitchell denied media speculation that Timberlake and his character's omission from Shrek Forever After (2010) correlated to Diaz and Timberlake's breakup, explaining that Arthur was written out solely to allow more screen time for more relevant characters. A filmmaker described Diaz as "the rock" of the franchise because "She brings such a great spirit to these movies." Following the release of Shrek Forever After, the series' final installment, Diaz reflected that the Shrek films had remained her "safety net" for several years, describing the period as "a decade of knowing that you finish one and for the next two years we'll be making another one". She remains hopeful for future sequels. Diaz was saddened to bid farewell to her character, admitting that she took the films and Fiona for granted until the end because she always assumed she would be invited back within a few months for another installment. Considering the role "a privilege and honor", Diaz maintains that Fiona is the role for which she is most recognized by children, but she prefers when parents allow them to pretend that her character truly exists without revealing her voice actress, often attempting to prevent parents from exposing the truth. Diaz elaborated that Fiona has become "part of my screen persona. Rather than me putting myself through her I think she comes through me in a weird way. When people think of me they think of Fiona, it's not the other way around." Diaz believes that her popularity has greatly increased since voicing the character. Despite being currently in development, Diaz has yet to confirm whether or not she will reprise her role in a fifth film, although she had previously said that she would return for a fifth installment if asked. Diaz's role in the Shrek series is believed to have contributed to her becoming one of Hollywood's wealthiest actresses by 2008. After being paid \$3 million for the first film, Diaz originally re-negotiated to receive \$5 million for Shrek 2, estimated to be an hourly salary of \$35,000. She ultimately earned between \$10 and \$15 million for reprising her role. For Shrek the Third, it is said Diaz was paid \$30 million, her highest salary at that point, due to securing a significant portion of the installment's profits. She earned \$10 million for Shrek Forever After. In 2010, Forbes ranked Diaz Hollywood's second highest-earning voice actor, behind only Myers. On the actress' lucrative earnings, filmmaker Herschell Gordon Lewis wrote in an article for the Sun-Sentinel "Sure, she captured the character well. Yes, the 'Shrek' movies invariably are box office successes. But can anyone say that if the voice of Princess Fiona were that of a competent actress other than Cameron Diaz, the movie would have flopped?" Actress Holly Fields has provided the character's singing voice in the film, in addition to voicing the character in several video games, toys, commercials and amusement park rides. Fields is often hired to imitate Diaz, describing the experience as one of her "coolest jobs". ### Design and animation Fiona is the franchise's female lead and Shrek's romantic interest. Shrek was the first computer-animated film to feature human characters in lead roles, thus director Vicki Jenson believed its heroine should be beautiful yet convincing. Elliott and Rossio had originally envisioned Fiona's monstrous form as furry in appearance, wanting her to resemble an entirely unique character as opposed to simply a female version of Shrek, but the filmmakers struggled to agree upon her final design. Aiming to achieve stylized realism, the animators found that they could emphasize Fiona's face most efficiently by focusing "on the subtleties of the human form" and compiling translucent layers of skin to prevent the character from resembling plastic, a task they found particularly daunting due to people's familiarity with human skin. To make Fiona's skin more believable, the animators studied dermatology books to learn how various light sources interact with human skin, which visual effects supervisor Ken Bielenberg approached as though they were lighting Diaz herself. Bielenberg joked, "You want the sunset to reflect off her face in a way that's flattering ... Fiona may be a computerized princess, but she has her bad side." The animators painted a combination of freckles and warmer tones onto some of her skin's deeper layers, through which they then filtered light. A shader was used to penetrate, refract and re-emerge layers of light, the concentration of which was adjusted to achieve Fiona's desired radiance; they learned that too much exposure resulted in a mannequin-like appearance. The lighting department consulted with makeup artist Patty York to learn different approaches to creating realistic effects on Fiona's face, while the computer graphics software Maya was used to animate her hair, which consists of more than 1 million polygons. The animators felt that Fiona's design was "too real" at times. When the film was previewed to test audiences, some children cried because they found Fiona's hyperrealism disturbing; the character was suffering from a phenomenon known as the uncanny valley. Consequently, DreamWorks ordered that the character be re-animated to appear more like a cartoon and less like a human simulation. Animator Lucia Modesto recalled that her team was instructed to "pull back" on the character's design because her realism was growing unpleasant. Subsequently, Fiona was modified to fit in among the film's more fantastical characters, which supervising animator Raman Hui credits with improving the believability of Fiona and Shrek's relationship. To make Fiona a more "cartoony-looking love interest", the animators enlarged her eyes and smoothed her skin. Hui acknowledged that Fiona was much more difficult to animate as a human because any errors were quite apparent. In total, Fiona's face required a year of constant experimentation before the animators were satisfied with her final design: a realistic yet softer interpretation of the princess. Director Andrew Adamson admitted that making Fiona beautiful yet viscerally familiar posed several unique challenges for the filmmakers. For example, her eyebrows sometimes cast shadows over her eyes, while her upturned lip and large eyes resulted in a "spooky" appearance. They wanted Fiona's appearance to be relatable without "stick[ing] out among Shrek and the other fantastic characters and distract from the fairy-tale mood." Adamson identified Fiona as the film's most difficult character to animate due to people's familiarity with human mannerisms and expressions, whereas audiences are not nearly as accustomed to talking animals, such as Donkey. Hui maintains that Fiona's appearance was not based on that of any specific individual. Although the animators wanted to avoid making the character resemble Diaz too closely, elements of the actress's movements and mannerisms, which were videotaped during recording sessions, were incorporated into Fiona nonetheless, which they drew onto a different face to create a unique new character. Studying Diaz's mannerisms inspired the animators to exaggerate Fiona's expressions and reactions, instead of striving for realism. For example, Adamson believes Fiona squinting her eyes and compressing her lips while listening to someone else offers "a richness you've never seen before", despite their difficulty to animate. Diaz was shocked and ran out of the studio screaming joyfully when she saw her character animated to her voice for the first time. Although Diaz did not think the character resembles her, she recognized that Fiona shared many of her own mannerisms, likening her to "some kind of strange sister". Fiona's body consists of 90 muscles, but her entire model is made up of more than 900 movable muscles. Even in her ogre form, Fiona is significantly smaller than Shrek, with layout supervisor Nick Walker confirming that Shrek is capable of swallowing Fiona's head whole. Actor Antonio Banderas, who voices Puss in Boots, originally found it challenging to accept Fiona's unconventional appearance. Banderas believes several audience members experienced a similar struggle watching the film because "We are used to rejecting ugliness without reason". Costume designer Isis Mussenden designed Fiona's costumes for the first two films, helping develop new technology to animate clothing in the then-new computer animation medium. The filmmakers wanted a more realistic approach to costumes than previous computer animated films, in which clothing was typically depicted as a tight layer adorned with a few wrinkles. The filmmakers had envisioned Fiona's velvet gown moving independently from her body, and therefore recruited Mussenden to assist with the process. Mussenden began by creating a one-quarter scale replica of the skirt, and worked with a pattern maker and designer to determine the gown's volume and fullness. The patterns and seams were labeled and forwarded to the animators, who used computers to replicate the images. Mussenden decided to give Fiona's dresses tight sleeves as opposed to the long, flowing sleeves associated with traditional medieval clothing due to the difficulty of animating the latter. Unlike Shrek, Fiona undergoes several costume changes in Shrek 2. To ensure that both Fiona's human and ogre forms look equally flattering in the same green dress, Mussenden lowered its waistline to offer a more medieval appearance than the dress she wears in the first film. Fiona's first costume is a lilac dress, which Mussenden designed to appear "organic and textured, because she's been living in the swamp". Towards the end of the film, she changes into a white ballgown with rhinestones inspired by an image of a 1958 dress the costume designer had found. The scene in which Fiona single-handedly defeats Monsieur Hood and his Merry Men references the slow motion special effects popularized by The Matrix (1999), as well as Diaz's own Charlie's Angels films. In a DVD bonus feature, Fiona explains that she performed her own stunts in the film, claiming that she based her kung fu on Charlie's Angels. Despite concerns that references to The Matrix would eventually date the film, Rossio believes the gag will remain funny because it is a parody instead of merely an imitation. A similar reference is made when Fiona defeats a mob at the beginning of Shrek 2, a complex sequence for which animators used powerful data processors to store and manipulate millions of computer generated images. Modesto created new character models for Fiona and Shrek in Shrek the Third, while new software and servers were implemented to animate individual strands of the princess's hair much faster than had been possible during production of the first film. In Shrek Forever After's alternate reality, the character wears her hair unbraided for the first time, which was inspired by singer Janis Joplin. Due to its costliness, Fiona's new hairstyle first needed to be approved by DreamWorks, with Mitchell likening the process to "prepar[ing] like a lawyer". The re-design was a difficult, expensive process that required 20 animators to animate each strand individually, as Mitchell was particularly determined to render it correctly due to audiences' familiarity with long hair. One group was specifically tasked with setting up Fiona's hair, which head of production technology Darin Grant believes "allowed the process to be optimized and work across many, many shots" as it "flows and cascades throughout" the entire film, reinforcing Fiona's liberated personality. ### Personality According to Rossio, the first film's four main characters are written "around the concept of self-esteem, and appropriate and/or inappropriate reactions to appropriate or inappropriate self-assessment", explaining that Fiona seeks validation from others because she believes "there's something not correct about herself". Adamson elaborated that the character's main issue revolves around living up to stereotypes and ideas "represented in fairy tales that if ... you look a certain way and act a certain way and put the right dress and slippers on a handsome man is going to come", dismissing this as an unrealistic and unhealthy approach to finding romance. Diaz confirmed that Fiona only becomes her true self once she is freed from the tower and realizes her Prince Charming differs from who she had been taught to expect. A scene during which Fiona duets with a bird who explodes once the princess sings a high note, subsequently frying its eggs for breakfast, is considered to be a parody of Disney fairy tales such as Cinderella (1950), about which Adamson explained "pok[es] fun at people's expectations" of princesses. Diaz believes her character's personality "shattered" children's perception of princess characters from the moment she was freed from the tower, explaining that Fiona had always been capable of freeing herself but chose to remain in the tower solely because she was "following the rules of a fairy tale book". In the sequel, Diaz explained that Fiona "has a lot of pressure from all the people who told her about Prince Charming to take everything materialistically and monetarily. And she literally is just kind of baffled by it and says, 'Sorry, but I don't need any of those things.' All she needs is this man who she loves and loves her and accepts her." Diaz considers her character to be an empowered, positive role model for young girls, explaining, "She's never depended on anyone to rescue her, which is a different message from Snow White and Rapunzel ... She was capable of getting out of the tower herself" and "took on Shrek as her partner rather than as her rescuer." She believes that the moment she accepts herself as an ogre is her most empowered moment, as well as "the biggest stride in her evolution as a person". Diaz considers Fiona to be "the anchor that holds all these kooky characters", identifying her as the comedy's straight man. Revealing that she "hate[s] naggy women", Diaz sometimes found herself wishing that Fiona would be "less naggy" and more compassionate and understanding towards the difficult changes Shrek is undergoing since marrying her. During production of Shrek the Third, Diaz observed that the filmmakers had made Fiona into more of a nag and asked that they tone this down, explaining, "just because she got married it doesn't mean she has to become a nag'." This was one of only a few things Diaz asked that they adjust about Fiona. In Shrek Forever After's alternate reality, Fiona frees herself from the tower on her own and subsequently becomes a warrior and leader of an army of ogres, which some commentators found to be a more empowering approach to the princess; Diaz contested that her character has "always been a warrior ... of love through all these films. What she's worked for, what she's fought for is the love that she has for herself and the love that she has for Shrek and her family and her friends." Diaz concluded that, due to the fourth film's tone, Fiona's responsibilities are simply more apparent, believing that in this film she is "fighting for what she believes in." ## Characterization and themes Todd Anthony of the Sun-Sentinel cited Fiona among several elements that make Shrek resemble an archetypal fairy tale initially. Furniss identified Fiona's character arc as struggling with insecurities about her identity and appearance before finally "accept[ing] herself in a so-called 'ugly' physical manifestation", which she described as merely "cute" as opposed to "push[ing] the boundaries of true ugliness." Demonstrated by her "very definite ideas about how she wants to be rescued," Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In believes Fiona "has bought into the conventions of fairy tale romanticism hook, line and sinker", writing, "Her skewed perspective on love and marriage undermines agape love and spiritual discernment in relationships." Similarly, TV Guide film critic Frank Lovece described Fiona as a "beautiful and headstrong princess" who has spent too much time thinking about true love. Michael Sragow, film critic for The Baltimore Sun, agreed that the character is "fixated on being treated like a fairy-tale princess", resulting in a precarious outlook on reality. Although Fiona is originally disappointed upon discovering her rescuer is not a Prince Charming, her expectations are more-so grounded in "rituals of self-loathing". Furniss believes Fiona's story is targeted towards Disney films in which princesses are constantly rescued from "horrible fates by knights". However, despite her efforts to look, speak and behave like a traditional princess, Fiona is soon proven to be an nontraditional princess, exemplified by her traits as a skilled fighter, unusual diet occasionally consisting of wild animals and tendency to belch spontaneously. James Clarke, author of Animated Films - Virgin Film, described Fiona as "both an old-school and new-school heroine, in love with the notion of a charming prince who will rescue her but also tough talking and tough acting". Although she originally possesses traits associated with a traditional princess, being tall and slender, both Shrek and audiences soon agree that Fiona is different, and the princess is merely "following a script from a storybook" herself. Paul Byrnes of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that Fiona's depiction in the first film offers "a sense of how gender roles had shifted" by resembling "a bottom-kicking heroine". Among her unusual characteristics, John Anderson of Newsday observed that Fiona is "perfectly capable of taking care of herself. She's just been waiting for some classic romance." Although in the context of the film Shrek initially observes Fiona's differences once she belches, "it rapidly also becomes apparent that she is indeed not a prototypical fairy-tale princess", according to authors Johnny Unger and Jane Sunderland. The New York Press observed that Shrek emphasizes "that the ogre falls in love with the heroine not because of her conventional good looks, but in spite of them ... looking past Fiona's skinny, blond human surface and seeing the belching, bug-eating ogre beneath." Journalist Steve Sailer, writing for UPI, similarly wrote that "Fiona wins Shrek's heart by belching, beating up Robin Hood's Merry Men (who act like Broadway chorus boys) with cool "Matrix"-style kung fu, and cooking the Blue Bird of Happiness' eggs for breakfast." Elliot believes that Fiona's storyline explores "the actual prevalence of attitudes about appearance in society", identifying a theme of lacking self-esteem as particularly prevalent with Fiona. Film critic Emanuel Levy shared that "Fiona suffers/benefits from duality", transitioning from a "sexy, opinionated, and feisty" character into an outcast once "her secret is revealed", after which she becomes closer to Shrek. Matt Zoller Seitz, film critic for the New York Press, wrote that Fiona takes the film's metaphor pertaining the people "passing for something they're not" to "a whole different level", explaining, "At first you think she's a standard-issue princess who's willing to let her hair down and hang with the riffraff", describing her as "a modern-day Disney heroine". Seitz also observed "interracial overtones" in Fiona and Shrek's relationship. PopMatters contributor Evan Sawdey wrote that the Shrek films use Fiona to promote acceptance, particularity the moment she "discovers that her true form is that of an ogre", by which she is not saddened. Believing that Fiona would happily battle and defend whatever she loves or believes in, Diaz identified the character as "the anchor everyone has attached themselves to", to whom Shrek looks to for guidance, which she would not have been able to provide unless she possessed the strength herself. In terms of character development and evolvement, Diaz recalled that, despite having been raised in a "storybook life", Fiona eventually comes to terms with the fact that "her Prince Charming didn't come in the package she thought he would. She's learned to have patience with Shrek, accept him for who he his", particularly going against being taught that her Prince Charming must look and act a certain way. Thus, Adamson considers Fiona to be "an empowering character" for young girls. Unlike Farquaad, Shrek respects Fiona for speaking up for and defending herself. Fiona's final transformation sequence in which she transforms into an ogre permanently is considered to be a parody and critique of the Beast's transformation into a human in Disney's Beauty and the Beast (1991), with Fiona coming to realize that her "true love's true form" is in fact an ogre. Novelist and film critic Jeffrey Overstreet considered it to be "part of society's downfall that we embrace the Princess Fionas when they're glamorous rather than real." Film critic Roger Ebert observed that Fiona is the only princess competing to be Farquaad's bride (opposite Cinderella and Snow White) "who has not had the title role in a Disney animated feature", which he considered to be "inspired by feelings DreamWorks partner Jeffrey Katzenberg has nourished since his painful departure from Disney". In a review for Salon, film critic Stephanie Zacharek observed that Fiona "has two little frecklelike beauty spots, one on her cheek and one on her upper chest", which she interpreted as "symbols of her human authenticity, but they also serve as a sort of factory trademark left by her creators: 'You see, we've thought of every last detail.'" Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail observed that Fiona "appears to replicate the body of Cameron Diaz", describing her as "a cute brunette with a retroussé nose, ample curves, and cleavage that broadens whenever she bends low in her scoop-neck frock." Fiona is skilled in hand-to-hand combat and martial arts. The New York Times journalist A. J. Jacobs wrote that Fiona's kung fu skills rival those of actor Bruce Lee, abilities she is explained to have inherited from her mother Queen Lillian. Describing Fiona as tough and clever, museum curator Sarah Tutton observed that, despite being a love interest, the character "doesn't play the typical supporting role ... Just because Princess Fiona subverts the idea of beauty, it doesn't mean that beauty is not important. It means that the film isn't taking it as a cliche." In the third film, Fiona teaches the classic princesses, who are naturally inclined "to assume passive positions", not to wait for their princes to rescue them, making them over into action heroines themselves when Prince Charming takes over the kingdom while teaching them to stand up for themselves. Several critics considered this moment to be about girl power and female empowerment, as well as a Charlie's Angels reference. Diaz believes that the films and her character "retain the best qualities of" classic fairy tale characters, "infusing them with contemporary wit, style and relevance" for a more contemporary generation. Diaz elaborated, "We do love those girls ... But now they have a whole new life. They can exist in our current culture, our pop culture again ... Where before, they were forgotten. It's a celebration of them. It's a rebirth." Furthermore, Diaz believes that the princesses' independence is a positive message for both women and men, interpreting it as "a message for everyone ... You have to be proactive in your own life." Miller believes that Fiona's skills as a martial artist prove naturally beneficial to her adjustment to motherhood because "she can use her whole body. She's very adaptable." ## Appearances ### Film series Fiona first appears in Shrek (2001) as a bride chosen by Lord Farquaad, who intends to marry the princess solely so that he can become King of Duloc. In order to regain ownership of his swamp, Shrek and Donkey agree to retrieve Fiona from her dragon-guarded tower and deliver her to Farquaad. Fiona is rescued successfully but disappointed upon discovering that Shrek is an ogre instead of a knight, proceeding to act coldly towards him at the beginning of their journey back to Duloc. However, her attitude softens once she overhears Shrek explain that he is constantly misjudged by his appearance, and the two gradually develop a camaraderie as Fiona falls in love with Shrek. Late one evening, Donkey discovers that Fiona is under an enchantment that transforms her into an ogre every night, and she wishes to break the spell by kissing Farquaad before the next sunset. When she finally decides to tell Shrek the truth the following morning, she transforms back into human and learns that Shrek has already summoned Farquaad to take her back to Duloc himself, having overheard and misinterpreted some of her conversation with Donkey. The princess and ogre part ways, Fiona returning to Duloc with Farquaad and Shrek returning to his swamp alone. Shrek and Donkey soon interrupt Fiona and Farquaad's wedding ceremony, where Shrek professes his love for her. With the sun setting, Fiona allows herself to transform into an ogre in front of Shrek for the first time, prompting Farquaad to threaten to lock her back in her tower for eternity. However, the dragon that had once imprisoned Fiona, eats Farquaad, killing him. Fiona finally confesses her feelings for Shrek and, upon kissing him, turns into an ogre full-time; the two ogres marry. In Shrek 2 (2004), Fiona and Shrek return home from their honeymoon to find that Fiona's parents are inviting them to the kingdom of Far, Far Away to celebrate and bless their marriage. Shrek is apprehensive about meeting his parents-in-law, but Fiona insists. Fiona's parents, King Harold and Queen Lillian, are surprised to find that their daughter married an ogre, with Harold acting particularly coldly towards his new son-in-law, which in turn strains Fiona and Shrek's relationship. When a tearful Fiona unintentionally summons her Fairy Godmother, who discovers that the princess married someone other than Prince Charming – her own son – she conspires with Harold to kill Shrek and trick Fiona into falling in love with Charming, as per their original agreement. Fiona is briefly returned to her human form when Shrek consumes a potion that turns both him and his true love beautiful, but Shrek must obtain a kiss from Fiona before midnight, otherwise the spell will revert. However, Fairy Godmother, from whom Shrek steals the potion, tricks Fiona into believing Charming is Shrek's human form. Despite their efforts, Fiona continues to resent Charming's impression of her husband to the point where Fairy Godmother imprisons Shrek and insists that Harold feed Fiona a potion that will force her to fall in love with whomever she kisses first, intending for this to be Charming. However, the king refuses upon seeing how unhappy Fiona has become, thwarting Fairy Godmother's plan. Fairy Godmother and Charming are defeated by Fiona, Shrek and their friends. Although Shrek offers to kiss Fiona so that they can remain human forever, Fiona refuses, insisting that she would rather spend forever with the ogre she fell in love with and married, and they turn back into ogres. In Shrek the Third (2007), Fiona and Shrek take on the roles of acting Queen and King of Far, Far Away, while Harold is ill. When Harold passes away, Shrek is reluctantly named next-in-line to Harold's throne, a position he declines because becoming king would prevent him and Fiona from returning to their swamp. Determined to locate a suitable heir, Shrek sets out to recruit Fiona's cousin Arthur Pendragon to convince him to assume the throne. Before Shrek departs, Fiona finally reveals that she is pregnant, forcing Shrek to come to terms with the idea of fatherhood. While Shrek, Donkey and Puss venture to Camelot to recruit Arthur, Fiona remains at Far, Far Away, where her princess friends Rapunzel, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella and her stepsister Doris host a baby shower for her. The shower is interrupted by Prince Charming, still bitter over losing both the kingdom and Fiona to Shrek. Charming stages an invasion so that he can proclaim himself king of Far Far Away. Instead of waiting to be rescued, an idea that Fiona finds appalling, she encourages the princesses to free themselves and fight back. After escaping the dungeon, Fiona, Lillian and the princesses (albeit Rapunzel, who has betrayed them to marry Charming) organize a resistance to defend themselves and the kingdom. Artie makes a speech to convince the villains to go straight. In the end, Fiona and Shrek return to the swamp, where Fiona gives birth to ogre triplets named Felicia, Fergus and Farkle. Shrek Forever After (2010) reveals that, during the events of the first film, Fiona's parents had nearly lost the kingdom to Rumpelstiltskin, nearly signing it over in return for their daughter's freedom, but his plans are thwarted when Fiona is rescued by and falls in love with Shrek. Fiona confronts Shrek, who has grown frustrated with his mundane repetitive life since becoming a father, about losing his temper during their children's birthday; a heated argument between the two prompts Shrek to wish he had never rescued Fiona from the tower, a comment by which Fiona is hurt. When Shrek makes his deal with Rumpelstiltskin, for a single day he is taken to an alternate reality where he was never born. Here, Rumpelstiltskin has seized power by tricking Fiona's parents out of ruling the kingdom of Far Far Away. Since Shrek never frees Fiona from the tower, she escapes on her own and is still under the witch's spell – human by day and ogre by night – and has subsequently become the leader of a group of Ogre resistance fighters. Shrek initially believes his relationship with Fiona still exists there but when she doesn't even recognize him, he finally accepts completely that the reality he is in is not his own and that Rumpelstiltskin has truly altered reality to be as if he never existed until now. Fiona is shown to still be kindhearted and caring but bitterly cynical and disillusioned about the power of true love, because she was never rescued from her tower, having grown traumatized from her years of solitary imprisonment. She begins to fall in love with him again when he starts training with her, but still does not kiss him (having only started to find him likable). But Fiona's attitude towards Shrek changes as she and the other ogres head off to take down Rumpelstiltskin once and for all. During the day, Shrek realizes that a loophole will negate the deal if he can receive a True Love's kiss from Fiona. After a failed attempt, they realize that he has succeeded when Fiona's curse has been broken. The timeline returns to normal, and Shrek returns to his children's birthday party before he lashed out at everybody and warmly greets Fiona. ### Television specials and shorts Fiona has appeared in two holiday-themed television specials: Shrek the Halls (2007) and Scared Shrekless (2010). The animated short Shrek in the Swamp Karaoke Dance Party! (2001) is included on home video releases of Shrek, featuring several of the film's characters performing covers of well-known songs. In the short, Fiona sings an excerpt from Madonna's song "Like a Virgin" (1984). Fiona appears in the short Shrek 4-D, a 4-D film originally shown at various amusement and theme parks. The short was renamed Shrek 3-D and The Ghost of Lord Farquaad for home video and streaming service releases. In it, Fiona and Shrek's honeymooning plans are interrupted by Farquaad's ghost, who abducts Fiona and intends to kill the princess so that he can remarry her ghost in the afterlife. Shrek and Donkey pursue Farquaad determined to rescue her, assisted by Dragon. Fiona appears in the short film Far, Far Away Idol, a parody of the reality television singing competition American Idol, which is included as a bonus feature on home video releases of Shrek 2. First serving as a judge alongside Shrek and an animated version of American Idol judge Simon Cowell, offering feedback about the other characters performances, Fiona eventually duets The Romantics' "What I Like About You" with Shrek. ### Stage Fiona appeared in the stage musical adaptation of the film, which ran on Broadway from 2008 to 2010. The role was originated by actress Sutton Foster, who had been involved in the project three years before its premiere, having learned about it from composer Jeanine Tesori and director Jason Moore. She was drawn towards the idea of playing a princess for the first time, the prospect of which she found "fun", as well as the opportunity to collaborate with lyricist and librettist David Lindsay-Abaire. Actresses Keaton Whittaker and Marissa O'Donnell portrayed younger versions of the character. Before production, Foster described Fiona as an atypical princess who is "a little bipolar, but rightfully so" having "grown up, like we all have, with ideas of how the world works" while trying to surround herself with, and emulate fairy tales. Foster believes Fiona constantly struggles with her "inner ogre" despite trying to be perfect. "Everything she's been told is that she's supposed to look a certain way and act a certain way, but everything on the inside is telling her something different." Although Fiona longs to be a "proper princess", Foster identifies herself as "more of a tomboy", while Fiona's body contradicts her desires: "as soon as she starts farting and burping, she has a really great time! And I just love that, that she finds herself in just having fun with an ogre, with Shrek. And I love that she falls in love with him through something crude." Foster found it "fun to play a truly conflicted character and to be a princess who burps and farts and gets to do silly things." Foster earned a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical. Despite being a fan of the musical adaption, Diaz has stated that she has no intention of reprising her role on stage. In the musical's original West End cast, Fiona was portrayed by Amanda Holden. Other actresses who have played Fiona in various productions around the world include Kimberley Walsh, Carley Stenson, Faye Brookes, Lucy Durack, Amelia Lily, Laura Main, Joanne Clifton and Julia Murney. ## Reception ### Critical response During early press screenings, critics were amused by Fiona's bluebird scene, to the point where they laughed hysterically. David Ansen of Newsweek reported that the sequence consistently "sends audiences into fits of delight". Time film critic Richard Schickel called Fiona "an excellent character", highlighting her confrontation with Monsieur Hood. Similarly, the New York Post film critic Lou Lumenick identified Fiona's encounters with Monsieur Hood and the bluebird as clever, delightful "sendups of a long line of Disney classics". Kelly Vance of the East Bay Express wrote, "Armed with Diaz' vocal portrayal ... Fiona is more charming, more vulnerable, perkier, and even more sensitive than if she were played by a human actress". Film critic Emanuel Levy believes Shrek benefits from Fiona, writing that "Diaz applies well skills she had acquired for Charlie's Angels". Hollywood.com's Robert Sims joked that "Fiona could teach Charlie's Angels a lesson or two in romance and survival skills". Malcolm Johnson of the Hartford Courant lauded Fiona as "a marvel, as beautiful and shapely as a real star but capable of moves that go beyond the wirework in The Matrix". Johnson continued, "Every turn of Fiona's head, every glance, every shift of mouth lift character animation to new heights". Similarly, the London Evening Standard wrote that "every bright ringlet on Princess Fiona ... the liquefaction flow of her velvet robe, even her skin tones have the feel of organic root, thread or cell". Slant Magazine's Ed Gonzalez identified Fiona's struggles with self-loathing as the film's strongest asset. Reviewing Shrek the Third, Entertainment Weekly film critic Lisa Schwarzbaum described Fiona as "fabulously resourceful", identifying the moment she reinvents her princess friends into independent women as the film's sole "Cool Thing". Diaz has also received positive attention for her voice acting. The Washington Post film critic Desson Howe wrote that Diaz's performance offers "a funny, earthy princess". GamesRadar+ wrote Fiona "nestle[s] comfortably between the movie's storybook style and photo-realistic convincingness," continuing that Diaz's performance "reinforces her game-for-a-laugh reputation". Kim Morgan of OregonLive.com said, "Diaz's sweet yet tough demeanor shines through all her computer-generated-imagery beauty," citing her vulnerability as an asset. The Daily Telegraph's film critic Andrew O'Hagan believes Diaz imbues Fiona with "easygoing shrillness that modern eight-year-olds may find likeable", while the Deseret News' Jeff Vice wrote that Diaz proves more than merely "a pretty face". Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle reviewed Diaz as an improvement upon "the spunkiness of today's heroines" by "packing surprise punches that would have suited her role in Charlie's Angels". Turner Classic Movies believes Diaz's performance earned the actress "a legion of younger fans", a sentiment with which TV Guide agreed. PopMatters' Cynthia Fuchs, reviewing the fourth film, described the princess as "always at least a little wonderful, patient, and smart (and now awesomely Amazonian)," and found herself wishing Fiona would discover a parallel universe in which she is truly appreciated. Not all reviews were positive. Finding Fiona's fight scene unnecessary, Derek Armstrong of AllMovie wrote that it "leaves things feeling scattershot" despite its appealing visuals. In a negative review, CNN's Paul Tatara dismissed Fiona as "bland" and the film's "only miscue among the characters". Criticizing her design, Tatara felt the princess "gives off the creepy air of a possessed Barbie Doll" while "Diaz's California-girl line readings simply don't fit the character." Similarly, the Chicago Tribune's Mark Caro found Fiona's design generic and Barbie-like, but admitted these characteristics benefit the film's plot and themes. Anthony Quinn of The Independent found Fiona's realism particularly troubling, suggesting that the animators should have simply "invite[d] Cameron Diaz to play her as well as voice her." Similarly, The New Yorker film critic Anthony Lane felt the character was too realistic, writing, "What I don't want is to gaze at Princess Fiona ... and wonder if she is supposed to resemble Cameron Diaz". Peter Bradshaw, film critic for The Guardian, dismissed Fiona and the film's human characters as "disappointingly ordinary looking and unexpressive," comparing them to claymation, while New York's Peter Rainer agreed that human characters such as Fiona "are less interesting". Paul Malcolm of LA Weekly described Diaz's performance as "insuperably flat". Philippa Hawker of The Age felt the third film could benefited from Fiona being named Harold's heir, opposing the idea of relegating her to "a cursory girl-power scenario". ### Feminist analysis Some media publications have regarded Fiona as a feminist icon. Upon her debut, Fiona was celebrated by most critics "as a radical new take on the princess myth". Fiona's subversion of common princess tropes continues to be widely discussed in the media. Wired contributor Claudia Puig felt the first film boasts "a wonderfully affirming message for girls courtesy of Fiona". Jack Rear, writing for Pretty 52, described Fiona as "feminism goals" due to her martial arts proficiency. Affinity Magazine contributor Isabel Tovar identified the moment Fiona defeats Monsieur Hood as "female empowering", believing "Fiona has been feminist queen since day one." Teresa Brickey of The Odyssey said Fiona contested the patriarchy by "accept[ing] her body ... who she loved, and fought for right to do her thing." Reviewing Shrek Forever After, Rachel Giese of CBC found the character's "girl-power turn as a warrior princess" to be one of the installment's most endearing changes. Crowning the character "the best feminist action hero around", Emily Shire of The Week deemed Fiona "the kind of feminist action hero movies need more of", describing her as a strong heroine who "saves herself and loved ones" while accepting the "'ugly' and 'gross' aspects of herself". Shire also voiced her preference for Fiona over The Hunger Games' Katniss Everdeen and the superheroine Wonder Woman. Allison Maloney of The Shriver Report shared Shire's sentiments. Felicity Sleeman, a writer for Farrago, believes "Fiona completely dispels any misconceptions of the passive princess trope", citing her as a strong female character "able to stand up for herself and fight in ways that would typically be considered masculine." Sleeman continued that one of the most important components of Fiona's personality "is that the films don't ignore or degrade any of her qualities that are considered typically feminine", elaborating that her struggles over her appearance are "significant in that it presents the ways in which so many girls are pressured by society to uphold a certain standard of beauty." Sleeman concluded, "In an industry where female characters have so often portrayed as secondary characters defined by their beauty ... Fiona is a well-rounded character who represents an eclectic mix of traits that are representative of real women", remaining feminine yet strong. Rachel O'Neill, a writer for The Daily Edge, identified Fiona as "the first badass princess ... able to speak for herself", joking, "nobody can fling a mermaid quite like Fiona." In 2008, BBC News named Fiona "the next feminist icon", believing the character retains "a certain sex appeal which continues even after she changes into an ogre - perfectly underlining how attitudes have changed towards women in the 21st Century." HuffPost contributor Hayley Krischer cited Fiona as a rare example of a princess who "br[oke] the mold". Iona Tytler of Babe.net recognized Fiona among childhood feminist characters "who got you where you are today". Praising her independence, Tytler said Fiona "overc[ame] the societal prejudice in her world that came with being an ogre" while becoming "more comfortable in her own skin." Sarah Tutton, curator of the Australian Centre for the Moving Image's DreamWorks exhibit, credits Fiona with "br[eaking] the mould of the helpless princess," citing her as a modern-day feminist. Tutton also said the character "completely subverts what it means to be a beautiful princess." Forbes contributor Dani Di Placido believes Fiona embodied characteristics associated with the unconventional, rebellious warrior princess several years before such traits became standard in film and television. Similarly, the British Film Institute's So Mayer wrote that heroines such as Merida and Elsa from Disney's Brave (2012) and Frozen (2013), respectively, were both "late to the party compared to" Fiona, reflecting, "over the course of the trilogy she wanders the wilderness, turns down Lord Farquaad, survives imprisonment, decides she prefers being ogre to being human, and organizes a resistance composed of fairytale princesses." Furthermore, Female Action Heroes: A Guide to Women in Comics, Video Games, Film, and Television author Gladys L. Knight wrote that Fiona challenged the manner in which medieval women are portrayed on screen. Mary Zeiss Stange, author of Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World, Volume 1, cited Fiona as an example of an "outstanding female action hero".Refinery 29's Anne Cohen felt Fiona remains a strong heroine despite Shrek's "un-feminist plot" featuring several men making decisions about her future without her involvement. Cohen praised Fiona for defending herself, defying stereotypes, speaking her mind and accepting her own flaws. Crowning Fiona an "important cultural milestone", the author concluded that she is "fierce, honest [and] wonderful" despite her unconventional appearance. Some critics felt Fiona's fighting prowess was otherwise undermined by her insecurities and motivations. Despite being impressed with the character's fighting ability, Furniss believes this contradicts with "her need to seek authentication from a male romantic partner", arguing that a true martial artist would few have concerns about outward appearance. Although acknowledging that the film demonstrates themes of inner beauty among "women of all types", the author argued that Fiona's understanding relies on male approval, referring to her relationships with both Farquaad and Shrek, and further observing that she struggles to use this same martial arts prowess to fend off Farquaad's guards. Furniss found it disappointing that her arc is "activated by the kiss of a man", but admitted the completion of Shrek's character development is similarly determined by him kissing Fiona. Furniss doubts Fiona would not have been able to accept her ogre form had Shrek decided to retreat to his swamp alone after kissing her. Author Margot Mifflin, writing for Salon, felt that some of Fiona's actions contradict with the film's morals about looks being less important, citing that she dislikes Farquaad more for his short stature than his cruelty towards others. She also found the princess in Steig's original story to be more liberated and less of a damsel in distress than Fiona. Despite describing the character's ogre form as "an overfed Cabbage Patch doll with the drowning eyes and apologetic expression of a Hummel figurine", Mifflin found the fact that Fiona remains an ogre, fights, talks back and has more realistic body proportions to be ground-breaking, while describing her musical solo as one of the film's "hilarious" highlights. The Conversation's Michelle Smith was unimpressed, writing that despite the character's fighting skills, Fiona remains "desperate to follow the fairy tale script" and believes marrying her rescuer is "her ultimate reward". ### Recognition Fiona was celebrated as a positive role model by the Girl Scouts of the USA, who used the character's likeness in several tie-in media to promote the organization's "Issues for Girl Scouts" movement and encourage "girls to develop self-confidence and embrace diversity." The organization also hosted a free screening of the film in 2001, which was attended by an audience of 340. For her performance in Shrek, Diaz won a Kid's Choice Award for Best Burp, which the actress claims to be one of her greatest achievements. According to Daniel Kurland of Screen Rant, Diaz "remains a crucial component of what makes the movie work" despite resembling an "unsung hero" throughout the franchise. Summarizing the actress' career, Kendall Fisher of E! Online said Diaz "voiced one of our favorite animated characters". The Ringer ranked Shrek Diaz's best film, believing her performance as Fiona aged better than the film's soundtrack and animation. Author Alison Herman elaborated that Fiona embraced her flaws and offered children "an important lesson in both self-esteem and the comedic value of fart jokes", while the actress "holds her own against" Myers and Murphy; "as a character, Fiona subverts the pretty-princess trope enough to provide fuel for undergrad media studies papers for decades to come". Marie Claire ranked Fiona Diaz's third best "Movie Moments That Made Us Fall In Love With Her". In addition to ranking Fiona the fourth best role of Diaz's career following her retirement in 2018, Samarth Goyal of the Hindustan Times crowned Fiona "one of the most loved animated characters of the 21st century", crediting her with making Diaz "a big star". In 2011, Gulf News ranked Diaz among "Hollywood's A-list of most popular voice actors", with Forbes reporting in 2010 that the actress was mentioned in the media approximately 1,809 times while promoting the most recent Shrek film. Teen Vogue considered Fiona among the "17 Best Princesses in Movies and TV", praising the character for learning "to love herself." NBC New York's Bryan Alexander described Fiona as "the world's hottest ogre", while Stephen Hunter, film critic for The Washington Post, found hearing Diaz's voice from a computer-animated character "kind of hot". To promote Shrek 2, ice cream restaurant Baskin-Robbins named a flavor after the character, entitled Fiona's Fairytale. Described as "pink and purple swirled", the ice cream was cotton candy-flavored.
18,256,424	Ranch Road 1	1,123,336,430	Highway in Texas	[ "Farm to Market Roads in Texas", "Recreational Roads in Texas", "Transportation in Blanco County, Texas", "Transportation in Gillespie County, Texas" ]	Ranch Road 1 (RR 1) is a Ranch Road located in Gillespie and Blanco counties, in the central region of the U.S. state of Texas. The highway is approximately 6.6 miles (10.6 km), and begins at U.S. Route 290 (US 290) in Stonewall, running along the Pedernales River through Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, the late President Lyndon Johnson's former ranch, and through Lyndon B. Johnson State Park and Historic Site, before terminating at US 290 near Hye. The road, designated in 1963, is the only road in the state that the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) has designated as a "Ranch Road". In the earliest days of the state highway system, the route was a part of State Highway 20, and was later part of US 290 before that highway was relocated to the south. ## Route description Ranch Road 1 begins at US 290 on the west side of Stonewall, as a two-lane, paved road. The highway follows along the south bank of the Pedernales River around the town's north side and intersects RM 1623 on the town's east side. The route continues along the river briefly passing through a narrow southwestern portion of Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, before entering Lyndon B Johnson State Park and Historic Site. The route crosses the length of the state park at its northern edge along the riverbank and exits the park before intersecting PR 49, which crosses the river accessing the national historic site. After crossing into Blanco County, the route turns away from the riverbank to the southeast returning to US 290 west of Hye. Although the road is located in the Texas Hill Country, the road only encounters gentle grades within the channel of the Pedernales River. ### Classification Ranch Road 1 is classified by TxDOT as a Ranch Road and is the only highway in the state currently categorized as such. The route is not officially part of the state's Farm and Ranch to Market Road System, although it is considered similar to the Farm to Market Road system. RR 1 is signed with a shield similar to a Ranch to Market Road. ## History Ranch Road 1 was designated on December 19, 1963, 27 days after Lyndon Johnson was sworn in as president, from its current western terminus at US 290 near Stonewall to a point 1.2 miles (1.9 km) west of the county line between Gillespie and Blanco counties. The following year, the road was extended 2.1 mi (3.4 km) eastward to its present terminus near Hye. The route was originally part of SH 20. In 1935, US 290 was routed over the road, and the SH 20 designation was dropped in the 1939 general redescription of the state highway system. US 290 was rerouted south to its current location sometime between 1941 and 1961. ## Major intersections ## See also - List of Recreational Roads in Texas
34,519,115	Knock Madness	1,169,708,683	Album by Hopsin	[ "2013 albums", "Empire Distribution albums", "Funk Volume albums", "Hopsin albums" ]	Knock Madness is the third studio album by American rapper Hopsin. It was released on November 24, 2013, by Funk Volume and distributed by EMPIRE. Hopsin has said that the overall vibe of the album is different from his previous album Raw and that he has said all he needs to about leaving Ruthless Records. The album contains guest appearances from rappers SwizZz, Dizzy Wright, Jarren Benton, and Tech N9ne, among others. Like its predecessors, the album's production was entirely handled by Hopsin himself. Knock Madness was supported by three singles, "Old Friend", "Hop Is Back", and "Rip Your Heart Out", the last of which features Tech N9ne. Hopsin also supported the album with the Fuck It Tour with Yelawolf, and the Knock Madness Tour. Knock Madness was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. The album also peaked at number 76 on the US Billboard 200 and, as of December 2013, has sold 16,000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan. ## Background Hopsin spoke about the album in an interview with HipHopDX on August 12, 2011, where he said that he was aiming to make the production quality of Knock Madness sound just as good, if not better, than his perception of Dr. Dre's upcoming album, Detox. He also stated that the album would have a "positive message" and that when people listen to the album he wants them to feel "inspired to be better in life". On January 20, 2012, he stated via his Twitter account that Knock Madness was his main priority in life. He later spoke on the background of the album's sound, saying, > I'm 28 years old, and I see that I'm kind of in this weird position. I don't have many friends in my personal life, but I have so many fans. So when I go outside and people recognize me, it's kind of a bittersweet feeling, like I don't recognize the fans. I don't really have it like they probably think I have it. I'm really still a loser guy, but I'm just really popular now. I don't have a girlfriend no more, and I have this money, but I'm not satisfied with my life. It's this weird feeling of being incomplete, and I need to find myself. So that's kind of what it did to me, and the album just came out with me just fucking rapping some dark shit. ## Recording and production Following the RAW Tour in mid-2011, Hopsin begun working on Knock Madness, though not very heavily. On January 17, 2012, fellow Funk Volume rappers SwizZz and Dizzy Wright were confirmed to make appearances on the album. In a March 2012 interview, Hopsin said that he talked to Tech N9ne about appearing on the album, which Tech N9ne agreed to. He also stated in 2012 that he wanted Yelawolf on the album. In September 2012, Hopsin confirmed that he would self-produce the majority of the album, with drummer Travis Barker producing one or two tracks. Later that month, Hopsin would indicate interest in working with Childish Gambino. In addition, Hopsin approached Macklemore in January 2013 to get him featured in the album. In February 2013, Hopsin stated in an interview that he was currently recording the album, having recorded 18 songs, and that he hoped to have the album completed by June. Hopsin begun heavily recording Knock Madness in March 2013 following the end of a long-term relationship, which gave him more time to record and focus on his music. He also indicated the album would be released with a bonus CD that will have all the 'Ill Mind of Hopsin' songs remastered, however this ultimately did not take place. In October 2013, Hopsin confirmed that he had finished recording the album and had turned it in to Funk Volume, stating he had personally re-mastered the album 20-30 times to get the sound just right. ## Music and lyrics Hopsin detailed the album to The Source saying, > There's a variety of music on there. There's crazy, wild lyrics. There's sad, emotional lyrics and even funny lyrics. I got serious songs and sad songs. Just a big variety of everything. I wanted to show the full me. I have a lot of people who love me, but I have a lot of haters as well. There are at least one or two songs for someone that doesn't really like me or what I put out. I think they'll stumble across a couple songs that will make them go, oh ok, I fucks with him now. I kinda wanted to make an album to show my wide range of music that I can do. I just wanted to show the full me. In the lead single "Hop Is Back", Hopsin pokes fun at Kendrick Lamar and disses Kanye West's newer music. Hopsin clarified his statements in an interview with HipHopDX saying he had no ill feelings towards Kendrick Lamar, and that he dissed West because he disliked his new music. "Tears to Snow" is an emotional song about him and his ex-girlfriend having relationship issues and breaking up. In the song he explains how she would assume he would cheat on her. The second verse is also partly about how Hopsin's former colleagues have changed and turned against him. For "Rip Your Heart Out" featuring Tech N9ne, Hopsin created what he called a "weird, funky, dope beat that you can just bop your head to." Hopsin spoke on "Hip Hop Sinister" saying, "That's probably the most intense rap song on the album. It's not a song that's going to slowly change anybody's life. It's just a rap song just have bars and sound dope. The energy on that, you'll probably hear it and want to cut somebody's throat. The song just amps you up so much. It's so hyped to where you want to punch a hole in somebody's head or punch a hole through the wall." "Good Guys Get Left Behind" is a love song, that features multiple twists and turns. "Old Friend" is based around a friend of his that became addicted to methamphetamine and the personal issues which he suffered from it. Hopsin has said the meaning of the song was "to show what early wrong decisions can do to youngsters in the long run", as well as "what they can possibly miss out on." "Lunch Time Cypher" was meant to give the feeling of a high school cypher, complete with beatboxing, random, crazy lyrics from Hopsin, and featured artists Passionate MC and G-Mo Skee. The song "What's My Purpose" is, according to Hopsin, "about a human born into this current dark society. How everybody is doing the same thing. Nobody is really different. And the government has us here to just make money." He also touches on his race-related arrest after a concert in Orlando, Florida. The album's outro "Caught In the Rain" discusses about how Hopsin is soul-searching and needing to find himself. ## Release and promotion In July 2012, Hopsin released the fifth installment of his "Ill Mind of Hopsin" video series. It received over one million views in less than 24 hours and currently has over 104 million views. In "Ill Mind of Hopsin 5", Hopsin expresses his frustration with jaded youth and disenchantment towards other rappers who are unrelatable. The song itself charted at number 17 on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Digital songs chart. In December 2012, Hopsin hinted on his Facebook and Twitter pages that he and Travis Barker were working on a project together, though further details were withheld at the time. Then, in late December, Travis Barker revealed that a collaboration EP would be released in 2013. Then, on February 5, 2013, Hopsin announced that production for the EP had been finished. In February 2013, Hopsin said the album would be released around September 2013. The album cover for Knock Madness, as well as the album's release date of November 26, 2013, was revealed at the end of the music video for "Ill Mind Six: Old Friend". The cover artwork depicts Marcus Hopson burying his rap alter ego Hopsin. On September 11, 2013, Hopsin debuted a new vlog series about the making of the album. The series focused on how he got inspired, came up with lyrics, and mixed the songs for Knock Madness. On November 7, 2013, Hopsin released the album's track listing. ### Touring Hopsin, with the rest of the Funk Volume artists, went on a two-month worldwide tour in late 2012, which included 58 shows in 60 days throughout the United States, Europe and Australia. From November 14 to November 23, 2013, Hopsin toured with Shady Records artist Yelawolf in promotion of Knock Madness on The Fuck It Tour. They toured the West Coast of the United States and Hopsin performed material from the album for the first time. The Knock Madness World Tour began on December 12, 2013, in Australia. On January 18, 2014, the tour moved to North America, starting in Santa Cruz, California. The leg of the tour ran through March 22, 2014. Dizzy Wright and DJ Hoppa joined Hopsin on select dates during the North American run of the tour. ## Singles In an interview with ThisIs50, Hopsin released information on the album, stating that the first single would be named "Hop Madness". Hopsin confirmed via his Facebook and Twitter on January 5, 2012, that he would be shooting the "Hop Madness" video that month. On February 16, 2012, Hopsin stated that the music video would be released within the next month. The video was officially released on March 15, 2012. The song was ultimately excluded from the album. On July 17, 2013, Hopsin released the music video for "Old Friend" on both his YouTube channel, and the single to iTunes. He later confirmed that the song is not the sixth in the "Ill Mind of Hopsin" series but rather the first single from Knock Madness. On August 18, 2013, Hopsin confirmed in a Facebook status that the lead single from Knock Madness, titled "Hop Is Back", would be released in a couple of weeks. However, the single's release, with its accompanying music video, was delayed until October 22, 2013. "Rip Your Heart Out", featuring Tech N9ne, was released as the album's third single on November 12, 2013. The same day, Hopsin and Tech N9ne filmed the music video for "Rip Your Heart Out". The music video for "I Need Help" was released on April 6, 2014. ## Critical reception Knock Madness received generally positive reviews from music critics. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 77, based on 5 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Omar Burgess of HipHopDX classified the album as "Pop-tinged Horrorcore of the highest order", praising its "catchy hooks, accessible production and subject matter" as well as "Hopsin's raw technical ability" with regards to lyricism and wordplay. In the end Burgess said, "When he [Hopsin] strikes the perfect balance between shock value, raw emotion and his immense skill set, that moment may yield a classic album." Sheldon Pierce of XXL called Knock Madness "a stepping stone album, one that can only produce even better music in the future", and noted that the album did well to "serve as a peek into the wildly entertaining thought process of one of hip-hop's most misunderstood characters." Jordan Sowunmi of Exclaim! stated that the album excels when Hopsin "focuses on external obsessions: ode to amateur skating 'Nollie Tre Flip' has the most enticingly offbeat rapping on the album, as well as a dizzying internal rhyme scheme, while 'Turn on the Lights' analogue 'Dream Forever' is heartfelt and raw." David Jeffries of AllMusic praised the album's consistency for providing "shocking lyrics and infectious hooks", highlighting 'Rip Your Heart Out' featuring Tech N9ne as a standout track. Dominick Grillo of DJBooth noted that Hopsin's "technical passionate wordplays offer constant comparisons to Eminem", concluding that the album is "a dark, often violent creative response to the pressure now resting on Hopsin's shoulders", conceding that there are moments when Hopsin "weighs himself (and the audience) down with layers upon layers of negativity", though admitting that the album "works best when Hopsin is either angrily fighting or humorously poking fun at some sort of ludicrosity." ## Commercial performance After only being released for three days, Knock Madness debuted at number 132 on the US Billboard 200, selling 4,000 copies in the United States. In its first full week the album rose to number 76 on the Billboard 200, selling 12,000 more copies, bringing its total album sales to 16,000 according to Nielsen SoundScan. The album has sold 58,000 copies in the US as of April 2015. ## Track listing - All songs produced by Hopsin. ## Personnel Album credits adapted from AllMusic. - Hopsin - executive producer, mixing, primary artist - Jarren Benton - featured artist - Passionate MC - featured artist - G-Mo Skee - featured artist - SwizZz - featured artist - Tech N9ne - featured artist - Dizzy Wright - featured artist - Connor Tingley - art direction ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history Though the album's release date was originally scheduled for November 26, 2013, Funk Volume announced on their Facebook page on November 18 that it would be very hard to find Knock Madness in stores the first week of its release, due to a delay and few stores placing orders for the album. However, instead of pushing back the release date as announced, Funk Volume decided to release the album on its initial date of November 26, for digital download and compact disc format through their website. The album was then released in compact disc format in retail stores on December 3, 2013.
38,754,147	Casper Shafer	1,095,495,120	American businessman	[ "1712 births", "1784 deaths", "Burials in New Jersey", "German Palatines", "German emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies", "History of Sussex County, New Jersey", "History of the Thirteen Colonies", "Palatine German settlement in New Jersey", "People from Rhineland-Palatinate", "People from Stillwater Township, New Jersey", "People of New Jersey in the American Revolution", "People of colonial New Jersey", "Pre-statehood history of New Jersey", "Provincial Congress of New Jersey" ]	Casper Shafer (c. 1712— 17 December 1784) was among the first settlers of the village of Stillwater along the Paulins Kill in Sussex County, New Jersey in the United States. A successful miller and early tavern owner, Shafer later served in the first sessions of the New Jersey Legislature during the American Revolution. During these sessions, New Jersey had become a newly independent state, established the first state constitution, ordered the state's last Royal Governor deposed and arrested, and actively supported and financed the Continental Army. ## Biography ### Early life and emigration Shafer was born in 1712 in the Rheinland-Pfalz in present-day Germany. He was among tens of thousands of German Palatines who escaped conditions of war and poverty in southwestern Germany throughout the eighteenth century and journeyed up the Rhine River to Rotterdam seeking passage to the New World. From Rotterdam, Shafer emigrated to the American colonies aboard the ship Queen Elizabeth commanded by Alexander Hope, and entered Philadelphia on 16 September 1738. At some time after 1741, Shafer married Maria Catrina Bernhardt (1722–1794), the daughter of Johan Peter Bernhardt (d. 1748). Shafer, his father-in-law, Johan Peter Bernhardt, his brother-in-law John George Wintermute (1711-1782), and their families settled along the Paulins Kill in northwestern New Jersey circa 1742. Over the next few decades, more German Palatine families settled here, and this settlement became the village of Stillwater. ### In New Jersey During the first year the conditions were spartan, and the settlers shared a log cabin located over a large stump which served as the family's table. Shafer's four children were all born in Stillwater—Peter (1744–1799), Margaretta (1745–1815), Abraham (1754–1820) and Isaac (1760–1800). A few years after settling, Shafer erected a rudimentary grist mill along the Paulins Kill approximately 900 yards north of the site of the surviving larger mill he built in 1764. This first mill ground out three-to-five bushels of flour per day." In later years, Shafer built a saw mill, oil-mill and tannery at the site. To assist in the agricultural and industrial work, he acquired several African-American slaves, many of whom remained property of his descendants well into the 19th century. Shafer also established large orchards on his property in Stillwater, mostly of apple trees that were later described as growing to "a majestic size, some of them attaining to over three feet in diameter at the butt." When Sussex County was established in 1753, the first session of the Court of General Sessions granted licenses to Shafer and a few other early residents to operate taverns. Each year, Shafer would navigate down the Paulins Kill and Delaware River by flatboat "carrying flour and other produce down to the Philadelphia market" and returning with "such goods as the wants of the country in its primitive state seemed to demand.", The pattern of trade in the region was focused toward Philadelphia, and for several years Shafer did not have any knowledge of English coastal cities in Newark Bay. The local Munsee (a Lenape phratry) informed him of a town they called Lispatone—that is, Elizabethtown (present-day Elizabeth, New Jersey)—which he had not heard of. According to Schaeffer, "he journeyed in that direction some fifty miles over the mountains and through the almost trackless wilderness, until he finally arrived at the veritable town...where he commenced trading in his small way. And thus he was the pioneer in opening a profitable and important commercial intercourse between the south eastern sea-board, and that part of New Jersey." It was not until 1756-1757 that a military supply road built by Jonathan Hampton during the French & Indian War opened up a connection for trade between Elizabeth and Morristown with the northwestern frontier. In 1775, Shafer was a member of the Committee of Safety for Sussex County, and was charged with raising £10,000 to "purchase arms and ammunition and for other exigencies of the Province." The following year, Shafer, Thomas Peterson and Abia Brown represented the County in the Provincial Congress whose session began at Burlington on 10 June 1776 establishing the government as the former colony became an independent state, deposed and imprisoned the Royal Governor, William Franklin, and established the state's first constitution. In August, the Provincial Congress met in Princeton and transformed into the state's first Legislature. According to Snell, on several occasions Shafer would rise to his feet exclaiming his dissent in German, saying "Das ist nicht recht! Das ist nicht recht!" (trans. "That is not right! That is not right!") and positing his argument in his adopted English. He represented the county for the next three years, and was described as "faithful in his attendance at the various meetings at Princeton, Trenton, Burlington and Haddonfield. His vote is recorded on almost every question, and always in favor of the most vigorous and aggressive measures for carrying on the war." ### Death and legacy Casper Shafer died on 7 February 1784 in Stillwater. Shafer disagreed on matters of doctrine with the German Reformed and Lutheran clergy who supplied the local church, the "Dutch Meeting House" (now a presbyterian congregation), and in his last years became cordially acquainted with Presbyterian clergyman Rev. Ira Condict (1764–1811). Condict, who would later become President of Queen's College (now Rutgers University) had been called to serve the nearby Presbyterian congregations at Upper Hardwick (now Yellow Frame Presbyterian Church) and at Sussex Court House (now Newton). Shafer requested that Condict perform his burial service, but because the German clergy objected to Condict using the church building, Condict eulogized Shafer from the church's front steps. Casper Shafer was buried in the churchyard at Stillwater. His tombstone reads: > > C. S. In memory of Casper Shaver, who departed this life Dec. the 7th, 1784, in the 72 year of his age. On 10 December 2009, the grist mill built by Casper Shafer, and operated after his death by his son Abraham, was listed as the Casper and Abraham Shafer Grist Mill Complex on the state and National Register of Historic Places. The site is currently maintained by the Ridge and Valley Conservancy, a nonprofit organization dedicated to local environmental protection and historic preservation. It is frequently open for public visitation and educational events.
46,832,554	Vanilla Chocolat	1,146,169,901	null	[ "2014 songs", "Alexandra Stan songs", "English-language Romanian songs", "Songs written by Alexandra Stan", "Songs written by Alexandru Cotoi", "Songs written by Mohombi" ]	"Vanilla Chocolat" is a song recorded by Romanian singer Alexandra Stan for her second studio album, Unlocked (2014). It features guest vocals provided by Romanian rapper Connect-R. The track was made available for digital download on 24 December 2014 as the album's fifth single. "Vanilla Chocolat" was written by Stan, Connect-R, Sava Constantin, Alexandru Cotoi and Mika Moupondo, while production was handled by Cotoi. A selfie music video for the song was directed by Stan and The Architect, and debuted on Stan's YouTube channel on 18 December 2014. After its release, music critics praised "Vanilla Chocolat" for Connect-R's "catchy rap" and French bits, while others pointed out the "easy-to-sing", but at the same time "nonsense" lyrics of the track. The song was performed during Stan's "Unlocked Tour" (2014), and together with "Cherry Pop" on Romanian show Vocea României. ## Background and recording "Vanilla Chocolat" was written by Stan, Sava Constantin, Alexandru Cotoi, Stefan Mihalache and Mika Moupondo, while production was handled by Cotoi. The track was recorded at Fonogram Studios in Bucharest, Romania, and features lyrics written in both English and French. "Vanilla Chocolat" was composed during the song-writing Fonocamp-camp in Azuga, Romania, where the singer worked on new songs along with fellow Romanian and international artists. Particularly, Stan felt that she was very "pleased with the collaboration, because [she] really wanted to work with Romanian artists, not just with Romanian producers like on [her] second studio album." She talked about the choosing of Connect-R as the guest vocalist for "Vanilla Chocolat": > "I chose Connect-R because it seems that he can "deal" with every music genre, because he is flexible and he can continue even with every unexpected change or sound combination. Connect-R can also sing in every language without any problems, because he believes in his own work. We met at the Fonogram Studios, and we started 'half seriously and jokingly' to work on the song, along with Alex Cotoi. The result is 'sweet and fragrant'. ## Critical reception The recording received generally positive reviews from music critics upon release. Pop Shock reviewed Stan's second studio album, Unlocked, in late 2014, where they commended that "Vanilla Chocolat" was one of the best songs of the album. They felt that "everything about this track is pure pop perfection – from the playful French bits, to the Bollywood-inspired chorus. It also sounds completely different to everything else in the charts right now." Pop Shock were initially disappointed by the video being "Selfie cam", but they went on to say that "it holds up to multiple viewings and suits the joyous nature of the song". German website Hitfire reported the video premiere of "Vanilla Chocolat" on 1 January 2015, where they praised the catchy dance-pop beat incorporated in the refrain of the song and its "easy-to-sing", but at the same time "nonsense" lyrics". They concluded, "It's very unlikely to become a worldwide hit, because it is too mediocre." ## Music video `A selfie video, which also served as the official video for "Vanilla Chocolat", premiered on 18 December 2014 on Alexandra Stan's official YouTube channel. It was directed by Stan during one single week. She filmed herself on different TV shows, where she was invited to perform the track, including "Neata cu Razvan si Dani" and "La Maruță". Stan additionally directed at the Fonogram Studios, Roton Studios, the rehearsal room of Emil Rengle and her own house, describing the video as being "full of energy" for featuring many public figures such as Mihai Morar, Răzvan și Dani or Adelina Pestrițu. Few scenes of the video were not filmed by the singer alone, for which The Architect served as the cameraman. Particularly, Dinu and Deea Maxer compared the selfie video for "Vanilla Chocolat" with their clip for "Selfie en Paris".` ## Live performances Stan's first live performance of "Vanilla Chocolat" was on 1 December 2014 on Neatza cu Razvan si Dani, which was followed by her lip-synced performance of the song on Wowbiz, to film some scenes for the single's accompanying selfie video. Following the release of the clip, Stan performed a stripped-down version of "Vanilla Chocolat" on the Romanian radio station Pro FM on 2 December 2014, where she also sang Romania's national anthem backed with instruments played by Andrei Gheorghe, Greeg and Alexandru Cotoi. Stan was subsequently invited to perform on the Romanian version of The Voice on 12 December 2014. There, she lip-synced both "Cherry Pop" and "Vanilla Chocolat". Shortly after her act, juror Tudor Chirila expressed how he was very "disappointed" of Stan's appearance, as she didn't provide live vocals. In an interview with Cancan, Stan confessed that "[her] conditions of appearance on Vocea României were already discussed with the show's producers, so no one should have been surprised about [her] playback-performance". ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unlocked and The Collection Recording - Recorded at Fonogram Studios in Bucharest, Romania. - Produced for Fonogram Music Productions in Bucharest, Romania. Technical and songwriting credits - Alexandra Stan – songwriting - Stefan Mihalache – songwriting - Alexandru Cotoi – songwriting, producing - Sava Constantin – songwriting - Mika Moupondo – songwriting Visual credits - The Architect – cameraman - Emil Rengle – choreography - Alexandra Stan – camera Vocal credits - Alexandra Stan – lead vocals - Connect-R – featured artist ## Track listings - Spanish digital remix EP 1. "Vanilla Chocolat" (DJ Valdi Remix) – 3:22 2. "Vanilla Chocolat" (DJ Valdi Remix Edit) – 4:20 3. "Vanilla Chocolat" (CryDuom Remix) – 3:06 4. "Vanilla Chocolat" (CryDuom Remix Edit) – 3:52 - Japanese digital download 1. "Vanilla Chocolat" (feat. Connect-R) – 3:18 - Spanish / Turkish / Polish digital download 1. "Vanilla Chocolat" (feat. Connect-R) – 3:17 ## Release history
9,872,937	Banditti of the Prairie	1,155,866,635	Group of loose-knit outlaw gangs, during the early-mid-19th century	[ "1830s in Illinois", "1840s in Illinois", "1841 in Illinois", "Gangs in Illinois", "Ogle County, Illinois", "Outlaw gangs in the United States", "Riots and civil disorder in Illinois" ]	The Banditti of the Prairie, also known as The Banditti, Prairie Pirates, Prairie Bandits, and Pirates of the Prairie, in the U.S. states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and the Territory of Iowa, were a group of loose-knit outlaw gangs, during the early to mid-19th century. Though bands of roving criminals were common in many parts of Illinois, the counties of Lee, DeKalb, Ogle, and Winnebago were especially plagued by them. The new crime wave in the region of the frontier Midwest may have occurred following the crackdown on Southern outlaws by the rising vigilante-regulator movement and the breakup of the criminal syndicate of John A. Murrell and his gang, the "Mystic Clan" in the Southern United States. In 1841, the escalating pattern of house burglary, horse and cattle theft, stagecoach and highway robbery, counterfeiting, and murder associated with the Banditti had come to a head in Ogle County. As the crimes continued, local citizens formed bands of vigilantes known as Regulators. A clash between the Banditti and the Regulators in Ogle County near Oregon, Illinois, resulted in the outlaws' demise and decreased Banditti activity and violent crime within the county. Banditti and Regulator activity continued well after the lynching that took place in 1841. Crimes continued, committed by both sides, across northern and central Illinois. The Banditti were involved in other notable events, as well, including the 1845 torture-murder of merchant Colonel George Davenport, the namesake of Davenport, Iowa. Edward Bonney, an amateur detective who hunted down and brought to justice the killers, wrote of his exploits and alibi, which were recounted in his book, Banditti of the Prairies, or the Murderer's Doom!!: A Tale of the Mississippi Valley, published in Chicago in 1850. The outlaw gangs also continued to be active in Lee and Winnebago Counties following the events in Oregon. ## Banditti influence The "Prairie Bandits" were active across northern Illinois, especially in Lee, Ogle, Winnebago, and DeKalb Counties, from 1835 until the events leading to their ultimate demise began on March 21, 1841. The bandits wielded considerable influence in the area collectively known as the Rock River Valley, following the influx of immigrants after the Black Hawk War of 1832, the last Indian war in Illinois. The Banditti posed a far greater threat, for a much longer period, than the exaggerated paranoia of the two-month Native American conflict. Former Illinois Governor Thomas Ford wrote in History of Illinois: > ... the northern part of the State was not destitute of its organized bands of rogues engaged in murders, robberies, horsestealing, and in making and passing counterfeit money. These rogues were scattered all over the north: but the most of them were located in the counties of Ogle, Winnebago, Lee and DeKalb. In the county of Ogle they were so numerous, strong, and organized that they could not be convicted for their crimes. ## Banditti activity In Lee County, Illinois, the Banditti also had enough power to get away unnoticed. The group had enough allies that they were scattered throughout the county. The connections the Banditti had around the county made illegal activities such as counterfeiting and dealing in and concealing stolen property easy to perpetrate. At one time, every township officer in Lee County reportedly was a member of the Banditti. Acts of theft were carried on in defiance of authority. Citizens were threatened when they tried to seek redress from the thieves. In the end, the Prairie Bandits' activity in Ogle and Lee Counties became more than area residents were willing to withstand. In Ogle County, the crimes that occurred in March 1841 resulted in a kangaroo court, which culminated with the lynching of two Banditti near Oregon, Illinois. In nearby Lee County, a Vigilance Committee was formed by men from throughout Lee County, and especially Lee Center Township took an active role in suppressing the Banditti activity. ### Ogle County Beginning with the events on March 21, 1841, violence and retribution escalated in the area around the Ogle County seat of Oregon. Illinois, still frontier in 1841, was settled by large numbers of migrants after the Black Hawk War. The settlers were followed to the area by a criminal element. The Banditti of the Prairie were part of the crime problem that plagued much of northern Illinois. As such, the concerned citizens of Ogle County organized and eventually took the law into their own hands. On March 21, 1841, six members of the Banditti were arrested on charges of counterfeiting. They were held at the Ogle County Jail in the city of Oregon. That night, a fire broke out in the newly completed courthouse, which was to be used for the first time the next day. The fire, set by the Banditti, was meant as a diversion to facilitate the escape of the apprehended gang members. The diversion failed; though the courthouse burned to the ground, the jail remained intact. The court records concerning the case had been safely concealed in the home of the court clerk. Ford, who sat as Ogle County circuit judge at the time, reconvened court at a new location, and the trial for the accused counterfeiters went on as planned. The jury, as was common in Ogle County at the time, had been infiltrated by one of the Banditti, who subsequently refused to convict the accused. The other jurors persuaded the rogue juror to convict by threatening to lynch him in the jury room if he failed to agree with the majority opinion. The Banditti juror capitulated, and three of the accused were convicted. The convicts, however, soon escaped and avoided their sentences. In April, 1841, the community of Oregon, and Ogle County in general, had reached a boiling point. During that month, a group of citizens, possibly acting under direct counsel from Ford, met at a schoolhouse in White Rock Township, and formed an organization aimed at driving the outlaws out of the county. Membership in the new group grew quickly, soon numbering in the hundreds, and copycat chapters sprang up all over the Rock River Valley. These bands of citizen vigilantes were most often known as "Regulators". They were also called "lynching clubs", and in Lee County, one group was known as the "Associations for the Furtherance of the Cause of Justice". The Regulators in Ogle County began by whipping two horse thieves, one of whom joined the group after the incident. The first Ogle County Regulator captain, W.S. Wellington, stepped aside after his grist mill was destroyed and his horse tortured and killed in April 1841. The new captain, John Campbell, was a resident of White Rock Township. The local Banditti were the Driscoll family and members of the Driscoll Gang. At the head was John Driscoll, who had migrated from Ohio in 1835 with his four grown sons, William, David, Pierce, and Taylor. The Driscolls lived on Killbuck Creek in northeast Ogle County. Driscoll and his son Taylor had both been convicted of arson while they lived in Ohio. Campbell's ascension to the lead Regulator post was met with hostility from the Driscoll camp. William Driscoll immediately sent Campbell a letter offering to kill him. Campbell responded in kind; he assembled 200 Regulators, and marched to the Driscoll home. A small group of Banditti had gathered at the Driscoll homestead, but seeing they were outnumbered, they fled, only to return with the DeKalb County sheriff and other authorities in tow. The sheriff and his companions did not see the events as the outlaws had hoped; they sided with the vigilantes, and the Driscolls promised to leave within twenty days. Instead of leaving, the Driscolls and the other Banditti held a meeting in which they determined that Campbell and his fellow Regulator, Phineas Chaney, had to be murdered. #### Execution Nearly three months later, on June 25, 1841, an attempt was made to kill Chaney. Two days passed, and on June 27, David Driscoll and his brother Taylor attacked Campbell at his farm. David fired the single, fatal shot. Campbell's son, Martin, then 13, fired at the Driscolls with a shotgun, but the weapon failed to go off. The account that stated David and Taylor Driscoll were the gunmen came from Campbell's wife. Despite this claim, hoofprints at the scene of the crime indicated that an additional three horses had been there. The Regulators followed these prints back to the Driscoll home. Once there, accompanied by Ogle County Sheriff William T. Ward, the angry group confronted John Driscoll. After questioning by Ward and his accompanying mob, the sheriff was satisfied that John Driscoll was involved in Campbell's murder and arrested him "on suspicion of being accessory to the murder". While David and Taylor Driscoll, the gunmen, fled that fateful day, William and Pierce Driscoll were arrested by a group of Regulators from Rockford. The Regulator court was convened at "Stephenson's Mill" in Washington Grove, Illinois, because of the courthouse fire in March, 1841. The court was organized, witnesses gathered, and proceedings went forward. A crowd gathered at the mill, estimated to be as many as 500. At this point, Sheriff Ward appealed to have the Driscolls returned to his custody. E.S. Leland presided over the makeshift court as judge, a position he later held legitimately in Ottawa, Illinois. Leland directed those present who were Regulators to form a circle; 120 men initially stepped forward; nine were dismissed as not being "real" Regulators. The 111 men remaining formed the "jury". On June 29, 1841, the vigilante trial began, and William Driscoll admitted to telling his brother to kill Campbell, but only "in jest". His father, John, denied vehemently that he had anything to do with the murder, though he did admit to stealing numerous horses. Pierce Driscoll was released from custody when no evidence was found linking him to the crime. At the trial's end, the guilty verdict was described as "almost unanimous"; the Driscolls were immediately sentenced to be hanged on the spot. The Driscolls refused to be hanged and instead requested that they be shot. Before the execution was carried out, William Driscoll confessed to six murders; John confessed to nothing. The Regulators then assembled a large firing squad, and prepared to carry out the execution. The Regulators divided themselves into two separate squads, one for each man, of 55 and 56 riflemen. The line of 56 executioners shot first John Driscoll. William, by this time trembling, was gunned down next by the line of 55 Regulators. The description in the 1909 Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois was somewhat more tame: > [the Driscolls were] . . . led out, and shot, and then the other was led out, and after being shown the body of his dead relative, he was exhorted to confess that he had committed the crime charged against him. This he refused to do, but acknowledged that he had committed other crimes for which he deserved death. The lynching of the Driscolls did not spell the end of the Regulators, nor the Banditti, but it did serve to greatly decrease Banditti activity in Ogle County. ### Other Banditti activity Though the Banditti continued to plague areas of northern Illinois, they were largely eradicated from Ogle County following the lynching of the Driscolls. Both the Banditti and the Regulators, though, continued to be active. In Winnebago County, in early July 1841, the offices of the Rock River Express were ransacked, an early predecessor to the Rockford Register Star, the daily newspaper of Rockford, Illinois. The offices were likely trashed in response to a scathing editorial published by the Express speaking out against the vigilante action taken by the Regulators. Banditti crimes continued well into the 1840s. One of the most shocking incidents, outside of the murderous crimes of the Driscoll gang in Ogle, to be attributed to the Banditti was the callous murder of Colonel George Davenport at his home on the grounds of Rock Island Arsenal. On July 4, 1845, Colonel Davenport was assaulted in his home by Banditti men who thought he had a fortune in his safe. Beaten and left for dead, he survived long enough to give a full description of the criminals before he died that night. An amateur detective named Edward Bonney tracked down the killers and brought them to justice. Five men were charged with the murder of George Davenport, and all but one, who escaped before the trial, were hanged for the murder. Three more men were charged with being accessories to the murder. One man was sentenced to life in prison, but escaped and was killed three months later; one man served one year in prison; and the charges were dropped against the third man, who left the area. In Lee County, Illinois, the Banditti were most active in 1843-1850, after the lynching in Ogle. During that period, crime and gang operations were rampant throughout the Mississippi Valley, but Lee County, like its neighboring northern Illinois counties, had consistent activity. Near the Lee County village of Franklin Grove, a brutal double murder was committed in 1848. On May 20, 1848, area resident Joshua Wingert, while searching through the grove 2 mi (3 km) west of town for his cattle, came upon a small log hut. Inside, he discovered the bodies of two men, killed with their own axe. One of the men was nearly decapitated, and the other had a large gash across his forehead. The assumed motive was robbery, as the hut was ransacked and bloody fingerprints were all about the small building. The Banditti perpetrator or perpetrators were never apprehended. Also in Lee County, the Banditti were active in and around Inlet Grove. In June 1844, the group carried out a daring robbery of a Mr. Haskell. Haskell's residence was robbed by masked men in the midst of a summer thunderstorm. The perpetrators entered Haskell's bedroom while his wife and he were asleep. The robbers dragged a trunk of money out from underneath the sleeping Haskells' bed undetected, much of the noise they made probably drowned out by thunder. The Haskells did not discover they had been the victims of a robbery until the next morning. ## See also - Killing of Joseph Smith
221,733	Unfinished Tales	1,170,691,259	1980 collection of unfinished writings by J. R. R. Tolkien	[ "Allen & Unwin books", "Books published posthumously", "Collections of works by J. R. R. Tolkien", "Middle-earth books", "Unfinished Tales", "Unfinished books" ]	Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle-earth is a collection of stories and essays by J. R. R. Tolkien that were never completed during his lifetime, but were edited by his son Christopher Tolkien and published in 1980. Many of the tales within are retold in The Silmarillion, albeit in modified forms; the work also contains a summary of the events of The Lord of the Rings told from a less personal perspective. The collection received a cautious welcome from scholars and critics. They noted Christopher Tolkien's warning that a good knowledge of the background was needed to gain much from the stories. Others noted that the stories were among the best of Tolkien's writing; Warren Dunn expressed a wish for the whole of the history in such a format. The book, with its commentary, was commercially successful, indicating a market for more of Tolkien's work and leading to the 12-volume The History of Middle-earth. On "The Quest of Erebor" in Part Three, Christine Barkley comments that the perspective is the knowledgeable Gandalf's, contrasting sharply with the Hobbit Bilbo Baggins's narrower point of view in The Hobbit. Peter Jackson made use of the story to enrich the narrative for his 2013 film 'The Desolation of Smaug. ## Overview Unlike The Silmarillion, also published posthumously (in 1977), for which the narrative fragments were modified to connect them into a consistent and coherent work, the Unfinished Tales are presented as Tolkien left them, with little more than names changed (the author having had a confusing habit of trying out different names for a character while writing a draft). Thus some of these are incomplete stories, while others are collections of information about Middle-earth. Each tale is followed by a long series of notes explaining inconsistencies and obscure points. As with The Silmarillion, Tolkien's son Christopher edited and published Unfinished Tales before he had finished his study of the materials in his father's archive. Unfinished Tales provides more detailed information about characters, events and places mentioned only briefly in The Lord of the Rings. Versions of such tales, including the origins of Gandalf and the other Istari (Wizards), the death of Isildur and the loss of the One Ring in the Gladden Fields, and the founding of the kingdom of Rohan, help expand knowledge about Middle-earth. The commercial success of Unfinished Tales demonstrated that the demand for Tolkien's stories several years after his death was not only present but growing. Encouraged by the result, Christopher Tolkien embarked upon the more ambitious twelve-volume work entitled The History of Middle-earth, which encompasses nearly the entire corpus of his father's writings about Middle-earth. ## Contents ### Part One: The First Age - "Of Tuor and his Coming to Gondolin", an account of the central character of The Fall of Gondolin - "Narn i Hîn Húrin (The Tale of the Children of Húrin)" is a long story of what happened to Húrin and his children Túrin Turambar and Nienor, after Húrin was cursed by the Dark Lord Morgoth. The story elaborates on what is told of these characters in the published Silmarillion, starting with the childhood of Túrin, continuing through the captivity of his father in the Nírnaeth Arnoediad, and Túrin's exile in Doriath, to Túrin's time in Nargothrond, his incestuous relationship with his sister Nienor, and ultimately ending with suicide by his sword after killing the dragon who caused much of his problems. A shorter version is given in The Silmarillion as the chapter "Of Túrin Turambar". A complete version is published in the 2007 The Children of Húrin. ### Part Two: The Second Age - "A Description of the Island of Númenor", an account of the Atlantis-like island that supported a proud civilisation of Men - "Aldarion and Erendis: The Mariner's Wife", a tale a King of Númenor who was more interested in the stars and voyaging than ruling a country, provoking a split with his father Tar-Meneldur. - "The Line of Elros: Kings of Númenor", a chronicle listing all the Kings of Númenor from its foundation to its destruction - "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn", a group of texts related to Galadriel's origins and exile ### Part Three: The Third Age - "The Disaster of the Gladden Fields", an account of how Isildur came to be killed in the River Anduin, and the One Ring lost - "Cirion and Eorl and the Friendship of Gondor and Rohan", an account of the relationship of those two peoples; it is an extract from "The Rivers and Beacon-Hills of Gondor". - "The Quest of Erebor" has Gandalf narrate to Frodo Baggins how and why he arranged for the retaking of the Lonely Mountain (Erebor in Sindarin), resulting in the adventure told in The Hobbit. It was written long after that book had been published, sometime after Tolkien had the page proofs for The Fellowship of the Ring. - "The Hunt for the Ring", an account of how Sauron's Black Riders searched for the One Ring between the time that Sauron released Gollum and the time that Frodo left the Shire, with details of other versions of the story and details of the Wizards Gandalf and Saruman and their interest in the Shire. - "The Battles of the Fords of Isen", an account of the period in the history of Rohan before the action described in The Lord of the Rings, when the King's son Théodred was killed defending the Fords of Isen from Saruman's Orcs. ### Part Four - "The Drúedain", an account of the wild men of the woods - "The Istari", an account of the Wizards sent to Middle-earth - "The Palantíri", an account of the magical seeing stones ## Analysis ### General The scholar Paul H. Kocher, reviewing Unfinished Tales in Mythlore, noted that all the stories are linked to either The Silmarillion, Akallabeth or The Lord of the Rings, and extensively annotated, mainly by Christopher Tolkien. In Kocher's view, the stories contain "some of Tolkien's best writing" (and he summarized them in some detail), though he found much of interest in the editorial material also. He noted the revised map with the additional place names used in the tales, and that the book does not address Tolkien's poetry. The independent scholar Douglas C. Kane writes that Christopher Tolkien chose to include not just narrative tales, despite the book's title, but "a taste of some of the descriptive and historical underpinnings of those heretofore uncharted vistas", and that indeed he suggested he might "dive even deeper into the history of his father's legendarium", as he eventually did with his 12-volume The History of Middle-earth. The Tolkien scholar Corey Olsen notes that Christopher Tolkien chose to present the incomplete tales as they were, adding a commentary to help readers grasp how they fitted in to his father's Middle-earth legendarium. Olson comments that the book's commercial success demonstrated the existence of a market for more of Tolkien's writings, opening up a route to publication of The History of Middle-earth. The Christian philosopher Peter Kreeft wrote in Christianity & Literature that many readers had felt disappointed by Unfinished Tales, as some had felt about The Silmarillion. Perry Bramlett adds that the book is not for the reader new to Tolkien, nor even one who has read only The Hobbit "or perhaps some or even all of the Lord of the Rings." He notes Christopher Tolkien's warning that the stories "constitute no whole" and that much of the content "will be found unrewarding" to those without a good knowledge of Lord of the Rings. More positively, he cites David Bratman's comment that much of it is as well-crafted as any of Tolkien's writings, and that readers who found The Silmarillion "a little too high and distant" would welcome it. The science fiction author Warren Dunn, writing in 1993, described the book as engaging, and that every section contained "something of interest", but he cautioned that it required "an intimate knowledge" of The Silmarillion, The Lord of the Rings, and its appendices "for full enjoyment" of the book. He commented that "I really do wish we could have seen the whole history like this, even if it took up twelve volumes to get through the first, second and third ages before the Lord of the Rings!" ### "The Quest of Erebor" Christine Barkley, writing in Mythlore, notes that the point of view in The Quest of Erebor is Gandalf's, sharply contrasting with Bilbo's far less well-informed point of view in The Hobbit. That book, she states, uses a third-person, limited-knowledge narrator, supposedly written from Bilbo's diary after the adventure. Where Bilbo is interested in food and comfort, and sometimes other familiar things such as riddles, she writes, Gandalf is concerned with defending the West against the Shadow (Sauron). Further, the Quest actually pretends to be Frodo's memory of a conversation he had with Gandalf, rather than Gandalf actually writing, so there is uncertainty about how much of what Gandalf said may have been recorded. And when Frodo asks if he has now heard the full story, Gandalf replies "Of course not", so the narration is explicitly incomplete. From the reader's point of view, the point of the story is to explain how The Hobbit fits into the background of The Lord of the Rings, or more precisely, in Barkley's words, "why Bilbo was included in the dwarves' plans at Gandalf's suggestion." Frank P. Riga and colleagues, also in Mythlore, write that Peter Jackson used the Quest to enrich the story when transforming The Hobbit from novel to film for his 2013 film adaptation, The Desolation of Smaug. Among other things, the film opens with the meeting between Gandalf and Thorin at The Prancing Pony. Elements of Gandalf's motivations and previous discussions with Thorin also find their way into the 2012 film An Unexpected Journey as dialogue, particularly in the meeting held in Bilbo's house. In their view, the Quest "closely and thoroughly connects the action of The Hobbit with the larger, cosmic concerns of its sequel, showing how the Dwarves' struggle to regain their homeland became crucial in frustrating Sauron's plan to attack Lorien and Rivendell." They explain that the quest had to succeed, or the actions described in The Lord of the Rings could not have occurred. Jackson made use of the connections, they state; for instance, making Saruman order Gandalf to stop the quest, and making Gandalf refuse, supported by Galadriel.
52,290,308	Women in brewing	1,171,905,414	History and modern sociology of women who brew alcohol	[ "Brewery workers", "Brewing", "Fermentation in food processing", "Women in brewing" ]	Women have been active in brewing since ancient times. From the earliest evidence of brewing in 7000 BCE, until the commercialization of brewing during industrialization, women were the primary brewers on all inhabited continents. In many cultures, the deities, goddesses and protectors of brewers were female entities who were associated with fertility. From the middle of the 18th century, women had roles as barmaids, pub operators, bottlers or secretaries for breweries. In less industrialized areas, they produced homebrews and traditional alcoholic beverages. From the mid-20th century, women began working as chemists for brewing establishments. Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, they began re-entering the field as brewers. ## History Ethnographic studies and archaeological records indicate that, until the industrialization of brewing began, brewing beer was primarily an activity engaged in by women. From the 18th century onwards, women were increasingly employed as barmaids, and particularly in Australia as "publicans" or licensees running hotels selling alcohol. By the 19th century, few women were employed in brewing with the exception of labor for auxiliary functions, such as bottling and secretarial posts. In the 20th century, women began to work in a limited capacity in laboratories, but aside from a few exceptions such as Susannah Oland in Canada, women were excluded from directing brewing operations. Professional female brewers in Western society before the trade became "masculinized", were referred to as "brewsters". In Chinese legend, Yi Di, is credited with making the first alcohol from rice grains. In some accounts Yi Di is the wife of Yu the Great, sometimes a servant of Yu's daughter, sometimes a medical man who created liquor to cure "disorders". A female divine being in Ainu mythology known as Kamui Fuchi was the protector of brewing; brewers prayed to her and offered libations to ensure the warding off of evil spirits which might spoil the batch. Women in both Japan and Taiwan in the modern age engage in chewing rice to begin the fermentation process for making alcohol. In ancient Sumeria, brewing was the only profession that was "watched over by a female deity", namely Ninkasi. A tablet found dating back to 1800 BCE contains the Hymn to Ninkasi which is also basically a recipe for Mesopotamian beer. Sumerian beer was made from bippar, a bread made from twice-baked barley, which was then fermented. In ancient Babylon, women worked as baker-brewers and were often engaged in the commercial distribution of beer. Archaeologists believe that the Sumerians and Babylonians were responsible for spreading brewing processes into Africa. Brewing in ancient Egypt followed a method similar to Sumerian beer, often using the same dough as a base for both beer and bread. Brewing was considered the province of Egyptian women, "especially the steps of grinding the grain and straining the mash". The goddess Hathor was considered to have invented brewing and Hathor's temple at Dendera was known as "the place of drunkenness". Another Egyptian goddess, Tenenet, was worshiped as beer's deity and hieroglyphics on tombs depict images of women both brewing and drinking the beverage. Other African societies also credited women with creating beer. For example, the Zulu fertility goddess, Mbaba Mwana Waresa, is revered for her invention, as is the Dogon deity, Yasigi, who is often depicted dancing with a beer ladle to symbolize her role of distributing the beer made by women in ceremonial gatherings. Women in Burkina Faso have been making mash of fermented sorghum into beer for some 5,500 years. In Tanzania, both women and men help harvest and create different kinds of brew, including ulanzi and pombe. Women in Tanzania have traditionally been the "sole marketers" of drinks, and many use the money they make by selling alcohol to supplement their incomes. As early as 1600 BCE, Maya civilizations were using cacao beans to produce beer, long before it was used to make the non-alcoholic cocoa. Though actual production methods are unknown, Friar Landa described the process of preparing beverages as involving grinding maize and cacao to a paste before adding liquids and spices. Agriculture was within man's realm in the Mayan world, but food preparation belonged to women. On an ancient ceramic vase, chocolate preparation shows a woman pouring the substance between two vessels to create the highly desired foam favored by the Maya. Pre-Columbian Andean women chewed maize (occasionally using cassava or quinoa) to break down the starch and then spit it out to begin fermentation. Chicha, the resulting drink, is still widely available in Latin America. In the Wari Empire, archaeological evidence has indicated that elite Wari women brewers ran the breweries and that tradition carried forward into Incan society. Throughout the Andean region and Mesoamerica, women were the chief producers of alcoholic beverages. During the 15th century in Peru, women's lives among the Xauxa people of the Upper Mantaro Valley were changed by the process of producing chicha. After the Xauxa were conquered by the Inca, women were forced to work harder to produce more alcohol. In Mexico, a female deity, "Mayahuel" was revered among the Aztec for having discovered how to extract agave sap for the manufacture of pulque. After the Spanish invasion, women in Brazil and Mexico, as well as throughout Andean territories, became not only producers of alcoholic beverages, but also its main market vendors. Traditional Germanic societies were reported by the Romans to drink ale, made predominantly of fermented honey, produced by women. Until monasteries took over the production of alcoholic beverages in the 11th century, making it a profession for monks and nuns, brewing was the domain of tribal Germanic women. Migratory Germanic tribe women typically brewed their meads and ales in the forest, to avoid pillages by invaders. Their beverages did not contain hops, which were first recommended as an additive by St. Hildegard of Bingen. Because hops served as a preservative, beer's suitability for consumption became longer, though the addition of hops also increased the cost of brewing. In the decades before the Black Death in Europe, many households required a large amount of ale, because of a lack of potable water and expense of other beverages. Women used the opportunity of brewing to make extra money at home. In Brigstock, some women obtained licenses to brew over several months. Women in northern England were the main brewers for the community. As elsewhere in Europe, the founding of guilds often forced women out of the brewing industry; however, in Haarlem in the Netherlands, because women were allowed to inherit guild membership from spouses, many continued in the profession. Data collected on the period between 1518 and 1663, showed that 97 brewsters, three-quarters of whom were widows, were operating among a total of 536 brewers in the city. For around a thousand years in Finland, women brewsters created a beer called sahti in villages throughout the country. The recipe usually contained hops, juniper twigs, and barley and rye grains which had been malted and then smoked in a sauna. Finnish legends include the story of Louhi in the Kalevala, a woman who brewed beer by mixing bear's saliva with honey. Raugutiene, was a Baltic and Slavic goddess, who was the protector of beer. Alan D. Eames, a beer anthropologist, wrote an article in 1993 stating that the Norse Vikings, allowed only women to brew their ale. Archaeologists have uncovered graves of pre-Viking Nordic people which indicate that women were the ones who made and served alcohol. In the grave of the "Egtved Girl", a bucket of grog buried at her feet showed that the drink was made from a mixture of wheat, rye and barley as a base and included cranberries, honey, and lingonberries, as well as herbs, including birch resin, bog myrtle, juniper, and yarrow, to spice the drink. Danish women were the primary brewers until the establishment of guilds in the Middle Ages. While guilds controlled production for the crown and military, as well as for those in cities, women continued to be the primary brewers in the countryside. Even within the guilds, while higher positions were occupied by men, many of their wives held lower positions; in addition, there is evidence to suggest that the majority of the brewing performed by these families was carried out by the wives. Beer was supplied to Temple Newsam, Yorkshire, by local woman Elizabeth Pease for over thirty years, during the eighteenth century (1728-1758). Pease brewed ale, strong beer, table beer, and small beer; however, because she brewed seasonally, her income was inconsistent and she was quite poor. During the 16th and 17th centuries, brewing in Europe changed from being mainly small scale operations by solo women or groups of monks to being mainly large scale commercial operations involving large numbers of men; although women were still involved in the sale of beer. As women were forced out of brewing, the creation of a new ideology about women brewers took place which included "the construction of women as incapable of brewing; the link of this construction to the witch; and the position of widows as both brewers and ale-sellers". Popular depictions of alewives described them as witch-like, untrustworthy, corrupt and grotesque. In Ballad on an Ale-Seller, John Lydgate describes an alewife "who uses her charms to induce men to drink". The alewife in the popular poem The Tunning of Elynour Rummyng by John Skelton, is "strikingly vicious and nasty". Other depictions of alewives in England showed them "condemned to eternal punishment in hell". However, "it is difficult to tell whether alewives or women who brewed beer were accused of witchcraft directly.". Women of Native American societies in North America including the Apache, Maricopa, Pima, and Tohono O'odham brewed a Saguaro cactus beer or wine, called tiswin for rituals. Apache women also produced a product made from corn, which was similar to Mexican beers, known as tulpi or tulapa which was used in girls' puberty rites. The puberty ceremony includes four days of prayer, fasting, consumption of ritual food and drink, and runs dedicated to the White Painted Lady, an Apache deity. The Coahuiltecan and other tribes from their Texas vicinity made an intoxicant from yucca and the red beans of the mountain laurel. In the North American colonies women continued with homebrewing which, for at least a century, was the predominant means of beer production. While Thomas Jefferson may have been famous for his brewing, Martha Jefferson was equally renowned for her wheat beer. The first commercial brewster in the Thirteen Colonies was Mary Lisle, who inherited her father's brewery in 1734 and operated it until 1751. In 1713, Elizabeth and John Haddon built a three-story brick mansion called New Haddonfield Plantation, where Elizabeth Haddon managed the family property and her husband tended to his missionary journeys; the Brew House she built in 1713 still stands in the backyard. Although the first recorded commercial female brewer in the Colonies was Mary Lisle, who inherited her father's Philadelphia brewpub in 1734, there is reason to believe that across the river in South Jersey, Haddon was running a more-than-average homebrew operation. In Canada, Susannah Oland, an Englishwoman who immigrated to Canada in 1865, and her husband established a popular brewery called the Navy and Army Brewery. After her husband died, Oland established a brewery of her own, though she concealed her gender by naming the business "S. Oland Sons and Company," using her initials to hide the fact that she was a woman. She was the creator of a beer recipe which became the basis for founding Canada's oldest independent brewery, Moosehead Brewery. In Australia evidence points to Indigenous labor divisions with men responsible for hunting and women tending to gathering and food preparation. Aboriginal women prepared alcoholic beverages from flowers. Flowers were steeped in water, or pounded to extract the nectar and mixed with honey ants to ferment. ## Modern day From the beginning of industrialization to the 1960s and early 1970s, most women were moved out of the brewing industry, though throughout the world, they continued to homebrew following ancestral methods. "The main obstacles that women continue to face in [the] industry include perceptions of taste, media influence, and preconceived notions about their skill and ability", according to journalist Krystal Baugher. American women such as Jill Vaughn and Rebecca Bennett have been successful at becoming top brewmasters at Anheuser-Busch, where they developed brands such as Bud Light Platinum, Shock Top and the Straw-Ber-Rita. I. Patricia Henry is the first African American woman to manage a major American brewery Miller Brewing Company, now MillerCoors, in Eden, NC. Suzanne Stern Denison and Jane Zimmerman worked at and invested in Sonoma, California's long-shuttered New Albion Brewing, established in 1976 and the first new brewery in America since Prohibition; Jack McAuliffe is most often the only person mentioned as founder. Hart Brewing was co-founded by Beth Hartwell and Tom Baune in 1984 in Kalama, Washington; they were early pioneers of craft brewing in the Pacific Northwest and Hart was the first known woman to co-own a brewery in the post-Prohibition era. Mari Kemper and husband Will opened Thomas Kemper Brewing on Bainbridge Island (near Seattle) in 1985 and now co-own Chuckanut Brewery & Kitchen in Bellingham. Mellie Pullman is a professor at Portland State University; where she became the first known female brewmaster in the United States when she took a job at Schirf Brewing in Park City, Utah in 1986. Carol Stoudt founded Stoudts Brewing Company in Adamstown, Pennsylvania in 1987; she was one of the first female brewmasters since Prohibition in the country and the nation's first known female sole proprietor. Teri Fahrendorf was the third female craft brewmaster in the country; she worked as a brewer at Golden Gate Brewery and Triple Rock Brewery in Berkeley, California, Steelhead Brewery in Eugene, Oregon. Fahrendorf later founded the Pink Boots Society. Kim Jordan co-founded New Belgium Brewing Company with husband Jeff Lebesch in 1991 in Fort Collins, Colorado. Leah Wong Ashburn took over for father Oscar Wong, who opened Highland Brewing Co. in 1994; it is one of one of North Carolina's oldest breweries. Mariah and Sam Calagione co-founded Dogfish Head Craft Brewery in 1995. Natalie and Vinnie Cilurzo, Russian River Brewing's original brewer, acquired the rights to the brand and opened a brewpub in Santa Rosa, California in 2004. Other women opened early craft breweries in America and have served in numerous capacities other than as the brewer. These include Marcy Larson, who co-founded the Alaskan Brewing Company with husband Geoff in 1986 in Juneau, Alaska; Irene Firmat, who founded Full Sail Brewing Company in 1987 in Hood River, Oregon; Rose Ann Finkel co-founded Pike Brewing Company with husband Charles Finkel in Seattle, Washington in 1989 (and Merchant du Vin in 1978); and Deborah Carey, who founded New Glarus Brewing Company with husband Daniel in 1993 in New Glarus, Wisconsin. More recently, women in America have opened breweries across the country. Ting Su, her husband Jeremy Raub, and her father-in-law, Steven Raub, opened Eagle Rock Brewery in Los Angeles in 2009; they are considered founders of the craft brewing scene there. CEO and head brewer Eilise Lane learned to brew beer in the Northwest and now runs the Scarlet Lane Brewing Company in 2014 in Indiana. Kate Power, Betsy Lay, and Jen Cuesta co-founded Lady Justice Brewing in 2016 in Aurora, Colorado; their brewery donates to human rights and social justice organizations, specifically supporting organizations that benefit women and girls. In 2018, brewers Celeste Beatty and Briana Brake co-founded Rocky Mount Brewing, which is a "brewery incubator" space for new brewers in Rocky Mount, North Carolina. Brake owns and brews for her company, Spaceway Brewing, which she started in 2018. Beatty, who opened the Harlem Brewing Company in New York in 2000, is the first known Black woman to own a brewery in the United States in the post-Prohibition era. Carol Pak is the founder of Makku, America's first canned craft makgeolli company (she calls it "Korean rice beer"); the business was started in New York City in 2018 and is hand-crafted in Maine. In 2019, Tamil Maldonado Vega co-founded Raices Brewing in Denver, Colorado; it is a Latino owned and operated brewery that also acts as a reference center for those interested in learning about Latin culture. In 2016, Shyla Sheppard and Missy Begay founded Bow and Arrow Brewing Co. in Albuquerque, New Mexico, which is known for drawing on indigenous ingredients for their beers; it is the only known Native woman-owned brewery in the U.S. Among Canada's women brewers are Emily Tipton, co-owner and brewmaster of Boxing Rock Brewing, and Kellye Robertson, who began her career at Garrison Brewing before heading the brewing team at Spindrift Brewing. There are several women involved in the brewing business in Mexico City, Mexico. Elizabeth Rosas is the co-founder of Cervecería Calavera and head of branding and marketing; she and husband Gilbert Nielsen started the brewery in 2008. Lucía Carrillo is the co-founder and brewer of Cervecería Itañeñe, which opened in 2011. Cervecería Dos Mundos (“Two Worlds Brewery”) was co-founded in 2014 by British-Mexican couple Caroline King and David Meza in the Iztapalapa neighborhood of Mexico City. Antonieta Carrión founded Casa Cervecera Madrina in 2014 and is likely the first female sole owner and brewer of a cervecería in Mexico City; she is also one of the founding members of the Adelitas beer collective. Jessica Martínez opened Cervecería Malteza in 2014. Sandra Navarro is a founding partner and lead brewer at the Turulata Brewing Company, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico. Paz Austin is the General Director for the Mexican Association of Beer Makers (ACERMEX). In Latin America, chicha is still widely produced by women and consumed daily by adults and children, as it typically has a low alcohol content. In Ecuador women harvest yucca, boil the roots, pound it into a paste and then chew the paste, in much the same way as their ancestors did, to break down the starches and begin the fermentation process. Peruvian women make their version of chicha using the same method, but with corn. In Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay, among Amazonian Indians, chicha, made from corn, or algarroba beer made from carob seed, as well as beer produced from mixing corn or manioc with apples, melons, papaya, pears, pumpkin, quince, strawberries and sweet potatoes are brewed by women. Bolivian women make beer from roasted barley, which is then chewed to begin the fermentation process and is served daily as a dietary supplement. In 2013, Sara Barton, owner and director of Brewster's Brewery, won the Brewer of the Year award, becoming the first woman to receive the honor bestowed annually by the British Guild of Beer Writers. Emma Gilleland, who heads the supply chain at Marston's Brewery, the leading independent brewer in Britain, was called the most influential brewer in the UK by the BBC. A noted German brewster, who is also Bavaria's last masterbrewer nun, Sister Doris Engelhard, has been creating beer at Mallersdorf Abbey for over 40 years. Other female Bavarian brewers are Sigi Friedmann of Friedmann's Brewery (German: Brauerei Friedmann) in Gräfenberg and Gisela and Monika Meinel of the Meinel-Bräu Brewery in Hof. An de Ryck is one of the few women brewers in Belgium. She has run the De Ryck Brewery (Dutch: Brouwerij De Ryck) since the 1970s, winning several awards for the beers she has produced. Rosa Merckx became the first official female brewmaster and operations director in Belgium when she took over the Liefmans Oudenaarde brewery in 1972, where she had worked since 1946. An ambitious brewery in Iceland run by Þórey Björk is called Lady Brewery. The brewery started late 2017 releasing the breweries signature beer named First Lady - IPA. In 2015, the BBC's "100 Women" project, honored Leimin Duong, a Vietnamese-Australian woman, who brews strawberry beer, as one of the most influential women of the year. In Australia, the first all-female brewery in the country, Two Birds Brewing, has won multiple awards for their beers, but in 2016, owners Jayne Lewis and Danielle Allen were honored with the Champion trophy for Medium Australian Brewery by the Australian International Beer Awards. In many traditional African cultures, beer is still made only by women and often their sole source of attaining economic autonomy. For example, in Cameroon women of the Gbaya people make a traditional beer from maize and sorghum called amgba, which is a dietary staple and women of the Mafa people brew bilbil – called dong-long in the Tupuri language, uzum in the Giziga language, and zom in the Mafa language – from millet. Both originated as ritual drinks for ceremonies, but now are used as a means of economic survival for many women. Sorghum beers produced by women in other African nations include bili bili in Chad, burkutu or pito in Ghana and Nigeria, chibuku or doro in Zimbabwe, dolo in Burkina Faso, ikigage in Rwanda, kaffir in South Africa, merissa in Sudan, mtama in Tanzania, and tchoukoutou in Benin and Togo. In South Africa's Xhosa and Zulu ethnicities, women were traditionally in charge of brewing umqombothi, a homemade beer made from maize malt, sorghum malt, yeast, and water. Umqombothi is prepared over an open fire and poured into a large drum called a gogogo. In African commercial breweries, though women are often partners with their spouses, only about six are operated by women brewers. One of these, Apiwe Nxusani-Mawela, is a brewer, brewery owner and the first black South African accredited as a trainer for the Institute of Brewing and Distilling and as a certified beer judge for the South Africa Beer Judging Certification Program. Another is Thea Blom, who began as a chef and then added a craft brewery to her business, Oakes Brew House, and hired brewer Happy Sekanka to create the firm's beers. Josephine "Fina" Uwineza, a restaurateur in Rwanda began evaluating whether opening the first craft beer brewery in the country could be used as a platform to empower women and offer them employment. In 2016, she partnered with the Ontario Craft Brewers Association to explore creating the venture. In Nepal, as they have for centuries, women brew raksi, a pungent distilled alcoholic beverage made from rice. It was originally used for ceremonial purposes in Hindu and Buddhist rites, but is such a key part of customary life in the Kathmandu valley, that authorities routinely ignore legal prohibitions against production and consumption. Women traditionally engage in the month-long brewing process and sell their excess raksi to restaurants. Other important Nepali brewed drinks are Chhyang, Jaandh, Thon, and Tongba, (known by various names and spellings), which are traditionally made by women. Made in both Nepal and Tibet, the drinks are made from barley, rice or millet. After soaking the grain in water, it is steamed and then mixed with a starting agent known as marcha, which is prepared from either wheat flakes (called mana) or rice or millet flour (known as manapu). The recipe for making marcha is sometimes a highly guarded secret and passed on only to daughters-in-law. In Japan, after the commercialization of brewing, sake brewers, known as tōji (Japanese: 杜氏) were for generations, migrants who traveled between breweries and worked during the winter season. As sake sales declined along with the number of trained tōji, owners started brewing themselves. Though most sake brewers are men, as of 2015, there are approximately 20 female tōji brewing in Japan and The Women's Sake Industry Group has been formed to increase their numbers. Emi Machida (Japanese: 町田恵美さん) has run her family's 130-year-old brewery for ten years as the masterbrewer and has won seven gold medals for her sake from the Annual Japan Sake Awards. Miho Imada (Japanese: みほいまだ) is noted for her Hiroshima-style junmai ginjo method which uses very soft water, low temperatures and a slow fermentation process to bring out the fruity flavors and aromatics. Minoh Brewing, which opened in 1997 near Osaka, is run by Kaori Oshita. In South Korea, Seolhee Lee is Magpie Brewing Company's pioneering female brewer; the company is co-owned by Tiffany Needham. The Pink Boots Society is an organization that supports women working in the beer industry. It was founded by Teri Farhrendorf, who was in turn inspired by an early brewmaster, Carol Stoudt, who launched her own brewery in 1987. There are Pink Boots Society chapters in Canada, Australia and the United States. The Female Beer Tasters in Mexico is an NGO created in 2012 to promote the culture and education of beer; in 2020, it had over 2,000 members with representatives and coordinators in 15 cities in Mexico and San Diego, California. Adelitas Cerveceras, a collective of 130 Mexican women that was established in 2019, promotes the participation of women in the beer industry through a support and career network. Bière de Femme, in North Carolina, was founded in 2017 as an event to bring women in the beer industry together, but also to meet consumers and craft beer enthusiasts of all genders. FemAle Brew Fest, a Florida beer festival, was established in 2016 to support the growth of women in brewing. In Sweden, they produced a beer named "We Can Do It", modeled on the Rosie the Riveter poster by Westinghouse in 2015. The goal was to create a beer made by women, which was not fruity or mild, but rather based on a scientific review of what women actually wanted to drink. Women have also been recognized in home brewing. In 2013, Annie Johnson won the American Homebrewers Association's Homebrewer of the Year award. ## See also - Apiwe Nxusani-Mawela - Beer - Brewing - Brewery - International Women's Collaboration Brew Day - History of beer - Homebrewing - Pink Boots Society - Sophie de Ronde - Winemaking
11,398,873	Qinghe Special Steel Corporation disaster	1,150,896,547	2007 industrial disaster in Qinghe District, Tieling, China	[ "2007 in China", "2007 industrial disasters", "April 2007 events in Asia", "Industrial fires and explosions in China", "Man-made disasters in China" ]	The Qinghe Special Steel Corporation disaster was an industrial disaster that occurred on April 18, 2007, in Qinghe District, Tieling, Liaoning, China. Thirty-two people were killed and six were injured when a ladle used to transport molten steel separated from an overhead rail in the Qinghe Special Steel Corporation factory. An investigation by Chinese authorities found that the plant lacked many major safety features and was severely below regulation benchmarks, with the direct cause of the accident being attributed to inappropriate use of substandard equipment. The investigation also concluded that the various other safety failings at the facility were contributing factors. The report criticised safety standards throughout the Chinese steel industry. Sun Huashan, deputy head of the State Administration of Work Safety, said that it was "the most serious accident to hit China's steel industry since 1949." ## Background The Qinghe Special Steel Corporation ltd, established in 1987, had originally been a state-owned enterprise and had been restructured into a private business. According to the State Administration of Work Safety, the plant had about 300 employees at the time of the accident, although Xinhua gave the employment figure as 650. In 2006, the factory produced 70,000 tonnes of steel and had hoped to increase production to 120,000 tonnes in 2007. The building where the disaster occurred was used by the Qinghe Special Steel Corporation as a steel processing plant. The ladle which failed carried molten steel from a blast furnace to other processes, and had a diameter of two metres and a capacity of 30 tons (25 tonnes) of liquid steel. It ran on a rail at a height of 3 metres above the factory floor. ## Event At 7:45 am local time, the ladle in question separated from the overhead iron rail connecting it to the blast furnace while it was being positioned over a worktable in preparation to pour out its contents. All 30 tonnes (33 tons) of liquid steel, at a temperature of approximately 1,500 degrees Celsius (2,730 F), were spilled. This liquid steel then burst through the windows and door of an adjoining room 5 metres away where workers had gathered during a change of shifts, engulfing that room entirely. When emergency services arrived, they were initially unable to provide assistance as the high temperature of the molten steel prevented them from entering the area. When they were able to access the area, they discovered 32 workers had been killed by the spill. Six others in the room survived and were rushed to the hospital with severe burns. According to doctors, five workers were initially listed as being in a stable condition, whereas others were listed as critical. They were said to be at risk of contracting infections through their burns. However, an earlier statement on the website of the State Administration of Work Safety published conflicting information, saying that the 32 deceased represented everyone in the room at the time, and that only two people were injured – the operators of the ladle. The official Xinhua press agency also released a report stating that the ladle fell on workers below, but this was unclear as in to whether the workers were in fact crushed or whether this, too, conflicted with the other reports. After retrieving the six survivors, rescuers then recovered the bodies of the 32 deceased. ## Reactions and survivor accounts Sun Huashan, deputy head of the State Administration of Work Safety, held a press conference shortly after the disaster in which he stated "It is the most serious accident to hit China's steel industry since 1949". There was a public outcry across China as news of the spill became known. The survivors were interviewed for the media and by investigators about their experience. One gave the following account of the tragedy: "I was bending down to get some tools when I heard screaming. The ladle was falling... [The liquid] fell on to the ground and then spilled onto my body and burnt [my] clothes. I just ran." Another gave this description of being burned by the steel: "When the steel hit, it felt like being beaten by iron bars – my brain went blank. I would be dead if I had turned my head". One survivor, Jiao Zhengyan, 38 and head of the company's ingot casting section, explained why the steel had been spilled instead of remaining in an upright ladle: "As the ladle was falling, it hit a flatbed and tilted. The molten steel immediately flowed into the nearby conference room." ## Investigation The Chinese authorities immediately launched an investigation into the disaster which concluded a week later on April 23. The factory itself was sealed off for the course of the investigation, a common practice in China, but work continued in the site office. The investigation concluded that the direct cause of the disaster was Qinghe using a standard hoist instead of one specifically designed for dangerous smelting work. Other contributing factors identified were lax safety measures and "chaotic" management. The official report also stated that "Equipment and materials inside the workshop were messy, the work space was narrow, and safety passages did not meet requirements." The report went on to further indicate that the accident highlighted poor working conditions and safety measures in the Chinese steel industry, stating that "Some firms cannot adapt to the demands of rapid expansion and ignore safety... Safety inspection is not in place, leading to multiple accidents... Work safety conditions in the metallurgy sector are extremely grim." ## Aftermath The bodies of the deceased were too badly burned to be recognisable, so DNA testing was used for identification. Within 24 hours of the disaster, officials had arrested the plant's owner and three employees who were in charge of work safety issues, and had promised the families of the victims a minimum of 200,000 yuan (US\$26,000) each in compensation. According to Xinhua, the positions of those arrested were the manager of the mill, an operator, a technician and a workshop supervisor. The same statement from the work safety administration that had issued the conflicting injury count stated that those responsible were "under control" but did not elaborate further.
13,729,372	Islais Creek	1,150,023,141	River in the United States of America	[ "Rivers of Northern California", "Rivers of San Francisco", "Tributaries of San Francisco Bay" ]	Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel (previously known as Du Vrees Creek, Islais Channel and Islais Swamp) is a small creek in San Francisco, California. The name of the creek is derived from a Salinan Native American word "slay" or "islay", the name for the Prunus ilicifolia wild cherries. Around the time of the Gold Rush, the area became an industrial hub, and the condition of the creek worsened. After the devastating 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris, reducing the waterbody to its present size. Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert, remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street. Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants, as they are important wildlife habitats. ## Course The historic Islais Creek, the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5,000 acres (7.813 sq mi; 20.234 km<sup>2</sup>), had two main branches. One originated near the southern slope of Twin Peaks, slightly north of Portola Drive. It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park paralleling Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I-280. The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street. It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I-280 viaduct. Together, as a wider creek, it ran parallel to Alemany Boulevard and I-280 and debouched into the Islais Creek estuary, near Industrial Street and Oakdale Avenue. Precita Creek, a nearby creek that originated from Noe Valley, also joined Islais Creek at the Cesar Chavez Street and Evans Avenue intersection. From its sources in the Glen Canyon, the entire creek stretched about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the San Francisco Bay. The mouth was nearly 2 miles (3.2 km) wide, providing up to 85% of the drinking water in San Francisco. Due to urban development, however, the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80% from its historical extent. A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today, such as Bernal Heights, Hunters Point, Visitacion Valley, parts of the Mission and Potrero Hill, were once covered by the extent of the creek. In 2007, the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, which manages the city's water, began investigating the possibility of "daylighting" underground portions of the creek. As of 2009, remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1-mile (1.6 km) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek debouched into the bay. ## History The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century. The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834, named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area. By 1850, water from the creek was used by farmers to irrigate crops. The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers swarmed into the city. A railroad trestle was built over the creek and tidal flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex relatione The Board of State Harbor Commissioners VS. The Potrero And Bay View Railroad Company, Islais Creek was declared a non-navigable waterway in 1883. In 1871, the area along the creek became known as the city's "New Butchertown" when more than 100 slaughterhouses opened. Since then, the condition of the creek deteriorated, literally becoming a dumping place of garbage, sewage, animal waste, and unsold meat products. The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as "Shit Creek" by San Franciscans, according to historian Karl Kortum. After the 1906 earthquake, San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris, reducing the creek to its present size. During World War II, it served as docking areas for large ocean-going tugs. The area also located the largest copra coconut processing plant in the United States West Coast. In fact, the abandoned five-story high copra crane, used to transport large amount of copras from ships to the plant as late as 1974, still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark. In the 1950s, Islais Creek was home to the largest sardine canning industry in the world. The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970. Today, the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay. Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas. Friends of Islais Creek, established back in 1984, and David Erickson, a local community figure, were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek. The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a \$50,000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The Bayview. With an additional of \$100,000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non-profit organizations and governmental agencies, namely the Sierra Club, San Francisco Municipal Railway (Muni), Department of Public Works, Public Utilities Commission, Port of San Francisco, and Caltrans, the park was finished in 1998. Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek, the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone Sanctuary is named after the native inhabitants and has since become an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife, including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly. On November 19, 2001, construction crews, while preparing to drill an electrical conduit (consisting of six large 115kV electrical cables) across the creek for the Muni Metro T Third Street light rail line, cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day. The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage. The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe. It was estimated that it would take more than \$101,660 to repair and \$65,000 for wildlife habitat restoration. The remaining Islais Creek Park is next to Cargo Way and 3rd Street. It is home to a historical information sign, a short trail, public art created from a copra loading crane, and a pier with a dock for small boats. As of December, 2017, the copra crane is lying on its side and the restoration project on hold due to jurisdiction and cost problems. ### Health hazard Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water, domestic sewage, and industrial wastewater, it is possible for the sewage to overflow. Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals, PCBs, bacteria, as well as organochlorines than other parts of the San Francisco Bay. ## Transportation The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek, carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street. It is a bascule-type drawbridge. The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street. This crossing also uses a bascule bridge. ## See also - List of watercourses in the San Francisco Bay Area
51,485,559	Lake Tauca	1,173,463,354	null	[ "Former lakes of South America", "Geology of Bolivia", "Geology of Peru", "Holocene", "Lakes of Bolivia", "Lakes of Peru", "Late Pleistocene", "Pleistocene South America" ]	Lake Tauca is a former lake in the Altiplano of Bolivia. It is also known as Lake Pocoyu for its constituent lakes: Lake Poopó, Salar de Coipasa and Salar de Uyuni. The lake covered large parts of the southern Altiplano between the Eastern Cordillera and the Western Cordillera, covering an estimated 48,000 to 80,000 square kilometres (19,000 to 31,000 sq mi) of the basins of present-day Lake Poopó and the Salars of Uyuni, Coipasa and adjacent basins. Water levels varied, possibly reaching 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) in altitude. The lake was saline. The lake received water from Lake Titicaca, but whether this contributed most of Tauca's water or only a small amount is controversial; the quantity was sufficient to influence the local climate and depress the underlying terrain with its weight. Diatoms, plants and animals developed in the lake, sometimes forming reef knolls. The duration of Lake Tauca's existence is uncertain. Research in 2011 indicated that the rise in lake levels began 18,500 BP, peaking 16,000 and 14,500 years ago. About 14,200 years ago, lake levels dropped before rising again until 11,500 years ago. Some researchers postulate that the last phase of Lake Tauca may have continued until 8,500 BP. The drying of the lake, which may have occurred because of the Bølling-Allerød climate oscillation, left the salt deposits of Salar de Uyuni. Lake Tauca is one of several ancient lakes which formed in the Altiplano. Other known lakes are Lake Escara, Ouki, Salinas, Minchin, Inca Huasi and Sajsi, in addition to several water-level rises of Lake Titicaca. The identity of these lakes is controversial; Sajsi is often considered part of Lake Tauca, and the lake is frequently divided into an earlier (Ticaña) and a later (Coipasa) phase. The formation of Lake Tauca depended on a reduction in air temperature over the Altiplano and an increase in precipitation, which may have been caused by shifts in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and increased easterly winds. It was originally supposed that glacial melting might have filled Lake Tauca, but the quantity of water would not have been sufficient to fill the whole lake. The lake was accompanied by glacial advance, noticeable at Cerro Azanaques and Tunupa. Elsewhere in South America, water levels and glaciers also expanded during the Lake Tauca phase. ## Description ### Overview Lake Tauca existed on the Altiplano, a high plateau with an average altitude of 3,800 to 4,000 metres (12,500 to 13,100 ft), covering an area of 196,000 square kilometres (76,000 sq mi) or 1,000 by 200 kilometres (620 mi × 120 mi). The highland is in the Andes, the world's longest mountain chain which was formed during the Tertiary with a primary phase of uplift in the Miocene. Its central area, which contains the Altiplano, is formed by the eastern and western chains: the Eastern and Western Cordillera of Bolivia, which reach an altitude of 6,500 metres (21,300 ft). The Eastern Cordillera creates a rain shadow over the Altiplano. The climate of the Altiplano is usually dry when westerly winds prevail; during the austral summer, heating induces easterly winds which transport humidity from the Amazon. A north-south gradient exists, with mean temperatures and precipitation decreasing from 15 °C (59 °F) and 700 millimetres (28 in) in the north, to 7 °C (45 °F) and 100 millimetres (3.9 in) in the southern Lípez area. Although precipitation decreases from north to south, the evaporation rate throughout the Altiplano exceeds 1,500 millimetres per year (59 in/year). Most precipitation is recorded between October and April. Occasionally during winter (but also in summer), frontal disturbances result in snowfall. Strong winds and high insolation are other aspects of the Altiplano climate. Much of the water balance in the present-day Altiplano-Atacama area is maintained by groundwater flow. The terrain of the Altiplano consists primarily of sediments deposited by lakes and rivers during the Miocene and Pleistocene. A Paleozoic basement underlies Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments. The Andean Central Volcanic Zone and the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex are in the Cordillera Occidental. Lake Tauca was one of many lakes which formed around the world during glacial epochs; others include the Baltic Ice Lake in Europe and Lake Bonneville in North America. Today, the Altiplano contains Lake Titicaca, with a surface area of 8,800 square kilometres (3,400 sq mi), and several other lakes and salt pans. The latter include the Salar de Uyuni, at an altitude of 3,653 metres (11,985 ft) with an area of 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi), and the Salar de Coipasa, covering 2,500 square kilometres (970 sq mi) at an altitude of 3,656 metres (11,995 ft). Lake Titicaca and the southern salt flats are two separate water basins, connected by the Rio Desaguadero when Titicaca is high enough. The theory that the Altiplano was formerly covered by lakes was first proposed by J. Minchin in 1882. The formation of such lakes usually, but not always, coincided with lower temperatures. No evidence has been found for lake expansions in the Altiplano region below an altitude of 3,500 metres (11,500 ft). ### Geography Larger than Lake Titicaca, Tauca was over 600 kilometres (370 mi) long and covered the area of the present-day Lake Poopo, Salar de Uyuni and Salar de Coipasa. Lake Tauca was the largest paleolake in the Altiplano in the last 120,000 years at least, and comparable to present-day Lake Michigan. Several different estimates for its surface area exist: Water depths reached 110–120 metres (360–390 ft). Water levels were about 140 metres (460 ft) higher than Salar de Uyuni, or 135 to 142 metres (443 to 466 ft). According to research published in 2000, the lake level varied from 3,700 to 3,760 metres (12,140 to 12,340 ft). Some disagreement about water levels at various sites may reflect differing isostatic rebound of the land covered by the lake. The original 1978 research on the Tauca phase postulated its shoreline at 3,720 metres (12,200 ft). Of the previous lake cycles in the area, only the Ouki cycle appears to have exceeded that altitude. A later phase in lake levels (known as the Ticaña phase) was lower, at 3,657 metres (11,998 ft); the drop from Tauca was abrupt. The late phase of Lake Tauca, Coipasa, had a water level of 3,660 metres (12,010 ft) or 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) and covered an area of about 32,000 square kilometres (12,000 sq mi). Transitions between lake cycles occurred in about one thousand years. Lake Tauca was the largest lake on the Altiplano during the last 100,000-130,000 years. Although the preceding paleolake (Minchin) was probably shallower, there is disagreement about the methods used to ascertain water depth. Some consider Minchin the larger lake; a 1985 paper estimated its size at 63,000 square kilometres (24,000 sq mi), compared with Tauca's 43,000 square kilometres (17,000 sq mi). Confusion may have resulted from the incorrect attribution of Tauca's shorelines to Lake Minchin; a shoreline at 3,760 metres (12,340 ft) formerly attributed to Lake Minchin was dated to the Tauca phase at 13,790 BP. The theory that Tauca is the largest lake follows a deepening trend in the southern Altiplano paleolakes which contrasts with a decreasing trend in the level of Lake Titicaca during the Pleistocene. This pattern probably occurred because the threshold between the two basins progressively eroded, allowing water from Titicaca to flow into the southern Altiplano. The lakes left erosional benches, fan deltas (where the lakes interacted with ice) and lake-sediment deposits, and eroded into moraines. The ridge that separates the Salar de Uyuni and Salar de Coipasa was a peninsula in the lake; San Agustín, San Cristóbal and Colcha formed islands. The lake and its predecessors (such as Lake Minchin) formed in the area currently occupied by salt flats such as the Salar de Uyuni, Salar de Coipasa, Lake Poopó, Salar de Empexa, Salar de Laguani, and Salar de Carcote—several tens of meters beneath the Tauca water level. The present-day cities of Oruro and Uyuni are located in areas flooded by Lake Tauca. Salar de Ascotán may or may not have been part of Lake Tauca. The submergence of a large part of the Altiplano under Lake Tauca reduced the production of dust there and its supply to Patagonia, but "restocked" the sediments and thus increased dust supply once Lake Tauca dried up. The terrain above 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) was affected by glaciation. In the Coipasa basin, a major debris avalanche from the Tata Sabaya volcano rolled over terraces left by Lake Tauca. ### Hydrology At a water level of 3,720 metres (12,200 ft), the total volume of the lake has been estimated to be 1,200 cubic kilometres (290 cu mi) to 3,810 cubic kilometres (910 cu mi) at a level of 3,760 metres (12,340 ft). Such volumes could have been reached in centuries. The quantity of water was sufficient to depress the underlying bedrock, which rebounded after the lake disappeared; this has resulted in altitude differences of 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft). Based on oxygen-18 data in lake carbonates, water temperatures ranged from 2 to 10 °C (36 to 50 °F) or 7.5 ± 2.5 °C (45.5 ± 4.5 °F). Tauca may have been subject to geothermal heating. The lake was deep and saline, with salinity increasing from the Tauca to the Coipasa stages. The salt content seems to have consisted of NaCl and Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>. Estimated salt concentrations: Estimated salt concentrations (based on a lake level of 3,720 metres (12,200 ft), for sodium chloride, lithium and bromine): Some of this salt penetrated aquifers beneath the lake, which still exist. A significant excess NaCl concentration has been inferred for Lake Tauca, possibly stemming from salt domes whose contents moved from lake to lake. Precipitation of calcium carbonate resulted in lake waters becoming progressively enriched in more soluble salts. Glacial meltwater may have contributed substantially to Lake Tauca's development. Strontium isotope data indicates that water draining from Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desaguadero may have contributed between 70% and 83% of Lake Tauca's water, an increase of between 8 and 30 times the current outflow of Lake Titicaca via the Desaguadero. A drop in the level of Lake Titicaca about 11,500 BP may have resulted in its outflow drying up, favouring the disappearance of Lake Tauca. According to other research, the increased outflow of Lake Titicaca would have had to be unrealistically large to supply Lake Tauca with water if Titicaca was its principal source. Other estimates assume that one-third of Tauca's water came from Lake Titicaca, no more than 15% for any lake cycle, or the much-lower four per cent (similar to today's five-per cent contribution from Titicaca to Lake Poopó). During the Coipasa cycle, Lake Poopó may have contributed about 13% of the water. About 53% of Lake Tauca's water came from the Eastern Cordillera. About 60,000 years ago, the Desaguadero probably began transporting water from Lake Titicaca to the Uyuni area and the southern paleolakes. Tauca was fed by the Río Grande de Lipez on the south, the Río Lauca on the northwest and the glaciers of the two cordilleras on the east and west. The lake's total drainage basin has been estimated at about 200,000 square kilometres (77,000 sq mi). If lake levels reached an altitude of 3,830 metres (12,570 ft), the lake may have drained into the Pilcomayo River and from there through the Río de la Plata into the Atlantic Ocean. Formerly an outlet may have formed at Salar de Ascotán, into the Pacific Ocean, before it was obstructed by lava flows. A theory proposed by Campbell in 1985 that a former Altiplano-wide lake catastrophically drained into the Rio Beni during the Holocene has not received much support. Although earlier theories postulated that large lakes formed from glacial meltwater, increased precipitation or decreased evaporation (or both) are today considered necessary for lake formation; a complete glacial melting would have had to occur in less than about a century to produce the required volume. The water volume would be insufficient to explain Lake Tauca's high water levels; however, some smaller lakes in the southern Altiplano probably expanded from glacial meltwater alone. The lake may have contributed to increased precipitation by influencing land breezes. According to strontium isotope data, there may have been little water exchange between Tauca's Uyuni and Coipasa basins. During the Coipasa lake cycle, the Coipasa-Uyuni and Poopó basins had a limited connection. Minor water-level fluctuations occurred during the lake's existence. Based on a 60,000-square-kilometre (23,000 sq mi) surface area, the evaporation rate has been estimated at over 70,000,000,000 cubic metres per year (2.5×10<sup>12</sup> cu ft/a)—comparable to the discharges of the Nile or Rhine. Less than half of this evaporation returned to the lake as precipitation; in the central sector of the lake at Tunupa, this would have increased precipitation by 80%, delaying the retreat of glaciers in the area. Groundwater from Lake Tauca may have drained into the Quebrada Puripica, northeast of Laguna Miscanti. Given the height of the sill between the two basins and evidence found at Poopó, water may have drained from the Coipasa-Uyuni basin into Lake Poopó during the Coipasa cycle. Glacial debris and ice were probably present at the lake, with fan deltas at Tunupa overlapping the Lake Tauca shore. At Tunupa and Cerro Azanaques, glaciers reached their maximum size shortly before the lake level peaked and probably contributed to water levels when their retreat began. Two minor glacial advances, over 12,000 BP and about 11,000 BP, appear to coincide with Lake Tauca. Lake Tauca left up to 5 metres (16 ft) thick sediments in the southern Altiplano, and tufa deposits formed in the lake. The continental environment Pleistocene sediments were formed from lacustrine carbonate deposits. These rocks contain amphibole, clay minerals such as illite, kaolinite and smectite, feldspar, plagioclase, potassium feldspar, pyroxene and quartz. The composition of these rocks resembles that of the Altiplano soils. The sedimentation rate in the Uyuni basin was about 1 millimetre per year (0.0012 in/Ms). ### Biology Low concentrations of pollen are found in sediments left by Lake Tauca in the Salar de Uyuni. Lake Minchin sediments contain more pollen (indicating that it may have had a more favourable climate), but the lack of pollen may be the product of a deeper lake. Polylepis may have thrived in favourable salinity and climatic conditions. Increased Polylepis and Acaena pollen is observed towards the end of the Tauca episode. The lake was deep enough for the development of planktonic diatoms, including the dominant Cyclotella choctawatcheeana. Other diatoms noted in Lake Tauca are the benthic Denticula subtilis, the epiphytic Achnanthes brevipes, Cocconeis placentula and Rhopalodia gibberula, the planktonic Cyclotella striata and the tychoplanktonic Fragilaria atomus, Fragilaria construens and Fragilaria pinnata. Epithemia has also been found. Sediments at the shoreline contain fossils of gastropods and ostracods; Littoridina and Succineidae snails have been used to date the lake. Other genera included Myriophyllum, Isoetes (indicating the formation of littoral communities) and Pediastrum. Algae grew in the lake and produced reef knolls (bioherms) formed by carbonate rocks. These grew in several phases, and some were initially considered stromatolites. Some dome-shaped bioherms reach a size of 4 metres (13 ft), forming reef-like structures on terraces. They developed around objects jutting from the surface, such as rocks. Tube- and tuft-shaped structures also appear on these domes. Not all such structures formed during the Tauca episode. Similar structures have been found in the Ries crater in Germany, where Cladophorites species were responsible for their construction. Taxa identified at Lake Tauca include Chara species. The water above the tufa deposits was probably less than 20 metres (66 ft) deep. In some places (linked to Phormidium encrustatum and Rivularia species), limited stromatolitic development took place. ## Research history Reports of lake deposits on the Altiplano go back to 1861. A John B. Minchin in 1882 reported the existence of encrustations around Lake Poopo and the salars south of Coipasa. He postulated that a lake with a surface area of 120,000 square kilometres (46,000 sq mi) left these encrustations and that the nitrate deposits in the Atacama and Tarapaca were likewise formed by water draining for this lake. Some estimates of the size of this lake claimed that it reached from Lake Titicaca as far as 27° South. The name "Lake Minchin" was applied in 1906 by Steinmann, who applied it to the Uyuni basin, while naming the lake covering the Poopo and Coipasa basins "Lake Reck". The name was applied in honour of John B. Minchin. Later it was found that Lake Titicaca was not part of Lake Minchin and the theory was put forward that meltwater from glaciers had formed the lake. A different lake (Lake Ballivian) was also defined which encompassed Lake Titicaca. The lake episodes "Escara" and "Tauca" were first defined in 1978. The relationship between various deposits in the southern Altiplano and these around Lake Titicaca was unclear at the beginning of the research history. Lakes were identified by the lake terraces, sediments, bioherms and drill cores. ## Predecessor lakes Before Lake Tauca, there were Ouki (120,000–98,000 years ago), Salinas (95,000–80,000 years ago), Inca Huasi (about 46,000 years ago), Sajsi (24,000–20,500 years ago) and Coipasa (13,000–11,000 years ago). Inca Huasi and Minchin are sometimes considered the same lake phase, and other researchers have suggested that Lake Minchin is a combination of several phases. The Ouki cycle may be subdivided in the future, and a number of sometimes-contradictory names and dates exist for these paleolakes. ### Preceding lake: Escara Escara was identified in the central Altiplano, it may be the oldest Altiplano lake cycle. Lake levels reached an altitude of 3,780 metres (12,400 ft); perhaps reaching the size of Lake Tauca and Ouki. At the town of Escara, 8 metres (26 ft) thick deposits have been left by the lake. Escara is dated to 191,000 years BP. This date is of a tuff associated with lake deposits, the deposits themselves have not been dated. The L5 sediment and S10 layers in Salar de Uyuni have been linked to Escara. Some tuffs found in Escara lake deposits have been dated to about 1.87 million years ago. During the episode of Lake Escara, Lake Ballivian may have existed in the northern Altiplano as a southward extension of Lake Titicaca; Lake Escara would be thus identical to "lake pre-Minchin" which has left terraces 60–70 metres (200–230 ft) above the present-day elevation. ### Hypothetical pluvial and lake: Minchin A humid period 46,000-36,000 years ago has been deemed "Lake Minchin"; it led to the formation of a large body of water on the Altiplano where Lake Tauca would later develop. The layer S4 in Salar de Uyuni drill cores has been linked to Lake Minchin. During this time, a salt lake existed at Laguna Pozuelos, while numerous lakes formed in northwestern Argentina after valleys were dammed by landslides, several lake basins in the Lipez region and many salt flats in the Altiplano filled with lakes, in which bioherms and stromatolites grew, moisture increased in the Brazilian and Bolivian Amazon and sediment accumulated in the Pativilca valley, the Pisco River valley (forming the "Minchin Terrace") and the Lomas de Lachay valleys. Like Lake Tauca, Lake Minchin has been correlated to the last glacial maximum, and regional glacial advance extending to the southern Altiplano/Puna has been correlated with the Minchin/Inca Huasi stage; the Choqueyapu II glacier advance in the Bolivian Andes, more debatably the Canalaya Phase in the Cordillera Apolobamba and the formation of the N-III moraines at Choquelimpie may coincide with the Minchin pluvial. Sedimentation rates in the main Altiplano lake were much less than during the Tauca pluvial. The name "Lake Minchin" has been used inconsistently to refer to either the palaeolake at Lake Poopo, a lake existing 45,000 years ago, the highest lake in the Altiplano, or to sediment formations. An alternative theory postulates that Lake Minchin was formed by several lakes, including Ouki and Inca Huasi, and by unreliable radiocarbon dates. Sometimes the term "Minchin" is also applied to the whole hydrological system Titicaca-Rio Desaguadero-Lake Poopo-Salar de Coipasa-Salar de Uyuni, or to the highest ancient lake in the Altiplano (usually known as Lake Tauca). There are also contradictions between lake level records in different parts of the system. This confusion has led to calls to drop the usage of the name "Minchin". ## Chronology The existence of Lake Tauca was preceded by a dry period, with minor lake events recorded in Salar de Uyuni in the Late Pleistocene at 28,200–30,800 and 31,800–33,400 BP. This period was accompanied by the disappearance of ice from Nevado Sajama. A dry period is also noted in Africa and other parts of South America around 18,000 BP, and the retreat of the Amazon rainforest may have produced the lake low-water mark. The era may have been drier than the present. The drying of Lake Minchin left a salt layer about 20 metres (66 ft) thick in the Salar de Uyuni, where gullies formed. Some ooid sediments formed before the Lake Tauca phase. Around 28,000 BP, lake levels rose in Lake Huinaymarca (Lake Titicaca's southern basin), preceding Lake Tauca by about two millennia. During this period, lakes in the Uyuni basin were intermittent. Previous lakes in the basin were generally small and shallow. The radiometric age of Lake Tauca ranges from 72,600 to 7200 BP. The duration of the lake highstands may be overestimated due to radiation scatter. Radiocarbon dates have been obtained on crusts containing calcite, gastropod shells, stromatolites and structures left behind by algae. The Lake Tauca shorelines formed over more than century-long periods. The first research, by Servant and Fontes in 1978, indicated a lake age between 12,500 and 11,000 BP according to C-14 dating. These were bracketed by dates between 12,360 ± 120 and 10,640 ± 280 BP for the highest deposits at Salar de Coipasa and Salar de Uyuni, and 10,020 ± 160 and 10,380 ± 180 BP for deposits which formed shortly before the lake dried. The reliability of the dates was questioned in 1990, and a later estimate was set at 13,000 to 10,000 BP. In 1990, Rondeau proposed ages of 14,100 to 11,000 BP based on radiocarbon dating and 7,000 to 14,800 BP based on uranium-thorium dating. In 1993 it was suggested that Lake Tauca had an earlier phase, with water levels reaching 3,740 metres (12,270 ft), and a later phase reaching 3,720 metres (12,200 ft). Research published in 1995 indicated that the lake was shallow for over a millennium before rising to (and stabilizing at) its maximum level. Water levels between 13,900 and 11,500 BP reached 3,720 metres (12,200 ft); 3,740 metres (12,270 ft) was reached between 12,475 and 11,540 BP, and 3,760 to 3,770 metres (12,340 to 12,370 ft) between 12,200 and 11,500 BP. Research in 1999 indicated an earlier start of the Tauca lake cycle, which was subdivided into three phases and several sub-phases. Around 15,438 ± 80 BP (the Tauca Ia phase), water levels in Salar de Uyuni were 4 metres (13 ft) higher than the current salt crust. Lake levels then rose to 27 metres (89 ft) above the salt flat, accompanied by freshwater input (Tauca Ib). Around 13,530 ± 50 BP (Tauca II), the lake reached an altitude of 3,693 metres (12,116 ft), not exceeding 3,700 metres (12,100 ft). At this time, strong gully erosion and alluvial fans probably formed in Bolivian valleys. Between 13,000 and 12,000 BP, the lake reached its greatest depth—110 metres (360 ft)—of the Tauca III period. Dates of 15,070 BP and 15,330 BP were obtained for the highest shoreline, at 3,760 metres (12,340 ft). After 12,000 BP, water levels decreased abruptly by 100 metres (330 ft). An even-earlier start was proposed by 2001 research, based on sediments in the Uyuni basin, which determined that Lake Tauca began developing 26,100 BP. A 2001 review indicated that most radiometric dates for Lake Tauca cluster between 16,000 and 12,000 BP, with lake levels peaking around 16,000 BP. A drop in oxygen-18 concentration in the Nevado Sajama glaciers has been associated with increased precipitation around 14,300 years ago. A 2005 book estimated the duration of the Lake Tauca phase at between 15,000 and 10,500 BP. Research in 2006 postulated that the Lake Tauca transgression began 17,850 BP and peaked at altitudes of 3,765 to 3,790 metres (12,352 to 12,434 ft) between 16,400 and 14,100 years ago. Spillovers into neighbouring basins may have stabilized the lake levels at that point, and the level subsequently dropped over a 300-year period. The following Coipasa phase ended around 11,040 +120/-440 BP, but its chronology is uncertain. A 2011 lake history study set the beginning of the lake-level rise at 18,500 years ago. Levels rose slowly to 3,670 metres (12,040 ft) 17,500 years ago, before accelerating to 3,760 metres (12,340 ft) by 16,000 years ago. Contradictions between lake depths determined by shorelines and diatom-fossil analysis led to two lake-level-rise chronologies: one reaching 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) 17,000 years ago and the other reaching 3,690 metres (12,110 ft) between 17,500 and 15,000 years ago. The lake level would have peaked from 16,000 to 14,500 years ago at 3,765 to 3,775 metres (12,352 to 12,385 ft) altitude. Shortly before 14,200 BP, the lake level would have begun its drop to 3,660 metres (12,010 ft) by 13,800 BP. The Coipasa phase began before 13,300 BP and reached its peak at 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) 12,500 years ago. The Coipasa lake's regression was nearly complete around 11,500 years ago. A 2013 reconstruction envisaged a lake level rise between 18,000 - 16,500 years ago, followed by a highstand between 16,500 - 15,500 and a decrease in lake levels between 14,500 - 13,500 years ago. Lake Tauca is sometimes subdivided into three phases (Lake Tauca proper, Ticaña and Coipasa), with the Tauca phase lasting from 19,100 to 15,600 BP. The Coipasa phase, originally thought to have lasted from 11,400 and 10,400 BP, was corrected to 9,500 to 8,500 BP and later to 12,900 - 11,800 BP; it was preceded by a 400-year long lake level rise and was followed by a 1,600 years long decline. During this phase, lake levels rose to 3,660 metres (12,010 ft) altitude or 3,700 square kilometres (1,400 sq mi) with a surface area of 28,400 square kilometres (11,000 sq mi); the depth of the lake reached 55 metres (180 ft). According to a 1998 publication, Lake Tauca and the Coipasa phase lasted from 15,000 to 8,500 BP. The Coipasa phase has also been identified in Lake Chungará. The Coipasa phase was much less pronounced than the Tauca phase and shorter in duration, and was concentrated on the Coipasa basin, presumably because it receives more water than the Uyuni basin. An earlier lake phase, Sajsi (24,000–20,000 years ago), is sometimes considered part of Lake Tauca with the Tauca and Coipasa cycles. The Sajsi lake phase preceded the Tauca phase by one or two millennia and water levels were about 100 metres (330 ft) lower than during the Tauca stage; it coincided with the Last Glacial Maximum. The Ticaña phase was accompanied by a 100-metre (330 ft) drop in water level. The Tauca and Coipasa phases are sometimes considered separate. Lakes Tauca and Minchin have been considered the same lake system and called Lake Pocoyu, after the present-day lakes in the area. "Minchin" is also used by some authors as a name for the system. The Chita tuff was deposited in Lake Tauca at 3,725 metres (12,221 ft) altitude approximately 15,650 years BP, when the lake may have been regressing. Another tuff of uncertain age was deposited above Tauca-age sediments and tufas at the southeastern Salar de Coipasa. Data from Tunupa indicate that lake levels stabilized between 17,000 and 16,000 years ago. A 50-metre (160 ft) lake-level drop occurred by 14,500 BP, with the lake drying between then and 13,800 years ago. Rising temperatures and a drop in precipitation were the likely triggers of lake and glacial retreat at the end of Heinrich event 1. In contrast, data from the Uyuni-Coipasa basin indicate that water levels peaked 13,000 years ago. The drying of Lake Tauca during the Ticaña lowstand has been linked to the Bølling–Allerød climate period and increased wildfires on the Altiplano; Lake Titicaca may have dropped beneath its outflow, cutting off the water supply to Lake Tauca. Glacial retreat at the beginning of the Holocene may also have been a contributing factor. As the lake receded, decreased evaporation (and cloud cover) would have enabled sunlight to increase the evaporation rate, further contributing to a decline in lake surface area. A pattern of lake cycles becoming longer than the preceding one has been noted. Water from the lake may have contributed to increased oxygen-18 at Sajama around 14,300 years ago, possibly triggered by evaporation. As the lake level dropped, Lake Poopó would have been disconnected first; the sill separating it from the rest of Lake Tauca is relatively shallow. Coipasa and Uyuni would have remained connected until later. Water levels in Lake Titicaca's Lake Huinaimarca were low by 14,200 BP. By the Antarctic Cold Reversal, Lake Tauca was dry. The end of the Tauca phase was followed by dry and cold conditions in the Puna, similar to the Younger Dryas, then by an early-Holocene humid period associated with decreased solar radiation. After 10,000 BP, another drought lasted from 8,500 BP to 3,600 BP, and peaked from 7,200–6,700 BP. The world's largest salt pan was left behind when Lake Tauca dried up, with approximately 10 metres (33 ft) of material left at Salar de Uyuni. Lake basins in the Altiplano which had filled during the Tauca phase were separated by lower lake levels. Channels between the lakes testify to their former connections. ## Climate There are few reconstructions of how the climate looked before and after the Lake Tauca highstand. It has been estimated that summer precipitation would have increased by 315 ± 45 millimetres (12.4 ± 1.8 in) and temperature dropped 3 °C (5.4 °F) for Lake Tauca to form. According to a 1985 estimate, increased precipitation of 200 millimetres per year (7.9 in/year) would be needed; the estimate was subsequently revised to 300 millimetres per year (12 in/year). With a 5 to 7 °C (9.0 to 12.6 °F) temperature decrease, a 20–75% increase in precipitation would be required to form the lake. Research in 2013 indicated that the climate at the Tunupa volcano (in the centre of Lake Tauca) was about 6 to 7 °C (11 to 13 °F) colder than present, with rainfall estimated at 320 to 600 millimetres (13 to 24 in). A 2018 estimate supported by 2020 research envisages a temperature decrease of 2.9 ± 0.2 °C (5.22 ± 0.36 °F) and a mean precipitation 130% higher than today, about 900 ± 200 millimetres per year (35.4 ± 7.9 in/year); this precipitation increase was concentrated on the eastern side of the catchment of Lake Tauca while the southernmost watershed was almost as dry as present-day. In a coupled glacier-lake model, temperatures were conditionally estimated at 5.7 ± 1.1 °C (10.3 ± 2.0 °F) lower than today. In the southern Altiplano, precipitation exceeded 500 millimetres (20 in) during this epoch. In the central Altiplano, precipitation was 1.5 to three times higher than today. In and around the Arid Diagonal, precipitation doubled from 300 millimetres per year (12 in/year) to 600 millimetres per year (24 in/year). Around the lakes precipitation may have increased nine-fold. The formation of Lake Tauca coincides with Heinrich event 1 and has been explained with a southward shift of the Bolivian high that increased transport of easterly moisture into the Altiplano and a strengthening of the South American Summer Monsoon due to a decrease in the cross-equatorial transport of heat. Earlier highstands of Altiplano lakes may also correlate to earlier Heinrich events. Increased cloud cover probably increased the effective precipitation by reducing evaporation rates. In contrast, insolation rates do not appear to be linked to lake-level highstands in the Altiplano; the lake expansion occurred when summer insolation was low although recently an insolation maximum between 26,000 and 15,000 years ago has been correlated to the Tauca stage. The humidity above the lake has been estimated at 60%, taking into account the oxygen-18 content of carbonates deposited by the lake. Coinciding with Lake Tauca, between 17,000 and 11,000 BP glaciers expanded in the Andes between 18° and 24° south latitude. At Lake Titicaca, glacial tongues approached the shore. The equilibrium line altitude of glaciers in the dry Andes decreased by 700 to 1,000 metres (2,300 to 3,300 ft). Such glacial advances may have been preceded by the humid episodes which formed Lake Tauca. Around 13,300 BP, maximum glacier size in southern Bolivia is associated with a highstand of Lake Tauca. Glaciers did not expand everywhere, however, and there is little evidence for glacial expansion at El Tatio, Tocorpuri and parts of the Puna. Glacier expansions at Llano de Chajantor and surroundings may or may not have occurred. Frequent incursions of polar air may have contributed to glacial expansion. At Tunupa, a volcano located in the centre of Lake Tauca, maximum glacial extent lasted until the lake reached its highest level. Glacial shrinkage beginning 14,500 years ago probably occurred at the same time as a drop in lake levels, although dating ambiguity leaves room for debate. The Cerro Azanaques moraines reached their greatest extent from 16,600 to 13,700 BP. The existence of Lake Tauca coincides with the Late Glacial Maximum, when temperatures in the central Altiplano were about 6.5 °C (11.7 °F) lower. Part of the glacial advance may have been nurtured by moisture from Lake Tauca, a conclusion supported by oxygen isotope data from the Sajama glaciers and by paleoclimate reconstructions around the former Lake Tauca. The Chacabaya glacial advance may be contemporaneous with Lake Tauca. Just like the Lake Tauca highstand may have coincided with the first Heinrich event, the Younger Dryas may be associated with the Coipasa highstand and the second Central Andean Pluvial Event although the Younger Dryas ended two millennia before the CAPE. The second CAPE was caused either by changes in the South American monsoon or by changes in the atmospheric circulation over the Pacific Ocean, and its end has been attributed to a warming North Atlantic drawing the ITCZ northward. Today, the average temperature at stations at an altitude of 3,770 metres (12,370 ft) is 9 °C (48 °F). ## Context The formation and disappearance of Lake Tauca was a major hydrological event that was accompanied by several millennia of wetter climate. Its formation and the later Coipasa lake phase is associated with the Central Andean Pluvial Event (CAPE), which occurred from 18,000–14,000 to 13,800–9,700 BP. During this epoch, major environmental changes occurred in the Atacama as precipitation increased between 18° and 25° degrees south. In some areas, oases formed in the desert and human settlement began. The Central Andean Pluvial Event has been subdivided into two phases, a first one which began either 17,500 or 15,900 years ago and ended 13,800 years ago and a second phase which began 12,700 years ago and ended either 9,700 or 8,500 years ago; they were separated by a short dry period that coincides with the Ticaña lowstand. The second phase of the Central Andean Pluvial Event has been subdivided further into a wetter earlier and a drier later subphase. During the Coipasa lake cycle, precipitation may have focused on the southern Altiplano and been transported there from the Chaco; the main Tauca cycle may have been accompanied by precipitation from the northeast. A glacial advance in the Turbio valley (a feeder of the Elqui River) between 17,000 and 12,000 years ago has been attributed to the Central Andean Pluvial Event. Other indicators point to dry conditions/lack of glacier advances in central Chile and the central Puna during the highstand of Lake Tauca, glaciers had already retreated from their maximum positions by the time it began and the Central Andean Pluvial Event may not have been synchronous between the southern Altiplano and the southern and northern Atacama. Increased precipitation during the Tauca phase was probably triggered by the southern movement of the ITCZ and the strengthening of the South America monsoon, possibly caused by chilling in the northern hemisphere and North Atlantic, along with higher water temperatures off Northeastern Brazil. Combined with a southern shift of high pressure zones, increased moisture during late glacial times would have flowed from the Amazon. This change, which occurred from 17,400–12,400 years or 18,000–11,000 BP, is recorded in Bolivian Chaco and Brazilian cave records. Some 20th century phases of higher water levels in Lake Titicaca have been correlated with episodes of increased snow cover on Northern Hemisphere continents; this may constitute an analogy to conditions during the Lake Tauca phase. The Tauca phase may have been triggered by the southern shift of tropical atmospheric circulation and a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation that decreased northward heat transport. An intensification and southward shift of the South Atlantic Convergence Zone may have contributed to the precipitation increase but not all records agree. Another theory posits that vegetation changes and lake development would have decreased the albedo of the Altiplano, resulting in warming and moisture advection of moisture towards the Altiplano, but such positive feedback mechanisms were considered questionable in a 1998 study. Persistent La Niña climatic conditions may have contributed to the lake's filling and also to the onset of the first CAPE. Conversely, a global climatic warming and a northward shift of the monsoon occurred around 14,500 years ago, and the northward shift of the ITCZ accompanied the Ticaña lowstand. The ideal conditions for the development of paleolakes in the Altiplano do not appear to exist during maximum glaciation or warm interglacial periods. ### Related events During the Tauca phase, Lake Titicaca grew in size; the pampas around Titicaca were left by that lake and the paleolake Minchin. Lake Titicaca rose by about 5 metres (16 ft), reaching a height of 3,815 metres (12,516 ft), and its water became less saline. Another shoreline, at 3,825 metres (12,549 ft) altitude, has been linked to a highstand of Lake Titicaca during the Tauca epoch. The highstand, in 13,180 ± 130 BP, is contemporaneous with the Tauca III phase. Titicaca's water level then dropped during the Ticaña phase and probably rose again during the Coipasa. The highstands left terraces at the southern and eastern shores of Lake Titicaca, which were later deformed by tectonic processes. Lake Titicaca probably overflowed on the south between 26,000 and 15,000 BP, adding water to Lake Tauca. Titicaca's outflow, the Rio Desaguadero, may have been eight times that of today. Lake Titicaca was thought to have had a low water level during the Tauca phase before evidence of deeper water was found. Higher lake levels have been found at the same time in other parts of the Altiplano and areas of the Atacama above 3,500 metres (11,500 ft). This was not the first time Lake Titicaca rose; Pleistocene lake-level rises are known as Mataro, Cabana, Ballivian and Minchin. The overflow from Lake Titicaca into the southern Altiplano was possible for the last 50,000 years; this might explain why there is little evidence of large lakes in the southern Altiplano in the time before 50,000 years ago. Lakes also formed (or expanded) in the Atacama at that time; highstands in Lejía Lake began rising after 11,480 ± 70 BP, and in Salar Aguas Calientes high-water levels lasted until 8,430 ± 75 BP. Highstands in Laguna Khota occurred around 12,500 and 11,000 BP. The formation of a lake at Salar de Llamara and some Salar de Atacama highstands are associated with Lake Tauca, the Minchin humid period and the Coipasa highstand. Traces of the Tauca humid episode have been found at Salar Pedernales, past 26° south latitude. Between 23,000 and 14,600 a lake formed at Laguna Pozuelos. Lake Tauca's highstand correlates with river terraces in Peru's Pisco River; terraces dated 24,000–16,000 BP in its tributary, the Quebrada Veladera; enlarged drainage systems in the Quebrada Veladera; a humid period at Lake Junin, and new soil formation in the pampas south of the Quinto River in Argentina and in the Ahorcado river valley in Peru. During the second Central Andean Pluvial Event, soils also formed in a wetland of northern Chile. During the Tauca phase, water levels in Laguna Miscanti were higher than today; shorelines formed from an event in Ch'iyar Quta and Lake Tuyajto; saline lakes formed in the Lipez area, and water levels rose in the Guayatayoc-Salinas Grandes basin, in Laguna de Suches in Peru and lakes at Uturuncu and Lazufre. Some Atacama Altiplano lake levels increased by 30 to 50 metres (98 to 164 ft), Lake levels rose in Laguna Mar Chiquita, Laguna La Salada Grande in the Cordillera Oriental<sup> [es]</sup> and Salina de Bebedero in Argentina. Downward expansion of vegetation and increased discharge in the rivers draining to the Pacific Ocean has been correlated to the Tauca period. Evidence exists at the Quebrada Mani archeological site for a higher water supply 16,400–13,700 years ago. During the Tauca, greater flow occurred in rivers in the Atacama region as well as a higher groundwater recharge; more precipitation fell in the Rio Salado valley; flooding in the Río Paraguay-Parana basin and the contribution from Andean rivers such as the Rio Salado and Rio Bermejo increased; the excavation of the Lluta River Valley, Quebrada de Purmamarca and the Colca Canyon may have been aided by an increased water supply, river incision changed, river terraces formed in the Lomas de Lachay, erosion occurred along the Pilcomayo, and an increase in Pacific plankton was probably linked to increased runoff (and an increased nutrient supply) from the Andes. groundwater-fed wetlands developed in the Cordillera de la Costa, and valleys and large salt caves formed northwest of the Salar de Atacama. Glaciers advanced in the Cordillera de Cochabamba. An ice cap formed over the Los Frailes ignimbrite plateau; its demise after the end of the Lake Tauca period may have allowed magma to ascend and form the Nuevo Mundo volcano. Moraine formed at Hualca Hualca and Nevado de Chañi where glaciers expanded; the Choqueyapu II glacier in the Eastern Cordillera advanced; moraines formed from glacial advances in Argentina (including the Sierra de Santa Victoria); basal sliding glaciers formed at Sajama; periglacial phenomena became more significant in northwestern Argentina from increased moisture supply; glaciers and probably also rock glaciers grew at Sillajhuay; snow cover in the Atacama Altiplano increased to about 10% above 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) elevation; A glacial advance in central Chile around 15,000 years ago, also associated with increased precipitation and the Lake Tauca period, was probably triggered by tropical circulation changes. Landslide activity decreased in northwestern Argentina but increased at Aricota, Locumba River, Peru; alluvial fans were active in the Cordillera Oriental of Peru; tufa deposition began in the Cuncaicha cave north of Coropuna; the climate grew wetter over the southern Amazon as evidenced in Brazilian cave deposits; precipitation and forest cover in Pampa del Tamarugal increased with an interruption ("Late Pleistocene Pampa del Tamarugal desiccation event") during the Ticaña lowstand; the vegetation limit in the Atacama desert descended towards the coast; groundwater discharge in the Atacama increased; wetlands developed at Salar de Punta Negra; the "Pica glass" formed in the Atacama as a consequence of increased vegetation and the occurrence of wildfires in this vegetation and plant pathogens such as rust fungi were more diverse than today. Prosopis tamarugo grew at higher altitude thanks to a better water supply; and vegetation coverage increased in the Atacama Altiplano. The well dated record of Lake Tauca has been used to correlate climatic events elsewhere in the region. ### Environmental consequences Paleoindian settlement in South America commenced during the Lake Tauca and Ticaña stages, facilitated by the more favourable environment during the CAPE; the Viscachani culture around Lake Titicaca was contemporaneous with Lake Tauca. The earliest human dispersal in the region around Lake Tauca occurred towards the end of the Ticaña phase, with the Coipasa phase coinciding with the definitive establishment of humans in the region and also their spread through northwestern Argentina, where conditions were favourable. In the Atacama area, Tauca-age paleolakes had provided the environment for first settlers; the end of the paleolake phase coinciding with Lake Tauca was accompanied by the end of the first phase of human settlement, which had occurred during the Central Andean Pluvial Event; now humans left the desert. Likewise in the Altiplano, the wet period that was contemporaneous to Lake Tauca allowed the settlement of Cerro Kaskio and Cueva Bautista close by, and the Central Andean Pluvial Event did the same in the Pampa del Tamarugal and the southern Atacama valleys. The initial peopling of the Salar de Atacama region was during the Lake Tauca time, but a sharp population drop took place after its drying. Inca towers on the Altiplano have been built with rocks left by Lake Tauca. Some fossil water reserves in the dry Andes formed during the Tauca phase, the groundwater in the northern Chilean Central Valley and part of the groundwater under Pampa del Tamarugal for example date back to the Lake Tauca wet phase. Lake Tauca may have supplied water to the Rio de la Plata region, sustaining life there during dry periods. The Lake Tauca and preceding cycles left evaporite deposits, with sediment layers left by the lake in the Salar de Uyuni reaching a thickness of 6 metres (20 ft). The salts are continually washed out and re-deposited by ephemeral rainfall, causing the salt surfaces of the Salars to become very flat and smooth. The high aerosol content of the air in the Uyuni region has been attributed to fine sediments left by Lake Tauca. Diatomaceous deposits containing clay or calc were left behind by the lake, and ulexite deposits were formed by sediments in its deltas. The taxonomic similarity between fish species of the genus Orestias in Lauca National Park and Salar de Carcote has been attributed to these watersheds' being part of Lake Tauca; in general the evolution of these fish was heavily influenced by the various lake cycles including these that preceded the Tauca cycle. The drying of the ancient lakes would have fragmented amphibious habitats, generating separate populations. Lake Tauca and its predecessors may have created a productive environment that was populated by mammals like glyptodonts; the Atacama Altiplano had far more life than today during the Tauca cycle, including now-extinct deer and horses. On the other hand, the Altiplano lakes would have separated the animal and plant populations. ### Altiplanos and paleolakes in Latin America ## See also - Aucanquilcha, Irruputuncu, Uturunku
40,021,067	Penn's Creek massacre	1,145,234,452	Massacre of Pennsylvania settlers during the French and Indian War	[ "1755 in Pennsylvania", "1755 in the Thirteen Colonies", "Captives of Native Americans", "Conflicts in 1755", "French and Indian War", "History of Pennsylvania", "Massacres in 1755", "Massacres in the Thirteen Colonies", "Snyder County, Pennsylvania" ]	The Penn's Creek massacre was an October 16, 1755 raid by Lenape (Delaware) Native Americans on a settlement along Penn's Creek, a tributary of the Susquehanna River in central Pennsylvania. It was the first of a series of deadly raids on Pennsylvania settlements by Native Americans allied with the French in the French and Indian War. Of the 26 settlers they found living on Penn's Creek, the Lenape killed 14 and took 11 captive (one man was wounded but managed to escape). Three of the preteen girls who were taken captive regained their freedom after years of slavery, and their stories have been popularized in several young adult novels and a film. The Lenape had been angered by years of European settlers encroaching on their land. They had lost their traditional lands in the Lehigh Valley to the provincial government of Pennsylvania in a fraudulent deal known as the Walking Purchase, and many of them had subsequently moved into the Susquehanna Valley by permission of the Iroquois. One year before the Penn's Creek massacre, the Iroquois had sold much of the Susquehanna Valley to the governments of Pennsylvania and Connecticut without consulting the Lenape, who once again found themselves being displaced by arriving settlers. As a direct result of the Penn's Creek massacre and subsequent raids, Pennsylvania assemblyman Benjamin Franklin persuaded the governor and assembly of the province to abandon its roots in Quaker pacifism and establish an armed military force and a chain of forts to protect the settlements. Franklin himself helped to organize and train the first Pennsylvania regiments. The Lenape and other displaced Native Americans continued their attacks on settlers and battles with the provincial forces for three years, until the Treaty of Easton was signed between the tribes and the British in 1758. ## Background ### Albany and Walking Purchases One year before the massacre, delegates from seven colonies met with 150 leaders from the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy at the 1754 Albany Congress. The purpose of the gathering was to solidify the alliance between the British and the Iroquois in the face of a growing French challenge to British control of the colonies. During the Albany Congress, the Iroquois sold much of the Susquehanna Valley to a delegation from the provincial government of Pennsylvania, which sought the land for the purpose of opening it up to European settlement, in a deal that became known as the Albany Purchase. Two of the men in this Pennsylvania delegation were Benjamin Franklin and John Penn, the grandson of the province's founder, William Penn. The Iroquois reserved some parts of the Susquehanna Valley, including the sub-valley called the Wyoming Valley, from the sale for the use of themselves and their allies, but only days after they signed the agreement, a delegation from Connecticut plied the Iroquois leaders with rum and induced them to sign over the Wyoming Valley while they were intoxicated. Although the provincial governments recognized the Iroquois as the sole owners of the land, the Lenape had been living in the Wyoming Valley and other parts of the Susquehanna Valley since having been forced off their own traditional lands in the Lehigh Valley of eastern Pennsylvania 17 years earlier by the 1737 Walking Purchase. In that event, John Penn's uncles (Thomas Penn and John "The American" Penn) had produced a copy of what was likely an unsigned draft of a deed which had been drawn up 50 years earlier, when their father William Penn had been considering buying land from the Lenape; it stated that the Lenape had sold William Penn as much land in their valley as could be walked by a man in a day-and-a-half. Although the Lenape protested the validity of the document, they were told by the provincial government that it was legally binding. Believing they had no choice, four Lenape chiefs signed an agreement to abide by the terms of the deed after their more powerful allies the Iroquois, whose protection the Lenape were under by an agreement between the two tribes wherein the Iroquois were the "men" and the Lenape the "women" in their relationship, refused to intervene on their behalf. The Penn brothers then hired the three fastest runners in the colony to take the "walk" and had paths secretly cleared and marked ahead of them. Two of the three runners gave up well before the allotted time ran out, but one, Edward Marshall, managed to cover about 65 miles in 18 hours, resulting in all of the Lenape's land being taken from them. In a 1743 communication to the governor of Pennsylvania, the Iroquois confederation overseer, Oneida chief Shikellamy, had complained about white settlers encroaching into the Susquehanna Valley. In that message, Shikellamy stated that the Iroquois had granted the land surrounding a Susquehanna tributary, the Juniata River, "to our cousins the Delawares (Lenape) and our brethren the Shawanese (Shawnee) for a hunting-ground, and we ourselves hunt there sometimes." Nevertheless, the Iroquois did not consult the Lenape or the Shawnee before selling the land eleven years later to Pennsylvania and Connecticut. Thus the Lenape found their current home sold for European settlement. This resulted in a rift between the Lenape and the Iroquois and caused Lenape resentment toward the German and Swiss settlers who immediately began moving into the Valley. ### French and Indian War One year after the Albany Purchase, the French and Indian War between Great Britain and France began, with each side seeking control of the North American colonies. Although the Iroquois refused to take sides for the first four years of the conflict and instructed all of the tribes under their protection to do the same, the Lenape and the Shawnee broke ranks and joined northern tribes the Huron, Ottawa and Ojibwe in forging an alliance with the French. On July 9, 1755, the French and their Native American allies decisively defeated a combined force of colonial and British soldiers led by General Edward Braddock at the Battle of the Monongahela in Braddock's Field, Pennsylvania, 10 miles (16 km) east of Pittsburgh. Three months later, a French and Native American army of about 1,500 men prepared to march east in order to secure the Susquehanna River as a supply line. They sent ahead of them several advance parties of Lenape. It was one of these Lenape advance parties which came upon the settlement at Penn's Creek, located on the west branch of the Susquehanna River, in the early morning hours of October 16, 1755. ## The massacre Before dawn on October 16, a group of eight Lenape warriors attacked the settlement of Penn's Creek. The warriors' names were Kech Kinnyperlin, Joseph Compass and young Joseph Compass, young Thomas Hickman, Kalasquay, Souchy, Machynego and Katoochquay. After firing several shots, the Lenape first attacked the Swiss farmer Jean Jacques Le Roy before setting his house on fire. His body was later found partially burned with two tomahawks still buried in his forehead. A spring that emerges from the ground near the site where his body was discovered is today known as Le Roy's Spring, and the tiny stream that flows from it into Penn's Creek is known as Sweitzer's (Swisser's) Run. Le Roy's son, also named Jean Jacques and called Jacob, fought with his father's killers but was overpowered and taken captive, along with his 12-year-old sister Marie and another young girl who was living in the house (Mary Ann Villars). When a neighbor of Le Roy's by the name of Bastian rode up on horseback, he was shot and then scalped. Two of the Lenape then traveled to the Leininger household, approximately a half-mile away. There, they demanded rum, but none was in the house so they were given tobacco instead. After they smoked a pipe, they stated "We are Allegheny Indians, and your enemies. You must all die!". They shot Sebastian Leininger and tomahawked his 20-year-old son before taking his daughters, 12-year-old Barbara and 9-year-old Regina, captive. and another son were away at a mill and were thus spared. Several of the Lenape took the prisoners (as well as horses and provisions they had plundered) from the Le Roy and Leininger households into the forest where they were joined by the rest of the Lenape warriors, who brought with them six scalps and stated that they had had a good hunt that day. Later, some of the Lenape went back into the settlement and resumed killing, returning in the evening with nine more scalps and five more prisoners: Hanna Breilinger's husband, Jacob, had been killed and she and her two children taken captive. A settler named Peter Lick was also taken along with his two sons, John and William. Of the fourteen settlers murdered at Penn's Creek, thirteen were men and elderly women, and one was a two-week-old infant. One unidentified man was wounded but escaped and made his way to a nearby settlement to report what had happened. ## Aftermath ### John Harris expedition As news of the massacre spread, panic gripped the settlements. Trading post owner John Harris Jr. wrote to the governor and offered to lead an expedition upriver to try to pacify the Native Americans and find out the mindset of those at Shamokin (present-day Sunbury), since the Indians there were known to be friendly to settlers. He gathered a group of 40 or 50 men and set out on October 22. At Shamokin, they found a gathering of Lenape painted all in black who had come from the Ohio and Allegheny River Valleys. Andrew Montour, an Indian of mixed Oneida, Algonquin and French ancestry, was among those painted in black but was known to Harris and often acted as an interpreter. He advised Harris to return home immediately by way of the east side of the Susquehanna. Harris turned his group back but disregarded Montour's warning to stay on the east side of the river. As the group headed back along the west side of the Susquehanna on October 25, they were ambushed by twenty or thirty Lenape in what is now the northern end of the borough of Selinsgrove. Harris later reported that he and his men killed four of the attackers while losing three of their own number, and that "four or five" more of his group drowned in the river while attempting to escape. A doctor who was riding behind Harris on the same horse was shot in the back and killed. Harris's horse was then shot out from under him and he had to swim across the river to safety. On either that same day or the next, the Lenape crossed the Susquehanna and attacked settlements at Hunter's Mill. Upon learning of the ambush and subsequent attacks, the Seneca chief Belt of Wampum gathered thirty of his own men and set out in pursuit of the perpetrators, although it's not known if they met with any success. ### Further attacks Penn's Creek was the first of a series of attacks on Pennsylvania settlements by the Lenape and other tribes allied with the French. Two weeks after the massacre, Lenape and Shawnee together were led by the Lenape war chief Shingas (also known as The Delaware King and called Shingas the Terrible by colonists) in nearly wiping out the Scotch-Irish settlements in what is now Fulton and Franklin counties on the Maryland border, in what became known as the Great Cove Massacre. They killed or took captive 47 out of 93 settlers in the Big Cove settlement alone in a brutal incursion that lasted several days and saw children murdered in front of their parents and wives forced to watch their husbands tortured; one woman over ninety years old was later found impaled on a stake with both breasts cut off. Next, the Lenape attacked settlers along Swatara Creek in what is now Lebanon County and Tulpehocken Creek in Berks County. In late November, a dozen Lenape led by the chief Captain Jacobs invaded Gnadenhuetten (now Lehighton), a farming community for Christian Indians run by Moravian settlers. Eleven settlers were either murdered or taken captive. From December 10 to 11, a half-dozen Lenape killed or kidnapped members of five farming families along the Pohopoco Creek in what is now Towamensing Township. They continued on to the area that is today Stroudsburg and on December 11, 1755, besieged the plantation of the Brodhead family. The five Brodhead brothers (Charles, Daniel, Garett, John and Luke) and their youngest sister, 12-year-old Ann, barricaded themselves inside along with some local settlers who had sought refuge at their home and fought an hours-long gun battle that ultimately held off the attackers. It was the first of several attacks in the coming years on the Brodhead home, and the family was widely commended for their bravery in battling the threat. There were only about 200 warriors among the Susquehanna Lenape, but their numbers were soon bolstered by approximately 700 Ohio Lenape who came east to join them in their raids. By March 1756, five months after beginning their killing spree at Penn's Creek, they had killed some 200 settlers and taken an equal number captive. Settlers across eastern Pennsylvania abandoned their homesteads and fled to more-populated areas to the south and east, in hopes of finding safety in numbers. ### Pennsylvania's response Pennsylvania had been founded by Quakers, and that religion's core doctrine of pacifism meant that the province's Assembly had always refused to establish a permanent military force. As the settlements were decimated, Governor Robert Hunter Morris and the Assembly argued over whether or not proprietary estates should be taxed to raise money to defend them. In desperation, hundreds of Berks County German settlers marched on Philadelphia on November 25, 1755 carrying with them the scalped and mutilated bodies of some of their murdered neighbors. They dragged the bodies through the streets with placards attached declaring that these were the victims of the Quaker policy of non-resistance. They then surrounded the House of Assembly and placed the rotting corpses in its doorways. Benjamin Franklin sat on the Pennsylvania Assembly in 1755. Gauging the panic that was spreading throughout the province, he had strongly urged Governor Morris and his fellow assemblymen that military force was necessary in the face of the Native American threat. On November 25, the same day the settlers' corpses were left on their doorstep, the Assembly acquiesced to Franklin's proposal for an unpaid volunteer force and passed Pennsylvania's first Militia Act. Two days later, a defense fund was created by a compromise hammered out by Franklin and fellow Assemblyman Joseph Galloway; it allowed for the taxing of colonists but exempted William Penn's sons and their land in exchange for a contribution from them. By early 1756, construction was underway on a chain of frontier forts, including Fort Augusta in the northern Susquehanna Valley, that ran along the Blue Mountains from the Delaware River to the Maryland line. In mid-December 1755, two months after the Penn's Creek massacre, Franklin himself set out to help the colonists prepare for battle. He visited towns like Bethlehem and Easton, now crowded with settlers who had fled their land, and signed up volunteers. Franklin appointed sentries and organized armed patrols and defenses. On New Year's Day 1756, twenty new militiamen who were building a fort on the site of the Gnadenhuetten massacre were lured into an ambush and killed by Indians who had come through the Lehigh Gap. Stunned at this breach, Governor Morris granted Franklin blanket authority to appoint and dismiss military officers and distribute weapons in Northampton County. By February, Pennsylvania had 919 paid colonial troops, with 389 in Northampton County alone. Later that year, a law was passed that subjected the commonwealth's troops to military discipline, and in 1757, the last vestiges of pacifism fell as military service was made compulsory for men in Pennsylvania. Still, they could not stop the Lenape and their Native American allies from continuing the raids. Nor could the Iroquois Confederacy, which ostensibly had authority over all of the Native American tribes in the region and which had thus far remained neutral in the war. The Lenape, still angry over the sale of the Susquehanna Valley in the Albany Purchase, were further angered when the Iroquois noted their lesser status by reminding them that they were the "women" in the relationship between their two tribes during a contentious March 1756 conference of all the Susquehanna Indian leaders. An eastern Lenape spokesman spat back: > We are Men and are determined not to be ruled any longer by you as Women. We are determined to cut off all the English except those that may make their escape from us in ships; so say no more to us on that head, lest we cut off your private parts, and make Women of you, as you have done of us. In April 1756, Pennsylvania declared that it would pay a bounty of \$130 for the scalp of every Lenape male over ten years of age and \$50 for a Lenape woman's scalp, or \$150 for a male Lenape prisoner and \$130 for a female one. New Jersey soon followed suit. Pennsylvania assemblyman James Hamilton justified the bounties as “the only way to clear our frontiers of ... savages & ... infinitely cheapest in the end." There were fears that this would encourage indiscriminate killing of innocent Native Americans by those seeking payment, but as only eight scalp bounties were paid out by Pennsylvania during the entire colonial period, it appears that few were either willing or able to pursue such rewards. Pennsylvania suffered a crushing defeat when Lenape war chief Captain Jacobs and 100 warriors burned down the newly constructed Fort Granville, considered one of the strongest-built forts in all of the Americas, on July 31, 1756. After first drawing away much of the fort's garrison by attacking settlers in the region, the Lenape, along with 55 French soldiers, either killed or captured all of the 24 men who had been left to defend the fort, as well as a number of civilians who were being sheltered inside. In response, the province's militia went on the offensive for the first time with the Kittanning Expedition: On September 8, 1756, a Pennsylvania regiment led by Colonel John Armstrong raided the Lenape stronghold village of Kittanning (where unknowingly, some of the Penn's Creek massacre captives were being held), burning it to the ground and killing Captain Jacobs along with 50 other Indians. Only seven of the approximately 100 captives who were held there were liberated, however, and the ones from Penn's Creek were not among them. ### Treaty of Easton Teedyuscung, a Lenape who had led some of the raids on settlements, around this time emerged as the leader of displaced Native Americans who had taken up residence in the Wyoming Valley, a section of the Susquehanna Valley located in northeastern Pennsylvania. Teedyuscung asserted that he represented ten Native American tribes, including the Iroquois, and on their behalf, he entered into treaty negotiations with Pennsylvania authorities at a series of conferences in Easton that began in 1756. His main objective was to secure the Wyoming Valley for the Lenape, and he gave speeches denouncing as fraudulent the land deals made by the Penn family which had taken away Native American lands. He was aided and encouraged by Quakers sympathetic to the Indians' plight, but faced resistance from both the Penn family and the Iroquois, who claimed authority over all Native American lands in Pennsylvania and had not in fact appointed Teedyuscung as their representative. Although often a powerful speaker, Teedyuscung's chronic alcohol use also led to quarrelsome, drunken outbursts and occasional bouts of tears that made him a less-than-reliable leader and exasperated his colonial allies; he was eventually outmaneuvered by the Pennsylvanian colonial government's representative Conrad Weiser and the Iroquois and failed to obtain the rights to the Wyoming Valley for his people. Nonetheless, the talks he had begun resulted in the October 1758 Treaty of Easton, which ended Pennsylvania's war with the Indians and brought about an uneasy peace by restoring some of the disputed territory acquired by the province (including three-quarters of the Susquehanna Valley land bought in the Albany Purchase) to the Native American tribes and by promising that the British would not establish settlements in the Ohio Country region west of the Allegheny Mountains once the French had been defeated. In return, the Native Americans (who had just been defeated by the British at the Battle of Fort Ligonier and saw that the war had turned against the French) agreed to cease fighting for the French in the current war and end the raids on settlements. ## The captives The ultimate fates of Peter Lick and his two sons, Hanna Breilinger and one of her two children, and Mary Ann Villars have been lost to history. It is known that Jacob Le Roy survived captivity because his name appears on a later deed in which he sold Le Roy family property, but there is no record of how or when he came to be freed. ### Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger The Lenape who had not traveled east after the massacre next took their prisoners and headed west. Twelve-year-old girls Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger were given as property to the Lenape warrior named Kalasquay. Barbara attempted to escape but was almost immediately recaptured and condemned to be burned to death. She was given a Bible and a fire was built, but just as she was about to be thrown into the flames, a young Lenape begged so earnestly for her life that she was spared on condition that she promise not to run away again and that she stop crying. The Lenape took their prisoners through forests and swamps, avoiding roads where they might be discovered. The captives were forced to walk barefoot over rocks and stumps until their feet were worn down to the bone and tendon and they were in agony. Their clothing, caught on brambles and branches, shredded and fell off. Older children were made to carry smaller ones bound to their backs. Marie Le Roy was separated from her brother Jacob when the group split up at the village of Chinklacamoose in their second week of traveling and Barbara Leininger was separated from her sister, Regina, at some unknown point approximately 400 miles from Penn's Creek. Marie and Barbara were in a group that arrived in Kittanning (then also known as Kittany) in December and included fellow Penn's Creek captive Hanna Breilinger and her two children. They remained there for nine months, until September 1756. They were put to work tanning leather, clearing land and building huts, planting corn and making moccasins. There was little food and at times the prisoners had to subsist on nothing but acorns, roots, grass and bark. One of Hanna Breilinger's children starved to death at Kittaning. In September 1756, the prisoners were taken deep into the forest when provincial troops arrived to attack the village during the Kittaning Expedition, and warned not to attempt escape. When the attack was over, they were brought back and found Kittaning had been burned to the ground. An Englishwoman who was also being held captive by the Lenape had attempted to escape with the provincial forces but had been recaptured and was sentenced to death. Le Roy and Leininger later recounted: > Having been recaptured by the savages, and brought back to Kittanny, she was put to death in an unheard of way. First, they scalped her; next, they laid burning splinters of wood, here and there, upon her body, and then they cut off her ears and fingers, forcing them into her mouth so that she had to swallow them. Amidst such torments, this woman lived from nine o'clock in the morning until toward sunset, when a French officer took compassion on her, and put her out of her misery. An English soldier, on the contrary, named John, who escaped from prison at Lancaster and joined the French, had a piece of flesh cut from her body, and ate it. When she was dead, the Indians chopped her in two, through the middle, and let her lie until the dogs came and devoured her Three days later, an Englishman who had escaped was also recaptured and tortured to death. Le Roy and Leininger would recount that "his torments, however, continued only about three hours; but his screams were frightful to listen to." Due to hard rain, the Lenape could not keep the fire they had lain him in going, so they used him as a shooting target without killing him. When he screamed for a drink of water, they poured melted lead down his throat, which killed him instantly. Le Roy and Leininger commented: > It is easy to imagine what an impression such fearful instances of cruelty make upon the mind of a poor captive. Does he attempt to escape from the savages, he knows in advance that, if retaken, he will be roasted alive. Hence he must compare two evils, namely, either to remain among them a prisoner forever, or to die a cruel death. Is he fully resolved to endure the latter, then he may run away with a brave heart. The girls were next taken to Fort Duquesne in Pittsburgh, where they were put to work for the French soldiers while their Lenape masters took their wages. Although they were better fed in the fort than they had been in Kittaning and the French soldiers tried to induce them to stay with them, the girls reasoned that the Native Americans were more likely to make peace with the British than the French were, and that they would have more chances for escape in the forest than in a fort, so they refused. They were moved to several other villages in western Pennsylvania by their captors over the next two years, including Saucunk and Kuskusky. Three years after the Penn's Creek massacre, in October 1758, a combined French-Indian army was defeated by the British in the Battle of Fort Ligonier. This caused a panic among the Native Americans of western Pennsylvania, who decided to sign the Treaty of Easton and abandon the war. They burnt their crops and villages before fleeing 150 miles farther west to the village of Moschkingo in Ohio. Forced to go along, the now 15-year-old Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger met a 21-year-old Scottish captive there named David Breckenridge. They made a plan to escape with him and a young Englishman, Owen Gibson (also known as Hugh Gibson). On March 16, 1759, while most of the Lenape men were away selling pelts, the four young people fled east on foot. They endured a series of hardships on their 250-mile journey to Fort Pitt in Pittsburgh They traveled over one hundred miles in the first four days to reach the Ohio River. Leininger nearly drowned crossing Little Beaver Creek, Owen Gibson was wounded by a bear he had shot, they ran out of provisions and Gibson lost his flint and steel, leaving them to spend the last four nights of their journey sleeping in the snow with no fire. Nonetheless, all four made it to Fort Pitt and safety on the last night of March. A month later, Le Roy and Leininger were taken to Philadelphia. They related the story of their captivity later that year in a published pamphlet titled The Narrative of Marie le Roy and Barbara Leininger, for Three Years Captives Among the Indians. At the end of this narrative, Barbara and Marie listed the names, place of capture and last known locations of over 50 other captives they had met during their time with the Lenape, in order that their relatives might know they were still alive and have hope of seeing them again. They stated that they had also met many other captives whose names they either did not know or could not recall. ### Regina Leininger Nine-year-old Regina Leininger was separated from her sister Barbara early in their captivity and given as a slave to an old Lenape woman, along with a two-year-old girl who had been captured from another settlement. The two girls were treated very harshly by their mistress, who often beat them and drove them into the woods to find roots and berries to feed themselves whenever her son, who supplied them with food when he was present, was away. They lived with the woman for nine years. An account of the end of Regina's captivity was told by the Reverend Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, patriarch of the Lutheran church in the United States, in his Hallische Nachrichten. After the French and Indian War ended in 1763 with British victory, the Lenape were among a number of Native American tribes who were dissatisfied with British postwar policies and with settlers continuing to move into the Ohio Country in violation of the Treaty of Easton. They took part in Pontiac's Rebellion from 1763 until 1764, a multi-tribal effort to counter British control of the Great Lakes region, Ohio and Illinois. The effort failed and under peace negotiations with British Colonel Henry Bouquet, the Native Americans were obligated to surrender all of the captives in their possession. Approximately 200 captives were rounded up and brought to Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and word was sent out around the colonies for those who might have family members among them to come. Regina Leininger was by this time eighteen years old. According to Muhlenberg, her mother arrived in Carlisle on December 31, 1764 in hopes of finding Regina there, but after searching the line of captives, she was unable to recognize her daughter among them and was in tears. Colonel Bouquet suggested that she try doing something that would recall the past to her children, and Mrs. Leininger began to recite a German hymn that she had sung to her children when they were small, "Allein, und doch nicht ganz allein". In English, the opening lines are "Alone yet not alone am I, though in this solitude so drear, I feel my Savior always nigh". With those words, a young woman began to sing along and threw her arms around Mrs. Leininger. Regina had forgotten how to speak German, but she still remembered the hymn. Muhlenberg's narrative states that the younger girl who had been held captive with Regina was now eleven and refused to be separated from her. As she likely had no family left, Mrs. Leininger took her in as well and the three departed together. Reverend Muhlenberg neglected to give the family name of mother and daughter in his accounting of the story, and as a result, the captive girl was for many years misidentified as another kidnapped settler, Regina Hartmann. A 1905 investigation by the Historical Society of Berks County, however, definitively revealed her to be Regina Leininger: the description of her having been captured on October 16, 1755 along with her sister, Barbara, after their father and brother were killed and while their mother and another brother were absent could only have fit Leininger. ## Memorials The Pennsylvania Historical Commission and the Snyder County Historical Society jointly erected a memorial dedicated to the Penn's Creek massacre in October 1915, on the 160th anniversary of the massacre itself. The memorial is located alongside Penn's Creek north of Selinsgrove, near the site where John Harris' group was ambushed, and takes the form of a large piece of granite with two plaques. The upper plaque commemorates the massacre and the lower plaque on the granite block commemorates Harris' ill-fated expedition, reading > On October 25, 1755, John Harris, founder of Harrisburg, and a party of 40 men who came up the river to investigate the John Penn's Creek massacre were ambushed by a party of Indians near the mouth of this creek at the head of the Isle of Que about one third of a mile south of this spot. There is also another stone block with a plaque at the site of the Le Roy house, where the massacre began. This one was put up by the Historical Commission in 1919 and reads > John Jacob LeRoy was killed by the Indians near this spot during the time of the Penns Creek Massacre, October 16, 1755. This was the first act of hostility by the Indians of this province following the defeat of General Edward Braddock, July 9, 1755. A daughter of John Jacob LeRoy, Marie, and Barbara Leininger were taken captive at this time and taken to Muskingum in Ohio, from which they escaped several years later and returned to Philadelphia ## In popular culture The stories of the three captive Penn's Creek girls who eventually found freedom again have been fictionalized in three young adult novels and a film, with each girl happening to narrating one. ### Books - Craven, Tracy Leininger. Alone Yet Not Alone: The Story of Barbara and Regina Leininger (2003) Written from Barbara Leininger's third-person perspective with significant Christian themes. The author is a distant relative of Barbara and Regina Leininger. - Keehn, Sally M. I am Regina (1991) Based upon the nine-year captivity of Regina Leininger, written in first-person from her perspective. - Loder, Michael Wescott. Taken Beyond the Ohio (2019) Written from Marie LeRoy's first-person perspective. ### Film Alone yet Not Alone, Enthuse Entertainment (2013). Directed by Ray Bengston and George D.Escobar with screenplay by Escobar and James Richards, this film is an adaptation of Tracy Leininger Craven's novel of the same name.
3,231,599	HMS Black Prince (1904)	1,136,117,098	Duke of Edinburgh-class armoured cruiser	[ "1904 ships", "Duke of Edinburgh-class cruisers", "Edward the Black Prince", "Maritime incidents in 1916", "Protected Wrecks of the United Kingdom", "Ships built in Leamouth", "Ships sunk at the Battle of Jutland", "Warships lost in combat with all hands", "World War I cruisers of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Black Prince was a Duke of Edinburgh-class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the early 1900s. She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau. After the German ships reached Ottoman waters, the ship was sent to the Red Sea in mid-August to protect troop convoys arriving from India and to search for German merchant ships. After capturing two ships, Black Prince was transferred to the Grand Fleet in December 1914. She was sunk on 1 June 1916 during the Battle of Jutland with the loss of all hands. ## Design and description Two armoured cruisers of a new design, Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince, the latter named for Edward, the Black Prince, were ordered for the Royal Navy as part of the 1902–03 Naval Estimates. They were the first ships to be designed for the Royal Navy under the supervision of the new Director of Naval Construction, Sir Philip Watts. The new design was significantly larger than the previous Monmouth and Devonshire-class cruisers, mounting a heavier main armament of six 9.2 in (234 mm) guns in single turrets. Black Prince displaced 12,590 long tons (12,790 t) as built and 13,965 long tons (14,189 t) fully loaded. The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches (154.1 m), a beam of 73 feet 6 inches (22.4 m) and a draught of 27 feet (8.2 m). She was powered by four-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, driving two shafts, which produced a total of 23,000 indicated horsepower (17,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers. The ship carried a maximum of 2,150 long tons (2,180 t) of coal and an additional 600 long tons (610 t) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate. At full capacity, she could steam for 8,130 nautical miles (15,060 km; 9,360 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The ship's complement was 789 officers and ratings. Her main armament consisted of six BL 9.2-inch Mk X guns in single turrets, two on the centreline and two on each beam, giving a broadside of four 9.2 in guns. Her secondary armament of ten BL 6-inch Mark XI guns was arranged in single casemates. They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather. Twenty Vickers QF 3-pounders were fitted, six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure. The ship also mounted three submerged 18-inch torpedo tubes. ## Construction and career Black Prince was laid down on 3 June 1903 at the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company's shipyard at Blackwall, London. She was launched on 8 November 1904 and completed on 17 March 1906. When completed, Black Prince served with the 2nd Squadron until 1907, the 1st Cruiser Squadron from 1907 to 1908, the 5th Cruiser Squadron (as part of the Atlantic Fleet) from 1908 to 1912 and the Third from 1912 to 1913. At the beginning of the First World War, Black Prince was one of the four armoured cruisers serving in the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet, commanded by Rear-Admiral Ernest Charles Thomas Troubridge. She participated in the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau. Following the escape of the two German ships to neutral Turkey, Black Prince and Duke of Edinburgh were sent into the Red Sea to search for German merchant ships, with Black Prince capturing the German ocean liners Südmark and Istria. On 6 November, she was ordered to Gibraltar to join a squadron of French and British ships to search for German warships still at sea off the African coast. This was cancelled on 19 November after the location of the German East Asia Squadron was revealed by survivors of the Battle of Coronel. Black Prince joined the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron under Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot. Black Prince was modified in March 1916 as a result of lessons learned at the Battle of Coronel, with the 6-inch guns removed from their casemates and replaced by six 6-inch guns mounted individually behind shields between the beam 9.2-inch turrets. ### Loss The ship participated in the Battle of Jutland, where she was sunk with the loss of her entire crew. The circumstances under which she sank were mysterious for some years after. As the British had lost contact and did not see the ship destroyed, they were unsure as to whether a submarine or surface ship was responsible for sinking Black Prince. During the battle, the 1st Cruiser Squadron was deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet, but Black Prince lost contact with the rest of the Squadron as it came into contact with German forces, at about 17:42. Soon after, two other members of the 1st Cruiser Squadron, Defence and Warrior, were heavily engaged by German battleships and battlecruisers, with Defence blowing up and Warrior receiving heavy damage, which later caused her to sink. There were no positive sightings of Black Prince by the British fleet after that, although a wireless signal from her was received at 20:45, reporting a submarine sighting. During the night of 31 May–1 June, the British destroyer Spitfire, badly damaged after colliding with the German battleship Nassau, sighted what appeared to be a German battlecruiser, with two widely spaced funnels, described as being "...a mass of fire from foremast to mainmast, on deck and between decks. Flames were issuing out of her from every corner." The mystery ship exploded at about midnight. It was later thought that the burning ship may have been Black Prince, with the two midships funnels having collapsed or been shot away. Recent historians, however, hold to the German account of the ship's sinking. Black Prince briefly engaged the German battleship Rheinland at about 23:35 GMT, scoring two hits with 6-inch shells. Separated from the rest of the British fleet, Black Prince approached the German lines shortly after midnight. She turned away from the German battleships, but it was too late. The German battleship Thüringen fixed Black Prince in her searchlights and opened fire. Up to five other German ships, including the battleships Nassau, Ostfriesland, and Friedrich der Grosse, joined in the bombardment, with return fire from Black Prince being ineffective. Most of the German ships were between 750 and 1,500 yards (700 and 1,350 m) of Black Prince — effectively point-blank range for contemporary naval gunnery. The ship was hit by at least twelve heavy shells and several smaller ones, sinking within 15 minutes. There were no survivors from her crew of 857. The wrecksite is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986. ## Popular culture In the first episode of Series 4 of the SBS-TV (Australia) series Who Do You Think You Are?, Australian writer-actor-comedian Shaun Micallef discovered that his great-grandfather Giovanni (John) Micallef, a steward on Black Prince, was among those killed.
556,706	Kalākaua	1,171,351,060	King of Hawaii from 1874 to 1891	[ "1836 births", "1891 deaths", "19th-century monarchs in Oceania", "Deaths from kidney disease", "Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour", "Grand Crosses of the Order of Franz Joseph", "Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles", "Grand Crosses of the Order of Vasa", "Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog", "Hawaiian Kingdom Anglicans", "Hawaiian Kingdom chamberlains", "Hawaiian Kingdom military officers", "Hawaiian Kingdom postmasters general", "Hawaiian adoptees (hānai)", "Hawaiian songwriters", "Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George", "House of Kalākaua", "Hula", "Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic", "Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus", "Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Gregory the Great", "Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa", "Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Nobles", "Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom Privy Council", "Monarchs of the Hawaiian Islands", "National Party (Hawaii) politicians", "National anthem writers", "Native Hawaiian writers", "Protestant monarchs", "Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo", "Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion", "Royal School (Hawaii) alumni", "Royalty of the Hawaiian Kingdom" ]	Kalākaua (David Laʻamea Kamananakapu Mahinulani Naloiaehuokalani Lumialani Kalākaua; November 16, 1836 – January 20, 1891), sometimes called The Merrie Monarch, was the last king and penultimate monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, reigning from February 12, 1874, until his death in 1891. Succeeding Lunalilo, he was elected to the vacant throne of Hawaiʻi against Queen Emma. Kalākaua had a convivial personality and enjoyed entertaining guests with his singing and ukulele playing. At his coronation and his birthday jubilee, the hula, which had hitherto been banned in public in the kingdom, became a celebration of Hawaiian culture. During Kalākaua's reign, the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 brought great prosperity to the kingdom. Its renewal continued the prosperity but allowed United States to have exclusive use of Pearl Harbor. In 1881, Kalākaua took a trip around the world to encourage the immigration of contract sugar plantation workers. He wanted Hawaiians to broaden their education beyond their nation. He instituted a government-financed program to sponsor qualified students to be sent abroad to further their education. Two of his projects, the statue of Kamehameha I and the rebuilding of ʻIolani Palace, were expensive endeavors but are popular tourist attractions today. Extravagant expenditures and Kalākaua's plans for a Polynesian confederation played into the hands of annexationists who were already working towards a United States takeover of Hawaiʻi. In 1887, Kalākaua was pressured to sign a new constitution that made the monarchy little more than a figurehead position. After his brother William Pitt Leleiohoku II died in 1877, the king named their sister Liliʻuokalani as heir-apparent. She acted as regent during his absences from the country. After Kalākaua's death, she became the last monarch of Hawaiʻi. ## Early life and family Kalākaua was born at 2:00 a.m. on November 16, 1836, to Caesar Kaluaiku Kapaʻakea and Analea Keohokālole in the grass hut compound belonging to his maternal grandfather ʻAikanaka, at the base of Punchbowl Crater in Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu. Of the aliʻi class of Hawaiian nobility, his family was considered collateral relations of the reigning House of Kamehameha, sharing common descent from the 18th-century aliʻi nui Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. From his biological parents, he descended from Keaweaheulu and Kameʻeiamoku, two of the five royal counselors of Kamehameha I during his conquest of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Kameʻeiamoku, the grandfather of both his mother and father, was one of the royal twins alongside Kamanawa depicted on the Hawaiian coat of arms. However, Kalākaua and his siblings traced their high rank from their mother's line of descent, referring to themselves as members of the "Keawe-a-Heulu line", although later historians would refer to the family as the House of Kalākaua. The second surviving child of a large family, his biological siblings included his elder brother James Kaliokalani, and younger siblings Lydia Kamakaʻeha (later renamed Liliʻuokalani), Anna Kaʻiulani, Kaʻiminaʻauao, Miriam Likelike and William Pitt Leleiohoku II. Given the name Kalākaua, which translates into "The Day [of] Battle", the date of his birth coincided with the signing of the unequal treaty imposed by British Captain Lord Edward Russell of the Actaeon on Kamehameha III. He and his siblings were hānai (informally adopted) to other family members in the Native Hawaiian tradition. Prior to birth, his parents had promised to give their child in hānai to Kuini Liliha, a high-ranking chiefess and the widow of High Chief Boki. However, after he was born, High Chiefess Haʻaheo Kaniu took the baby to Honuakaha, the residence of the king. Kuhina Nui (regent) Elizabeth Kīnaʻu, who disliked Liliha, deliberated and decreed his parents to give him to Haʻaheo and her husband Keaweamahi Kinimaka. When Haʻaheo died in 1843 she bequeathed all her properties to him. After Haʻaheo's death, his guardianship was entrusted to his hānai father, who was a chief of lesser rank; he took Kalākaua to live in Lāhainā on the island of Maui. Kinimaka would later marry Pai, a subordinate Tahitian chiefess, who treated Kalākaua as her own until the birth of her own son. ## Education At the age of four, Kalākaua returned to Oʻahu to begin his education at the Chiefs' Children's School (later renamed the Royal School). He and his classmates had been formally proclaimed by Kamehameha III as eligible for the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. His classmates included his siblings James Kaliokalani and Lydia Kamakaʻeha and their thirteen royal cousins including the future kings Kamehameha IV, Kamehameha V and Lunalilo. They were taught by American missionaries Amos Starr Cooke and his wife, Juliette Montague Cooke. At the school, Kalākaua became fluent in English and the Hawaiian language and was noted for his fun and humor rather than his academic prowess. The strong-willed boy defended his less robust elder brother Kaliokalani from the older boys at the school. In October 1840, their paternal grandfather Kamanawa II requested his grandsons to visit him on the night before his execution for the murder of his wife Kamokuiki. The next morning the Cookes allowed the guardian of the royal children John Papa ʻĪʻī to bring Kaliokalani and Kalākaua to see Kamanawa for the last time. It is not known if their sister was also taken to see him. Later sources, especially in biographies of Kalākaua indicated that the boys witnessed the public hanging of their grandfather at the gallows. Historian Helena G. Allen noted the indifference the Cookes' had toward the request and the traumatic experience it must have been for the boys. After the Cookes retired and closed the school in 1850, Kalākaua briefly studied at Joseph Watt's English school for native children at Kawaiahaʻo and later joined the relocated day school (also called Royal School) run by Reverend Edward G. Beckwith. Illness prevented him from finishing his schooling and he was sent back to Lāhainā to live with his mother. Following his formal schooling, he studied law under Charles Coffin Harris in 1853. Kalākaua would appoint Harris as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hawaiʻi in 1877. ## Political and military careers Kalākaua's various military, government and court positions prevented him from fully completing his legal training. He received his earliest military training under the Prussian officer, Major Francis Funk, who instilled an admiration of the Prussian military system. In 1852, Prince Liholiho, who would later reign as Kamehameha IV, appointed Kalakaua as one of his aide-de-camp on his military staff. The following year, he commissioned Kalākaua as brevet captain in the infantry. In the army, Kalākaua served as first lieutenant in his father Kapaʻakea's militia of 240 men and later worked as military secretary to Major John William Elliott Maikai, the adjutant general of the army. He was promoted to major and assigned to the personal staff of Kamehameha IV when the king ascended to the throne in 1855. He was promoted to the rank of colonel in 1858. He became a personal associate and friend of Prince Lot, the future Kamehameha V, who instilled his mission of "Hawaiʻi for Hawaiians" in the young Kalākaua. In the fall of 1860, when he was Chief Clerk of the kingdom's Department of the Interior, Kalākaua accompanied Prince Lot, high chief Levi Haʻalelea and Hawaii's Consul for Peru, Josiah C. Spalding, on a two-month tour of British Columbia and California. They sailed from Honolulu aboard the yacht Emma Rooke, on August 29, arriving on September 18 in Victoria, British Columbia where they were received by the local dignitaries of the city. In California, the party visited San Francisco, Sacramento, Folsom and other local areas where they were honorably received. In 1856, Kalākaua was appointed a member of the Privy Council of State by Kamehameha IV. He was also appointed to the House of Nobles, the upper body of the Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi in 1858, serving there until 1873. He served as 3rd Chief Clerk of the Department of the Interior in 1859 under Prince Lot who was Minister of the Interior before becoming king in 1863. He held this position until 1863. On June 30, 1863, Kalākaua was appointed Postmaster General and served until his resignation on March 18, 1865. In 1865, he was appointed the King's Chamberlain and served until 1869 when he resigned to finish his law studies. In 1870, he was admitted to the Hawaiian bar and was hired as a clerk in the Land Office, a post he held until he came to the throne. He was decorated a Knight Companion of the Royal Order of Kamehameha I in 1867. American writer Mark Twain, working as a traveling reporter for the Sacramento Daily Union, visited Hawaiʻi in 1866 during the reign of Kamehameha V. He met the young Kalākaua and other members of the legislature and noted: > Hon. David Kalakaua, who at present holds the office of King's Chamberlain, is a man of fine presence, is an educated gentleman and a man of good abilities. He is approaching forty, I should judge—is thirty-five, at any rate. He is conservative, politic and calculating, makes little display, and does not talk much in the Legislature. He is a quiet, dignified, sensible man, and would do no discredit to the kingly office. The King has power to appoint his successor. If he does such a thing, his choice will probably fall on Kalakaua. ## Marriage Kalākaua was briefly engaged to marry Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, the younger sister of Kamehameha IV and Kamehameha V. However, the match was terminated when the princess decided to renew her on-and-off betrothal to her cousin Lunalilo. Kalākaua would later fall in love with Kapiʻolani, the young widow of Bennett Nāmākēhā, the uncle of Kamehameha IV's wife Queen Emma. A descendant of King Kaumualiʻi of Kauai, Kapiʻolani was Queen Emma's lady-in-waiting and Prince Albert Edward Kamehameha's nurse and caretaker. They married on December 19, 1863, in a quiet ceremony conducted by a minister of the Anglican Church of Hawaiʻi. The timing of the wedding was heavily criticized since it fell during the official mourning period for King Kamehameha IV. The marriage remained childless. ## Political ascendancy ### 1873 election King Kamehameha V, died on December 12, 1872, without naming a successor to the throne. Under the 1864 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, if the king did not appoint a successor, a new king would be appointed by the legislature to begin a new royal line of succession. There were several candidates for the Hawaiian throne including Bernice Pauahi Bishop, who had been asked to succeed to the throne by Kamehameha V on his deathbed but had declined the offer. However, the contest was centered on the two high-ranking male aliʻi, or chiefs: Lunalilo and Kalākaua. Lunalilo was more popular, partly because he was a higher-ranking chief than Kalākaua and was the immediate cousin of Kamehameha V. Lunalilo was also the more liberal of the two—he promised to amend the constitution to give the people a greater voice in the government. According to historian Ralph S. Kuykendall, there was an enthusiasm among Lunalilo's supporters to have him declared king without holding an election. In response, Lunalilo issued a proclamation stating that, even though he believed himself to be the rightful heir to the throne, he would submit to an election for the good of the kingdom. On January 1, 1873, a popular election was held for the office of King of Hawaiʻi. Lunalilo won with an overwhelming majority while Kalākaua performed extremely poorly receiving 12 votes out of the more than 11,000 votes cast. The next day, the legislature confirmed the popular vote and elected Lunalilo unanimously. Kalākaua conceded. ### 1874 election Following Lunalilo's ascension, Kalākaua was appointed as colonel on the military staff of the king. He kept politically active during Lunalilo's reign, including leadership involvement with a political organization known as the Young Hawaiians; the group's motto was "Hawaiʻi for the Hawaiians". He had gained political capital with his staunch opposition to ceding any part of the Hawaiian islands to foreign interests. During the ʻIolani Barracks mutiny by the Royal Guards of Hawaiʻi in September 1873, Kalākaua was suspected to have incited the native guards to rebel against their white officers. Lunalilo responded to the insurrection by disbanding the military unit altogether, leaving Hawaiʻi without a standing army for the remainder of his reign. The issue of succession was a major concern especially since Lunalilo was unmarried and childless at the time. Queen Dowager Emma, the widow of Kamehameha IV, was considered to be Lunalilo's favorite choice as his presumptive heir. On the other hand, Kalākaua and his political cohorts actively campaigned for him to be named successor in the event of the king's death. Among the other candidates considered viable as Lunalilo's successor was the previously mentioned Bernice Pauahi Bishop. She had strong ties to the United States through her marriage to wealthy American businessman Charles Reed Bishop who also served as one of Lunalilo's cabinet ministers. When Lunalilo became ill several months after his election, Native Hawaiians counseled with him to appoint a successor to avoid another election. However he may have personally felt about Emma, he never put it in writing. He failed to act on the issue of a successor, and died on February 3, 1874, setting in motion a bitter election. While Lunalilo did not think of himself as a Kamehameha, his election continued the Kamehameha line to some degree making him the last of the monarchs of the Kamehameha dynasty. Pauahi chose not to run. Kalākaua's political platform was that he would reign in strict accordance with the kingdom's constitution. Emma campaigned on her assurance that Lunalilo had personally told her he wanted her to succeed him. Several individuals who claimed first-hand knowledge of Lunalilo's wishes backed her publicly. With Lunalilo's privy council issuing a public denial of that claim, the kingdom was divided on the issue. British Commissioner James Hay Wodehouse put the British and American forces docked at Honolulu on the alert for possible violence. The election was held on February 12, and Kalākaua was elected by the Legislative Assembly by a margin of thirty-nine to six. His election provoked the Honolulu Courthouse riot where supporters of Queen Emma targeted legislators who supported Kalākaua; thirteen legislators were injured. The kingdom was without an army since the mutiny the year before and many police officers sent to quell the riot joined the mob or did nothing. Unable to control the mob, Kalākaua and Lunalilo's former ministers had to request the aid of American and British military forces docked in the harbor to put down the uprising. ## Reign Given the unfavorable political climate following the riot, Kalākaua was quickly sworn in the following day, in a ceremony witnessed by government officials, family members, foreign representatives and some spectators. This inauguration ceremony was held at Kīnaʻu Hale, the residence of the Royal Chamberlain, instead of Kawaiahaʻo Church, as was customary. The hastiness of the affair would prompt him to hold a coronation ceremony in 1883. Upon ascending to the throne, Kalākaua named his brother, William Pitt Leleiohoku, Leleiohoku II, as his heir-apparent. When Leleiohoku II died in 1877, Kalākaua changed the name of his sister Lydia Dominis to Liliuokalani and designated her as his heir-apparent. From March to May 1874, he toured the main Hawaiian Islands of Kauai, Maui, Hawaiʻi Island, Molokai and Oahu and visited the Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement. ### Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 and its extension Within a year of Kalākaua's election, he helped negotiate the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. This free trade agreement between the United States and Hawaiʻi, allowed sugar and other products to be exported to the US duty-free. He led the Reciprocity Commission consisting of sugar planter Henry A. P. Carter of C. Brewer & Co., Hawaiʻi Chief Justice Elisha Hunt Allen, and Minister of Foreign Affairs William Lowthian Green. Kalākaua became the first reigning monarch to visit America. The state dinner in his honor hosted by President Ulysses S. Grant was the first White House state dinner ever held. Many in the Hawaiʻi business community were willing to cede Pearl Harbor to the United States in exchange for the treaty, but Kalākaua was opposed to the idea. A seven-year treaty was signed on January 30, 1875, without any Hawaiian land being ceded. San Francisco sugar refiner Claus Spreckels became a major investor in Hawaiʻi's sugar industry. Initially, he bought half of the first year's production; ultimately he became the plantations' major shareholder. Spreckels became one of Kalākaua's close associates. When it expired, an extension of the treaty was negotiated, giving exclusive use of Pearl Harbor to the United States. Ratifications by both parties took two years and eleven months, and were exchanged on December 9, 1887, extending the agreement for an additional seven years. Over the term of Kalākaua's reign, the treaty had a major effect on the kingdom's income. In 1874, Hawaiʻi exported \$1,839,620.27 in products. The value of exported products in 1890, the last full year of his reign, was \$13,282,729.48, an increase of 722%. The export of sugar during that period grew from 24,566,611 pounds to 330,822,879 pounds. ### Education of Hawaiian Youths Abroad The Education of Hawaiian Youths Abroad was a government-funded educational program during Kalākaua's reign to help students further their education beyond the institutions available in Hawaiʻi at that time. Between 1880 and 1887, Kalākaua selected 18 students for enrollment in a university or apprenticeship to a trade, outside the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. These students furthered their education in Italy, England, Scotland, China, Japan and California. During the life of the program, the legislature appropriated \$100,000 to support it. When the Bayonet Constitution went into effect, the students were recalled to Hawaiʻi. ### Trip around the world King Kalākaua and his boyhood friends William Nevins Armstrong and Charles Hastings Judd, along with personal cook Robert von Oelhoffen, circumnavigated the globe in 1881. The purpose of the 281-day trip was to encourage the importation of contract labor for plantations. Kalākaua set a world record as the first monarch to travel around the world. He appointed his sister and heir-apparent Liliuokalani to act as Regent during his absence. Setting sail on January 20, they visited California before sailing to Asia. There they spent four months opening contract labor dialogue in Japan and China, while sightseeing and spreading goodwill through nations that were potential sources for workers. They continued through Southeast Asia, and then headed for Europe in June, where they stayed until mid-September. Their most productive immigration talks were in Portugal, where Armstrong stayed behind to negotiate an expansion of Hawaiʻi's existing treaty with the government. President James A. Garfield in Washington, D.C., had been assassinated in their absence. On their return trip to the United States, Kalākaua paid a courtesy call on Garfield's successor President Chester A. Arthur. Before embarking on a train ride across the United States, Kalākaua visited Thomas Edison for a demonstration of electric lighting, discussing its potential use in Honolulu. They departed for Hawaiʻi from San Francisco on October 22, arriving in Honolulu on October 31. His homecoming celebration went on for days. He had brought the small island nation to the attention of world leaders, but the trip had sparked rumors that the kingdom was for sale. In Hawaiʻi there were critics who believed the labor negotiations were just his excuse to see the world. Eventually, his efforts bore fruit in increased contract labor for Hawaiʻi. Thomas Thrum's Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1883 reported Kalākaua's tour expense appropriated by the government as \$22,500, although his personal correspondence indicates he exceeded that early on. ### ʻIolani Palace 'Iolani Palace is the only royal palace on US soil. The first palace was a coral and wood structure which served primarily as office space for the kingdom's monarchs beginning with Kamehameha III in 1845. By the time Kalākaua became king, the structure had decayed, and he ordered it destroyed to be replaced with a new building. During the 1878 session of the legislature Finance Chairman Walter Murray Gibson, a political supporter of Kalākaua's, pushed through appropriations of \$50,000 for the new palace. Construction began in 1879, with an additional \$80,000 appropriated later to furnish it and complete the construction. Three architects worked on the design, Thomas J. Baker, Charles J. Wall and Isaac Moore. December 31, 1879, the 45th birthday of Queen Kapiʻolani, was the date Kalākaua chose for the ceremonial laying of the cornerstone. Minister of Foreign Affairs John Mākini Kapena delivered the ceremony's formal address in Hawaiian. As Master of the Freemason Lodge Le Progres de L'Oceanie, Kalākaua charged the freemasons with orchestrating the ceremonies. The parade preceding the laying of the cornerstone involved every civilian and military organization in Hawaiʻi. The Pacific Commercial Advertiser noted it was "one of the largest seen in Honolulu for some years". A copper time capsule containing photographs, documents, currency, and the Hawaiian census was sealed inside the cornerstone. After speeches had been made, the freemasons presented the king with "the working tools of a mason", a plumb bob, level, square tool, and a trowel. In between the laying of the cornerstone and the finishing of the new palace, Kalākaua had seen how other monarchs lived. He wanted ʻIolani to measure up to the standards of the rest of the world. The furnishing and interiors of the finished palace were reflective of that. Immediately upon completion, the king invited all 120 members of Lodge Le Progres de L'Oceanie to the palace for a lodge meeting. Kalākaua had also seen during his visit to Edison's studio how effective electric lighting could be for the kingdom. On July 21, 1886, ʻIolani Palace led the way with the first electric lights in the kingdom, showcasing the technology. The monarch invited the public to attend a lighting ceremony on the palace grounds, attracting 5,000 spectators. The Royal Hawaiian Band entertained, refreshments were served, and the king paraded his troops around the grounds. The total cost of building and furnishing the new palace was \$343,595. ### 1883 coronation Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani had been denied a coronation ceremony in 1874 because of the civil unrest following the election. Under Finance Chairman Gibson, the 1880 legislature appropriated \$10,000 for a coronation. Gibson was believed to be the main proponent behind the event. On October 10, 1882, the Saturday Press indicated that not all the public was in favor of the coronation. By this point, Gibson's role in the kingdom's finances and his influence on Kalākaua were beginning to come under scrutiny: "Our versatile Premier ... is pulling another string in this puppet farce." At the same time, the newspaper rebuked many of the recent actions and policies not only of Gibson but of the King's cabinet in general. The coronation ceremony and related celebratory events were spread out over a two-week period. A special octagon-shaped pavilion and grandstand were built for the February 12, 1883, ceremony. Preparations were made for an anticipated crowd exceeding 5,000, with lawn chairs to accommodate any overflow. Before the actual event, a procession of 630 adults and children paraded from downtown to the palace. Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani, accompanied by their royal retinue, came out of the palace onto the event grounds. The coronation was preceded by a choir singing and the formal recitation of the King's official titles. The news coverage noted, "The King looked ill at ease." Chief Justice of Hawaiʻi's Supreme Court Albert Francis Judd officiated and delivered the oath of office to the king. The crown was then handed to Kalākaua, and he placed it upon his head. The ceremony ended with the choir singing, and a prayer. A planned post-coronation reception by Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani was cancelled without advance notice. Today, Kalākaua's coronation pavilion serves as the bandstand for the Royal Hawaiian Band. Following the ceremony, Kalākaua unveiled the Kamehameha Statue in front of Aliiolani Hale, the government building, with Gibson delivering the unveiling speech. This statue was a second replica. Originally intended for the centennial of Captain James Cook's landing in Hawaiʻi, the statue, which was the brainchild of Gibson, had been cast by Thomas Ridgeway Gould but had been lost during shipment off the Falkland Islands. By the time the replica arrived, the intended date had passed, and it was decided to unveil the statue as part of the coronation ceremony. Later, the original statue was salvaged and restored. It was sent to Kohala, Hawaiʻi, Kamehameha's birthplace, where it was unveiled by the king on May 8. The legislature had allocated \$10,000 for the first statue and insured it for \$12,000. A further \$7,000 was allocated for the second statue with an additional \$4,000 from the insurance money spent to add four bas relief panels depicting historic moments during Kamehamena's reign. That evening, the royal couple hosted a state dinner, and there was a luau at a later day. The hula was performed nightly on the palace grounds. Regattas, horse races and a number of events filled the celebration period. Due to weather conditions, the planned illumination of the palace and grounds for the day of the coronation happened a week later, and the public was invited to attend. Fireworks displays lit up the sky at the palace and at Punchbowl Crater. A grand ball was held the evening of February 20. Although exact figures are unknown, historian Kuykendall stated that the final cost of the coronation exceeded \$50,000. ### Kalākaua coinage The Kalākaua coinage was minted to boost Hawaiian pride. At this time, United States gold coins had been accepted for any debt over \$50; any debt under \$50 was payable by US silver coins. In 1880, the legislature passed a currency law that allowed it to purchase bullion for the United States mint to produce Hawaiʻi's own coins. The design would have the King's image on the obverse side, with Hawaiʻi's coat of arms and motto "Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ʻĀina i ka Pono" on the reverse. In a deal with Claus Spreckels, he sponsored the minting by purchasing the required silver. In return, he was guaranteed an equal amount of six percent gold bonds, thereby giving him a guaranteed profit. When Hawaiʻi's silver coins began circulating in December 1883, the business community was reluctant to accept them, fearing they would drive US gold coins out of the market. Spreckels opened his own bank to circulate them. Business owners feared economic inflation and lost faith in the government, as did foreign governments. Political fallout from the coinage led to the 1884 election-year shift towards the Kuokoa (independent) Party in the legislature. It passed the Currency Act to restrict acceptance of silver coins as payment for debts under \$10. Exchange of silver for gold at the treasury was then limited to \$150,000 a month. In 1903, the Hawaiʻi silver coins were redeemed for US silver and melted down at the San Francisco Mint. ### Birthday Jubilee, November 15–29, 1886 Kalākaua's 50th birthday on November 16, 1886, was celebrated with a two-week jubilee. Gibson had by this time joined the King's cabinet as prime minister of Hawaiʻi. He and Minister of the Interior Luther Aholo put forth a motion for the legislature to form a committee to oversee the birthday jubilee on September 20. The motion was approved, and at Gibson's subsequent request, the legislature appropriated \$15,000 for the jubilee. An announcement was made on November 3 that all government schools would be closed the week of November 15. Gifts for the king began arriving on November 15. At midnight, the jubilee officially began with fireworks at the Punchbowl Crater. At sunrise, the kingdom's police force arrived at ʻIolani Palace to pay tribute, followed by the king's Cabinet, Supreme Court justices, the kingdom's diplomats, and officials of government departments. School student bodies and civic organizations also paid tribute. The Royal Hawaiian Band played throughout the day. In the afternoon, the doors of the palace were opened to all the officials and organizations, and the public. In the evening, the palace was aglow with lanterns, candles and electric lighting throwing "a flood of radiance over the Palace and grounds". The evening ended with a Fireman's Parade and fireworks. Throughout the next two weeks, there was a regatta, a Jubilee ball, a luau, athletic competitions, a state dinner, and a marksmanship contest won by the Honolulu Rifles. Harper's Weekly reported in 1891 that the final cost of the jubilee was \$75,000. ### Military policy During the early part of his reign, Kalākaua restored the Household Guards which had been defunct since his predecessor Lunalilo abolished the unit in 1874. Initially, the king created three volunteer companies: the Leleiohoku Guard, a cavalry unit; the Prince's Own, an artillery unit; and the Hawaiian Guards, an infantry unit. By the latter part of his reign, the army of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi consisted of six volunteer companies including the King's Own, the Queen's Own, the Prince's Own, the Leleiohoku Guard, the Mamalahoa Guard and the Honolulu Rifles, and the regular troops of the King's Household Guard. The ranks of these regiments were composed mainly of Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian officers with a few white officers including his brother-in-law John Owen Dominis. Each unit was subject to call for active service when necessary. The king and the governor of Oahu also had their own personal staff of military officers with the ranks of colonel and major. On October 1, 1886, the Military Act of 1886 was passed which created a Department of War and a Department of the Navy under the Minister of Foreign Affairs who would also serve as Secretary of War and of the Navy. Dominis was appointed lieutenant general and commander-in-chief and other officers were commissioned while the king was made the supreme commander and generalissimo of the Hawaiian Army. Around this time, the government also bought and commissioned His Hawaiian Majesty's Ship (HHMS) Kaimiloa, the first and only vessel of the Hawaiian Royal Navy, under the command of Captain George E. Gresley Jackson. After 1887, the military commissions creating Dominis and his staff officers were recalled for economic reasons and the Military Act of 1886 was later declared unconstitutional. The Military Act of 1888 was passed reducing the size of the army to four volunteer companies: the Honolulu Rifles, the King's Own, the Queen's Own, the Prince's Own, and the Leleiohoku Guard. In 1890, another military act further restricted the army to just the King's Royal Guards. ### Polynesian confederation The idea of Hawaiʻi's involvement in the internal affairs of Polynesian nations had been around at least two decades before Kalākaua's election, when Australian Charles St Julian volunteered to be a political liaison to Hawaiʻi in 1853. He accomplished nothing of any significance. Kalākaua's interest in forming a Polynesian coalition, with him at the head, was influenced by both Walter M. Gibson and Italian soldier of fortune Celso Caesar Moreno. In 1879 Moreno urged the king to create such a realm with Hawaiʻi at the top of the empire by " ... uniting under your sceptre the whole Polynesian race and make Honolulu a monarchical Washington, where the representatives of all the islands would convene in Congress." In response to the activities of Germany and Great Britain in Oceania, Gibson's Pacific Commercial Advertiser urged Hawaiʻi's involvement in protecting the island nations from international aggression. Gibson was appointed to Kalākaua's cabinet as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1882. In 1883, he introduced the approved legislation to convey in writing to foreign governments that Hawaiʻi fully supported the independence of Polynesian nations. The subsequent "Hawaiian protest" letter he drafted was mostly ignored by nations that received it. The Daily Bulletin in Honolulu issued its own response, "Hawaiʻi's true policy is to confine her attention to herself, ...". The Hawaiian Gazette criticized Gibson's character and mockingly referred to the proposed venture as the "Empire of the Calabash". In 1885, Gibson dispatched Minister to the United States Henry A. P. Carter to Washington, D.C., and Europe to convey Hawaiʻi's intentions towards Polynesia. Carter made little headway with Gibson's instructions. He pushed for direct intervention into a political upheaval in Samoa, where the German Empire backed rebels under their leader Tamasese in an attempt to overthrow King Malietoa Laupepa. In an effort to keep him in power, Gibson convinced the 1886 legislature to allocate \$100,000 to purchase the steamship Zealandia, \$50,000 for its operating expenses, and \$35,000 for foreign missions. United States special commissioner to Samoa, George H. Bates advised Kalākaua that Hawaiʻi should mind its own business and stay out of Samoan affairs. Instead, Hawaiʻi sent a delegation headed by John E. Bush to Samoa, where Samoan King Malietoa Laupepa signed a Samoan-Hawaiian confederation treaty on February 17, 1887. Bush also presented Malietoa with the Royal Order of the Star of Oceania, which Kalakaua had created to honor the monarchs and chiefs of the Polynesian confederation. The government sent HHMS Kaimiloa for Bush's use in visiting the chiefs of the other islands of Polynesia. The United States and Great Britain joined with Germany in expressing their disapproval of the treaty. Germany warned the United States and Great Britain, "In case Hawaiʻi ... should try to interfere in favor of Malietoa, the King of the Sandwich Islands would thereby enter into [a] state of war with us." When German warships arrived in Samoan waters, Malietoa surrendered and was sent into exile. The Kaimiloa and Bush's delegation were recalled to Honolulu after the ousting of the Gibson administration. Kalākaua's later explanation of Hawaiʻi's interference in Samoa was, "Our Mission was simply a Mission of phylanthropy [sic] more than any thing, but the arogance [sic] of the Germans prevented our good intentions and . . . we had to withdraw the Mission." ## 1887 Bayonet Constitution In Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, Sanford B. Dole devoted a chapter to the Bayonet Constitution. He stated that King Kalākaua appointed cabinet members not for their ability to do the job, but for their ability to bend to his will. Consequently, according to Dole, appropriated funds were shifted from one account to another, "for fantastic enterprises and for the personal aggrandizement of the royal family." Dole placed much of the blame on Gibson, and accused Kalākaua of taking a bribe of \$71,000 from Tong Kee to grant an opium license, an action done via one of the king's political allies Junius Kaʻae. Despite his own personal opposition, Kalākaua signed a legislative bill in 1886 creating a single opium vending and distribution license. Kaʻae had suggested to rice planter Tong Kee, also known as Aki, that a monetary gift to the king might help him acquire it. Aki took the suggestion and gave thousands of dollars to the king. Another merchant, Chun Lung, made the government an offer of \$80,000.00 which forced Aki to raise even more cash. The license was eventually awarded to Chun who withheld his payment until the license was actually signed over to him on December 31, 1886. Kalākaua admitted that he had been overruled by his cabinet who were friendly with Chun. After the reform party took control of the government, the opium license debt remained unpaid. Kalākaua agreed to make restitution for his debts via revenues from the Crown Lands. However, other liabilities and outstanding debt forced him to sign his debt over to trustees who would control all of Kalākaua's private estates and Crown Land revenues. When trustees refused to add the opium debt, Aki sued. Although the court ruled, "The king could do no wrong", the trustees were found liable for the debt. The Hawaiian League was formed to change the status quo of government "by all means necessary", and had joined forces with the Honolulu Rifles militia group. Anticipating a coup d'état, the king took measures to save himself by dismissing Gibson and his entire cabinet on June 28. Fearing an assassination was not out of the question, Kalākaua barricaded himself inside the palace. The Hawaiian League presented a June 30 resolution demanding the king's restitution for the alleged bribe. Also known as the "committee of thirteen", it was composed of: Paul Isenberg, William W. Hall, James A. Kennedy, William Hyde Rice, Captain James A. King, E. B. Thomas, H. C. Reed, John Mark Vivas, W. P. A. Brewer, Rev. W. B. Oleson, Cecil Brown, Captain George Ross and Joseph Ballard Atherton. The newly appointed cabinet members were William Lowthian Green as prime minister and minister of finance, Clarence W. Ashford as attorney general, Lorrin A. Thurston as minister of the interior, and Godfrey Brown as minister of foreign affairs. A new constitution was drafted immediately by the Hawaiian Committee and presented to Kalākaua for his signature on July 6. The next day he issued a proclamation of the abrogation of the 1864 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. The new constitution was nicknamed the Bayonet Constitution because of the duress under which it was signed. His sister Liliuokalani stated in Hawaii's Story that her brother was convinced that if he did not sign, he would be assassinated. She wrote that he no longer knew who was friend or foe. He felt betrayed by people he once trusted and had told her that everywhere he went he was under constant surveillance. > It has been known ever since that day as "The Bayonet Constitution," and the name is well chosen; for the cruel treatment received by the king from the military companies, which had been organized by his enemies under other pretences, but really to give them the power of coercion, was the chief measure used to enforce his submission. The Bayonet Constitution allowed the King to appoint his cabinet but placed that cabinet under the sole authority of the legislature. It required any executive actions of the monarch to be approved by the cabinet. Previous suffrage (voting rights) was restricted to male subjects of the kingdom regardless of race. The new constitution restricted suffrage only to Hawaiian, American or European men residing in Hawaii, if they were 21 years old, literate with no back unpaid taxes, and would take an oath to support the law of the land. By placing a new minimum qualifier of \$3,000 in property ownership and a minimum income of \$600 for voters of the House of Nobles, the new constitution disqualified many poor Native Hawaiians from voting for half of the legislature. Naturalized Asians were deprived of the vote for both houses of the legislature. Gibson was arrested on July 1 and charged with embezzlement of public funds. The case was soon dropped for lack of evidence. Gibson fled to California on July 12, and died there 6 months later on January 21, 1888. When the new constitution went into effect, state-sponsored students studying abroad were recalled. One of those was Robert William Wilcox who had been sent to Italy for military training. Wilcox's initial reaction to the turn of events was advocating Liliuokalani be installed as Regent. On July 30, 1889, however, he and Robert Napuʻuako Boyd, another state-sponsored student, led a rebellion aimed at restoring the 1864 constitution, and, thereby, the king's power. Kalākaua, possibly fearing Wilcox intended to force him to abdicate in favor of his sister, was not in the palace when the insurrection happened. The government's military defense led to the surrender of the Wilcox's insurgents. ## Death and succession Kalākaua sailed for California aboard the USS Charleston on November 25, 1890. Accompanying him were his trusted friends George W. Macfarlane and Robert Hoapili Baker. There was uncertainty about the purpose of the king's trip. Minister of Foreign Affairs John Adams Cummins reported the trip was solely for the king's health and would not extend beyond California. Local newspapers and British commissioner Wodehouse worried the king might go farther east to Washington, D.C., to negotiate a continued cession of Pearl Harbor to the United States after the expiration of the reciprocity treaty or possible annexation of the kingdom. His sister Liliʻuokalani, after unsuccessfully dissuading him from departing, wrote he meant to discuss the McKinley Tariff with the Hawaiian ambassador to the United States Henry A. P. Carter in Washington. She was again appointed to serve as regent during his absence. Upon arriving in California, the party landed in San Francisco on December 5. Kalākaua, whose health had been declining, stayed in a suite at the Palace Hotel. Traveling throughout Southern California and Northern Mexico, he suffered a minor stroke in Santa Barbara and was rushed back to San Francisco. He was placed under the care of George W. Woods, surgeon of the United States Pacific Fleet. Against the advice of Dr. Woods, Kalākaua insisted on going to his initiation at the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (A.A.O.N.M.S.) on January 14. He was given a tonic of Vin Mariani that got him on his feet, and was accompanied to the rites by an escort from the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine. The ceremonies did not take long, and he was returned to his suite within an hour. Two days before his death, he lapsed into a coma. Kalākaua died at 2:35 pm on Tuesday, January 20, 1891. US Navy officials listed the official cause of death as Bright's Disease (inflammation of the kidneys). His last words were, "Aue, he kanaka au, eia i loko o ke kukonukonu o ka maʻi!," or "Alas, I am a man who is seriously ill." The more popular quote, "Tell my people I tried", attributed as his last words, was actually invented by novelist Eugene Burns in his 1952 biography of Kalākaua, The Last King of Paradise. Shortly before his death, his voice was recorded on a phonograph cylinder, which is now in the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. The news of Kalākaua's death did not reach Hawaiʻi until January 29 when the Charleston returned to Honolulu with the king's remains. As his designated heir-apparent, Liliuokalani ascended to the throne the same day. After a state funeral in California and a second one in Honolulu, the king's remains were buried in the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna ʻAla on February 15, 1891. In a ceremony officiated by his sister Liliʻuokalani on June 24, 1910, his remains, and those of his family, were transferred to the underground Kalākaua Crypt after the main mausoleum building had been converted into a chapel. ## Legacy Kalākaua's reign is generally regarded as the first Hawaiian Renaissance, for both his influence on Hawaiʻi's music, and for other contributions he made to reinvigorate Hawaiian culture. His actions inspired the reawakening Hawaiian pride and nationalism for the kingdom. During the earlier reign of Christian convert Kaʻahumanu, dancing the hula was forbidden and punishable by law. Subsequent monarchs gradually began allowing the hula, but it was Kalākaua who brought it back in full force. Chants, meles and the hula were part of the official entertainment at Kalākaua's coronation and his birthday jubilee. He issued an invitation to all Hawaiians with knowledge of the old mele and chants to participate in the coronation, and arranged for musicologist A. Marques to observe the celebrations. Kalākaua's cultural legacy lives on in the Merrie Monarch Festival, a large-scale annual hula competition in Hilo, Hawaiʻi, begun in 1964 and named in his honor. A composer of the ancient chants or mele, for the first time Kalākaua published a written version of the Kumulipo, a 2,102-line chant that had traditionally been passed down orally. It traces the royal lineage and the creation of the cosmos. He is also known to have revived the Hawaiian martial art of Lua, and surfing. The Hawaiian Board of Health (different from the governmental Board of Health) passed by the 1886 legislature consisted of five Native Hawaiians, appointed by Kalākaua, who oversaw the licensing and regulation of the traditional practice of native healing arts. He also appointed Emma Kaili Metcalf Beckley Nakuina as the first Native Hawaiian curator of the Hawaiian National Museum and increased funding for the institution. In 1886, Kalākaua had his Privy Council license the ancient Hale Nauā Society for persons of Hawaiian ancestry. The original Hale Naua had not been active since Kamehameha I, when it had functioned as a genealogical research organization for claims of royal lineage. When Kalākaua reactivated it, he expanded its purpose to encompass Hawaiian culture as well as modern-day arts and sciences and included women as equals. The ranks of the society grew to more than 200 members, and was a political support for Kalākaua that lasted until his death in 1891. In 2004, the National Museum of Natural History displayed Kalākaua's red-and-yellow feathered Hale Naua ʻahuʻula and feathered kāhili as part of its Hawaiian special exhibit. Kalākaua's sponsorship of and a brief career in the Hawaiian language press gave him the additional epithet of the "Editor King". From 1861 to 1863, Kalākaua with G. W. Mila, J. W. H. Kauwahi and John K. Kaunamano co-edited Ka Hoku o ka Pakipika (The Star of the Pacific), the first Hawaiian language newspaper solely written by Native Hawaiians without the influence of American missionaries. This nationalist paper focused on Hawaiian topics especially traditional folklore and poetry. In 1870 he also edited the daily newspaper Ka Manawa (Times), which concerned itself with international news, local news and genealogies but only lasted for two months. He also sponsored the literary journal, Ka Hoku o Ke Kai (The Star of the Sea), which ran from 1883 to 1884. The Hawaiian Music Hall of Fame honored Kalākaua and his brother and sisters as Na Lani ʻEhā ("The Heavenly Four") for their patronage and enrichment of Hawaiʻi's musical culture and history. "Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī" was officially designated the Hawaiʻi state anthem in 1967. Originally titled "Hymn to Kamehameha I", Henri Berger, leader of the Royal Hawaiian Band, wrote the instrumental melody in 1872, influenced by the Prussian anthem "Heil dir im Siegerkranz". Kalākaua added the lyrics in 1874, and the Kawaiahaʻo Church Choir sang it on his birthday that year. In 1876, it became the official anthem of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi until the overthrow of the monarchy. Other works by the king include "Sweet Lei Lehua", "ʻAkahi Hoʻi", "E Nihi Ka Hele", "Ka Momi", and "Koni Au I Ka Wai". Seven of his songs were published in Ka Buke O Na Leo Mele Hawaii (1888) using the pseudonym "Figgs". He generally wrote only the lyrics for most of his surviving works. He established diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Serbia and was awarded the Order of Cross of Takovo. The ukulele was introduced to the Hawaiian islands during the reign of Kalākaua, by Manuel Nunes, José do Espírito Santo, and Augusto Dias, Portuguese immigrants from Madeira and Cape Verde. The king became proficient on the instrument. According to American journalist Mary Hannah Krout and Hawaiʻi resident Isobel Osbourne Strong, wife of artist Joseph Dwight Strong and stepdaughter of Robert Louis Stevenson, he would often play the ukulele and perform meles for his visitors, accompanied by his personal musical group Kalākaua's Singing Boys (aka King's Singing Boys). Strong recalled the Singing Boys as "the best singers and performers on the ukulele and guitar in the whole islands". Kalākaua was inducted into the Ukulele Hall of Fame in 1997. Kalākaua Avenue was created in March 1905 by the House and Senate of the Hawaiʻi Territorial Legislature. It renamed the highway known as Waikiki Road, "to commemorate the name of his late Majesty Kalākaua, during whose reign Hawaiʻi made great advancement in material prosperity". The King David Kalakaua Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 under its former name U.S. Post Office, Customhouse, and Courthouse. Located at 335 Merchant Street in Honolulu, it was once the official seat of administration for the Territory of Hawaiʻi. The building was renamed for Kalākaua in 2003. In 1985, a bronze statue of Kalākaua was donated to the City and County of Honolulu to commemorate the 100-year anniversary of the arrival of the first Japanese laborers after the king's visit to Japan. It was commissioned by the Oahu Kanyaku Imin Centennial Committee on behalf of the Japanese-American community of Hawaiʻi. The statue was designed and created by musician Palani Vaughan, architect Leland Onekea and Native Hawaiian sculptor Sean Kekamakupaa Kaonohiokalani Lee Loy Browne. It is located at the corner of Kalākaua and Kuhio avenues in Waikiki. In 1988, a cast bronze statue titled "King David Kalākaua" was placed in Kalakaua Park in Hilo, Hawai'i (57" H). It was created by Hawaiian artist Henry Bianchini. A Hawaiian song about Kalākaua can be heard in the Disney movie Lilo & Stitch when Lilo is introduced in the movie. The mele was written as a mele inoa, its original title being "He Inoa No Kalani Kalākaua Kulele" (a namesong for the chief, Kalākaua). On the Lilo & Stitch soundtrack, it was retitled as "He Mele No Lilo". ### Notable published works - Na Mele Aimoku, Na Mele Kupuna, a Me Na Mele Ponoi O Ka Moi Kalākaua I. Dynastic Chants, Ancestral Chants, and Personal Chants of King Kalākaua I. (1886). Hawaiian Historical Society, Honolulu, 2001. - The Legends and Myths of Hawaii: The Fables and Folk-lore of a Strange People. (1888). C.E. Tuttle Company, New York, 1990. ## Honours ## Ancestry ## See also - Coins of the Hawaiian dollar - Kalākaua's Cabinet Ministers - Kalākaua's Privy Council of State - Kalākaua's 1881 world tour
10,647,532	Hey Venus!	1,170,885,185	null	[ "2007 albums", "Albums recorded at Rockfield Studios", "Rough Trade Records albums", "Super Furry Animals albums" ]	Hey Venus! is the eighth album by Welsh band Super Furry Animals. It was released on 27 August 2007 in the United Kingdom. Hey Venus! is the band's first full-length release on current label Rough Trade Records and, at just over 36 minutes, is also their shortest-running studio release. The title is taken from the first line of the song "Into the Night". The album was conceived as a "rowdy pop record", both in response to Rough Trade's request for "one of those pop records like you used to make" and as a result of the "very different atmosphere" the band encountered at shows on the Love Kraft tour when the 'slow' songs from that album were played. In contrast with many Super Furry Animals albums, no samplers were used during recording of Hey Venus! as the group made a conscious decision to create a "simple record" which "capture[d] the spirit of the band playing live in a room". Dave Newfeld took over production duties from Mario Caldato Jr., who had worked on both Phantom Power and Love Kraft, as the band didn't want to "repeat [their] past two records". As with Love Kraft, all members of the band contributed songs at the recording stage but, besides chief songwriter Gruff Rhys, only guitarist Huw Bunford ("Battersea Odyssey") and keyboard player Cian Ciaran ("Carbon Dating") ended up with their tracks on the finished album. The album follows the life and adventures of a character called Venus as she moves "from a small town to a big metropolis". The band have given several explanations for the appearance of this narrative arc in the record claiming variously that Hey Venus! was conceived as a concept album, that the similar themes in the songs were only noticed after they had been written and were used as a way of "structuring and compiling the album" and that the Venus concept was thought up after the album's completion in order to give sleeve designer Keiichi Tanaami "a reference point to make an illustration from." After working with Pete Fowler since 1997's Radiator the band asked Tanaami to produce artwork for Hey Venus!, having been "blown away" by his work on a Japanese tour. Critical response was generally positive with some reviews claiming Hey Venus! is "[the band's] most satisfying work" and exhibits a "full-fledged return to pop power". Some critics, however, pointed out that the album has the "faint whiff of musical conservatism" and "must rank as [the Super Furry Animals'] least adventurous" record. ## Background In an interview with Tiny Mix Tapes in January 2008, the band's vocalist, Gruff Rhys, stated that Hey Venus! was deliberately conceived as a 'pop' record following a request from the band's new record label Rough Trade: > ... [Rough Trade] asked us 'Can't you make one of those pop records like you used to make'. So we looked at the songs we had, because we're always writing. We kind of chose songs that we could play as a band that would be quite simple to record that we thought was some kind of pop music. Rhys has also stated that after Love Kraft the band was "kind of thinking of making a loud record" following the "very different atmosphere" at initial shows on the Love Kraft tour when the group played the "slow" songs from that album. Towards the end of the tour the setlist had become "full of fast songs from [the Super Furry Animals] back catalog" and this had an effect as the band entered into the studio for the Hey Venus! sessions: "It's definitely the first time our audience has influenced our music in that sense". Rhys used his second solo album, Candylion, as an outlet for the quiet, acoustic songs that he had written rather than put them forward for inclusion on Hey Venus!: > We wanted to make a really abrasive, loud record, so I figured I could keep fifteen-minute ballads like "Skylon!" and songs about lions made out of candy for the indulgent solo project. ## Recording The majority of the album was recorded at Miraval Studios, France, picked, at keyboardist Cian Ciaran's request, because of its large live room which enabled all the band to set up and play as a group. The Super Furries wanted to "go somewhere new and have a cultural experience" while they recorded what is their eighth album together. Recording in France also enabled the band to get away from distractions such as "clean[ing] the house". Additional recording took place at Rockfield Studios, Monmouth while string instruments were recorded at Metropolis Studios, London. After working with producer Mario Caldato Jr. on their previous albums, Phantom Power and Love Kraft, the band "were looking for someone new to work with" as they didn't want to repeat these records. They chose Dave Newfeld to produce Hey Venus!, after hearing his work with Canadian indie rock supergroup Broken Social Scene: > We were listening to the last Broken Social Scene record and we kind of looked at each other because we had been discussing producers. But, more specifically, we were looking for producers who could work with five really opinionated people who don't think alike, you know? ... We were thinking, 'Wow, BSS are a band with lots of members. It must be nuts making those records. Let's see if he's available.' Rhys has praised Newfeld for his "knowledge of pop and what makes people react" stating that "most of the time he just stood there by the desk" and "wouldn't accept a take until he was physically moved by it". As with Love Kraft Rhys was not the sole writer; guitarist Huw Bunford wrote "Battersea Odyssey" (inspired by Battersea Power Station), while keyboard player Cian Ciaran wrote "Carbon Dating". Other members of the band contributed songs that do not appear on Hey Venus! but might "end up on the next record". Newfeld also encouraged the group to improvise songs, two of which, "Semi Pro" and "Hot Nutz", appear briefly on footage of the recording process streamed at the band's website and included with American editions of the album. Rhys claimed these tracks (along with 32 other improvised songs recorded during the Hey Venus! sessions) would "probably never be released" but give "a glimpse into the magic of the Super Furry Animals in the studio, and the kind of atmosphere that Dave created". However, "Hot Nutz" was reworked as "Moped Eyes" for their next album, Dark Days/Light Years. Some of the songs recorded barely resemble their earlier demo versions including "Baby Ate My Eightball", which originally "had this sort of Miami based rhythm with babies crying and glasses smashing" and was "very abrasive". The finished track (which features Huw Bunford "impersonating a police or ambulance siren with the backing vocals") was mixed three or four times and "barely resembles the original". Hey Venus! reflected the group's desire to "capture the spirit of the band playing live in a room". The album was recorded "very quickly" and, as the band did not feel the need to "experiment so much with such a simple record", is not particularly "sonically adventurous". In Gruff Rhys's words Hey Venus! is "a straight up album of songs ... with key changes and a live band playing them" with more emphasis "on songs than the arrangement". According to Rhys "nobody brought samplers into the studio, so there's far less electronics than on a lot of our records ... a lot of electronic music is quite a solitary pursuit. You sit at your computer or sampler and sometimes it's more of an individual kind of thing. Whereas with this record, we were trying to play as a band: a five people at once kind of record." Along with the bass, drums and guitar, several other instruments were used during recording including a dulcimer (for its "sixties spy movie sound"), an electric saz (on "Into the Night"), an "electric-sitar box" ("Like a drum machine for Indian musicians") and a harpsichord which, according to Guto Pryce, was used on a lot of songs "because it was there [Miraval studios], and it was more in tune than the pianos". The latter had a strong influence on the album with Rhys stating: "when we found the harpsichord everything started to go 1960s... and we kind of followed that feeling..." Although Gruff Rhys had initially told fans to expect a "speaker-blowing" LP the addition of instruments such as the harpsichord meant this was not the case; the album instead highlights the band's "musical sweet tooth". The band enlisted the help of several musicians when making the album including string arranger Sean O'Hagan (of The High Llamas), percussionist Kris Jenkins and others who the group have "built up relationships with over the years... the brass players we've toured with a lot ... Sean O'Hagan ... brought his string section in ... they've played on almost all our records". Sixteen songs were recorded for the album with only 11 making the final cut. The band made a conscious decision to keep the number of tracks, and therefore the running time of Hey Venus!, down "because the last three albums have been almost an hour-long". At just over 36 minutes, the album is the shortest full-length release by the band. Some of the songs left off the record were "really heavy and raw" as a result of which Gruff Rhys feels Hey Venus! is "more consistent with our back catalog". Both lead single "Show Your Hand" and "Suckers!" were originally cut from the album, for being "too generic" and too "obvious ... melodically" respectively, until the band was persuaded to reconsider. Rough Trade Records boss Geoff Travis told the group that "Show Your Hand" was his favorite song and, following the tracks reworking to include a French horn part, it was reinstated. Similarly "Suckers!" was "really pushed" by producer Dave Newfeld until it too took its place on Hey Venus!. The album was mixed by Chris Shaw and the Super Furry Animals at Rockfield Studios and the band's own studio, Pleasurefoxxx, in Cardiff with Dave Newfeld performing additional mixing duties on "Suckers!" Mastering was undertaken by Greg Calbi at Sterling Sound, New York. Rhys has claimed to be particularly pleased with "Into the Night" (which "was kind of where my head was at, which is quite a ridiculous place to be") and "Carbon Dating" ("probably the most beautiful song on the record") while Huw Bunford has described the album as "one of [the] best records we've ever made". ## Themes The album documents the life and adventures of a character called Venus as she moves "from a small town to a big metropolis". The band has been consistent when describing this central story of "running away from relationships, breaking up in a small town, moving to the big city, losing yourself, having your innocence completely corrupted, and living to tell the tale as a wiser person", however, several conflicting explanations have been given for the appearance of this narrative arc. Chief songwriter Gruff Rhys has claimed that Hey Venus! was conceived as a concept album: > At lot of the songs have the same central theme ... Some songs link up to that story more than others, but some were left off the record, they'll be on the next one, which we're working on already. It started off as a concept, but then we chose songs for their merit rather than their themes. However, both drummer Dafydd Ieuan and Rhys himself have contradicted this statement, Ieuan stating that, although there are "a number of crossovers between songs ... the similarities are more because all the songs were written during a certain period of time", while Rhys claimed, in an interview with the Chicago Sun-Times, that he only noticed the similar themes running through the songs after he had written them: > I came up with the idea of the kind of applying all of these different stories to this Venus character as a way of making this character represent all of these personal songs ... It was more a way of structuring and compiling the album after the songs had already been written than writing a concept album per se. A third explanation was provided by Rhys during an interview with American music magazine ALARM when he claimed that the concept only came about when sleeve designer Keiichi Tanaami asked what the album was about: > ... We said all the songs were postcards from the life of this character Venus, who we fished out from a song called "Into the Night". So we applied the whole record to her, and it meant Mr. Tanaami could have a reference point to make an illustration. After the Super Furry Animals had decided to call the album Hey Venus! they remembered "slightly too late" that the name had already been used by Northern Irish band That Petrol Emotion for a single taken from their Chemicrazy LP. However, as Rhys and Guto Pryce in particular were fans of the band, they reasoned that it "wasn't necessarily a bad thing to share a name" with the song. ## Cover Hey Venus! is the first Super Furry Animals studio album since 1996's Fuzzy Logic without a cover designed by Pete Fowler. Instead, the band hired Japanese artist Keiichi Tanaami to produce the artwork for the album. According to bassist Guto Pryce the band was "blown away" by Tanaami's art during a tour of Japan a few years before the release of Hey Venus!: > We love psychedelic art anyway, and this guy had a Japanese take on it. It's just something we suggested - he does the sleeve - and through a system of lawyers and translators, he actually said yes. The story of the Venus character helped the band give something to Tanaami that he "could read and maybe translate into a visual representation". After hearing the album the artist came up with something "quite mental" according to Huw Bunford, who went on to state "it's amazing what he obviously heard in the music". The album cover received some criticism from journalists but Gruff Rhys has called it "great" and claims to love the fact that the "graphics and the words are placed in kind of, what seem to be random places ... it's not a predictable record cover, it doesn't look like an album by the Editors or something". ## Release Hey Venus! was released on CD, vinyl and as a digital download on 27 August 2007 in the United Kingdom and was the band's first release for the new label Rough Trade Records. In the United States the album's release was staggered with vinyl and download versions being made available on 28 August 2007 and the CD version being released on 22 January 2008. The latter came packaged with a bonus CD containing the b-sides of the "Show Your Hand" and "Run-Away" singles as well as video footage of the band recording the improvised songs "Semi-Professional" and "Hot Nutz" at Miraval Studios. Hey Venus! reached number 11 on the UK Albums Chart and number 19 on Billboard magazine's Top Heatseekers chart. "Neo Cosumer" impacted US radio on 22 January 2008. "Show Your Hand" and "Run-Away" were released as singles in the UK although neither reached the Top 40 of the UK Singles Chart. "The Gift That Keeps Giving" was given away as a free download from the band's website on Christmas Day 2007. ## Critical response Hey Venus! received a generally favourable reception from critics with The Independent stating that the album "marks a welcome return to form for the Furries" and is "fit to challenge Rings Around the World and Phantom Power as their most satisfying work" and Artrocker calling it the Super Furry Animals' "eighth excellent album in a row". AllMusic hailed Hey Venus! as a "full-fledged return to pop power ... by far the tightest record SFA has released since Radiator" while Yahoo! Music UK claimed the album is "among the greatest things [the Super Furry Animals] have ever done". London's Time Out described Hey Venus! as "a treasure trove of left-of-centre sun-pop that, by rights, should see them back on the radio all day, every day" and the NME claimed that the "melodies on Hey Venus! are certain to ensnare new hearts in a way hardly any bands who've been around as long as the Furries can". However, some reviews pointed out that the album has the "faint whiff of musical conservatism" with both Uncut and Q calling it a "missed opportunity", the former going on to describe the record as "a consolidation of affairs rather than a step forward" and suggesting that, "while no means a stinker" it "must rank as their least adventurous" LP. AllMusic countered this opinion, stating that Hey Venus! contains the kind of "subtle innovations that prove that the Furries can still surprise as they enter their second decade": > The focus is solely on the song, with each of the 11 tracks standing on its own yet working together to create an addictive 37-minute pop album ... just because this is disciplined in a way that Super Furry Animals haven't been in years doesn't mean they've ceased to progress. The track "Run-Away" was singled out for praise by several publications with the Independent on Sunday calling the song "outstanding", Culture Deluxe claiming the track showed the Super Furries at "their pop-best" and proved they "could do no wrong" and the NME stating that "with a chorus as big as guitarist Huw Bunford's new serial-killer beard, it's up there with the most finely polished weapons in the SFA armoury". "Baby Ate My Eightball" received some criticism, with The Independent claiming that it "falls short of expectations, its limp disco groove providing uncertain footing for Rhys's rococo confection of harmonies" and Uncut stating that the song, along with "Neo Consumer", doesn't "tell us anything we didn't already know" about the band. ### Accolades \* denotes an unordered list ## Tour Following the release of Hey Venus! in the United Kingdom the Super Furry Animals embarked on an 11 date tour of Great Britain and Ireland, ending with two shows at London's Roundhouse. The group visited Japan and Europe before a US and Canadian tour in January and February 2008 during which fans could vote for songs they wanted to hear by using a "voting widget" on the blog page of the Super Furries' American record label, Beggars Banquet US. The band decided to keep the Hey Venus! tour simple as the elaborate stage designs and costumes used on previous tours tended to wipe out any profits created, resulting in "financial melt-down" for the group in 2006. Huw Bunford told a Times journalist in August 2007 that the tour would be "like that bit at the end of the Mike Yarwood shows where he said, 'And this is me', no gim-micks. Just us." Despite this the band did perform in front of a backdrop featuring the lighthouse from Tanaami's cover art and frequently wore hand-tailored suits, featuring patches designed by Tanaami, during shows. ## Track listing ## Personnel The following people contributed to Hey Venus!: Band - Gruff Rhys – Lead vocals, rhythm guitar, electric saz, organ - Huw Bunford – Lead guitar, backing vocals, lead vocals on "Battersea Odyssey" - Guto Pryce – Bass guitar - Cian Ciaran – Keyboards, backing vocals, lead vocals on "Carbon Dating" - Dafydd Ieuan – Drums, backing vocals Recording personnel - Dave Newfeld – Production, additional mixing on "Suckers!" - Myriam Correge – Recording assistant (Miraval Studios) - Richard Matthews – Recording assistant (Rockfield Studios) - Phil Ault – Recording assistant (Rockfield Studios) - Chris Shaw – Mixing - Super Furry Animals – Mixing - Simon Dawson – Mixing assistant (Pleasurefoxxx Studios) - Richard Matthews – Mixing assistant (Rockfield Studios) - Greg Calbi – Mastering (Sterling Sound, New York) Artwork - Keiichi Tanaami – Artwork - The Bait – Layout Additional musicians - Kris Jenkins – Percussion (Tracks 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) - Gary Alesbrook – Trumpet (3, 4, 7, 10) - Nick Atwood – Trombone (3, 4, 7, 10, 11) - Martin Owen – French horn (3) - Phil Woods – French Horn (3) - Kathryn Saunders – French Horn (3) - Matt Sibley – Saxophone (4, 7, 10) - Brian Wright – Violin (3, 8) - Charles Nolan – Violin (3, 8) - Rick Koster – Violin (3, 8) - Laura Melhuish – Violin (3, 8) - Amanda Britton – Violin (3, 8) - Sally Herbert – Violin (3, 8) - Marcus Holloway – Cello (3, 8) - Ian Burdge – Cello (3, 8) - Sean O'Hagan – String arrangements - Super Furry Animals – String arrangements ## Album chart positions
165,053	New Jersey Route 72	1,169,598,757	State highway in New Jersey, US	[ "State highways in New Jersey", "Transportation in Burlington County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Ocean County, New Jersey", "Transportation in the Pine Barrens (New Jersey)" ]	Route 72 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs 28.74 mi (46.25 km) from the Four Mile Circle with Route 70 in Woodland Township in Burlington County to County Route 607 (CR 607) in Ship Bottom on Long Beach Island in Ocean County. Route 72 travels through the Pine Barrens as a two-lane undivided road. After an interchange with the Garden State Parkway, the route becomes a four- to six-lane divided highway through built-up areas of Manhawkin and crosses the Manahawkin Bay via the Manahawkin Bay Bridge onto Long Beach Island. What is now Route 72 was originally designated as Route S40 in 1927, a spur of Route 40 (now Route 70) running from Four Mile to Manahawkin. The road was extended to Ship Bottom by 1941 before it was renumbered to Route 72 in 1953. A realignment that took place in 1969 between U.S. Route 9 (US 9) and the Manahawkin Bay Bridge resulted in the designation of Route 180 on the former alignment; this road is now CR 50. Plans in the late 1960s and the 1970s called for a proposed Route 72 freeway, running from the western terminus at Route 70 to the concurrently proposed Interstate 895 (I-895) at the New Jersey Turnpike in Westampton Township, connecting Philadelphia's northern suburbs with the Jersey Shore. The freeway plans along with I-895 were canceled by the 1980s. The Manahawkin Bay Bridge underwent deck repairs completed in May 2010, with the bridge slated to be rehabilitated and a parallel span to be built to the south. ## Route description Route 72 begins at the Four Mile Circle intersection with Route 70, CR 644, and CR 646 in Woodland Township, Burlington County, heading to the southeast on Barnegat Road, a two-lane undivided road. The route passes through heavily wooded areas of the Pine Barrens that are a part of the Brendan T. Byrne State Forest. The road passes near a state hospital before coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of CR 563. Past CR 563, the route continues through the Pine Barrens, passing under an abandoned railroad line prior to a junction with CR 532. Here, Route 72 forms a concurrency with CR 532 and the road enters Barnegat Township in Ocean County, where it comes to a crossroads with CR 539. From this intersection, Route 72 and CR 532 continue to a junction with CR 610, where CR 532 splits from the route by heading to the east. A short distance later, the route intersects the western terminus of CR 554, which continues along Barnegat Road, and Route 72 turns to the south-southeast through more wooded areas. The highway enters Stafford Township and passes to the southwest of the residential Ocean Acres community. The route heads to the southwest of Hackensack Meridian Health Southern Ocean Medical Center before it comes to a junction with Nautilus Drive (CR 111). Past this junction, Route 72 widens into a four-lane divided highway, intersecting CR 105 and CR 2 before coming to an interchange with the Garden State Parkway. Following this interchange, the route enters the Manahawkin area and widens to six lanes as it passes woods to the northeast and business areas to the southwest. Route 72 has an interchange with US 9 and continues southeast through a mix of woods and commercial areas as a four-lane road, with CR 50 (Bay Avenue) paralleling the route to the north. The road intersects CR 20 and CR 6 before it passes to the north of the Beach Haven West residential development and passes near wetlands. A road provides access to Bay Avenue before Route 72 crosses the Manahawkin Bay on the Manahawkin Bay Bridge, also known as the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge. After traversing two small islands consisting of a mix of residences and marshland, the road continues into Ship Bottom on Long Beach Island. Upon entering Ship Bottom, the route splits into a one-way pair following 9th Street eastbound and 8th Street westbound. Route 72 passes by resort businesses, intersecting CR 4 and CR 89 before ending at CR 607 a block from the Atlantic Ocean. Route 72 is a major route providing access to Long Beach Island, a popular Jersey Shore resort, from Philadelphia via Route 70 and from New York City via the Garden State Parkway. As such, the portion of the route east of the Garden State Parkway interchange sees congestion during the summer months. It is also the only road bridge to connect Long Beach Island to the mainland; therefore, in emergency evacuations such as hurricanes, the highway and Manahawkin Bridge becomes clogged. ## History What is now Route 72 was originally designated as Route S40 in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering. It was to be a spur of Route 40 that was to run from Route 40 at Four Mile to Route 4 (now US 9) in Manahawkin. By 1941, the route was extended east to the intersection with Long Beach Boulevard in Ship Bottom. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route S40 was renumbered to Route 72. By 1969, Route 72 was moved to a new alignment to the south between US 9 and the Manahawkin Bay Bridge; the old alignment became Route 180. This route was eventually removed from the state highway system and is now CR 50, although more commonly known as "Bay Avenue". A freeway was originally proposed for the Route 72 corridor in the late 1960s. The Route 72 freeway was planned to run from the Four Mile Circle to the New Jersey Turnpike in Westampton Township, where it would connect to the proposed I-895 that would continue to I-95 near Bristol, Pennsylvania. The existing Route 72 would also be widened into a four-lane divided highway. Both I-895 and Route 72 were intended to connect Bucks County, Pennsylvania and the Willingboro area with the Jersey Shore. The proposed freeway for Route 72 was to cost \$39 million. However, construction costs and the desire to use money for mass transit led to cancellation of both I-895 and the Route 72 freeway by the 1980s. In 2000, the Manahawkin Bay Bridge was dedicated the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge in honor of Dorland J. Henderson, who was one of NJDOT’s top engineers that designed the lighting system for the Manahawkin Bay Bridge. In September 2009, the NJDOT began repairs to the deck of the Manahawkin Bay Bridge. This project, completed in May 2010, cost \$4 million and received funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. The Manahawkin Bay Bridge underwent a rehabilitation project and a parallel bridge was built to the south. Construction began on the project May 3, 2013. The new bridge was completed in 2016 and carried traffic from both directions while the older bridge was rehabilitated. The rehabilitation of the original bridge was completed in 2019, at which point traffic began using both bridges. ## Major intersections ## See also
1,829,361	Eugenio Lascorz	1,173,207,645	Byzantine pretender	[ "1886 births", "1962 deaths", "Byzantine pretenders after 1453", "Impostor pretenders", "People from Zaragoza" ]	Eugenio Lascorz y Labastida (26 March 1886 – 1 June 1962) was a Spanish lawyer who claimed to be a descendant of the medieval Laskaris family (believing his last name Lascorz to be a corruption of Laskaris), which had ruled the Byzantine Empire in Nicaea from 1204 to 1261. In 1917, he changed his legal name to Eugenio Láscaris-Comneno (typically shortened to Eugenio Láscaris). As the supposed titular Emperor of Constantinople,' Eugenio used the regnal name Eugene II Lascaris Comnenus. In addition to his royal and imperial claims, which he supported by creating invented and fabricated genealogies, Lascorz also claimed the titles "Prince Porphyrogenitus", Duke of Athens and Grand Master of the Constantinian Order of Saint George and a self-proclaimed order, the "Order of Saint Eugene of Trebizond".' Though he practised law, Lascorz was also interested in history, especially that of Ancient Greece and Byzantium, and published several books, both fiction and non-fiction, exploring what he perceived to be the history of his ancestors. His life's work was his attempt to have his claims recognised and his desire to claim the throne of the Kingdom of Greece and restore the Byzantine Empire. Despite being exposed as a forger in the Spanish media in 1953, Lascorz maintained his claims until his death in 1962. His claim to descend from the Laskaris dynasty was continued by his son Teodoro ("Theodore IX Lascaris Comnenus", 1921–2006) and grandson Eugenio ("Eugene III Lascaris Comnenus", born 1975). ## Biography ### Ancestry and early life Eugenio Lascorz y Labastida was born in Zaragoza on 26 March 1886 and as per Spanish naming customs, took the surnames of both of his parents, Manuel Lascorz y Serveto (born in 1849) and Carmen Labastida y Paschal (born in 1857). He was baptised two days after his birth in the parish church of Nuestra Señora del Pilar (meaning "Our Lady of the Pillar"). His paternal grandparents were the labourer Victorián Lascorz y Abad and Raimunda Serveto; his maternal grandparents were Manuel Labastida and Ramona Paschal. His great-grandfather (Victorián's father) was a man named Alonso Lascorz y Cerdan.' The Lascorz family, and Eugenio's other ancestors, were of Basque—not Greek—origin' and were likely part of an influx of migrants who had arrived in Zaragoza in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Lascorz family was wealthy. Eugenio's father, Manuel, had studied law and the Latin language and was an important man in Zaragoza, working as the secretary of the local provincial council. Manuel and Carmen had three children, Eugenio being the youngest. He had an older brother, Lorenzo (1877–1900), and sister Josefina (1881–1956). Both Eugenio and Lorenzo studied at the University of Zaragoza. Lorenzo studied medicine while Eugenio studied law. While studying at university, Eugenio discovered and became fascinated by Byzantine history. Lorenzo died in 1900 at the age of 22, making Eugenio the "heir" to Manuel. Eugenio began his professional career as an attorney in 1917. Exactly when Lascorz began his Byzantine claims is unclear. Later family tradition is that his father "revealed" their family history on his deathbed on 5 August 1906, declaring to Eugenio and Josefina that he was not just Manuel Lascorz y Serveto, but Prince Alexios Manuel Lascáris-Comneno, who had arrived with his father Prince Andronikos in Spain after fleeing from Ottoman persecution. Manuel's obituaries stated that he was a "descendant and heir of the ancient Greek imperial family of the same surname, fleeing from the ruins of his homeland". ### Byzantine claims and aspirations #### Attempt at gaining the throne of Greece Lascorz, possibly inspired by his father, believed that his last name was a corruption of Laskaris, the name of a medieval Greek dynasty which had ruled the Byzantine Empire in Nicaea from 1204 to 1261.' Explicitly proclaiming his desire to restore the ancient glory of the Byzantine Empire, Lascorz was a proponent of the Greek Megali Idea—the Greek aspirations of conquering former Byzantine territory, including Constantinople, and restoring the borders of Byzantium. He embarked on a campaign attempting to secure recognition of his royal descent by changing his legal identity substituting "Lascorz" for "Láscaris" and seeking approval in Spanish courts. Lascorz believed his descent from the Laskarids could grant him a claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Greece, an idea which he dedicated the rest of his life to. Instead of Eugenio Lascorz, his new legal name was Eugenio Láscaris-Comneno (often shortened to Eugenio Láscaris). At the time, Greece was embroiled in a succession crisis; social tension and the abdication of King Constantine I put the future of the ruling House of Glücksburg in doubt. In 1923, Lascorz issued a manifesto to the Greek people, proclaiming himself "Prince Eugene Lascaris Comnenus, heir to the Emperors of Byzantium and Pretender to the Throne of Greece". Lascorz believed that his supposed Byzantine ancestry went well with Greek dreams of past glories such as the Megali Idea. The Greek monarchy was abolished in 1924 in favour of the Second Hellenic Republic. The abdication of George II of Greece saw the momentary end of the rule of the House of Glücksburg over Greece. Lascorz took advantage of this interregnum to try to push his claim to the Greek throne, writing to various influential Greek figures. According to Lascorz, he had already received the blessing of the Patriarch of Constantinople, Meletius IV, in 1922, and in 1927 Lascorz and his oldest son Teodoro were supposedly granted some honours by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Damian I. The Láscaris family archives contain documents which they claim were sent in the early 1920s by Eleftherios Venizelos, the former prime minister of Greece, during his self-exile in Paris, supposedly seriously considering Lascorz as a candidate for the Greek throne. According to contemporary newspapers and radio broadcasts in Spain, several Greek deputies had expressed interest in offering the Greek crown to Lascorz. That nothing came of Lascorz's candidacy for the Greek throne, even after Venizelos became prime minister again in 1928, is explained away by Lascorz' modern descendants as being due to economic crisis and political instability plaguing the country and any potential plans for making Lascorz king being forgotten. #### Genealogical forgeries In 1935, Lascorz invented an elaborate genealogy, which notably altered his own familial history. His grandfather Victoriano was substituted by "Prince Andronikos Theodore Laskaris", supposedly described by his father on his deathbed. Eugenio's paternal great-grandfather, Alonso, was substituted by a "Prince Theodore Laskaris, Porphyrogenitus".' In the 1940s and 1950s, Lascorz undertook a series of efforts to strengthen his imperial claim. In 1946, he attempted to expand his "Sovereign and Imperial Order of Constantine the Great" and his own order of Saint Helena into international organisations. In 1948, Lascorz began publishing his own magazine, Parthenon, with the Asociación Cultural Greco-Española (the Greco-Spanish Cultural Association, an organization based in Madrid) and on 15 September 1950 he founded the International Philo Byzantine Academy and University (IPHBAU), a "cultural extension" of his self-proclaimed chivalric orders, which also had its own magazine. Later genealogies in 1947 and 1952, which again changed the names of Eugenio's ancestors, added more supposed "princes" and altered their relationships, contradicting his first genealogy. The 1952 version of the genealogy, the first to refer to Eugenio's father as "Alexios Manuel", explicitly contradicts Eugenio's earlier versions, which he had attempted to get approved by Spanish courts. Lascorz obtained "recognition" by several courts in Italy. These courts did not investigate his claims, nor did they have the competence or authority to proclaim someone as a claimant to the throne of the Byzantine Empire or the Kingdom of Greece. Lascorz married a woman named Nicasia Justa Micolau y Traver Blasco y Margell and had several children. Each received names of ancient Byzantine royalty, such as Teodoro, Constantino, Alejandro and Juan Arcadio.' Lascorz made no intellectual contributions to the legal world during his years as an attorney and lawyer. He spent his working years doing practical tasks and working. During the regime of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco, Lascorz served as a military judge. A resolute supporter of the regime, Lascorz, his wife, and his son, Teodoro, wrote to Franco several times. Franco's office responded, addressing Lascorz and his family with their self-proclaimed titles. Lascorz was devoted to studying Ancient Greece and Byzantium, however, and wrote several books on Greek history. His Byzantine publications were not limited to historical works. As soon as he had moved to Madrid in 1943, Lascorz published the work Calígrafia grieca y byzantina (Greek and Byzantine Calligraphy), a collection of calligraphy exercises, beginning with tracing and then moving to reproductions of real ancient Greek and Byzantine initials, manuscripts and signatures. In 1956, Lascorz published "Caliniki: Evocación histórica", a short story centering on a fictional Lacaedaemonian girl named Cali Cabasileas from the time of the emperor Manuel Cantacuzeno, who falls in love with Andrónico, a courtier of the emperor. ### The Hidalguía controversy There were many in Spain who supported Lascorz's dynastic claims. Among his most notable supporters was Norberto de Castro y Tosi, a Costa Rican professor and friend who published a biography of him in 1989, titled Eugenio II, un príncipe de Byzancio ("Eugene II, a Prince of Byzantium"). Castro's biography was very favourable to Lascorz, leaving out many episodes which might have caused controversy, such as his support of Franco. In 1953 and 1954, Lascorz and his family, now prominent socialites in Madrid, were the focus of the "Hidalguía controversy", appearing in a series of articles in Spanish magazines, including one called "Hidalguía", which publicly identified him as a forger. This led to them being socially stigmatised. The controversy had its roots in a campaign begun by the Holy See in 1952 against what the Papacy regarded as fraudulent orders of chivalry. This campaign had become highly publicised in the Spanish media by 1953 when negotiations between the Papacy and the Spanish government—the Concordat of 1953—were approaching an end. Since Lascorz was at the head of several orders and organizations seen by the Vatican as false orders, he repeatedly aroused misgivings in the Spanish government and authorities. It is unlikely Lascorz would have attracted enough attention to be exposed had he not publicly promoted his order in Madrid. He gave out numerous noble titles to his friends and supporters attracting the attention of the authorities and the real Spanish nobility. On 23 April 1953, an article in the ABC newspaper, "Falsas órdenes de caballería y falsos títulos nobiliarios" ("False chivalric orders and false titles of nobility"), identified Lascorz as a forger and his orders and institutions as fake, stating that Lascorz violated "not only the principles of Church law, but also the sovereignty of the Spanish state". In later issues the newspaper also published and rebuked Lascorz's responses to the article, pointing out that the Spanish government had not approved his orders. More damaging than the ABC articles were articles published early in 1954 in Hidalguía which denounced and debunked Lascorz's claims, sometimes in a somewhat humorous tone. The author of these articles, José María Palacio, wrote that Lascorz had used his knowledge of the legal system and the complicity or ignorance of certain key people to carry out legal deceptions and falsifications to transform his identity and insert himself as a descendant of the Laskaris dynasty. Furthermore, Palacio suggested correctly that the end goal of this plan was to gain the throne of Greece. On 13 March that same year, the Lascorz family responded through an interview with Teodoro (Eugenio's oldest son and family spokesman because of Eugenio's advanced age) in the daily newspaper in Madrid, in which he claimed that Palacio was an "old enemy" of the family and was actively attempting to "persecute" them. Throughout the rest of the 1950s, any references to Lascorz and his family were split between supporting, or more commonly, opposing them. ### Final years and death Despite the negative press, Lascorz continued to push his claims. On 29 October 1955, he issued a proclamation to the people of Cyprus, then a British crown colony and not yet an independent country, in the hopes that they would liberate themselves and proclaim him as their monarch. In the proclamation, Lascorz stressed his supposed descent from "Prince Andronikos Theodoros Laskaris", "hero of the Greek War of Independence", and he ended the text with "Long live Greece! Long live Cyprus! Long live the Megali Idea, neither dead nor forgotten!". The proclamation received little attention in Cyprus. In 1961, a court in Zaragoza ruled that Lascorz's change in name to Láscaris had been illegitimate and legally reverted his surname to the surname he had at birth, Lascorz y Labastida. The reasons for the decision are unclear, though it might stem from the earlier period of controversy. Lascorz died in Madrid on 1 June 1962. His death garnered some media attention, for instance being reported in the 26 July issue of the Colombian newspaper Diario de Boyacá and in the 15 August issue of the French newspaper Lyon-Information (also known as Independance), there under the article title "L'Hellénisme en deuil: Son Altesse Impériale et Régent le Prince Flavius Eugène II Láscaris Comnène" ("Hellenism in mourning: His Imperial and Royal Highness Prince Flavius Eugene II Lascaris Comnenus"). ## Legacy Lascorz' children continued to maintain his claims and his self-proclaimed chivalric orders. His descendants, the Láscaris or Láscaris-Comneno family, survive to this day. Many of his children left Spain, having become exhausted by the controversies in which the family became embroiled. His heir as "titular emperor" was his oldest son, Teodoro Láscaris-Comneno ("Theodore IX", 27 October 1921 – 20 September 2006), who moved across the Atlantic together with Eugenio's other male children, Juan Arcadio and Constantino. Teodoro, Juan Arcadio and Constantino worked as teachers in Latin America, teaching at universities in Costa Rica, Venezuela and Colombia. Teodoro propagated the idea that the Americas represent "New Byzantium" and the "Fourth Rome"; where Christian faith, Western thought, and Greek civilization would continue to survive.' The younger son Constantino, who died in 1979, enjoyed a noteworthy academic career as a philosopher in Costa Rica. Teodoro's son Eugenio (born on 10 October 1975), or Eugene III Theodore Emmanuel Lascaris Comnenus, maintains his family's claims.'''''' To this day, supporters of the family maintain Lascorz was legitimate, and that he was a restorer of traditional Byzantine institutions. ## See also - Succession to the Byzantine Empire
1,012,623	Operation Harvest Festival	1,147,599,339	1943 massacre of Jews during the Holocaust	[ "1943 in Poland", "Holocaust massacres and pogroms in Poland", "Majdanek concentration camp", "Mass murder in 1943", "November 1943 events", "Reserve Police Battalion 101" ]	Operation Harvest Festival (German: Aktion Erntefest) was the murder of up to 43,000 Jews at the Majdanek, Poniatowa and Trawniki concentration camps by the SS, the Order Police battalions, and the Ukrainian Sonderdienst on 3–4 November 1943. After a series of Jewish uprisings in ghettos and extermination camps, Heinrich Himmler ordered the murder of the remaining Jewish forced laborers in the Lublin District of German-occupied Poland. Jewish laborers in the camps had to dig zigzag trenches, supposedly for air defense, in late October. Thousands of SS and police personnel arrived in Lublin on 2 November. That day, SS and Police Leader Jakob Sporrenberg, who was in charge of the operation, held a conference to plan it. The killings began on the morning of 3 November at Majdanek, where Jewish prisoners were separated from non-Jewish prisoners, and encompassed the Lipowa 7 and Lublin airfield camps, which imprisoned Jews in the city. A total of 18,400 people were shot by the early evening. The same day, 6,000 people were murdered at Trawniki, including some from Dorohucza. After finishing the Majdanek operation, several of the involved units proceeded to Poniatowa, where they murdered the camp's 14,500 prisoners on 4 November. In all three camps, Jews were forced to strip naked and walk into the previously dug trenches, where they were shot. Loud music was played to cover the sound of gunfire. After the operation, about 10,000 Jews were left alive in various labor camps in the Lublin District. The bodies of the victims were burned by other Jews, who had been spared temporarily from death. With around 40,000 victims, Operation Harvest Festival was the largest single massacre of Jews by German forces during the Holocaust. ## Background In 1942, 360,000 of the Jews who lived in the Lublin District of the General Governorate of German-occupied Poland were murdered during Operation Reinhard. By the end of the year, only 20,000 Jews were living in German camps and ghettos and no more than another 20,000 were in hiding. Beginning in January 1943, Jews launched a series of revolts in the General Governorate, including those at Warsaw Ghetto, Białystok Ghetto, and Treblinka extermination camp, while anti-Nazi partisan activity was increasing throughout the area. Although the proximate reason for ordering Harvest Festival is unknown, historians believe that it was in response to the uprising at Sobibór extermination camp on 14 October 1943. Thousands of the Jewish prisoners in the camps of the Lublin District had been transported there from the Warsaw Ghetto after the failure of the uprising there. To avoid further resistance, Heinrich Himmler decided to exterminate the Jewish prisoners at the Lublin camps in a single decisive blow using overwhelming military force. Himmler ordered Friedrich Krüger, Higher SS and Police Leader in the General Governorate, to carry out the murder; Krüger delegated it to SS and Police Leader Jakob Sporrenberg, who had recently succeeded Odilo Globocnik. Jewish inmates were ordered to dig zigzag trenches along the perimeter of Majdanek, Poniatowa, and Trawniki concentration camps. At Majdanek, the trenches were dug by a team of 300 prisoners working in three shifts in field 5, south of the crematorium, and measured about 100 metres (330 ft) long, 2–3 metres (7–10 ft) deep and 1.5–3 metres (5–10 ft) wide. Although the trenches were supposedly for defense against air raids, and their zigzag shape granted some plausibility to this lie, the prisoners guessed their true purpose. On 2 November, 2,000 to 3,000 SS and police personnel arrived in Lublin: Waffen-SS from as far away as Kraków, Police Regiment 22, Police Regiment 25 (including Reserve Police Battalion 101), and the Lublin Security Police. That evening, Sporrenberg convened a meeting between his own staff, the commandants of Majdanek, Trawniki, and Poniatowa, local Security Police commander Karl Pütz [de], and the commanders of the various units. The murder operation, due to begin at dawn the next day, was planned as a military operation, with the code name Erntefest ("Harvest Festival"). Two loudspeakers, installed on police cars, were positioned at Majdanek, one near the trenches and the other by the entrance of the camp. The leadership of the Lipowa 7 camp in Lublin, which held Jewish prisoners of war, queried Himmler as to whether they should violate the Geneva Convention by allowing the prisoners to be executed. Himmler's aide, Werner Grothmann, replied that "all Jews without exception are subject to liquidation". ## Killings ### Majdanek At 5:00 on 3 November 1943, prisoners at Majdanek were awoken as usual in the dark, but the camp had been surrounded by an additional 500 soldiers during the night. The 3,500 to 4,000 Jewish prisoners lived among non-Jewish prisoners. After morning roll call, the groups were separated, with Jews ordered to go to camp 5. Jews in the infirmary were trucked to that location, while the non-Jewish prisoners at camp 5 were moved to camp 4. The barbed wire fence was repositioned to include the execution area within the cordon. Prisoners were forced to undress and driven in groups of one hundred to the three trenches in the field beyond the camp. At the beginning of a ramp leading to the trenches, the Jews were separated into groups of ten and forced onward to the trenches. Execution squads of 10–12 men each from police battalions and 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking were waiting, and were replaced every few hours. The prisoners were forced to lie down in the trenches and were shot in the nape of the neck. About 600 prisoners, half men and half women, were selected at the Lublin airfield camp to clean up after the massacre at Majdanek. The rest, approximately 5,000 or 6,000, along with 2,500 Jewish prisoners of war at Lipowa 7, were marched toward Majdanek. Despite being heavily guarded, the Jewish prisoners of war rushed their guards and tried to escape, reportedly shouting "Niech żyje wolność!" (Long live freedom!) Almost all were shot before they could get away. The first prisoners from the other camps arrived at Majdanek around 7:30 and continued to arrive throughout the morning. Among the Jews from Majdanek, some tried to escape their fate through suicide or by hiding in the barracks. The next day, twenty-three Jews were discovered and were executed at the Majdanek crematorium. The speakers, which had been installed the previous day, were turned on as soon as the gunfire started, but it could still be heard. Local Poles watched from the rooftops of nearby buildings outside the camp, while Sporrenberg observed from a Fieseler Storch airplane. It is not clear who directed the operation as it was ongoing; it may have been Sporrenberg or Hermann Höfle. The killing continued, uninterrupted until around 17:00 and by then all 18,400 prisoners had been murdered. ### Trawniki Previous to the operation, Polish residents who lived adjacent to the camp were forced to move and those who lived a bit farther away were forced to stay in their homes. Jewish prisoners who lived in the settlement outside the camp proper were returned to the camp. At 5:00 on 3 November, the prisoners were mustered for roll call, rounded up, and marched to the Hiwi training camp, where loudspeakers were playing music beside the trenches. The victims were ordered to disrobe and place their clothing in piles, then to lie face down on top of those already shot, and the executioner would dispatch them by a shot to the nape of the neck. Men were shot before women and children. The shooting was already well underway when prisoners from Dorohucza arrived by rail at 7:00. After the trenches were filled, some Jews were executed at a sand pit in the labor camp. The execution of 6,000 Jews occurred continuously until 15:00 (or 17:00), with only a few managing to hide and survive. ### Poniatowa Many of the SS and police soldiers who had been at Majdanek continued to Poniatowa, about 50 kilometres (30 mi) distant, after the massacre had finished. The units participating in the massacre at Poniatowa included Reserve Police Battalion 101, Motorized Gendarmerie Battalion 1, Police Battalion 41, and Police Battalion 67. There were 14,800 Jews at the camp before the massacre, most of them having come from the Warsaw Ghetto. On 3 November, the Jews were sent back to their barracks after roll call. The camp was sealed and telephone lines were cut, so that the prisoners would not know what fate awaited them. Some thought that there was going to be a selection, and tried to make themselves look healthier. That evening, the camp was surrounded by 1,000–1,500 German and Ukrainian soldiers, who formed three concentric security cordons around the camp by morning. The next morning (4 November), at 4:30, the prisoners were awoken for roll call. Most were held in Hall 3, except 200 prisoners who were temporarily spared at the insistence of commandant Gottlieb Hering, to clean up after the massacre. They were locked in the camp kitchen. Policemen searched the barracks and factory for anyone who was hiding, and then stood guard on both sides of the Lagerstrasse [de] (main avenue) in the camp. Prisoners were ordered to strip naked, hand over all valuables, and walk down the Lagerstrasse in groups of 50, starting with the men. As loud music blared, the prisoners were herded to the two trenches by the entrance of the camp, 95 metres (310 ft) long, 2 metres (7 ft) wide, and 1.5 metres (5 ft) deep. One soldier stood at the beginning of the trench with a whip to encourage the Jews to immediately lie down on top of the bodies of those who had already been shot. Two shooters stood on each of the long sides of the trench, shooting alternately at the victims, each equipped with a bottle of schnapps and an assistant to reload their weapons. According to a witness, many of the victims were not killed and lay wounded in the trench as more bodies piled on top of them, cursing the SS. Around 14:00, the executions were halted for a lunch break and the drunk executioners were relieved. The trenches turned out to be too shallow and bloody corpses spilled out of the edges. Some prisoners in Poniatowa had formed a resistance group and had acquired a few weapons. At 18:00, a group of around 100 Jews set fire to some barracks full of clothing and then barricaded themselves in another barracks. The Germans set this on fire, killing all of the resistance members. Polish fire fighters were brought in to put out the fires and observed the Germans throwing wounded Jews into the flames. The executions finished around 17:00. Afterward, German soldiers checked the trenches, executing survivors. The corpses were sprinkled with lime and covered with fir branches. Three women survived, climbed out of the mass grave that night, and survived the war with the help of Żegota. Overall, 14,500 people were killed within the span of a few hours. ## Coverup Removing all traces of the killing was a priority of the Nazi leadership because of Soviet military victories on the Eastern Front. After the German defeat at Stalingrad, Soviet forces recaptured most of Ukraine, Russia, and eastern Belarus by the end of 1943. At Majdanek, the cleanup took two months and was done under the supervision of Erich Muhsfeldt, previously an executioner at Auschwitz. The 600 men and women from the airfield camp had to sort the clothing of the Jews murdered at Majdanek. Then, the women were deported to Auschwitz and killed in the gas chambers. The men had to cremate the bodies, and they were either killed or recruited into Sonderkommando 1005. Witnesses recalled that for months, the stench of burning flesh hung around the vicinity. The ditches were filled with soil and leveled. The Jews at Milejowo concentration camp were sent to Trawniki on 5 November to clean up the massacre. Six women had to work in the kitchen while the men were ordered to extract gold teeth and hidden valuables from the corpses. After eight days (or two to three weeks), the men were executed, except for Yehezkel Hering, who disguised himself as a woman and hid with them. The women remained at the camp and sorted the belongings of the murdered Jews until May 1944, when they were deported via Majdanek to Auschwitz and other concentration camps. About 50 Jews hid from the shootings at Poniatowa, and 150 were left alive after the shooting to clean up and cremate the corpses. Upon refusing to do so, they were shot on 6 November. Therefore, the Ukrainians were ordered to do so, but they were very reluctant and drank heavily. Many deserted and after a week, the remaining Ukrainians refused to do any more. According to Israeli historian David Silberklang, 120 Jews were brought in from Majdanek to do the work. Other reports have 60 to 80 prisoners of Sonderkommando 1005, who took six weeks to accomplish the task under the guard of Police Battalion 316 from Kraśnik. The bodies were dragged from the trenches by teams of horses, and incinerated on grates with wood and gasoline. Six or eight Jews escaped one night, but many of them were later caught and executed. During this process the decomposing corpses smelled very bad and reportedly caused hardened SS men to vomit. Afterward, the Jewish prisoners were executed by men from Police Battalion 101 in Puławy. ## Aftermath and significance 3 November was dubbed "Bloody Wednesday" by Majdanek prisoners. Following the operation, ten labor camps for Jews in the Lublin District (including Dęblin–Irena and Budzyń) had about 10,000 Jews still alive. The Jews at Budzyń were not executed, despite the camp's status as a subcamp of Majdanek. According to survivors, a few Jews were taken from Budzyń to Majdanek, returning with bloody clothing and tales of the massacre. Israeli historian David Silberklang attributes the survival of the camp to the desire of local German functionaries to continue benefiting financially from slave labor and avoid a transfer to the front, but states it is unclear why the camp escaped Himmler's notice. The Harvest Festival operation coincided with other massacres of surviving Jews in Kraków District and Galicia District, including the Wehrmacht camps in Galicia, but spared the forced-labor camps in Radom District which had not been placed under SS command. In the Lublin District, Jews were killed separately at Annopol-Rachów, Puławy, and other smaller sites. The SS enterprise Ostindustrie, which employed many of the murdered prisoners, was not informed in advance; the company was liquidated later in the month. The operation marked the end of Operation Reinhard. According to Christopher Browning, the minimum estimate of the death toll was 30,500 at Majdanek and Poniatowa, and murder estimates at Trawniki start at 6,000, but may be 8,000 to 10,000. Overall, the operation is variously estimated to have killed 39,000 to 43,000, at least 40,000, 42,000, or 42,000 to 43,000 victims. Measured by death count, Harvest Festival was the single largest massacre of Jews by German forces during the Holocaust. It surpassed the killing of more than 33,000 Jews at Babi Yar outside Kiev and was exceeded only by the 1941 Odessa massacre of more than 50,000 Jews in October 1941, committed by Romanian troops. After the war, Sporrenberg was tried, convicted, and executed by a Polish court for his role in organizing the operation, while Pütz committed suicide. In 1999, Alfons Gotzfrid was sentenced to time served for his participation in the killings at Majdanek. The Majdanek State Museum has hosted ceremonies to commemorate the victims.
4,406,807	Moses Hazen	1,170,628,339	American general	[ "1733 births", "1803 deaths", "44th Regiment of Foot officers", "Canadian justices of the peace", "Continental Army generals", "Continental Army officers from Canada", "Continental Army officers from Massachusetts", "Military personnel from Troy, New York", "People from Haverhill, Massachusetts", "People of Massachusetts in the French and Indian War", "People of colonial Massachusetts" ]	Moses Hazen (June 1, 1733 – February 5, 1803) was a brigadier general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Born in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, he saw action in the French and Indian War with Rogers' Rangers. His service included particularly brutal raids, during the Expulsion of the Acadians and the 1759 Battle of Quebec. He was formally commissioned into the British Army, shortly before the war ended, and retired on half-pay outside Montreal, Province of Quebec, where he and Gabriel Christie, another British officer, made extensive land purchases in partnership. During his lifetime he acquired land in Quebec, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, but lost most of his Quebec land due to litigation, with Christie and the negative effects of the Revolution. In 1775 he became involved in the American invasion of Quebec early in the American Revolutionary War, and served with the Continental Army, in the 1775 Battle of Quebec. He went on to lead his own regiment, (the 2nd Canadian, also known as "Congress' Own") throughout the war, seeing action in the 1777 Philadelphia campaign and at Yorktown in 1781. He was frequently involved in litigation, both military and civil, and constantly petitioned Congress for compensation of losses and expenses incurred due to the war. He supported similar efforts by men from his regiment who were unable to return to Quebec because of their support for the American war effort. ## Early life Moses Hazen was born in Haverhill, a frontier town in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, to an old New England Puritan family. Histories that mention Hazen sometimes indicate that he was Jewish, however a genealogist documents Hazen's lineage to England, where the family name was Hassen. Some contemporaries of Hazen seem to have thought he was Jewish; for example, Sergeant James Thompson, in his diary The Fraser’s Highlanders, describes meeting him during the retreat from the Battle of Sainte-Foy: "On the way, I fell in with a Captain Moses Hazen, a jew". ## French and Indian War Hazen was apprenticed to a tanner when the French and Indian War broke out. In 1756, he enlisted with the local militia, which included a number of family members. He first served at Fort William Henry near Lake George, where he probably first met, and may have served under, Robert Rogers of Rogers' Rangers. Rogers eventually recommended him for an officer's commission in a new company of the Rangers; in 1758, after having worked for his brother providing supplies for the British Siege of Louisbourg, he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in John McCurdy's company of the Rangers at Fort Edward. In McCurdy's company, he saw action at Louisbourg, including the initial landings, when the action was quite fierce. After Louisbourg, the company was stationed first at Fort Frederick (Saint John, New Brunswick), and then at Fort St. Anne, where the company was part of a campaign against Indians and Acadians that had taken refuge there from the ongoing expulsion of the Acadians. These raids were sometimes quite brutal; the company was known to scalp Acadian settlers. In one particularly brutal incident, Hazen was responsible for the scalping of six men, and the burning of four others, along with two women and three children, in a house he set on fire. Joseph Godin dit Bellefontaine, a leader of the local militia and the father of one of the women, claimed that he was forced to witness this event in an attempt to coerce his cooperation with the rangers. (Godin escaped into the woods with two of his grandchildren.) General Jeffery Amherst, who did not hear of the incident until after he had promoted Hazen to captain, noted, "I am sorry that to say what I have since heard of that affair has sullied his merit with me as I shall always disapprove of killing women and helpless children." In January 1759, Captain McCurdy was killed when a tree felled by one of his men fell on him; Hazen was given command of the company. Later in 1759, his company was at the siege of Quebec, where the company was primarily engaged in scouting and raiding in the countryside; he was away on one of those raids during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. In another notable atrocity that may have involved Hazen's company, a priest and thirty parishioners in a parish near Quebec were killed and scalped. Hazen also fought at the 1760 Battle of Sainte-Foy, where he was severely wounded in the thigh. He thus missed the final British campaign which saw the capture of Montreal later that year, although his Rangers did take part. In February 1761, he purchased a commission as a first lieutenant in the 44th Regiment of Foot in the British Army. He spent the remainder of the war on garrison duty at Montreal, retiring on half-pay in 1763. General James Murray wrote approvingly of Hazen in 1761, "He discovered so much still bravery and good conduct as would justly entitle him to every military reward he could ask or demand". ## Land development During the siege of Quebec, Hazen had met Gabriel Christie, then a deputy quartermaster. Christie owned some land in the Richelieu River valley south of Montreal, and wanted to expand his holdings. (Christie later became one of the largest landowners in Quebec.) After the war, Christie and Hazen jointly purchased the seigneuries of Sabrevois and Bleury, located on the east bank of the Richelieu near Fort Saint-Jean. They also leased land on the west side of river from the Baron of Longueuil. These holdings gave them almost exclusive control over the land holdings around Saint-Jean, which is the northernmost navigable point reachable from Lake Champlain. Christie, who was still in military service, was frequently away from the land, so Hazen developed the land while Christie provided the funding. Hazen constructed a manor house at Iberville, and two mills, and set about selling timber and other business endeavours. In 1765, Hazen was also appointed a deputy land surveyor, and a justice of the peace. As part of his business dealings, he offered General Thomas Gage, then in command of British forces in New York City, facilities and lumber for military use. Gage was uninterested at the time, letting Hazen know that he would keep the offer in mind, if the need for military movements became necessary in the area. Hazen expanded the business of the seigneuries, but his aggressive development also incurred debts, which caused friction with Christie. In 1770, Christie, unhappy with the debts, eventually demanded an accounting. This ultimately led to a division of the holdings, with Hazen receiving the southern portion of the Bleury seigneurage, styled Bleury-Sud. Hazen and Christie were in and out of court for years afterward over control of these lands; Christie eventually won complete control over those lands after the American Revolution. In 1762 Hazen's brother John settled Haverhill, New Hampshire, in the far north of that province on the east side of the Connecticut River, and in 1764 Jacob Bayley settled Newbury, in what is now Vermont, across the river from Haverhill. Hazen had shares in both of these settlements; he also acquired land west of the Connecticut River in what is now Bradford, Vermont. It was at this time that the idea of constructing a road from there to Saint-Jean was first raised; this idea surfaced again during the American Revolutionary War, when George Washington authorized construction of what became known as the Bayley Hazen Military Road. His land developments continued to grow in 1764 when he joined the Saint John River Society, and organization created by a group of military officers for the purpose of developing land along the Saint John River, then in Nova Scotia (now New Brunswick). His coinvestors included Thomas Gage, Frederick Haldimand, William Johnson, and Thomas Hutchinson. In the fall of 1770 Hazen married Charlotte de la Saussaye, a woman from a good family in Montreal. They settled down near Saint-Jean, where they built a house and began farming. ## American Revolutionary War ### Continental Army service At the start of the Revolutionary War, in 1775, Hazen was living on half-pay in Saint-Jean. When Benedict Arnold raided Fort Saint-Jean on May 18, Hazen reported the news of that raid (as well as the capture of Fort Ticonderoga) first to the military authorities in Montreal, and then to Governor Guy Carleton in Quebec, before returning home to consider the consequences the conflict might have on him and his lands. The American invasion of Quebec arrived near his home at Saint-Jean on September 6. On that day, Hazen met with General Philip Schuyler, explaining to him that Fort Saint-Jean was well-defended and unlikely to be taken by siege, and that the local habitants were unlikely to assist the American effort. This gloomy portrait led Schuyler to consider retreating; but the arrival of additional American troops, and a more optimistic assessment from James Livingston, a grain merchant living near Chambly, encouraged the Americans to renew the attack. Livingston went on to form the 1st Canadian Regiment in November 1775. ### Imprisonment and release On September 17, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery, now commanding the American forces, began to besiege Fort St. Jean. The next day, a detachment of American forces under the command of John Brown arrested Hazen north of the fort. However, a British sortie from the fort forced Brown's men to retreat; Hazen ended up in British hands. Major Charles Preston, the British commander, was mistrustful of Hazen, and sent him to Montreal under the guard of Claude de Lorimier. Brigadier General Richard Prescott, unhappy with Hazen's explanations of his movements, imprisoned him. He was held in poor conditions for 54 days. Following the fall of Fort St. Jean, the British withdrew from Montreal, transporting prisoners on one of the many ships used in the evacuation. Most of this British fleet was captured by the Americans, who released Hazen and other political prisoners who had supported them. Unhappy with the treatment he received by the British, Hazen joined the American forces, which were on their way to Quebec City. He did this in spite of the fact that the Americans had done significant damage to his estate during the siege, plundering the estate for supplies, and using his house as a barracks. ### Service in Quebec Hazen served in the Battle of Quebec, and was one of two men (the other was Edward Antill) sent to report the devastating loss to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. The Congress, in recognition for his efforts, gave Hazen a commission as a colonel, leading the Continental Army's 2nd Canadian Regiment. (Antill was commissioned the regiment's lieutenant colonel.) The regiment was often referred to as "Hazen's" or "Congress' Own", the latter because the regiment was established by Congress and was not part of any state quotas. Hazen was initially offered a position as brigadier general, but he refused, requesting instead a colonel's commission, and indemnification against losses caused by the conflict. (His property had already been significantly damaged by the American action around St. Jean.) Hazen was fortunate in arriving in Philadelphia before John Duggan, one of Livingston's captains, to whom Benedict Arnold had earlier promised the commission for the 2nd Canadian. Hazen and Antill returned to Quebec, where Hazen was stationed at Montreal while Antill recruited men for the regiment. Hazen was briefly in command of the defenses of Montreal for the Americans, from late March to mid-April 1776, when General David Wooster took command of the American forces outside Quebec, and Benedict Arnold assumed command of the Montreal garrison. During the time he was in command, Hazen dispatched Timothy Bedel and 390 men to fortify The Cedars, about 40 miles (64 km) upriver from Montreal; these forces surrendered to a British-Native force during the Battle of The Cedars in May. ### Trouble with Arnold Following Arnold's assumption of command at Montreal, Hazen's regiment was assigned to garrison duty at Fort Chambly. Hazen (and likely his men) were called as reinforcements to assist in the American response to the action at The Cedars. In council, Hazen and Arnold had a heated exchange over what actions to take; in Arnold's opinion, Hazen's behavior bordered on insubordination. Arnold had previously held a high opinion of Hazen, writing that he was "a sensible, judicious officer, and well acquainted with this country". During the American retreat from Quebec in May and June 1776, Hazen and Arnold were embroiled in a dispute that led to charges and counter-charges, courts martial and other hearings, lasting into 1779. At issue were supplies that Arnold had ordered seized from merchants in Montreal and sent to Chambly for eventual shipment south as part of the retreat. Hazen, in charge of the facilities at Chambly, refused to sign for the goods, as he recognized them as the property of friends in Montreal. In the ensuing retreat, most of these goods were plundered and lost. Arnold wanted to immediately court-martial Hazen for failing to follow orders, but the arriving British army delayed any such activity until the army's return to Fort Ticonderoga. Arnold's opinion of Hazen clearly changed; he wrote, "This is not the first or last order Col. Hazen has disobeyed. I think him a man of too much consequence for the post he is in." Hazen's court martial was held on July 19, 1776; he was honorably acquitted. However, there were irregularities in the proceedings, the judge advocate being the same officer, who had delivered the goods, from Montreal, to Chambly, so he did not testify; Arnold continued to attack Hazen afterwards. In December, 1776, another inquiry was held, and Hazen was again cleared of any wrongdoing. Hazen then countercharged Arnold with the plundering of the Montreal merchants; Arnold was not cleared of these charges until a higher-level inquiry in 1777. ### Building his regiment Hazen's regiment, which was significantly reduced in size by the retreat from Quebec, was assigned first to Ticonderoga, and then to Albany, in the summer and fall of 1776, before being ordered to winter quarters at Fishkill, New York. During this time, Hazen continued recruiting, receiving permission from Congress to recruit anywhere in the United States. In the northern states he ran into difficulties, as those states were having trouble filling their own regimental lines; he was often outbid by other recruiters. Antill, who recruited in the central states (primarily New Jersey, Maryland, and Pennsylvania), had greater success. By June 1777, the regiment reached about 700 members, out of an authorized strength of 1,000. The cultural differences between the original Quebec enlistees and the new recruits from the Thirteen Colonies was a regular source of friction within the regiment, and Hazen consequently kept the French-speakers in companies separated from the English-speakers. Hazen also submitted to Congress a claim for damages to his estate in Quebec. The original bill was for \$11,363; Congress paid \$2,595 in October 1776. ### Philadelphia campaign In May 1777, Hazen's regiment was ordered to join the main army at Princeton, where it was active in the Philadelphia campaign as part of John Sullivan's brigade. Some of Hazen's companies (but not Hazen himself) participated in the Battle of Staten Island; in this action, Antill was captured. Hazen's command during the Battle of Brandywine included the northern (right) end of the American line; this position was one of those flanked by the British in their attack. Hazen made an early report indicating the presence of British troops on the American flank that turned out to be the main British thrust. His report was dismissed by General Sullivan, who wrote, after receiving other reports, that "Colo. Hazen's Information must be wrong." To Sullivan's detriment, the other reports were wrong, and Hazen's was correct; the British flanking maneuver was instrumental in the American loss of the battle. Hazen's regiment lost 4 officers and 73 men in the battle. In the Battle of Germantown, Hazen commanded a brigade that included in addition to his own regiment, the 2nd, 4th, and 6th Maryland Regiments. They formed part of Sullivan's column when it marched on the town; his regiment lost 3 officers and 19 men in the engagement. ### Bayley-Hazen Road proposed Hazen, ever since his return to the United States in 1776, had maintained a constant stream of communications with Congress, primarily on the subject of Canada. In January 1778, these communications bore some fruit, when, with French assistance, planning for an invasion of Canada began. Hazen was assigned the job of deputy quartermaster for this operation. However, the planning was hampered by supply and staffing difficulties, and never got off the ground. It was ultimately cancelled by Congress in March 1778. This failure did not deter Hazen from offering a new route for invading Canada. This route went from Newbury, where Hazen owned land and knew the area, to Saint Francis, Quebec. On July 12, Hazen departed Newbury to scout the route. By July 25, he had returned to White Plains; the effort was abandoned for the time being because the manpower was needed in the New York area. Plans for possible attacks against Quebec based on routes departing from the Newbury area were again contemplated in the fall of 1778, but Washington continued to resist the idea. ### Construction work on the road In the spring and summer of 1779, Hazen's regiment and that of Timothy Bedel worked on construction of the Bayley Hazen Military Road, once again with the eventual goal of launching an invasion. Part of the road, between Newbury and Peacham had been constructed in 1776 by Jacob Bayley. Hazen supervised the development of the road up to what is now called Hazens Notch in northern Vermont. Work was discontinued on the road in August after word was received that the British were preparing a military force at Saint-Jean to attempt capture of the construction crew. General Washington had never intended to send an invasion along this route; the entire works was a ruse to divert British attention, and deter them from launching an invasion. Washington wrote to Congress that the work "was for the purpose of exciting jealousies at Quebec and at the Enemy's posts on the St. lawrence, and of making a diversion in favor of the late expedition under general Sullivan ... this very happily succeeded". ### Service around New York Hazen and his regiment spent the winter at Washington's main encampment in Morristown, New Jersey. There Hazen was again involved in litigation; he was rejected for service on a court martial considering charges against Benedict Arnold due to their previous confrontations, and he also opened complaints of supply mismanagement during the summer's roadbuilding activities. A detailed review of the army in the spring of 1780 by Baron von Steuben led to the recommendation that the regiments of Hazen and Livingston be merged, as Livingston's had shrunk to 103 men. Hazen and Livingston had a political tussle over seniority; although Hazen lost the claim to seniority, he ended up in command of the combined regiment. In January 1780 the regiment was involved in a failed attack on Staten Island; word of the operation leaked to the British. Hazen's regiment was then transferred to the brigade of Enoch Poor. By the time the transfer was effected, Hazen was given command of the entire brigade, although repeated requests he had made for promotion to brigadier general were rejected. During the summer the brigade was relocated to the West Point area. While en route, Hazen allowed his men to stop for water, breaking the army column. Von Steuben ordered Hazen's arrest for this transgression of military discipline. Hazen was acquitted, and promptly countercharged von Steuben with behavior unbecoming an officer and gentleman; von Steuben apologized. Hazen's regiment was garrisoned opposite West Point that fall when British Major John André was captured and General Arnold defected. One hundred of Hazen's men, including his nephew, Benjamin Mooers, witnessed André's hanging. On June 29, 1781, Hazen was finally promoted to brigadier general and assigned command of a brigade under Lafayette during the siege of Yorktown. Hazen's brigade served on the right of the line, and was deeply involved in the October 14 battles for the redoubts. After the British surrender, Hazen and his unit were given prisoner guard duty at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. While stationed there, an international diplomatic situation, known as the "Asgill Affair", developed that threatened the peace treaty between the newly independent U.S. and Britain. Following a series of retributive executions between patriots and loyalists, Washington, in May 1782, instructed Hazen that a British captain should be executed in retaliation for the execution of patriot captain Joshua Huddy. On May 27, 1782, Hazen carried out Washington's order. Charles Asgill was chosen from amongst 13 British captains by the drawing of lots. The selection was a violation of the terms of the Yorktown surrender, which protected prisoners of war from acts of retaliation. Asgill's situation drew the attention of Queen Marie Antoinette; Washington received a letter from the French Foreign Minister, comte de Vergennes, making it clear that this course of action would be unacceptable to the French Crown. Due in large part to this intervention, Asgill was released to return to England in November 1782. During the winter of 1781–82 Hazen also took time off for personal business. Among his dealings was a partnership with Timothy Bedel to acquire land along the military road they had built in Vermont. ## After the war After the war, General Hazen, unable to return to Quebec, received a grant of land in northern New York. He was active for many years on behalf of the men who served under him and their families, especially those that originally came from Quebec, in their quest for compensation for their losses. Hazen was also an original member of the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati. He also continued his litigious ways—he was involved in an ongoing string of legal actions until his death. He died in 1803 in Troy, New York where he was buried. His nephew, Benjamin Mooers, was ultimately responsible for untangling many of Hazen's affairs. On May 26, 1828, Congress authorized a payment of \$3,998.81 to Hazen's heirs in compensation for the half-pay lost to him when he joined the American forces. ## Legacy - Namesake of Bayley Hazen Military Road - Namesake of Hazen's Notch in the Green Mountains of northern Vermont - Namesake of Hazen Union School in Hardwick, Vermont
4,226,781	Nailsea and Backwell railway station	1,158,599,045	Railway station near Bristol, England	[ "DfT Category F2 stations", "Former Great Western Railway stations", "Nailsea", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1841", "Railway stations in Somerset", "Railway stations served by Great Western Railway" ]	Nailsea and Backwell railway station, on the Bristol to Exeter line, is in the village of Backwell, close to the town of Nailsea in North Somerset, England. It is 8 miles (13 km) west of Bristol Temple Meads railway station, and 126 miles (203 km) from London Paddington. The station, opened in 1841 by the Bristol and Exeter Railway, has two platforms but little in the way of facilities. It is managed by Great Western Railway, the seventh company to be responsible for the station, and the third franchise since privatisation in 1997. The company provides all train services at the station, mainly hourly services between Bristol Parkway and Weston-super-Mare, and between Cardiff Central and Taunton. ## Description The station sits atop an embankment about 40 feet (12 m) high, and spans the main road between the towns of Backwell and Nailsea, which narrows to a signal-controlled single lane to go under the railway. The station is on the Bristol to Exeter line, 126 miles 34 chains (203.46 km) from London Paddington and 8 miles 1 chain (12.89 km) from Bristol Temple Meads. It the third station along the line from Bristol. Nailsea is a short distance to the north, while the outskirts of Backwell are right against the south side of the station. The two settlements are primarily residential, and are, for large proportions of their residents, dormitory towns for Bristol. The station has two platforms, separated by two running lines. The line runs on a slight curve through the station, at an angle of roughly 067 degrees, and has a linespeed of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h). The northern platform, platform 2, is 121 metres (132 yd) long and serves eastbound trains; the southern platform, platform 1, is 122 metres (133 yd) and serves westbound trains. Access to the two platforms is by steps from the road on either side. There is a ramp to the eastbound platform, but it has a gradient greater than 1 in 12, and there is no ramp access to trains. There is no ramp access to the westbound platform. Access between the platforms is either by a footbridge, or by walking along the main road under the line. There are metal and glass waiting shelters on both platforms – three on the eastbound platform, one on the westbound. Two ticket machines are situated on the north side of the station, which can also be used to collect pre-bought tickets. These machines are supplemented by a small ticket kiosk on the eastbound platform which is open during the morning peak. "Next train" dot-matrix displays and an automated public-address system announce approaching services. To the north of the station is a pay and display car park with 285 car parking spaces, six motorcycle spaces and a number of cycle racks. Cycle storage is also available. The car park is run by North Somerset Council. There is a bus stop adjacent to the car park, with services between Bristol and Nailsea. ## Services The station is managed by Great Western Railway, which also operates all rail services from the station. As of the May 2016 timetable, the basic service from Monday to Saturday consists of two trains in each direction per hour. One is the Bristol Parkway to Weston-super-Mare service, calling at all stations; the second is the faster Cardiff Central to Taunton service, non-stop between Bristol Temple Meads and Nailsea & Backwell. All trains call at Yatton, the next station westwards. A greater proportion of services continue beyond Weston-super-Mare in the evening, but fewer services continue to Cardiff. There is one evening service to Avonmouth via the Severn Beach Line. Sunday sees roughly one train per hour, with services again alternating between Bristol Parkway to Weston-super-Mare and Cardiff to Taunton, with two services to and from the Severn Beach Line: during summer months these terminate at Severn Beach; the rest of the year only one does, the other terminating at Avonmouth. The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 11 minutes. The local services described above are formed using , , , and diesel multiple-unit trains. Services between London Paddington and Weston-super-Mare call at Nailsea and Backwell in the early morning and evening, running non-stop between Bristol Temple Meads and Nailsea and Backwell, also stopping at Yatton, but not always at Worle or Weston Milton. From Monday to Friday there are five morning services and one evening service to London, with seven services from London, all in the evening. Saturday sees three services to London, all in the morning, and four services from London, all in the evening. There are seven services to and six from London on Sundays, spread throughout the day. These intercity services are formed of Class 800s, which are longer than the station, so passengers in the front carriage have to move to a different carriage to get out. Passengers are prevented from getting out onto the tracks by a selective door-opening system. The typical journey time to London is roughly two hours. In 2008, one morning northbound CrossCountry service would make a stop at Nailsea and Backwell to serve as a morning peak service, but this operation has ceased. CrossCountry services still pass through the station, but do not stop. Occasional Great Western Railway intercity services between London and Weston-super-Mare or Taunton and Exeter also pass through non-stop. The station has adjacent bus stops, served by the First West of England number X7 bus between Bristol bus station, Nailsea and Clevedon, with an hourly service in each direction. ## History The first section of the Bristol and Exeter Railway's (B&ER) main line opened on 14 June 1841 between Bristol and Bridgwater. Opened as "Nailsea", it was for a while the first station on the line west of Bristol, the next being Clevedon Road (which was renamed Yatton in 1847). The line, engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was built as broad-gauge but it had been reconstructed as a mixed-gauge line to accommodate local -gauge traffic by 1 June 1875. Services were operated by the Great Western Railway (GWR) on behalf of the B&ER until 1 May 1849. The B&ER then took over its own workings until the company was amalgamated into the GWR on 1 January 1876. Broad-gauge trains ceased operation on 20 May 1892. Due to its being built on an embankment, lightweight building materials were used for the station: the platforms originally rested on timber supports for most of their length. Station buildings, including a goods shed and a combined ticket office and waiting room, were built on the eastbound platform in the 1860s. There was a signal box on the eastbound platform by the 1880s which controlled a crossover between the two tracks; sidings at the west end of the station were controlled by a second signal box, and had a connection to the Nailsea Colliery. A footbridge, built by E. Finch and Co. of Chepstow, was erected in 1907; until then access between the two platforms was by a track-level crossing. This wooden footbridge was replaced by a metal one in the 1950s. The station was renamed "Nailsea and Backwell" on 1 May 1905. When the railways were nationalised in 1948, the GWR became the Western Region of British Railways. Goods traffic from the station ceased on 1 June 1964. The main station buildings were demolished in the 1970s, but their foundations can still be seen behind the shelters on the eastbound platform. The shelter on the westbound platform was still present in 1986. In the 1980s the car park was expanded, and new metal and glass shelters were provided. The station reverted to the name "Nailsea" on 6 May 1974, and was still known by that name at the end of 1994. British Rail was split into business-led sectors in the 1980s, at which time operations at Nailsea and Backwell passed to Regional Railways. Local services were franchised to Wales & West when the railway was privatised in 1997, which was in turn succeeded by Wessex Trains, an arm of National Express, in 2001. The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006, and responsibility passed to First Great Western, a subsidiary company of FirstGroup. The franchise was rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015. Extra seating was provided in 2006 following action by the Severnside Community Rail Partnership, and in 2008 overgrown foliage was cleared from the car park to improve sightlines and help with security. The station was repainted at the same time, and decorated with silhouettes of students from Backwell School. The embankment suffered subsidence in 2013. In 2012, the station had a free car park with 120 spaces, but this was frequently full by 7:30am on weekdays, leading commuters to park on local roads, prompting complaints from Backwell residents. Plans to extend the car park by 200 spaces were drawn up in 2009, with North Somerset Council describing the scheme as "necessary", as the lack of spaces limited the number of people who could feasibly use the station for commuting due to Nailsea being too far from the station to be an easy walk, causing people to drive to the station. That peak passengers filled the car park then meant there are no spaces for offpeak users, limiting leisure travel. North Somerset Council approved the construction of the extension on 17 April 2012, and further approved the car park becoming pay and display - all car parks in Nailsea had previously been free. Work began in January 2014, and was completed in June the same year - 162 additional car parking spaces were created, drainage was improved and CCTV was installed. The scheme, which cost £700,000, came in £50,000 under budget and was paid for using money from the Local Transport Plan and Community Infrastructure Levy. Parking prices were raised in 2017 to equalise the cost with Yatton railway station, and thus dissuade people from driving from Yatton to Nailsea for cheaper parking. There is no wheelchair access to the southbound platform; the ramp to the northbound platform is steeper than 1 in 12, making it unsuitable for wheelchair users, and there is a large height difference from the train doors to the platform. In 2011 the government announced a £37.5 million scheme to improve stations under an "Access For All Mid-Tier programme", of which £1,023,000 was to go towards building new ramps at Nailsea and Backwell. The works were due to start in 2013, but were delayed until 2014 due to a need to repair subsidence on the embankment and wait for works on the car park to be completed. However, due to the delays the funding was withdrawn. Further funding was secured in 2015, but plans for ramps were shelved entirely in 2016 due to fears of further subsidence. Great Western Railway have stated they are looking at installing lifts instead. ## Future Nailsea and Backwell is on the Weston-super-Mare/Yate corridor, one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro, a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area. The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification of the line through Nailsea & Backwell, as does MP for Weston-super-Mare John Penrose. Railfuture in the South West has called for the station to be used to serve Bristol Airport via a bus link. The 2017 West of England Joint Spatial Plan suggested that facilities and access to the station be improved to create a multimodal interchange with the Bristol MetroBus scheme, a link to the A370 Long Ashton Bypass and potentially to the M5 motorway at Clevedon. Parking and accessibility improvements are also suggested. ## Incidents There have been several railway incidents in the Backwell area. On 20 September 2002, the 19:40 First Great Western service from Plymouth to Gloucester was delayed at Nailsea & Backwell at around 22:00 after the British Transport Police were called to deal with two men who assaulted a guard following an altercation about smoking in a non-smoking area. Several passengers were treated for the inhalation of CS gas. Another assault on a guard occurred on 9 October 2009, when three youths verbally abused and spat at the guard after boarding a train at Parson Street without tickets and refusing to pay for them. A 17-year-old from Weston-super-Mare was due in court on 23 December 2009 in connection with the incident, having been identified by the use of DNA swab kits, which are available to all Great Western Railway staff. A more unusual incident occurred on 18 September 2013 when a cow escaped from a nearby field and found its way onto the tracks at the station, causing several hours of delays to services between Bristol and Exeter. A serious incident occurred on 17 October 2004, when Wessex Trains Pacer DMU 143613, forming the 20:06 2W63 service from Bristol Temple Meads to Weston-super-Mare with 143621, caught fire between the site of the former station at Flax Bourton and Nailsea and Backwell. Fire services took two hours to get the blaze under control. None of the 23 passengers and crew were killed, but three were treated on-site for the effects of smoke inhalation. One carriage was completely burnt out, and the other was badly damaged, causing the train to be written off. The line through Nailsea was closed until 03:30 the following morning, when the train was hauled to St Philips Marsh Traction and Rolling Stock Maintenance Depot for examination. The unit was later taken to Crewe Works, where it was stored, then to Cardiff Canton TMD where it was scrapped. The Rail Safety and Standards Board issued a report into the incident, concluding that the fire was caused by electrical arcing between the live starter motor cable (which had damaged insulation) and the unit's underframe, causing accumulated oily residues to ignite. On 8 January 2018, Andrew Tavener, a Nailsea resident, was struck by a train at the station, then arrested on suspicion of murdering his wife, Claire Tavener, earlier that day. He was taken to hospital with 'life changing' hand injuries. He was subsequently sentenced to life in prison for the murder. The station creates a height and width restriction on the road below, which in 2020 led to a bus becoming wedged under the station. The road and railway were both closed while the bridge was structurally assessed. There have been several previous incidents of tall vehicles becoming stuck. ## See also - Nailsea (Transport) [Railway stations in Somerset](Category:Railway_stations_in_Somerset "wikilink") [Former Great Western Railway stations](Category:Former_Great_Western_Railway_stations "wikilink") [Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1841](Category:Railway_stations_in_Great_Britain_opened_in_1841 "wikilink") [Railway stations served by Great Western Railway](Category:Railway_stations_served_by_Great_Western_Railway "wikilink") [DfT Category F2 stations](Category:DfT_Category_F2_stations "wikilink") [Nailsea](Category:Nailsea "wikilink")
25,665,255	Rihanna (book)	1,129,434,120	2010 photo-book by Rihanna and Simon Henwood	[ "2010 non-fiction books", "Biographies about musicians", "Coffee table books", "Rihanna" ]	Rihanna (originally titled and alternatively known as Rihanna: The Last Girl on Earth) is a coffee table photo-book by Barbadian singer Rihanna and British artist Simon Henwood. Henwood envisioned the project as the depiction of a "journey", as it includes professional and candid photos by him, that show the singer's fourth studio album, Rated R's (2009) promotional campaign, alongside pictures from other live appearances. The publication features a preface written by French designer Alexandre Vauthier. It was first issued in the United States as a hardcover edition including a CD, on October 15, 2010; also being released in paperback formats and a deluxe hardcover edition including a crystal monogrammed clamshell and a signed image print. To promote the book, Rihanna appeared at a Barnes & Noble store where she signed copies of it. Editors commented on the book positively, favoring Rihanna's looks and Henwood's photography. ## Background and concept In November 2009, Rihanna released her fourth studio album Rated R through Def Jam Recordings, to critical and commercial success. Following was a year-long world tour, titled Last Girl on Earth. In January 2010, details about a Rihanna photo book were revealed, including its initial title—Rihanna: The Last Girl On Earth—and a tentative date, on June 29 of that year. During an interview with website MuuMuse, the book's photographer and British artist Simon Henwood, who also served as the creative director during the promotional campaign for Rated R, spoke on the concept and purpose of the publication. He revealed that the book was created in order to show the events of that promotional era, and while he did not envision the project as a "diary", he described it as a "picture book of everything that happens when you're building [something] like this, so things people had not seen of her." Having spent a long period of time with Rihanna on diverse locations, such as "fashion shows, on set, hotel rooms" amongst others, Henwood told MuuMuse that it depicted the "journey from the initial design of the logo and concept of the album to the singer embarking on the Last Girl on Earth Tour. As a result, Rihanna includes photos of the singer taken during the Paris Fashion Week; during the Rated R photoshoot done by Ellen von Unwerth in Berlin; candid pictures and pictures of her American Music Awards live performance. The last photos of the publication were taken by Henwood during the European leg of the Last Girl on Earth Tour in April 2010. Aside from the pictures, the book also includes a preface written by French designer Alexandre Vauthier, in which he praises the singer and describes their encounter. The date was then rescheduled from June 2010 to September of that year. Rihanna said to MTV: > I think it was really special to have behind-the-scenes photos, you know, pictures that the fans haven't seen before, all together of a very specific moment of my life, an album of my life. They just get to see all the things that they hadn't seen that were going on behind the scenes; really cool stuff, not typical. They're really fun photos. And even for me, when I look at them, they say so much. Photos really tell a thousand words. ## Release and reception A 144-page book, Rihanna was released on October 15, 2010 in the United States under Rizzoli Publications, on hardcover format, including a CD with a song from Rated R; four days later, the paperback format was issued in the United States, Germany, and France. Both editions were released in the United Kingdom on October 20, 2010, under the original title Rihanna: The Last Girl on Earth. Four days later, the paperback format was issued in the United States. On October 26, 2010, a deluxe edition of the photo-book was released, including the hardcover edition "encased in a Swarovski crystal monogrammed clamshell" alongside a print with an image from "Rude Boy"'s music video shoot, signed by Rihanna. Imported versions of the book were sold in Portugal starting February 2012. Rihanna appeared at the Fifth Avenue store of Barnes & Noble, in which she signed copies of the photo-book, dressed in a "floral-print" dress. Editors who commented on the book were positive about it. At E!, Marc Malkin praised Henwood's professional photography, which he deemed "absolutely gorgeous". At Rap-Up, editors favored Rihanna's looks, writing that in the pictures, she was "at the height of her beauty and ferocity". Rebecca Thomas of MTV had a similar opinion, stating: "The 22-year-old stunner [Rihanna] shines in front of the camera and perhaps never more so than in the images that capture [her]". ## Release history
1,827,084	Bhutan at the 1996 Summer Olympics	1,137,362,849	null	[ "1996 in Bhutanese sport", "Bhutan at the Summer Olympics by year", "Nations at the 1996 Summer Olympics" ]	Bhutan sent a delegation to compete at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, United States from 19 July to 4 August 1996. This was the Kingdom's fourth appearance at a Summer Olympic Games. The delegation to Atlanta consisted of two archers, Jubzhang Jubzhang and Ugyen Ugyen. Neither advanced past the round of 64 in their events, though Jubzhang pushed his match to a shootout. ## Background The Bhutan Olympic Committee was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 31 December 1982. The Kingdom first participated in the Summer Olympic Games at the 1984 Summer Olympics, and have taken part in every Summer Olympics since then, making Atlanta their fourth appearance in a Summer Olympiad. They have never participated in a Winter Olympic Games. The 1996 Summer Olympics were held from 19 July to 4 August 1996; 10,318 athletes represented 194 National Olympic Committees. The Bhutanese delegation to Atlanta consisted of two archers, Jubzhang Jubzhang and Ugyen Ugyen. Jubzhang was chosen as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony. ## Archery Archery is the national sport of the Kingdom. Jubzhang Jubzhang was 25 years old at the time of the Atlanta Olympics, and had previously represented Bhutan at the 1992 Summer Olympics. In the ranking round of the men's individual event, held on 28 July, he scored 643 points, earning the 49th seed out of 64 competitors. In the first round proper, he tied 156–156, and lost in a shootout 9–8 to Stanislav Zabrodsky of Ukraine. The gold medal was ultimately won by Justin Huish of the United States, the silver was taken by Magnus Petersson of Sweden, and the bronze was won by Oh Kyo-moon of South Korea. Ugyen Ugyen was 22 years old at the time of these Olympics and was making her Olympic debut. In the women's individual, also held on 28 July, she earned 580 points in the ranking round, earning herself the 60th seed. In the first round, she lost by a score of 153–126 to Olena Sadovnycha of Ukraine. In the event overall, the gold medal was won by Kim Kyung-wook of South Korea, the silver medal was earned by He Ying of China, and the bronze medal was taken by Olena Sadovnycha of Ukraine. ## See also - Archery in Bhutan
12,662,026	1933 Spanish general election	1,169,144,588	null	[ "1933 elections in Spain", "1933 in Spain", "General elections in Spain", "November 1933 events" ]	Elections to Spain's legislature, the Cortes Generales, were held on 19 November 1933 for all 473 seats in the unicameral Cortes of the Second Spanish Republic. Since the previous elections of 1931, a new constitution had been ratified, and the franchise extended to more than six million women. The governing Republican-Socialist coalition had fallen apart, with the Radical Republican Party beginning to support a newly united political right. The right formed an electoral coalition, as was favoured by the new electoral system enacted earlier in the year. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, or PSOE) won only 59 seats. The newly formed Catholic conservative Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas or CEDA) gained 115 seats and the Radicals 102. The right capitalised on disenchantment with the government among Catholics and other conservatives. CEDA campaigned on reversing the reforms that had been made under the Republic, and on freeing political prisoners. Anarchists favoured abstention from the vote. These factors helped the election to result in significant victory for the right over the left. ## Background Elections in June 1931 had returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists to the Cortes, with the PSOE gaining 116 seats and the Radical Republican Party 94. The state's financial position was poor. Wealth redistribution supported by the new government attracted criticism from the wealthy. The government also attempted to tackle poverty in rural areas by instituting an eight-hour day and giving security of tenure to farm workers, drawing criticism from landlords. An effective parliamentary opposition was led by three groups. The first included Catholic movements such as the Catholic Association of Propagandists (Asociación Católica de Propagandistas). The second group consisted of organisations that had supported the monarchy, such as the Renovación Española and Carlists, who wanted to see the new republic overthrown in a violent uprising. The third group were fascist organisations. Members of the National Confederation of Labour (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, or CNT) trade union movement willing to cooperate with the Republic were forced out of the CNT, which continued to oppose the government. Opposition parties had the support of the church. A new constitution was ratified on 9 December 1931. It included many controversial articles, some of which were aimed at curbing the influence of the Catholic Church. The constitution was reformist, liberal, and democratic in nature, and was welcomed by the Republican-Socialist coalition, but opposed by landowners, industrialists, the organised church, and army officers. In opposing educational and religious reforms, Spanish Catholics were forced to oppose the government. The press criticised government actions as barbaric, unjust, and corrupt. In October 1931 Prime Minister Niceto Alcalá Zamora resigned and was succeeded by Manuel Azaña. Radical Party leader Alejandro Lerroux had wanted that job himself and became alienated, switching his party's support to the opposition. This left Azaña dependent on the Socialists, but both the Socialists, who favoured reform, and the conservative right, who were against reform, were critical of the government. Socialists continued to support Azaña, but the left became fractured, driving the Socialists to the left, while the right united into CEDA, which tacitly embraced fascism. On 1 October 1933, Socialist left leader Largo Caballero spoke out against Lerroux's Republicans, suggesting the reform programme of the government, and thus the basis for the Republic itself, was under threat. He warned that if the government itself were the threat, the Socialists would have to withdraw support for it. The following day another Socialist leader, Indalecio Prieto, declared that the Socialists would no longer participate in government, which precipitated its collapse. Alcalá Zamora, who became President in 1931, now requested that Republican Martínez Barrio form a new government. Socialist opposition on both constitutional and ideological grounds meant the PSOE withheld its support for the Barrio government, which was formed on 8 October, but called for fresh elections to be held on 19 November 1933. ## Election In common with the 1936 election, Spain was divided into multi-member constituencies; for example, Madrid had 17 representatives. However, each member of the electorate could vote for somewhat less than that – in Madrid's case, 13. This favoured coalitions, as in Madrid when the Socialists won 13 members and the right, with only 5,000 votes less, secured only the remaining 4. This system had been passed in 1933. There would be two rounds of voting; 40% of the vote was necessary in the first round to win. In the event that no list of candidates reached 40%, then a second round would be composed of those achieving at least 8% in the first round. It was the first election in Spain where women had the vote, following the new constitution. This incorporated a new 6,800,000 electors. The elections were held under Republican electoral law, which would guarantee a certain percentage of seats in a district to a plurality of votes no matter how weak the plurality. This law was amended in July 1933 to make it even more disproportionate (winning a plurality guaranteed 67% of seats and winning a majority guaranteed 80% of seats). This meant it strongly favoured coalitions and it had been passed by the Azaña government in the hopes it would secure electoral victory for the Spanish left. The governing leftist parties went to the polls divided. The political right, on the other hand, formed the Union of the Right (Spanish: Unión de Derechas) which incorporated CEDA, agrarian parties and traditionalists. It stood on a three-point programme: religious and social reforms would be examined and rolled back where needed; agrarian reform would be reversed; political prisoners would be released. These parties threw vast resources into their campaign, with ten million leaflets, 300,000 posters, radio and cinema addresses and aerial propaganda drops. They called upon Catholics to defend order and religion against the bourgeois Republic. The Radical Party campaigned primarily against the Socialists, since they would need the help of the political right if in government. They used mass-appeal slogans such as 'Republic, order, freedom, social justice, amnesty' and were confident following successes at municipal level in 1933. Anarchists such as the CNT-FAI called for abstention: politicians were 'vultures', who must be overthrown by revolution. If the right were to win the election, there would be an uprising, they promised. Thus, anarchists should avoid voting for the left, since overthrowing the government would be preferable. Abstention was supported by Benito Pabón and Miguel Abós [es]. Elections were held on 19 November 1933. A second round of voting was held in sixteen constituencies on 3 December. The campaign and elections were not without violence; thirty-four people were killed and far more injured, primarily by the political left but also by the political right. ## Outcome It resulted in an overwhelming victory for the right, with the CEDA and the Radicals together winning 219 seats. Although the political situation was complicated, parties of the right won around 3,365,700 votes, parties of the centre 2,051,500 votes, and parties of the left 3,118,000 according to one estimate. Turnout was around 8,535,200 votes, 67.5% of the electorate. The right had spent far more on their election campaign than the Socialists, who campaigned alone. Women, in their first election, mainly voted for the centre-right. Julián Casanova observes that while some republicans and socialists had argued in 1931 against women's suffrage on the grounds it would deliver votes to the right, the right's 1933 victory was the result of a general political rightward shift, rather than because of the female vote. The Communist Party, with perhaps 3,000 members, were at this point not significant. Nationalist Basques won twelve of seventeen Basque seats, a considerable victory. Keeping their promise, the CNT proclaimed a revolution. There were many reasons the Socialists and Republicans lost out; the female vote alone cannot explain the shift. Among them was the disunity of the political left compared to the right, in a system that favoured broad coalitions. The Radicals and their supporters had also shifted to the right. Abstentionalism hindered Socialist and Republican candidates. Overall, the political system in Spain had changed dramatically since the last election. The failure of the Spanish left was also partially attributable to the 1933 electoral law. The second Azaña government had amended the law to give disproportionate seats to pluralities and majorities, which ended up favouring broad coalitions. However, the refusal for the Socialists to collaborate with the left Republicans made such an left-wing alliance impossible, while the Spanish right had managed to form its own coalition. The Renovación Española and the Spanish Nationalist Party (Spanish: Partido Nacionalista Español, PNE) formed the National Block (Spanish: Bloque Nacional), with a total of 14 deputies. Similarly, the Republican Left of Catalonia (Catalan: Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya, ERC), the Socialist Union of Catalonia (Unió Socialista de Catalunya, USC) and the Union of Rabassaires (Unió de Rabassaires, UdR) formed the Catalan Left (Esquerra Catalana) with 18 deputies. Five independents joined the Agrarians and one joined CEDA. The other seven, along with one member of Conservative Republican Party (Spanish: Partido Republicano Conservador, PRC), formed a group of independents called the Independent Right (Independiente de Derechas). The Mallorcan Regionalist deputy joined the Catalan League (Lliga Catalana), and the independent in favour of the Estella Statute joined the Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco). 5 members of the Agrarians and one of the PRC joined CEDA, although the Agrarians as a whole resisted pressure to join CEDA, and formed the Spanish Agrarian Party (Partido Agrario Español). The left Republicans and Socialists attempted to pressure Niceto Alcalá Zamora, the president of the Republic, into cancelling the election results. They did not contest the ballot results but simply rejected the center-right's victory; they argued the Republic was a leftist project and so only leftist parties should be allowed to govern. CEDA insisted it rejected violence and would follow the rules of the republic; Payne notes that while it had lost six members during the campaign to violence from the left, CEDA had not retaliated in kind. However, Payne also observed that CEDA had insisted on making constitutional changes to the republic that would make it much more conservative and Catholic in nature, which the political left equated to fascism. The president of the Republic, Niceto Alcalá Zamora entrusted the formation of a cabinet to Alejandro Lerroux, who was reliant on the support of CEDA. This was because Zamora was concerned that CEDA had authoritarian tendencies and thus instead proposed a centrist government under Lerroux that would rely on CEDA's support, which Gil Robles accepted. The CNT responded with an insurrection attempt in December, in which almost one hundred people would die and over another hundred injured, though the deaths were confined to combatants. Two large bombs were detonated in Barcelona on 1 December while on 8 December, explosions and violence broke out in eight cities. Most fighting took place in Zaragoza and Barcelona but also occurred elsewhere, as did indiscriminate acts of terrorism; trains were derailed and in Valencia, a bridge was destroyed causing a wreckage. In the town of Villaneuva de la Serena, an army sergeant in charge of the local recruitment post mutinied, along with several soldiers and fifteen civilian anarchists. The mutiny was crushed the next day with seven of its members, including the sergeant, being killed. The CNT-FAI also took control of several small towns, declaring the establishment of libertarian communism, burning records and abolishing money. However, by 12 December the authorities had mostly regained control. ## Results ### Seats Party divisions at the start of the Cortes, after seats had been awarded between coalitions: ### After reorganisation This left the following divisions in the Cortes:
8,723,506	Adamson Tannehill	1,173,869,294	American politician (1750–1820)	[ "1750 births", "1820 deaths", "American Presbyterians", "American people of Scottish descent", "Burials at Allegheny Cemetery", "Continental Army officers from Maryland", "Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania", "Drinking establishment owners", "People of Pennsylvania in the American Revolution", "Politicians from Pittsburgh" ]	Adamson Tannehill (May 23, 1750 – December 23, 1820), an American soldier, politician, and civic leader, is representative of the United States’ founding generation whose members were active participants in the early military and political events of their country's establishment. Born in Frederick County, Maryland, Tannehill was among the first volunteers to join the newly established Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, serving from 1775 until 1781. He achieved the rank of captain and commander of the army's longest serving rifle unit. After the war, Tannehill and members of his family settled in Pittsburgh, his last military posting of the conflict. He was active in the Pennsylvania state militia, eventually rising to the rank of major general in 1811. Moreover, Tannehill served as brigadier general of United States Volunteers in the War of 1812. He was an early leading citizen of Pittsburgh and a distinguished Pennsylvania politician who held several local, state, and national appointed and elected offices, notably including one term as a Democratic-Republican in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1813 to 1815. He also served on the founding boards of civic and state organizations. Tannehill died in 1820 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was buried at the First Presbyterian Church of Pittsburgh and later reinterred in Allegheny Cemetery. ## Early years Adamson Tannehill was born May 23, 1750, in Frederick County, Maryland, the oldest of nine children born to John Tannehill, owner of a tobacco plantation, and Rachel Adamson. John Tannehill's great-great grandfather, William Tannehill, Sr., emigrated to Maryland from Kilmarnock, Scotland, in 1658. Adamson Tannehill's maternal grandfather took a special interest in the grandchild who bore his name, and he provided "such pecuniary assistance as to secure a fine education" for Adamson. Little else is known of Adamson's earliest years. No known portraits of Tannehill exist; however, family records indicate that as an adult he “was six feet in height, well proportioned and of commanding appearance.” At the age of 25, he enlisted in one of the first American military units to form when the war with Great Britain started in the spring of 1775. ## Revolutionary War service Tannehill served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, initially as a sergeant in Capt. Thomas Price's Independent Rifle Company, one of the original ten independent companies of riflemen from the frontier regions of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia authorized by the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. He received his commission dated January 1, 1776, as a third lieutenant while serving at the siege of Boston. In June 1776 Tannehill and his company were incorporated into the newly organized Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment, at which time he advanced to second lieutenant. Later that year, a large portion of his regiment was captured or killed at the Battle of Fort Washington on northern Manhattan Island. However, those members of the unit not taken in the battle, including Tannehill, continued to serve actively in the Continental Army, participating in the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, and in the spring of 1777 they were administratively attached to the 11th Virginia Regiment due to the diminishment of their rifle regiment. Tannehill was promoted to first lieutenant on May 18, 1777, and the following month he was attached to the newly organized Provisional Rifle Corps commanded by Col. Daniel Morgan, which played a major role in the Battles of Saratoga and a peripheral role in the Battle of Monmouth. He returned to the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment (his permanent unit) in mid-1778 when Lt. Col. Moses Rawlings, the regiment's commander who had been exchanged from British captivity earlier that year, was marshaling the remnants of his unit and recruiting new members while stationed at Fort Frederick, Maryland. In early 1779 Tannehill and the regiment were assigned to Fort Pitt of present-day western Pennsylvania where they supplemented other Continental forces engaged in the defense of frontier settlements from Indian raids. Tannehill advanced to the rank of captain on July 29, 1779, and he commanded the regiment in late 1780. He was discharged from service on January 1, 1781, when his unit was disbanded as a result of Congress's major 1781 reorganization of the Continental Army. Tannehill was admitted as an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Maryland when it was established in 1783. ## Later military and political career After his Revolutionary War service, Tannehill settled in the frontier area of Fort Pitt (later the site of Pittsburgh), as did a number of other Revolutionary War officers, including his younger brother Lt. Josiah Tannehill. He initially engaged in agricultural pursuits and was a tavern owner and vintner. From 1784 until about 1795, Tannehill owned and operated the riverfront Green Tree Tavern (and inn) and resided in the adjacent house, both located midblock between Market and Wood Streets in Pittsburgh. In about 1795, he moved to Grove Hill, a house on Grant’s Hill just northeast of early Pittsburgh; a building on his Grove Hill property, known as "the Bowery," was popular as a local center for political meetings. This pavilion was also the site of large annual social gatherings where citizens of early Pittsburgh came together each Fourth of July to celebrate their country's birth. Tannehill lived at Grove Hill until his death in 1820. Tannehill was active in the state militia, serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Westmoreland County militia starting in 1788 by order of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, and in 1794, assisting in the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion, which arose in western Pennsylvania during the presidency of George Washington. On August 3, 1811, Pennsylvania Governor Simon Snyder promoted Tannehill to major general of the Pennsylvania militia division from Allegheny, Armstrong, and Indiana counties. Soon thereafter during the War of 1812, Tannehill was elected brigadier general of a brigade comprising four infantry and rifle regiments of Pennsylvania volunteers in United States (federal) service; his military duties during the conflict lasted from September 25 to December 31, 1812. Tannehill began public service no later than 1794 when the borough of Pittsburgh was established. That year, he was appointed president of the Pittsburgh Fire Company and elected one of three surveyors of Pittsburgh. Sometime before 1794, Tannehill was appointed an Allegheny County justice of the peace. In October 1800, Tannehill was temporarily removed from his office of justice of the peace after being convicted of extortion related to an event that occurred five years before in which he was alleged to have charged two shillings more than was allowed by law for two probates. Although he was quickly reinstated to office in January 1801 by Governor Thomas McKean, the former chief justice of Pennsylvania, and subsequently held several prominent elected and appointed public offices, Tannehill believed the charges against him, likely born out of the contentious political conditions of the time, had marred his reputation. He vehemently disclaimed any guilt for the rest of his life — his resentment toward "two of the most unprincipled scoundrels who ever appeared before a Court of Justice" and their "false swearing and vile slander" was still strong 15 years later when he wrote his will. Following these charges, he served as a founding member of the board of directors of the Pittsburgh branch of the Bank of Pennsylvania (first bank established in Pittsburgh and first one west of the Allegheny Mountains), starting in 1804. He was then appointed by the Pennsylvania legislature as one of five turnpike commissioners for the state starting in 1811. Meanwhile, outside of political office, Tannehill, a Presbyterian, served (since 1787) as a trustee of the first Presbyterian church in Pittsburgh. ## U.S. House of Representatives The high point of Tannehill's active political career was his election as a Democratic-Republican to the Thirteenth U.S. Congress on October 13, 1812. Tannehill was elected to serve Pennsylvania's newly established 14th congressional district with 48 percent of the vote, defeating Federalist John Woods and Democratic-Republican John Wilson, who received 39.3 and 12.7 percent of the vote, respectively. Tannehill served from March 4, 1813, to March 3, 1815, and as a U.S. Representative, Tannehill cast a total of 322 votes, and missed 30. Tannehill ran for reelection on October 11, 1814, again as a Democratic-Republican. However, he lost his reelection bid, receiving 49.5 percent of the vote in his district; his opponent, John Woods, who he had defeated two years earlier, won with 50.5 percent of the vote. ## Later life and death Following his tenure in Congress, Tannehill served as president of the Pittsburgh branch of the Bank of the United States starting in 1817. Tannehill died near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on December 23, 1820, aged 70 years, 7 months. He was survived by his wife, Agness M. Tannehill, and his ward, Sydney Tannehill Mountain. Adamson and Agness Tannehill had no children. Tannehill was interred in the churchyard of the First Presbyterian Church and reinterred in Allegheny Cemetery in Pittsburgh in 1849. His 1820 obituary relates that "his remains were accompanied to the grave by a large concourse of his fellow citizens and were interred with military funeral honors by two...Volunteer Corps" of western Pennsylvania.
23,090,940	Golden Sun	1,163,362,100	Series of fantasy role-playing video games	[ "Golden Joystick Award winners", "Golden Sun", "Nintendo franchises", "Role-playing video games", "Video game franchises", "Video game franchises introduced in 2001" ]	is a series of fantasy role-playing video games developed by Camelot Software Planning and published by Nintendo. Golden Sun follows the story of a group of magically-attuned "adepts" who are charged with preventing the potentially destructive power of alchemy from being released as it was in the past. Players navigate these characters through the game's world by defeating enemies, solving puzzles and completing assigned missions to complete the storyline. The original two games, Golden Sun and Golden Sun: The Lost Age, were released in 2001 and 2002, respectively, for the Game Boy Advance platform. A third game, Golden Sun: Dark Dawn, was released for the Nintendo DS platform in 2010. In Golden Sun, the player plays as protagonist Isaac and his companions as they set off into the world of Weyard to prevent a group of anti-heroes from releasing a mysterious power called "Alchemy" to the world. Golden Sun: The Lost Age follows the plight of the surviving members from the previous game's antagonists as they continue to pursue the release of Alchemy by means of lighting four elemental lighthouses. Golden Sun: Dark Dawn takes place thirty years later and follows the path of the descendants of the previous two games' heroes as they navigate a world adapting to the presence of Alchemy. The series has received a generally favorable reception by critics. The first Golden Sun game has been widely lauded as among the best games for the Game Boy Advance, with the first game receiving Nintendo Power's Best GBA Game of 2001 and ranking in IGN's Readers Choice Top 100 games ever, as number 94. The Lost Age performed even better than its predecessor, ranking 78 on IGN's Readers Choice Top 100 games ever. Dark Dawn, while still scoring highly on Metacritic's aggregation of critic scores, was less well received. Sales figures for the first two Golden Sun games exceeded one million in the United States and Japan, a figure that Dark Dawn failed to exceed. ## Common elements ### Setting Games in the Golden Sun series are set in the fictional world of Weyard, a flat and vaguely circular plane whose oceans perpetually spill off the edge of the world's entire perimeter into what seems to be an endless abyss. The first two installments, Golden Sun and The Lost Age, center around two groups of magically-attuned "adepts" who are alternately charged with achieving and preventing the release of a potentially destructive power known as Alchemy on the world. The force of Alchemy was prevalent in Weyard's ancient past, allowing for the development of great civilizations, but this eventually gave way to worldwide conflict that had subsided only with the sealing away of Alchemy. The keys to unlocking Alchemy, four magic jewels named the Elemental Stars, have been hidden within the mountain shrine, Mt. Aleph, which in turn has been guarded by the town of Vale at the mountain's base over the ages. The third installment, Dark Dawn, chronicles the events of Weyard thirty years after the return of Alchemy and the struggles the world's inhabitants face while adapting to their new reality. ### Gameplay In the Golden Sun games, players guide a cast of characters as they journey through a fantasy-themed world, interact with other characters, battle monsters, acquire increasingly powerful magic spells and equipment, and take part in a building, predefined narrative. Much of the game's time spent outside of battle takes place in dungeons, caves, and other locales, which generally require the player to find items that grant the bearer new forms of "Psynergy", or magical spells, in order to solve the puzzles integrated into their layout. To complete these puzzles, players must either push pillars to construct negotiable paths between elevated areas, climb up and rappel down cliffs or obtain a special item to progress through the story and game world. Outside of these dungeons and locales, the player must traverse through a large world map as they navigate between forests, rivers, mountain ranges, seas, and oceans. A key element in in-game exploration is the strategic use of the extensive pool of Psynergy spells available, which can be used both for battle and for solving puzzles in the game's locales. A portion of the game's Psynergy can only be used in combat; conversely, many spells are only used in the game's overworld and non-battle scenarios. At the same time, there are Psynergy spells can be used in both situations; for example, the "Whirlwind" spell that can be used to damage enemies in battle is also used out of battle to clear away overgrown foliage that may block the player's path. The player gains more Psynergy spells as the game progresses, both through leveling up and the acquisition of special Psynergy-bestowing items, and with each "utility" Psynergy spell the party gains access to more locations and secrets hidden in the game world. Regarding battle, Golden Sun games contain both random monster encounters, featuring randomly selected enemies, and compulsory battles involving set enemies, which advance the story. When a battle begins, a separate screen is brought up where the player's party and enemy party face-off on opposing sides. During a battle, the characters and the background rotate to give a pseudo-3D effect. Players can attack enemies directly using a variety of weapons and offensive Psynergy spells, or by summoning Djinn, powerful other-worldly entities that enhance an attached character's hit points, Psynergy points, and other statistics, as well as determining what Psynergy the character is able to perform. Djinn can be set to standby, where players forfeit stat enhancements in order to unleash a powerful one-time attack where the player summons an elemental monster to inflict damage on every enemy. ## Plot ### Golden Sun and The Lost Age Three years prior to the start of the game's main story, Saturos and Menardi raid Mt. Aleph with the intent to steal the Elemental Stars, but fail to solve the riddles guarding them and are driven away by the mountain's trap, a magically generated thunderstorm and rock slide. Three years later, Isaac, Garet, and Jenna join Kraden on his research trip to Mt. Aleph and manage to solve the shrine's puzzles and retrieve the Elemental Stars. They are ambushed by Saturos and Menardi, along with Felix, a previous resident of Vale who was kidnapped during the storms three years earlier. They kidnap Jenna and Kraden and take three of the four Elemental Stars and depart to light the four lighthouses and release Alchemy on the world. Isaac's party is joined by two other young adepts named Ivan and Mia, and together they pursue Saturos' party in a lengthy chase and journey that spans two continents, climaxing in a fierce battle that leads to Saturos and Menardi's death. With Saturos and Menardi dead, Felix convinces Jenna and Kraden to join him on a quest to complete Saturos' original objective to activate the two remaining lighthouses that he failed to light. Joined by new companions Sheba and Piers, Felix and his party embark on an epic expedition while pursued by Isaac's party. Eventually, Felix's party is able to achieve entrance into a legendary, secluded Atlantis-like society named Lemuria far out in the ocean. When they convene with Lemuria's ancient king, Hydros, they learn about Alchemy's true nature: it is the sustenance of Weyard's very life force, and its absence over the past ages has caused the world's continents to decrease in size and parts of the world to collapse into the abyss. Armed with this new information, Felix manages to persuade Isaac and his party to join them, and together they fulfill the goal of releasing Alchemy and preventing Weyard's eventual decay. ### Dark Dawn Thirty years after Isaac and his party of adepts return the power of Alchemy to Weyard, continents have shifted, new countries have emerged, and new species have appeared. However, Psynergy Vortexes, which suck the elemental Psynergy from both the land and the power-wielding Adepts, are appearing all over Weyard. The original games' heroes' descendants – Matthew, Karis, Rief, and Tyrell – set out to solve the mystery of the vortexes, and face a world adapting to the constant presence of psynergy. The game begins with Tyrell accidentally crashing one of Ivan's inventions, a Soarwing, so Isaac sends him out with Matthew and Karis to retrieve a feather of the mountain roc to build a new one. After meeting up with Kraden, Rief, and Nowell, they are ambushed by villains Blados, Chalis, and Arcanus and the party is separated. As Matthew's party travels across Weyard to reunite with Kraden and Nowell, they encounter a deadly eclipse heralded by the lighting of Luna Tower, causing suffering and destruction across the world. They manage to activate an ancient machine known as the Apollo's Lens to end the eclipse, and return home to discover a large Psynergy Vortex sitting ominously near their home. ## Development ### Conception The Golden Sun games were created by the Takahashi Brothers, consisting of Hiroyuki Takahashi and Shugo Takahashi, and produced by Camelot Software Planning. According to co-creator Shugo Takahashi, the series was conceived as a way for Nintendo to compete against Sony's PlayStation console, which dominated the role-playing game market at the time. As a handheld title, Golden Sun was originally planned as a single game, but due to both the hardware limitations of putting the entire game on a single Game Boy Advance cartridge and the developers' own desire for what they wanted to do with the game, it was expanded to become two successive games, Golden Sun and Golden Sun: The Lost Age. The Takahashi Brothers had previously designed Shining Force III, where the story involved playing through the perspectives of both the "good" side and the "bad" side of the characters. Thinking that it was an effective way of conveying the full story of a fictional game world, they incorporated elements of this storytelling methodology into the two-game setup of the Golden Sun series, having the player control the "good guys" in Golden Sun and members of the antagonistic party in The Lost Age. ### History Originally, Camelot planned to create a single title instead of a series, and in the extremely early stages of their project they had created a game design document for the one Golden Sun game to be on the Nintendo 64 console. When it became apparent the N64 was to be superseded by the GameCube, Camelot shifted their focus to making a game on the handheld Game Boy Advance. Golden Sun games generally have longer development cycles than their peer games on similar consoles due to the series' complex gameplay mechanisms and storylines. Golden Sun, the first game in the series, underwent a development cycle of between twelve and eighteen months by Camelot Software Planning, which is considered a long period of time for the development of a handheld video game, and was described as a "testament" to the positive results a long development cycle can bring to a game. It was shown in early, playable form at the Nintendo Space World Expo in Japan in August 2000. North American previewers received the game a few weeks before the release, and IGN noted that the experience of developing Shining Force for Sega helped Camelot develop a gripping RPG for the handheld. The Lost Age was first revealed to Japan in early 2002, with the magazine Famitsu being the first publication to review the game. The Lost Age was highly anticipated; it topped IGN's list of Game Boy Advance "Most Wanted" games for 2003. The North American version of the game was playable at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2002, and IGN noted that the opening of the game did away with the slow opening sequence of Golden Sun, introducing the characters in between the action. GameSpot previewed a localized copy of The Lost Age in February 2003, and noted that the game built on its predecessor's graphics engine, with "the environments in the game featuring rich detail with little touches— such as birds that fly off as you approach." Golden Sun: Dark Dawn was first revealed and introduced at the Nintendo E3 2009 conference by Nintendo of America president, Reggie Fils-Aimé, as a series that "went dark six years ago" but has since been revisited and polished up for the Nintendo DS. The game received a larger development team than previous installments, giving the team luxuries such as visiting UNESCO World Heritage Sites for inspiration. In an interview with Nintendo Gamer in June 2012, series producer Hiroyuki Takahashi spoke about the possibility of a fourth Golden Sun game; "A big reason for us making RPGs comes from the requests from all the people who have enjoyed our RPGs in the past. Perhaps if there are enough Nintendo users asking for another game in the Golden Sun series, then this will naturally lead to the development of such a game." ### Music The series' original music was composed by Motoi Sakuraba, and his score for the first game in his series was his first attempt at composing music for the Game Boy Advance. The new technology offered by the console encouraged Sakuraba to attempt new styles, resulting in subtle rock influences in the series' music The collection of orchestral pieces that Sakuraba contributed to the series include an overworld theme, several battle themes that play during fight sequences, and a variety of individual themes for the games' various towns and other locales. Sakuraba returned to score both The Lost Age and Dark Dawn, with the latter released on a new platform with updated hardware. According to Sakuraba, the "sound design" for Dark Dawn was different and he preferred the music in the first two games. He has also expressed a desire for an official soundtrack release of the series' music. Sakuraba also contributed songs to two games in the Super Smash Bros. franchise, among which two were adapted from his works in The Lost Age and Dark Dawn. ## In other media Elements from the Golden Sun games have made appearances in other media. Isaac, the main protagonist of the original Golden Sun game, is an unlockable "Assist Trophy" character in the Nintendo fighting game Super Smash Bros. Brawl. When he is summoned during battle by an Assist Trophy item, Isaac uses Psynergy to conjure a large hand three times in succession to shove the player's opponents off the stage. Should enemies attempt to evade, Isaac will turn in sync to attack a selected opponent. In addition, a medley of music from The Lost Age was selected to be on Brawl'''s soundtrack. The game's sequel, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, did not feature Isaac but The Lost Age medley was featured along with the world map theme from Dark Dawn. However, Super Smash Bros. Ultimate marks Isaac's return to the series as an Assist Trophy, where he now is able to use more advanced tactics in battle and can now be fought, and a costume inspired by him for the Mii Swordfighter was developed. The game also features characters from all 3 titles as spirits including the adult Isaac from Dark Dawn. Despite his absence as a playable character currently in the game, he is generally ranked as one of the most requested characters in Smash's history. The characters from the first Golden Sun game also appear in a self-published doujinshi manga titled "Golden Sun 4-Koma Gag Battle", drawn by various artists and published by Kobunsha. It was released four months after the first game came out and is not officially sanctioned by Camelot. As a result, the manga was only released in Japan. ## Reception The original game sold 740,000 copies in the United States and 338,000 in Japan, while The Lost Age sold 437,000 and 249,000 units in the United States and Japan, respectively. In total, both games sold 1.65 million and 1.12 million respectively, with European sales contributing 572,000 and 434,000. By the end of 2012, two years after its release, Dark Dawn only sold 80,000 units in Japan. The series was met with many positive reviews. Reviewers praised the series' vibrant graphics, high-quality sound, and varied, refined RPG gameplay, with particular optimism on the Djinn-based gameplay system and Battle aspect despite the fact that the original two games were limited to the 32-bit cartridge. GamePro raved that Golden Sun was "A huge, fantastic, creative, and wickedly fun RPG that doesn't seem to care that it's 'just' on a GBA," while they praised that The Lost Age's eye-popping magic effects are beautiful even by console standards. IGN, meanwhile, praised the plot's intricate structure, saying that it "has been so tightly integrated into every ounce of the adventure... such a rich and deep plot that it's almost easy to get lost if you're not paying attention." 1UP praised Dark Dawn as being a huge step forward in terms of pacing and graphics compared to the previous games. Critics complained that the combat system lacked "smart" combat; if an enemy is killed before other party members attack it, those members switch to defense instead of intelligently attacking the remaining enemies. They also took issue to the long opening sequences in both games that "alienated new players" and "confused them by swamping them with new characters". In addition, some faulted Golden Sun for still relying on the traditional "wander around, get into a random battle, win battle, wander around, random battle, etc." theme evident in many role-playing games. 1UP faulted Camelot for being unwilling to "trim its fat", and noted that all three games in the series "tend to ramble on anytime dialogue boxes start to show up. Its heroes and villains have an uncanny knack for saying incredibly simple things with about three or four times the words they actually need to convey those ideas." Game Informer noted that the difficulty of Dark Dawn was greatly dumbed down compared to previous installments and complained that "characters level up at blazing speeds" while the djinn make "even the longest boss battles a cakewalk." In 2001, Golden Sun won the Nintendo Power Award for best Game Boy Advance game of the year. Golden Sun was ranked 94 and The Lost Age was ranked 78 on IGN's Readers Choice Top 100 games ever. In 2007, Golden Sun'' was named 24th best Game Boy Advance game of all time in IGN's feature reflecting on the Game Boy Advance's long lifespan, and its Game of the Month for April 2003 due to its "amazing graphics and sound presentation, as well as a quest that lasts for more than thirty hours." ## See also - List of best-selling Japanese role-playing game franchises
21,776,766	Scary Monsters (The X-Files)	1,161,329,059	null	[ "2002 American television episodes", "Television episodes about insects", "Television episodes about psychic powers", "Television episodes set in Pennsylvania", "Television episodes set in Virginia", "The X-Files (season 9) episodes" ]	"Scary Monsters" is the fourteenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It originally aired on the Fox network on April 14, 2002. It was written by Thomas Schnauz and directed by Dwight H. Little. The episode is a "monster-of-the-week" episode, a stand-alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology, or overarching fictional history, of The X-Files. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5.1 and was viewed by 8.2 million viewers in its initial broadcast. It received mixed to positive reviews from television critics. The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett (Robert Patrick), Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish), and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson). In this episode, Special Agent Leyla Harrison (Jolie Jenkins) takes Reyes and Doggett on a drive into the mountains after a woman stabs herself repeatedly and her widowed husband refuses to let anyone see their son. The three soon discover that the boy's imagination can bring killer bug-like creatures to life. The idea for "Scary Monsters" stemmed from an idea that became the episode's teaser. Fellow writer Vince Gilligan suggested making Tommy the episode's villain. Originally, the story featured Doggett and Reyes investigating the case with a new agent. Executive producer Frank Spotnitz suggested to Schnauz that the new FBI agent should be Leyla Harrison, played by Jolie Jenkins, who had first appeared in the Spotnitz-penned eighth season episode "Alone". The writing staff used Leyla's character to comment on the state of the show and, most notably, the members of the audience who preferred Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) over Doggett. ## Plot In his room in Fairhope, Pennsylvania, Tommy Conlon (Gavin Fink) believes he sees a monster reflected in his mirror. He calls for his dad, Jeffrey Conlon (Scott Paulin), who looks under the bed and sees a crawling bug-like creature. He lies to his son, telling him that he sees nothing, and tells Tommy to go back to sleep. Tommy sees the creature again and calls for his dad; Jeffrey holds the door shut as Tommy bangs on the door. Meanwhile, Agent Leyla Harrison (Jolie Jenkins) tells Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) about a woman who stabbed herself repeatedly. Harrison insists that the case is an X-File and that the woman was killed by monsters that her son Tommy saw. She also believes that the monster killed the family cat, Spanky. Scully dismisses Harrison's claims, so Harrison dupes John Doggett (Robert Patrick) and Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish) into investigating. Doggett, Reyes, and Harrison arrive at the Conlon residence in Fairhope, Pennsylvania. The agents talk to Tommy and conclude that something is going on. They soon discover that their car will not start. Back at her apartment, Scully is visited by Gabe Rotter (Brian Poth), a potential suitor of Harrison's. He presents Scully with the corpse of Spanky. Scully does an ad hoc necropsy and concludes that the cat bit its stomach open to try to get something out. She also discovers a cavity, where it appears something had lived inside the cat. Doggett, Reyes, and Harrison camp out at the Conlon's house and soon witness the monsters: large, silverfish-like creatures that multiply when shot by Doggett. Alerted by Scully, the local sheriff (Steve Ryan) arrives, but a scuffle ensues. The sheriff draws a gun, and Doggett gut punches him, only to have his hand go completely through the man's stomach. Upon investigation, Reyes is unable to find any organs in the man's body. Tommy shows Reyes the pictures he has been drawing. They include the sheriff with a gun, insect creatures, and Reyes with an insect creature bursting from her body. Reyes asks Tommy why he would imagine such things, and Tommy replies because he is very scared. Suddenly, the sheriff's body disappears, and Reyes doubles over in pain. Doggett and Harrison pull up her shirt to reveal movement in her abdomen, as if something is trying to get out. Harrison then begins to bleed from her eyes. Doggett approaches Tommy, orders him to stop, and follows him down the hall when he fails to stop. Doggett follows Tommy into a room, but plummets into a blackened abyss where he is attacked by the insects. However, due to Doggett's skepticism, he is able to fight off the illusion. Because he does not believe they are real, they cease to be real. Doggett explains to Jeffrey that all of the creatures are imaginary and are produced by Tommy's imagination. This includes the bugs, the "sheriff" who had no organs, and Reyes's and Harrison's ailments. Jeffrey's wife and their cat Spanky killed themselves trying to remove the insect creatures, believing they were real. Doggett tricks and subdues Tommy by pretending to set the house on fire. He pours a gas canister filled with water over the floor and furniture, acting as though it is gasoline. Because Tommy believes it to be real, when Doggett lights a match, he sees an inferno surrounding him in the living room. Tommy passes out in fear. Tommy is eventually transported to a psychiatric ward where his imagination is suppressed by watching a wall of television screens. ## Production ### Writing "Scary Monsters" was written by Thomas Schnauz, who had previously penned the ninth-season episode "Lord of the Flies". The entry was directed by Dwight H. Little, his first and only directing credit for the series. Schnauz explained that before the episode was green-lit, the writing staff needed to get the script done as quickly as possibly, but Schnauz only had the teaser conceived. When he went to pitch it, he even had a "whole other story that wasn't working." Fellow writer Vince Gilligan suggested that Shnauz make the child the root of all of the episode's problems. However, the writing staff did not want the story to develop into a "kid-in-the-cornfield" territory, according to Gilligan (a reference to a 1961 episode of The Twilight Zone entitled "It's a Good Life", in which a monster-child can control the world. When the writers began to piece the script together, they realized that they needed a villain, and the only character that could play the part would be Tommy. ### Filming Schnauz's original story featured Doggett and Reyes investigating the case with a new agent. Executive producer Frank Spotnitz suggested to Schnauz that the new FBI agent should be Leyla Harrison, played by Jolie Jenkins. Harrison, who had first appeared in the Spotnitz-penned eighth season episode "Alone", was created and named in memory of an Internet fan of The X-Files and prolific writer of fan fiction of the same name, who had died of cancer on February 10, 2001. Jenkins' character, according to Spotnitz, brought out the "Clint [Eastwood]" in Robert Patrick's character John Doggett and her performance was called "near perfection" by Spotnitz during the audio commentary for "Alone". Near the end of "Scary Monsters", Leyla and Gabe Rotter were supposed to walk off-screen, holding hands, which prompted series director Kim Manners to sardonically ask "when did this turn into the fucking Brady Bunch?" The sequence was subsequently cut. The writing staff used Leyla's character to comment on the state of the show and, most notably, the members of the audience who preferred Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) over Doggett. Due to Harrison's extensive knowledge of the X-Files, the episode contains several references to previous episodes. Harrison suggests early on that Doggett and Reyes may be dealing with a person capable of channeling electricity, a reference to the third season episode "D.P.O." Doggett later suggests that the three of them may be experiencing some sort of hallucination, and cites the events in the sixth season episode "Field Trip" as an example. Finally, when Tommy shows Reyes his drawing, he tells her "I made this", a possible reference to the tagline at the end of every Ten Thirteen Production. During the filming of the episode, The X-Files was canceled by the Fox network, meaning that the show would not return for a tenth season. Robert Patrick explained that series creator Chris Carter watched him film a scene—an act which he had reportedly not done since Patrick had been hired in 2000—and then informed him of the news. Patrick noted that Fox's new show 24 was being heavily promoted instead of The X-Files, an act which he felt was like being "abandoned by Fox". ## Broadcast and reception "Scary Monsters" originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 14, 2002, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 16, 2003. The episode's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5.4 million households and 8.2 million viewers, making it the fifty-seventh most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending January 27. "Scary Monsters" earned a Nielsen household rating of 5.1, meaning that it was seen by 5.1% of the nation's estimated households. The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics. Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity awarded the episode a "C−" grade. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode four stars out of five. The two enjoyed Schnauz's script, calling it "better than most" of season nine's episodes, and noted that he wrote it with "pace and wit". They noted, however, that the entry's self-references "feel like carping [...] at the audience who are still left to complain." Despite this, Shearman and Pearson also positively critiqued several of the episode's juxtapositions, such as the scene featuring Scully performing an autopsy on a cat while wearing a kitchen apron that says "something smells goooood", calling them "the funniest of the season". M.A. Crang, in his book Denying the Truth: Revisiting The X-Files after 9/11, called the episode a "solid little entry", saying that it was a "nice spin on the isolation stories that the series has always done so effectively".
25,085,707	Early life of Ricky Ponting	1,111,876,423	Australian international cricketer	[ "Australian cricketers", "Early lives by sportspeople" ]	Ricky Ponting is a former Australian international cricketer who was born on 19 December 1974. He made his One Day International (ODI) debut for the Australian cricket team against the South Africa cricket team in New Zealand at the age of 20 on 15 February 1995. The eldest of three children, Ponting emulated the feats of his father, playing cricket in summer and Australian rules football in winter, before breaking his arm while playing the latter sport for a junior North Launceston Football Club team as a 14-year-old. He was educated in the Tasmanian state school system, studying at Mowbray Heights Primary and Brooks High School. Ponting received a bat sponsorship with Kookaburra Sport at 14, before being acclaimed the best 17-year-old batsman that Australian Cricket Academy coach Rod Marsh had ever seen. At 17 years and 337 days, Ponting made his first-class cricket debut for Tasmania, breaking David Boon's record as the youngest player to represent the state. Later in the season, he became the youngest Tasmanian to score a first-class century at 18 years and 40 days, eclipsing Boon's record of 19 years and 356 days. Further into the 1992–93 season, Ponting scored two centuries in a match against Western Australia—the youngest player in Sheffield Shield history to do so. He played non-international games against national teams for Australia A in the 1994–95 World Series Cup, before making his Australian debut. ## Birth Born in Launceston, Tasmania, on 19 December 1974, Ricky Thomas Ponting is the eldest of Graeme and Lorraine Ponting's three children. His brother Drew is two years younger, while sister Renee was born when Ponting was six. Their uncle Greg Campbell played cricket for Australia in 1989 and 1990. Graeme was "a good club cricketer" and played Australian rules, while Lorraine was a state vigoro champion. "Fiercely contested" in the 1950s and 1960s, vigoro is a mix between cricket and baseball, primarily played in the Australian states of Tasmania, New South Wales and Queensland. Ponting's parents first lived in Prospect 4.1 km (2.5 mi) south of the city centre, before moving into the working-class area of Newnham, 6 km (3.7 mi) north of central Launceston. The suburb is near York Park, Tasmania's largest capacity stadium. Residents of the area were generally known as "swampies" because the land was previously swamp on the banks of the Tamar River. ## Junior ranks Introduced to cricket by father Graeme and uncle Greg, Ponting was able to play for the Mowbray Under–13s team at the age of 11 in 1985–86. In January 1986, he took part in the five-day annual Northern Tasmania junior cricket competition. On the Monday, he struggled to trouble the scorers, however, he bounced back with a century on Tuesday. Wednesday saw him make 117 not out and he continued his form into Thursday and Friday, scoring centuries on both days. Afterwards, bat manufacturer Kookaburra gave Ponting a sponsorship contract when he was still only 14 years old. Ponting took this form into the Under-16s week-long competition less than a month later, scoring an even century on the final day. Ted Richardson, the former head of the Northern Tasmanian Schools Cricket Association said: "Ricky is certainly the equal of David Boon at this level. At his age he's the best I've seen in the north. His technique, application, and temperament are all excellent and he has the modesty he will need to progress further." Australian Rules football was also a big part of Ponting's sporting life; during winter he played junior football for North Launceston and until he was 14, it could have become a possible sporting option, before he broke the humerus in his right arm playing for North Launceston Under–17s. Ponting's arm was so badly damaged that it had to be pinned. Told to endure a 14-week lay-off, he never played competitive football again. He later wrote: "At one stage I was concerned that the arm injury might also stop me from playing cricket but they [the doctors] did a pretty good job on pinning the bones—and it hasn't bothered me since." In 1986, Ponting said: "I'd love to play for Australia [...] I look up to David Boon because he's from here [Launceston]." During Tasmanian Sheffield Shield matches at the Northern Tasmanian Cricket Association Ground (NTCA Ground), Ponting served as a scoreboard assistant, thereby surrounding himself with first-class and international cricketers. After leaving school at the end of Year 10 as a 16-year-old in 1990, he began work as a groundsman at Scotch Oakburn College, a private school in Launceston. In 1991, the Northern Tasmanian Cricket Association sponsored Ponting so that he could attend a fortnight's training at the Australian Institute of Sport's Cricket Academy in Adelaide. The two weeks turned into a full two-year scholarship as he was acclaimed to be the best 17-year-old batsman Academy coach Rod Marsh had ever seen. Playing five games for Tasmania in the 1992 Under–19 tournament in Perth, Ponting scored 350 runs, earning him selection in the 13-man national Under–19 development squad for the upcoming tour of South Africa—the first Australian cricket team to make an official tour to the country since Bill Lawry's team in 1970; South Africa were banned from international sport soon after because of their government's policy of apartheid, and were not readmitted until the 1990s. Under the captaincy of Adam Gilchrist, the Australians played four one-day and four three-day games, winning five and drawing three. Ponting scored 430 runs at an average of 45.67. Later recalling the excitement of the experience, Ponting wrote: > It dawned on me when I was being fitted for my traveling uniform that I was about to represent my country. When that hit home it was a very proud moment in my life. Even though it was not a real representative tour it felt like it to me [...] It wasn't until we all gathered at the airport that I got the real rush of excitement because there I was, this sixteen year-old kid about to take off and play cricket in a strange country, and from what we had been told it would be in conditions like we had never experienced before. We were all excited with the prospect of taking on the South Africans and we had been told about the wickets being bouncy and fast, similar to the WACA strip in Perth. ## Early Australian domestic career After scoring 114 not out in a club match against Riverside, Ponting became the youngest player to appear for Tasmania in a Sheffield Shield match, breaking Boon's record by 14 days. In November 1992, at the age of 17 years and 337 days, he batted at number four in the order against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval. Despite scoring 56 in a 127-run partnership with Boon, he could not prevent defeat, scoring just four in Tasmania's second innings. In his first match in Tasmania—this time against New South Wales—Ponting contributed 32 and 18 in a draw, before scoring 25 against Western Australia in a narrow loss. His first match in Sydney also marked the debut of future Australian opening bowler Glenn McGrath. At the end of the first day's play, Tasmania were 6/200, and Ponting was the only player to resist, reaching 98 not out. He eventually reached three figures the next morning, having endured three rain breaks and 54 minutes in the nineties. The century made him the youngest Tasmanian to score a first-class century, at 18 years and 40 days, eclipsing Boon's record of 19 years and 356 days. The next day he spoke about the achievement: "I knew I had to be patient and wait for it to come [...] I wasn't that nervous last night, but I was a bit nervous this morning." Dismissed for 125 out of a total of 298, Ponting scored 17 boundaries in his five-and-a-half-hour stay at the crease. Coach Greg Shipperd was impressed in what he saw: "It was an excellent innings, one of classical stroke play. The way he freely put together a good, solid innings, showed that his potential is being realised. It was an indication, for him, of what it's like to go the extra step." These performances lead Ponting to his List A debut on 13 December against Victoria in Devonport. He struggled, however, scoring 22 from 45 balls in Tasmania's defeat. His form, nonetheless, remained strong in first-class cricket, scoring another half-century, Ponting scored back-to-back centuries against Western Australia in Perth, the nation's fastest wicket, thus becoming the youngest batsmen in Shield history to score two centuries in a match. After setting a goal of scoring 500 first-class runs in the season, Ponting finished with 781 runs at 48.81. But his form in List A games were not as strong, aggregating 99 at 33 in four matches. Still, Ponting hit an unbeaten 59 from 52 balls against a touring England A side in Hobart. After the season's end, still aged 18, Ponting played seven four-day games for the Australian Academy, scoring 484 runs at 96.70. Speculation ignited that Ponting was an outsider to be selected for the Australian squad on their 1993 tour to England. Of the speculation, Ponting said "At the start of the season I was wondering whether or not I'd play Shield cricket this year and all of a sudden there's talk in the papers that I'm a chance go on an Australian tour of England. I think it's way out of reach – there are blokes like [South Australian] Jamie Siddons who have scored 20 or 30 first-class centuries who are ahead of me. Nevertheless, Shipperd thought Ponting could handle the experience: "A lot of attention affects different people in different ways, but Ricky is such a well-rounded young fella that it hasn't changed him. I've told him to enjoy the all the attention and if he just keeps on being himself I'm sure he'll cope well with all the success that I imagine he will achieve." The selectors eventually chose Western Australian batsman Damien Martyn for the tour, with Ponting selected in the Academy squad captained by Justin Langer, which toured India and Sri Lanka for seven games in August and September in 1993. Australian success was limited, with only a few wins. No batsman scored a century, but Ponting reached 99 not out in a one-day game in Colombo. He finished the tour second highest in the run-scorers behind Langer. Before the start of the 1993–94 Sheffield Shield season, Ponting spoke of his goals for the summer. "I've got myself the goal of making 1,000 runs in the season. Hopefully, I can stay in the middle long enough or do that. You can't worry about other people's expectation. I don't care at all what is written in the press. I like to read it but it doesn't go too far into my head." In Tasmania's final round-robin match of the season, they needed to defeat South Australia outright to qualify for the final. Set 366 runs to win in 102 overs, Ponting joined Dene Hills at the crease with the score at 2/35. Ponting scored 161 in a 290-run partnership that ended with Tasmania needing just 41 runs for victory. Despite Tasmania losing four quick wickets after his dismissal, they won with four wickets in hand. Disappointingly for Ponting, he could not repeat the performance in the final against New South Wales. He scored just one and 28, as Tasmania were defeated by an innings and 61 runs. The season saw Ponting score 965 runs at 48.25, close to his 1,000 run goal. A month after the final, he was again selected for the Academy squad for three limited overs matches against a touring Indian team. Queenslander Stuart Law captained the Australian side that included former Australian keeper Rod Marsh. In Australia's victory in the first match in Canberra, Ponting top-scored with 71, before making 52 in a victory in Sydney. The last match was also successful for the home team, with Ponting not required to bat. Ponting started his 1994–95 campaign with a century against eventual Shield champions Queensland in Brisbane, in a performance that impressed Queensland captain Allan Border, who had just retired from international cricket after leading the national team for a decade. Border said of Ponting: "He's just an outstanding prospect. The thing I like about him is he's very aggressive, he plays all the shots, he's equally at home on the front foot as the back foot. He cuts and pulls well, and he drives well. You don't often see that, the ability to get on [the] front foot and back foot and play equally well." Speculation once again arose that Ponting could be selected for the upcoming tour to the West Indies. When Tasmania played Western Australia at Bellerive Oval on 4 November 1994, Ponting was 117 not out at stumps. That century was his fifth successive triple-figure score against Western Australia; Sir Donald Bradman is the only other batsman to score five consecutive centuries against another state in Shield history. He continued to 211, sharing a 319-run stand with captain Rod Tucker in the process. Ten days after the double century, Ponting was named in the Australian XI to play England at Bellerive Oval in a match that was used as practice for fringe Australian players before the upcoming series in the West Indies. Future Australian representatives Matthew Hayden, Langer, Greg Blewett and Martyn were also selected. In a drawn match, Ponting compiled a half-century, but Martyn scored a century. A fourth team was introduced to the World Series Cup in 1994–95—Australia A—for the only time. The Australian selectors re-shuffled both teams so that some players stepped up from the A team to the main Australian team, and vice versa, during the competition, depending on their performance. The Australian captain Mark Taylor was not a fan of the innovation: "... out there, on the field there was an ultra-competitive attitude by blokes of both teams, spurred on by the crows who were predominately [sic]barracking for against Australia and supporting the underdog Australia A, who were pepped up and firing. Of course it gave the Australia A guys a chance to break into the Australian team, but to me the focus of the summer was on beating the Poms [England] in the Tests and winning the World Series, not beating our own Australian mates." Despite the negative feedback, the concept gave Ponting a chance on the international stage, and he scored 161 runs at 26.83 with one half-century. Two weeks after the World Series, Ponting was selected in the squad for the upcoming one-day tri-series involving South Africa, India and hosts New Zealand. Trent Bouts, a cricket writer for The Australian said: "His selection at age 20 would normally represent a bold gamble on youth but so precocious are his talents it amounts to a routine progression." Ponting made his ODI debut against South Africa at the Basin Reserve in Wellington on 15 February 1995.
8,078,887	Roza Shanina	1,168,074,241	Soviet World War II sniper (1924–1945)	[ "1924 births", "1945 deaths", "People from Ustyansky District", "Recipients of the Medal \"For Courage\" (Russia)", "Recipients of the Order of Glory", "Russian people of World War II", "Soviet military personnel killed in World War II", "Soviet military snipers", "Women in the Russian and Soviet military" ]	Roza Georgiyevna Shanina (Russian: Ро́за Гео́ргиевна Ша́нина, ; 3 April 1924 – 28 January 1945) was a Soviet sniper during World War II who was credited with over 50 kills. Shanina volunteered for the military after the death of her brother in 1941 and chose to be a sniper on the front line. Praised for her shooting accuracy, Shanina was capable of precisely hitting enemy personnel and making doublets (two target hits by two rounds fired in quick succession). In 1944, a Canadian newspaper described Shanina as "the unseen terror of East Prussia". She became the first servicewoman of the 3rd Belorussian Front to receive the Order of Glory. Shanina was killed in action during the East Prussian Offensive while shielding the severely wounded commander of an artillery unit. Shanina's actions received praise during her lifetime, but conflicted with the Soviet policy of sparing snipers from heavy battles. Her combat diary was first published in 1965. ## Early life Roza Shanina was born on 3 April 1924 in the Russian village of Edma in Arkhangelsk Oblast to Anna Alexeyevna Shanina, a kolkhoz milkmaid, and Georgiy (Yegor) Mikhailovich Shanin, a logger who had been disabled by a wound received during World War I. Roza was reportedly named after the Marxist revolutionary Rosa Luxemburg and had six siblings: one sister Yuliya and five brothers: Mikhail, Fyodor, Sergei, Pavel, and Marat. The Shanins also raised three orphans. Roza was above average height, with light brown hair and blue eyes, and spoke in a Northern Russian dialect. After finishing four classes of elementary school in Yedma, Shanina continued her education in the village of Bereznik. As there was no school transport at the time, when she was in grades five through seven Roza had to walk 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) to Bereznik to attend middle school. On Saturdays, Shanina again went to Bereznik to take care of her ill aunt Agnia Borisova. At the age of fourteen, Shanina, against her parents' wishes, walked 200 kilometres (120 mi) across the taiga to the rail station and travelled to Arkhangelsk to study at the college there. (The trek was later attested by Shanina's school teacher Alexander Makaryin.) Shanina left home with little money and almost no possessions; and before moving to the college dormitory she lived with her elder brother Fyodor. Later in her combat diary, Shanina would recall Arkhangelsk's stadium Dinamo, and the cinemas, Ars and Pobeda. Shanina's friend Anna Samsonova remembered that Roza sometimes returned from her friends in Ustyansky District to her college dormitory between 2:00 and 3:00 am. As the doors were locked by that time, the other students tied several bedsheets together to help Roza climb into her room. In 1938, Shanina became a member of the Soviet youth movement Komsomol. Two years later, Soviet secondary education institutes introduced tuition fees, and the scholarship fund was cut. Shanina received little financial support from home and on 11 September 1941, she took a job in kindergarten No. 2 (lately known as Beryozka) in Arkhangelsk, with which she was offered a free apartment. She studied in the evenings and worked in the kindergarten during the daytime. The children liked Shanina and their parents appreciated her. Shanina graduated from college in the 1941–42 academic year, when the Soviet Union was in the grip of World War II. ## Tour of duty Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Arkhangelsk was bombed by the Luftwaffe, and Shanina and other townspeople were involved in firefighting and mounted voluntary vigils on rooftops to protect the kindergarten. Shanina's two elder brothers had volunteered for the military. In December 1941, a death notification was received for her 19-year-old brother Mikhail, who had died during the siege of Leningrad. In response, Shanina went to the military commissariat to ask for permission to serve. Two more of Shanina's brothers died in the war. At that time the Soviet Union had begun deploying female snipers because they had flexible limbs, and it was believed that they were patient, careful and cunning. In February 1942, Soviet women between the ages of 16 and 45 became eligible for the military draft, but Shanina was not drafted that month, as the local military commissariat wanted to spare her from the draft. She first learned to shoot at a shooting range. On 22 June 1942, while still living in the dormitory, Shanina was accepted into the Vsevobuch program for universal military training. After Shanina's several applications, the military commissariat finally allowed her to enroll in the Central Women’s Sniper Training School, where she met Aleksandra "Sasha" Yekimova and Kaleriya "Kalya" Petrova, who became her closest friends, with Shanina calling them "the vagrant three". Honed to a fine point, Shanina scored highly in training and graduated from the academy with honours. She was asked to stay as an instructor there, but refused due to a call of duty. In 1941–1945 a total of 2,484 Soviet female snipers were deployed for the war and their combined tally of kills is estimated to be at least 11,280. After the momentous victory in the Battle of Stalingrad, the Soviets mounted nationwide counter-offensives and Shanina on 2 April 1944 joined the 184th Rifle Division, where a separate female sniper platoon had been formed. Shanina was appointed a commander of that platoon. Three days later, southeast of Vitebsk, Shanina killed her first German soldier. In Shanina's own words, recorded by an anonymous author, her legs gave way after that first encounter and she slid down into the trench, saying, "I've killed a man." Concerned, the other women ran up saying, "That was a fascist you finished off!" Seven months later, Shanina wrote in her diary that she was now killing the enemy in cold blood and saw the meaning of her life in her actions. She wrote that if she had to do everything over again, she would still strive to enter the sniper academy and go to the front again. For her actions in the battle for the village of Kozyi Gory (Smolensk Oblast), Shanina was awarded her first military decoration, the Order of Glory 3rd Class, on 18 April 1944. She became the first servicewoman of the 3rd Belorussian Front to receive that order. According to the report of Major Degtyarev (the commander of the 1138th Rifle Regiment), she received the award for the corresponding commendation list, between 6 and 11 April Shanina killed 13 enemy soldiers while subjected to artillery and machine gun fire. By May 1944, her sniper tally increased to 17 confirmed enemy kills, and Shanina was praised as a precise and brave soldier. The same year, on 9 June, Shanina's portrait was featured on the front page of the Soviet newspaper Unichtozhim Vraga. When Operation Bagration commenced in the Vitebsk region on 22 June 1944, it was decided that female snipers would be withdrawn. They voluntarily continued to support the advancing infantry anyway, and despite the Soviet policy of sparing snipers, Shanina asked to be sent to the front line. Although her request was refused, she went anyway. Shanina was later sanctioned for going to the front line without permission, but did not face a court martial. She wanted to be attached to a battalion or a reconnaissance company, turning to the commander of the 5th Army, Nikolai Krylov. Shanina also wrote twice to Joseph Stalin with the same request. From 26 to 28 June 1944, Shanina participated in the elimination of the encircled German troops near Vitebsk during the Vitebsk–Orsha Offensive. As the Soviet army advanced further westward, from 8 to 13 July of the same year, Shanina and her sisters-in-arms took part in the battle for Vilnius, which had been under German occupation since 24 June 1941. The Germans were finally driven out from Vilnius on 13 July 1944. During the Soviet summer offensives of that year Shanina managed to capture three Germans. From her time at the military academy, Shanina became known for her ability to score doublets (two target hits made in quick succession). During one period she crawled through a muddy communications trench each day at dawn to a specially camouflaged pit which overlooked German-controlled territory. She wrote, "the unconditional requirement—to outwit the enemy and kill him—became an irrevocable law of my hunt". Shanina successfully used counter-sniper tactics against a German cuckoo sniper hidden in a tree, by waiting until dusk when the space between the tree branches would be backlit by sunlight and the sniper's nest became visible. On one occasion, Shanina also made use of selective fire from a submachine gun. ### Diary Shanina enjoyed writing and would often send letters to her home village and to her friends in Arkhangelsk. She started writing a combat diary; although diaries were strictly prohibited in the Soviet military, there were some furtive exceptions, such as The Front Diary of Izrael Kukuyev and The Chronicle of War of Muzagit Hayrutdinov. To preserve military secrecy, Shanina termed the killed and wounded "blacks" and "reds" respectively in her diary. Shanina kept the diary from 6 October 1944 to 24 January 1945. After Shanina's death, the diary, consisting of three thick notebooks, was kept by the war correspondent Pyotr Molchanov for twenty years in Kyiv. An abridged version was published in the magazine Yunost in 1965, and the diary was transferred to the Regional Museum of Arkhangelsk Oblast. Several of Shanina's letters and some data from her sniper log have also been published. ### East Prussia In August 1944, advancing Soviet troops had reached the Soviet border with East Prussia and by 31 August of that year Shanina's battle count reached 42 kills. The following month the Šešupė River was crossed. Shanina's 184th Rifle Division became the first Soviet unit to enter East Prussia. At that time, two Canadian newspapers, the Ottawa Citizen and Leader-Post, reported that according to an official dispatch from the Šešupė River front, Shanina killed five Germans in one day as she crouched in a sniper hideout. Later in September, her sniper tally had reached 46 kills, of which 15 were made on German soil and seven during an offensive. On 17 September, Unichtozhim Vraga credited Shanina with 51 hits. In the third quarter of 1944, Shanina was given a short furlough and visited Arkhangelsk. She returned to the front on 17 October for one day, and later received an honourable certificate from the Central Committee of Komsomol. On 16 September 1944, Shanina was awarded her second military distinction, the Order of Glory 2nd Class for intrepidity and bravery displayed in various battles against the Germans in that year. On 26 October 1944 Shanina became eligible for the Order of Glory 1st Class for her actions in a battle near Schlossberg (now Dobrovolsk), but ultimately received the Medal for Courage instead. She was among the first female snipers to receive the Medal for Courage. Shanina was awarded the medal on 27 December for the gallant posture displayed during a German counter-offensive on 26 October. There Shanina fought together with Captain Igor Aseyev, a Hero of the Soviet Union, and witnessed his death on 26 October. Shanina, who served as an assistant platoon commander, was ordered to commit the female snipers to combat. Schlossberg was finally retaken from Germans by the troops of the 3rd Belorussian Front on 16 January 1945 during the Insterburg–Königsberg Operation. On 12 December 1944, an enemy sniper shot Shanina in her right shoulder. She wrote in her diary that she had not felt the pain, "the shoulder was just scalded with something hot." Although the injury, which Shanina described as "two small holes", seemed minor to her, she needed an operation and was incapacitated for several days. She reported in her diary that the previous day she had a prophetic dream in which she was wounded in exactly the same place. On 8 January 1945, Nikolai Krylov formally allowed Shanina to participate in front-line combat, albeit with great reluctance: previously Shanina was denied that permission by the commander of the 184th Rifle Division and the military council of the 5th Army as well. Five days later, the Soviets launched the East Prussian Offensive, which prompted heavy fighting in East Prussia. By 15 January, travelling with divisional logistics, Shanina reached the East Prussian town of Eydtkuhnen (now Chernyshevskoye), where she used white military camouflage. Several days later, she experienced friendly fire from a Katyusha rocket launcher and wrote in her diary, "Now I understand why the Germans are so afraid of Katyushas. What a fire!" At the border of East Prussia, Shanina killed 26 enemy soldiers. The last unit she served in was the 144th Rifle Division. According to the online Book of Memory of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Shanina served in the 205th Special Motorized Rifle Battalion of that division. Shanina had hoped to go to university after the war, or if that was not possible, to raise orphans. In the course of her tour of duty Shanina was mentioned in despatches several times. Her final sniper tally reached fifty-nine confirmed kills (fifty-four, according to other sources), including twelve kills during the Battle of Vilnius, with sixty-two enemies knocked out of action. Domestically, her achievements were acknowledged particularly by the war correspondent Ilya Ehrenburg and in the newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda, which said that Shanina was one of the best snipers in her unit and that even veteran soldiers were inferior to her in shooting accuracy. Shanina's exploits were also reported in the Western press, particularly in Canadian newspapers, where she was called "the unseen terror of East Prussia". She paid no special attention to the achieved renown, and once wrote that she had been overrated. On 16 January 1945, Shanina wrote in her combat diary: "What I've actually done? No more than I have to as a Soviet person, having stood up to defend the motherland." She also wrote, "The essence of my happiness is fighting for the happiness of others. It's strange, why is it that in grammar, the word "happiness" can only be singular? That is counter to its meaning, after all. ... If it turns necessary to die for the common happiness, then I'm braced to." ### Death In the face of the East Prussian Offensive, the Germans tried to strengthen the localities they controlled against great odds. In a diary entry dated 16 January 1945, Shanina wrote that despite her wish to be in a safer place, some unknown force was drawing her to the front line. In the same entry, she wrote that she had no fear and that she had even agreed to go "to a melee combat." The next day, Shanina wrote in a letter that she might be on the verge of being killed because her battalion had lost 72 out of 78 people. Her last diary entry reports that German fire had become so intense that the Soviet troops, including herself, had sheltered inside self-propelled guns. On 27 January, Shanina was severely wounded and was later found by two soldiers disemboweled, with her chest torn open by a shell fragment. Despite attempts to save her, Shanina died the following day near the Richau estate (later a Soviet settlement of Telmanovka), 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) northwest of the East Prussian village of Ilmsdorf (). Nurse Yekaterina Radkina remembered Shanina telling her that she regretted having done so little. By the day of Shanina's death, the Soviets had overtaken several major East Prussian localities, including Tilsit, Insterburg and Pillau, and approached Königsberg. Recalling the moment Shanina's mother received notification of her daughter's death, her brother Marat wrote: "I clearly remembered mother's eyes. They weren't teary anymore. ... 'That's all, that's all'—she repeated". Shanina was buried under a spreading pear tree on the shore of the Alle River—now called the Lava— and was later reinterred in the settlement of Wehlau. ## Posthumous honours In 1964–65 a renewed interest in Shanina arose in the Soviet press, largely due to the publication of her diary. The newspaper Severny Komsomolets asked Shanina's contemporaries to write what they knew about her. Streets in Arkhangelsk, Shangaly and Stroyevskoye were named after her, and the village of Yedma has a museum dedicated to Shanina. The local school where she studied in 1931–35 has a commemorative plate. In Arkhangelsk, regular shooting competitions were organized among members of the paramilitary DOSAAF sport organisation for the Roza Shanina Prize, while Novodvinsk organized an open shooting sports championship in her memory. The village of Malinovka in Ustyansky District started to hold annual cross-country ski races for the Roza Shanina Prize. In 1985, the Council of Veterans of the Russian Central Women Sniper Academy unsuccessfully requested the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union to posthumously bestow the Order of Glory 1st Class on Shanina (which would have made her a Full Cavalier of that order). In the same year, Russian author Nikolai Zhuravlyov published the book Posle boya vernulas (Returned After Battle). Its title refers to Shanina's words, "I will return after the battle," which she uttered after receiving a note from her battalion commander urging her to return to the rear immediately. Verses have been composed about Shanina, such as those by writer Nikolai Nabitovich. A small memorial stele dedicated to Shanina (part of a three-piece monument) was erected in Bogdanovsky settlement, Ustyansky District. In 2000, Shanina's name appeared on the war memorial stone of the Siberian State Technological University, although there is no evidence she had any affiliation with it during her life. Russian author Viktor Logvinov controversially wrote in the 1970s that Shanina had studied in the Siberian Forestry Institute and that she was the daughter of an "old Krasnoyarsk communist". The claim was continued by Krasnoyarsk publications in later years, particularly in 2005. In 2013, a wall of memory, featuring graffiti portraits of six Russian war honorees, including Roza Shanina, was opened in Arkhangelsk. ## Character and personal life The war correspondent Pyotr Molchanov, who had frequently met Shanina at the front, described her as a person of unusual will with a genuine, bright nature. Shanina described herself as "boundlessly and recklessly talky" during her college years. She typified her own character as like that of the Romantic poet, painter and writer Mikhail Lermontov, deciding, like him, to act as she saw fit. Shanina dressed modestly and liked to play volleyball. According to Shanina's sister-in-arms Lidiya Vdovina, Roza used to sing her favourite war song "Oy tumany moi, rastumany" ("O My Mists") each time she cleaned her weapon. Shanina had a straightforward character and valued courage and the absence of egotism in people. She once told a story when "about half a hundred frenzied fascists with wild cries" attacked a trench accommodating twelve female snipers, including Shanina: "Some fell from our well-aimed bullets, some we finished with our bayonets, grenades, shovels, and some we took prisoners, having restrained their arms." Shanina's personal life was thwarted by war. On 10 October 1944, she wrote in her diary, "I can't accept that Misha Panarin doesn't live anymore. What a good guy! [He] has been killed ... He loved me, I know, and so did I ... My heart is heavy, I'm twenty, but I have no close [male] friend". In November 1944, Shanina wrote that she "is flogging into her head that [she] loves" a man named Nikolai, although he "doesn't shine in upbringing and education". In the same entry, she wrote that she did not think about marriage because "it's not the time now". She later wrote that she "had it out" with Nikolai and "wrote him a note in the sense of 'but I'm given to the one and will love no other one'". Ultimately in her last diary record, filled with grim tones, Shanina wrote that she "cannot find a solace" now and is "of no use to anyone". ## See also - Snipers of the Soviet Union - Lyudmila Pavlichenko - Aliya Moldagulova - Nina Petrova
31,462,698	Seahorse Seashell Party	1,171,011,087	null	[ "2011 American television episodes", "Crossover animation", "Family Guy (season 10) episodes", "Television episodes about drugs", "Television episodes with live action and animation" ]	"Seahorse Seashell Party" is the second episode of the tenth season of the American animated television series Family Guy. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 2, 2011. The episode mainly centers around the Griffin family, who are riding out an oncoming hurricane. In their attempt to pass the time, they participate in numerous activities and games. After being condemned by her family yet again, Meg, having had enough of being bullied over the years, finally loses her temper and confronts them for their abusiveness, eventually leading the entire family to turn their rage on each other. Meanwhile, Brian secretly consumes magic mushrooms which causes him to have hallucinations. "Seahorse Seashell Party" is the second part of the Night of the Hurricane block with The Cleveland Show and American Dad!. The episode was first announced by Seth MacFarlane at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International. It was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Brian Iles. Originally scheduled to air on May 1, 2011, as the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of Family Guy, the episode was postponed due to the 2011 Super Outbreak subsequently coinciding with the timing of the scheduled episodes. Reception of "Seahorse Seashell Party" by television critics has been negative, with its humor and main plot being the most criticized. An estimated 6.91 million viewers tuned into the episode upon its initial airing, while also garnering a 3.5/8 rating in the 18–49 demographic according to the Nielsen ratings. The episode featured guest performances by Ioan Gruffudd, Dee Bradley Baker, Debra Wilson, Colin Ford, and Kat Purgal. ## Plot As a hurricane approaches Quahog, the Griffins prepare for its arrival. In an attempt to pass the time, Brian decides to take magic mushrooms, to Stewie's surprise. As the mushrooms start to take effect, he begins hallucinating, leading to him inadvertently cutting off his own ear. Stewie tries to help Brian by staying by his side all night and taking care of him. When Brian falls asleep, he has a surreal nightmare in which he is attacked by monstrous beings resembling the Griffins and Quagmire. Brian gradually comes back to lucidity after Stewie takes him downstairs to drink some water. Meanwhile, the rest of the family attempts to pass the time by playing charades and various other games. They are unable to keep themselves entertained, and take their frustrations out on Meg. Having had enough of their abused over the years, Meg finally loses her temper and turns on the other members of the family. She starts with Chris, calling him a bastard for his bullying treatment of her and how he never takes her side against their parents. When Lois tries to tell her that she is taking her problems out on everyone else, Meg brings up Lois's criminal history and tells her that she is "the furthest thing from" the perfect mother. Meg also informs an apologetic Lois that when she turns 18, she is considering never seeing her again. Finally, Meg angrily confronts Peter for his destructive tendencies and points out that he would go to prison if anyone in the real world witnessed his treatment of her, calling him a "waste of a man". Shocked, he demands Lois make Meg stop, but Lois refuses on the grounds that he did not stand up for her. Within moments, the whole family turn their own abusive criticisms against each other, which ends with a devastated and tearful Peter running away to his room, leaving Meg and Brian alone to discuss the situation. Despite Brian commending her for standing up for herself, Meg feels remorse for hurting her family's feelings and concludes that they cannot survive without a "lightning rod" to endure their antagonism and absorb all their dysfunction. She decides to mend fences by apologizing to Peter, Lois and Chris for taking her own problems out on them, restoring their egos, personalities and original opinions. Stewie then breaks the fourth wall by telling the audience about drug use and advising them to visit their local library for more information. ## Production and development The episode was first announced in July 2010 by series creator Seth MacFarlane at the Comic-Con International in San Diego, California. Kevin Reilly, the entertainment president of the Fox Broadcasting Company, originally pitched the idea for the crossover, which was inspired by theme nights of comedy shows from the 1980s. MacFarlane described the crossover event to be an "enormous challenge" and a "substantial undertaking"; he chose to do one central story line so that each writing staff would not have to write stories for unfamiliar characters. MacFarlane was also willing to do another crossover event if this one receives successful ratings. In April 2011, executives of the Fox Broadcasting Company officially announced that "Seahorse Seashell Party" would air on May 1. However, on April 29, it was announced that the crossover event would be removed from the schedule, in response to a series of tornadoes that killed nearly 300 people in the Southern United States. The episodes were subsequently replaced by repeats of "I Am the Walrus" from American Dad!, "Brian Writes a Bestseller" from Family Guy, and "Ain't Nothin' But Mutton Bustin'" from The Cleveland Show. MacFarlane agreed with the decisions after consulting with the executives of Fox, and a spokeswoman for the company later announced that the episodes would air the following season. "Seahorse Seashell Party" was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Brian Iles. It features guest appearances from Ioan Gruffudd, Dee Bradley Baker, Colin Ford, and Debra Wilson. This episode marked Gruffudd's first guest appearance since the season eight episode "The Splendid Source" and Wilson's first guest appearance since the season three episode "And the Wiener Is...". ## Cultural references "Seahorse Seashell Party" features several references to media, music, film, and other pop culture phenomena. The episode's title references dialogue from the viral video "Drinking out of Cups" by electronic musician and composer Dan Deacon. Peter mentions wanting to watch "G.I. José," which leads to a cutaway parodying the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero public service announcements with a Mexican version of the title character. Peter mentions the film Fletch while playing charades. One of the many passing-time gags involves Peter performing a sing-a-long to the opening chase music from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. As Brian's hallucinations begin to worsen, Stewie attempts to calm him, reminding him that seeing Lady Gaga nude was a worst-case scenario. A cutaway gag involving a confrontation between an African American woman and an Italian American man parodies the National Geographic's documentaries. A reference to the social networking site Twitter was also made by Stewie. ## Reception "Seahorse Seashell Party" first aired in the United States on October 2, 2011 as part of the animation television night on Fox. It was preceded by episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show, while being followed by an episode of American Dad!. It was viewed by 6.91 million viewers upon its initial airing, despite simultaneously airing with Desperate Housewives on ABC, The Amazing Race on CBS, and a game between the Baltimore Ravens and the New York Jets on NBC. Total viewership for the episode was the highest out of its respective line-up. "Seahorse Seashell Party" garnered a 3.5/8 rating in the 18–49 demographic, according to the Nielsen ratings, also becoming the highest rating of the animation television night on Fox. Total viewership and ratings were significantly down from the previous episode, "Lottery Fever", which was watched by 7.69 million viewers and garnered a 4.1/9 rating in the 18–49 demographic. The main plot of "Seahorse Seashell Party" was panned by critics (particularly the ending). Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode, "This far into the show’s run, shifting to a much more dramatic bottle episode and reaching for emotional payoffs felt far too little too late." He resumed: "Nobody cares about any member of the Griffin family the way we care about every last Simpson. I feel bad about Meg becoming the scapegoat. Not because she’s a good character, but because instead of tweaking and working to make her appreciated or comically valuable, Family Guy spent years going down the path of least resistance and simply joined the fan chorus of hatred. One episode of pointed, forced justification for that shift doesn’t change a thing." McFarland concluded his review by giving the episode a grade of D+. Similarly, Terron Moore of Ology felt that much of the episode was wasted. In his review, Moore stated that "Seahorse Seashell Party" was "an episode that spends a lot of time addressing something that didn’t need to be addressed." He gave the episode a 4.5 out of ten points. TV Fanatic's Kate Moon was less negative of the episode, stating that even though Meg confronting her family in regards to her treatment was long overdue, she concluded that it felt contrived and uninteresting. Critics were polarized with the episode subplot. While McFarland expressed enjoyment of some of the animation of the episode, he asserted that it "fell flat". Moon exclaimed that the subplot would have been more interesting had Stewie ingested the mushrooms alongside Brian. The episode debuted in the United Kingdom on May 20, 2012, and achieved 1.6 million viewers. ## See also - Night of the Hurricane - "The Hurricane!", the related episode of The Cleveland Show - "Hurricane!", the related episode of American Dad!
7,517,779	Bad Girls Club	1,173,610,847	American reality television series	[ "2000s American reality television series", "2006 American television series debuts", "2010s American reality television series", "2017 American television series endings", "African-American reality television series", "Bad Girls Club", "English-language television shows", "Oxygen (TV channel) original programming", "Reality television series franchises", "Television series by Bunim/Murray Productions" ]	Bad Girls Club (abbreviated BGC) is a 2006 American reality television series created by Jonathan Murray for the Oxygen network in the United States. The show focused on the altercations and physical confrontations of seven aggressive, quarrelsome, and unruly women. They were featured on the show as "charismatic tough chicks." The cast, deemed "bad girls," would enjoy a luxurious lifestyle in a mansion for three months, during which they obeyed specified rules. Their lives inside and outside of the house were recorded by a production team. Besides the United States, Bad Girls Club aired by at least seven networks in other countries: Sky Living in the United Kingdom and Ireland, MTV in Australia, New Zealand and Russia, RTL 5 in the Netherlands, TV11 in Sweden, SIC Radical in Portugal, Velvet in the Philippines, and Channel [V] in Southeast Asia. If a cast member violated production rules, she was evicted from the show and often replaced by a new cast member. The fourth season was the series' "breakthrough season" as Oxygen's first series to average over one million viewers per episode. There were four spin-offs including Bad Girls Road Trip, Tanisha Gets Married, Love Games: Bad Girls Need Love Too, and Bad Girls All-Star Battle. In late 2016, Bad Girls Club was renewed for a seventeenth season titled Bad Girls Club: East Meets West. In February 2017, the series' future was put in limbo, with the network's announcement that it would convert to a true crime programming format, which was instituted in July 2017. When discussing the series' future, Frances Berwick, NBCUniversal Cable Entertainment Lifestyle Networks' president, said, "Bad Girls Club, at this stage, I don't see it on Oxygen linear," suggesting that it could air in a non-linear media form. "Beyond that, we haven't figured it out yet." ## Format The format for the first season of Bad Girls Club differs from subsequent seasons, but its rules apply in all subsequent seasons. One feature continued from season one was the way the show opened: viewers were shown the biggest and most intense physical altercation of the season, and the program then went back to a time before it happened. This fight usually gives you an idea of who is going to be the baddest, or one of the baddest, girls in the house. This altercation draws in many viewers and keeps them wondering what will happen next. In the second season, the format of the show changed drastically. The maximum age dropped from 31 to 28. The cast of season two were given mandatory non-profit jobs to help them build a work ethic and to experience the stabilizing effect of being interdependent with others, for example in teamwork and commitment, to equip them for success in later life. Quitting the job or failure to attend resulted in mandatory removal from the show. The girls were given the jobs of planning, decision making, and building cooperation. Season two was the first and only season of the Bad Girls Club to do this, and was also the last to air 30-minute episodes. The Bad Girls Club creed, introduced in season three, is: > A Bad Girl knows what she wants and how to get it. She makes her own way, makes her own rules and she makes no apologies. A Bad Girl blazes her own trail and removes obstacles from her path. A Bad Girl fights and forces her way to the top with style and beauty. A Bad Girl believes in jumping first and looking later. People will love you. People will hate you. Others will secretly wish to be you. A Bad Girl is you. The bad girls typically form cliques, create havoc, book parties in night clubs, and engage in sexual antics while attempting to maintain their personal lives. They come from different backgrounds. Earlier in the series, they try to cope and adjust their behavior to become role models for young women. Some cast members try to accomplish specific goals. Throughout, the bad girls must adapt to frequent mood and behavior changes of their housemates. They interview in reality TV confessionals. They are allowed to contact their families and friends using landline telephones and a computer connected to a large-screen television. However, the cast is prohibited from watching nationally and locally televised programming or using mobile phones. If the cast members engage in violence or break other rules, they are considered for eviction under the show's policy, which is enforced by the producers. Security guards intervene in violent altercations. Other reasons for departure include bullying, ostracism, alienation from other housemates, problems at home, or court proceedings. Multiple bad girls leave in every season. If a bad girl departs early in the season, a replacement bad girl arrives within one or two episodes. Replacement housemates are commonly hazed. On August 3, 2010, during the OxygenLive TV recap episode, the show combined Facebook and Twitter with a live broadcast. Fans submitted opinions and comments about the show and its cast, which were aired during the 10 pm hour. In January 2011, Oxygen released OxygenLive!, an online talk show hosted by Tanisha Thomas, one of the bad girls of season two. It was broadcast after season six debuted on Oxygen, and focused on the cast of season six, occasionally bringing in bad girls from earlier seasons. Thomas asked the girls several questions to prompt rumors and confessions. ## List of cast members `Indicates replacement bad girl` ## Critical reception Homophobic slurs caught the attention of media outlets. Adolescents emulated The Bad Girls Club. Mary Mitchell of Sun Times stated that the show was "hazardous to the female psyche" and wrote, "Just like some teens try to emulate rappers in their dress and behavior, the same is true for 'bad girls'." She also commented that the show gives a "distorted picture" of how to live the good life, calling the cast "wannabes" who are "sleeping in a mansion they can't pay for". Mitchell believes that most people know the cast are living "a bogus lifestyle", and assesses the message of the Bad Girls Club as "disturbing". In 2016, The New York Times released a study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes, finding that Bad Girls Club was especially popular in the south, with the greatest popularity in Orangeburg, South Carolina. The show has received negative criticism from African-American viewers, believing that it is "not what being a black woman is all about." Mary Chase Breedlove of Reflector objected that "there are several TV programs devoted to acting as trashy and mean as possible ('Bad Girls' Club, ' ...)". The New York Daily News suggested that Bad Girls Club was the equivalent of professional wrestling. Kris De Leon of BuddyTV described the show as "crude, rude and pointless, but sort of addictive to some people. " Brian Lowry of Variety thought that the producers made the "wrong decision" when they created the show. He believed that the cast of Bad Girls Club auditioned for the show for their "15 minutes of fame". He said that Bad Girls Club "arrived a little late in this game, on a channel lacking the kind of exposure or public footprint to qualify the show even as the stuff guilty pleasures are made of". Lowry believed that the show "loses" and that Oxygen attracts viewers who generally get drunk at bars and make a scene. He also suggested that "maybe it's time to "BAG" these bad-attitude girls and beat a hasty retreat back to the real world". Anita Gates of The New York Times referred to Bad Girls Club as "a great argument for bringing back programming with actors". She believed that the "average emotional age" appeared to be 15, in contrast to the girls' real ages. She stated that the "unpleasant villains cancel one another out and actually make badness uninteresting", commenting that their behavior might not be "bad enough". Gates concluded by suggesting that Bad Girls Club is the on-location equivalent of The Jerry Springer Show. Kelly West of Cinemablend stated that Bad Girls Club is "so much fun to watch". ## Controversies ### Season 4 During "Off The Wall", the first episode of the fourth season, Natalie Nunn told Annie Andersen that Chris Brown was at a night club that she wanted to attend, and asked Anderson if she was a fan. Anderson said not, because of the domestic violence case that Brown was involved in. Nunn defended Brown, saying "Who cares, Rihanna was a punk bitch, and she got her ass beat for a reason". Nunn called Rihanna a "crazy bitch" and claimed to know her, unlike Anderson. After the episode aired, Brown reportedly stated that he did not know who Nunn was. Nunn questioned this during the reunion show, claiming that Brown had said it because the cast of the show had not yet been revealed. Perez Hilton, the host of the reunion, asked Nunn if Rihanna had confronted her about her comments. Nunn answered yes, stating that the two had argued during a dinner party in New York City. During the reunion, Nunn claimed to have had a "fling" with Brown before the show. Shortly before the end of the reunion, Nunn said that she did not condone domestic violence and apologized if her comment had enraged fans and people who had been victims of it. ### Season 5 During the episode "The Wicked Witch Of Key West", a stranger at a bar offered to buy drinks for Kristen Guinane and Christina Marie Hopkins. He spiked the drinks with PCP hallucinogenic pills, and Guinane became intoxicated. She claimed to have suffered bruises on her body when the man grabbed her and handled her roughly. Guinane reported that the producers of the show did not want to identify the man on television for fear of a lawsuit. She blamed the drug for her hitting cast member Lea Beaulieu in the face, leading to a fight. After season five had wrapped, Catya Washington was sentenced to jail for possession of a concealed weapon and illegal use of drugs. ### Season 6 During season six production, residents of Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, complained that noise levels and swearing were unbearable and inappropriate for them and their children to listen to during the night. The residents called local law enforcement agencies four or five times to deal with the late-night disturbances. Clarissa Keller, a Sherman Oaks resident, complained that she had a six-year-old son and did not want him to listen to the swearing. She set up a petition calling for a ban on all production companies in the Sherman Oaks hills. Location managers and production crew declined to discuss the neighbors' complaints. The Bad Girls Club permit required the entire production to abide by a "minimum outdoor activity and noise" rule, but local residents claimed that the show did not keep noise levels down. The house for season six was rented for \$20,000 a month. The owner said that he would not allow this type of production to rent his home in the future. ### Season 7 On April 12, 2011, cast member Tasha Malek complained to an on-duty police officer outside the Bad Girls house about the conduct of fellow cast member Nastasia Townsend. She claimed that Townsend had placed her personal belongings into a garbage bag, telling her "she needed to leave the house", and that the incident had escalated into a fight. The two were issued summonses by the police for disturbing the peace and disorderly conduct. Malek released a statement saying "I don't think it’s right to be gay", offending many fans of the show. ### Season 12 The twelfth season of the Bad Girls Club sparked a debate with The Village Board of Trustees of Highland Park, Illinois, who argued against filming the series in the Chicago North Shore suburb. ### Season 15 During the filming for the fifteenth season of the show, replacement "Bad Girls" Amanda and Victoria Hepperle, who are twins, were brought on the show to replace two previous girls that had left earlier. As the two entered the house, the other castmembers decided to play a prank on them in which they covered the twins in flour. The incident later escalated into a fight and the twins left the house and the show. The twins later filed a lawsuit against the production company, the network, the network's parent company, Atrium Entertainment, the castmembers that were on the show at the time of the incident and 50 unknown individuals. The incident did end up making the final cut and aired on the show but the twins faces were blurred out throughout the entire time they were featured on the show as well as pictures and videos of them that were shown. ## Spin-offs ### Love Games: Bad Girls Need Love Too Love Games: Bad Girls Need Love Too premiered on March 16, 2010. The show follows three past bad girls in their search for true love. The first of the Bad Girls Club, Amber Meade and Sarah Michaels from the third season and Kendra Jones from the fourth season. The season concluded on April 27, 2010. Oxygen renewed the show for a second run, with Tanisha Thomas (from season two of the Bad Girls Club) as the host. In this season, Natalie Nunn (season four), Amber Buell (season three) and Lea Beaulieu (season five) competed for true love. The second season consisted of eight one-hour episodes aired between April 18, 2011, and June 13, 2011. The third season aired on December 5, 2011, with Thomas as host once more, and Kori Koether, Sydney Steinfeldt, and Judi Jai as cast members. Kori Koether and Sydney Steinfeldt were on season six of Bad Girls Club; while Jai was on Season 7. Season 4 aired on November 5, 2012, with Tanisha Thomas as the host yet again. This marked Tanisha's third time being the host in the series. This season also featured Season 8 girls, Danielle "Danni" Victor, Amy Cieslowski, and Camilla Poindexter as the cast members looking for love. ### Bad Girls All-Star Battle Bad Girls All-Star Battle show features bad girls competing for \$100,000 and the title of "Baddest Bad Girl of All Time." The series has the girls divided into two teams, put to the test every week in an array of physical and mental challenges. It is hosted by R&B singer, Ray J. Bad Girls All-Star Battle premiered on May 21, 2013. Bad Girls Club season 10 alumnus Jenniffer "Jenn" Hardwick won the competition, with season 4 alumnus Florina "Flo" Kaja being the runner-up. The second season premiered on January 7, 2014. Season 11 alumnus Tiana Small won the competition, with season 11 alumnus Sarah Oliver being the runner-up. ### Other spin-offs Bad Girls Road Trip premiered on June 12, 2007. It featured season one cast members Zara Sprankle, Aimee Landi, and Leslie Ramsue touring their respective hometowns in search of casting opportunities for the second season of Bad Girls Club. On the series, they also visited their former housemates. Bad Girls Club: Flo Gets Married is a one-hour special that centers on season-four cast member Florina "Flo" Kaja, who had a traditional Albanian wedding, and on her pregnancy. It aired on Oxygen on February 28, 2011 and was watched by 859,000 viewers. A documentary series titled Tanisha Gets Married premiered on May 7, 2012. It follows Bad Girls Club season 2 cast member Tanisha Thomas as she prepares for her wedding. With preparations for the wedding in order, issues arise between Tanisha and her soon-to-be husband Clive. The show covers the family drama that occurs. Former bad girls featured in the series include Natalie Nunn and Florina from season 4, as well as Amber M. from season 3; all appear as bridesmaids. The series also shows how Natalie's and Florina's issues with each other turn violent, and how this affects Tanisha. The series was produced by 495 Productions with SallyAnn Salsano as executive producer. A webshow Baddies ATL, produced by former cast members Tanisha Thomas and Natalie Nunn, is set to air in 2021 consisting of former Bad girls. ## Series overview
38,807,049	Battle of Boulogne	1,143,891,372	Battle for the port and town of Boulogne-sur-Mer during 1940	[ "1940 in France", "Battle of France", "Battles of World War II involving France", "Battles of World War II involving Germany", "Boulogne-sur-Mer", "Conflicts in 1940", "Land battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "May 1940 events", "World War II in the Pas-de-Calais" ]	The Battle of Boulogne in 1940 was the defence of the port of Boulogne-sur-Mer by French, British and Belgian troops in the Battle of France during the Second World War. The battle was fought at the same time as the Siege of Calais, just before Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from Dunkirk. After the Franco-British counter-attack at the Battle of Arras on 21 May, German units were held ready to resist a resumption of the attack on 22 May. General der Panzertruppe (Lieutenant-General) Heinz Guderian, the commander of XIX Corps, protested that he wanted to rush north up the Channel coast to capture Boulogne, Calais and Dunkirk. An attack by part of XIX Corps was not ordered until 12:40 p.m. on 22 May, by which time the Allied troops at Boulogne had been reinforced from England by most of the 20th Guards Brigade. The Guards had time to dig in around the port before the 2nd Panzer Division, which had been delayed by French troops at Samer, attacked the perimeter held by the Irish Guards at around 5:00 p.m. and were driven off after an hour of fighting. The Welsh Guards front was attacked at 8:00 p.m. and again at dusk, cutting off a party of the Irish at 10:00 p.m. At dawn on 23 May, the German attacks resumed, eventually pushing the defenders back into the town. About eighty light bombers of the Royal Air Force (RAF) flew sorties in support of the defenders of the port. Royal Navy ships shot their way into and out of the harbour; French and British destroyers bombarded German positions as wounded and non-combatants were embarked and a navy demolition party landed. During a lull in the afternoon of 23 May, the Luftwaffe bombed the harbour, despite being intercepted by RAF fighters. At 6:30 p.m. the Guards Brigade was ordered to re-embark; the British destroyers ran the gauntlet of German tanks and artillery to dock. The French defenders above the lower town could not be contacted and only in the morning of 24 May did General Lanquetot realise that the British had gone. The French and the remaining British troops held out until 25 May and then surrendered. Guderian wrote that the halt order and the retention of considerable forces to guard against Allied counter-attacks, forfeited an opportunity quickly to capture the Channel Ports and destroy the Allied forces in northern France and Belgium. An advance on Dunkirk began on 23 May but the next day was halted until 27 May; Dunkirk was not captured until 4 June, by when, most of the BEF and many French and Belgian troops had escaped. ## Background ### Boulogne Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais, Dunkirk and Dieppe, are Channel Ports on the French side at the narrowest part of the English Channel. Boulogne is at the mouth of the fast-flowing River Liane, which meanders through a valley. The harbour is on a level area of ground on either side of the river ; well built-up and with steep roads uphill to the old town (Haute Ville or the Citadel). The rolling hills make for hidden approaches to the port and offer commanding high ground to an attacker, particularly the Mont St. Lambert ridge. During the Phoney War (September 1939 – 10 May 1940), the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) had been supplied through ports further to the west, such as Le Havre and Cherbourg but the Channel Ports came into use once mine barrages had been laid in the English Channel in late 1939, to reduce the demand for ships and escorts. When leave for BEF troops began in December, Boulogne came into use for communication and for troop movements. ### Battle of France On 10 May 1940, the Germans began Fall Gelb (Case Yellow) the offensive against France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Within a few days, the Germans achieved a breakthrough against the centre of the French front near Sedan and drove westwards down the valley of the River Somme. As the BEF withdrew through Belgium into northern France, fewer supply troops were needed as the lines of communication shortened. The British began to withdraw surplus manpower through Boulogne and Calais and on 17 May, Lieutenant-General Douglas Brownrigg, the Adjutant-General of the BEF, moved the Rear General Headquarters (GHQ) from Arras to Boulogne, without informing his French liaison officers. The Germans captured Abbeville at the mouth of the Somme on 21 May, cutting off the Allied troops in Northern France and Belgium from their bases further south. The defence of Boulogne was the responsibility of the French Navy (Marine Nationale), which had a garrison of 1,100 men in the 19th-century forts of the port, commanded by Capitaine de Vaisseau Dutfoy de Mont de Benque. Eight British 3.7-inch anti-aircraft guns of the 2nd Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, eight machine-guns of the 58th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment and a battery of the 2nd Searchlight Regiment had arrived from England on 20 May; the French had two 75 mm field guns, two 25 mm anti-tank guns and two tanks, one of which was unserviceable. On 20 May, the foremost elements of the German XIX Corps (General der Panzertruppe Heinz Guderian), reached Abbeville. The Channel Ports became the only means of supply and if necessary, evacuation, for the Allies. In the early hours of 21 May, Dutfoy ordered the naval garrison of 1,100 men to retire behind the thick medieval walls of the Haute Ville (Old Town or Citadel), east of the River Liane. Dutfoy heard alarmist reports of the approach of a large German force, apparently from General Jean Pelissier de Féligonde, commander of the 137th Infantry Regiment, which had been attacked by German tanks at Hesdin, 30 mi (48 km) to the south-east of the port. Dutfoy ordered his men to disable the coastal artillery in the forts and to head for the harbour for evacuation; the orders were amplified by other officers. Dutfoy left for Dunkirk in the early hours and discipline broke down, a naval store was broken into and the looters drank the contents. Civilians still waiting for places on evacuation ships began to panic, until Capitaine de frégatte Poher, in charge of the sea front, threatened the crowd with a gun. Poher decamped at 10:00 a.m. and the spiking of the naval guns continued. Some of Dutfoy's men contacted Vice-Admiral Marcel Leclerc, the deputy commander of Dunkirk, who ordered the remaining guns to be preserved for the defence of the town. On a visit to Boulogne early on 22 May, Leclerc ordered the sailors to fight it out and wait for relief by the French and British armies. Admiral Jean Abrial the French commander at Dunkirk issued an order, "You are to die at your posts one by one rather than give in..." ## Prelude ### Allied defensive preparations A detachment of Royal Marines arrived in Boulogne in the early morning of 21 May. The 20th Guards Brigade (Brigadier William Fox-Pitt), consisting of the 2nd Battalion, Welsh Guards and 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards, was training at Camberley on 21 May, when ordered to embark for France. With the brigade anti-tank company and a battery of the 69th Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery, the Guards arrived in Boulogne on the morning of 22 May on three merchant ships and the destroyer HMS Vimy, escorted by the destroyers Whitshed and Vimiera. The French 21st Infantry Division (Général de brigade [Brigadier-General] Pierre Louis Félix Lanquetot) was to hold a line between Samer and Desvres, about 10 mi (16 km) south of the town, where three battalions had already arrived. Further British reinforcements, including a regiment of cruiser tanks, were expected from Calais on the following day. Fox-Pitt deployed his men on the high ground outside the town, liaising with Lanquetot who organised the French troops in the town. The Irish Guards held the right flank to the south-west from the river at St. Léonard to the sea at Le Portel and the Welsh Guards the left flank north-east of the river on the west slopes of Mont Lambert ridge and high ground through St. Martin Boulogne, which made a defensive perimeter of 6 mi (9.7 km). Road blocks had been established by a party of about fifty men of the 7th Royal West Kents from Albert, about 100 men of the 262nd Field Company Royal Engineers and anti-aircraft crew held the right flank of the Welsh Guards, along the roads approaching from the south. Fox-Pitt had left a gap in the perimeter between the Welsh left flank and the coast for the reinforcements expected from Calais. There were 1,500 men of No 5 Group Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps (AMPC), a mixture of recalled reservists and part-trained troops working as labourers, in the town awaiting evacuation, under Lieutenant Colonel Donald Dean VC. Under French command were the fort garrisons and some French and Belgian training units of limited military value. Lanquetot had told Fox-Pitt that the French forces in Boulogne were "folded up" which Fox-Pitt inferred meant that they were ready to give up. ### German offensive preparations The Franco-British counter-attack at Arras led the Germans to continue to attack north towards the Channel Ports, rather than south over the Somme and late on 21 May, Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) ordered Panzergruppe Kleist to advance about 50 mi (80 km) north, to capture Boulogne and Calais. Apprehension about another counter-attack led to the XV Corps being held back, a division of the XLI Corps being moved eastwards and the 10th Panzer Division of XIX Corps was detached to guard against a counter-attack from the south. Parts of the 1st Panzer Division (Lieutenant-General Friedrich Kirchner) and 2nd Panzer Division (Lieutenant-General Rudolf Veiel), both formations of XIX Corps, were also held back to defend bridgeheads over the Somme. The 2nd Panzer Division was ordered to advance to Boulogne on a line from Baincthun to Samer, with the 1st Panzer Division as a flank guard on the right, advancing to Desvres and Marquise in case of a counter-attack from Calais. ## Battle ### 22 May The 2nd Panzer Division formed two columns, one to circle round the town and attack from the north. The southern column made contact first in the early afternoon of 22 May, against the headquarters company of the French 48th Infantry Regiment, the only troops of the 21st Division who were between the Germans and Boulogne. The French clerks, drivers and signallers set up two 75 mm field guns and two 25 mm anti-tank guns to cover the cross-roads at Nesles, where they delayed the Germans for almost two hours, until they were outflanked. The column arrived at the outskirts of Boulogne in the evening and began shelling and probing the Irish Guards positions south of the town. The Irish knocked out the leading German tank and repulsed later attacks despite the Germans overrunning one of their forward platoons. In the early hours, the Germans attacked the Welsh Guards positions along the coast from the north-east as they began to envelop the town but were forced back each time. Brownrigg, with Fox-Pitt's only communication link with England, departed with his staff at 3:00 a.m. on the destroyer HMS Verity, without informing the Guards. Only a few troops of the 21st Infantry Division were able take up its blocking positions near Desvres before the German advance reached them. The French managed to delay the 1st Panzer Division here for much of 22 May before Fox-Pitt was told at 4:00 a.m. that the French had been forced back to Boulogne by German tanks. Most of the 21st Infantry Division, en route to Boulogne by train, was ambushed by German tanks and dispersed. ### 23 May An hour after dawn, Fort de la Crèche near Wimereux, north of Boulogne, was captured by German troops. The possibility of reinforcement from Calais was thwarted by the appearance of German armour at the northern perimeter. Fox-Pitt realised that he would have to defend the port with only the two Guards battalions and the assorted French and British troops already there. The AMPC was hastily combed for men with military experience and armed with rifles taken from the others. The 800 men of the AMPC force were rushed into the gap between the two Guards battalions and another 150 were sent to reinforce the Welsh Guards. The anti-aircraft gunners guarding the southern roads destroyed two German tanks with their 3.7-inch anti-aircraft guns and then retired. The Germans began a pincer attack on the positions of the Welsh and Irish Guards and by 10:00 a.m., the southern pincer, backed up by artillery and air support, had made the open slopes around the town untenable; the Guards were forced back into the town. Fliegerkorps VIII (Generalmajor Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen) sent Stukas to destroy the fortifications at Boulogne which was of great help to the attacking forces. Vimy arrived at noon with a naval demolition party and Force Buttercup, a Royal Marine shore party, beginning the embarkation of casualties and the AMPC. Fox-Pitt received orders from Vimy to hold Boulogne at all costs, as his radio contact with England had been lost earlier in the day. The Royal Navy and a flotilla of French destroyers led by Capitaine Yves Urvoy de Portzamparc [fr], comprising the large destroyers Chacal and Jaguar with the smaller destroyers Fougueux, Frondeur, Bourrasque, Orage, Foudroyant, Cyclone, Siroco and Mistral, gave fire support to the troops on the outskirts of the town. The commander of the 2nd Panzer Division found that the British and French in Boulogne were "fighting tenaciously for every inch of ground" and could not tell if the British were evacuating or reinforcing the port. During a lull that afternoon, the destroyer HMS Keith berthed and began embarking AMPC troops. A Luftwaffe raid was intercepted by Royal Air Force (RAF) Spitfires from 92 Squadron but the commanders of both British destroyers were killed by bomb splinters. Frondeur was hit and disabled by Stuka dive bombers of I./Sturzkampfgeschwader 77, Orage was scuttled and the British destroyer Whitshed was damaged by a near-miss. Five pilots were lost by 92 Squadron; two were killed, two captured and one wounded, one aircraft being shot down by Messerschmitt Bf 109s, the other four by Messerschmitt Bf 110s. By 3:00 p.m., Fox-Pitt had withdrawn the brigade to positions in the town and moved his headquarters nearer to the quay, the better to contact the destroyers, his only link with London. With German artillery having the advantage of observed fire to sweep the docks, he sent a message to London saying "situation grave". Shortly before 6:00 p.m., Keith received orders for an immediate evacuation of the British and notification that five destroyers were either standing off Boulogne giving fire support or were en route. Fox-Pitt decided to continue with the AMPC evacuation while the Guards conducted a fighting withdrawal to the harbour but communication with the British troops on the perimeter was only possible by dispatch rider. The bridges held by the Guards were demolished by the Royal Engineers before the Irish Guards barricaded the streets with vehicles and withdrew to the harbour. The 800 pioneers commanded by Dean were the last to fall back from the perimeter, as Dean was away from his headquarters when the withdrawal orders arrived. Armed only with rifles, the pioneers had hoped to obstruct the Germans with makeshift roadblock barricades and claimed to have destroyed one tank by igniting petrol under it. Dean used his reserves to relieve two forward posts which had become isolated, resulting in fierce hand-to-hand fighting. Vimiera and Whitshed replaced Vimy and Keith, embarking many of the Marines and Guards. The harbour was full of ships but two gruppen (group, about 30 aircraft, similar to a RAF wing) of Stukas failed to hit the ships but bombs hitting the quayside near Vimy and Keith caused some casualties. The destroyers HMS Venomous and Wild Swan arrived and began embarking Force Buttercup and the remainder of the Irish Guards. With Germans in positions overlooking the harbour the Guards and the ships engaged in a duel with the German artillery. German tanks advancing towards the quayside were knocked out by the 4.7 inch guns of Venomous, one tank turning "over and over, like a child doing a cart-wheel". German field guns bombarded the harbour as the destroyer Venetia moved through the narrow entrance channel, and hit Venetia several times. Fires broke out on the ship but it was reversed out and made way for Venomous and Wild Swan which also departed in reverse, Venomous steering with its engines as the rudder had jammed. ### 24–25 May The destroyer HMS Windsor arrived after dark and was able to continue the embarkation. On clearing the harbour, the captain signalled that there were still British troops requiring evacuation and Vimiera was sent back, arriving in Boulogne at 1:30 a.m. The quayside was deserted but when the captain called out by loud hailer many men appeared from hiding; the crew managed to squeeze them aboard. When Vimiera arrived at Dover at 4:00 a.m., 1,400 men disembarked (including Arnold Ridley). Most of the British troops had gone but about 300 Welsh Guards remained. Lack of wireless sets left three of the Welsh Guards forward companies out of touch and by the time they had found out about the evacuation, two companies were cut off from the docks. The companies split into smaller groups and tried a break-out to the north-east. Lanquetot was based in the Haute Ville, awaiting the arrival of elements of the 21st Division. When he discovered the disaster that had befallen his division, he organised the defence of the town as best he could. German attacks on the town at 6:00 p.m. and 8:00 p.m. were repulsed and some German tanks were reported to have been destroyed. The French Navy continued its fire support but Fougueux and Chacal were damaged by the Luftwaffe; Chacal was sunk the next day by German artillery. During the night, about 100 French soldiers tried to break out towards Dunkirk but failed. At dawn on 25 May, the Germans attempted an escalade using grenades and flamethrowers, supported by 88 mm guns and at 8:30 a.m., Lanquetot surrendered. The German troops were supported by attacks from the Stukas of Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 (StG 2). The Stukas demolished the town and had their first encounter with RAF Fighter Command and lost four aircraft over Boulogne and Calais. The last British unit in Boulogne was 3 Company, Welsh Guards (Major Windsor Lewis); 3 Company did not reach the docks until daybreak and Vimiera had left. Lewis took over a large party of stragglers in the sheds at the quayside comprising guardsmen, 120 French infantry, 200 AMPC, 120 Royal Engineers and 150 civilian refugees; most of the Pioneers were unarmed. When the sheds came under German fire, Lewis moved the group into the Gare Maritime (harbour railway station) and had sandbag barricades built. On the evening of 24 May, under fire from tanks and machine-guns, they repulsed a German party which approached the quay in a boat. Without food, short of ammunition and with no hope of evacuation, the force surrendered at 1:00 p.m. on 25 May. The Germans captured 5,000 Allied troops in Boulogne, the majority of whom were French. Many of the prisoners were put to work repairing the harbour fortifications to resist a British amphibious assault. ## Aftermath ### Analysis In the British Official History, Lionel Ellis wrote that the battle showed "how easily misunderstandings may arise between allies in such a confused situation". The 20th Guards Brigade had retired towards the outskirts of Boulogne on the morning of 23 May, after resisting attacks from all sides from 7:30 a.m. Lanquetot signalled that the British were withdrawing precipitately, perhaps unaware of how fiercely the withdrawal was being contested. Communication between Fox-Pitt and the French headquarters at the Citadel was cut by the German advance between the Citadel and the Guards positions in the lower town. Fox-Pitt received orders to evacuate British troops but not the French. On the morning of 24 May, when Lanquetot discovered that the British had gone there were French complaints about British "desertion". To the British, the Guards had been sent to Boulogne at short notice to hold a BEF trans-shipment port (entrepôt) and when it became redundant the two battalions, insufficient to hold the town, were withdrawn. Allegations that the British had deserted the French may have influenced Churchill to order the garrison at Calais to fight to the finish during the siege. The decision was controversial as the British at Calais could have been evacuated after they had slowed the German advance towards Dunkirk. Ellis wrote that the five-hour delay of the XIX Corps attack on Boulogne on 22 May, ordered by Generaloberst (Colonel-General) Ewald von Kleist, had been criticised in the Corps war diary. Keeping the 10th Panzer Division in reserve during the attacks on Boulogne and Calais meant that the Aa Canal line, the western perimeter of the Dunkirk defences, could not be attacked simultaneously. Without the delay, the preparations of the 20th Guards Brigade in Boulogne might also have been interrupted. The long, exposed flank of Army Group A, the uncertain German hold on Amiens and Abbeville and Allied possession of Arras, meant that the advantageous situation enjoyed by the Germans on 22 May could have changed to the benefit of the Allies. The German delay was not excessive, since it was not known if the Allied counter-attack at Arras was over. In 1954 the naval historian, Stephen Roskill, wrote that the advance of the XIX Corps towards Dunkirk was delayed and the defence of Boulogne "undoubtedly contributed to that end" and assisted the Allies in the Battle of Dunkirk (26 May–4 June). The Welsh and Irish Guards received the battle honour "Boulogne 1940". ## Orders of battle ### XIX Corps From the British official history The War in France and Flanders 1939–1940 (1954 [2004 ed.]) unless indicated. - Panzergruppe Kleist (General of Cavalry Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist, Chief of Staff Brigadier-General Kurt Zeitzler) - XIX Corps (General of Cavalry Heinz Guderian) - 1st Panzer Division (Major-General Friedrich Kirchner) - 2nd Panzer Division (Major-General Rudolf Veiel) - 10th Panzer Division (Major-General Ferdinand Schaal) - XXXXI Corps (Major-General Georg-Hans Reinhardt) - 6th Panzer Division (Brigadier-General Werner Kempf) - 8th Panzer Division (Colonel Erich Brandenberger) ### Boulogne garrison From the British official history The War in France and Flanders 1939–1940 (1954 [2004 ed.]) unless indicated. - 21st Infantry Division (General Pierre Louis Félix Lanquetot) - Headquarters company, 48th Infantry Regiment - French and Belgian training units - 20th Guards Brigade Group (Brigadier William Fox-Pitt) - 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards - 2nd Battalion, Welsh Guards - 20th Guards Brigade Anti-Tank Company - 69th Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery (one battery) - 1,500 men Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps (untrained) - Force Buttercup (Royal Marine demolition party) ## See also - Boulogne Bowl, a commemorative silver trophy in recognition of the role of the Pioneer Corps in the 1940 Battle of Boulogne - Operation Wellhit, the Canadian liberation of Boulogne in 1944 - List of British military equipment of World War II - List of French military equipment of World War II - List of Belgian military equipment of World War II - List of German military equipment of World War II
103,103	Polish proverbs	1,129,485,075	Adages in the Polish language	[ "Polish culture", "Polish words and phrases", "Proverbs by language" ]	Tens of thousands of Polish proverbs exist; many have origins in the Middle Ages. The oldest known Polish proverb dates to 1407. A number of scholarly studies of Polish proverbs (paremiology) exist; and Polish proverbs have been collected in numerous dictionaries and similar works from the 17th century onward. Studies in Polish paremiology have begun in the 19th century. The largest and most reputable collection of Polish proverbs to date, edited by Julian Krzyżanowski, was published in 1970s. ## History The oldest known Polish proverb, dating to 1407, was written in Latin and Old Polish: "Quando sø lika drø, tunc ea drzi", which translates to "When bast can be torn, then tear it." This is analogous to "Make hay while the sun shines" or "Strike while the iron is hot". The oldest Polish proverb thus reminded peasants to seize the opportunity when the time was right – to harvest bast in the spring, which they would turn into bast shoes, textiles, and cordage in winter. Some Polish proverbs have been medieval translations of Latin classics. Thus, "Oko pańskie konia tuczy" – "The master's eye fattens the horse" – comes from the Latin "Oculus domini saginat equum"; and the latter Latin proverb was likely translated from a still older Persian one. Other proverbs have taken their origin from other European languages. Many proverbs have been popularized by Polish literature. For example, the popularity of "Oko pańskie konia tuczy" has been attributed to its inclusion in Adam Mickiewicz's epic poem, Pan Tadeusz. ## Themes As with proverbs of other peoples around the world, Polish proverbs concern many topics; at least 2,000 Polish proverbs relate to weather and climate alone. Many concern classic topics such as fortune and misfortune, religion, family, everyday life, health, love, wealth, and women; others, like the first recorded Polish proverb (referring to bast production), and those about weather, offer practical advice. A theme unique to Polish proverbs is about Poles and Poland; one of the most famous of these states that "Polacy nie gęsi lecz własny język mają" ("Poles are not geese, they have their own tongue"), in a 1562 verse by Mikołaj Rej, and commonly interpreted as stressing the importance of having one's own national language (here, Polish). Similarly to English proverbs, Polish proverbs have been criticized for being sexist. ## Polish paremiology The first known Polish author interested in proverbs was the poet Biernat of Lublin, who in 1522 published a collection of them titled Żywot Ezopa Fryga [pl], mędrca obyczajnego i z przypowieściami jego (The life of Aesop the Phrygian, a Decent Sage, and with His Parables). The first Polish scholar of paremiology was Salomon Rysiński [pl] (Solomone Rysinio), who in 1618 published the first known Polish work dedicated solely to collecting and discussing proverbs (Proverbiorum polonicorum a Salomone Rysino collectorum Centuriae decem et octo). This work, first published in Latin, but subsequently in Polish (Przypowieści polskie, przez Salomona Rysińskiego zebrane, a teraz nowo przydane i na wielu miejscach poprawione, 1620), collected over 1,800 proverbs which, according to the author, were "of Polish origin". In 1632, Grzegorz Knapski, a Polish Jesuit, published an even larger collection (in volume three of his Thesaurus Polono-Latino-Graecus), with over 6,000 collected proverbs. In 1658 Polish writer Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro published another collection of proverbs, Przysłowia mów potocznych albo przestrogi obyczajowe, radne, wojenne, which was said to have been widely popular in contemporary Poland. The 19th century saw the first work dedicated more to analyzing the proverbs and their history than solely collecting them, the Przysłowia narodowe, z wyjaśnieniem źródła, początku oraz sposobu ich użycia, okazujące charakter, zwyczaje i obyczaje, przesądy, starożytności i wspomnienia ojczyste (1830) of Kazimierz Władysław Wóycicki [pl]. Other early works on Polish paremiology were published in the 19th century by Oskar Kolberg and Samuel Adalberg, the latter publishing a collection of over 30,000 Polish proverbs (Księga przysłów, przypowieści i wyrażeń przysłowiowych polskich - The Book of Polish Proverbs - 1889–1894). Adalberg's work was praised as "the first modern work on this topic in Polish" and "the most extensive collection ever made in this field". The early 20th century saw further scholarly analysis of Polish proverbs by scholars such as Aleksander Brückner and Jan Stanisław Bystroń, the latter known as "the father of modern Polish paremiology", and the author of the monograph simply titled Przysłowia polskie (Polish proverbs, 1933). After World War II, significant contributions to the field of Polish paremiology were carried out by Julian Krzyżanowski. He was the editor of the largest and most reputable collection of Polish proverbs to date, Nowa księga przysłów i wyrażeń przysłowiowych polskich (New Book of Polish Proverbs and Proverbial Expressions, also known as Nowa Księga przysłów polskich, A New Book of Polish Proverbs, published in several volumes in the years 1969–1978), dubbed the "bible of Polish proverbs". Despite the proliferation of similar works in later years, in 2012 his work was still described as "the most comprehensive" of its type in Poland. Other notable modern Polish paremiologists include Tomasz Jurasz [pl], Dobrosława Świerczyńska, Katarzyna Kłosińska [pl], Jerzy Bralczyk [pl] and Władysław Kopaliński. In 2009–2018 alone, 16 collections of proverbs aimed at young readers were published in Poland; many addressed to a mass audience are of varying quality. ## List of Polish proverbs - Heaven for the nobility, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews - Pole and Hungarian brothers be ## See also - Polish proverbs
696,764	Judy Johnson	1,173,140,147	American baseball player, manager, and scout	[ "1899 births", "1989 deaths", "20th-century African-American sportspeople", "Baseball players from Maryland", "Baseball players from Wilmington, Delaware", "Hilldale Club players", "Homestead Grays players", "Major League Baseball scouts", "National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees", "Negro league baseball managers", "People from Snow Hill, Maryland", "Philadelphia Athletics scouts", "Philadelphia Phillies coaches", "Pittsburgh Crawfords players" ]	William Julius "Judy" Johnson (October 26, 1899 – June 15, 1989) was an American professional third baseman and manager whose career in Negro league baseball spanned 17 seasons, from 1921 to 1937. Slight of build, Johnson never developed as a power threat but achieved his greatest success as a contact hitter and an intuitive defenseman. Johnson is regarded as one of the greatest third basemen of the Negro leagues. In 1975, he was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame after being nominated by the Negro Leagues Committee. From 1921 to 1929, Johnson was a member of the Hilldale Daisies ball club and became an on-the-field leader respected for his professional disposition. His consistent swing and fielding prowess helped the Daisies win three straight pennants in the Eastern Colored League and the 1925 Colored World Series. After serving as a player manager for the Homestead Grays followed by the Daisies in the early 1930s, Johnson signed with the Pittsburgh Crawfords; as a part of the vaunted Crawford line-up of 1935, Johnson contributed to a team widely considered the greatest in Negro league history. He retired in 1937 after a short second stint with the Grays. Following his retirement from baseball as a player, Johnson became a scout for Major League Baseball teams. He was hired as an assistant coach by the Philadelphia Athletics in 1954, becoming one of the first African Americans signed to a coaching position on a major league ball club. In his later years, Johnson served on the Negro Leagues Committee and stepped down in 1975 to accept his hall of fame nomination. He suffered a stroke in 1988 and died a year later. ## Life and career ### Early life William Julius Johnson was born on October 26, 1899, in Snow Hill, Maryland, to William Henry Johnson, a sailor and licensed boxing coach, and Annie Lee Johnson. Johnson had an older sister Mary Emma and a younger brother John, both of whom were named after heavyweight boxer Jack Johnson, a long-time friend of William Henry. Early into his childhood, the family moved to Wilmington, Delaware; by that time his father worked at the docks as a shipbuilder and as the athletic director at the Negro Settlement House. When Johnson was eight years old, his father began grooming him to become a pugilist. William Henry bought two pairs of boxing gloves: one pair for his son and the other for Mary Emma, his sparring partner. The sport was unappealing to Johnson, however; instead, he began playing sandlot ball and joined his father's local amateur team the Rosedale Blues which competed against black and white teams. In 1917, he stopped attending Howard High School to work on shipyards in New Jersey and play weekend games on baseball teams that were drawn from the community, including the Rosalies and the Chester Stars. The following year he joined the semi-professional ball club the Bacharach Giants for a \$5 wage per game. ### The Hilldale Daisies (1921-1929) In early 1919, Johnson worked out for the Hilldale Daisies and was attached with the Madison Stars, Hilldale's unofficial minor league affiliate, to hone his skills. By 1921, with the Daisies in need of an infielder, Johnson signed a professional baseball contract worth \$135 a month with Ed Bolden, who owned the Hilldale ball club. The rookie ballplayer was soon adorned with the nickname "Judy" because of his resemblance to Chicago American Giants pitcher Judy Gans; the name stuck with Johnson for the duration of his baseball career. Johnson spent his first year as a professional ballplayer at shortstop while his player manager William Francis played at third base, Johnson's natural position. Once the regular season began, Johnson struggled at the plate, finishing his rookie year with a .188 batting average (BA), yet he played everyday and was mentored by Francis in the offseason in order to make the transition to third base. During the 1922 season, Johnson was used as the starting third baseman. With Francis leaving for the Bacharach Giants, Johnson looked to John Henry Lloyd for guidance. A renowned infielder, the veteran ballplayer became a role model to him, and Johnson's defensive style closely resembled his mentor's. After his playing career, Johnson stated, "He's [Lloyd] the man I give the credit to for polishing my skills; he taught me how to play third base and how to protect myself... John taught me more baseball than anyone else". In the offseason, the Hilldale club joined Bolden's newly established Eastern Colored League (ECL). Bolden had rebuilt the team as well, strengthening its core with the signings of Biz Mackey and George "Tank" Carr, both from the American Giants. The 1923 campaign was the beginning of a series of successful seasons for Johnson which saw his emergence as a hitter and leader of the Daisies. Measured at 5-feet-11 inches and 155 lbs. (70.3 kg.), Johnson never developed as a serious power threat; instead, he became a player who consistently hit for contact and drove the ball at gaps in the defense. A "scientific hitter" at the plate, as sports historian Richard Bak described him, Johnson used different strategies to get on base such as taking walks or crowding in on the plate to allow the ball to hit his sleeve. In the field, Johnson was the defensive leader of the Daisies' infield, noted for his intuitive fielding prowess and strong throwing arm. The Daisies won their first Eastern Colored League pennant with Johnson as their most consistent player at the plate; he batted .391 in 1923. The Hilldale club had another successful season in 1924, clinching their second pennant. The Daisies had high expectations when they met the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro National League (NNL) in the 1924 Colored World Series, the first official World Series between the respective champions of the NNL and ECL. Johnson led both teams with a .364 BA and hit a clutch Inside-the-park home run in Game Five of the best-of-nine series, but the Daisies lost, five games to four (with one tied game). The following season, with Johnson hitting .392, the Daisies secured a third straight pennant and returned to the World Series for a rematch with the Monarchs. The favored Hilldale club owed its success in the series—which they won five-to-one—to a stronger line-up consisting of seven starters finishing the regular season batting over .300 and pitching staff led by Nip Winters. After the season, Johnson started playing winter ball in Cuba and was moved to the clean-up spot in the line-up for the remainder of his stint with Hilldale. The Daisies finished second in the ECL pennant race of 1926 to the Bacharach Giants. During the playoffs, the Daisies played four exhibition games against a team composed of white major leaguers, including Lefty Grove, Heinie Manush, and Jimmy Dykes. Hilldale bested them in three out of the four games; Johnson made more money from the games than if the team had played in the World Series. ### The 1930s The onset of the Great Depression in the United States drastically affected attendance at Negro league baseball games, forcing the Daisies to temporarily fold before the 1930 season. At 29 years old, Johnson signed on with the Homestead Grays as a player manager. During the season, Johnson directed his attention to Crawford Colored Giants catcher Josh Gibson who was mentioned in several newspapers for his ability to hit long home runs. The Grays, however, did not seriously pursue Gibson—the team already had two catchers, Buck Ewing and Vic Harris, on its roster. On July 25, 1930, the Grays played an exhibition game with the Monarchs; scheduled at night, the field was illuminated by Monarchs owner J. L. Wilkinson's portable lighting system to attract fans. Ewing, the starting catcher, lost sight of the ball in the low visibility and was injured by a pitch as Harris was playing in the outfield. In attendance, Gibson was called from the stands by Johnson to catch for the remainder of the game. He finished the season with the Grays; Johnson, his mentor, used him to catch batting practice everyday and gradually worked him into the line-up. Johnson spent the 1931 and early 1932 seasons managing the Daisies which joined the East–West League for the latter year. Although he was in the twilight of his playing career, Johnson still felt he could contribute to a winning team and signed on with the Pittsburgh Crawfords in 1932. The 1932 Crawfords team is considered one of the greatest squads ever assembled, often receiving comparisons to the New York Yankees' 1927 team known as the Murderers' Row. Their owner, the wealthy businessman Gus Greenlee, had little experience with baseball when he purchased the Crawfords in 1930 but was determined to aggressively purchase and trade for the best available players. By 1932, Greenlee signed five future hall of famers: Johnson, Cool Papa Bell, Josh Gibson, Satchel Paige, and Oscar Charleston, the player manager. Like Charleston, Johnson remained productive in the latter stage of his career, hitting well above a .300 BA during his five-year stint with the Crawfords. In 1935, he was chosen as captain, and the Crawfords were favored to win the pennant race. The team secured the first half of the championship but finished second in the latter half to the Cuban Giants. As a tiebreaker, both clubs met for a seven-game series to determine the winner of the pennant. In Game Seven, with the Crawfords trailing 7–4 and down to their final out, Johnson hit an infield single to load the bases and kept Pittsburgh's pennant hopes alive. Charleston followed next in the order and hit a walk-off grand slam to win the game and the series. Although the Crawfords finished the second half of 1936 in first place and Johnson showed little signs of slowing down with age, Greenlee shockingly traded him and Gibson to the Homestead Grays in exchange for Pepper Bassett and Henry Spearman, both of whom were considered marginal players at best. Johnson took the deal personally; he played for a few games at the beginning of the 1937 season and announced his retirement soon after. ### Later life and legacy After he retired from baseball, Johnson worked for the Continental Cab Company and managed a general goods store with his brother. In 1951, the Philadelphia Athletics hired Johnson as a scout. He urged the team, albeit unsuccessfully, to sign prospects Hank Aaron and Minnie Minoso. Before the Athletics relocated to Kansas in 1954, the club assigned Johnson as an assistant coach tasked with instructing black players Bob Trice and Vic Power during spring training. Due to the brief nature of Johnson's assignment, Buck O'Neil is generally credited with being the first African-American to coach in Major League Baseball (MLB). Johnson spent time scouting with the Atlanta Braves, Milwaukee Brewers, Philadelphia Phillies, and Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1950s and 1960s. He is credited with instigating the signings of slugger Dick Allen and Bill Bruton who later became his son-in-law. As one of the oldest surviving stars of the Negro leagues, Johnson was offered a seat on the Committee on Negro Baseball Leagues when it was appointed by MLB commissioner Bowie Kuhn in 1971. The Committee's responsibility was to select noteworthy Negro league players for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame. In 1975, Johnson stepped down from his position in the Committee to accept his hall of fame nomination. Johnson is recognized as the best third baseman of the Negro leagues; Arthur Ashe in his book A Hard Road to Glory termed his play as "the standard by which other third-basemen were measured". His leadership was the center piece of two of the most dominant Negro league teams—the Hilldale Daisies in the 1920s and the Pittsburgh Crawfords in the 1930s. Former teammates, including Ted Page and Johnson's mentor Cool Papa Harris, praised his composure under pressure, both on the field and at the plate. Johnson suffered a stroke in 1988 and died a year later on June 15, 1989, in Wilmington; he was 89 years old. His home, the William Julius "Judy" Johnson House in Marshallton, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. Judy Johnson Field at Daniel S. Frawley Stadium is named for him.
64,829,949	Epodes (Horace)	1,159,543,627	Collection of poems by Horace	[ "1st-century BC Latin books", "30s BC", "40s BC", "Anti-war books", "Poems about sexuality", "Poems about witches and witchcraft", "Poetry by Horace", "Satirical poems", "Utopian fiction" ]	The Epodes (Latin: Epodi or Epodon liber; also called Iambi) are a collection of iambic poems written by the Roman poet Horace. They were published in 30 BC and form part of his early work alongside the Satires. Following the model of the Greek poets Archilochus and Hipponax, the Epodes largely fall into the genre of blame poetry, which seeks to discredit and humiliate its targets. The 17 poems of the Epodes cover a variety of topics, including politics, magic, eroticism and food. A product of the turbulent final years of the Roman Republic, the collection is known for its striking depiction of Rome's socio-political ills in a time of great upheaval. Due to their recurring coarseness and explicit treatment of sexuality, the Epodes have traditionally been Horace's least regarded work. However, the last quarter of the 20th century saw a resurgence in scholarly interest in the collection. ## Names The modern standard name for the collection is Epodes. Deriving from the Greek epodos stichos ('verse in reply'), the term refers to a poetic verse following on from a slightly longer one. Since all poems except Epode 17 are composed in such an epodic form, the term is used with some justification. This naming convention, however, is not attested before the commentary of Pomponius Porphyrion in the second century AD. Horace himself referred to his poems as iambi on several occasions, but it is uncertain if this was intended as a title or only as a generic descriptor, referring to the dominant metre used in the collection: the iamb. In the ancient tradition of associating metrical form with content, the term had by Horace's time become a metonym for the genre of blame poetry which was habitually written in iambic metre. Both terms, Epodes and Iambi, have become common names for the collection. ## Date Horace began writing his Epodes after the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. He had fought as a military tribune in the losing army of Caesar's assassins and his fatherly estate was confiscated in the aftermath of the battle. Having been pardoned by Octavian, Horace began to write poetry in this period. His budding relationship with the wealthy Gaius Maecenas features in several poems, which locates most of the work on the Epodes in the 30s BC. The finished collection was published in 30 BC. The dramatic date of the collection is less certain. Two poems (Epodes 1 and 9) are explicitly and respectively set before and after the Battle of Actium (31 BC). The remaining poems cannot be placed with any certainty. However, it emerges that they are all set in the tumultuous decade between the death of Caesar and Octavian's final victory. As such, the Epodes are considered a crucial witness to Rome's violent transition from a republic to an autocratic monarchy. ## The iambic genre The Epodes situate themselves in the tradition of iambic poetry going back to the lyric poets of archaic Greece. In the following quotation from his Epistles, Horace identifies the poet Archilochus of Paros as his most important influence: Dating to the seventh century BC, the poems of Archilochus contain attacks, often highly sexualised and scatological, on other members of society. Two groups in particular are targets of his abuse: personal enemies and promiscuous women. The above-mentioned Lycambes features in many of Archilochus' poems and was thought to have committed suicide after being viciously slandered by the poet. Horace, as is indicated in the above passage, largely followed the model of Archilochus with regards to metre and spirit, but, on the whole, the Epodes are much more restrained in their verbal violence. While Horace does not borrow extensively from him, Archilochian influence can be felt in some of his themes (e.g. Epod. 8 and 12 as a variation on the Cologne Epodes) and poetic stances (e.g. addressing fellow citizens or hated enemies). Another significant iambic predecessor of Horace was Hipponax, a lyric poet who flourished during the sixth century BC in Ephesus, Asia Minor. Writing in the same vein as Archilochus, his poems depict the vulgar aspects of contemporary society. In contrast to the previous iambic tradition, he has been described as striking a discernibly satirical pose: through the use of eccentric and foreign language, many of his poems come across as humorous takes on low-brow activities. His influence is acknowledged in Epode 6.11–4. The Hellenistic scholar and poet Callimachus (third century BC) also wrote a collection of iambi, which are thought to have left a mark on Horace's poems. In these poems, Callimachus presented a toned-down version of the archaic iambus. Horace avoids direct allusions to Callimachus, a fact which has sometimes been seen as a strategy in favour of the style of Archilochus and Hipponax. ## Metre The metrical pattern of Epodes 1–10 consists of an iambic trimeter (three sets of two iambs) followed by an iambic dimeter (two sets of two iambs). Possible caesurae are indicated by a vertical line. In the trimeter, all longs (—) before the caesura may be replaced by two shorts (∪ ∪). In the dimeter, only the first long may be so replaced. ` x — ∪ — x \| — ∪ \| — x — ∪ — ` ` x — ∪ — x — ∪ —` Poems 11–17 deviate from this pattern and, with the exception of 14 and 15, each exhibit a different metre. Most of these metres combine iambic elements with dactylic ones and include: the second and third Archilochian, the Alcmanic strophe, and the first and second Pythiambic. Epode 17 presents an anomaly: it is the only poem in the collection with a stichic metre. The term 'stichic' denotes a succession of identical verses. In this case, the poem consists of eighty-one identical iambic trimeters. Therefore, 17 is the only Epode that may not technically be described as an epode. ## Contents Epode 1 is dedicated to Horace's patron, Maecenas, who is about to join Octavian on the Actium campaign. The poet announces that he is willing to share the dangers of his influential friend, even though he is unwarlike himself. This loyalty, the poem claims, is not motivated by greed but rather by genuine friendship for Maecenas. Epode 2 is a poem of exceptional length (70 verses) and popularity among readers of Horace. It envisions the tranquil life of a farmer as a desirable contrast to the hectic life of Rome's urban elite. Each season holds its own pleasures and life is dictated by the agricultural calendar. At the end of the poem, a money-lender named Alfius is revealed as the speaker of the epode, leaving the reader to ponder its sincerity. In Epode 3, Horace reacts to an excessive amount of garlic he has consumed at one of Maecenas' dinner parties: its strong taste has set his stomach on fire. Comparing the ingredient to the poison used by witches such as Medea, he playfully wishes that his host be stricken by the same condition. Epode 4 criticises the pretentious behaviour of a social climber. The main charge levelled at the man is that he used to be a slave and has now risen to be a military tribune, thereby offending those who traditionally occupied such positions. The poem also imagines the heckling of passers-by on the Via Sacra. Critics have stated that the target of the epode resembles Horace's own biography. Epode 5 details the encounter of a young boy with the witch (venefica) Canidia. Together with a group of fellow witches, she plans to use his bone marrow and liver to concoct a love potion. Unable to escape from his entrapment, the boy utters a vow to haunt the witches in his afterlife. The poem is the longest in the collection and is particularly notable for its portrayal of witchcraft. In Epode 6, Horace envisions himself as the successor of the Greek iambographers Archilochus and Hipponax. Should someone be brave enough to provoke him, he will bite back with the fervour of his Greek models. Epode 7 is addressed to the citizens of Rome. Set in the context of Octavian's civil war, the poet scolds his fellow citizens for rushing to shed their own blood instead of fighting foreign enemies. The poem and its opening line (Quo, quo scelesti ruitis? "Where, where are you rushing in your wickedness?") are famous for their desperate attempt to prevent renewed civil warfare. Epode 8 is the first of two 'sexual epodes'. In it, Horace lambasts a repulsive old woman for expecting sexual favours from him. Although she is wealthy and has a collection of sophisticated books, the poet rejects her ageing body. Epode 9 extends an invitation to Maecenas to celebrate Octavian's victory in the Battle of Actium. Octavian is praised for having defeated Mark Antony, who is portrayed as an unmanly leader because of his alliance with Cleopatra. Epode 10 strikes a more traditionally iambic note. In the style of Hipponax' Strasbourg Epode, the poet curses his enemy Mevius. Horace wishes that the ship carrying Mevius will suffer shipwreck and that his enemy's corpse will be devoured by gulls. In Epode 11, the poet complains to his friend Pettius that he is mad with love for a boy named Lyciscus. The poem is a variation on the idea that love may make the lover's life unbearable. It thus has much in common with Roman love elegy. Epode 12 is the second of two 'sexual epodes'. Like in poem 8, the poet finds himself in bed with an ageing woman. This time, Horace is criticised for his impotence — which he blames on the woman's repulsive body. The poem is known for its obscene sexual vocabulary. Epode 13 is set at a symposium, an all-male drinking party. Drinking with one's friends is presented as an antidote to both bad weather and worries. The second half of the poem tells how the centaur Chiron gave the same piece of advice to his pupil Achilles. Epode 14 returns to the theme of poem 11: the inhibiting effects of love. Horace apologises to Maecenas for not having completed as promised a set of iambics. The reason for this failure, he adds, is the powerful grip of love. Epode 15 continues the motif of love by commenting on the infidelity of one Neaera. Having sworn an oath of loyalty to the poet, she has now run off to another man. The poem contains a well-known pun on Horace's cognomen Flaccus (nam si quid in Flacco viri est "... if there is anything manly in a man called floppy"). Epode 16 weaves together strands from Epodes 2 and 7. After lamenting the devastating effects of civil warfare on Rome and its citizens, Horace exhorts his countrymen to emigrate to a faraway place. This vision of a rural lifestyle as an alternative to a depressed state of affairs shows characteristics of escapism. The final Epode (17) takes the shape of a palinode, a type of poem which serves to retract a previously stated sentiment. Here, the poet takes back his defamations of Canidia in poem 5. Still occupying the position of the captive boy, he begs the witch for mercy. His request is shrugged off by Canidia who thus has the last word of the collection. ## Themes Victimhood is an import theme within the collection. Although Horace assumes the strident persona of the iambic poet for most of the Epodes, critics have described that the roles of aggressor and victim are regularly reversed. In the two erotic poems (8 and 12), for example, the poet is forced to retaliate viciously because his sexual potency has been called into question. Similarly, his toothless tirade against the use of garlic comes after the poet has been poisoned by the same ingredient. Central to discussions of victimhood in the Epodes is Horace's fascination with the witch Canidia and her coven. She features prominently in two poems (5 and 17) which together make up nearly a third of the collection. The Latinist Ellen Oliensis describes her as a "kind of anti-Muse": Horace finds himself forced to write poems in order to assuage her anger. In keeping with the overall depiction of women in the collection, the witch is reduced to her repulsive sexuality which the poet is nevertheless unable to resist. This weakness in the face of Canidia is illustrated by the fact that she speaks the last word of the Epodes. Features such as these have made the Epodes a popular case study for the exploration of poetic impotence. The dramatic situation of the Epodes is set against the backdrop of Octavian's civil war against Mark Antony. Anxiety about the outcome of the conflict manifests itself in several poems: while Epodes 1 and 9 express support for the Octavian cause, 9 displays a frustration about the precarious political situation more generally. The wish to escape to a simpler, less hostile environment comes to the fore in two lengthy poems (2 and 16) and strikes a tone much like that of Virgil's early work, the Eclogues and Georgics. One result of decades of civil war is the increasing confusion of friend and foe, which can be seen in Horace's attacks on Maecenas (3) and the upstart military tribune (4). Palpable throughout much of the Epodes is a concern for the poet's standing in society already familiar to readers of the Satires. In this regard, Horace's friendship with the wealthy Maecenas is of particular interest. Horace, the son of an ex-slave, seems to have felt some uncertainty about their cross-class relationship. A good example of this is Epode 3: in response to an overly garlicky dinner, Horace hopes that Maecenas will suffer from a similar garlic overdose. The humorous curse against his social superior has been interpreted as the poet standing his ground in a socially acceptable way. The opposite dynamic can be observed in Epode 4. Here, the poet, apparently oblivious of his low social status, joins a mob of citizens in ridiculing a former slave who has risen to become a Roman knight. ## Reception The Epodes have traditionally been Horace's least regarded work, due, in part, to the collection's recurring coarseness and its open treatment of sexuality. This has caused critics to strongly favour the political poems (1, 7, 9, and 16), while the remaining ones became marginalised. Leaving few traces in later ancient texts, the Epodes were often treated as a lesser appendix to the famous Odes in the early modern period. Only the second Epode, an idyllic vision of rural life, received regular attention by publishers and translators. Nevertheless, during the Victorian era, a number of leading English boarding schools prescribed parts of the collection as set texts for their students. The last quarter of the 20th century saw a resurgence of critical interest in the Epodes, bringing with it the publication of several commentaries and scholarly articles. In the wake of this resurgence, the collection has become known for what the classicist Stephen Harrison describes as "hard-hitting analyses" of the socio-political issues of late-Republican Rome. One feature that has proved of enduring interest is the collection's eccentric portrayal of witchcraft. Examples of this include a hostile review of Uncle Tom's Cabin published in the Southern Literary Messenger in 1852. The anonymous reviewer criticised the book's educational message, describing it as "the song of Canidia." ## Selected editions - Latin text with a commentary and introduction. - Latin text with a facing English prose translation. - Critical edition of Horace's collected works, in Latin with a critical apparatus. - English verse translation. - Latin text with a commentary and introduction. - English prose translation.
18,010,750	Ship camouflage	1,161,458,483	Form of military deception	[ "Camouflage patterns", "Military camouflage", "Ships", "Vehicle markings" ]	Ship camouflage is a form of military deception in which a ship is painted in one or more colors in order to obscure or confuse an enemy's visual observation. Several types of marine camouflage have been used or prototyped: blending or crypsis, in which a paint scheme attempts to hide a ship from view; deception, in which a ship is made to look smaller or, as with the Q-ships, to mimic merchantmen; and dazzle, a chaotic paint scheme which tries to confuse any estimate of distance, direction, or heading. Counterillumination, to hide a darkened ship against the slightly brighter night sky, was trialled by the Royal Canadian Navy in diffused lighting camouflage. Ships were sometimes camouflaged in classical times. Mediterranean pirate ships were sometimes painted blue-gray for concealment. Vegetius records that Julius Caesar's scout ships were painted bluish-green when gathering intelligence along the coast of Britain during the Gallic Wars. Ships were sometimes painted deceptively during the Age of Sail, while both sides in the American Civil War camouflaged their ships, whether to run blockades or for night reconnaissance. Ship camouflage was used in earnest by the British Admiralty in the First World War. The marine artist Norman Wilkinson led research into dazzle camouflage, resulting in the painting of thousands of British and later American ships in dazzle patterns. He intended it not to make ships invisible, nor even to cause the enemy to miss his shot, but to deceive him into taking up a poor firing position. In the Second World War, dazzle was revisited by the Royal Navy and the United States Navy, and applied to a limited extent by other navies. After the Second World War, radar made painted camouflage less effective, though inshore craft continue to use camouflage schemes alongside anti-radar stealth. ## Early use Ship camouflage was occasionally used in ancient times. The 3rd century book Imagines notes that Mediterranean pirate ships were sometimes painted blue-gray for concealment. Vegetius writing in the 4th century says that "Venetian blue" (bluish-green, the same color as the sea) was used in the years 56–54 BC during the Gallic Wars, when Julius Caesar sent his speculatoria navigia (scout ships) to gather intelligence along the coast of Britain. The ships were painted entirely in bluish-green wax, with sails and ropes the same color. The sailors and marines were also dressed in "Venetian blue". In the Age of Sail, deception was often used by ships, and paint was applied ad hoc by ships' captains for temporary tactical advantage. A ship might be painted to look like another, it might have its cannon ports hidden by painted canvas to look harmless, or it might have additional cannon ports painted on to appear more powerful. For example, in one of his battles during 1778–1782, American privateer Jonathan Haraden hid the guns of his ship the General Pickering, to appear as if it were a slow merchant ship. Haraden allowed his ship to be approached at close range by a much faster British privateer, then he quickly pulled the painted canvas away and delivered a full broadside, capturing the enemy. In the American Civil War, camouflage paint was applied by both sides during the Union blockade of 1861–1865. Blockade runners aiding the Confederates sometimes painted their ships all in mist-gray, to hide themselves in coastal fog. One Union blockade crew may have painted their rowboat and its oars white and wore white clothing for a night reconnaissance patrol up an enemy-held river. In the 1890s, German and French fighting ships were being painted gray. American interest in ship camouflage was given official funding in 1898 during the Spanish–American War when white, light gray, and medium gray paint schemes were evaluated for their ability to hide a ship as seen against the distant sky on the horizon. Artist Abbott Handerson Thayer investigated countershading color schemes to "paint out" natural shadows. The United States Navy switched from gray to white in the 1900s, and in 1907 its Great White Fleet set out to circumnavigate the globe with all-white hulls. The white paint proved to be unsuccessful, and after the return of the Great White Fleet, its ships were painted gray. British ships began being painted gray in 1903; lighter shades were preferred to minimize solar heating in warmer climates. ## First World War In the First World War, the increasing range of naval guns, and the great fear of high-speed, long-range torpedoes used against warships and merchant ships caused a significant increase in the use of ship camouflage. ### Royal Navy Patterned ship camouflage was pioneered in Britain. Early in the First World War, the zoologist John Graham Kerr advised Winston Churchill to use disruptive camouflage to break up ships' outlines, and countershading to make them appear less solid, following the American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer's beliefs. Kerr was not an effective political campaigner, and his ideas were abandoned on Churchill's departure from the Admiralty, while his postwar legal action to claim credit for ship camouflage failed. His successor, the marine artist Norman Wilkinson, successfully promoted the idea that Kerr's camouflage sought invisibility rather than image disruption. Under Wilkinson, the Admiralty researched and issued a large number of "razzle-dazzle" designs, which became known simply as "dazzle", to counter the threat from submarines. Models were made and painted, often by women artists, and tested in a laboratory by viewing through a periscope. After trials, in October 1917 the Admiralty ordered all its merchant ships to be painted in dazzle patterns. The purpose of dazzle camouflage was not however motion dazzle but course deception, as Wilkinson later explained: > The primary object of this scheme was not so much to cause the enemy to miss his shot when actually in firing position, but to mislead him, when the ship was first sighted, as to the correct position to take up. ... making it a matter of difficulty for a submarine to decide on the exact course of the vessel to be attacked. Over 4000 British merchant ships and some 400 naval vessels were painted in dazzle camouflage during 1917–1918. Deceptive measures other than dazzle included the fitting of anti-rangefinder baffles to the masts and yards of battleships such as HMS Emperor of India in 1917. Deceptive mimicry was also practised, with heavily armed Q-ships disguised as merchant ships. ### German Imperial Navy The German navy put little emphasis on camouflage. After the Battle of Jutland, German naval effort in any case went into submarine warfare. However, Germany made use of disguise, such as by painting ships in the colour schemes of British or neutral shipping. For example, the Kronprinzessin Cecilie was painted to resemble the British liner Olympic, and managed to reach America, evading the British blockade in 1914. In 1915 and 1916, the Germans further made use of commerce raiders, converted freighters with hidden weapons and long range, able to slip through the British blockade and then attack shipping as far away as the south Atlantic. German First World War merchant ships were rarely camouflaged, nor did they use Q-ships, as the Allied navies did not attack merchant shipping. ### Other navies The Allied navies of France and Italy essentially followed Admiralty camouflage practice. In 1913, American camouflage experiments included a submarine painted in a three-color pattern of broad vertical stripes designed by William Mackay, using white stripes to separate green and blue stripes. Wilkinson visited the United States to advise the U.S. Navy on ship camouflage. Dazzle schemes were used on merchant ships, naval transports, and smaller warships. Battleships were camouflaged in a variety of patterns. ## Second World War Some two-color paint schemes attempted to harmonize with both sea and sky near the horizon. The US Navy painted some ships dark gray with white structures above bridge level. Both the US Navy and the Royal Navy painted ships dark gray on the hull and light gray on the superstructure and turrets. USN measure 12 was a graded system with sea blue low on the hull below the first continuous deck, with ocean gray above that. The top of the masts were painted haze gray. This measure was modified with ocean gray above navy blue low on the hull below the first continuous deck (painted parallel to the waterline rather than the main deck). This bold contrast on a horizontal line near the horizon reduced visibility to surface observers and created the illusion of greater range. This camouflage was considered most effective for gunnery engagements with surface units or shore batteries in areas where aerial observation was unlikely. It was used in the Atlantic and European coastal waters from the end of 1942 through the end of World War II. It was worn by shore bombardment ships in the Pacific from late 1944 after the destruction of Japanese naval aviation capability at the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Similar Admiralty standard schemes were applied beginning in 1944 when it was assumed enemy forces would have radar. Ships were painted light gray overall, except for a sea blue patch low on the hull, either between the main gun turrets or the entire length of the hull. ### United States Navy In 1935, the United States Navy Naval Research Laboratory began studies and tests on low visibility camouflage for ships. Some measures were deceptive, like a false painted bow wave to give the impression of high speed at all times. Measures making cruisers resemble destroyers were discontinued after causing station-keeping confusion among ships operating in formation. Color schemes included light gray, haze gray, ocean gray, and black. Haze gray was found to provide reasonable protection in the widest range of conditions, and became a standard US Navy paint scheme after World War II. Ocean gray also became a standard paint scheme after the war. Although black is still used for submarines, it was discontinued on destroyers after it had been determined that black ships remained more noticeable than gray ships on even the darkest nights. The US Navy painted some ships sea blue overall for concealment from aircraft. During the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway, ships painted completely blue came under attack less often than ships wearing two-color schemes. On the advice of United States aviators the blue color was darkened and used extensively in the western and southern Pacific from mid-1942 through 1945 to minimize detection and identification by enemy aircraft. Dark blue also proved effective under artificial illumination during night actions. Upper surfaces of aircraft operating from carrier decks were painted a similar shade of blue. Sailors were ordered to wear dungarees rather than white uniforms when topside. The Thayer system was white with large polygonal patches of light sea blue (called Thayer Blue). This measure was most useful in Arctic latitudes with extended twilight and frequent fog and cloud cover. Purity of color was important for full realization of the Purkinje effect where some colors appear lighter and some appear darker at low levels of illumination. Darkening the pattern increased course deception, but increased visibility at night and in haze. Measure 32 was a medium pattern of obtrusive polygons in navy blue or black, against background polygons of lighter grays and greens. This measure emphasized mistaken identity and course deception to complicate submarine attack. Patterns were carried across the bow, and light gray was used aft to blend with the wake. This measure was based on the World War I dazzle system modified by observations in the western Pacific; and was applied to most surface ships in the Pacific during 1944 and 1945. Different patterns were devised for classes with large numbers of ships so the pattern would not identify the class of ship. ### Royal Navy Between the world wars, Royal Navy ships were painted dark gray in the Home Fleet, light gray in the Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas, and white in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific. Many Home Fleet ships were painted medium gray during 1939 and 1940 to decrease visibility from the peacetime dark gray. In the first year of the war British captains largely painted their ships as they saw fit. HMS Grenville is believed to have been the first ship to adopt a disruptive camouflage paint scheme in December 1939, and several G-class destroyers of her flotilla used a similar scheme of contrasting stone colored polygons. When concern arose about German aerial reconnaissance of Scapa Flow, some Home Fleet ships were painted with disruptive Flotta schemes of dark brown, light gray, and light green polygons from April to August 1940 for concealment and identity confusion in port. Most Home Fleet ships had been repainted medium gray by December 1940. The Royal Navy painted Mediterranean submarines dark blue in 1940 to reduce submerged visibility to aircraft. Captain Louis Mountbatten's 5th Flotilla of K class destroyers were painted Mountbatten pink in 1940. Mountbatten observed a Union-Castle Liner disappear from convoy during an autumn sunset because of the company's unusual lavender-mauve-gray hull color. Mountbatten reasoned the color would be effective camouflage during dawn and dusk periods, and devised a similar shade by mixing medium gray with a small amount of venetian red. Its effectiveness was much disputed; but it was applied to other destroyers, a few cruisers, and numerous small warships which maintained the scheme through 1944 for use in coastal waters. No Admiralty camouflage section was established until October 1940. Admiralty camouflage schemes promulgated in 1941 were not universally adopted because of difficulties with operating schedules and shortages of some paint pigments. Nearly all destroyers and larger ships wore an Admiralty disruptive camouflage scheme by late 1942; but Commonwealth captains executed official camouflage schemes with greater variation than was customary with American measures. Initial Admiralty disruptive camouflage schemes employed polygons of varying shades of gray, blue and green so at least two of the colors would blend with background sea or sky under different light conditions. Schemes devised for capital ships emphasized identity confusion rather than concealment. HMS Queen Elizabeth became the first ship to receive an official camouflage scheme in January 1941. As more ships received similar schemes through 1941 it became evident the polygons were too small to be differentiated at effective camouflage ranges. Simplified Admiralty light and dark disruptive schemes were promulgated in 1942 to use larger and simpler polygons with no more than four colors. Light disruptive schemes were intended for use in the higher latitudes where skies were often overcast. Dark disruptive schemes used darker colors providing more effective disruption where bright sunlight could be expected. The Admiralty Western Approaches scheme evolved from a camouflage scheme applied to HMS Broke in June 1940 at the suggestion of the naturalist Peter Scott, who was serving aboard that ship. Broke was painted white with large polygonal patches of light gray, light sea blue and light sea green. Broke achieved some notoriety in a collision where the captain of the other ship claimed to have been unable to see Broke. Escort captains observing Broke experimented with similar schemes including polygons of dark gray or dark blue for increased disruptive contrast, while others tried painting their ships entirely white to emphasize concealment. The Admiralty omitted light gray from Peter Scott's scheme. White with large polygonal patches of light sea blue and light sea green was adopted in mid-1941 for use exclusively on destroyers and smaller ships engaged in anti-submarine operations. This was an effective scheme under typical North Atlantic weather conditions of fog and overcast. Captain-class frigate were delivered painted white with a pattern of sea blue and light gray in an American Western Approaches variant. These were colors used in American camouflage measures; but the pattern was unique to ships produced for the Royal Navy and was replaced by Admiralty schemes and colors during refit. The Home Fleet destroyer scheme was similar to the Western Approaches scheme but used darker shades of blue and gray on the rear third of the ship, to assist in station-keeping. British decks were usually dark gray. The Admiralty's informal approach changed when a branch of the Naval Research Laboratory was established at Leamington Spa under Commander James Yunge-Bateman to test ship camouflage schemes experimentally. Painted models were floated in a large tank and examined against different backgrounds, using theater lamps to simulate varying lighting conditions. An experimental coating able to change color was tested on Royal Navy submarines. On suggestion by Professor Leslie Cromby, lead oxide was applied to the hull, enabling it to become black on application of a solution of sulphite and sea water for night operation. For day sailing, a solution of hydrogen peroxide and sea water would be applied, producing sulphate and returning the hull to a white colour desirable for daytime conditions. ### German Kriegsmarine German Kriegsmarine ships before the Second World War were either light gray overall or had dark gray hulls, and many retained this scheme during the war. The cruiser Deutschland, for instance, had a gray hull and light gray superstructure in 1934. Others had dazzle camouflage, usually in combinations of pale gray, dark gray and sea blue. For example, the hull of the battleship Scharnhorst had a dazzle pattern of stripes on a gray background in 1940, but some of these were later painted out, and the bows forward of the main guns painted black. Scharnhorst was not camouflaged against air observation, her decks fore and aft bearing large black on white swastikas on a red field; her main gun turrets had red (in the Baltic) or yellow tops for air recognition. The battleship Bismarck set out to Norway in dazzle camouflage; this was painted out with gray for her final trip to the Atlantic. The cruiser Admiral Scheer wore a low contrast pattern of irregular dark gray marks on light gray for her superstructure, with a dark gray hull, black waterline and, away from air support while out raiding in 1941, dark gray turret tops. Larger ships often had false bows and sterns painted in a different shade from the rest of the hull to create the impression of the ship being at greater range from the observer. German decks were a very dark gray. Smaller ships operating in the North Sea or Baltic Sea were painted white or a very pale gray to blend in with daytime mist and nighttime phosphorescent organisms. As in the First World War, the Germans again employed disguised commerce raiders, Hilfskreuzer such as Atlantis, Thor and Kormoran. These ships were able to modify their appearance to throw off the searching Allied cruisers. ### Royal Canadian Navy In the diffused lighting camouflage project, the Royal Canadian Navy experimented with variable counter-illumination camouflage to match horizon light levels and minimize ships' silhouettes during prolonged arctic twilight. During the experiments, one side of the test ship was faintly illuminated by projectors mounted outboard. Results were improved with the use of blue-green filters, and then with a photocell to measure the brightness of the night sky. The ship's visibility was reduced, but the technology was inconvenient and never adopted in practice. ### Other navies Italian ships of Mussolini's navy retained its pre-war scheme of light gray overall for its smaller ships, but the larger units mostly had dazzle camouflage of dark gray, light sea blue, light sea green and light gray. Italian foredecks had a high-visibility pattern of red and white diagonal stripes so that their own aircraft would not attack them. Japanese ships were generally not camouflaged. In special tactical situations, camouflage could be improvised, as when the battleships Yamato and Musashi had their decks blackened with a mixture of soot to help them hide while passing through the San Bernardino Strait at night in the October 1944 Battle of Leyte Gulf. Japanese ships largely retained their pre-war dark gray paint scheme, although some major units like aircraft carriers changed to a dark sea green. Some aircraft carriers had their flight decks painted in a dazzle camouflage, but this seems to have been ineffective. By 1945, with the remnants of the Japanese Navy seeking to hide from American air power, its battleships were painted in a variety of camouflage measures. Haruna for example wore olive green overall, its turrets painted light green with gray stripes, whereas Ise'''s olive dress was broken up with patches of gray, red-brown, yellow, and dark green. Soviet ships were dark gray overall, sometimes with medium gray upperworks. The French Navy used light gray before the war and under the Vichy regime. Free French ships that operated with the British adopted one of the British schemes. Those that were refitted in American shipyards were usually repainted in the American Measure 22. ## Later uses After the Second World War, the universal adoption of radar made traditional camouflage generally less effective, and led to development of stealth ships, a form of radar camouflage. However, camouflage may have helped United States warships avoid hits from Vietnamese shore batteries which used optical rangefinders. Some U.S. Navy PTF boats were camouflaged experimentally in 1975 with green overall, broken up by patterns of gray and black. USS Freedom'', a littoral combat ship, is however said to be the first U.S. Navy ship to have camouflage reminiscent of that used in the World Wars. In 2023, Black Sea Fleet of the Russian Navy applied camouflage to their Admiral Grigorovich Class frigate Admiral Essen. By making the ship appear smaller than it actually was, they were hoping to confuse remote operators of Ukrainian uncrewed surface vessels (USV) into thinking the ship was less valuable than it was. USV drones that rely on video feed from cameras and do not have advanced radars.
140,490	Hormizd II	1,169,560,221	Ruler of the Sasanian Empire 303–309	[ "309 deaths", "3rd-century births", "4th-century Sasanian monarchs", "4th-century murdered monarchs", "Murdered Persian monarchs", "Shahnameh characters" ]	Hormizd II (also spelled Hormozd or Ohrmazd; Middle Persian: 𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣) was king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire. He ruled for seven years and five months, from 303 to 309. He was a son and successor of Narseh (r. 293–303). During his reign, the Kingdom of Armenia had recently declared Christianity as its official religion, thus leaving its ancient Zoroastrian heritage that it shared with Sasanian Iran. Hormizd II's reign was also marked by internal turmoil, which he successfully managed to deal with. Hormizd II was also successful in his efforts in the west, defeating and killing the Ghassanid king in Syria. His reign was, however, cut short by the intrigues of the Iranian nobility, who killed him in a secluded place. He was succeeded by his son Adur Narseh, who after a few months of reigning was also killed by the nobility. They instead installed Hormizd II's infant son Shapur II on the throne. ## Etymology The name of Hormizd (also spelled Ōhrmazd, Hormozd) is the Middle Persian version of the name of the supreme deity in Zoroastrianism, known in Avestan as Ahura Mazda. The Old Persian equivalent is Auramazdā, while the Greek transliteration is Hormisdas. The name is attested in Armenian as Ormizd and in Georgian as Urmizd. ## Life ### Background When Hormizd's father Narseh ascended the throne in 293, he had an investiture relief made in Naqsh-e Rostam, where he is depicted as receiving the ring of kingship from a female figure that is frequently assumed to be the goddess Anahita. However, some scholars have suggested that this may be his wife and Hormizd's mother, Shapurdukhtak. The figure standing behind Narseh is most likely Hormizd, due to his cap being the form of that of an animal protome, which was typically worn by Sasanian heirs. Hormizd most likely did not take part in his father's war against the Roman Empire, which ended disastrously for the Sasanians, with Narseh's wife and some of his offspring being captured, forcing him to surrender a handful provinces in Armenia and Mesopotamia in order to have his family members handed back to him. Hormizd may have been same person as Hormizd II Kushanshah, a Sasanian prince who briefly ruled the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom from 300 to 303. They both minted coins where they were depicted with a winged crown, whilst on the reverse, which usually shows the traditional fire altar flanked by two attendants, also shows a head emerging from the fire, a typical Kushano-Sasanian design which first appears on Sasanian coins during the reign of Hormizd II. ### Reign In 303, Hormizd II ascended the throne, assuming a crown whose features resembled that of the same used by the early Sasanian rulers, such as Bahram II (r. 274–293). Not much is known about the reign of Hormizd; he supposedly started out as a cruel ruler but then became benevolent. This change of behaviour is described by al-Tabari; However, unlike his father, who had returned to the policy of religious tolerance which had been practiced during the reign of first two shahs, Ardashir I (r. 224–242) and Shapur I (r. 240–270), Hormizd persecuted the Manicheans who had lived peacefully during the reign of his father. Hormizd reportedly founded the rural district of Kurang (or Wahisht-Hormozd) near Izeh in the Khuzistan province. Hormizd tried to improve Sasanian relations with Armenia, which had recently under Tiridates III of Armenia declared Christianity as its state religion; he gave his daughter Hormizddukht in marriage to a Mamikonian prince named Vahan. Hormizd's rock relief at Naqsh-e Rostam in the Pars province (present-day Fars) indicates that there was internal turmoil in the empire during his reign. In the relief he is portrayed riding a horse whilst impaling an enemy whose helmet bears the family signature of Papak, a high-ranking nobleman who served as the bitakhsh (viceroy) of Albania during the reign of Bahram II and Narseh. Hormizd, during the last years of his reign, raided the domains of the Ghassanid king in Syria, whom he tried to extract tribute from. The Ghassanid king as a result tried to get assistance from the Roman emperor, but was killed before Roman reinforcements appeared. Hormizd was reportedly in 309 ambushed and killed by Ghassanid troops whilst he was hunting in the desert. The more probable reason for his death was most likely the Iranian nobility that killed him in a secluded place, and now sought to get rid of his sons as well. According to the 11th-century Chronicle of Seert, Hormizd declared war against the Romans in order to avenge the defeat of his father, whilst the Chronicle of Arbela states that when the Roman emperor started persecuting his Christian subjects, Hormizd raised a great army, invaded the Roman domains and raided many cities. The credibility of the two sources are doubtful, with the events not being reported in other sources. According to the Iranologist Alireza Shapour Shahbazi, "one may only surmise that it is probably a reflection of Hormozd's alleged raid into Syria." ## Succession After Hormizd's death, he was succeeded by his eldest son Adur Narseh, who, after a brief reign which lasted few months, was killed by some of the nobles of the empire. They then blinded the second, and imprisoned the third (Hormizd, who afterwards escaped to the Roman Empire). The throne was reserved for the unborn child of Hormizd II's wife Ifra Hormizd, which was Shapur II. Shapur II was reportedly the only king in history to be crowned in utero, as the legend claims that the crown was placed upon his mother's womb while she was pregnant. However, according to Shahbazi, it is unlikely that Shapur was crowned as king while still in his mother's womb, since the nobles could not have known of his sex at that time. He further states that Shapur was born forty days after his father's death, and that the nobles killed Adur Narseh and crowned Shapur II in order to gain greater control of the empire, which they were able to do until Shapur II reached his majority at the age of 16. ## Offspring Hormizd II was one of the Sasanian kings with the most children, which he had from his wife Ifra-Hormizd, and several other wives and concubines: - Prince Adur Narseh (3rd century – 309), the ninth king of the Sasanian Empire. - Prince Shapur II (309 – 379), the tenth king of the Sasanian Empire. - Prince Adurfrazgird (??? – 4th century), governor of southern Arbayistan. - Prince Zamasp (??? – 4th century), governor of northern Arbayistan. - Prince Shapur Sakanshah (??? – 4th century), governor of Sakastan. - Prince Hormizd (??? – 4th century), imprisoned by the Iranian nobility and later defected to the Roman Empire. - Prince Ardashir II (309 – 383), the eleventh king of the Sasanian Empire. - Prince Narseh (??? – 4th century), briefly occupied the Armenian throne in the mid-330s. - Princess Hormizddukht (??? – 4th century), married the Mamikonian prince Vahan.
46,598,617	The Life of Pablo	1,172,756,626	2016 studio album by Kanye West	[ "2016 albums", "Albums produced by Allen Ritter", "Albums produced by Boi-1da", "Albums produced by Cashmere Cat", "Albums produced by DJDS", "Albums produced by Frank Dukes", "Albums produced by Havoc (musician)", "Albums produced by Hudson Mohawke", "Albums produced by Kanye West", "Albums produced by Karriem Riggins", "Albums produced by Madlib", "Albums produced by Metro Boomin", "Albums produced by Mike Dean (record producer)", "Albums produced by Plain Pat", "Albums produced by Rick Rubin", "Albums produced by Southside (record producer)", "Albums produced by Swizz Beatz", "Albums recorded at Noble Street Studios", "Def Jam Recordings albums", "GOOD Music albums", "Gospel albums by American artists", "Kanye West albums" ]	The Life of Pablo is the seventh studio album by American rapper and producer Kanye West. It was released on February 14, 2016, through GOOD Music and distributed by Def Jam Recordings. Recording sessions took place from 2013 to 2016, in Italy, Mexico, Canada, and the United States. West and a variety of producers, including co-executive producers Rick Rubin and Noah Goldstein handled production. West enlisted guest vocals for the album from The-Dream, Kelly Price, Chance the Rapper, Kirk Franklin, Kid Cudi, Desiigner, Rihanna, Young Thug, Chris Brown, The Weeknd, Ty Dolla Sign, Vic Mensa, Sia, Frank Ocean, Kendrick Lamar, Post Malone, and Sampha. Several promotional singles preceded the release of The Life of Pablo, including the tracks "Real Friends" and "No More Parties in LA". During the months before its release, the album's title and tracklist went through several publicized changes. West premiered an early version at Madison Square Garden on February 11, 2016, as part of his Yeezy Season 3 fashion show. After several additional sessions and alterations, the exclusive launch occurred for streaming on Tidal three days later. Following its official streaming debut, West continued to make changes to The Life of Pablo. A largely updated version of it, including alternate mixes and other changes, was made available on other streaming services and for digital purchase on his website on April 1, 2016. The singles "Famous", the two-part "Father Stretch My Hands", and "Fade" were released to support it in 2016. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics, with particular attention being paid to the fragmented, unfinished nature of the composition and release. Multiple publications named it one of 2016's best albums. The Life of Pablo received five nominations at the 2017 Grammy Awards, including Best Rap Album, though the Album of the Year rejection was deemed a snub by numerous publications. Following Tidal's initial disclosure of its streaming data and its release to competing streaming services, the album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, becoming the first to reach the summit primarily through streaming, and was ultimately certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It also debuted at number one in Norway, and in the top ten in Canada, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Sweden. ## Background and development In November 2013, Kanye West began working on his seventh studio album, with the working title of So Help Me God intended for a 2014 release date. Q-Tip announced he and Rick Rubin, one of the executive producers of West's sixth studio album Yeezus (2013), would produce the album. Early recording sessions resulted in several tracks released as standalone singles or given to other artists, including West's Paul McCartney collaborations "All Day", "Only One", and the McCartney and Rihanna collaboration "FourFiveSeconds". In 2015, West announced the album's new title as SWISH, though he noted the title could change. West announced in January 2016 that SWISH would be released on February 11. He released a new song "Real Friends" that month simultaneously with a snippet of "No More Parties in LA". This signified a revival of the GOOD Fridays initiative where West had released new singles every Friday. On January 26, 2016, West revealed he had renamed the album Waves. The track "Famous", featuring vocals by frequent West collaborator Rihanna and American hip hop recording artist Swizz Beatz, was scrutinized on social media for its controversial lyrical reference to American singer Taylor Swift, because West had interrupted her acceptance speech at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards. On February 9, 2016, several days ahead of its release, West changed the title to The Life of Pablo. On February 11, West premiered an early version of the album at Madison Square Garden during the presentation of his Yeezy Season 3 clothing line. Following the preview, West announced he would modify the track list again before its public release. He delayed the release further to finalize the recording of the track "Waves" at the behest of co-writer Chance the Rapper. ## Recording ### Initial sessions The Life of Pablo was recorded between 2013 and 2016, though recording for the track "No More Parties in LA" started in 2010, during the sessions for My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. Ty Dolla Sign reported that writing and recording for the album took place in Mexico in September 2014; he recalled McCartney and Rihanna were present. American rappers Pusha T and Consequence confirmed that they had ended their feud to work with West on music to be released by him. In April 2014, during an interview with Self-Titled, English electronic music producer Evian Christ explained that despite West not always being musically clear, he just seemed "interested in pushing aesthetic boundaries as far into the Avant as possible". He will say "This is not experimental enough. This is too poppy. Make something else." This can confuse other musicians. Christ said that West is "a dream to work with", adding that when it comes to creative freedom, West is on his own level in terms of the freedom. He explained "he wants you to work to a blueprint, the blueprint is: 'Don't make a rap beat. Anything but a rap beat'. In February 2015, while West was continuing work on The Life of Pablo, he confirmed the album was around 80% complete. In March 2015, during an interview with MTV, promoting his third studio album Dark Sky Paradise (2015), Big Sean spoke about the multiple recording locations involved in The Life of Pablo including Mexico and Hawaii. In an October 2015 interview with The Fader, Post Malone, who is featured on the track "Fade" with Ty Dolla Sign, discussed his experiences with West describing him as "just a normal guy, like me, and super cool". On January 27, 2016, West revealed the update of the final track listing for The Life of Pablo on his official Twitter account. The updated track listing included a number of unannounced potential collaborators: Earl Sweatshirt, The-Dream, Tyler, the Creator, The World Famous Tony Williams, Diddy, Danny!, ASAP Rocky, Kid Cudi, Lil Uzi Vert, Drake, Teyana Taylor, Zoë Kravitz, Bibi Bourelly, Doug E. Fresh, How to Dress Well, and French Montana, as well as a return of his frequent production collaborators, such as Mike Dean, Hudson Mohawke, Plain Pat, Vicious, Anthony Kilhoffer, A-Trak, and Noah Goldstein. Following the album's premiere at Madison Square Garden, it was revealed that Brooklyn-based rapper Desiigner contributed vocals to "Pt. 2" and "Freestyle 4". ### Post-release updates West released The Life of Pablo for streaming on February 14, 2016, following a performance on Saturday Night Live. Although a statement by West around the time of The Life of Pablo's release indicated it would be a permanent exclusive to Tidal, the album was released through several other competing services beginning in April 2016. Before the release of The Life of Pablo, West had tweeted that it was a hip hop and a gospel album. In an interview on Big Boy Radio, West said: "When I was sitting in the studio with Kirk, Kirk Franklin, and we're just going through it, I said this is a gospel album, with a whole lot of cursing on it, but it's still a gospel album." Following The Life of Pablo's initial Tidal release, West said he intended to continue altering the songs, declaring the album a "living breathing changing creative expression". On March 13, 2016, over a month after the release, West uploaded an updated version of "Famous", swapping out the lyric "She be Puerto Rican day parade wavin' for "She in school to be a real estate agent", as well as making slight tweaks to the overall mix. Three days later, West updated the album's Tidal track list with a reworked version of "Wolves", which included previously removed guest vocals by Vic Mensa and Sia, and separated the ending portion sung by Frank Ocean into a separate interlude under the title of "Frank's Track". This reworking was done around a month after West proposed a fix to the song. On March 30, The Life of Pablo received a major update, with at least 12 tracks appearing in altered forms. The updates included prominent vocal additions, new lyrics, and altered mixes. Def Jam confirmed this incarnation to be "a newly updated, remixed and remastered version", and clarified that the album would continue to appear with "new updates, new versions and new iterations" in the following months, calling it "a continuous process". A minor update was published on April 2, fixing the outro vocals for "30 Hours" which had been rendered off-time during the March 31 update. Finally, on June 14, The Life of Pablo was updated to include an additional track titled "Saint Pablo" featuring vocals by British musician Sampha, with other miscellaneous alterations throughout the album. Discussing The Life of Pablo's continued alterations, Jayson Greene of Pitchfork mused "at what point is a record 'over', and who gets to make the call"? He claimed West was "seeing how far he can stretch the point right now, in a way no pop star has ever quite tried", describing him as "testing the shifting state of the 'album cycle' to see if he can break it entirely, making his album like another piece of software on your phone that sends you push updates". Winston Cook-Wilson of Inverse described the album as "a fluid construct", writing that "as a way of holding the public's attention span, Kanye's choice to continue to tweak The Life is Pablo indefinitely is genius". He elaborated, "It encourages people spend time processing an album that deserves it: a bewildering, sprawling, and controversy-courting piece of art." The unconventional updates post-release inspired other artists to do the same, with Future and Young Thug making similar alterations after the release of their albums. However, in The Guardian, Nosheen Iqbal noted the criticism that West faced for updating the album. Brian Welk and Ross A. Lincoln from TheWrap claimed West should have ended the updates after his initial changes to The Life of Pablo three days after its release. In a January 2020 interview with GQ, West explained his continuous updates to the album, saying, "Nothing is ever done." ## Musical style The Life of Pablo was noted by Entertainment Weekly's Madison Vain for its "raw, occasionally even intentionally messy, composition" in contrast to West's previous albums. Compared to his pre-Yeezus work, Robert Yaniz Jr of Cheat Sheet viewed the album as West taking on a sound that is not as accessible and "more self-indulgent". Rolling Stone's Rob Sheffield wrote that The Life of Pablo sounds messy, though he expressed the feeling the sound is purposeful to follow on from "the laser-sharp intensity of Yeezus", saying the album is "designed to sound like a work in progress". Carl Wilson of Slate suggested that with the given context of the sonic landscaping throughout The Life of Pablo, the point is that "in West's kamikaze, mood-swinging way, Pablo now seems undeniably (not half-assedly, as I'd been about to conclude) like an album of struggle", noting the strange connections that it created "between Kanye's many iterations—soul-sample enthusiast, heartbroken Auto-Tune crooner, hedonistic avant-pop composer, industrial-rap shit-talker" while making use of bass and percussion lines "that are only the tail-end decay of some lost starting place, some vanished rhythmic Eden". Writing for The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick claimed the album sounds like abstract hip hop work and noted the somewhat disjointed sound, while Pretty Much Amazing critic Nathan Wisnicki noted occasional elements of "hyperactive" progressive hip hop. West described the music on The Life of Pablo as "The gospel according to Ye", explaining that his gospel differs somewhat from what happened in the Bible, "but it's this story idea of Mary Magdalene becoming Mary". Corbin Reiff of The A.V. Club claimed the album only works "as a gospel record if, as a listener, you worship at his altar". Madison Vain described The Life of Pablo as "a gospel album". In Uproxx, Steven Hyden dubbed the album as West's "ecstatically bleary gospel-rap excursion". Gavin Haynes of NME described The Life of Pablo as the point where West suddenly changes direction "from futuristic beats on the likes of 'Feedback' to bog-standard modern trap", with Haynes citing Desiigner's vocals on "Pt. 2" as an example of the latter, while he noted West took on the direction of "vintage soul on 'Ultra Light Beam'. Chance the Rapper and his instrumental collaborator Donnie Trumpet bring elements of soul revivalism into the track during Chance the Rapper's guest verse. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune contrasted Chance the Rapper's "gospel-informed hip-hop tracks" with West's take on that tradition, claiming the version of gospel provided by West includes "some of those sonic cues – heavy organ, soaring choirs". However, Kot concluded by describing West as "more preoccupied with gospel text and the notion of redemption". "Ultralight Beam", in particular, has been described as featuring several gospel elements, including "the sound of a 4-year-old preaching gospel, some organ", as well as a church choir singing the refrain of "This is a God dream". Gospel elements similar to those of the song are included in "Low Lights", adding to the general gospel theme. "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1" was described as gospel music in its composition. ## Lyrics and themes Ray Rahman of Entertainment Weekly noted the album's frequent meditations on matters of faith, family, and West's own role as a cultural figure while observing that "Pablo frequently (some might say abruptly) toggles between Sad Kanye and the bombastic and celebratory Kanye". McCormick described West as "constantly veering between swaggering bravado and insecurity bordering on paranoia, smashing the sacred against the profane and disrupting his own flowing grooves with interjections". He claimed the interjections sound as if "they are spilling over from another studio altogether". Referencing West's lyrical performance, Sheffield wrote that he "knows he's got some issues to work on". The Life of Pablo features "gloomy, doomy" discussions of trust issues, antidepressants, and familial problems on tracks such as "FML" and "Real Friends". Chance the Rapper explained certain lyrics on his "Ultralight Beam" verse are a reference to his "own leadership of all other artists towards independence and freedom". The song itself is focused around West's faith in God. Miles Raymer of GQ wrote that "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1" is "a gospel song about fucking models" and described it as transitioning into "a soul-baring confessional dance track" in "Pt. 2", which includes "two entire verses of an entirely different song about drug-dealing and cars" from Desiigner, with his single "Panda" being sampled. Raymer noted that after Desiigner's vocals, the song resolves "into a meditative piece for vocoder" from contemporary classical composer Caroline Shaw. The song "Famous" includes the controversial lyric "I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex/Why? I made that bitch famous". The lyric refers to West interrupting Taylor Swift's acceptance speech at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards. This was heavily publicized and many publications and viewers criticized West. Kot called the song "an example of just how brilliant and infuriating West can be at the same time". Greene wrote that the lyric "feels like a piece of bathroom graffiti" and felt its intention is to "reignite the most racially-charged rivalry in 21st-century pop". Throughout the song, West references the fame and wealth that he's gathered during his career, and he also showcases braggadocio. "Feedback" features West responding to his critics with the lyric, "Name one genius that ain't crazy" to do so. Raymer wrote the lyric is confirming the two frequent major criticisms of West "that he's an egomaniac and that he's mentally unwell". God and his connection to spirituality are referenced within "Low Lights", with the vocals coming from an unknown woman delivering a sample of Sandy Rivera's performance on the a cappella version of "Save Me" by the duo Kings of Tomorrow. West raps about the newfound fame and fortune in his life after marrying Kim Kardashian in "Highlights". West uses sexually explicit lyrics to describe his fantasies and dreams on "Freestyle 4". The interlude "I Love Kanye" features self-aware a cappella lyrics referencing West's changing public image. The track "Waves" is "uplifting", including braggadocious lyrics mixed with those of a darker tone that reference death or the ending of relationships. Within "FML", West raps about maintaining his loyalty to Kardashian, and the title stands for "Fuck My Life" as well as "For My Lady", as both phrases are mentioned in the song. Raymer claimed that the lyric "You ain't never seen nothing crazier than this nigga when he off his Lexapro" is confirmation of West's major sources of criticism. West touches on trust issues with his family on "Real Friends", which includes lyrics about a cousin blackmailing him. West shows fear of possibly being viewed as a guilt-ridden son on "Wolves". The song features the lyrics "Cover Nori in lamb's wool/We surrounded by/The fuckin wolves", used by West to offer an image of him and Kardashian as the biblical figures Mary and Joseph. The interlude "Frank's Track" consists of Frank Ocean crooning depressing and dark lyrics. American rapper Max B delivers a voicemail about "good vibes" on "Siiiiiiiiilver Surffffeeeeer Intermission", which is followed by fellow rapper French Montana blurting out the phrase "silver surfer" repeatedly on the interlude, until the phrase is repeated by Max B. The song "30 Hours" includes West delivering the "real life commentary" that he has become known for. West unapologetically declares his greatness in "No More Parties in LA", while fellow rapper Kendrick Lamar adds to the backdrop of the song. "Facts (Charlie Heat Version)" is a Nike diss track that features West bragging about the success of his Yeezy shoes. Forrest Wickman from Slate wrote that "Fade" is where "West, R&B singer-songwriter Ty Dolla Sign, and 'White Iverson' singer Post Malone alternate verses", with Wickman viewing the lyrics as being centered on "trying to hold on to a love that's fading". West raps in a self-reflective way on "Saint Pablo", which also includes him rapping with political edge, humor, and a logically clear through-line. ## Promotion and release West marked his first music release since "All Day" with the release of the promotional single "Facts" on December 31, 2015. A new version of the song was released on The Life of Pablo under the title "Facts (Charlie Heat Version)". On January 8, 2016, Kardashian announced via Twitter the release of "Real Friends", which simultaneously initiated the return of West's GOOD Fridays; West had launched this initiative as a weekly free music giveaway leading up to the release of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. "Real Friends", featuring vocals by Ty Dolla Sign, was released the day it was announced via West's SoundCloud account with the disclosure of The Life of Pablo's release date. As well as debuting the song, West shared a snippet of the forthcoming GOOD Friday release, titled "No More Parties in LA", which features vocals by Kendrick Lamar. On August 16, 2019, "Real Friends" was certified silver in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling 200,000 units. "No More Parties in LA" experienced its proper release the following week, also through SoundCloud. Madlib and West produced the song, which contains a sample of "Suzie Thundertussy" performed by Walter "Junie" Morrison. It was certified gold in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of 500,000 units on August 15, 2018. After a number of delayed premieres, On February 12, 2016, West released a new track, titled "30 Hours", as part of his GOOD Fridays series. The song features vocals by American musician André 3000. On February 14, West performed "Highlights" and "Ultralight Beam" on Saturday Night Live. That same day, The Life of Pablo was released for streaming exclusively on Tidal through GOOD Music, distributed by Def Jam Recordings. It was made available for purchase for \$20 for a few hours, though it reverted to streaming-only afterwards. West announced the album would be available outside of Tidal a week later, while imploring people to sign up for the service. However, the following day, West claimed he would never release The Life of Pablo outside of Tidal, encouraging his fans to sign up for the service. On the same day, Pigeons & Planes claimed the version of the album made available for streaming on Tidal was not its final version. After an active weekend, during which he was finishing The Life of Pablo, West stated he had \$53,000,000 in personal debt and called for Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg to invest \$1 billion in his ideas. West also called on other tech billionaires to help him. The album's premier and launch won the awards for Innovation and Integrated Campaign, respectively, at the 2017 Clio Awards. ### Streaming and commercial release The Life of Pablo initially received an exclusive Tidal release on February 14, 2016. West urged the public to download the application to hear the album, which resulted in it temporarily reaching the number one spot on the US App Store. West later tweeted that he "was thinking about not making CDs ever again", and stated that he would never release The Life of Pablo outside of Tidal. The album's initial exclusive release on Tidal resulted in a large increase in subscribers to the service, 250 million streams in the first 10 days, and 400 million streams in the first six weeks before its release to other streaming platforms. Following the Tidal exclusive release, it was announced that "Famous" would be sent to radio stations in the United States on March 28 as the lead single from The Life of Pablo; the song was exclusively released for streaming on Spotify and Apple Music on that date. It peaked at number 34 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and lasted for 14 weeks on the chart. The song was certified double platinum in the US by the RIAA for selling two million units on March 7, 2018. The song reached number 33 on the UK Singles Chart and remained on it for 16 weeks. On January 19, 2018, "Famous" was certified gold in the UK by the BPI for sales of 400,000 units. "I Love Kanye" was the next song from the album to be released on streaming services other than Tidal on March 30, 2016; it also became available on Spotify and Apple Music. On April 1, 2016, West released an updated version of The Life of Pablo for streaming on Spotify, Apple Music, and Google Play. He also made the album available for purchase on his official website. Though "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1" and "Pt. 2" were released as separate tracks on the album, both parts of the song were serviced to radio stations across the United States as the second single, "Father Stretch My Hands", on June 7. On the Billboard Hot 100, "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1" charted at number 37 and spent 23 weeks on the chart. The song was certified double platinum in the US by the RIAA for sales of two million units on March 7, 2018. It peaked at number 54 on the UK Singles Chart and stayed on the chart for three weeks. The song was certified silver in the UK by the BPI for pushing 200,000 units on October 20, 2017. "Pt. 2" reached number 54 on the Billboard Hot 100 and remained on the chart for three weeks. On February 1, 2018, the song was certified platinum in the US by the RIAA for selling one million units. The song reached number 70 on the UK Singles Chart and remained there for three weeks, tying the chart stay of "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1". "Fade" was released as the third and final single to radio stations in the UK on September 9, 2016, and sent to US radio stations on September 20. On the Billboard Hot 100, the song peaked at number 47 and spent 13 weeks on the chart. It reached number 50 on the UK Singles Chart and remained there for eight weeks. On May 12, 2017, "Fade" was certified silver in the UK by the BPI for selling 200,000 units. ### Lawsuit The release onto other streaming platforms, along with West's claims that the album would remain a permanent Tidal "exclusive" prompted a lawsuit to be filed on April 18, 2016 by law firm Edelson PC. It was filed against West and Jay-Z, who was involved as the owner of Tidal, with each of them being sued for \$5 million. The lawsuit was filed on behalf of California resident Justin Baker-Rhett accusing them of false advertising. Seeking class-action status, the lawsuit claimed that Tidal and West never intended to have the album as a Tidal limited exclusive forever, but said so to boost Tidal's struggling subscriber growth; with the lawsuit claiming that Tidal's subscriber numbers tripled following the initial release of the album. The lawsuit also claimed that "Kanye has the power to send one tweet out into the world and get 2 million people to act on it" and suing West "is about holding him accountable when he abuses that power". In January 2019, it was reported the lawsuit had been settled with undisclosed terms; the class action lawsuit did not proceed. ### Tour In August 2016, West embarked on the Saint Pablo Tour in support of The Life of Pablo, two months after announcing it. The performances featured a floating platform, the first time West had used one. West postponed several dates in October following the Paris robbery of Kardashian. The remainder of the tour was canceled on November 21, 2016, following controversy over comments West made that week supporting president-elect Donald Trump and public criticism by other artists; fellow rapper Snoop Dogg spoke negatively of West's critical comments. West was admitted for psychiatric observation at the UCLA Medical Center later that month. Before its cancellation, the Saint Pablo Tour was set to run until December 2016. ## Artwork and title On February 11, 2016, West revealed the album's artwork, designed by Belgian artist Peter De Potter. De Potter's level of fame at the time was not as great as that of artists such as George Condo and Takashi Murakami, who had previously designed cover art for West. As De Potter had collaborated with fashion designer Raf Simons in the past, and West had cited him as an influence, there was much speculation that Simons was the reason the two became involved with each other. The artwork was described as a "post-modern cover" and it displays the album's title in all caps, as well as featuring a small family photo in the bottom corner. West shared another cover for The Life of Pablo on the same date with the phrase "which one" on it that was included on the notepad of the final track list, and a cropped photo of British model Sheniz Halil that shows her butt; this artwork was used for the official release. Kim Kardashian reportedly chose Halil for the artwork. After this information was revealed, Halil's Instagram popularity increased. In response to being selected, Halil said in an interview with the New York Daily News that she "couldn't be more flattered and honoured", thanking both West and Kardashian. By titling his album The Life of Pablo, West confused people as to which Pablo he was referencing with the title. Pablo Escobar, Pablo Neruda, Pablo Picasso and a child named Pablo who famously shouted his support of West for president at the 2015 VMAs were viewed as potential people referenced in the album's title. MTV pointed to the title being in reference to Picasso, as West had said during a 2015 lecture at the University of Oxford that if he "was going to do art, fine art", then he would have aimed "to become Picasso or greater". By writing "Which one?" on his notepad, West hinted that he might not remember the meaning of the title he had chosen. West eventually revealed the meaning during an episode of the American talk show Kocktails with Khloé in April 2016. His sister-in-law Khloé Kardashian asked him, "Who the fuck is Pablo"? He replied the title was inspired by Escobar, Picasso and the Apostle Paul, since Paul translates into Pablo in Spanish. Writing for The Guardian, Jonathan Jones drew an artistic comparison between West and Picasso, claiming that West's sampling of music, "reworking old songs" and "mixing it all up" is similar to the way in which Picasso "first put bits of the real world into modern art". ## Critical reception The Life of Pablo was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 75, based on 35 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 7.4 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus. Rob Sheffield dubbed it both a mess and masterpiece: "This is a messy album that feels like it was made that way on purpose." He elaborated, writing that "West just drops broken pieces of his psyche all over the album and challenges you to fit them together". Corbin Reiff opined that The Life of Pablo "feels far different from any of the tightly constructed, singular works of West's past", asserting instead that "as a beautiful, messy, mixed-up collection of 18 songs, it's a brilliant document". Writing for The New York Times, Jon Caramanica said West "has perfected the art of aesthetic and intellectual bricolage, shape-shifting in real time and counting on listeners to keep up", concluding "this is Tumblr-as-album, the piecing together of divergent fragments to make a cohesive whole". In a highly positive review, Jayson Greene wrote that all of West's work is animated by "a madcap sense of humor", and claimed "The Life of Pablo has a freewheeling energy that is infectious and unique to his discography", finding that it manages to come across "as both his most labored-over and unfinished album, full of asterisks and corrections and footnotes". Robert Christgau of Vice found the record "wittingly casual and easy on the ears", writing that, "unlike Yeezus, it won't top many 2016 lists—it's too blatantly imperfect, too flagrantly unfocused. But that's also its charm, and I prefer it". Spin's Greg Tate wrote that "even if Mr. West feels (for now, at least) that his best years as a rap superstar are behind him, there's still hella great beats roaming around that dazed and befuddling noggin per The Life of Pablo for dang sure" and described the album as "long on musical confidence and short on inspirational verses". He viewed the "plaintive vulnerability and alienation" expressed by West as at least seeming "cathartically crafted". Writing for USA Today, Patrick Ryan claimed that even though the album "may not deliver on West's promise of being 'the album of the life', it's undeniably the work of one of music's most boundary-pushing artists and will give fans plenty to unpack". Ray Rahman was less enthusiastic, calling The Life of Pablo "an ambitious album that finds the rapper struggling to compact his many identities into one weird, uncomfortable, glorious whole". He elaborated, claiming that like West "himself, the album is emotional, explosive, unpredictable, and undeniably thrilling". Alexis Petridis expressed further criticism in The Guardian, finding the album "at turns, rambling, chaotic, deeply underwhelming, impressively audacious, and completely infuriating", suggesting that it "appears to have had ideas thrown at it until it feels messy and incoherent", despite concluding that "when The Life of Pablo is good, it's very good indeed". Neil McCormick wrote, "The Life of Pablo is certainly rich in musical scope, chock a block with inspired ideas", but he felt the work to be "so self-involved it crosses over into self-delusion, marked by such a tangible absence of perspective and objectivity". In a mixed review, Greg Kot expressed the viewpoint that "The Life of Pablo sounds like a work in progress rather than a finished album", though he claimed that "West comes off as a man with hundreds of ideas in play all at once" who lacks any filter. ### Rankings The Life of Pablo appeared on several year-end lists of the best albums of 2016. Dummy ranked the album as the best of 2016, claiming that "it delivered some of the hugest musical moments of the year", noting elements of songs such as "Ultralight Beam" and "Pt. 2". Caramanica also named The Life of Pablo the best album of the year and called it: "A grand, caustic album about grace: finding it, praying for it, falling from it." Time Out London was among the three publications to list The Life of Pablo as the best album of 2016, writing that "the incredible, exciting and daring The Life of Pablo really does show Kanye as a restless, Jobs-esque genius, with a flair for convening talented people and getting exceptional work out of them". As well as ranking at number three on the Pitchfork Readers' Poll: Top 50 Albums of 2016, the album was voted fifth by readers for both the most underrated and most overrated album of the year. On the Top 50 Songs of 2016 poll, "Ultralight Beam" ranked at number one. "Real Friends" and "No More Parties in LA" also appeared on the list as the 13th and 16th best songs, respectively. In February 2016, Inverse named The Life of Pablo West's best album. ### Industry awards At the 2016 BET Hip Hop Awards, The Life of Pablo was nominated for Album of the Year. The album received a nomination for Best Rap Album at the 2017 Grammy Awards, ultimately losing to Chance the Rapper's third mixtape Coloring Book. At the same ceremony, "Ultralight Beam" and "Famous" were both nominated in the categories of Best Rap/Sung Performance and Best Rap Song. West's failure to win any awards gave him a streak of losing 16 Grammy nominations in a row. Despite The Life of Pablo being more successful in terms of Grammy nominations than Yeezus, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and West's fourth studio album 808s & Heartbreak (2008), several publications viewed the lack of a nomination for Album of the Year as being a snub. Writing for Bustle, Sam Rullo called West's lack of a nomination for the award "so disappointing", though he claimed that "the snub can't be deemed surprising, because it follows in a long tradition of the awards show shying away from his more experimental albums". Rullo also claimed that other tracks from The Life of Pablo should have been nominated in award categories as well as "Ultralight Beam" and "Famous". The Life of Pablo was nominated for Best Album at the 2017 NME Awards. At the 2016 Soul Train Music Awards, the album earned a nomination for Album of the Year. ## Commercial performance After being made available solely on Tidal, The Life of Pablo failed to chart initially because West declined to share the streaming numbers with Nielsen Music. The album was reportedly subject to over 500,000 illegal downloads within 24 hours of its release, becoming the most illegally downloaded album ever and causing a resurgence in the file sharing of music. Despite West asking Tidal to withhold streaming numbers for The Life of Pablo in February, the service revealed in March 2016 that the album was streamed over 250 million times within ten days of being released. In May 2018, the Norwegian newspaper Dagens Næringsliv published an investigative report that accused Tidal of manipulating Beyonce's Lemonade and Kanye West's Life of Pablo streaming numbers. The report claimed that "listener numbers on Tidal have been manipulated to the tune of several hundred million false plays"; the service denied the report. On April 9, 2016, Billboard reported that after The Life of Pablo had been released to services other than Tidal the album was set to debut atop the US Billboard 200 and had sold 90,000 album-equivalent units at the time. The Life of Pablo was a chart-topping debut, West's seventh consecutive number one studio album in the United States, selling 94,000 album-equivalent units. 28,000 of the album-equivalent units for The Life of Pablo were pure album sales, while the remaining 66,000 units were streaming equivalent albums that equated to over 99 million streams and accounted for 70% of the units. This stood as the first time an album had topped the Billboard 200 with the majority of the units coming from streaming equivalent albums, surpassing the previous benchmark of 44.6% set by Rihanna's eighth studio album Anti (2016). The Life of Pablo's 66,000 streaming equivalent albums stood as the second highest streaming sum behind the 67,000 by Canadian singer Justin Bieber's fourth studio album Purpose (2015). In its second week on the Billboard 200, The Life of Pablo descended three places to number four and pushed 47,000 album-equivalent units, experiencing a 50% decline from the first week's sales. The album dropped 95% in pure album sales, selling around 1,000 copies. The album ranked as the 27th most popular album of 2016 on the Billboard 200, while ranking at number 88 on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart for that year. On April 4, 2017, The Life of Pablo was certified platinum in the US by the RIAA for sales of one million album-equivalent units, 798,000 of which had been sold up to January 1. Though it had been confirmed that the RIAA do not break out the components of any certifications, West's label Def Jam confirmed the album was certified from streaming-only. This made it stand as the first streaming-only album to go platinum in the US and also gave West his eighth album to achieve an RIAA certification of platinum or higher. The album was certified double platinum in the US by the RIAA for selling two million album-equivalent units on February 27, 2020. The Life of Pablo debuted at number one on the Norwegian Albums Chart and remained on it for 62 weeks, giving West his first chart-topping solo album in Norway as well as his longest-charting album there. The album peaked at number two on the Swedish Albums chart, standing as West's highest charting album in Sweden and ultimately ranking as the 55th most popular album of 2016 on the chart. In Denmark, The Life of Pablo attained the same peak position on the Danish Albums chart. The album ranked as the 12th most popular album of 2016 on the chart. On November 12, 2018, The Life of Pablo was certified double platinum in Denmark by IFPI Danmark for shipments of 40,000 copies. The album debuted on the Finnish Albums (Top 50) chart at number 12 and climbed seven places to number five in its second week on the chart. On the Canadian Albums Chart, The Life of Pablo entered at number six and ranked as the 40th most popular album of 2016 on the chart. In the week of Jesus Is King's release in 2019, The Life of Pablo rose 93 places from number 159 to number 66 on the Canadian Albums chart, increasing in consumption units by 51%. The album reached number eight on the Dutch Album Top 100 and ranked as the 72nd most popular album on the chart in 2016. The same position was attained by The Life of Pablo on the Irish Albums Chart. On the UK Albums Chart, the album charted at number 30. It stood as West's eighth top 40 album in the UK and spent 47 weeks on the chart. The Life of Pablo was certified gold in the UK by the BPI on March 3, 2017, for sales of 100,000 album-equivalent units that were the results of streams, becoming the first album to ever do so in the country. Official Charts data reported that the 100,000 units required for being gold accounted to each song being streamed an average of 10.5 million times and that the album equivalent streams amounted to 100,316. The same week that The Life of Pablo debuted on the Billboard 200, 12 of the tracks appeared on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, with "Famous" charting the highest at number 13. However, since the song had debuted on the chart a week prior, only 11 of the 12 tracks entered the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs that week; the entry of "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1" at number 14 stood as the highest debut. Eight of the tracks debuted on the Billboard Hot 100, with "Famous" having the highest entry at number 34. The tracks appearing on the charts lead to West reaching a new peak of number three on the Billboard Artist 100, which was the first time he reached the top ten of the chart. On the UK Singles Chart, nine of the tracks charted upon the album's release, with "Famous" having the highest debut by opening at number 33. ## Track listing Notes - signifies a co-producer - signifies an additional producer - "Ultralight Beam" features vocals by Chance the Rapper, Kirk Franklin, The-Dream, and Kelly Price, and additional vocals by Natalie Green and Samoria Green - "Father Stretch My Hands Pt. 1" features vocals by Kid Cudi and Kelly Price - "Pt. 2" features vocals by Desiigner and Caroline Shaw - "Famous" features vocals by Rihanna and Swizz Beatz - "Highlights" features vocals by Young Thug, and additional vocals by The-Dream, El DeBarge, and Kelly Price - "Freestyle 4" features vocals by Desiigner - "Waves" features vocals by Chris Brown and Kid Cudi - "FML" features vocals by The Weeknd, and additional vocals by Caroline Shaw - "Real Friends" features vocals by Ty Dolla Sign - "Wolves" features vocals by Vic Mensa, Sia, and Caroline Shaw - "Frank's Track" features uncredited vocals by Frank Ocean - "Siiiiiiiiilver Surffffeeeeer Intermission" features vocals by Max B and French Montana - "30 Hours" features background vocals by André Benjamin - "No More Parties in LA" features vocals by Kendrick Lamar - "Fade" features vocals by Post Malone and Ty Dolla Sign - "Saint Pablo" features vocals by Sampha Sample credits - "Father Stretch My Hands, Pt. 1" contains samples of "Father I Stretch My Hands", written and performed by Pastor T. L. Barrett featuring Youth for Christ. - "Pt. 2" contains samples of the song "Panda", written by Sidney Selby III and Adnan Khan, and performed by Desiigner; samples of "Father I Stretch My Hands", written and performed by Pastor T. L. Barrett featuring Youth for Christ; and contains a sound effect from the video game Street Fighter II: The World Warrior. - "Famous" contains samples of "Do What You Gotta Do", written by Jimmy Webb and performed by Nina Simone; samples of "Bam Bam", written by Winston Riley and performed by Sister Nancy; and samples of "Mi Sono Svegliato E... Ho Chiuso Gli Occhi", written by Luis Bacalov, Sergio Bardotti, Giampiero Scalamogna, and Enzo Vita, and performed by Il Rovescio della Medaglia. - "Feedback" contains samples of "Talagh", written by Ardalan Sarfaraz and Manouchehr Cheshmazar, and performed by Googoosh. - "Low Lights" contains samples of "So Alive (Acapella)", written by Sandy Rivera and performed by Kings of Tomorrow. - "Freestyle 4" contains samples of "Human", written by Alison Goldfrapp, Robert Locke, Timothy Norfolk, and William Gregory, and performed by Goldfrapp. - "Waves" contains samples and elements of "Fantastic Freaks at the Dixie", written by Fred Bratwaithe, Robin Diggs, Kevin Ferguson, Theodore Livingston, Darryl Mason, and James Whipper, and performed by Fantastic Freaks. - "FML" contains interpolations of "Hit", written by Lawrence Cassidy, Vincent Cassidy, and Paul Wiggin, and performed by Section 25. - "Real Friends" contains interpolations of "Friends", written by Jalil Hutchins and Lawrence Smith, and performed by Whodini. - "Wolves" contains samples of "Walking Dub", written and performed by Sugar Minott. - "30 Hours" contains samples of "Answers Me", written and performed by Arthur Russell; interpolations of "Hot in Herre", written by Cornell Haynes, Pharrell Williams, and Charles Brown, and performed by Nelly; interpolations of "EI", written by Cornell Haynes and Jason Epperson, and performed by Nelly; and samples of "Joy", written and performed by Isaac Hayes. - "No More Parties in LA" contains samples of "Give Me My Love", written and performed by Johnny "Guitar" Watson; samples of "Suzie Thundertussy", written and performed by Walter "Junie" Morrison; samples of "Mighty Healthy", written by Herbert Rooney, Ronald Bean, Highleigh Crizoe, and Dennis Coles, and performed by Ghostface Killah; and samples of "Stand Up and Shout About Love", written by Larry Graham Jr., Tina Graham, and Sam Dees, and performed by Larry Graham. - "Facts (Charlie Heat Version)" contains samples of "Dirt and Grime", written by Nicholas Smith and performed by Father's Children; interpolations of "Jumpman", written by Aubrey Graham, Leland T. Wayne, and Nayvadius D. Wilburn, and performed by Drake and Future; and contains elements of the video game Street Fighter II: The World Warrior. - "Fade" contains samples of "(I Know) I'm Losing You", written by Eddie Holland, Norman Whitfield, and Cornelius Grant, and performed by Rare Earth; samples of "(I Know) I'm Losing You", written by Eddie Holland, Norman Whitfield, and Cornelius Grant, and performed by The Undisputed Truth; samples of "Mystery of Love", written by Larry Heard and Robert Owens, and performed by Mr. Fingers; samples of "Deep Inside", written by Louie Vega and performed by Hardrive; samples of "I Get Lifted (The Underground Network Mix)", written by Louie Vega, Ronald Carroll, Barbara Tucker, and Harold Matthews, and performed by Barbara Tucker; and contains an interpolation of "Rock the Boat", written by Stephen Garrett, Rapture Stewart, and Eric Seats, and performed by Aaliyah. - "Saint Pablo" contains samples of "Where I'm From", written by Shawn Carter, Deric Angelettie, Ronald Lawrence, and Norman Whitfield, and performed by Jay-Z. ## Personnel Credits adapted from West's website and Tidal. Technical - Andrew Dawson – engineering (1–8, 10, 11, 13, 16–20) - Mike Dean – engineering (1–8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 18–20), mastering (all tracks) - Noah Goldstein – engineering (1–13, 16–20), mixing (9, 14, 15) - Anthony Kilhoffer – engineering (1–8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 18–20) - Mike Malchicoff – engineering (1, 7) - Nathaniel Alford – engineering (7) - Dee Brown – engineering (7) - Alex Tumay – engineering (7) - Tom Kahre – engineering (8, 10) - Ty Dolla Sign – engineering (12) - French Montana – engineering (15) - MixedByAli – engineering (17) - Manny Marroquin – mixing (1–8, 10–13, 16–20) - Kez Khou – mix assistance (7, 13) - Chris Galland – mix assistance (12, 17, 20) - Jeff Jackson – mix assistance (12, 17, 20) - Ike Schultz – mix assistance (12, 17, 20) - Kuk Harrell – vocal production for Rihanna (4) - Zeke Mishanec – vocals recording for Swizz Beatz (4) - Marcos Tovar – vocals recording for Rihanna (4) - Shin Kamiyama – vocals recording for The Weeknd (11) - Joe Balaguer – vocals assistance for Rihanna (4) Musicians - Mike Dean – keyboards (1, 2, 7, 11, 12), bass guitar (1), Moog modular (2), vocoder (16) - Donnie Trumpet – trumpets (1) - Anthony Evans – choir contracting (1) - Shanika Bereal – choir (1) - Kenyon Dixon – choir (1) - Aaron Encinas – choir (1) - Crystal Lewis Ray – choir (1) - LaKesha Shantell – choir (1) - Tiffany Stevenson – choir (1) - Chavonne Stewart – choir (1) - Rachel Whitlow – choir (1) - George Young – choir (1) - Greg Phillinganes – keyboards (7) Design - Virgil Abloh – assistant creative direction - Peter De Potter – album artwork design - DONDA – art direction - Joe Perez - Mark Seekings - Justin Saunders - Nate Brown - Ryan Dwyer – photography - Sheniz H – photo model - Kanye West – creative direction ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - 2016 in hip hop music - GOOD Fridays - List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2016 - List of number-one albums in Norway
6,126,410	Christian views on alcohol	1,166,355,072	Christian attitudes towards the consumption of alcohol	[ "Christian ethics", "Christian temperance movement", "Christianity and alcohol", "Christianity and society" ]	Christian views on alcohol are varied. Throughout the first 1,800 years of Church history, Christians generally consumed alcoholic beverages as a common part of everyday life and used "the fruit of the vine" in their central rite—the Eucharist or Lord's Supper. They held that both the Bible and Christian tradition taught that alcohol is a gift from God that makes life more joyous, but that over-indulgence leading to drunkenness is sinful. However, the alcoholic content of ancient alcoholic beverages was significantly lower than that of modern alcoholic beverages. The low alcoholic content was due to the limitations of fermentation and nonexistence of distillation methods in the ancient world. Rabbinic teachers wrote acceptance criteria on consumability of ancient alcoholic beverages after significant dilution with water, but prohibited undiluted wine. In the mid-19th century, some Protestant Christians moved from a position of allowing moderate use of alcohol (sometimes called "'moderationism") to either deciding that not imbibing was wisest in the present circumstances ("abstentionism") or prohibiting all ordinary consumption of alcohol because it was believed to be a sin ("prohibitionism"). Many Protestant churches, particularly Methodists, advocated abstentionism and were early leaders in the temperance movement of the 19th and 20th centuries. Today, all three positions exist in Christianity, but the historic position remains the most common worldwide, due to the adherence by the largest bodies of Christians, such as Anglicanism, Lutheranism, Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. ## Alcohol in the Bible Alcoholic beverages appear in the Bible, both in usage and in poetic expression. The Bible is ambivalent towards alcohol, considering it both a blessing from God that brings merriment and a potential danger that can be unwisely and sinfully abused. Christian views on alcohol come from what the Bible says about it, along with Jewish and Christian traditions. The biblical languages have several words for alcoholic beverages, and though prohibitionists and some abstentionists dissent, there is a broad consensus that the words did ordinarily refer to intoxicating drinks. The commonness and centrality of wine in daily life in biblical times is apparent from its many positive and negative metaphorical uses throughout the Bible. Positively, for example, wine is used as a symbol of abundance, and of physical blessing. Negatively, wine is personified as a mocker and beer a brawler, and drinking a cup of strong wine to the dregs and getting drunk are sometimes presented as a symbol of God's judgment and wrath. The Bible also speaks of wine in general terms as a bringer and concomitant of joy, particularly in the context of nourishment and feasting. Wine was commonly drunk at meals, and the Old Testament prescribed it for use in sacrificial rituals and festal celebrations. The Gospel of John recorded the first miracle of Jesus: making copious amounts of wine at the wedding feast at Cana. Jesus instituted the ritual of the Eucharist at the Last Supper during a Passover celebration, he says that the "fruit of the vine" is a "New Covenant in [his] blood," though Christians have differed on the implications of this statement (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted). Alcohol was also used for medicinal purposes in biblical times, and it appears in that context in several passages—as an oral anesthetic, a topical cleanser and soother, and a digestive aid. Kings and priests in the Old Testament were forbidden to partake of wine at various times. John the Baptist was a Nazirite from birth. Nazirite vows excluded not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, and raisins. (Jesus evidently did not take such a vow during the three years of ministry depicted in the gospels, but in fact was even accused by the Pharisees of eating and drinking with sinners). St. Paul further instructs Christians regarding their duty toward immature Christians: "It is better not to eat meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother to fall." Jewish priests cannot bless a congregation after consuming alcohol. Virtually all Christian traditions hold that the Bible condemns ordinary drunkenness in many passages, and Easton's Bible Dictionary says, "The sin of drunkenness ... must have been not uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned either metaphorically or literally more than seventy times in the Bible." Additionally, the consequences of the drunkenness of Noah and Lot "were intended to serve as examples of the dangers and repulsiveness of intemperance." St. Paul later chides the Corinthians for becoming drunk on wine served at their attempted celebrations of the Eucharist. ## Winemaking in biblical times Both the climate and land of Palestine, where most of the Bible takes place, were well-suited to growing grapes, and the wine that the vineyards produced was a valued commodity in ancient times, both for local consumption and for its value in trade. Trade with Egypt was quite extensive. Jews were a wine-drinking culture well before the foundation of Rome. Vintage wines were found in the tomb of King Scorpion in Hierakonpolis. Archaeological evidence suggests that Semitic predecessors were thought to be responsible for the vintages that were found in the tomb. Vineyards were protected from robbers and animals by walls, hedges, and manned watchtowers. `In Hebrew, grape juice need not ferment before it is called wine: "When the grapes have been crushed and the wine [yayin] begins to flow, even though it has not descended into the cistern and is still in the wine press...".` The harvest time brought much joy and play, as "[m]en, women and children took to the vineyard, often accompanied by the sound of music and song, from late August to September to bring in the grapes." Some grapes were eaten immediately, while others were turned into raisins. Most of them, however, were put into the wine press where the men and boys trampled them, often to music. The Feast of Booths was a prescribed holiday that immediately followed the harvest and pressing of the grapes. The fermentation process started within six to twelve hours after pressing, and the must was usually left in the collection vat for a few days to allow the initial, "tumultuous" stage of fermentation to pass. The wine makers soon transferred it either into large earthenware jars, which were then sealed, or, if the wine were to be transported elsewhere, into wineskins (that is, partially tanned goat-skins, sewn up where the legs and tail had protruded but leaving the opening at the neck). After six weeks, fermentation was complete, and the wine was filtered into larger containers and either sold for consumption or stored in a cellar or cistern, lasting for three to four years. Even after a year of aging, the vintage was still called "new wine," and more aged wines were preferred. Spices and scents were often added to wine in order to hide "defects" that arose from storage that was often not sufficient to prevent all spoiling. One might expect about 10% of any given cellar of wine to have been ruined completely, but vinegar was also created intentionally for dipping bread among other uses. ## Alcoholic content of beverages in the ancient world After the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great, the Hellenistic custom of diluting wine had taken hold such that the author of 2 Maccabees speaks of diluted wine as "a more pleasant drink" and of both undiluted wine and unmixed water as "harmful" or "distasteful." Alcoholic wine in the ancient world was significantly different than modern wines in that it had much lower alcohol content and was consumed after significant dilution with water (as attested by even other cultures surrounding Israel), thus rendering its alcoholic content negligible by modern standards. The low alcoholic content was due to the limitations of fermentation in the ancient world. From the Mishnah and Talmuds, the common dilution rate for consumption for Jews 3 parts water to 1 part wine (3:1 dilution ratio). Wine in the ancient world had a maximum possible alcoholic content of 11-12 percent (before dilution) and once diluted, it reduced to 2.75 or 3%. Other after-dilution estimates of neighbors like the Greeks have dilution of 1:1 or 2:1 which place the alcohol content between 4-7%. The adjective “unmixed” (ἄκρατος) is used in the ancient texts to designate undiluted wine, but the New Testament never uses this adjective to describe the wine consumed by Jesus, the disciples or to describe the wine approved for use in moderation by Christians. Though ancient rabbis opposed the consumption of undiluted wine as a beverage, they taught that it was useful as a medicine. Common dilution ratios from the ancient world were compiled by Athenaus of Naucratis in Deipnosophistae (Banquet of the Learned; c. AD 228): ## Alcohol in Christian history and tradition It is not disputed whether the regular use of wine in the celebration of the Eucharist and in daily life were the virtually universal practice in Christianity for over 1,800 years; all written evidence shows that the Eucharist consisted of bread and wine, not grape juice. During the 19th and early 20th century, as a general sense of prohibitionism arose, many Christians, particularly some Protestants in the United States, came to believe that the Bible prohibited alcohol or that the wisest choice in modern circumstances was for the Christian to abstain from alcohol willingly. ### Before Christ `The Hebraic opinion of wine in the time before Christ was decidedly positive: wine is part of the world God created and is thus "necessarily inherently good," though excessive use is soundly condemned. The Jews emphasized joy in the goodness of creation rather than the virtue of temperance, which the Greek philosophers advocated. Wine formed part of the sacrifices made daily to God. (Lev 23:13)` As the Jews returned from the Babylonian exile (starting in 537 BC) and the events of the Old Testament drew to a close, wine was "a common beverage for all classes and ages, including the very young; an important source of nourishment; a prominent part in the festivities of the people; a widely appreciated medicine; an essential provision and the wine that the vineyards produced was a valued commodity in ancient times, both for local consumption and for its value in trade or any fortress; and an important commodity," and it served as "a necessary element in the life of the Hebrews." Wine was also used ritualistically to close the Sabbath and to celebrate weddings, circumcisions, and Passover. Although some abstentionists argue that wine in the Bible was almost always cut with water greatly decreasing its potency for inebriation, there is general agreement that, while Old Testament wine was sometimes mixed with various spices to enhance its flavor and stimulating properties, it was not usually diluted with water, and wine mixed with water is used as an Old Testament metaphor for corruption. Among the Greeks, however, the cutting of wine with water was a common practice used to reduce potency and improve taste. By the time of the writing of 2 Maccabees (2nd or 1st century BC), the Greeks had conquered Judea under Alexander the Great, and the Hellenistic custom had apparently found acceptance with the Jews and was carried into Jewish rituals in New Testament times. Under the rule of Rome, which had conquered Judea under Pompey (see Iudaea Province), the average adult male who was a citizen drank an estimated liter (about a quarter of a gallon, or a modern-day bottle and a third—about 35 oz.) of wine per day, though beer was more common in some parts of the world. ### Early Church The Apostolic Fathers make very little reference to wine. Clement of Rome (died 100) said: "Seeing, therefore, that we are the portion of the Holy One, let us do all those things which pertain to holiness, avoiding all evil-speaking, all abominable and impure embraces, together with all drunkenness, seeking after change, all abominable lusts, detestable adultery, and execrable pride." The earliest references from the Church Fathers make it clear that the early Church used in the Eucharist wine—which was customarily mixed with water. The Didache, an early Christian treatise which is generally accepted to be from the late 1st century, instructs Christians to give a portion of their wine in support of a true prophet or, if they have no prophet resident with them, to the poor. Clement of Alexandria (died c. 215) wrote in a chapter about drinking that he admired the young and the old who "abstain wholly from drink," who adopt an austere life and "flee as far as possible from wine, shunning it as they would the danger of fire." He strongly warned youth to "flee as far as possible" from it so as not to inflame their "wild impulses." He said Christ did not teach affected by it. "...the soul itself is wisest and best when dry." He also said wine is an appropriate symbol of Jesus' blood. He noted taking a little wine as medicine is acceptable—lest it make the health worse. Even those who are "moored by reason and time" (such that they are not as much tempted by drunkenness after a day's work), he still encouraged to mix "as much water as possible" in with the wine to inhibit inebriation. For at all hours, let them keep their "reason unwavering, their memory active, and their body unmoved and unshaken by wine." Tertullian (died 220) insisted clergy must be sober in church, citing the biblical non-drinking precedent: "the Lord said to Aaron: 'Wine and spirituous liquor shall ye not drink, thou and thy son after thee, whenever ye shall enter the tabernacle, or ascend unto the sacrificial altar; and ye shall not die.' [Lev. 10:9] So true is it, that such as shall have ministered in the Church, being not sober, shall 'die.' Thus, too, in recent times He upbraids Israel: 'And ye used to give my sanctified ones wine to drink.' [Amos 2:12]" Some early Christian leaders focused on the strength and attributes of wines. They taught that two types of wine should be distinguished: wine causing joyousness and that causing gluttony (intoxicating and non-intoxicating). The hermit John of Egypt (died 395) said: "...if there is any sharp wine I excommunicate it, but I drink the good." Gregory of Nyssa (died 395) made the same distinction between types of wine, "not that wine which produces drunkenness, plots against the senses, and destroys the body, but such as gladdens the heart, the wine which the Prophet recommends". Condemnation of drunkenness had increased by the late 4th century. Church rules against drinking entertainments are found in the Council of Laodicea (363): 1. Rule XXIV: "No one of the priesthood, from presbyters to deacons, and so on in the ecclesiastical order to subdeacons, readers, singers, exorcists, door-keepers, or any of the class of the Ascetics, ought to enter a tavern." 2. Rule LV: "NEITHER members of the priesthood nor of the clergy, nor yet laymen, may club together for drinking entertainments." However, Basil the Great (died 379) repudiated the views of some dualistic heretics who abhorred marriage, rejected wine, and called God's creation "polluted" and who substituted water for wine in the Eucharist. A minority of Christians abstained totally from alcoholic beverages. Monica of Hippo (died 387) eagerly kept the strict rule of total abstinence, which her bishop Ambrose required. She had never let herself drink much at all, not even "more than one little cup of wine, diluted according to her own temperate palate, which, out of courtesy, she would taste." But now she willingly drank none at all. Augustine cited a reason for her bishop's rule: "even to those who would use it with moderation, lest thereby an occasion of excess might be given to such as were drunken." Ambrose of course expected leaders and deacons to practice the same rule too. He cited Paul's instructions to them about alcohol in 1 Timothy 3:2-4 and 3:8-10, and commented: "We note how much is required of us. The minister of the Lord should abstain from wine, so that he may be upheld by the good witness not only of the faithful but also by those who are without." Likewise, he said: "Let a widow, then, be temperate, pure in the first place from wine, that she may be pure from adultery. He will tempt you in vain, if wine tempts you not." John Chrysostom (died 407) said: "they who do not drink take no thought of the drunken." So Chrysostom insisted deacons cannot taste wine at all in his homily on 1 Timothy 3:8-10: "The discretion of the blessed Paul is observable. When he would exhort the Deacons to avoid excess in wine, he does not say, 'Be not drunken,' but 'not' even 'given to much wine.' A proper caution; for if those who served in the Temple did not taste wine at all, much more should not these, For wine produces disorder of mind, and where it does not cause drunkenness, it destroys the energies and relaxes the firmness of the soul." Of course he was aware that not all wines were intoxicating; they had opposite effects and were not all alike. His homily on 1 Timothy 5:23 shows he was not as certain heretics and immature Christians who even "blame the fruit given them by God" when saying there should be no wine. He emphasized the goodness of God's creation and adjured: "Let there be no drunkenness; for wine is the work of God, but drunkenness is the work of the devil. Wine makes not drunkenness; but intemperance produces it. Do not accuse that which is the workmanship of God, but accuse the madness of a fellow mortal." The virtue of temperance passed from Greek philosophy into Christian ethics and became one of the four cardinal virtues under St. Ambrose and St. Augustine. Drunkenness, on the other hand, is considered a manifestation of gluttony, one of the seven deadly sins as compiled by Gregory the Great in the 6th century. ### Middle Ages The decline of the Roman Empire brought with it a significant drop in the production and consumption of wine in western and central Europe, but the Eastern and Western Church (particularly the Byzantines) preserved the practices of viticulture and winemaking. Vitae Patrum (from the third and fourth centuries) states: "When abba Pastor was told of a certain monk who wouldn't drink wine he replied, 'A monk should have nothing to do with wine.'" "Elias archbishop of Jerusalem [from 494], drank no wine, just as if he were a monk." Later Benedict of Nursia (died c. 547), who formulated the monastic rules governing the Benedictines, still seems to prefer that monks should do without wine as a daily staple, but he indicates that the monks of his day found the old regulation too burdensome. Thus he offers the concession of a quarter liter (or perhaps, a half liter) of wine per day as sufficient for nourishment, with allowance for more in special circumstances and for none as a punishment for repeated tardiness. Even so, he believes that abstinence is the best path for those who have a gift from God allowing them to restrain their bodily appetites. Welsh Bishop David (c. 500 – c. 589) was known as "David the water-drinker." He rejected any alcohol. The monasteries he established had water only. The medieval monks, renowned as the finest creators of beer and wine, were allotted about 5 liters of beer per day, and were allowed to drink beer (but not wine) during fasts. This was justified by the Church. Bread and water that made up ale's ingredients was considered to not be a sin like that of wine. Brewing in monasteries increased and a number of modern breweries can trace their origins back to medieval monasteries. Thomas Aquinas (died 1274), a Dominican friar and the "Doctor Angelicus" of the Catholic Church, says that moderation in wine is sufficient for salvation but that for certain persons perfection requires abstinence, and this was dependent upon their circumstance. With regard to the Eucharist, he says that grape wine should be used and that "must", unlike juice from unripe grapes, qualifies as wine because its sweetness will naturally turn it into wine. So freshly pressed must is indeed usable (preferably after filtering any impurities). Drinking among monks was not universal, however, and in 1319 Bernardo Tolomei founded the Olivetan Order, initially following a much more ascetic Rule than Benedict's. The Olivetans uprooted all their vineyards, destroyed their wine-presses, and were "fanatical total abstainers," but the rule was soon relaxed. Because the Catholic Church requires properly fermented wine in the Eucharist, wherever Catholicism spread, the missionaries also brought grapevines so they could make wine and celebrate the Mass. The Catholic Church continues to celebrate a number of early and medieval saints related to alcohol—for instance, St. Adrian, patron saint of beer; St. Amand, patron saint of brewers, barkeepers, and wine merchants; St. Martin, the so-called patron saint of wine; St. Vincent, patron saint of vintners. Wine has a place in the divine services of the Eastern Orthodox Church, not only in the celebration of the Divine Liturgy (Eucharist), but also at the artoklassia (blessing of bread, wine, wheat and oil during the All Night Vigil) and in the "common cup" of wine which is shared by the bride and groom during an Orthodox wedding service. A small amount of warm wine (zapivka) is taken by the faithful together with a piece of antidoron after receiving Holy Communion. In the Serbian Orthodox Church wine is used in the celebration of a service known as the Slava on feast days. The fasting rules of the Orthodox Church forbid the consumption of wine (and by extension, all alcoholic beverages) on most fast days throughout the year. The Orthodox celebrate St. Tryphon as the patron saint of vines and vineyard workers. "Of course, no events have been found in the life of the saint that show a special relationship among him and vineyard or wine." ### Reformation The Waldensians made wine but avoided drunkenness. Zwingli reformed Zurich in many ways; in 1530 he reduced the closing time of taverns to 9 pm. He warned: "Let every youth flee from intemperance as he would from a poison ... it makes furious the body, ... it brings on premature old age." The monks under the Papacy refused to abstain from drinking: this astonished Calvin. He said they merely abstained from certain foods instead. He contrasted them against the dignified Nazarites and the priests who were forbidden the use of wine in the Jewish Temple. With Calvin at Geneva, "Low taverns and drinking shops were abolished, and intemperance diminished." However, Calvin's annual salary in Geneva included seven barrels of wine. The Lutheran Formula of Concord (1576) and the Reformed Christian confessions of faith make explicit mention of and assume the use of wine, as does the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith. In the Dordrecht Confession of Faith (1632), even the radical Anabaptists, who sought to expunge every trace of Roman Catholicism and to rely only on the Bible, also assumed wine was to be used, and despite their reputation as killjoys, the English Puritans were temperate partakers of "God's good gifts," including wine and ale. ### Colonial America As the Pilgrims set out for America, they brought a considerable amount of alcohol with them for the voyage (more than 28,617 liters = 7,560 gallons, or 4 litres/person/day), and once settled, they served alcohol at "virtually all functions, including ordinations, funerals, and regular Sabbath meals." M. E. Lender summarizes the "colonists had assimilated alcohol use, based on Old World patterns, into their community lifestyles" and that "[l]ocal brewing began almost as soon as the colonists were safely ashore." Increase Mather, a prominent colonial clergyman and president of Harvard, expressed the common view in a sermon against drunkenness: "Drink is in itself a good creature of God, and to be received with thankfulness, but the abuse of drink is from Satan; the wine is from God, but the drunkard is from the Devil." This Old World attitude is likewise found among the early Methodists (Charles Wesley, George Whitefield, Adam Clarke, Thomas Coke) and Baptists (John Gill and John Bunyan). ### Methodism At the time that Methodist founder John Wesley lived, "alcohol was divided between 'ardent spirits,' which included whisky, rum, gin, and brandy, and fermented drinks, such as wine, cider, and beer." In a sermon he warned: "You see the wine when it sparkles in the cup, and are going to drink of it. I tell you there is poison in it! and, therefore, beg you to throw it away". In an early letter to his mother Susanna, he simply dismissed those who thought she was unusual and too restrictive to have but one glass of wine. In a series of letters dated to 1789, he noted that experiments prove "ale without hops will keep just as well as the other"—thus he directly contradicted claims by vested interests, whom he likened to the pretentious silversmiths who stirred up violence: 'Sir, by this means we get our wealth.' (Acts 19:25). He rejected their claims of wholesomeness for this poisonous herb. Wesley, beyond many in his era, deplored distilled beverages such as brandy and whisky when they were used non-medicinally, and he said the many distillers who sold indiscriminately to anyone were nothing more than poisoners and murderers accursed by God. In 1744, the directions the Wesleys gave to the Methodist band societies (small groups of Methodists intended to support living a holy life) required them "to taste no spirituous [i.e., distilled] liquor ... unless prescribed by a physician." Early advocacy for abstentionism in Methodism arose in America. At the 1780 Methodist Episcopal Church Conference in Baltimore, the churchmen opposed distilled liquors and determined to "disown those who would not renounce the practice" of producing it. In opposing liquors, the American Methodists anticipated the first wave of the temperance movement that would follow. They expanded their membership rule regarding alcohol to include other alcoholic beverages over the next century. Despite pressure from interested parties to relax rules of all kinds, the American Methodists afterwards reverted to Wesley's—namely, to avoid "[d]runkenness, buying or selling spirituous [i.e., distilled] liquors, or drinking them, unless in cases of extreme necessity". Bishops in America Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury commented that frequent fasting and abstinence are "highly necessary for the divine life." Asbury strongly urged citizens to lay aside the use of alcohol. Likewise, the listed duties for Methodist preachers indicate that they should choose water as their common drink and use wine only in medicinal or sacramental contexts, Methodist Bible commentator Adam Clarke indicated the fruit of the vine at the Last Supper was pure and incomparable to what some think of as wine today. Wesley's Articles of Religion, adopted by the Methodist Episcopal Church (a precursor of the United Methodist Church) in 1784, rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation of elements in the Lord's Supper (Article XVIII), and said the use of both bread and the cup together extends to all the people (Article XIX), not only one element for laymen and two for ministers as in the Catholic practice of the time. Adam Clarke explained 1 Cor. 11:21-22: "One was hungry, and the other was drunken, μεθυει, was filled to the full; this is the sense of the word in many places of Scripture." Likewise, Coke and Asbury commented on it saying Paul's objection here concerned the Corinthians (including laymen) and "... their both eating and drinking most intemperately" thereby despising the Church of God and shaming those who have nothing. Later, British Methodists, in particular the Primitive Methodists, took a leading role in the temperance movement in Britain during the 19th and early-20th centuries. Methodists saw alcoholic beverages, and alcoholism, as the root of many social ills and tried to persuade people to abstain from these. Temperance appealed strongly to the Methodist doctrines of sanctification and perfection. This continues to be reflected in the teaching of Methodist denominations today. For example, ¶91 of the 2014 Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection states: > We believe total abstinence from all intoxicating liquors as a beverage to be the duty of all Christians. We heartily favor moral suasion and the gospel remedy to save men from the drink habit. We believe that law must be an adjunct of moral means in order to suppress the traffic side of this evil. We believe that the State and the citizen each has solemn responsibilities and duties to perform in regard to this evil. We believe that for the State to enact any law to license or tax the traffic, or derive revenues therefrom, is contrary to the policy of good government, and brings the State into guilty complicity with the traffic and all the evils growing out of it, and is also unscriptural and sinful in principle and ought to be opposed by every Christian and patriot. We therefore believe that the only true and proper remedy for the gigantic evil of the liquor traffic is its entire suppression; and that all our people and true Christians everywhere should pray and vote against this evil, and not suffer themselves to be controlled by or support political parties which are managed in the interest of the drink traffic. ### Temperance movement In the midst of the social upheaval accompanying the American Revolution and urbanization induced by the Industrial Revolution, drunkenness was on the rise and was blamed as a major contributor to the increasing poverty, unemployment, and crime. Yet the temperate sentiments of the Methodists were shared only by a few others, until the publication of a tract by eminent physician and patriot Benjamin Rush, who argued against the use of "ardent spirits" (i.e., distilled alcohol), introduced the notion of addiction, and prescribed abstinence as the only cure. Some prominent preachers like Lyman Beecher picked up on Rush's theme and galvanized the temperance movement to action. Though losing influence during the American Civil War, afterward the movement experienced its second wave, spearheaded by the Women's Christian Temperance Union, and it was so successful in achieving its goals that Catherine Booth, co-founder of the Salvation Army, could observe in 1879 that in America "almost every [Protestant] Christian minister has become an abstainer." The movement saw the passage of anti-drinking laws in several states and peaked in its political power in 1919 with the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which established prohibition as the law of the entire country but which was repealed in 1933 by the Twenty-first Amendment. Initially the vast majority of the temperance movement had opposed only distilled alcohol, which they saw as making drunkenness inexpensive and easy, and espoused moderation and temperance in the use of other alcoholic beverages. Fueled in part by the Second Great Awakening, which emphasized personal holiness and sometimes perfectionism, the temperance message changed to the outright elimination of alcohol. Consequently, alcohol itself became an evil in the eyes of many (but not all) abstainers and so had to be expunged from Christian practice—especially from the holy rite of the Lord's Supper. The use of a grape-based drink other than wine for the Lord's Supper took a strong hold in many churches, including American Protestantism, though some churches had detractors who thought wine was to be given strong preference in the rite. Some denominational statements required "unfermented wine" for the Lord's Supper. For example, the Wesleyan Methodists (since founded 1843, some fifty years after Wesley's death) required "unfermented wine". Since grape juice begins naturally fermenting upon pressing, opponents of wine utilized alternate methods of creating their ritual drink such as reconstituting concentrated grape juice, boiling raisins, or adding preservatives to delay fermenting and souring. In 1869, Thomas Bramwell Welch, an ordained Wesleyan Methodist minister, discovered a way to pasteurize grape juice, and he used his particular preservation method to prepare juice for the Lord's Supper at a Methodist Episcopal church. From 1838 to 1845, Father Mathew, the Irish apostle of temperance, administered an abstinence pledge to some three to four million of his countrymen, though his efforts had little permanent effect there, and then starting in 1849 to more than 500,000 Americans, chiefly his fellow Irish Catholics, who formed local temperance societies but whose influence was limited. In 1872 the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America united these societies and by 1913 reached some 90,000 members including the juvenile, women's, and priestly contingents. The Union pursued a platform of "moral suasion" rather than legislative prohibition and received two papal commendations. In 1878 Pope Leo XIII praised the Union's determination to abolish drunkenness and "all incentive to it," and in 1906 Pope Pius X lauded its efforts in "persuading men to practise one of the principal Christian virtues — temperance." By the time the Eighteenth Amendment was up for consideration, however, Archbishop Messmer of Milwaukee denounced the prohibition movement as being founded on an "absolutely false principle" and as trying to undermine the Church's "most sacred mystery," the Eucharist, and he forbade pastors in his archdiocese from assisting the movement but suggested they preach on moderation. In the end, Catholicism was largely unaffected in doctrine and practice by the movements to eliminate alcohol from church life, and it retained its emphasis on the virtue of temperance in all things. Similarly, while the Lutheran and Anglican churches felt some pressure, they did not alter their moderationist position. Even the English denominational temperance societies refused to make abstention a requirement for membership, and their position remained moderationist in character. It was non-Lutheran Protestantism from which the temperance movement drew its greatest strength. Many Methodists, Presbyterians, and other Protestants signed on to the prohibitionist platform. The 1881 assembly of the United Presbyterian Church of North America said "the common traffic in, and the moderate use of intoxicants as a beverage are the source of all these evils." In 1843, the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America's general assembly (generally considered part of the conservative Old School) considered and narrowly rejected making the selling of alcoholic beverages grounds for excommunication from the church. The Quakers (Religious Society of Friends) came to be a strong influence for the temperance cause. By the 1830s, Quakers were in agreement with the dominant moral philosophy of this era in regarding distilling spirits as sinful while accepting beer brewing. Several prominent Quaker families in this era were involved in large London breweries. The legislative and social effects resulting from the temperance movement peaked in the early 20th century and began to decline afterward. The effects on church practice were primarily a phenomenon in American Protestantism and to a lesser extent in the British Isles, the Nordic countries, and a few other places. The practice of the Protestant churches were slower to revert, and some bodies, though now rejecting their formerly prohibitionist platform, still retain vestiges of it such as using grape juice alone or beside wine in the Lord's Supper. ## Current views Today, the views on alcohol in Christianity can be divided into moderationism, abstentionism, and prohibitionism. Abstentionists and prohibitionists are sometimes lumped together as "teetotalers", sharing some similar arguments. However, prohibitionists abstain from alcohol as a matter of law (that is, they believe God requires abstinence in all ordinary circumstances), while abstentionists abstain as a matter of prudence (that is, they believe total abstinence is the wisest and most loving way to live in the present circumstances). Some groups of Christians fall entirely or virtually entirely into one of these categories, while others are divided between them. Fifty-two percent of Evangelical leaders around the world say drinking alcohol is incompatible with being a good Evangelical. Even now, nominally "Christian" countries still have 42% who say it is incompatible. ### Moderationism The moderationist position is held by Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, and within Protestantism, it is accepted by Anglicans, Lutherans and many Reformed churches. Moderationism is also accepted by Jehovah's Witnesses. Moderationism argues that, according to the biblical and traditional witness, (1) alcohol is a good gift of God that is rightly used in the Eucharist and for making the heart merry, and (2) while its dangers are real, it may be used wisely and moderately rather than being shunned or prohibited because of potential abuse. Moderationism holds that temperance (that is, moderation or self-control) in all of one's behavior, not abstinence, is the biblical norm. On the first point, moderationists reflect the Hebrew mindset that all creation is good. The ancient Canons of the Apostles, which became part of Canon Law in the eastern and western Churches, likewise allows Church leaders and laity to abstain from wine for mortification of the flesh but requires that they not "abominate" or detest it, which attitude "blasphemously abuses" the good creation. Going further, John Calvin says that "it is lawful to use wine not only in cases of necessity, but also thereby to make us merry," and in his Genevan Catechism, he answers that wine is appropriate in the Lord's Supper because "by wine the hearts of men are gladdened, their strength recruited, and the whole man strengthened, so by the blood of our Lord the same benefits are received by our souls." On the second point, Martin Luther employs a reductio ad absurdum to counter the idea that abuse should be met with disuse: "[W]e must not ... reject [or] condemn anything because it is abused ... [W]ine and women bring many a man to misery and make a fool of him (Ecclus. ; ); so [we would need to] kill all the women and pour out all the wine." In dealing with drunkenness at the love feast in Corinth, St. Paul does not require total abstinence from drink but love for one another that would express itself in moderate, selfless behavior. However, moderationists approve of voluntary abstinence in several cases, such as for a person who finds it too difficult to drink in moderation and for the benefit of the "weaker brother," who would err because of a stronger Christian exercising their liberty to drink. While all moderationists approve of using (fermented) wine in the Eucharist in principle (Catholics, the Orthodox, and Anglicans require it), because of prohibitionist heritage and a sensitivity to those who wish to abstain from alcohol, many offer either grape juice or both wine and juice at their celebrations of the Lord's Supper. Some Christians mix some water with the wine following ancient tradition, and some attach a mystical significance to this practice. #### Comparison In addition to lexical and historical differences, moderationism holds that prohibitionism errs by confusing the Christian virtues of temperance and moderation with abstinence and prohibition and by locating the evil in the object that is abused rather than in the heart and deeds of the abuser. Moreover, moderationists suggest that the prohibitionist and abstentionist positions denigrate God's creation and his good gifts and deny that it is not what goes into a man that makes him evil but what comes out (that is, what he says and does). The Bible never uses the word 'wine' of communion. Yet moderationists hold that in banishing wine from communion and dinner tables, prohibitionists and abstentionists go against the 'witness of the Bible' and the church throughout the ages and implicitly adopt a Pharisaical moralism that is at odds with what moderationists consider the right approach to biblical ethics and the doctrines of sin and sanctification. ### Abstentionism The abstentionist position is held by many Baptists, Pentecostals, Nazarenes, Methodists, and other evangelical and Protestant groups including the Salvation Army. Prominent proponents of abstentionism include Billy Graham, John F. MacArthur, R. Albert Mohler, Jr., and John Piper. Abstentionists believe that although alcohol consumption is not inherently sinful or necessarily to be avoided in all circumstances, it is generally not the wisest or most prudent choice. Many abstentionists do not require abstinence from alcohol for membership in their churches, though they do often require it for leadership positions (as with many Baptist churches), while other abstentionist denominations require abstinence from alcohol for all their members, both clergy and laypersons (as with the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches). Some reasons commonly given for voluntary abstention are: 1. The Bible warns that alcohol can hinder moral discretion. Proverbs 31:4-5 warns kings and rulers that they might "forget what is decreed, and pervert the rights of all the afflicted." Some abstentionists speak of alcohol as "corrupt[ing]" the body and as a substance that can "impair my judgment and further distract me from God's will for my life." 2. Christians must be sensitive to the "weaker brother", that is, the Christian who believes imbibing to be a sin. On this point MacArthur says, "[T]he primary reason I don't do a lot of things I could do, including drinking wine or any alcoholic beverage, [is] because I know some believers would be offended by it ... [M]any Christians will drink their beer and wine and flaunt their liberty no matter what anyone thinks. Consequently, there is a rift in the fellowship." 3. Christians should make a public statement against drunkenness because of the negative consequences it can have on individuals, families, and society as a whole. Some abstentionists believe that their witness as persons of moral character is also enhanced by this choice. Additionally, abstentionists argue that while drinking may have been more acceptable in ancient times (for instance, using wine to purify polluted drinking water), modern circumstances have changed the nature of a Christian's responsibility in this area. First, some abstentionists argue that wine in biblical times was weaker and diluted with water such that drunkenness was less common, though few non-abstentionists accept this claim as wholly accurate or conclusive. Also, the invention of more efficient distillation techniques has led to more potent and cheaper alcohol, which in turn has lessened the economic barrier to drinking to excess compared to biblical times. #### Comparison On historical and lexical grounds, many abstentionists reject the argument of prohibitionists that wine in the Bible was not alcoholic and that imbibing is nearly always a sin. Piper summarizes the abstentionist position on this point: The consumption of food and drink is in itself no basis for judging a person's standing with God ... [The Apostle Paul's] approach to these abuses [of food and drink] was never to forbid food or drink. It was always to forbid what destroyed God's temple and injured faith. He taught the principle of love, but did not determine its application with regulations in matters of food and drink. Abstentionists also reject the position of moderationists that in many circumstances Christians should feel free to drink for pleasure because abstentionists see alcohol as inherently too dangerous and not "a necessity for life or good living," with some even going so far as to say, "Moderation is the cause of the liquor problem." ### Prohibitionism The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest body of the Latter Day Saint movement, teaches that "God has spoken against the use of ... [a]lcohol". The church's leaders base this teaching on a revelation received by the prophet Joseph Smith called the Word of Wisdom. In the Seventh-day Adventist Church, members must also abide by a health code that includes not drinking alcohol or consuming any other recreational drugs. North American Adventist health study recruitments from 2001-2007 found that 93.4% of Adventists abstained from drinking alcohol, 98.9% were non-smokers, and only 54% ate meat. Studies have also shown that Adventist members are healthier and live longer. Dan Buettner has named Loma Linda, California a "Blue Zone" of longevity, and attributes that to the large concentration of Seventh-day Adventists and their health practices. Most Laestadian-based congregations ("Finnish Lutherans"), such as the First Apostolic Lutheran Church, dominated by Finns in Michigan and Minnesota, are ambivalently against alcoholic consumption, as the Church has roots as a temperance movement in Finland. During the U.S. Prohibition movement during the early twentieth century, many Finnish Lutherans were elected to Congress, propelling the earliest stages towards the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. #### Influential organizations Other prohibitionist organizations advocate for the cause prohibition but do not require their members to follow the rule, and the prohibitionist position has experienced a general reduction of support since the days of the temperance movement and prohibitionism, with many advocates instead becoming abstentionists. The Southern Baptist Convention resolved that their "churches be urged to give their full moral support to the prohibition cause, and to give a more liberal financial support to dry organizations which stand for the united action of our people against the liquor traffic." Influential Baptist preacher Charles Spurgeon wrote: "I wish the man who made the law to open them had to keep all the families that they have brought to ruin. Beer shops are the enemies of the home; therefore, the sooner their licenses are taken away, the better." The founder of The Salvation Army William Booth was a prohibitionist, and saw alcohol as evil in itself and not safe for anyone to drink in moderation. In 1990, the Salvation Army re-affirms: "It would be inconsistent for any Salvationist to drink while at the same time seeking to help others to give it up." David Wilkerson founder of the Teen Challenge rehabilitation organization, said similar things to Assemblies of God: "a little alcohol is too much since drinking in moderation provides Satan an opening to cruel deception." Billy Sunday, an influential evangelical Christian, said: "After all is said that can be said on the liquor traffic, its influence is degrading on the individual, the family, politics and business and upon everything that you touch in this old world." #### Bible interpretations Prohibitionists such as Stephen Reynolds and Jack Van Impe hold that the Bible forbids partaking of alcohol altogether, with some arguing that the alleged medicinal use of wine in 1 Timothy 5:23 is a reference to unfermented grape juice. They argue that the words for alcoholic beverages in the Bible can also refer to non-alcoholic versions such as unfermented grape juice, and for this reason the context must determine which meaning is required. In passages where the beverages are viewed negatively, prohibitionists understand them to mean the alcoholic drinks, and where they are viewed positively, they understand them to mean non-alcoholic drinks. Prohibitionists also accuse most Bible translators of exhibiting a bias in favor of alcohol that obscures the meaning of the original texts. ## See also - Christian dietary laws - Noah's wine - Religion and alcohol
3,259,394	Bart After Dark	1,162,733,301	null	[ "1996 American television episodes", "Television episodes directed by Dominic Polcino", "The Simpsons (season 8) episodes" ]	"Bart After Dark" is the fifth episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 24, 1996. After accidentally breaking a stone gargoyle at a local house, Bart is forced to work there as punishment. He assumes it will be boring work, but is surprised when he learns that it is actually a burlesque house. Marge is horrified when she learns of the burlesque house, and resolves to have it shut down. The episode was directed by Dominic Polcino and written by Richard Appel. It won an Emmy Award for "Outstanding Music and Lyrics" for the song "We Put the Spring in Springfield". ## Plot An oil tanker runs aground, spilling millions of gallons of oil on Baby Seal Beach. Lisa begs Marge to help celebrities scrub oil tar from shorebirds and sea mammals. Marge, Lisa and Maggie drive to the beach, leaving Bart and Homer home alone. Soon the house becomes a filthy mess, so Bart goes outside to play with his friends. Milhouse's toy airplane crashes atop the roof of a Gothic house. While Bart is retrieving it, he accidentally falls, destroying a stone gargoyle. Belle, the owner of the house, grabs Bart by the ear and takes him home, much to his friends' horror. At the Simpson home, Belle demands that Homer punish Bart for trespassing on her property. Homer balks until Belle threatens to come back and speak with Marge if he won't discipline Bart. Homer forces Bart to perform chores for Belle at the Maison Derrière, which the boy soon learns is a burlesque house. Bart does his job with enthusiasm and becomes indispensable to Belle. Marge and Lisa arrive at the beach, but discover that cleaning beach tar from animals is a task reserved only for celebrities. Instead, they are put to work scrubbing rocks, a job they soon abandon to return home. After Homer learns the truth about the burlesque house, he does nothing to stop Bart from working there. Principal Skinner visits the house and sees Bart is the door greeter. He reports it to the Lovejoys and the Flanderses, who confront Homer about Bart's workplace. As Homer crows that he has no problem with Bart working at a burlesque house, Marge returns home unexpectedly and is upset to learn this. Marge asks Belle to close the house, but Belle refuses, saying it is a part of Springfield. Marge presses the matter at a town meeting and shows slides of several prominent citizens leaving the Maison Derrière. Marge's campaign convinces the town to form a mob to destroy the house. The mob arrives at the house and starts smashing property. Homer tries to stop the mob's rampage by singing a musical number, accompanied by Belle and her burlesque dancers. The townfolk join in singing and are persuaded to let the house stay. However, Marge arrives with a bulldozer, having missed the song. As she starts a song about her stance on the house, she accidentally puts the bulldozer in drive and destroys a wing of the Maison. She apologizes profusely to Belle and the townsfolk for wrecking their beloved house. To pay for the damage, Marge performs a ventriloquist act at the house, where she is heckled by Homer — who is promptly removed by the bouncer, Bart. ## Production The episode was written by Richard Appel and directed by Dominic Polcino. Appel was looking for new locales to put Bart and thought it would be funny to have him work at a burlesque house. The problem was to find a way to put such a house in Springfield, which was solved with the bit with the toy airplane. There were a dozen different possible names for the burlesque house, some of which were raunchy. Josh Weinstein has said that there are so many sleazy characters in The Simpsons that it was easy to find people for the scenes in the burlesque house. A character modeled after John Swartzwelder can also be seen. Belle was not modeled after anyone in particular and she was redesigned several times. Belle was voiced by Tress MacNeille, but there had been previous efforts to cast a guest voice for the role. ## Cultural references A lot of the episode's plot is based on the film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas. The oil spill is a reference to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The Sea Captain is shown to be drunk at the helm, a reference to Joseph Hazelwood, the captain of the Exxon Valdez who was accused of being intoxicated. Reverend Lovejoy's line, "This house is a very, very, very fine house", is a reference to the Crosby, Stills, Nash, & Young song "Our House". Homer responds to a "Do you know where your children are?" public service announcement by saying, "I told you last night — no!" ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Bart After Dark" finished 57th in ratings for the week of November 18–24, 1996, with a Nielsen rating of 8.5, equivalent to approximately 8.2 million viewing households. It was the fourth-highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, Melrose Place, and Beverly Hills, 90210. Ken Keeler and Alf Clausen won a Primetime Emmy Award for "Outstanding Music and Lyrics" for "We Put the Spring in Springfield". The song was also a part of the album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons.
382,402	Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir, BWV 29	1,162,637,091	Church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach	[ "1731 compositions", "Council cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach", "Psalm-related compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach" ]	Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir (We thank you, God, we thank you), BWV 29, is a sacred cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed it in Leipzig in 1731 for Ratswechsel, the annual inauguration of a new town council, and first performed it on 27 August of that year. The cantata was part of a festive service in the Nikolaikirche. The cantata text by an unknown author includes in movement 2 the beginning of Psalm 75, and as the closing chorale the fifth stanza of Johann Gramann's "Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren". Bach scored the work in eight movements for four vocal parts and a festive Baroque orchestra of three trumpets, timpani, two oboes, strings, an obbligato organ and basso continuo. The organ dominates the first movement Sinfonia which Bach derived from a Partita for violin. The full orchestra accompanies the first choral movement and plays with the voices in the closing chorale, while a sequence of three arias alternating with two recitatives is scored intimately. Bach used the music from the choral movement for both the Gratias agimus tibi and Dona nobis pacem of his Mass in B minor. ## History and words Bach composed the cantata in 1731 for Ratswechsel, the inauguration of the new town council, which was celebrated annually in a festive service in the Nikolaikirche on the Monday following the feast day of St. Bartholomew (24 August). It was not a democratic election, but a "ceremonial transfer of office" of council members who were appointed. The service was not part of the liturgical year with cantata texts related to prescribed biblical epistle and gospel readings. For the same occasion, Bach had already written the cantata Preise, Jerusalem, den Herrn, BWV 119, in his first year in Leipzig, 1723. For the Ratswechsel service, he could count on the entire council (his employer) listening, probably also civil servants and representatives of the Elector's administration for the region. The musicologist Klaus Hofmann notes: "It was an opportunity for Bach to show how sacred music was flourishing under his direction and to present himself as a composer." The cantata text of Wir danken dir, Gott by an unknown author includes in movement 2 the first verse of Psalm 75 () and as the closing chorale the fifth stanza of Johann Gramann's hymn of praise "Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren" (1540). Bach first performed the cantata on 27 August 1731. In 1733, he adapted the music of the first choral movement with only minor changes for the Gratias agimus tibi of his Kyrie-Gloria Mass for the Dresden court, on a text expressing the same idea in Latin. According to Hofmann, the movement is based on an earlier lost composition. Bach performed the cantata for Ratswechsel at least two more times, on 31 August 1739 and on 25 August 1749. He expanded the Missa of 1733 to his Mass in B minor and concluded his work by repeating the music as the Dona nobis pacem. ## Scoring and structure The cantata is structured in eight movements and takes about 28 minutes to perform. The instrumentation reflects the festive occasion for which it was written. Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists (soprano (S), alto (A), tenor (T) and bass) (B), a four-part choir, and a Baroque orchestra of three trumpets (Tr), timpani (Ti), two oboes (Ob), two violins (Vl) (violin solo in movement 3), violas (Va), an obbligato organ (Org) and basso continuo (Bc). The autograph score is titled: "Bey der Rahts-Wahl / 1731. / Wir dancken dir, Gott, wir dancken dir. / à / 4 Voci. / 3 Trombe / Tamburi / 2 Hautbois / 2 Violini / Viola / e / Continuo / con Organo obligato / di / Joh.Seb:Bach. In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe, and the abbreviations for voices and instruments the list of Bach cantatas. The time signature is provided using the symbol for common time (4/4). The timpani are listed with the trumpets because they always play together. ## Music ### 1 The cantata is one of few sacred Bach cantatas opened by an orchestral sinfonia. Another is the early Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12. The music is an arrangement of the prelude from Bach's Partita for violin, BWV 1006, which Bach had already revised for organ and strings in 1729 for the wedding cantata Herr Gott, Beherrscher aller Dinge, BWV 120a. In the cantata for Ratswechsel, the solo organ plays the original violin part "in virtuoso motoric writing", while the full orchestra adds an accompaniment. ### 2 The first vocal movement is a setting of verse 1 of Psalm 75, "Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir, und verkündigen deine Wunder", translated in the King James version of the bible as "Unto thee, O God, do we give thanks, unto thee do we give thanks: for that thy name is near thy wondrous works declare". In contrast to the virtuoso introduction, the chorus begins in motet style in grave stile antico. The bass begins in great simplicity a theme in even steps; the tenor starts imitating almost immediately, the alto a little later, then the soprano. A countersubject illustrates the telling of God's wonders, embellishing the words verkündigen ("declare") and Wunder ("wondrous works"). In the beginning only oboes and strings play colla parte with the voices, then a trumpet doubles the soprano. Developing further, two trumpets take part in the polyphony, and a climax is reached when the third trumpet and timpani enter. Hofmann comments that although the movement begins in old style, "Bach’s method of intensification (by means of which he gradually introduces trumpets and ultimately allows the theme to be heard in stretta) is thoroughly baroque. ### 3 "Halleluja, Stärk und Macht" (Alleluia, strength and power) is set as an aria for tenor. The voice, a solo violin and the continuo are equal partners. ### 4 A recitative for bass, "Gottlob! es geht uns wohl!" (Praise God! It is well for us!) mentions that God "holds his hand protectively and in blessing above the city". ### 5 The soprano aria is a prayer, "Gedenk an uns mit deiner Liebe" (Consider us with Your love)‘’ (‘Think of us with your love’) for "God’s future providence", described by Hofmann as "a musical display piece full of warmth and tenderness in a rocking siciliano rhythm. For long stretches in the vocal sections, Bach does without a continuo accompaniment (thus without the instrumental bass register) – a tactic that effectively contributes to creating a sonic impression of tenderness and charm". ### 6 A recitative for alto is a prayer for future protection, "Vergiß es ferner nicht, mit deiner Hand" (Do not forget later, with Your hand), concluded by a choral Amen in unison. The surprise is an interpretation of a line quoted from , "und alles Volk soll sagen: Amen!" (And all the people shall answer and say, Amen.). ### 7 The alto performs the last aria, "Halleluja, Stärk und Macht" (Hallelujah, power and might)‘’, repeating and reinforcing the thoughts of the first. The music repeats the main section of the tenor aria, now accompanied by the organ. This close connection within the structure of the work of both the theme (3 and 6) and the instrument (1 and 6) is unusual in Bach's cantatas. ### 8 In the closing chorale, "Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren" (Glory, and praise with honor) the trumpets accentuate the ends of some lines of the fifth verse of Johann Gramann's "Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren". ## Recordings The entries of the following table are taken from the Bach Cantatas Website.
43,658,871	Adolescence of Utena	1,168,513,663	1999 film by Kunihiko Ikuhara	[ "1999 LGBT-related films", "1999 anime films", "1999 films", "Anime films based on manga", "Apocalyptic films", "Central Park Media", "Cross-dressing in film", "Female bisexuality in film", "Films scored by Shinkichi Mitsumune", "J.C.Staff", "Japanese LGBT-related films", "LGBT-related animated films", "Lesbian-related films", "Revolutionary Girl Utena" ]	Adolescence of Utena is a 1999 Japanese anime film. It is a follow-up to the 1997 anime television series Revolutionary Girl Utena, created by the artist collective Be-Papas. The film is directed by Kunihiko Ikuhara, written by Yōji Enokido based on a story by Ikuhara, and produced by the animation studio J.C.Staff. An English-language dubbed version of the film produced by Central Park Media was released in 2001 as Revolutionary Girl Utena: The Movie. The plot follows Utena Tenjou, a tomboy high school student who is drawn into a series of sword duels to win the hand of Anthy Himemiya, a mysterious student known as the "Rose Bride". The film is noted for its extensive use of metaphor and symbolism; its focus on themes of gender, sexuality, and the transition from adolescence to adulthood; and for its more mature subject material relative to the anime series. ## Context Adolescence of Utena is the final of the three primary entries in the Revolutionary Girl Utena media franchise, following the 1996 manga series and the 1997 anime television series. Though there are significant differences in plot execution between the manga, television series, and film, all three tell the same basic story, utilizing the same general narrative trajectory and characters. The series is highly intertextual, with Adolescence of Utena in particular drawing heavily from plot elements and characterization established in the anime series. ## Plot Utena Tenjou, a new student at Ohtori Academy, tours the school with classmate Wakaba Shinohara. She observes a fencing match between students Juri Arisugawa and Miki Kaoru, and shortly thereafter encounters her ex-boyfriend Touga Kiryuu; after Touga departs, she discovers a rose-engraved signet ring identical to one he was wearing resting inside a white rose. Utena wanders into a rose garden and meets Anthy Himemiya, the sister of the school's absent chairman Akio Ohtori. She is referred to as the "Rose Bride" by Kyouichi Saionji, another rose-ringed student who sees Utena's ring and challenges her to a sword duel. Utena emerges victorious using a sword she pulls out of Anthy's chest. That night, Anthy visits Utena's dormitory and attempts to initiate sex with her, but is rebuffed. When Utena questions Anthy about the duel and the rings, Anthy responds that the rings mark their bearers as duelists, that she is betrothed to whomever is the victor of the duels, and that whoever possesses the Rose Bride has the "power to revolutionize the world." Elsewhere, Juri's childhood friend Shiori Takatsuki tells Touga that as a child, her "prince" died attempting to save a drowning girl. They receive a phone call from Akio, who says that Anthy is a witch who made the lord of the flies into a prince, but when her magic faded, the prince returned to his true form; the duels are organized in an attempt to reactivate her magic. Juri, who is manipulated by Shiori into dueling Utena, is defeated after witnessing Utena seemingly transform into Anthy's prince. The school's broadcasting club uncovers a video that suggests that Anthy was previously drugged and raped by Akio. Akio's corpse is found buried in Anthy's garden shortly thereafter, shocking the school with the revelation that he is long dead. A second video depicts Anthy lucid during her rape, which prompted a panicked Akio to stab her and accidentally fall out of a window to his death. Utena searches for Anthy and finds Touga; she suddenly remembers that Touga is the "prince" referenced by Shiori, and that he died while saving Juri from drowning when they were children. Utena thanks Touga for being her "prince", and he vanishes. Utena finds Anthy and tells her they should go "to the outside world," upon which Utena is swallowed by a car wash and metamorphosed into a car. Anthy enters the car and drives it away from the academy, though a fleet of tanks and Shiori – also in car form – attempt to thwart her. Anthy is assisted in her escape by Juri, Miki, Saoinji, and Wakaba, who have been inspired by Utena and Anthy to also go to the "outside world." An apparition of Akio attempts to stop Anthy, but she rebukes him in a burst of roses. Utena and Anthy emerge riding the remnants of the car, and kiss as they drive into a grey wasteland. ## Cast Director Kunihiko Ikuhara makes a cameo appearance in the film as the voice of an art teacher; in the English-language dubbed version of the film, the role is voiced by Tony Salerno, who served as ADR director on the Central Park Media dub. ## Production Adolescence of Utena was produced by J.C.Staff, in association with the publishing company Shogakukan and the production company GANSIS. The production committee for the film, Shojo Kakumei Utena Seisaku Iinkai (lit. "Revolutionary Girl Utena Production Committee"), was composed of Sega Enterprises, MOVIC, and King Records. Distribution of the film was overseen by Toei Company. ### Development Adolescence of Utena was developed by Be-Papas, the artist collective founded by Ikuhara that produced the Utena anime television series. Ikuhara expressed a desire to create a film that heightened the themes and subject material of the original anime, seeking to "do in the movie what I wasn’t able to accomplish in the TV series," and jokingly stated that he wished for Adolescence of Utena to be "more naughty than the TV series." In contrast to the ensemble cast structure of the anime series, Adolescence of Utena focuses chiefly on the characters Utena and Anthy, with much of the secondary cast relegated to supporting and cameo appearances. The film's version of Utena is depicted as more masculine, appearing initially in short hair and boys' clothing, while Anthy is more strong-willed and overtly sexual; the romantic subtext of Utena and Anthy's relationship is additionally rendered more explicitly. Be-Papas member Chiho Saito has stated that "characters who weren't treated kindly in the TV show got attention, so I think [the film] was sympathetic in that regard." Saito advocated for a prominent role for Touga in the film, whose backstory is explored in greater detail relative to the television anime series; Ikuhara has stated that Touga's final scene in Adolescence of Utena is Saito's favorite in the series. Conversely, Nanami Kiryuu makes only a cameo appearance in the film as a cow, in a scene inserted by Ikuhara to reference an episode of the anime series and to serve as comic relief. ### Animation Adolescence of Utena was released on 35 mm movie film, and was created using a combination of traditional and digital animation. The opening title sequence was created by modifying digital graphics through nonlinear composite editing using a supercomputer, a relatively new process for animation at the time. The opening scene depicting the architecture of Ohtori Academy and the dance scene with Utena and Anthy were entirely digitally animated using 3-D Works. Ikuhara had expressed hesitation in using digital animation, stating that computer graphics in anime "tend to be harsh and cold," but expressed satisfaction with the seamless blending of the digital dance scene with the rest of the film's traditional animation. When Adolescence of Utena was remastered in 2011, the digital elements of the dance scene became more apparent when rendered as high-definition video, prompting Ikuhara and colorist Hiroshi Kaneda to exhaustively retransfer the film. Each scene had multiple designs and art directions rendered; for example, Ikuhara has stated that the scene in which Touga first speaks to Utena was initially rendered entirely in monochrome, but colors were ultimately added to make the scene more visually interesting. Other designs were adapted from elements previously used in the television series, such as Utena's dormitory and the Mikage Seminar hallway sequence, the latter of which was included based on the popularity of Mikage among the series' fans. Animators who specialized in mecha anime were hired to work on the final car chase sequence, with Ikuhara noting that several of the animators expressed initial confusion over why they were being hired to work on an Utena film. The film was not centrally storyboarded, but instead divided among five storyboarders who each supervised a segment of the film. The segments were denoted by letters; Takuya Igarashi, who worked as a storyboard artist on the anime series and supervised storyboards on "part A" of the film, remarked that the storyboards nonetheless maintained cohesion due to Ikuhara's direction. ### Soundtrack Shinkichi Mitsumune and J. A. Seazer, who respectively produced the score and songs for the Revolutionary Girl Utena anime series, returned to compose the soundtrack for Adolescence of Utena. Mitsumune composed the film's score and arranged its original songs, while Seazer produced the music and lyrics for the film's two duel songs, "Duelist \~ Resurrection! Never-ending History of the 'Middle Ages'" (デュエリスト\~甦れ!無窮の歴史「中世」よ, Yomigaere! Mukyuu no Rekishi "Chuusei" yo) and "Naked Rose \~ Carnage \~ Constellations αΨζ Galaxy" (シュラ ―肉体星座αψζ星雲―, Shura \~ Nikutai Seiza Alpha Psi Zeta Seiun\~). A rearranged version of "Absolute Destiny Apocalypse" (絶対運命黙示録, Zettai Unmei Mokushiroku), previously written and composed by Seazer for the anime series, also appears in the film. In addition to the songs produced by Mitsumune and Seazer, two songs produced by Toshiro Yabuki and performed by Masami Okui also appear in the film: "At Times, Love Is... [ja]" (時に愛は, Toki ni Ai wa) and "Rondo-Revolution" (輪舞-revolution)", the latter of which served as the theme song for the anime series and is rearranged by Mitsumune for the film. The ending credits theme of the film is "I Want to Be Your Fiancé [ja]" (フィアンセになりたい), written and performed by Akio's voice actor Mitsuhiro Oikawa. ## Release Adolescence of Utena was released in theaters in Japan on August 14, 1999. In North America, the film premiered at Anime Expo in Anaheim, California, held from June 30 to July 3, 2000. The film was screened multiple times throughout the convention, with Ikuhara and Saito in attendance for certain screenings. The film was also screened at the 26th San Francisco International Lesbian and Gay Film Festival (with Ikuhara in attendance), the Future Film Festival in Bologna, the National Film Theater in London, and the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. ### Home media In Japan, Adolescence of Utena was released on DVD by King Records on March 3, 2000. The film was released on Blu-ray by King Records on November 15, 2017, as part of complete series box set to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the anime series. In North America, licensing rights to Adolescence of Utena were acquired by Central Park Media on January 31, 2001, which produced Revolutionary Girl Utena: The Movie, an English-language dubbed version of the film. The English voice cast from the dubbed version of the television anime series reprise their roles for the film. The English-language localization of the film was overseen by Ikuhara, who travelled to the United States to oversee the film's translation; Takayuki Karahashi, who translated the film, was personally selected by Ikuhara. Revolutionary Girl Utena: The Movie was released in North America on DVD and VHS October 23, 2001. The DVD release includes both the original Japanese film and the English dub, while the VHS release includes only the English dub. Broadcasting rights for the film were acquired from Central Park Media by Funimation for its Funimation Channel on April 10, 2007, which first broadcast Revolutionary Girl Utena: The Movie on May 5, 2007. Following Central Park Media's dissolution by bankruptcy in 2009, North American licensing rights for the film were acquired by Right Stuf Inc. on July 3, 2010. The film was re-released as Adolescence of Utena by Nozomi Entertainment, a division of Right Stuf, on DVD on December 6, 2011, and on Blu-ray on December 5, 2017. In Australia, Adolescence of Utena was licensed by Hanabee, which released the film on DVD on November 20, 2013. The film is included with the final volume of Hanabee's three-volume release of the Revolutionary Girl Utena anime television series. ### Manga A manga adaptation of Adolescence of Utena written and illustrated by Be-Papas member Chiho Saito was serialized from May to September 1999 in the manga magazine Bessatsu Shōjo Comic Special. While the manga is not a one-to-one adaptation of the film, it broadly incorporates its major plot points; Saito has commented that she regards the manga as a more direct story, while the film is more thematic and abstract. As the manga was published in a special edition of Bessatsu Shōjo Comic aimed at a josei audience (older teenage girls and adult women), it maintains a more mature tone relative to the original Revolutionary Girl Utena manga and anime. An English-language translation of the manga licensed by Viz Media was announced by Saito at Anime Expo in July 2000. The English translation was serialized in Animerica Extra before being published as a collected volume by Viz in November 2004. ### Other media Mitsumune and Seazer's original soundtrack for the film was released on August 14, 1999, in Japan, and on June 8, 2004, in North America. The Japanese version of the soundtrack was released by King Records, while the North American version was released by Geneon, a division of Pioneer. The Japanese release includes liner notes from Mitsumune and Seazer, while the North American release contains additional liner notes from Ikuhara and Saito. A remastered version of the soundtrack was included as a part of the Revolutionary Girl Utena Complete CD-BOX, released by King Records in Japan on August 27, 2008. An Adolescence of Utena art book, Revolutionary Girl Utena Adolescence Apocalypse: Newtype Illustrated Collection (劇場版少女革命ウテナアドゥレセンス黙示録), was published by Kadokawa Shoten on March 14, 2000. ## Reception ### Critical reception Adolescence of Utena was positively received by critics. In Anime News Network'''s ranking of the 100 greatest anime films of all time, Adolescence of Utena placed eighth, with writer Mike Toole calling the film "one of the most interesting anime movies of the '90s and one of the prettiest animated films ever made." Vulture listed the car transformation scene on its list of "The 100 Sequences That Shaped Animation", arguing that "Adolescence of Utena does for the magical-girl anime what Neon Genesis Evangelion did for the mecha anime: lay waste to the rules that came before to craft a bold new language all its own. Reviewing the film for Dazed, writer Evelyn Wang commends the coherence of the film's discordant elements, categorizing it alongside high-concept films such as Elle and Face/Off that are "would-be shit-shows which quietly attain perfection." Wang offers specific praise for the visual symbolism of the film, saying that "the film isn't just aesthetically pleasing. It's also aesthetically precise." Writing for Calvin University's The Post Calvin, Jacqueline Ristola calls the film an "anime masterwork" and "a unified statement on liberation and personal revolution [...] the film exorcises narrative logic for sheer literalization of metaphor, and runs with it whole hog." THEM Anime gave the film three out of five stars, calling the film "quite possibly the most visually beautiful movie I have ever seen," but criticized the climactic car transformation scene. Animefringe offered praise for Adolescence of Utena's visuals and soundtrack, calling the film "sheer beauty." The manga adaptation of Adolescence of Utena was similarly well received by critics, with Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network stating that the adaptation is "much better done in general" compared to the Revolutionary Girl Utena manga, and offering praise for its thematic material. Otaku USA noted that the manga adaptation is "much closer to the anime’s tone," but "stops short of the extraordinary climax" of Utena transforming into a car. Manga Bookshelf praised the "ethereal quality" of the manga's artwork, and noted that while the title would be best appreciated by readers with existing familiarity of Utena, it nonetheless "carries some significance and effectiveness as a separate work in its own right." ### Awards In 2000, Adolescence of Utena won "Best Film, Japanese Release" at the SPJA Awards, given by the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation annually at Anime Expo. ## Themes and analysis Adolescence of Utena has been noted as a thematically and symbolically dense film, often to a highly surreal and abstract degree, with Animerica Extra calling the film "a bizarre collection of images that could be seen as allegorical, of evidence of a fantastic inner life, or simply symbols for an individual's struggle to find their place in society." Ikuhara has expressed reluctance at ascribing explicit meaning to the themes and symbols of the film, stating that he would instead "like the viewer to decide" what the film represents. He has nonetheless spoken in broad terms about the general artistic intent of the film, particularly around its depiction of Utena's transition from adolescence to adulthood and her "departure from the girl's world of dependence into a grownup's world." The film has been compared by critics to The End of Evangelion, another anime film that similarly focuses on themes of youth, identity, and apocalypse. ### Car transformation scene The climactic scene of Adolescence of Utena, in which Utena is transformed into a pink sports car that Anthy uses to escape Ohtori Academy, has been the subject of considerable discussion among fans and critics. Ikuhara has stated that he encountered resistance from the film's staff in implementing the scene, but that he wished to create a climax that would make the film memorable, and that would be unique compared to other action-drama films. Beyond this, Ikuhara has declined to offer a more substantive explanation for why Utena is specifically transformed into a car, stating that doing so would "limit the meaning of the story and make it less interesting." He has, however, described the scene in the context of the film's subversion of Utena and Anthy's relationship roles: > "There's the story of Sleeping Beauty, where you have the princess who'd been asleep for a long time who's awakened by the prince. But the Utena character has been the prince from the beginning of this story. So, the idea of Utena being turned into a car suggests that she's being put to sleep. I thought it would be interesting to reverse the roles played by Utena and Anthy in their respective relationships. In other words, Utena's the one who becomes the princess. She's the one forced into sleep. And only Anthy can free Utena from this sleep. That's how things come to an end. I thought it would be very interesting to reverse their roles." Cars appear as a recurring motif throughout various pieces of Revolutionary Girl Utena media, most notably Akio's sports car in the third story arc of the television series. Ikuhara stated that he drew inspiration from the supercar boom of the 1970s, and how sports cars are "something that satisfies childish desires in the adult world [...] my idea of a car is something that is exceedingly close to an adult’s toy." Susan J. Napier has argued that the Utena-Car destroying Akio is representative of the series' broader critique of fairy tales and the illusory trappings of shōjo manga, as Utena "becomes literally a vehicle for change" that rejects the dream-like illusions of Ohtori Academy and delivers Anthy and her schoolmates to an enlightened world. Vulture described the scene as "an image of liberation for a minority group that is still beholden to conservative ideals," saying that it was also "resonant in the scope of transgender imagery, where definition of self can allow you to be anyone or anything you wish." ### Gender and sexuality While any romantic or sexual dimension to the relationship between Utena and Anthy is relegated to subtext in both the manga and anime, Adolescence of Utena renders their relationship much more overtly: they kiss multiple times, and Anthy sexually propositions Utena early in the film. According to Ikuhara, the film's staff were divided over whether to openly depict or merely imply a kiss between Utena and Anthy, but that a kiss was included at his decision. The film has subsequently become popular among fans of yuri (lesbian manga and anime), and is often categorized as LGBT cinema. Writing for Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context, Sabdha Charlton posits that the categorization of Adolescence of Utena as a lesbian film "reflects a specifically Western desire to interpolate the text into pre-existing notions of lesbianism and same-sex desire." She argues that the film instead seeks "a rejection of dominant discourses of gender and sexuality [...] Utena invests in the romantic notion of revolution as being capable of fundamentally changing the world by erasing categories of gender and sexuality, even as it invests in these very categories." Napier adopts a similar position, arguing that the final scene of the film represents "the need for integration of two sides of the self," with the joining of the masculine Utena and the feminine Anthy being "an acknowledgement of the need for an integrate psyche, regardless of gender or sexual orientation." ### Ohtori as a prison The concept of Ohtori Academy as a metaphorical prison or gilded cage, established in the manga and television anime, is amplified in Adolescence of Utena. The film's version of Ohtori Academy has a surreal appearance, and is inspired by a combination of constructivist, deconstructivist, and Art Nouveau architecture. Storyboard artist Takuya Igarashi describes the appearance of film's version of Ohtori as being "even less grounded in reality" compared to the anime series, noting that "nothing of the outside world can ever be seen. This leaves the strong impression that it’s a birdcage or a jail. Writing for the British Film Institute, Philip Brophy describes the film's Ohtori as "not merely a hermetic social sphere but a Russian doll of interior and disguised realms of sexual conflict and gender multiplicity; its architectural design is a mind-boggling visualization of the school’s dimensional mania." Charlton notes that Ohtori is portrayed as "angular, distorted and often shown in long shots which emphasize space and distance." The film's establishing shot of Utena, in which she is backgrounded by unnaturally moving chalkboards, was inserted by Ikuhara to "set the proper tone and to convey to the audience that this is a strange world." ### Canonical status Adolescence of Utena has been alternately interpreted as a stand-alone adaptation of Revolutionary Girl Utena'' that exists in its own continuity, and as a sequel that is contiguous with the events of the anime series. Charlton conceives of the film as an alternate universe narrative, acknowledging that the film is "difficult to understand without prior knowledge of the storylines and characterisations of the series. This means that comparisons between the two are inevitable." Conversely, critic Vrai Kaiser argues that the contiguous nature of these plot and character elements, notably the assertive personality Anthy has developed by the end of the anime series, is evidence of the film's sequel status, noting that the film "opens on almost the exact point where the series ends, encouraging a savvy viewer to draw the two together [...] Anthy’s reactions throughout the film make much more sense if viewed with the lens that she’s the same Anthy from the TV series."
50,798,711	Serious Sam VR: The Last Hope	1,167,221,041	2017 video game	[ "2017 video games", "Croteam games", "Devolver Digital games", "Early access video games", "First-person shooters", "Indie games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Serious Sam", "Video games developed in Croatia", "Virtual reality games", "Windows games", "Windows-only games" ]	Serious Sam VR: The Last Hope is a 2017 first-person shooter game for virtual reality (VR) developed by Croteam VR and published by Devolver Digital. One or two players fight waves of enemies, including bosses, across five thematic planets. The enemies approach from a 180° field and the player can use dual-wielded weapons while moving across a limited space. To develop The Last Hope and experiment with other VR implementations, Croteam VR was established as a specialised division of Croteam. Devolver Digital announced the game at E3 in June 2016 and launched it in early access that October. After several updates, it was released in September 2017 for Windows with compatibility for the HTC Vive and Oculus Rift VR headsets. The Last Hope received mostly positive reviews, with post-release reception lauding the game's gameplay and visuals while criticising difficulty spikes and issues with the online multiplayer mode. ## Gameplay Serious Sam VR: The Last Hope is a first-person shooter played in virtual reality (VR) from a standing or seated position. There are twenty levels, four set on each of the five thematic planets. The player is mostly stationary and can only move around in a limited space. Enemies with varying attack patterns approach in waves from various positions in a 180° field, eventually reaching bosses. The player uses various weapons—including ranged weapons (such as pistols, shotguns, and rocket launchers), chainsaws for melee, and hybrid weapons like power swords—and can wield up to two at a time. They can evade enemy attacks through physical movement or by using a shield. Good performance in a level grants the player weapon upgrades, additional skills and power-ups, such as increased damage against enemies and time slowdowns. All levels can be played cooperatively with a second player through means like online matchmaking. The "Endless Wave" and "Arena" modes each let the player face off against random sets of enemies across eight levels. ## Development and release Croatian game studio Croteam began experimenting with VR games when it received development units of the HTC Vive and Oculus Rift. Davor Hunski, later the lead designer of The Last Hope, gained a strong interest in VR and convinced colleagues of developing games for the platform. Croteam subsequently formed a specialised VR division, Croteam VR, led by Hunski. Croteam members also examined existing VR games offered on Steam but were unsatisfied and wanted to "show the world how it's done". The development team incrementally added VR features to Serious Engine, Croteam's in-house game engine, and added rudimentary support for both VR headsets to their game The Talos Principle. Impressed with the immersion this support presented, the team expanded it to Croteam's Serious Sam games. However, they found that the existing control schemes were problematic and induced headaches, requiring them to settle on either using teleportation for movement or creating a mostly stationary game. They considered creating proper movement options the biggest challenge of VR game development. For the stationary approach, the developers created a test level with some enemies and weapons from previous Serious Sam games. This prototype proved popular among Croteam employees and the team decided to pivot towards a releasable game. They re-used further elements and tweaked them for higher graphical fidelity and created original environments, enemies, and weapons using tools like Autodesk 3ds Max, Autodesk Maya, and Autodesk MotionBuilder. Narrative elements were developed by Jonas and Verena Kyratzes. They wrote The Last Hope as a training simulation for the protagonist, Serious Sam, based on his experiences. This allowed them to connect the story elements to the Serious Sam canon while leaving much flexibility for future work, as Sam's recollection would not need to be entirely accurate. The writers presented several thematic introductions to Croteam, which chose the most appropriate one. Individual "mini-stories" for the game's levels were created with input on worldbuilding from the studio. The narrative corrected certain lore issues that had been introduced with the series' previous major instalment, Serious Sam 3: BFE. Croteam and publisher Devolver Digital announced The Last Hope on 13 June 2016, at that year's E3 game conference. For promotional efforts, Croteam commissioned three minigun props, outfitted with a rotating barrel and an integrated HTC Vive controller, that could be used to control the game. It was also exhibited at Gamescom in August that year. Oculus VR offered to support the development of The Last Hope with an undisclosed but substantial financial contribution in exchange for temporary exclusivity of the game on the Oculus Rift via the Oculus Store. According to level and game designer Mario Kotlar, the development team turned down this offer because they disliked exclusivity deals and because they believed that "truly good games will sell by themselves". The game was made available in early access for Windows on 17 October 2016 with support for the HTC Vive. As Croteam's first early access game and first VR title, The Last Hope was to be a testbed for potential further VR games. Support for the Oculus Rift was added when its motion controller system, Oculus Touch, was released in December that year. To ensure compatibility with the Oculus Rift's tracking system, levels with 360° movement were not implemented. Throughout the early access phase, which was to last six months, Croteam looked to shape the game according to player feedback. Cooperative gameplay, a feature that had never been planned, was added in December 2016 due to high demand. Further features, such as new levels and weapons, were added through major updates in April and June 2017. For the latter, the team suffered a setback when, during an association football match at the April 2017 Reboot Develop game conference, developers Hunski and Davor Tomičić suffered injuries, of whom Hunski had to undergo surgery. They returned to the Croteam offices sometime thereafter to finish their work while taking painkillers. Skill trees and power-ups were added in a July 2017 update. The soundtrack for The Last Hope, composed by Damjan Mravunac, was released via YouTube in July 2017. The game left early access on 20 September 2017 with a last major update. Croteam also developed Serious Sam VR: Arcade, a version of The Last Hope for location-based entertainment facilities, such as video arcades. The Last Hope was among the first games supported by Variable Rate Supersampling (VRSS)—a technology developed by Nvidia to improve the image quality of VR games using supersampling—when it was introduced in January 2020. ## Reception During its early access period, Serious Sam VR: The Last Hope was subject to a mixed reception. Jason Bohn of Hardcore Gamer lauded the game's gunplay and tense atmosphere but noted that, although common series elements were present, it did not feel like a "true entry" in the franchise. David Jagneaux of UploadVR welcomed the intensity of the gameplay and the sense of power presented by dual-wielding virtual guns. Alec Meer of Rock Paper Shotgun opined that the Serious Sam series' simple gameplay style was ideal for VR and that The Last Hope, therefore, formed one of the better VR shooters at the time, especially with the dual-wielding functionality. In contrast, Kevin Joyce of VRFocus labelled The Last Hope as "derivative" and "essentially another stand-and-shoot affair just like the many that already litter the HTC Vive software library". Upon release, Tal Blevins reviewed The Last Hope for UploadVR, praising the game's pace and stratagem. He also commended the visuals and variety of weapons and enemies. However, he criticised large disparities between the difficulty levels and faulted poor matchmaking and server errors in the multiplayer component. PC Gamer and Rock Paper Shotgun each included The Last Hope in their lists of best VR games in April 2020.
7,511,213	Simele massacre	1,173,255,747	1933 mass killing of Assyrians in Iraq	[ "1933 in Iraq", "20th century in Iraq", "August 1933 events", "Conflicts in 1933", "Massacres in 1933", "Massacres in Iraq", "Massacres of Christians", "Massacres of ethnic groups", "Persecution of Assyrians in Iraq", "Simele" ]	The Simele massacre (Arabic: مذبحة سميل, romanized: madhbaḥa Simīl), also known as the Assyrian affair, was committed by the Kingdom of Iraq, led by Bakr Sidqi, during a campaign systematically targeting the Assyrians in and around Simele in August 1933. An estimated 6,000 Assyrians were killed and over 100 Assyrian villages were destroyed and looted. ## Background ### Assyrians of the mountains The majority of the Assyrians affected by the massacres were adherents of the Church of the East (often dubbed Nestorian), who originally inhabited the mountainous Hakkari and Barwari regions covering parts of the modern provinces of Hakkâri, Şırnak and Van in Turkey and the Dohuk Governorate in Iraq, with a population ranging between 75,000 and 150,000. Most of these Assyrians were massacred during the 1915 Assyrian genocide, at the hands of the Ottoman Turks, while the rest endured two winter marches to Urmia in 1915 and to Hamadan in 1918. Many of them were relocated by the British to refugee camps in Baquba and later to Habbaniyah, and in 1921 some were enlisted in the Assyrian Levies, a military force under British command, which participated in the Kirkuk Massacre of 1924 of Kurds, Arabs, and Turkomen during the ongoing revolts in the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. Most Hakkari Assyrians were resettled after 1925 in a cluster of villages in northern Iraq. Some of the villages where the Assyrians settled were leased directly by the government, while others belonged to Kurdish landlords who had the right to evict them at any time. ### Iraqi independence and crisis During the Ottoman Empire until its partition in the 20th century, Iraq was made up of three provinces: Mosul Vilayet, Baghdad Vilayet, and Basra Vilayet. These three provinces were joined into one Kingdom under the nominal rule of King Faisal by the British after the region became a League of Nations mandate, administered under British control, with the name "State of Iraq". Britain granted independence to the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases, local militia in the form of Assyrian Levies, and transit rights for their forces. From Iraqi nationalists' point of view, the Assyrian Levies were British proxies to be used by their 'masters' to destroy the new Iraqi state, whose independence the British had consistently opposed. Under British protection, the Assyrian Levies had not become Iraqi citizens until 1924. The British allowed their Assyrian auxiliary troops to retain their arms after independence and granted them special duty and privileges, guarding military air installations and receiving higher pay than the Iraqi Arab recruits. The nationalists believed the British were hoping for the Assyrians to destroy Iraq's internal cohesion by becoming independent and by inciting others such as the Kurds to follow their example. In addition, elements of the Royal Iraqi Army resented the British and the Assyrians because the British Army and Assyrian Levies had succeeded in suppressing Kurdish revolts when the Royal Iraqi Army failed. The end of the British Mandate of Iraq caused considerable unease among the Assyrians, who felt betrayed by the British. For them, any treaty with the Iraqis had to take into consideration their desire for an autonomous position similar to the Ottoman Millet system. The Iraqis, on the other hand felt that the Assyrians' demands were, alongside the Kurdish disturbances in the north, a conspiracy by the British to divide Iraq by agitating its minorities. ### Assyrian demands for autonomy With Iraqi independence, the new Assyrian spiritual-temporal leader, Shimun XXI Eshai (Catholicos Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East), demanded an autonomous Assyrian homeland within Iraq, seeking support from the United Kingdom and pressing his case before the League of Nations in 1932. His followers planned to resign from the Assyrian Levies and to re-group as a militia and concentrate in the north, creating a de facto Assyrian enclave. In spring 1933, Malik Yaqo, a former Levies officer, was engaged in a propaganda campaign on behalf of Assyrian Patriarch Shimun XXI Eshai (or Mar Shimun), trying to persuade Assyrians not to apply for Iraqi nationality or accept the settlement offered to them by the central government. Yaqo was accompanied by 200 armed men, which was seen as an act of defiance by the Iraqi authorities, while causing distress among the Kurds. The Iraqi government started sending troops to the Dohuk region in order to intimidate Yaqu and dissuade Assyrians from joining his cause. In June 1933, Shimun XXI Eshai was invited to Baghdad for negotiations with Rashid Ali al-Gaylani's government but was detained there after refusing to relinquish temporal authority. He would eventually be exiled to Cyprus. ## Massacres ### Clashes at Dirabun On 21 July 1933, more than 600 Assyrians, led by Yaqo, crossed the border into Syria in hope of receiving asylum from the French Mandate of Syria. They were, however, disarmed and refused asylum, and were subsequently given light arms and sent back to Iraq on 4 August. They then decided to surrender themselves to the Iraqi Army. While crossing the Tigris in the Assyrian village of Dirabun, a clash erupted between the Assyrians and an Iraqi Army brigade. Despite the advantage of heavy artillery, the Iraqis were driven back to their military base in Dirabun. The Assyrians, convinced that the army had targeted them deliberately, attacked an army barracks with little success. They were driven back to Syria upon the arrival of Iraqi aeroplanes. The Iraqi Army lost 33 soldiers during the fighting while the Assyrian irregulars took fewer casualties. Historians do not agree on who started the clashes at the border. The British Administrative Inspector for Mosul, Lieutenant Colonel R. R. Stafford, wrote that the Assyrians had no intention of clashing with the Iraqis, while the Iraqi historian Khaldun Husry claims that it was Yaqo's men who provoked the army at Dirabun. Husry supported the propaganda rumours, which circulated in the Iraqi nationalist newspapers, of the Assyrians mutilating the bodies of the killed Iraqi soldiers, further enraging the Iraqi public against the Assyrians. ### Beginning of the massacres Even though all military activities ceased by 6 August 1933, exaggerated stories of atrocities committed by the Assyrians at Dirabun and anti-Christian propaganda gained currency while rumours circulated that the Christians were planning to blow up bridges up and poison drinking water in major Iraqi cities. The Iraqi Army, led by Bakr Sidqi, an experienced brigadier general and Iraqi nationalist, moved north in order to crush the Assyrian revolt. The Iraqi forces started executing every Assyrian male found in the mountainous Bekher region between Zakho and Duhok starting from 8 August 1933. Assyrian civilians were transported in military trucks from Zakho and Dohuk to uninhabited places, in batches of eight or ten, where they were shot with machine guns and run over by heavy armoured cars to make sure no one survived. ### Looting of villages While these killings were taking place, nearby Kurdish, Arab and Yazidi tribes were encouraged to loot Assyrian villages. Kurdish tribes of Gulli, Sindi and Selivani were encouraged by the mayor of Zakho to loot villages to the northeast of Simele, while Yazidis and Kurds also raided Assyrian villages in Shekhan and Amadiya. Most women and children from those villages took refuge in Simele and Dohuk. On 9 August, the Arab tribes of Shammar and Jubur started crossing to the east bank of the Tigris and raiding Assyrian villages on the plains to the south of Dohuk. They were mostly driven by the loss of a large part of their own livestock to drought in the previous years. More than 60 Assyrian villages were looted. While women and children were mostly allowed to take refuge in neighbouring villages, men were sometimes rounded up and handed over to the army, by whom they were shot. Some villages were completely burned down and most of them were later inhabited by Kurds. ### Massacre in Simele The town of Simele became the last refuge for Assyrians fleeing from the looted villages. The mayor of Zakho arrived with a military force on 8 and 9 August to disarm the city. During that time thousands of refugees flocked around the police post in the town, where they were told by officials that they would be safe under the Iraqi flag. 10 August saw the arrival of Kurdish and Arab looters who, undeterred by the local police, took away the freshly cut wheat and barley. During the night of 10–11 August, the Arab inhabitants of Simele joined the looting. The Assyrian villagers could only watch as their Arab neighbours drove their flocks before them. On 11 August the villagers were ordered to leave the police post and return to their homes, which they began to do with some reluctance. As they were heading back Iraqi soldiers in armoured cars arrived, and the Iraqi flag flying over the police post was pulled down. Without warning or obvious provocation, the troops began to fire indiscriminately into the defenseless Assyrians. Ismael Abbawi Tohalla, the commanding officer, then ordered his troops not to target women. Stafford described the ensuing massacre: > A cold blooded and methodical massacre of all the men in the village then followed, a massacre which for the black treachery in which it was conceived and the callousness with which it was carried out, was as foul a crime as any in the blood stained annals of the Middle East. The Assyrians had no fight left in them, partly because of the state of mind to which the events of the past week had reduced them, largely because they were disarmed. Had they been armed it seems certain that Ismail Abawi Tohalla and his bravos would have hesitated to take them on in fair fight. Having disarmed them, they proceeded with the massacre according to plan. This took some time. Not that there was any hurry, for the troops had the whole day ahead of them. Their opponents were helpless and there was no chance of any interference from any quarter whatsoever. Machine gunners set up their guns outside the windows of the houses in which the Assyrians had taken refuge, and having trained them on the terror stricken wretches in the crowded rooms, fired among them until not a man was left standing in the shambles. In some other instance the blood lust of the troops took a slightly more active form, and men were dragged out and shot or bludgeoned to death and their bodies thrown on a pile of dead. In his depiction of the massacre, Mar Shimun states: > Girls were raped and made to march naked before Iraqi commanders. Children were run over by military cars. Pregnant women were bayonetted. Children were flung in the air and pierced on to the points of bayonets. Holy books were used for the burning of the massacred. The official Iraqi account—that the Assyrian casualties were sustained during a short battle with Kurdish and Arab tribes—has been discredited by all historians. Khaldun Husry claims that the mass killing was not premeditated and that the responsibility lies on the shoulders of Ismael Abbawi, a junior officer in the army. On 13 August, Bakr Sidqi moved his troops to Alqosh, where he planned to inflict a further massacre on the Assyrians who found refuge there. ## Targeted villages The main campaign lasted until 16 August 1933, but violent raids on Assyrians were being reported up to the end of the month. The campaign resulted in one third of the Assyrian population of Iraq fleeing to Syria. ## Aftermath On 18 August 1933, Iraqi troops entered Mosul, where they were given an enthusiastic reception by its Muslim inhabitants. Triumphant arches were erected and decorated with melons pierced with daggers, symbolising the heads of murdered Assyrians. The crown prince Ghazi himself came to the city to award 'victorious' colours to those military and tribal leaders who participated in the massacres and the looting. Anti-Christian feeling was at its height in Mosul, and the Christians of the city were largely confined to their homes during the whole month in fear of further action by the frenzied mob. The Iraqi Army later paraded in the streets of Baghdad in celebration of its victories. Bakr Sidqi was promoted; he later led Iraq's first military coup and became prime minister. Immediately after the massacre and the repression of the alleged Assyrian uprising, the Iraqi government demanded a conscription bill. Non-Assyrian Iraqi tribesmen offered to serve in the Iraqi army in order to counter the Assyrians. In late August, the government of Mosul demanded that the central government 'ruthlessly' stamp out the rebellion, eliminate all foreign influence in Iraqi affairs, and take immediate steps to enact a law for compulsory military service. The next week, 49 Kurdish tribal chieftains joined in a pro-conscription telegram to the government, expressing thanks for punishing the 'Assyrian insurgents', stating that a "nation can be proud of itself only through its power, and since evidence of this power is the army," requesting compulsory military service. Rashid Ali al-Gaylani presented the bill to the parliament. His government fell, however, before conscription was enacted; Jamil al-Midfai's government did so in February 1934. The massacres and looting had a deep psychological impact on the Assyrians. Stafford reported their low morale upon arrival in Alqosh: > When I visited Alqosh myself on August 21st I found the Assyrians, like the Assyrians elsewhere, utterly panic-stricken. Not only were they disturbed, but their spirit was completely broken. It was difficult to recognize in their cowed demeanour the proud mountaineers whom everyone had known so well and admired so much for the past dozen years. Because of the massacre, around 6,200 Assyrians left the Nineveh Plains immediately for the neighbouring French Mandate of Syria, and were later joined by 15,000 refugees the following years. They concentrated in the Jazira region and built a number of villages on the banks of the Khabur River. King Faysal, who had recently returned to Iraq from a medical vacation, was under great physical stress during the crisis. His health deteriorated even more during the hot summer days in Baghdad; the British chargé d'affaires described meeting him in his pajamas as he sat in his bed on 15 August, denying that a massacre had been committed in Simele. Faysal left Iraq again on 2 September 1933, seeking a cooler climate in London, where he died five days later. Mar Shimun, who had been detained since June 1933, was forced into exile along with his extended family, despite initial British reluctance. He was flown on an RAF plane to Cyprus on 18 August 1933, and to the United States in 1949, forcing the head of the Assyrian Church of the East to relocate to Chicago, where it remained until 2015. In 1948, Shimun met with the representatives of Iraq, Syria and Iran in Washington, subsequently calling upon his followers to "live as loyal citizens wherever they resided in the Middle East" and relinquishing his role as a temporal leader and the nationalistic role of the church. This left a power vacuum in Assyrian politics that was filled by the Assyrian Universal Alliance in 1968. The seat of the Assyrian Church of the East remained in the United States even during the times of Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV. Only with the newly consecrated Patriarch Mar Gewargis III in 2015 did the patriarchal seat of the Assyrian Church of the East return to Iraq relocating in Ankawa in north Iraq. ### Responsibility for the massacres Official British sources estimate the total number of all Assyrians killed during August 1933 at around 600, while Assyrian sources put the figure at 3,000. Historians disagree as to who was responsible for ordering the mass killings. Stafford blames Arab nationalists, most prominently Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and Bakr Sidqi. According to him, Iraqi Army officers despised the Assyrians, and Sidqi in particular was vocal in his hatred for them. This view was also shared by British officials who recommended to Faysal not to send Sidqi to the north during the crisis. According to some historians, the agitation against the Assyrians was also encouraged by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani's Arab nationalist government, which saw it as a distraction from the continuous Shiite revolt in the southern part of the country. Husry blamed the Assyrians for starting the crisis and absolved Sidqi from ordering the mass killing in Simele. He hinted that Faysal was the authority who might have issued orders to exterminate Assyrian males. Kanan Makiya, a leftist Iraqi historian, presents the actions taken by the military as a manifestation of the nationalist anti-imperialist paranoia which was to culminate with the Ba'athists ascending to power in the 1960s. Fadhil al-Barrak, an Iraqi Ba'athist historian, credits Sidqi as the author of the whole campaign and the ensuing massacres. For him, the events were part of a history of Iraq prior to the true nationalist revolution. ### British role Iraqi–British relations entered a short cooling-down period during and after the crisis. The Iraqis were previously encouraged by the British to detain Patriarch Shimun in order to defuse tensions. The British were also wary of Iraqi military leaders and recommended Sidqi, a senior ethnic Kurdish general who was stationed in Mosul, be transferred to another region due to his open animosity towards the Assyrians. Later, they had to intervene to dissuade Faysal from personally leading a tribal force to punish the Assyrians. The general Iraqi public opinion, promoted by newspapers, that the Assyrians were proxies used by the British to undermine the newly established kingdom, was also shared by some leading officials, including the prime minister. British and European protests following the massacre only confirmed to them that the "Assyrian rebellion" was the work of European imperialism. Both King George V of the United Kingdom and Cosmo Gordon Lang, the Bishop of Canterbury, took a personal interest in the Assyrian affair. British representatives at home demanded from Faysal that Sidqi and other culprits be tried and punished. The massacres were seen in Europe as a jihad against a small Christian minority. In the long term, however, the British backed Iraq and rejected an international inquiry into the killings, fearing that this may provoke further massacres against Christians. They also did not insist on punishing the offenders, who were now seen as heroes by Iraqis. The official British stance was to defend the Iraqi government for its perseverance and patience in dealing with the crisis and to attribute the massacres to rogue army units. A report on the battle of Dirabun blames the Assyrians, defends the actions of the Iraqi Army, and commends Sidqi as a good officer. The change in British attitude towards the Assyrians gave rise to the notion of a "British betrayal" among some Assyrian circles. This charge first surfaced after 1918, when the British did not follow through with their repeated promises to resettle Assyrians where they would be safe following the Assyrian genocide launched by the Ottomans during the First World War. ## Cultural impact and legacy In the Assyrian community worldwide, 7 August has officially become known as Assyrian Martyrs Day, also known as the National Day of Mourning, in memory for the Simele massacre, declared so by the Assyrian Universal Alliance in 1970. In 2004, the Syrian government banned an Assyrian political organization from commemorating the event and threatened arrests if any were to break the ban. The massacres also had a deep impact on the newly established Kingdom of Iraq. Kanan Makiya argues that the killing of Assyrians transcended tribal, religious, ideological and ethnic barriers as Sunni Arabs, Shia Arabs, Sunni Kurds, Sunni Turkmen, Shia Turkmen, and Yazidis, as well as Monarchists, Islamists, nationalists, royalists, conservatives, Leftists, federalists, and tribalists, were all united in their anti-Assyrian and anti-Christian sentiments. According to him, the pogrom was "the first genuine expression of national independence in a former Arab province of the Ottoman Empire" and that the killing of Assyrian Christians was seen as a national duty. The British were standing firmly behind the leaders of their former colony during the crisis, despite the popular animosity towards them. Brigadier General E. H. Headlam of the British military mission in Baghdad was quoted saying "the government and people have good reasons to be thankful to Colonel Bakr Sidqi". ## See also - History of the Assyrians - Assyrian struggle for independence - Sayfo - 1935–1936 Iraqi Shia revolts - List of massacres in Iraq - List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
19,402,351	The Dragon's Call	1,168,755,982	null	[ "2008 British television episodes", "Merlin (2008 TV series)", "Television series based on Arthurian legend" ]	"The Dragon's Call" is the first episode of the first series of the British fantasy-adventure family television series Merlin. Written by Julian Jones and directed by James Hawes, the episode was first broadcast on BBC One on 20 September 2008. The episode tells the arrival of Merlin (Colin Morgan) as a young man in Camelot, where magic is banned by King Uther Pendragon (Anthony Head). Taken under the wing of Camelot's physician, Gaius (Richard Wilson), he is warned that he must keep his innate magical ability a secret. In Camelot, he meets Uther's heir, the arrogant Prince Arthur (Bradley James), as well as Lady Morgana (Katie McGrath) and her handmaid, Guinevere (Angel Coulby). As a witch (Eve Myles) plans revenge on the King's heir for the execution of her son, Merlin is informed by a cryptic dragon (John Hurt) that his destiny is to protect Arthur. Merlin was conceived by Julian Murphy and Johnny Capps to be an origin story for the characters of the Arthurian legends, with family-centered entertainment. Young actors with little experience were cast as the four lead characters, while better-known actors were cast in supporting roles. Many of the scenes in Camelot were filmed in France, at the Château de Pierrefonds, while the rest was filmed in England and Wales. Special effects were done by The Mill, who had the task of creating the talking dragon. "The Dragon's Call" was watched by 7.15 million viewers in the UK and 6.3 million in the US on NBC. Critical reception was mixed, with some feeling the show had promise but lacked imagination, and the actual plot of "The Dragon's Call" was deemed slight. ## Plot Merlin (Colin Morgan), a young sorcerer, arrives in Camelot just in time to witness the execution of Thomas Collins, a man accused of sorcery, by the order of King Uther Pendragon (Anthony Head), who has banned the practice of magic in his kingdom on pain of death. As soon as the man is beheaded, Uther declares to the watching crowd that he shall throw a festival to celebrate twenty years since he wiped out magic and magicians from the kingdom. When he finishes his announcements, a hideous old hag, Thomas' mother Mary (Eve Myles), swears revenge for the murder of her son, "a son for a son!", before vanishing to avoid arrest. The King's ward, Morgana (Katie McGrath), warns that Uther may be making enemies through his hatred and radical methods of wiping out magic. Merlin reports to Camelot's physician Gaius (Richard Wilson) and saves the old man's life when he falls from a balcony by magically moving a mattress to cushion his fall. Though initially denying his abilities, Merlin later admits that he has had magical powers since birth, which Gaius warns him to keep secret. Reading a letter from Merlin's mother, Gaius realises that the boy was sent to Camelot for protection. Meanwhile, in the forest outside Camelot, Mary kills Lady Helen (Myles), a singer who is to perform at Uther's court, with a poppet. Mary assumes Helen's appearance using an enchantment, though her true hideous appearance can still be seen in her reflection (like in mirrors or water). Outside, Merlin stands up for a servant who is being bullied by his master, but as the master turns out to be the King's spoiled son, Arthur (Bradley James), Merlin is imprisoned. For the second night in a row, he hears a voice calling his name. Gaius frees him the next morning, though Merlin has to spend time in the stocks. There he meets Morgana's handmaiden Guinevere or "Gwen" (Angel Coulby), who commends him for being brave. Merlin confronts Arthur after being released, who tricks him into a fight with maces. Merlin keeps Arthur away using magic, which is met with ridicule by Gaius. Hearing the same voice calling his name that night, Merlin follows it to a cave where a dragon (John Hurt) informs him that he is destined to protect Arthur with his powers. Gaius instructs Merlin to deliver elixirs to Morgana and Lady Helen; in the latter's room he finds the poppet, but bluffs his way out of discovery. Later, Helen kills a handmaiden who glimpses her true form in a mirror. At the feast, Mary sings an enchantment as Lady Helen, causing all the guests to fall asleep. Merlin, realising what is going on, covers his ears. Mary attempts to kill Arthur, but Merlin drops a chandelier on her with magic before she releases the dagger. As she has stopped singing, the enchantment is lifted and her true appearance is revealed. In a last effort she throws the dagger at Arthur, but Merlin slows time to pull him out of the way. Mary dies from her injuries, having failed in her attempt to avenge her son. Uther rewards Merlin by making him Arthur's servant, though neither boy is thrilled with the idea. The next day, Gaius gives Merlin a book on magic, under condition that he keep it hidden. ## Production ### Conception and development Merlin was conceived by Shine Television producers Julian Murphy and Johnny Capps, who had worked together on Hex, a fantasy series produced by Shine for Sky One. The two had enjoyed presenting a "high-concept" show, and wished to do more. The BBC had been interested in broadcasting a drama based on the character of Merlin for some time; a little over a year before the Shine series was initiated, writer and producer Chris Chibnall had been developing a project aimed at a BBC One Sunday night slot, which was ultimately not commissioned. The programme was intended for family entertainment and designed to appeal to a wide audience. As the Arthurian legends do not reflect genuine historical events, not being set in any one singular period in time, the show's creators were more interested in conveying a world that felt "real". Not constrained by historical accuracy, they had many opportunities to build the world in which they set their series; for example, tomatoes were included despite being absent from Europe in the Medieval era, and there was never a dragon in the earliest texts involving Merlin. The series was intended to have an "epic scale" that would have a wide "cross-generational" appeal; films such as Raiders of the Lost Ark were cited as inspiration. Despite this, the creators strived to have smaller moments that the audience could relate to and comedy to lighten the darker tone. A fairy-tale aspect was also incorporated - highlighted in "The Dragon's Call" with the singing and cobwebs - to set the programme apart from others. Beauty and the Beast was an inspiration in this respect. Merlin was also influenced by the US show Smallville, about the early years of Superman; Murphy and Capps said that Smallville helped provide the idea of a "Camelot that existed before its golden age". The creators wanted to show Merlin, Arthur, Gwen and Morgana in their youth, "before they were famous". Murphy and Capps intended for the four young characters and situations to be relatable to young viewers. They also put the characters in unusual positions with respect to their later, well-known roles to make the audience wonder how they would reach those roles; for example, Guinevere, the future Queen of Camelot and wife of Arthur, is a servant with a romantic interest in Merlin. Looking back at "The Dragon's Call", Murphy and Capps felt that it had so much to introduce in terms of world and characters that there was not enough of the main plot of the episode. ### Casting The producers were aware that they would be casting young actors with little experience in film and television. Hundreds were seen for the part of Merlin, with the part going to 22-year-old Colin Morgan, whom Murphy and Capps felt possessed a broad acting range with good comedic timing and wonder, and who they felt would most importantly be likable to the audience. Bradley James was cast as Prince Arthur, whom the producers saw as a "medieval Prince Harry". They felt that James' sense of comedy balanced the fact that the character was intended to first appear acting like an "idiot". Murphy and Capps had previously worked with James on a pilot, and kept him in the "back of [their] minds" when casting Arthur. Katie McGrath and Angel Coulby, who play Morgana and Gwen respectively, also had little previous professional acting experience. Despite this, it was noted that all four young actors took to their jobs maturely and with energy. The series also incorporates more experienced and well-known actors. Richard Wilson was cast as Gaius, who was conceived to have a dysfunctional father/son relationship with Merlin. Murphy and Capps had worked with Wilson before and considered him a broad actor with a "warmth" and "humanity" that would fit the character. The voice of the Great Dragon was given to John Hurt; he was offered the part, though the producers did not expect him to accept. The role of King Uther went to veteran actor Anthony Head, who was best known for his role as Rupert Giles in Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Head had been one of the first choices for the part; Murphy and Capps felt that he was good with "high-concept" worlds. Murphy and Capps had also previously worked with Caroline Faber, who briefly appears as Merlin's mother. The two liked her sense of humanity, though her scene — where Gaius reads her letter — was almost cut from "The Dragon's Call". Eve Myles guest stars in "The Dragon's Call" as the villain Mary Collins and her host body Lady Helen. Murphy and Capps remarked that Myles gave a "big" but "truthful" performance, and really "embraced" being a villain. Myles sang during the filming of the climax, though her voice was replaced with a real operatic soprano in post-production. Composer Rob Lane was given little time to complete the song and, though he was given Old English texts, the lyrics do not make actual sense. ### Filming Merlin began production in March 2008; as many as three episodes were filmed at a time, and not necessarily in the correct order. Many scenes in Camelot were filmed in France at the Château de Pierrefonds, which was hand-picked by the production team. Castles in England had been looked at, but they were often in ruins and would require more computer-generated imagery (CGI) effects in post-production. A medieval-era road was built around Pierrefonds for some scenes to give the sense of a town, as the castle was in isolation. The execution scene was one of the first major scenes shot. As the production team had to be able to work with French extras, a bilingual crew was required. The cell Merlin is imprisoned in and the banquet hall at the end were both filmed in English stately homes, with real medieval architecture. Other studio filming took place in Wales. The scene at the camp where Lady Helen stays had to be reshot because the tent was seen as "too Monty Python" and distracting. Myles' Mary Collins prosthetic took six hours to accomplish, and the shot where she morphs into the younger Lady Helen took seven hours to complete because it required three stages of make-up. Her first performance at the beheading scene was met with applause by the extras; Head requested that he redo his part of the scene because he felt that it was not good enough. Gaius' fall from the balcony was done by a stuntman and filmed with a high-speed camera. The mattress that Merlin magically moves across the floor was achieved with rigging it up to hidden wires and pulleys under the set. The knives Arthur throws were actually shot out of a nitrogen gun; James did throw them in a separate shot, but against a cloth that he still missed. Fake fruit was made for the stocks scene, but it was deemed too fake-looking and was replaced with real tomatoes. The mace fight was originally filmed with plastic maces, but they were not believable as they did not have enough weight. The scene was then shot with real steel maces; it was one of the most complex and hardest scenes to execute. The climax, where the guests all fall asleep and are covered by cobwebs, took many days to complete. The chandelier falling was also considered difficult. CGI special effects for the series were provided by The Mill. The production team wanted a talking dragon, but they were worried about the lip sync and did not think it would be believable until they saw the first test. The Mill created a software that would read Hurt's facial muscles and incorporated it into the animation. Another concern was that the eyes would not convey the character, but this was corrected by the final version. Additional sound effects, such as the clanging chain, were added to give the creature weight. The knife Mary throws at Arthur was also completely CGI, though the shot of it hitting the chair was real. ## Broadcast and reception "The Dragon's Call" was first broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 20 September 2008. Overnight ratings showed that the episode had been watched by 6.65 million viewers live, a 30% audience share, placing Merlin second for the night behind ITV's The X-Factor. The episode received a final rating of 7.15 million viewers, the sixth most-watched programme of the week on BBC One. In the United States, "The Dragon's Call" was aired back-to-back with the following episode "Valiant" on 21 June 2009 on network station NBC, the first time since 1978's The New Avengers that a British programme was picked up by one of the U.S.'s four major terrestrial networks, rather than cable. The premiere was watched by an average 5.2 million viewers, with an average of 6.3 million during the slot for "The Dragon's Call". ### Critical reception The premiere of Merlin received generally mixed reviews. Sam Wollaston of The Guardian was optimistic towards the programme, despite the violent content. He wrote that "Morgan is a very likable young Merlin" and the show "looks splendid — colourful, exciting, and yes, magic". Daniel Martin of the same paper felt that the series had potential, though "The Dragon's Call" had "awful dialogue" and was "a flimsy caper memorable only for centring around the wonderful big-eyed Eve Myles". The Hollywood Reporter reviewer Randee Dawn felt that it would "hurt [the] eyes" of those who were familiar with the Arthurian legends, but "for those new to the legend, this is a fresh, and delightfully color-blind, approach to the tale". Alessandra Stanley, reviewing for The New York Times, was pleased with the diversity of the cast and the chemistry between Morgan and James, though she felt it "would be better if its creators had taken more liberties and shown more imagination in coloring in the background of their young hero's world". Metro gave the episode three out of five stars, writing that "Colin Morgan makes a likeable boy wizard but there’s a bit too much formula – and not in the magical sense". The review described the episode as a "test of patience" due to Merlin's inability to use magic and the "hideously jaunty, distinctly non-medieval soundtrack". Tom Shales of The Washington Post criticised the "sluggish pace" of the premiere, noting that the episode was only "brightened" by the dragon, though similar creatures were common in the genre and it "lacks personality as well as panache". Shales felt that the series took "the stuff of legend and imagination and makes it dry and commonplace". Den of Geek reviewer Mark Pickavance felt that the episode was "uneven and often very stilted", and failed at introducing both the characters and telling the story of the first meeting of Arthur and Merlin. He was displeased with the deviation from established mythology and the lapses in logic. The Times's AA Gill described Merlin as "bland", writing that it was for "a large untapped audience that yearns for Abercrombie & Fitch drama". Hermione Eyre of The Independent called it "horrible", disliking the "modern" feeling, the "awful" make-up, and commented that "Guinevere looks like a supply teacher".
2,202,394	Ambrosden	1,171,570,050	null	[ "Cherwell District", "Civil parishes in Oxfordshire", "Villages in Oxfordshire" ]	Ambrosden is a village and civil parish in Cherwell, Oxfordshire, England, 3 miles (5 km) southwest of Bicester to which it is linked by the A41 road, and 13 miles (21 km) from Oxford. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 2,248. The parish is bounded by the River Ray to the south, its tributary the River Bure to the west, the outskirts of Bicester to the north and field boundaries to the east. The village is 2 miles (3 km) east of Alchester Roman Town. Ambrosden has a Church of England parish church and a public house. Since the Second World War Ambrosden has housed British Army personnel stationed at St. George's Barracks, which is at Arncott about 1+1⁄2 miles (2.4 km) south of Ambrosden. The Ministry of Defence had many new houses built at Ambrosden in the early 1950s. ## Geography Ambrosden is about 3 miles (5 km) southeast of Bicester (the nearest railway station), connected by the A41 road. The site of Alchester Roman town is about 2 miles (3 km) west of the village, and the village of Arncott is about 1+1⁄2 miles (2.4 km) to the south. In 1932 Langford, Wretchwick, and Middle Wretchwick Farms, which were formerly part of the Bicester Market End township, were added to Ambrosden. The townships of Blackthorn and Arncott were part of Arncott but in the 20th century were detached to form separate parishes. The present Ambrosden parish is about 2 miles (3 km) wide both north–south and east–west. Three bridges cross the River Ray in the parish: Heath Bridge and Arncott Bridge, and Blackthorn Bridge. Arncott Bridge is on the road between Arncott and Ambrosden and is a five-arched bridge built in the 18th century. The land is relatively level, about 200 feet (61 m) above sea level, apart from Graven Hill north-west of the village, which is 372 feet (113 m) high. ## Toponym In the 19th century it was believed that the toponym "Ambrosden" came from a diminutive derivative of the name Ambrosius Aurelianus, a 5th-century British commander of Roman descent, and that the commander had encamped close the present site of Ambrosden to help the neighbouring military garrison at Alchester in conflicts with the Anglo-Saxons. The word don or den, an Old English word meaning "a place on a hill or ascent", was added as a suffix. Thus, a Roman name and an English syllable may have been combined as "Ambrosden". This interpretation, however, has been rejected by historians who believe the toponym was derived not from Ambrosius, but from the Old English for "Ambre's hill". This seems unlikely however, as 'ambre' means bucket in old English. The forms Ambresdone, Ambresden, or Aumbresden were all recorded in the Middle Ages. ## Archaeology The course of Akeman Street Roman road, which linked Watling Street with the Fosse Way, passes through the parish less than 1⁄2 mile (800 m) north of the village. Roman pottery has been found in the area. When the scholar and antiquarian White Kennett was Vicar of Ambrosden (from 1685 to 1708), ancient Danish remains were found in the parish. ## Manor During the reign of King Edward the Confessor a lady called Elviva (probably a Latin rendering of the Old English name Ælfgifu), held the manor of Ambrosden. The Domesday Book records that by 1086 she had been replaced by Hugh d'Ivry, butler of William the Conqueror and brother of Roger d'Ivry, who owned several manors in Oxfordshire. Hugh's nephew Roger II d'Ivry inherited Ambrosden and by 1194 it was part of the Honour of St. Valery. Ambrosden thus passed to Edmund, 2nd Earl of Cornwall, who in 1288 gave the manor to Ashridge Priory of the Augustinian order of the Brothers of Penitence. Ashridge Priory retained Ambrosden until the priory was dissolved in 1539 in the Dissolution of the Monasteries. In 1542, the Crown granted Ambrosden to John Denton of Blackthorn, Oxfordshire who was lord of the manor of one of the manors of Bicester. Ambrosden remained in the hands of the Denton family until 1604, when Edward Denton and his son-in-law Edward Smyth of Stoke Prior, Worcestershire sold the manor to Margaret Whethill of London. Margaret married Sir Thomas Mildmay of Chelmsford, whose family were recusants. Their grandson Francis Mildmay was a Royalist in the English Civil War, so in 1648 Parliament sequestered his estates. During the Commonwealth of England, the Treason Trustees twice sold Ambrosden to wealthy Londoners: to John Warre in 1653 and to William Drax and Alexander Jackson in 1657. Francis Mildmay recovered Ambrosden but in 1658 mortgaged it to Sir James Drax, also of London and in 1660 sold 100 acres (40 hectares) of the estate to various yeoman farmers. In 1673, Francis Mildmay's widow Mary and son, Walter Mildmay, sold the remainder of the manor to Sir William Glynne, 1st Baronet, of Bicester. Sir William rebuilt the manor house shortly afterwards. Ambrosden remained with the Glynne family until Sir Stephen Glynne, 3rd Baronet sold it in 1729. During the English Civil War, the area was occupied in June 1643, when part of the King's forces were at Bicester and guarded Blackthorn Bridge. ### Page-Turner baronets In 1729 the manor was bought by Edward Turner, who had already bought one of the manors of Bicester from Sir Stephen in 1728. In 1733, Turner was made the first of the Turner and Page-Turner baronets of Ambrosden. In around 1740, Sir Edward Turner, 2nd Baronet replaced the Glynnes' manor house with a large square house of eleven bays. In its construction, the house reused stone from the manor house, mixed with local limestone from the Stone Pitts quarry at Blackthorn, Oxfordshire and Cotswold stone from Bibury in Gloucestershire. The architect was Sanderson Miller, who also designed ornamental buildings in the grounds. A landscaped park with lakes and statues was laid out around the house, and the drive to the house was along a semicircular avenue of trees. Sir Edward died in 1766. Sir Gregory Page-Turner, 3rd Baronet considered the house too large, so in 1767 he sought to demolish part of it to create a smaller house. This proved impossible so in 1768 he had the entire house demolished. Ambrosden remained with the Turner (later Page-Turner) baronets until 1874 when Sir Edward Henry Page-Turner, 6th Baronet died childless. The 6th Baronet left all his estates to his nephew, Frederick Augustus Blaydes. The Blaydes took the Page-Turner name and coat of arms in 1903, but sold the estate in 1930. ## Parish church The earliest part of the Church of England parish church of St Mary the Virgin is the 12th-century Norman north doorway. The Early English Gothic west tower was built slightly later. The south aisle was added in the 14th century and the chancel was rebuilt in the 15th century with Perpendicular Gothic traceried windows. The church plan, as existed and as chronicled in 1823 records, and in possession of John Wayland, esq. of Woodeaton, had a large courtyard entered through two elegant gates with a cross fixed at the northern part. The southern end of courtyard also had a cemetery. The main church building comprised: > ... an embattled tower of two stories, with a vane at each angle; a nave, a chancel, and a south aisle; the latter crowned with a parapet, pierced with trefoils and supported by three handsome buttresses, ornamented with niches, once containing statues of saints. The south porch leads to an aisle that is lit by four two-light windows. Between the aisle and the nave is a four-bay arcade. The nave has three clerestory windows similar to those in the north wall of the church. The nave pews are 17th-century. The pulpit and reading desk are late 17th-century, added in the reign of James II. The pulpit was refurbished in 1819 with cushion and cloth given by Lady Turner, bearing insignia of the Turner family. The nave had a west gallery where there was a painting of the Resurrection of Jesus. According to inscriptions it was given by the parishioners. The church is a Grade II\* listed building. The bell tower has a ring of eight bells. The third bell was cast by Richard Keene of Woodstock in 1697. The fourth was cast by Henry III Bagley of Chacombe, Northamptonshire in 1716. Bagley had more than one bell-foundry, but the nearest was at Witney. The fifth was cast by Edward Hemins of Bicester in 1743. St Mary's has a bell cast by W. & J. Taylor in 1840, presumably at their then Oxford foundry. In 1928 Taylors cast the treble, second and tenor bells, but at their Loughborough foundry St Mary's also has a small Sanctus bell cast by Peter de Weston of London in about 1336. The ecclesiastical parish of Ambrosden is now part of the Ray Valley Benefice, and St Mary's also serves as the British Army garrison chapel. The nearby vicarage dates from 1638. The Reverend White Kennett (1660–1728) was vicar of Ambrosden from 1685 until 1708. During his incumbency, Kennett became tutor and vice-principal at St Edmund Hall, Oxford and published a number of scholarly works. Kennett was also Rector of St Botolph's Aldgate in London from 1700, Archdeacon of Huntingdon from 1701 and Dean of Peterborough from 1707. It therefore seems likely that Kennett may have been largely absent from Ambrosden in the latter years of his tenure. He relinquished the living of Ambrosden in 1708. Kennett was consecrated Bishop of Peterborough in 1718. ## Economic and social history There is a record of a windmill at Ambrosden in 1300. A document of 1633 records a Windmill Field and Windmill Way. Ambrosden was farmed by an open field system until at least the 17th century. By 1623 there had been several small Enclosures of agricultural land in the parish and by 1685 some common lands were reported to have been enclosed, with further enclosures reported between 1702 and 1785. By 1809 Ambrosden's field system was described as being completely enclosed. In 1741 Sir Edward Turner, 2nd Baronet constructed a new road between Ambrosden and Merton. He intended the road to eventually connect to Oxford, but the remainder of the project was never completed. The road was reputed to cost a guinea a yard. The road includes a completely straight stretch of about 1+1⁄2 miles (2.4 km) and generally runs across level ground, although its course undulates at regular intervals, intended to use gravity to help draught animals pull vehicles. In January 1764 one barge experimentally carried one load of coal from the Thames at Oxford up the River Cherwell to Islip and thence up the old course of the River Ray to Arncott. The coal was landed at Arncott Bridge and delivered thence by wheelbarrows to Sir Edward Turner, 2nd Baronet at Ambrosden House. However, the experiment seems not to have been repeated and did not establish a regular freight trade on the river. In 1811 the village had only 140 inhabitants and in 1815 the annual estate value was assessed as £1,240. The parish then included three townships: Ambrosden, Arncott and Blackthorn. Ambrosden Old Park, where Ambrosden House had been demolished, was sometimes used for horse-racing. In 1829 Jackson's Oxford Journal complained that a race meeting in the park attracted a thousand "idlers" characterized by "dullness and stupidity" and was marred by "brutal and disgraceful fighting" despite the presence of several members of the gentry. A parish school was opened in Ambrosden in 1818 but seems to have ceased operating by 1854. A temporary school existed in the village in 1868 and a permanent parish school building in a Gothic Revival style was completed and opened in 1876. In 1952 the primary school had an attendance of 194 pupils, including children from the War Department housing estate. In the latter part of the 20th century the school was moved to new premises and was renamed Five Acres Primary School. The 1876 school building is now the village hall. The Buckinghamshire Railway's Oxford and Bletchley line was built through the northwest corner of the parish and opened in 1851. Its nearest station to Ambrosden is Bicester Town, 2 miles (3 km) north of the village. The London and North Western Railway worked the Buckinghamshire Railway from its opening and absorbed the company in 1879. This part of the Buckinghamshire Railway is now the Oxford to Bicester Line, currently operated by Chiltern Railways. Mains electricity was introduced to Ambrosden in 1935. The Bicester Military Railway between Bicester and Piddington was built through Ambrosden in 1941 and remains in use to this day. In 1951–52 the Ministry of Defence and the Central Ordnance Depot had a new housing estate of some 200 houses built in the village. The Government bought a significant area of land from most of the farms in the parish. There are three types of house, all designed by the architect R. Potter of Salisbury, all built of brick and roofed with tiles, and many sited around a green. The British Army, which has personnel at St. George's Barracks in nearby Arncott, has been in the village since the Second World War. Also, the military depot (considered an industrial installation related to support of military operations) was sited in Bicester during the war. This affected Ambrosden village, which adjoins the northern side of the garrison. In Ambrosden village, extensive buildings as housing accommodation and amenities were built for the military. ## Amenities Ambrosden's amenities include the parish church, the Turner Arms pub, a post office, a village hall (the former school) and the current primary school. The village has also a hair salon, a car dealer and garage and a craft shop. The Army provides its personnel and their families with a community centre that includes a library, a gymnasium, a careers centre and an indoor swimming pool. Two Stagecoach in Oxfordshire bus routes serve Ambrosden. Route 29 links the village to Bicester and HM Prison Bullingdon and provides a limited service to Arncott. Route H5 links the village to Bicester, and also to the John Radcliffe Hospital in Headington via Islip and Barton.
667,361	Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)	1,173,465,875	2001 film by Chris Columbus	[ "1492 Pictures films", "2000s American films", "2000s British films", "2000s English-language films", "2000s fantasy adventure films", "2001 fantasy films", "2001 films", "American fantasy adventure films", "British fantasy adventure films", "Children's fantasy films", "Fiction about alchemy", "Films about dragons", "Films about spirit possession", "Films about unicorns", "Films based on books", "Films directed by Chris Columbus", "Films produced by David Heyman", "Films scored by John Williams", "Films set in 1981", "Films set in 1991", "Films set in 1992", "Films set in England", "Films set in London", "Films set in Scotland", "Films shot at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden", "Films shot in Oxfordshire", "Films with screenplays by Steve Kloves", "Harry Potter (film series)", "Heyday Films films", "High fantasy films", "IMAX films", "Warner Bros. films" ]	Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (released in the United States, India, and the Philippines as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone) is a 2001 fantasy film directed by Chris Columbus and produced by David Heyman, from a screenplay by Steve Kloves, based on the 1997 novel of the same name by J. K. Rowling. It is the first instalment in the Harry Potter film series. The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, with Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley, and Emma Watson as Hermione Granger. Its story follows Harry's first year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry as he discovers that he is a famous wizard and begins his formal wizarding education. Warner Bros. Pictures bought the film rights to the book in 1999 for a reported £1 million (\$1.65 million). Production began in the United Kingdom in 2000, with Columbus being chosen to helm the film from a short list of directors that included Steven Spielberg and Rob Reiner. Rowling insisted that the entire cast be British and Irish, with the three leads chosen in August 2000 following open casting calls. Filming took place at Leavesden Film Studios and historic buildings around the United Kingdom from September 2000 to March 2001. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was released to cinemas in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 10 and 11 November 2001 for two days of previews. The film opened on 16 November in the United States, Canada, and Taiwan as well as officially in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It became a critical and commercial success, grossing \$974 million at the worldwide box office during its initial run, and over \$1 billion with subsequent re-releases. It became the highest-grossing film of 2001 and the second-highest-grossing film at the time. The film was nominated for many awards, including Academy Awards for Best Original Score, Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. It was followed by seven sequels, beginning with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets in 2002 and ending with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 in 2011. ## Plot Late one night, Albus Dumbledore and Minerva McGonagall, professors at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, along with groundskeeper Rubeus Hagrid, deliver an orphaned infant wizard named Harry Potter to his Muggle aunt and uncle, Petunia and Vernon Dursley, his only living relatives. Ten years later, just before Harry's eleventh birthday, owls begin delivering letters addressed to him. When the abusive Dursleys adamantly refuse to allow Harry to open any and flee to an island hut, Hagrid arrives to personally deliver Harry's letter of acceptance to Hogwarts. Hagrid also reveals that Harry's parents, James and Lily, were killed by a dark wizard named Lord Voldemort. The killing curse that Voldemort had cast towards Harry rebounded, destroying Voldemort's body and giving Harry his lightning-bolt scar. Hagrid then takes Harry to Diagon Alley for school supplies and gives him a pet snowy owl whom he names Hedwig. Harry buys a wand that is connected to Voldemort's own wand. At King's Cross station, Harry boards the Hogwarts Express train, and meets fellow students Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger during the journey. Arriving at Hogwarts, Harry also meets Draco Malfoy, who is from a wealthy wizard family; the two immediately form a rivalry. The students assemble in the Great Hall where the Sorting Hat sorts the first-years into four respective houses: Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw, and Slytherin. Harry is placed into Gryffindor alongside Ron and Hermione, while Draco is placed into Slytherin, a house noted for dark wizards. As he studies magic, Harry learns more about his parents and Voldemort, and his natural talent for broomstick flying gets him recruited for Gryffindor's Quidditch team as the youngest Seeker in a century. While returning to the Gryffindor common room, the staircases change paths, leading Harry, Ron and Hermione to the third floor, which is forbidden to students. There they discover a giant three-headed dog named Fluffy. On Halloween, Ron insults Hermione after she shows off in Charms class; upset, she spends the entire afternoon crying in the girls' bathroom. That evening, a giant marauding troll enters it, but Harry and Ron save Hermione, and the three make up and become close friends after Hermione takes the blame for the incident by claiming she went looking for the troll. The trio discover that Fluffy is guarding the philosopher's stone, a magical object that can turn metal into gold and produce an immortality elixir. Harry suspects that Potions teacher and head of Slytherin House, Severus Snape, wants the stone to return Voldemort to physical form. When Hagrid accidentally reveals that music puts Fluffy asleep, Harry, Ron and Hermione decide to find the stone before Snape. Fluffy is already asleep, but the trio face other barriers, including a deadly plant called Devil's Snare, a room filled with aggressive flying keys, and a giant chess game that knocks out Ron. After overcoming the barriers, Harry encounters Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher Quirinus Quirrell who wants the stone; Snape had figured it out and had been protecting Harry. Quirrell removes his turban to reveal a weakened Voldemort living on the back of his head. Dumbledore's protective enchantment places the stone in Harry's possession. Voldemort attempts to bargain the stone from Harry in exchange for resurrecting his parents, but Harry sees through his trick and refuses. Quirrell attempts to kill Harry. When Harry touches Quirrell's skin, it burns Quirrell, reducing him to ashes. Voldemort's soul rises from the pile and escapes, knocking out Harry as it passes through him. Harry recovers in the school infirmary. Dumbledore tells him the stone has been destroyed to prevent misuse, and that Ron and Hermione are safe. He also reveals how Harry defeated Quirrell: when Lily died to save Harry, a love-based protection against Voldemort was placed on him. At the end-of-school-year feast, Harry, Ron, and Hermione are rewarded extra house points for their heroism, tying Gryffindor for first place with Slytherin; Dumbledore then awards ten points to their housemate Neville Longbottom for having had the courage to stand up to the trio, granting Gryffindor the House Cup. Harry returns to the Dursleys for the summer, happy to finally have a real home at Hogwarts. ## Cast - Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter: An 11-year-old orphan living with his unwelcoming aunt, uncle, and cousin, who learns of his own fame as a wizard known to have survived his parents' murder at the hands of the dark wizard Lord Voldemort as an infant when he is accepted to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Columbus had wanted Radcliffe for the role since he saw him in the BBC's production of David Copperfield, before the open casting sessions had taken place, but had been told by casting director Susan Figgis that Radcliffe's protective parents would not allow their son to take the part. Columbus explained that his persistence in giving Radcliffe the role was responsible for Figgis' resignation. Radcliffe was asked to audition in 2000, when Heyman and Kloves met him and his parents at a production of Stones in His Pockets in London. Heyman and Columbus successfully managed to convince Radcliffe's parents that their son would be protected from media intrusion, and they agreed to let him play Harry. Rowling approved of Radcliffe's casting, stating that "having seen [his] screen test I don't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry." Radcliffe was reportedly paid £1 million for the film, although he felt the fee was "not that important" to him. William Moseley, who was later cast as Peter Pevensie in The Chronicles of Narnia series, also auditioned for the role. The Saunders triplets appear as Harry as a baby. - Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley: Harry's best friend at Hogwarts and a younger member of the Weasley wizarding family. A fan of the series, Grint decided he would be perfect for the part "because [he has] ginger hair". Having seen a Newsround report about the open casting he sent in a video of himself rapping about how he wished to receive the part. His attempt was successful as the casting team asked for a meeting with him. Thomas Brodie-Sangster auditioned for the role but was rejected. - Emma Watson as Hermione Granger: Harry's other best friend and the trio's brains. Watson's Oxford theatre teacher passed her name on to the casting agents and she had to do over five interviews before she got the part. Watson took her audition seriously, but "never really thought [she] had any chance of getting the role." The producers were impressed by Watson's self-confidence and she outperformed the thousands of other girls who had applied. - John Cleese as Nearly Headless Nick: The ghost of Gryffindor House. - Robbie Coltrane as Rubeus Hagrid: A half-giant and Hogwarts' gamekeeper. Coltrane was one of the two actors Rowling wanted most, along with Smith as McGonagall. Coltrane, who was already a fan of the books, prepared for the role by discussing Hagrid's past and future with Rowling. According to Figgis, Robin Williams was interested in participating in the film, but was turned down for the Hagrid role because of the "strictly British and Irish only" rule which Columbus was determined to maintain. - Warwick Davis as Filius Flitwick: The Charms Master and head of Ravenclaw House. Davis also plays two other roles in the film: the Goblin Head Teller at Gringotts, and dubs the voice of Griphook, who is embodied by Verne Troyer. - Richard Griffiths as Vernon Dursley: Harry's Muggle uncle. - Richard Harris as Albus Dumbledore: Hogwarts' Headmaster and one of the most famous and powerful wizards of all time. Harris initially rejected the role, only to reverse his decision after his granddaughter stated she would never speak to him again if he did not take it. Patrick McGoohan was initially offered the role, and showed interest, but declined due to health issues. Sean Connery was also offered the role but turned it down because he was not interested in the film's subject matter. - Ian Hart as Quirinus Quirrell: The stuttering Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher at Hogwarts. David Thewlis auditioned for the part; he would later be cast as Remus Lupin in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Hart also voiced Lord Voldemort, while Richard Bremmer provided his physical appearance and portrayed him as a hooded figure during a flashback. - John Hurt as Mr. Ollivander: a highly regarded wandmaker and the owner of Ollivanders. - Alan Rickman as Severus Snape: The Potions Master and head of Slytherin House. Tim Roth was the original choice for the role, but he turned it down for Planet of the Apes. - Fiona Shaw as Petunia Dursley: Harry's Muggle aunt. - Maggie Smith as Minerva McGonagall: The Deputy Headmistress, head of Gryffindor and transfiguration teacher at Hogwarts. Smith was one of the two actors Rowling wanted most, along with Coltrane as Hagrid. - Julie Walters as Molly Weasley: Ron's mother. She shows Harry how to get to Platform 9+3⁄4. Additionally, Zoë Wanamaker appears as Madame Hooch, Hogwarts' flying instructor and Quidditch referee; Tom Felton portrays Draco Malfoy, a student in Slytherin and Harry's rival; before being cast as Draco, Felton auditioned for the roles of Harry and Ron. Harry Melling plays Dudley Dursley, Harry's cousin; and David Bradley appears as Argus Filch, Hogwarts' caretaker. Matthew Lewis, Devon Murray and Alfred Enoch portray Neville Longbottom, Seamus Finnigan and Dean Thomas respectively, three first year students in Gryffindor; James and Oliver Phelps play twins Fred and George Weasley, Ron's brothers, while Chris Rankin appears as his other brother Percy, a Gryffindor prefect, and Bonnie Wright appears as Ron's sister Ginny. Sean Biggerstaff portrays Oliver Wood, the Keeper of the Gryffindor Quidditch team; Jamie Waylett and Joshua Herdman play Crabbe and Goyle, Malfoy's minions; and Leslie Phillips voices the Sorting Hat. Derek Deadman plays Tom, innkeeper of The Leaky Cauldron; and Elizabeth Spriggs appears as the Fat Lady, a painting at Hogwarts. ## Production ### Development In 1997, producer David Heyman searched for a children's book that could be adapted into a well-received film. He had planned to produce Diana Wynne Jones' novel The Ogre Downstairs, but his plans fell through. His staff at Heyday Films then suggested Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, which his assistant believed was "a cool idea." Heyman pitched the idea to Warner Bros. and in 1999, Rowling sold the company the rights to the first four Harry Potter books for a reported £1 million. A demand Rowling made was for Heyman to keep the cast strictly British and Irish; the latter's case has Richard Harris as Dumbledore and Fiona Shaw as Petunia Dursley, and not to cast foreign actors unless absolutely necessary, like casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005) where characters from the book are specified as such. Rowling was hesitant to sell the rights because she "didn't want to give them control over the rest of the story" by selling the rights to the characters, which would have enabled Warner Bros. to make non-author-written sequels. Although Steven Spielberg initially negotiated to direct the film, he declined the offer. Spielberg reportedly wanted the adaptation to be an animated film, with American actor Haley Joel Osment to provide Harry Potter's voice, or a film that incorporated elements from subsequent books as well. Spielberg contended that, in his opinion, it was like "shooting ducks in a barrel. It's just a slam dunk. It's just like withdrawing a billion dollars and putting it into your personal bank accounts. There's no challenge." Rowling maintains that she had no role in choosing directors for the films and that "[a]nyone who thinks I could (or would) have 'veto-ed' [sic] him [Spielberg] needs their Quick-Quotes Quill serviced." Heyman recalled that Spielberg decided to direct A.I. Artificial Intelligence instead. After Spielberg left, talks began with other directors, including Chris Columbus, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, Mike Newell (who would later direct the fourth film), Alan Parker, Wolfgang Petersen, Rob Reiner, Ivan Reitman, Tim Robbins, Brad Silberling, M. Night Shyamalan and Peter Weir. Petersen and Reiner both pulled out of the running in March 2000, and the choice was narrowed down to Silberling, Columbus, Parker and Gilliam. Rowling's first choice director was Terry Gilliam, but Warner Bros. chose Columbus, citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone (1990) and Mrs. Doubtfire (1993) as influences for their decision. Columbus had become a fan of the book series after his daughter persuaded him to read the first three books, leading him to call his agent to arrange a meeting at Warner Bros. to direct the film. When his agent told him that at least 25 other directors were eager to helm the project, Columbus requested his agent to secure his meeting to be the last one so he could give a "lasting impression" and be the studio's "freshest person in their memory". During two weeks of waiting, Columbus wrote a 130-page director's version of the screenplay to explain his vision for the film's tone. The day of his meeting with Warner executives including Alan F. Horn, Columbus delivered an "impassioned 45-minute talk" and showed them his annotated script. Weeks later, the studio notified Columbus that he had gotten the job and sent him to Scotland to meet with Rowling and Heyman. Columbus pitched his vision of the film for two hours, stating that he wanted the Muggle scenes "to be bleak and dreary" but those set in the wizarding world "to be steeped in color, mood, and detail." He took inspiration from David Lean's adaptations of Great Expectations (1946) and Oliver Twist (1948), wishing to use "that sort of darkness, that sort of edge, that quality to the cinematography," while being further inspired by the colour designs from Oliver! (1968) and The Godfather (1972). Steve Kloves was selected to write the screenplay. He described adapting the book as "tough", as it did not "lend itself to adaptation as well as the next two books." Kloves often received synopses of books proposed as film adaptations from Warner Bros., which he "almost never read", but Harry Potter jumped out at him. He went out and bought the book, and became an instant fan of the series. When speaking to Warner Bros., he stated that the film had to be British, and had to be true to the characters. Kloves was nervous when he first met Rowling as he did not want her to think he was going to "[destroy] her baby." Rowling admitted that she "was really ready to hate this Steve Kloves," but recalled her initial meeting with him: "The first time I met him, he said to me, 'You know who my favourite character is?' And I thought, You're gonna say Ron. I know you're gonna say Ron. But he said 'Hermione.' And I just kind of melted." Rowling received a large amount of creative control, an arrangement that Columbus did not mind. Warner Bros. had initially planned to release the film over 4 July 2001 weekend, making for such a short production window that several proposed directors pulled themselves out of the running. Due to time constraints, the date was put back to 16 November 2001. ### Casting Rowling insisted that the cast be kept British. Susie Figgis was appointed as casting director, working with both Columbus and Rowling in auditioning the lead roles of Harry, Ron and Hermione. Open casting calls were held for the main three roles, with only British children being considered. The principal auditions took place in three parts, with those auditioning having to read a page from the novel, then to improvise a scene of the students' arrival at Hogwarts, and finally to read several pages from the script in front of Columbus. Scenes from Columbus' script for the Young Sherlock Holmes (1985) were also used in auditions. On 11 July 2000, Figgis left the production, complaining that Columbus did not consider any of the thousands of children they had auditioned "worthy". By August 2000, Alan Rickman and Richard Harris were in final talks to play Severus Snape and Albus Dumbledore, respectively, and were confirmed later that month. On 14 August 2000, Rowling's favourites Maggie Smith and Robbie Coltrane were cast as Minerva McGonagall and Rubeus Hagrid. On 21 August 2000, Daniel Radcliffe and newcomers Rupert Grint and Emma Watson were selected to play Harry Potter, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, respectively. In November 2000, Julie Walters and John Cleese joined the cast as Molly Weasley and Nearly-Headless Nick, respectively. ### Filming Two British film industry officials requested that the film be shot in the United Kingdom, offering their assistance in securing filming locations, the use of Leavesden Film Studios, as well as changing the UK's child labour laws (adding a small number of working hours per week and making the timing of on-set classes more flexible). Warner Bros. accepted their proposal. Principal photography began on 29 September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios. Filming at the North Yorkshire's Goathland railway station took place on 2 October 2000. Canterbury Cathedral and Scotland's Inverailort Castle were both touted as possible locations for Hogwarts; Canterbury rejected Warner Bros. proposal due to concerns about the film's "pagan" theme. Alnwick Castle and Gloucester Cathedral were eventually selected as the principal locations for Hogwarts, with some scenes also being filmed at Harrow School. Other Hogwarts scenes were filmed in Durham Cathedral over a two-week period; these included shots of the corridors and some classroom scenes. Oxford University's Divinity School served as the Hogwarts Hospital Wing, and Duke Humfrey's Library, part of the Bodleian, was used as the Hogwarts Library. Filming for Privet Drive took place on Picket Post Close in Bracknell, Berkshire. Filming in the street took two days instead of the planned single day, so payments to the street's residents were correspondingly increased. For all the subsequent film's scenes set in Privet Drive, filming took place on a constructed set in Leavesden Film Studios, which proved to be cheaper than filming on location. London's Australia House was selected as the location for Gringotts Wizarding Bank, while Christ Church, Oxford, was the location for the Hogwarts trophy room. London Zoo was used as the location for the scene in which Harry accidentally sets a snake on Dudley, with King's Cross Station also being used as the book specifies. Filming concluded on 23 March 2001, with final work being done in July 2001. Because the American title was different, all scenes that mention the philosopher's stone by name had to be shot twice, once with the actors saying "philosopher's" and once with "sorcerer's". The children filmed for four hours and then did three hours of schoolwork. They developed a liking for fake facial injuries from the makeup staff. Radcliffe was initially meant to wear green contact lenses as his eyes are blue, and not green like Harry's, but the lenses gave Radcliffe extreme irritation. Upon consultation with Rowling, it was agreed that Harry could have blue eyes. The steam engine used in the film as the Hogwards Express was GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall, but it was originally not the first locomotive to be selected as the Hogwarts Express. To promote the books, the Southern Railway locomotive 34027 Taw Valley was repainted and renamed temporarily, but was rejected by director Chris Columbus as looking 'too modern' for the film. ### Design and special effects Judianna Makovsky served as the costume designer. She re-designed the Quidditch robes, having initially planned to use those shown on the cover of the American book, but deemed them "a mess." Instead, she dressed the Quidditch players in "preppie sweaters, 19th-century fencing breeches and arm guards." Production designer Stuart Craig built the sets at Leavesden Studios, including Hogwarts Great Hall, basing it on many English cathedrals. Although originally asked to use an existing old street to film the Diagon Alley scenes, Craig decided to build his own set, comprising Tudor, Georgian and Queen Anne architecture. Columbus originally planned to use both animatronics and CGI animation to create the magical creatures, including Fluffy. Nick Dudman, who worked on Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, was given the task of creating the needed prosthetics, with Jim Henson's Creature Shop providing creature effects. John Coppinger stated that the magical creatures that needed to be created had to be designed multiple times. The film features nearly 600 special effects shots, involving numerous companies. Industrial Light & Magic created Lord Voldemort's face on the back of Quirrell, Rhythm & Hues animated Norbert (Hagrid's baby dragon); and Sony Pictures Imageworks produced the Quidditch scenes. ### Music John Williams was selected to compose the score, having previously collaborated with Chris Columbus for Home Alone and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. Williams composed the score at his homes in Los Angeles and Tanglewood before recording it in London in September 2001. One of the main themes is entitled "Hedwig's Theme"; Williams retained it for his finished score as "everyone seemed to like it," and it became a recurring theme throughout the series. James Horner was the first choice to compose the score but turned it down. The soundtrack album was released on 30 October 2001 in CD format. ## Differences from the book Columbus repeatedly checked with Rowling to make sure he was getting minor details correct. Kloves described the film as being "really faithful" to the book. He added dialogue, of which Rowling approved. One of the lines originally included had to be removed after Rowling told him that it would directly contradict an event in the then-unreleased fifth Harry Potter novel Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Several minor characters have been removed from the film version, most prominently Peeves the poltergeist. Actor Rik Mayall was cast in the role, but his scenes were ultimately cut from the film and never released. The book's first chapter, told from the viewpoint of Vernon and Petunia Dursley, is absent from the film. Harry and Draco's first encounter in Madam Malkin's robe shop and the midnight duel are not in the film. In the film, the responsibility of taking Norbert away is given to Dumbledore, while in the book, Harry and Hermione have to bring him by hand to Charlie Weasley's friends. This necessitated a change in the detention plotline: in the book, Filch catches Harry and Hermione leaving the Astronomy Tower and puts them in detention with Neville and Malfoy, while in the film, all three protagonists receive detention after Malfoy finds them in Hagrid's hut after hours. According to Kloves, this was "the one part of the book that [Rowling] felt easily could be changed". The Quidditch pitch is altered from a traditional stadium to an open field circled by spectator towers. The book's timeline is not enforced in the film. In the book, Harry's eleventh birthday is in 1991. On the film set for 4 Privet Drive, Dudley's certificates from primary school bear the year 2001. ## Distribution ### Marketing The first teaser poster of the film was released on 1 December 2000. The first teaser trailer was released via satellite on 2 March 2001 and debuted in cinemas with the release of See Spot Run. A video game based on the film was released on 15 November 2001 by Electronic Arts for several consoles. A port for the game, for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox, was released in 2003. Mattel won the rights to produce toys based on the film, to be sold exclusively through Warner Brothers' stores. Hasbro also produced products, including confectionery products based on those from the series. Warner Bros. signed a deal worth US\$150 million with Coca-Cola to promote the film, although some pegged the deal at \$40 million-\$50 million worldwide for the movie. Lego produced a series of sets based on buildings and scenes from the film, as well as a Lego Creator video game. ### Theatrical release Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone had its world premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 4 November 2001, with the cinema arranged to resemble Hogwarts School. The film had previews in the United Kingdom on 1,137 screens at 491 theatres on 10 and 11 November 2001. It officially opened on 16 November 2001 on 1,168 screens at 507 theatres in the United Kingdom and Ireland; in 3,672 theatres in the United States and Canada. It was the widest release at the time in the UK and the US. ### Home media Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was first released on VHS and DVD on 11 May 2002 in the UK and 28 May 2002 in the US. Between May and June 2002, the film sold 10 million copies, almost 60% of which were DVD sales. It would go on to make \$19.1 million in rentals, surpassing The Fast and the Furious for having the largest DVD rentals. This record was surpassed by The Bourne Identity in January 2003. In December 2009, a 4-disc "Ultimate Edition" was released, with seven minutes of deleted scenes added back in, the feature-length special Creating the World of Harry Potter Part 1: The Magic Begins, and a 48-page hardcover booklet. The extended version has a running time of about 159 minutes, which had previously been shown during certain television airings. The film was re-released on DVD as part of the 8-disc Harry Potter: The Complete 8-Film Collection in November 2011, and on Blu-ray as part of the 31-disc Hogwarts Collection in April 2014. It was released on 4K Blu-ray as part of the 16-disc Harry Potter: 8-Film Collection in November 2017. ## Reception ### Box office In the United Kingdom and Ireland, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone grossed a record single day gross of £3.6 million during the first day of previews, beating Toy Story 2's record. It grossed a record £3.1 million for a Sunday, bringing its total to £6.7 million from the previews. It broke the record for the highest-opening weekend ever, both including and excluding previews, making £16.3 million with and £9.6 million without previews (\$13.8 million), setting a further record single day gross on the Saturday with £3.99 million. It set another Sunday record with a gross of £3.6 million. It had a record second weekend of £8.4 million. It remained at number one in the UK for five weeks. The film went on to make £66.1 million in the UK alone, making it the country's second-highest-grossing film of all-time (after Titanic), until it was surpassed by Mamma Mia!. In the United States and Canada, it made \$32.3 million on its opening day, breaking the single-day record previously held by Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999). On the second day of release, the film's gross increased to \$33.5 million, breaking the record for biggest single day again. It made \$90.3 million during its first weekend, breaking the record for highest-opening weekend of all time that was previously held by The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997). It held the record until the following May when Spider-Man (2002) made \$114.8 million in its opening weekend. Plus, the film broke Batman Forever's record for having the largest opening weekend for a Warner Bros. film. It would hold this record for two years until it was surpassed by The Matrix Reloaded (2003). Additionally, it shattered other opening records, surpassing Monsters, Inc. for having the biggest November opening weekend, Planet of the Apes for having the largest non-holiday opening weekend, the highest Friday gross and the biggest opening weekend of the year, The Mummy Returns for scoring the highest Saturday gross, Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992) for having the highest opening weekend for a Chris Columbus film and Mission: Impossible 2 (2000) for having the largest number of screenings, playing at 3,672 theaters. In just five days, it became the fastest film to approach the \$100 million mark. The film grossed \$2.3 million in its first two days in Taiwan, giving it a worldwide opening weekend total of \$107 million. The film held onto the number 1 spot at the US box office for three consecutive weekends before getting overtaken by Ocean's Eleven. The film also had the highest-grossing 5-day (Wednesday-Sunday) Thanksgiving weekend record of \$82.4 million, holding the title for twelve years until both The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013) and Frozen (2013) surpassed it with \$110.1 million and \$94 million respectively. By Christmas, it went on to become the highest-grossing film of the year, dethroning Shrek. Similar results were achieved across the world. A week after opening in the United States, the film added 15 additional markets and set an opening week record in Germany, grossing \$18.7 million. It also set opening records in Austria, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and German-speaking Switzerland. In the following weekend, after expanding to 31 countries, the film set a record overseas weekend gross of \$60.9 million, including record openings in Australia, Greece, Israel, Japan (\$12.5 million), New Zealand and Spain. It set another overseas weekend record with \$62.3 million from 37 countries the following weekend, including record openings in France, Italy and French-speaking Switzerland. The international opening weekend record would be held until it was given to Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002) a year later. During its theatrical run, the film earned \$974 million at the worldwide box office, \$317 million of that in the US and \$657 million elsewhere, which made it the second-highest-grossing film in history at the time, as well as the year's highest-grossing film. In addition, the film defeated Twister (1996) to become the highest-grossing Warner Bros. film of all time. It is the second-highest-grossing Harry Potter film after Deathly Hallows – Part 2. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 55.9 million tickets in the US and Canada. In August 2020, The Philosopher's Stone was re-released in several countries, including a 4K 3D restoration in China, where it earned \$26.4 million, for a global \$1.017 billion, making it the second film in the series to surpass the billion-dollar mark, after Deathly Hallows – Part 2. ### Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone adapts its source material faithfully while condensing the novel's overstuffed narrative into an involving – and often downright exciting – big-screen magical caper." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert called Philosopher's Stone "a classic," giving the film four out of four stars, and particularly praising the Quidditch scenes' visual effects. Praise was echoed by both The Telegraph and Empire reviewers, with Alan Morrison of the latter naming it the film's "stand-out sequence". Brian Linder of IGN also gave the film a positive review, but concluded that it "isn't perfect, but for me it's a nice supplement to a book series that I love". Although criticising the final half-hour, Jeanne Aufmuth of Palo Alto Online stated that the film would "enchant even the most cynical of moviegoers." USA Today reviewer Claudia Puig gave the film three out of four stars, especially praising the set design and Robbie Coltrane's portrayal of Hagrid, but criticised John Williams' score and concluded "ultimately many of the book's readers may wish for a more magical incarnation." The sets, design, cinematography, effects and principal cast were all given praise from Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter, although he deemed John Williams' score "a great clanging, banging music box that simply will not shut up." Todd McCarthy of Variety compared the film positively with Gone with the Wind and put "The script is faithful, the actors are just right, the sets, costumes, makeup and effects match and sometimes exceed anything one could imagine." Jonathan Foreman of the New York Post recalled that the film was "remarkably faithful," to its literary counterpart as well as a "consistently entertaining if overlong adaptation." Richard Corliss, of Time magazine, considered the film a "by the numbers adaptation," criticising the pace and the "charisma-free" lead actors. CNN's Paul Tatara found that Columbus and Kloves "are so careful to avoid offending anyone by excising a passage from the book, the so-called narrative is more like a jamboree inside Rowling's head." Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wished that the film had been directed by Tim Burton, finding the cinematography "bland and muggy," and the majority of the film a "solidly dull celebration of dribbling goo." Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times was highly negative about the film, saying "[the film] is like a theme park that's a few years past its prime; the rides clatter and groan with metal fatigue every time they take a curve." He also said it suffered from "a lack of imagination" and wooden characters, adding, "The Sorting Hat has more personality than anything else in the movie." ### Accolades Philosopher's Stone received three Academy Award nominations: Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, and Best Original Score for John Williams. The film was also nominated for seven BAFTA Awards: Best British Film, Best Supporting Actor for Robbie Coltrane, Best Costume Design, Best Production Design, Best Makeup and Hair, Best Sound, and Best Visual Effects. It won a Saturn Award for Best Costume, and was nominated for eight more awards. It won other awards from the Casting Society of America and the Costume Designers Guild. It was nominated for the AFI Film Award for its special effects, and the Art Directors Guild Award for its production design. It received the Broadcast Film Critics Award for Best Family Film, and was nominated for Best Child Performance (for Daniel Radcliffe) and Best Composer. In 2005, the American Film Institute nominated the film for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.
38,500,558	Mass Effect 2: Lair of the Shadow Broker	1,100,608,332	2010 downloadable content	[ "2010 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "BioWare games", "Electronic Arts games", "Mass Effect downloadable content", "Role-playing video games", "Science fiction video games", "Video games developed in Canada", "Video games scored by Christopher Lennertz", "Video games set on fictional planets", "Windows games", "Xbox 360 games" ]	Mass Effect 2: Lair of the Shadow Broker is a downloadable content pack developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts for the 2010 action role-playing video game Mass Effect 2. It was released for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 in 2010, and is included in the PlayStation 3 version of Mass Effect 2, which was released in 2011. Set after the events of the Mass Effect: Redemption comic book, Lair of the Shadow Broker follows the story of information broker Liara T'Soni and her efforts to find an information dealer known as the Shadow Broker. Lair of the Shadow Broker is a major downloadable content pack for Mass Effect 2 and some decisions the player makes in it may affect the story of Mass Effect 3. It received very positive reviews from critics, who considered it as a valuable addition to the base game in both story and content. At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards, Lair of the Shadow Broker was nominated for Best DLC (downloadable content). In 2021, the pack was remastered as part of the Mass Effect Legendary Edition. ## Gameplay Mass Effect 2: Lair of the Shadow Broker is a downloadable content pack for the 2010 action role-playing video game Mass Effect 2. Set after the events of the Mass Effect: Redemption comic book, it follows information broker Liara T'Soni and her efforts to find an information dealer known as the Shadow Broker. The player assumes the role of Commander Shepard, an elite human soldier who decides to help T'Soni in her quest. Ultimately, the Shadow Broker is killed and T'Soni assumes his position. She also mentions that she will be able to provide Shepard with more information thanks to the Broker's extensive networks. Lair of the Shadow Broker is split into two acts, each ending with a boss fight. The first act takes place in a commerce planet named Illium, also featured in the main game, while the second one takes place aboard the Shadow Broker's spaceship. Although most of the gameplay involves squad-based combat and interacting with non-player characters, the first act features a chase scene where the player must control a high-speed vehicle through the skies of Illium for a brief period. At one point in the game, T'Soni joins Shepard's squad, offering a different set of combat abilities and powers. The relationship between Shepard and T'Soni can vary depending on whether they were romantically involved in the original Mass Effect. After completing Lair of the Shadow Broker, the Shadow Broker's spaceship is available for the player to explore. Inside the ship, the player may use several terminals with different functions. Some terminals show surveillance footage, dossiers on Shepard's squad members, and a video archive which contains clips taken from around the Milky Way galaxy, where the main game takes place. Additionally, the player may purchase mining manifests which are useful to mark mineral-rich planets on the game's galaxy map, and invest credits in various mini-missions which allow the player to receive upgrades and resources from the Shadow Broker's contacts. Lair of the Shadow Broker also includes several in-game upgrades, which allow the player to enhance certain aspects of the game's weapons and armor, as well as five achievements. ## Development and release Lair of the Shadow Broker was developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts. During development of Mass Effect 2, Bioware stated that downloadable content was becoming a fundamental part of the company's overall philosophy. The pack was announced to be in development on July 22, 2010, with the release of three brand-new screenshots of the game. BioWare stated that the decisions players make in Lair of the Shadow Broker would affect certain storylines in the then-upcoming Mass Effect 2 sequel Mass Effect 3. Animating the Shadow Broker's face involved some technical difficulties. According to BioWare, the game's default digital-acting system "could not handle the stresses of the new face, so custom work had to be done to animate his multiple eyes and triangular mouth." The soundtrack was composed by Christopher Lennertz, who previously penned the music for the 'Overlord' downloadable content pack. Lair of the Shadow Broker was released on September 7, 2010, for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360. Like Mass Effect 2's earlier downloadable content packs Kasumi – Stolen Memory and Overlord, the pack is freely included in the PlayStation 3 version of the game, which was released on January 18, 2011. In 2021, Lair of the Shadow Broker was remastered as part of the Mass Effect Legendary Edition. ## Reception Lair of the Shadow Broker received very positive reviews from critics, who considered it to be the greatest downloadable content pack of the game. Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer considered Lair of the Shadow Broker "a solid, thrilling, satisfying addition to an already expansive universe; one that leaves you on an appropriate note of hopeful melancholy." He praised the amount of content in the pack, stating that it "adds far more to the game than some of its disappointingly slender predecessors." GameRevolution's Eduardo Reboucas said that the pack is "a blast, especially for fans who want to catch up with Liara and dissect the bits of story that were omitted in the main game." The narrative and story were highlighted positively. Critics praised the fact that some decisions from the original Mass Effect impact the storytelling experience. IGN stated that the storytelling "effectively communicates the strong bond between [Shepard and T'Soni], even if they weren't romantically involved in your game." The graphics received similar praise. Brad Gallaway, a reviewer for GameCritics, noted that they "make the action feel like a more organic part of the story and engage the player in some superb atmosphere." The exterior of the Shadow Broker's ship was seen by some critics as the pack's most impressive battle environment. IGN remarked that "approaching the Shadow Broker's ship is simply stunning as lightning storms envelope [sic] the massive vessel." Destructoid highlighted the pacing and combat intensity, stating they require the player to pay more attention to the gameplay flow. Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot stated similar pros, especially during the second act. According to him, "enemies attack at just the right pace, so individual battles never drag on too long, nor are they over so quickly that they end up being unsatisfying." He also highlighted the vehicle chase scene, comparing it favorably to Blade Runner and The Fifth Element, but criticize the controls in the Xbox 360 version for not being very precise. The boss battles received similar praise, with IGN stating that both of them "have unique traits that make them a formidable opponent." The Shadow Broker's base was highlighted as a valuable addition to the game. Eurogamer noted that marking mineral-rich planets alleviates the scanning, which was seen as a tedious feature in the main game. VanOrd concluded that Lair of the Shadow Broker is "worthy of your time (more than two hours) and your money." At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards, Lair of the Shadow Broker was nominated for Best DLC (downloadable content), but lost to Red Dead Redemption: Undead Nightmare. It won the Inside Gaming Award for Best DLC.
69,576,638	Contra la Corriente (song)	1,147,693,414	null	[ "1997 songs", "1998 singles", "Marc Anthony songs", "RMM Records singles", "Songs about nostalgia", "Songs written by Omar Alfanno", "Spanish-language songs" ]	"Contra la Corriente" (transl. "Against the Current") is a song by American singer Marc Anthony from his third studio album of the same name (1997). It was released in 1998 by RMM and served as the album's fifth single. The song was written by Omar Alfanno, with co-production handled by Ángel "Cucco" Peña and Anthony. "Contra la Corriente" is a salsa song, that lyrically recalls a "good love from the past." "Contra la Corriente" was praised by music critics and was nominated in the category of Tropical Song of the Year at the 11th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards and the 6th Annual Latin Billboard Music Awards in 1999. Commercially, it reached number two on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs in the United States and topped the Tropical Airplay chart where it spent four weeks at this position. Puerto Rican singer Ángel López covered this song as a ballad on his studio album Historias de Amor (2010). ## Background and composition By 1996, Marc Anthony's studio albums, Otra Nota (1993) and Todo a Su Tiempo (1995), both released by RMM, had sold over 600,000 copies combined. Sergio George, who produced both albums, had left RMM to establish his own record label and was working with his own artists. As a result, George was unable to produce Anthony's next record. Puerto Rican musician Angel "Cucco" Peña took up the position as the co-producer for Anthony's third studio album Contra la Corriente (1997). As Anthony was involved with the production of The Capeman (1998), he recorded in New York and Puerto Rico and took three weeks to complete Contra la Corriente. Omar Alfanno, who composed three tracks on Todo a Su Tiempo, wrote five tracks for Contra la Corriente including the title track. The song begins with an acoustic guitar before transitioning into a "medium-paced salsa rhythm", according to The San Diego Union-Tribune editor Ernesto Portillo, Jr. In the lyrics, Diana Raquel of La Prensa de San Antonio noted that the track "nostalgically evokes the memory of a good love from the past." ## Promotion and reception The title track was released as the fifth single from Contra la Corriente in 1998. A truncated version of the song was released on Anthony's greatest hits album Desde un Principio: From the Beginning (1999), while the original recording was included on the compilation album Éxitos Eternos (2003). Anthony delivered a performance of the track prior to the album's release at the Madison Square Garden in New York City on October 18, 1997. He performed the song live at the same venue three years later, which was recorded for the live video album The Concert from Madison Square Garden (2001). In 2010, Puerto Rican singer Ángel López covered "Contra la Corriente" as a ballad for his studio album Historias de Amor, a collection of songs Alfanno had previously composed. López's rendition, along with the rest of the album, were arranged and produced by Alfanno. On the review of Contra la Corriente for La Prensa de San Antonio, Diana Raquel lauded the song's "intense rhythm" and noted that the track has all the elements of a salsa romantica which progresses into a "tasty mambo". Tom Moon of The Philadelphia Inquirer complimented Anthony for adlibbing "in a loose, refreshingly offhand way". A writer for La Prensa listed it as one of Marc Anthony's best 15 songs. "Contra la Corriente" was nominated in the category of Tropical Song of the Year at the 11th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards, as well as "Tropical/Salsa Hot Track of the Year" at the 1999 Latin Billboard Music Awards. It lost both awards to Elvis Crespo's "Suavemente". Commercially "Contra la Corriente" reached number two on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs in the US, and topped the Billboard Tropical Airplay chart on the week of November 7, 1998; it remained on the spot for four weeks and became his tenth number one on the chart. It ranked number eight on the 1998 Tropical Airplay year-end chart. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the Contra la Corriente liner notes. - Omar Alfanno – songwriter - Marc Anthony – vocals, co-producer - Ángel Peña – arrangement, co-producer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## See also - List of Billboard Tropical Airplay number ones of 1998
5,866,713	Cyclone Rosita	1,159,652,154	Category 5 Australian region cyclone in 2000	[ "1999–2000 Australian region cyclone season", "2000 in Australia", "2000s in Western Australia", "Category 5 Australian region cyclones", "Retired Australian region cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2000", "Tropical cyclones in Western Australia" ]	Severe Tropical Cyclone Rosita was a tropical cyclone that affected northern Australia from 15 April through 21 April 2000. Rosita was one of the most intense tropical cyclones to hit the west Kimberley coast in the last century. Crossing the coast as a Category 5 about 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Broome on 20 April, Rosita caused severe damage in the Eco Beach resort and the vegetation around Broome. Its region of very destructive winds (gusts exceeding 170 km/h) passed south of Broome by only 15 kilometres (9.3 mi). Cyclone Rosita was the first cyclone to directly hit Broome since Cyclone Lindsay in March 1985. ## Meteorological history A weak low in the Timor Sea formed on 14 April, initially moving west south-west and turned southward during 16 April and 17 April. The low slowly strengthened and was named Rosita on 17 April, while located approximately 670 kilometres (420 mi) to the north of Port Hedland at about 6 p.m. WST (1000 UTC). On the morning of 18 April, a ship reported a relatively high pressure of 997 hPa while passing very close to the centre of Cyclone Rosita, however, near-storm-force winds were reported. Rosita then entered a very favourable environment which allowed rapid development to occur. On 19 April, Rosita turned to the east-southeast and intensified rapidly to a Category 5 severe cyclone, with an estimated central pressure of 930 hPa. Wind gusts near the centre were estimated at about 290 km/h (180 mph). Rosita turned slightly to the southeast, crossing the coast at peak intensity, 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Broome at around 1 a.m. WST on 20 April (1700 UTC 19 April). Cyclone Rosita was a small cyclone, but nevertheless was very intense and powerful. Its radius of gale-force winds was just half the average for cyclones in Australia, and its core of very destructive winds extended just 25 kilometres (16 mi) from its centre. This meant that Rosita's region of very destructive winds missed Broome by only 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) to the south. Once over land, Rosita accelerated to speeds of up to 30 km/h (19 mph) into the Great Sandy Desert, only weakening gradually. Rosita passed close to the community of Balgo at around 10 p.m. WST (1400 UTC) on 20 April, about 700 kilometres (430 mi) from the coast. Rosita was still estimated to be at Category 1 intensity when it passed near the community. Rosita's remnants continued to bring flooding rains to central Australia. ## Preparations The Bureau of Meteorology predicted Rosita to hit near Broome at around midnight WST on 20 April (1600 UTC 19 April). Towns around the area were warned to prepare for one of the most powerful cyclones ever to threaten Australia. Very destructive winds with gusts to 260 km/h near the cyclone's centre were expected. Residents of coastal towns were warned to expect dangerous storm tides – local emergency officials said an 8-metre (26 ft) high tide was expected at that night. Tourists in the area were warned not to try to reach Broome. Chevron Australia said a tanker due to arrive on 18 April was asked to delay its arrival till 22 April because of the cyclone. Iron ore miners in Port Hedland and Dampier monitored Rosita's approach. Blue Alert warnings, which indicate that a cyclone may affect the warning area within 48 hours, were issued for Cyclone Rosita on the morning on 19 April. They were upgraded to a Yellow Alert – an indication that a cyclone appears inevitable to affect the warning area in 12 hours – at 1 pm, then to a Red Alert – meaning the cyclone is imminent – at 8 pm. In general, residents were well informed of the warnings through the radio. Residents from the low-lying downtown areas evacuated to homes in more elevated locations. Two of the three available evacuation shelters were opened and co-ordinated by the Department of Family and Children's Services. 280 people took shelter in schools, while 78 residents from Bidyadanga were evacuated to Port Hedland or Broome. The people that stayed in the settlement sheltered in the church and family homes. Staff and guests at the Eco Beach tourist resort received warnings from Rosita early on 19 April and made a timely return to Broome before the cyclone hit. ## Impact The largest impact occurred near the core of very destructive winds about 40 km (25 mi) south of Broome. The main homestead on the Thangoo station, 28 km (17 mi) to the south-southeast of Broome, received only minor structural damage, however the station was in the region of the dangerous storm surge. Reports from the Thangoo station, situated 2.5 km (1.6 mi) inland from coastal mangroves, showed that the station's front gate had debris laid up to the second shoreline, about a metre (3.3 ft) above mean ground level. Another station homestead, 7 km (4.3 mi) west, was covered by coastal dunes but escaped major damage to its structure. The most severe structural damage occurred near Cape Villaret, 40 km (25 mi) south-southwest of Broome. The Eco-beach tourist resort and the Yardoogarra station were devastated. The area around the homestead was totally devastated. A caravan parked nearby was blown away and crumbled, and a semi trailer was blown to its side. The vegetation, which used to be very lush, was stripped of all leaves by the destructive winds which carried airborne salt and sand. The damage to the vegetation seemed to be worse than the tree damage seen in Exmouth caused by Cyclone Vance in March 1999. About 60 km (37 mi) of fencing was pushed over, all windmills were destroyed, and about 200 head of cattle were lost, mostly due to drowning from the storm surge. However, the path of destruction to the vegetation was estimated to be just 15 to 20 km wide, reflecting Rosita's small size. The Eco Beach tourist resort was only built to resist wind gusts of Category 3 strength. Only about 10 of the 40 accommodation huts were left standing. Some of the huts were removed from their concrete foundations, and were carried by the winds and smashed into other buildings. Showing how strong Rosita's winds were, a sea container weighing 2.5 tonnes (5500 lb) and filled with 2 to 3 tonnes (4400 to 6600 lb) of equipment was blown 700 m (0.4 mile) across sand dunes. The magnitude of the devastation to the vegetation in this area resembled a place being destroyed by bushfires. In the town of Broome, the maximum wind gust recorded was 153 km/h (95 mph), recorded at the Broome aerodrome, as well as recording 163.8 mm (6.45 in) of rain for the 24 hours up to 9 a.m. WST (0100 UTC) on 20 April. Vegetation in this area were badly damaged, particularly the African Mahogany trees which were either snapped off or uprooted. Parts of Cable Beach were severely eroded. An area which used to be covered with sand was completely covered by rocks. The eastern side of Roebuck Bay had evidence of severe erosion of the coastal terrain. At Broome's only banana plantation, almost all crops were completely lost, with 10 out of 18,000 plants left surviving. Fortunately, most buildings in the town of Broome remained unharmed, although power supplies were cut to many parts of Broome for several days. The Broome power station was initially shut down at approximately midnight on 20 April amid fears of damage to the power reticulation infrastructure. Some damages to trees and property were reported in the community of Balgo Hills, located in the Great Sandy Desert approximately 700 km (430 mi) inland from the coast. ## Aftermath The extended period of power outage was a major problem for the residents in Broome. Residents had to wait for days for the power supply to be restored. As all of the distribution lines were above ground, Broome was particularly vulnerable to power outages during cyclones. Linesmen from Western Power were called in from afar to inspect all high voltage distribution lines before these could be re-energised. Western Power inspectors were also flown in from around the state to commence disconnections of properties suspected to have suffered water intrusion. These properties had to be tested before having supply reconnected. The majority of residential properties had power restored back on 30 April, 11 days after Rosita struck. Television and radio were limited to transmissions from Perth, and this proved difficult to access information about any available supplies in the town. People had difficulties purchasing food and supplies because supermarkets were closed or had no power and there was no fresh produce arriving. However, power was restored a few days after the cyclone hit. There were only minor interruptions to the water and sewerage infrastructure. The Western Australia State Emergency Service (SES) was responsible for responses relating to the damage from Rosita. SES workers worked to help the community recover, tarping damaged roofs and clearing debris from roads and around houses where it limited access from residents. Most work involved clearing vegetation from power lines to enable Western Power to begin repairs. Volunteers from other Western Australian cities and towns such as Perth, Bunbury, Karratha, Derby and Tom Price had arrived to assist with requests for help. During the recovery period, the SES earned huge public respect, and residents were pleased with the quick response of the SES. The damage from Rosita made a large impact on the tourist industry. The time of impact happened just before the Easter and ANZAC Day Holiday period. Easter is considered to be the beginning of the tourist season, so it is usually expected that there will be an increase of visitors into Broome at this time. Many visitors delayed or cancelled their trips, and some cut short their holiday. Car hire companies that had been booked out for the holiday period had people returning vehicles early. The impact of Rosita has alerted residents to prepare for any cyclones that may threaten the town in the future. Many people were surprised that Cyclone Rosita was going to hit, as cyclones are rare in Broome, and many thought the cyclone season was already over. However, many residents also thought that the cyclone's impact strengthened the community as a whole and "brought people closer together". ### Retirement The name Rosita was removed from the official list of tropical cyclone names set out by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Perth. It was replaced with the name Robyn. ## See also - Australian region tropical cyclone - Tropical cyclones in 2000
66,569	Anna Akhmatova	1,167,236,743	Russian poet (1889–1966)	[ "1889 births", "1966 deaths", "20th-century Russian women writers", "20th-century pseudonymous writers", "20th-century translators", "Anna Akhmatova", "Censorship in the Soviet Union", "Chinese–Russian translators", "Nobility from the Russian Empire", "People from Odessky Uyezd", "People from the Russian Empire of Tatar descent", "Pseudonymous women writers", "Russian World War I poets", "Russian literary historians", "Russian people of Tatar descent", "Russian poets of Ukrainian descent", "Russian translators", "Soviet literary historians", "Soviet poets", "Soviet translators", "Soviet women poets", "Soviet women writers", "Translators to Russian", "Ukrainian–Russian translators", "Women poets from the Russian Empire", "World War II poets", "Writers from Odesa" ]	Anna Andreyevna Gorenko ( – 5 March 1966), better known by the pen name Anna Akhmatova, was one of the most significant poets of 20th century. She was shortlisted for the Nobel Prize in 1965 and received the second-most (three) nominations for the award the following year. Akhmatova's work ranges from short lyric poems to intricately structured cycles, such as Requiem (1935–40), her tragic masterpiece about the Stalinist terror. Her style, characterised by its economy and emotional restraint, was strikingly original and distinctive to her contemporaries. The strong and clear leading female voice struck a new chord in Russian poetry. Her writing can be said to fall into two periods – the early work (1912–25) and her later work (from around 1936 until her death), divided by a decade of reduced literary output. Her work was condemned and censored by Stalinist authorities, and she is notable for choosing not to emigrate and remaining in the Soviet Union, acting as witness to the events around her. Her perennial themes include meditations on time and memory, and the difficulties of living and writing in the shadow of Stalinism. Primary sources of information about Akhmatova's life are relatively scant, as war, revolution and the Soviet regime caused much of the written record to be destroyed. For long periods she was in official disfavour and many of those who were close to her died in the aftermath of the revolution. Akhmatova's first husband, Nikolay Gumilyov, was executed by the Soviet secret police, and her son Lev Gumilyov and her common-law husband Nikolay Punin spent many years in the Gulag, where Punin died. ## Early life and family Akhmatova was born at Bolshoy Fontan, a resort suburb of the Black Sea port of Odessa. Her father, Andrey Antonovich Gorenko, was a naval engineer and descendant from a noble Ukrainian cossack family, and her mother, Inna Erazmovna Stogova, was a descendant of the Russian nobility with close ties to Kiev. She wrote: > No one in my large family wrote poetry. But the first Russian woman poet, Anna Bunina, was the aunt of my grandfather Erasm Ivanovich Stogov. The Stogovs were modest landowners in the Mozhaisk region of the Moscow Province. They were moved here after the insurrection during the time of Posadnitsa Marfa. In Novgorod they had been a wealthier and more distinguished family. Khan Akhmat, my ancestor, was killed one night in his tent by a Russian killer-for-hire. Karamzin tells us that this marked the end of the Mongol yoke on Russia. [...] It was well known that this Akhmat was a descendant of Genghiz Khan. In the eighteenth century, one of the Akhmatov Princesses – Praskovia Yegorovna – married the rich and famous Simbirsk landowner Motovilov. Yegor Motovilov was my great-grandfather; his daughter, Anna Yegorovna, was my grandmother. She died when my mother was nine years old, and I was named in her honour. Several diamond rings and one emerald were made from her brooch. Though my fingers are thin, still her thimble didn't fit me. Her family moved north to Tsarskoye Selo, near St. Petersburg, when she was eleven months old. The family lived in a house on the corner of Shirokaya Street and Bezymyanny Lane (the building is no longer there today), spending summers from age 7 to 13 in a dacha near Sevastopol. She studied at the Mariinskaya High School, moving to Kiev (1906–10) and finished her schooling there, after her parents separated in 1905. She went on to study law at Kiev University, leaving a year later to study literature in St Petersburg. Akhmatova started writing poetry at the age of 11, and was published in her late teens, inspired by the poets Nikolay Nekrasov, Jean Racine, Alexander Pushkin, Evgeny Baratynsky and the Symbolists; however, none of her juvenilia survive. Her sister Inna also wrote poetry though she did not pursue the practice and married shortly after high school. Akhmatova's father did not want to see any verses printed under his "respectable" name, so she chose to adopt her grandmother's distinctly Tatar surname 'Akhmatova' as a pen name. She met a young poet, Nikolay Gumilev, on Christmas Eve 1903. Gumilev encouraged her to write and pursued her intensely, making numerous marriage proposals starting in 1905. At 17 years old, in his journal Sirius, she published her first poem which could be translated as "On his hand you may see many glittering rings", (1907) signing it "Anna G." She soon became known in St Petersburg's artistic circles, regularly giving public readings. That year, she wrote unenthusiastically to a friend, "He has loved me for three years now, and I believe that it is my fate to be his wife. Whether or not I love him, I do not know, but it seems to me that I do." She married Gumilev in Kiev in April 1910; however, none of Akhmatova's family attended the wedding. The couple honeymooned in Paris, and there she met and befriended the Italian artist Amedeo Modigliani. In late 1910, she came together with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky to form the Guild of Poets. It promoted the idea of craft as the key to poetry rather than inspiration or mystery, taking themes of the concrete rather than the more ephemeral world of the Symbolists. Over time, they developed the influential Acmeist anti-symbolist school, concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America. From the first year of their marriage, Gumilev began to chafe against its constraints. She wrote that he had "lost his passion" for her and by the end of that year he left on a six-month trip to Africa. She had "her first taste of fame", becoming renowned, not so much for her beauty, but for her intense magnetism and allure, attracting the fascinated attention of a great many men, including the great and the good. She returned to visit Modigliani in Paris, where he created at least 20 paintings of her, including several nudes. She later began an affair with the celebrated Acmeist poet Osip Mandelstam, whose wife, Nadezhda, declared later, in her autobiography that she came to forgive Akhmatova for it in time. Akhmatova's son, Lev, was born in 1912, and would become a renowned Neo-Eurasianist historian. ## Silver Age In 1912, the Guild of Poets published Akhmatova's book of verse Evening (Vecher) – the first of five in nine years. The small edition of 500 copies quickly sold out and she received around a dozen positive notices in the literary press. She exercised a strong selectivity for the pieces – including only 35 of the 200 poems she had written by the end of 1911. (She noted that Song of the Last Meeting, dated 29 September 1911, was her 200th poem). The book secured her reputation as a new and striking young writer, the poems Grey-eyed king, In the Forest, Over the Water, and I don't need my legs anymore making her famous. She later wrote "These naïve poems by a frivolous girl for some reason were reprinted thirteen times [...] And they came out in several translations. The girl herself (as far as I recall) did not foresee such a fate for them and used to hide the issues of the journals in which they were first published under the sofa cushions". Akhmatova's second collection, The Rosary (or Beads – Chetki) appeared in March 1914 and firmly established her as one of the most popular and sought after poets of the day. Thousands of women composed poems "in honour of Akhmatova", mimicking her style and prompting Akhmatova to exclaim: "I taught our women how to speak, but don't know how to make them silent". Her aristocratic manners and artistic integrity won her the titles "Queen of the Neva" and "Soul of the Silver Age," as the period came to be known in the history of Russian poetry. In Poem Without a Hero, the longest and one of the best known of her works, written many decades later, she would recall this as a blessed time of her life. Akhmatova became close friends with Boris Pasternak (who, though married, proposed to her many times) and rumours began to circulate that she was having an affair with influential lyrical poet Alexander Blok. In July 1914, Akhmatova wrote "Frightening times are approaching/ Soon fresh graves will cover the land"; on August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, marking the start of "the dark storm" of world war, civil war, revolution and totalitarian repression for Russia. The Silver Age came to a close. Akhmatova had a relationship with the mosaic artist and poet Boris Anrep; many of her poems in the period are about him and he in turn created mosaics in which she is featured. She selected poems for her third collection, Belaya Staya (White Flock), in 1917, a volume which poet and critic Joseph Brodsky later described as writing of personal lyricism tinged with the "note of controlled terror". She later came to be memorialised by his description of her as "the keening muse". Essayist John Bayley describes her writing at this time as "grim, spare and laconic". In February 1917, the revolution started in Petersburg (then named Petrograd); soldiers fired on marching protestors, and others mutinied. They looked to a past in which the future was "rotting". In a city without electricity or sewage service, with little water or food, they faced starvation and sickness. Akhmatova's friends died around her and others left in droves for safer havens in Europe and America, including Anrep, who escaped to England. She had the option to leave, and considered it for a time, but chose to stay and was proud of her decision to remain.: > > You are a traitor, and for a green island, Have betrayed, yes, betrayed your native Land, Abandoned all our songs and sacred Icons, And the pine tree over a quiet lake. Akhmatova wrote of her own temptation to leave: > > A voice came to me. It called out comfortingly. It said, "Come here, Leave your deaf and sinful land, Leave Russia forever, I will wash the blood from your hands, Root out the black shame from your heart, [...] calmly and indifferently, I covered my ears with my hands, So that my sorrowing spirit Would not be stained by those shameful words. At the height of Akhmatova's fame, in 1918, she divorced her husband and that same year, though many of her friends considered it a mistake, Akhmatova married prominent Assyriologist and poet Vladimir Shilejko. She later said "I felt so filthy. I thought it would be like a cleansing, like going to a convent, knowing you are going to lose your freedom." She began affairs with theatre director Mikhail Zimmerman and composer Arthur Lourié, who set many of her poems to music. ## 1920s and 1930s In 1921, Akhmatova's former husband Nikolay Gumilev was prosecuted for his alleged role in a monarchist anti-Bolshevik conspiracy and in August was shot along with 61 others. According to the historian Rayfield, the murder of Gumilev was part of the state response to the Kronstadt Rebellion. The Cheka (secret police) blamed the rebellion on Petrograd's intellectuals, prompting the senior Cheka officer Yakov Agranov to forcibly extract the names of 'conspirators', from an imprisoned professor, guaranteeing them amnesty from execution. Agranov's guarantee proved to be meaningless. He sentenced dozens of the named persons to death, including Gumilev. Maxim Gorky and others appealed for leniency, but by the time Lenin agreed to several pardons, the condemned had been shot. Within a few days of his death, Akhmatova wrote: > > Terror fingers all things in the dark, Leads moonlight to the axe. There's an ominous knock behind the wall: A ghost, a thief or a rat... The executions had a powerful effect on the Russian intelligentsia, destroying the acmeist poetry group, and placing a stigma on Akhmatova and her son Lev (by Gumilev). Lev's later arrest during the purges and terrors of the 1930s was based on being his father's son. From a new Marxist perspective, Akhmatova's poetry was deemed to represent an introspective "bourgeois aesthetic", reflecting only trivial "female" preoccupations, not in keeping with these new revolutionary politics of the time. She was roundly attacked by the state and by former supporters and friends, and seen to be an anachronism. During what she termed "The Vegetarian Years", Akhmatova's work was unofficially banned by a party resolution of 1925 and she found it hard to publish, though she did not stop writing poetry. She made acclaimed translations of works by Victor Hugo, Rabindranath Tagore, and Giacomo Leopardi and pursued academic work on Pushkin and Dostoyevsky. She worked as a critic and essayist, though many USSR and foreign critics and readers concluded that she had died. She had little food and almost no money; her son was denied access to study at academic institutions because of his parents' alleged anti-state activities. The nationwide repression and purges decimated her St Petersburg circle of friends, artists and intellectuals. Her close friend and fellow poet Mandelstam was deported and then sentenced to a Gulag labour camp, where he would die. Akhmatova narrowly escaped arrest, though her son Lev was imprisoned on numerous occasions by the Stalinist regime, accused of counterrevolutionary activity. She would often queue for hours to deliver him food packages and plead on his behalf. She describes standing outside a stone prison: > One day somebody in the crowd identified me. Standing behind me was a woman, with lips blue from cold, who had, of course, never heard me called by name before. Now she started out of the torpor common to us all and asked me in a whisper (everyone whispered there):'Can you describe this?' > And I said: 'I can.' > Then something like a smile passed fleetingly over what had once been her face. Akhmatova wrote that by 1935 every time she went to see someone off at the train station as they went into exile, she'd find herself greeting friends at every step as so many of St Petersburg's intellectual and cultural figures would be leaving on the same train. In her poetry circles Mayakovsky and Esenin committed suicide and Marina Tsvetaeva would follow them in 1941, after returning from exile. Akhmatova was a common-law wife to Nikolai Punin, an art scholar and lifelong friend, whom she stayed with until 1935. He also was repeatedly taken into custody, dying in the Gulag in 1953. Her tragic cycle Requiem documents her personal experience of this time; as she writes, "one hundred million voices shout" through her "tortured mouth". > > Seventeen months I've pleaded for you to come home. Flung myself at the hangman's feet. My terror, oh my son. And I can't understand. Now all's eternal confusion. Who's beast, and who's man? How long till execution? ## 1939–1960 In 1939, Stalin approved the publication of one volume of poetry, From Six Books; however, the collection was withdrawn and pulped after only a few months. In 1993, it was revealed that the authorities had bugged her flat and kept her under constant surveillance, keeping detailed files on her from this time, accruing some 900 pages of "denunciations, reports of phone taps, quotations from writings, confessions of those close to her". Although officially stifled, Akhmatova's work continued to circulate in secret. Akhmatova's close friend, chronicler Lydia Chukovskaya described how writers working to keep poetic messages alive used various strategies. A small trusted circle would, for example, memorise each other's works and circulate them only by oral means. She tells how Akhmatova would write out her poem for a visitor on a scrap of paper to be read in a moment, then burnt in her stove. The poems were carefully disseminated in this way, but it is likely that many compiled in this manner were lost. "It was like a ritual," Chukovskaya wrote. "Hands, matches, an ashtray. A ritual beautiful and bitter." During World War II, Akhmatova witnessed the 900-day Siege of Leningrad (now St Petersburg). In 1940, Akhmatova started her Poem without a Hero, finishing a first draft in Tashkent, but working on "The Poem" for twenty years and considering it to be the major work of her life, dedicating it to "the memory of its first audience – my friends and fellow citizens who perished in Leningrad during the siege". She was evacuated to Chistopol in spring of 1942 and then to greener, safer Tashkent in Uzbekistan, along with other artists, such as Shostakovich. During her time away she became seriously ill with typhus (she had suffered from severe bronchitis and tuberculosis as a young woman). On returning to Leningrad in May 1944, she writes of how disturbed she was to find "a terrible ghost that pretended to be my city". She regularly read to soldiers in the military hospitals and on the front line; her later pieces seem to be the voice of those who had struggled and the many she had outlived. She moved away from romantic themes towards a more diverse, complex and philosophical body of work and some of her more patriotic poems found their way to the front pages of Pravda. In 1946 the Central Committee of CPSU, acting on the orders from Stalin, started an official campaign against the "bourgeois", individualistic works by Akhmatova and satirist Mikhail Zoshchenko. She was condemned for a visit by the liberal, western, Jewish philosopher Isaiah Berlin in 1945, and Andrei Zhdanov publicly labelled her "half harlot, half nun", her work "the poetry of an overwrought, upper-class lady", her work the product of "eroticism, mysticism, and political indifference". He banned her poems from publication in the journals Zvezda and Leningrad, accusing her of poisoning the minds of Soviet youth. Her surveillance was increased and she was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers. Berlin described his visit to her flat: "It was very barely furnished—virtually everything in it had, I gathered, been taken away—looted or sold—during the siege .... A stately, grey-haired lady, a white shawl draped about her shoulders, slowly rose to greet us. Anna Akhmatova was immensely dignified, with unhurried gestures, a noble head, beautiful, somewhat severe features, and an expression of immense sadness." Akhmatova's son Lev was arrested again at the end of 1949 and sentenced to 10 years in a Siberian prison camp. She spent much of the next years trying to secure his release; to this end, and for the first time, she published overtly propagandist poetry, “In Praise of Peace,” in the magazine Ogoniok, openly supporting Stalin and his regime. Lev remained in the camps until 1956, well after Stalin's death, his final release potentially aided by his mother's concerted efforts. Bayley suggests that her period of pro-Stalinist work may also have saved her own life; notably however, Akhmatova never acknowledged these pieces in her official corpus. Akhmatova's stature among Soviet poets was slowly conceded by party officials, her name no longer cited in only scathing contexts and she was readmitted to the Union of Writers in 1951, being fully recognised again following Stalin's death in 1953. With the press still heavily controlled and censored under Nikita Khrushchev, a translation by Akhmatova was praised in a public review in 1955, and her own poems began to re-appear in 1956. That same year Lev was released from the camps, embittered, believing that his mother cared more about her poetry than for him and that she had not worked hard for his release. Akhmatova's status was confirmed by 1958, with the publication of Stikhotvoreniya (Poems) and then Stikhotvoreniya 1909–1960 (Poems: 1909–1960) in 1961. Beg vremeni (The flight of time), collected works 1909–1965, published 1965, was the most complete volume of her works in her lifetime, though the long damning poem Requiem, condemning the Stalinist purges, was conspicuously absent. Isaiah Berlin predicted at the time that it could never be published in the Soviet Union. ## Last years During the last years of Akhmatova's life, she continued to live with the Punin family in Leningrad, still translating, researching Pushkin, and writing her own poetry. Though still censored, she was concerned to re-construct work that had been destroyed or suppressed during the purges or which had posed a threat to the life of her son in the camps, such as the lost, semi-autobiographical play Enûma Elish. She worked on her official memoirs, planned novels, and worked on her epic Poem without a hero, 20 years in the writing. Akhmatova was widely honoured in the USSR and the West. In 1962, she was visited by Robert Frost; Isaiah Berlin tried to visit her again, but she refused him, worried that her son might be re-arrested due to family association with the ideologically suspect western philosopher. She inspired and advised a large circle of key young Soviet writers. Her dacha in Komarovo was frequented by such poets as Yevgeny Rein and Joseph Brodsky, whom she mentored. Brodsky, arrested in 1963 and interned for social parasitism, would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature (1987) and become Poet Laureate (1991) as an exile in the U.S. As one of the last remaining major poets of the Silver Age, she was newly acclaimed by the Soviet authorities as a fine and loyal representative of their country and permitted to travel. At the same time, by virtue of works such as Requiem, Akhmatova was being hailed at home and abroad as an unofficial leader of the dissident movement, and reinforced this image herself. She was becoming a representative of both the Soviet Union and Tsarist Russia, more popular in the 1960s than she had ever been before the revolution, this reputation only continuing to grow after her death. For her 75th birthday in 1964, new collections of her verse were published. Akhmatova was able to meet some of her pre-revolutionary acquaintances in 1965, when she was allowed to travel to Sicily and England, in order to receive the Taormina prize and an honorary doctoral degree from Oxford University, accompanied by her lifelong friend and secretary Lydia Chukovskaya. Akhmatova's Requiem in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963, the whole work not published within USSR until 1987. Her long poem The Way of All the Earth or Woman of Kitezh (Kitezhanka) was published in complete form in 1965. In November 1965, soon after her Oxford visit, Akhmatova suffered a heart attack and was hospitalised. She was moved to a sanatorium in Moscow in the spring of 1966 and died of heart failure on March 5, at the age of 76. Thousands attended the two memorial ceremonies, held in Moscow and in Leningrad. After being displayed in an open coffin, she was interred at Komarovo Cemetery in St. Petersburg. Isaiah Berlin described the impact of her life, as he saw it: > The widespread worship of her memory in Soviet Union today, both as an artist and as an unsurrendering human being, has, so far as I know, no parallel. The legend of her life and unyielding passive resistance to what she regarded as unworthy of her country and herself, transformed her into a figure [...] not merely in Russian literature, but in Russian history in [the twentieth] century. In 1988, to celebrate what would have been Akhmatova's 100th birthday, Harvard University held an international conference on her life and work. Today her work may be explored at the Anna Akhmatova Literary and Memorial Museum in St. Petersburg. ## Work and themes Akhmatova joined the Acmeist group of poets in 1910 with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky, working in response to the Symbolist school, concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America. It promoted the use of craft and rigorous poetic form over mysticism or spiritual in-roads to composition, favouring the concrete over the ephemeral. Akhmatova modeled its principles of writing with clarity, simplicity, and disciplined form. Her first collections Evening (1912) and Rosary (1914) received wide critical acclaim and made her famous from the start of her career. They contained brief, psychologically taut pieces, acclaimed for their classical diction, telling details, and the skilful use of colour. Evening and her next four books were mostly lyric miniatures on the theme of love, shot through with sadness. Her early poems usually picture a man and a woman involved in the most poignant, ambiguous moment of their relationship, much imitated and later parodied by Nabokov and others. Critic Roberta Reeder notes that the early poems always attracted large numbers of admirers: "For Akhmatova was able to capture and convey the vast range of evolving emotions experienced in a love affair, from the first thrill of meeting, to a deepening love contending with hatred, and eventually to violent destructive passion or total indifference. But [...] her poetry marks a radical break with the erudite, ornate style and the mystical representation of love so typical of poets like Alexander Blok and Andrey Bely. Her lyrics are composed of short fragments of simple speech that do not form a logical coherent pattern. Instead, they reflect the way we actually think, the links between the images are emotional, and simple everyday objects are charged with psychological associations. Like Alexander Pushkin, who was her model in many ways, Akhmatova was intent on conveying worlds of meaning through precise details." Akhmatova often complained that the critics "walled her in" to their perception of her work in the early years of romantic passion, despite major changes of theme in the later years of The Terror. This was mainly due to the secret nature of her work after the public and critical effusion over her first volumes. The risks during the purges were very great. Many of her close friends and family were exiled, imprisoned or shot; her son was under constant threat of arrest, she was often under close surveillance. Following artistic repression and public condemnation by the state in the 1920s, many within literary and public circles, at home and abroad, thought she had died. Her readership generally did not know her later opus, the railing passion of Requiem or Poem without a Hero and her other scathing works, which were shared only with a very trusted few or circulated in secret by word of mouth (samizdat). Between 1935 and 1940 Akhmatova composed, worked and reworked the long poem Requiem in secret, a lyrical cycle of lamentation and witness, depicting the suffering of the common people under Soviet terror. She carried it with her as she worked and lived in towns and cities across the Soviet Union. It was conspicuously absent from her collected works, given its explicit condemnation of the purges. The work in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963, the whole work not published within USSR until 1987. It consists of ten numbered poems that examine a series of emotional states, exploring suffering, despair, devotion, rather than a clear narrative. Biblical themes such as Christ's crucifixion and the devastation of Mary, Mother of Jesus and Mary Magdalene, reflect the ravaging of Russia, particularly witnessing the harrowing of women in the 1930s. It represented, to some degree, a rejection of her own earlier romantic work as she took on the public role as chronicler of the Terror. This is a role she holds to this day. Her essays on Pushkin and Poem Without a Hero, her longest work, were only published after her death. This long poem, composed between 1940 and 1965, is often critically regarded as her best work and also one of the finest poems of the twentieth century. It gives a deep and detailed analysis of her epoch and her approach to it, including her important encounter with Isaiah Berlin (1909–97) in 1945. Her talent in composition and translation is evidenced in her fine translations of the works of poets writing in French, English, Italian, Armenian, and Korean. ### Cultural influence - American composer Ivana Marburger Themmen set Akhmatova's poetry to music. - Translations of some of her poems by Babette Deutsch and Lyn Coffin are set to music on the 2015 album The Trackless Woods by Iris DeMent. - Anna Akhmatova is the main character of the Australian play The Woman in the Window by Alma De Groen, premiered at Fairfax Studio, Melbourne, in 1998; Sydney: Currency Press, . - Dutch composer Marjo Tal set Akhmatova's poetry to music. - Ukrainian composer Inna Abramovna Zhvanetskaia set several of Akhmatova's poems to music. - Porcelain figurine: When Anna Akhmatova was at the peak of her popularity, to commemorate her 35th birthday (1924), a porcelain figurine resembling her in a grey dress with flower pattern covered in a red shawl was mass-produced. Throughout the following years, the figurine was reproduced multiple times on different occasions: once in 1954, on her 65th birthday, as she was fully recognised and praised again following Stalin's death, and again in 1965 as both a tribute to her being short-listed for the Nobel Prize in 1965 and for her 75th birthday a year earlier. This was the last time the porcelain figurine was produced during her lifetime. The figurine was so popular that it was reproduced after her passing, once for what would have been her 85th birthday in 1974, and again for her 100th birthday in 1988, making it one of the most popular and widely available porcelain figurines in the USSR. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1993, there was an immense surge in Akhmatova's popularity and her porcelain figurine was mass-produced yet again, this time in a plain grey dress with a yellow shawl. Her figure now stands in almost every post-Soviet home. ## Honours - 1964 – Etna-Taormina prize - 1965 - honorary doctorate from Oxford University ## Selected poetry collections ### Published by Akhmatova - 1912 - Vecher/Вечер (Evening) - 1914 – Chetki/ Чётки (Rosary or literally Beads) - 1917 – Belaya Staya/ Белая Стая (White Flock) - 1921 – Podorozhnik/ Подорожник (Wayside Grass/Plantain). 60 pages, 1000 copies published. - 1921 – Anno Domini MCMXXI - Reed – two-volume collection of selected poems (1924–1926); compiled but never published. - Uneven – compiled but never published. - 1940 – From Six Books (publication suspended shortly after release, copies pulped and banned). - 1943 – Izbrannoe Stikhi/ Избранные Стишки (Selections of Poetry). Tashkent, government-edited. - Iva/ Ива – not separately published - Sed'maya kniga/ Седьмая Книга (Seventh Book) – not separately published - 1958 – Stikhotvoreniya/ Стихотворения (Poems) (25,000 copies) - 1961 – Stikhotvoreniya 1909–1960/ Стихотворения 1909-1960 (Poems: 1909–1960) - 1965 – Beg vremeni/ Бег Времени (The Flight of Time: Collected Works 1909–1965) ### Later editions - 1967 – Poems of Akhmatova. Ed. and trans. Stanley Kunitz, Boston - 1976 – Anna Akhmatova: Selected Poems (trans. D. M. Thomas); Penguin Books - 1985 – Twenty Poems of Anna Akhmatova (trans. Jane Kenyon); Eighties Press and Ally Press; - 1988 – Selected Poems (trans. Richard McKane); Bloodaxe Books Ltd; - 2000 – The Complete Poems of Anna Akhmatova (trans. Judith Hemschemeyer; ed. Roberta Reeder); Zephyr Press; - 2004 – The Word That Causes Death's Defeat: Poems of Memory (Annals of Communism) (trans. Nancy Anderson). Yale University Press. - 2006 – Selected Poems (trans. D. M. Thomas); Penguin Classics; - 2009 – Selected Poems (trans. Walter Arndt); Overlook TP; ## See also - Anna Akhmatova Literary and Memorial Museum - Akhmatova's Orphans
21,771,468	Scutellinia scutellata	1,114,832,075	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1753", "Fungi of Africa", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Colombia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of Iceland", "Fungi of New Guinea", "Fungi of North America", "Fungi of Oceania", "Fungi of South America", "Fungi without expected TNC conservation status", "Human eyelashes", "Inedible fungi", "Pyronemataceae", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	Scutellinia scutellata, commonly known as the eyelash cup, the Molly eye-winker, the scarlet elf cap, the eyelash fungus or the eyelash pixie cup, is a small saprophytic fungus of the genus Scutellinia. It is the type species of Scutellinia, as well as being the most common and widespread. The fruiting bodies are small red cups with distinct long, dark hairs or "eyelashes". These eyelashes are the most distinctive feature and are easily visible with a magnifying glass. The species is common in North America and Europe, and has been recorded on every continent. S. scutellata is found on rotting wood and in other damp habitats, typically growing in small groups, sometimes forming clusters. It is sometimes described as inedible, but its small size means it is not suitable for culinary use. Despite this, it is popular among mushroom hunters due to its unusual "eyelash" hairs, making it memorable and easy to identify. ## Taxonomy Scutellinia scutellata was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his book Species Plantarum as Peziza scutellata, and it was given its current name by Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte in Memoires societe royale des sciences de Liege in 1887. It was also named Patella scutellata in 1902. The specific name scutellata is from the Latin for "like a small shield". Common names include the eyelash fungus, the eyelash cup, the scarlet elf cap, the Molly eye-winker and the eyelash pixie cup. The genus Scutellinia is currently placed in the family Pyronemataceae. However, genera of the Pyronemataceae lack unifying macroscopic or microscopic characteristics; this lack of uniting characters has led various authors to propose a variety of classification schemes. A 1996 study of British specimens of Scutellinia revealed that the species S. crinita, originally described as Peziza crinita in 1789 by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard, was synonymous with S. scutellata. ## Description The fruiting body of S. scutellata is a shallow disc shape, typically between 0.2 to 1 cm (0.1 to 0.4 in) in diameter. The youngest specimens are almost entirely spherical; the cups open up and expand to a disc during maturity. The inner surface of the cup (the fertile spore-bearing surface, known as the hymenium) is bright orange-red, while the outer surface (the sterile surface) is pale brown. The flesh is red and thin. The outer surface is covered in dark coloured, stiff hairs, measuring up to 1 centimetre (0.4 in) in length. At the base, these hairs are up to 40 μm (0.0016 in) thick, and they taper towards the pointed apices. The hairs form distinctive "eyelashes" on the margin of the cup that are visible to the naked eye. or easily visible through a magnifying glass. S. scutellata is sessile—it does not have a stalk. ### Microscopic features Scutellinia scutellata has asci of approximately 300 μm by 25 μm in size, and releases elliptical spores measuring 18 to 19 μm by 10 to 12 μm. The translucent (hyaline) ascospores have a rough exterior, (with very small warts) and contain small droplets of oil. They are white when present in large numbers, like a spore print. The paraphyses are cylindrical in shape and feature septa partitioning the hypha into distinct cells. Electron microscopy of the top of the ascus has revealed a roughly delimited operculum (a flap-like covering of the ascus) and ascostome (a pore in the apex of the ascus), and a subapical ring. ## Edibility Scutellinia scutellata is inedible. David Arora considers it too small to be of any culinary interest, and it lacks a distinctive smell or taste. ## Distribution and habitat Scutellinia scutellata is common in both Europe, where it can be found from late spring to late autumn, and North America, where it fruits in winter and spring. It has also been collected in Cameroon, Colombia, East Asia, India, Iceland, Israel, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, Russia, and Turkey. A saprobic species, it grows generally in subalpine regions, fruiting on rotten wood and damp soil, and can also sometimes be found on ashes, wet leaves or bracket fungi. In Alaska it has been found growing on humus in the tundra. A six-year study of the succession of fungal flora appearing on freshly cut stumps of Poplar trees (Populus canadensis) showed that S. scutellata appeared roughly in the middle of the fungal succession (about 2–4 years after the tree had been cut), along with the species Ascocoryne sarcoides, Scutellinia cervorum, and Lasiosphaeria spermoides. When growing on wood, it is often obscured by surrounding moss. Though sometimes found alone, they typically fruit in groups, sometimes forming dense clusters on rotting wood or other plant detritus. Due to its small size, it is often overlooked, but mycologist Vera Evenson has observed that "the discovery of the Eyelash Cup is always a great pleasure", due to "the beauty of the eyelashes". Vera McKnight describes it as "a most attractive little fungus", and claims it is easy to notice due to its bright colouration. ## Carotenoids The carotenoids are pigmented molecules found naturally in plants, and some types of fungi, including S. scutellata. A 1965 study reported the carotenoid composition of this fungus, found to contain a high proportion of monocyclic carotenes—carotenes with only one cyclohexene ring, such as beta-carotene. Also present were minor amounts of xanthophyll, a molecule structurally related to the carotenes. ## Similar species Of more than a dozen species of Scutellinia, S. scutellata is the most common and widespread, though a microscope is required to differentiate between some of them. It is also the type species of the genus. It is differentiated from most other Scutellinia by its larger size, and its distinctive "eyelashes". Although David Arora describes S. scutellata as "easily recognizable", it can be mistaken for S. umbrarum (which has a larger fruiting body and larger spores, as well as having shorter, less obvious hairs) S. erinaceus (which is slightly smaller, and orange to yellow in colour, with smooth spores), Cheilymenia crucipila (which is much smaller, with short, pale hairs and spores lacking oil droplets) and Melastiza chateri, which is bright orange with small brown hairs. The "Pennsylvania eyelash cup" (S. pennsylvanica) is a smaller North American version that has smaller hairs and spores that are more coarsely warted than S. scutellata. S. barlae is very similar as well, and can only be reliably distinguished by its roughly spherical ascospores that are typically 17–23 μm in diameter. Species from the genus Lamprospora are smaller and hairless. Similar fungi that favour dung over rotting wood include Cheilymenia coprinaria, C. theleboides, and Coprobia granulata while species such as Anthracobia macrocystis, Anthracobia melaloma, Trichophaea abundans, Pyronema omphalodes, Pulvinula carbonaria and Pulvinula archeri are cup fungi that favour burned-over ground. Another similar species is Lachnellula arida.
34,610,141	Hari's on Tour (Express)	1,138,031,203	null	[ "1970s instrumentals", "1974 songs", "Apple Records singles", "George Harrison songs", "Jazz-funk songs", "Music published by Oops Publishing and Ganga Publishing, B.V.", "Rock instrumentals", "Song recordings produced by George Harrison", "Songs written by George Harrison" ]	"Hari's on Tour (Express)" is an instrumental by English musician George Harrison, released as the opening track of his 1974 album Dark Horse. It was also the B-side of the album's second single – which was "Ding Dong, Ding Dong" in North America and most other territories, and "Dark Horse" in Britain and some European countries. Among Harrison's post-Beatles solo releases, the track is the first of only two genuine instrumentals he released from 1970 onwards – the other being the Grammy Award-winning "Marwa Blues", from his 2002 album Brainwashed. Harrison recorded "Hari's on Tour" in April 1974 at a spontaneous session held at his home, Friar Park. A slide guitar-based composition, the track also features saxophonist Tom Scott and the latter's jazz-rock band L.A. Express, who were touring as Joni Mitchell's backing group at the time. It was the first Harrison song to feature Scott, who became a regular collaborator and served as band leader during Harrison's only series of concerts in North America, the highly publicised "Dark Horse Tour" with Ravi Shankar. "Hari's on Tour (Express)" was played as the opening number throughout this tour, over November and December 1974. Although music critics and Harrison biographers have generally viewed the album track in an unfavourable light, several concert reviewers identified it as an effective opener for the shows. "Hari's on Tour" is one of only two songs from the 1974 tour to have been released officially, after a live version was included on the limited-edition Songs by George Harrison 2 EP in 1992. This live recording was taken from the Washington, DC stop on the tour, during which Harrison met with President Gerald Ford at the White House. ## Background George Harrison first worked with jazz saxophonist, flautist and arranger Tom Scott in April 1973, during the Los Angeles sessions for Ravi Shankar's Shankar Family & Friends album. The two musicians also contributed to Ringo Starr's album Ringo around that time, as well as Cheech & Chong's Los Cochinos. Outside of his session work, Scott's main activities were leading his band, L.A. Express, and backing Joni Mitchell, both live and in the studio. Just as Harrison had long combined elements of Hindustani classical music with Western rock and gospel, and was now moving towards the funk and soul genres, Scott's solo work fused jazz, funk, pop and Middle Eastern influences. His collaborations with Mitchell also coincided with her move from confessional folk songwriting towards pop and jazz, and eventually avant garde. Harrison, Scott and Mitchell soon developed a mutual rapport, according to L.A. Express bassist Max Bennett. In addition to carrying out further sessions for Shankar Family & Friends in Los Angeles, in March 1974, Harrison had begun spending time there trying to set up his own record label, with the winding down of the Beatles' Apple Records from mid 1973 onwards. In August 1973, rumours in the music industry claimed that Harrison, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez and Paul Simon were forming a label together; in fact, Harrison founded Dark Horse Records, one of the first releases of which was the Shankar album, and Dylan temporarily signed with David Geffen's Asylum Records, which was Mitchell's label. ## Composition and recording Mitchell's tour in support of her critically acclaimed Court and Spark album arrived in London in April 1974. While backstage at her and Scott's show at the New Victoria Theatre, Harrison invited the five members of the L.A. Express to come out to his Oxfordshire home, Friar Park, the following day. Bennett recalls that they arrived by limousine and he mistook the property's grand gatehouse for the main residence. Scott later told music journalist Michael Gross that only a social visit was planned, but the band were impressed with Friar Park's 16-track home studio, FPSHOT, and Harrison suggested they record something. The first song they worked on was an untitled instrumental tune that later became known as "Hari's on Tour (Express)", for which Scott made a lead sheet for the band. Part of the title was taken from "Hari Georgeson", the latest pseudonym adopted by Harrison when working with non-EMI/Capitol artists, since he was still contracted to Apple until January 1976. Harrison played slide guitar on the track, in his preferred open E tuning, adopting a similar sound to the one he had used three years earlier on John Lennon's song "How Do You Sleep?" Aside from Scott and Bennett's contributions, on saxophone and bass, respectively, the other musicians were Robben Ford (electric guitar), Roger Kellaway (piano) and John Guerin (drums). Harrison's musical biographer, Simon Leng, writes that the tune predominantly uses major chords, with the "main melodic interest" coming with a shift to C# minor seventh, which provides "a moment of softening sweetness". Leng notes the contrast between Harrison's Fender Stratocaster "roaring into action" on this song and the "opulence" of his previous album, Living in the Material World, and suggests that Harrison now "just wanted to be one of the boys" in a "working, rocking band". The engineer at the session was Phil McDonald. According to Scott, the basic track took "a couple of hours" before they had a satisfactory take. The musicians then recorded a second song, "Simply Shady", which, like "Hari's on Tour", would be included on Harrison's forthcoming album, Dark Horse. The five band members stayed over at Friar Park before Ford, Bennett, Kellaway and Guerin left for Denver the following day. Scott says he stayed on and worked further with Harrison at FPSHOT; in addition to the various horn parts, he played organ on "Hari's on Tour". In the same interview with Gross, for Circus Raves magazine, Scott recalled that he was the first Western musician that Harrison approached about joining him and Shankar for a tour of the United States and Canada later in the year. The tour would be the first in North America by a former Beatle since the group's 1966 US visit, and Harrison's first live performances since his staging of the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971. Rather than include Beatles material on the 1974 tour, however, Harrison planned to present a varied program combining rock, soul/R&B, jazz, funk and Indian classical music. Eight Arms to Hold You authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest that "Hari's on Tour (Express)" was written "simply as a show opener" for the North American concerts, which would also feature Harrison's former Apple Records protégé Billy Preston. Although his 1969 experimental album Electronic Sound consists of Moog synthesizer sounds and the 1968 Wonderwall Music soundtrack is almost entirely devoid of vocals, out of all the tracks released by Harrison as a solo artist after the Beatles' break-up in 1970, "Hari's on Tour" is a rare example of a genuine instrumental composition. Only 2002's "Marwa Blues" stands as another. Among other projects they worked on together through to the early 1980s, Harrison played on the instrumental "Appolonia (Foxtrata)", from Scott's 1975 album New York Connection, and Scott helped produce Harrison's debut on Dark Horse Records, Thirty Three & 1/3. ## North American tour and album release Harrison's overcommittal of his time to Dark Horse acts Ravi Shankar and Splinter during 1974 resulted in him having to rush-record much of Dark Horse while preparing for the North American tour. Due to the pressure, Harrison developed laryngitis during rehearsals and damaged his voice. As well as placing further importance on the instrumentals in his setlist, which included "Hari's on Tour (Express)" and Scott's track "Tom Cat", Harrison's depleted vocals marred the concerts for many observers. In addition, while many critics admired the adventurousness of the musical program and reviewed the shows favourably, others, particularly in music publications such as Rolling Stone, wrote scathingly of Harrison's reluctance to acknowledge the Beatles' legacy, together with his willingness to share the spotlight so readily with Shankar's orchestra of classical musicians and Preston. In his role as band leader, Scott spoke out in support of Harrison's musical direction and refuted reports that the tour was not going well; instead, he told Circus Raves, audience reaction had been "radically different from city to city" and dependent on whether concertgoers chose to listen, or came expecting to hear the Beatles. Harrison played "Hari's on Tour" as the opening song throughout the tour, which began on 2 November 1974 in Vancouver and ended in New York City on 20 December. It was preceded by a recording of Monty Python's "The Lumberjack Song", played through the concert PA while the band took the stage. As the many bootlegs from the tour reveal, early on in each performance of "Hari's on Tour", Harrison often called out a greeting to the city or town in question. Some concert reviewers referred to the song as "Hari Good Boy Express" or "Hari Good Bye Express". The first of these two titles is how Harrison named the track on the preliminary artwork included in the 2014 reissue of Dark Horse. The studio version appeared as the opening track on Dark Horse, followed by "Simply Shady". Due to the delay in its completion, the album was released on 9 December in North America, towards the end of the Harrison–Shankar tour, and a few days before Christmas in Britain. Although Christmas shows in the UK had been under consideration, no such performances took place, and Harrison's only tour after 1974 would be a series of Japanese concerts in December 1991 with Eric Clapton. Following its initial release, "Hari's on Tour" was issued as the B-side to the second single off the album – "Ding Dong, Ding Dong" in the United States, Canada and a number of other territories, and "Dark Horse" in Britain and some other European countries. ## Reception Contrasting with his successes as a solo artist since 1970, Dark Horse earned Harrison the worst critical notices of his career. "Hari's on Tour (Express)" drew a favourable response during the 1974 tour, however, as reviewers commented on the energy with which the band performed the piece. In his feature article on the West Coast concerts, for Rolling Stone, Ben Fong-Torres described the song as a "well-arranged, tension-and-release number", while the Pacific Sun called it "a zingy and classically melodic instrumental ... a touchstone of the Harrison style". Reviewing the second show of the tour, D.P. Bond of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer wrote: "Harrison's opening instrumental piece was beautiful: the fullest, finest explosion of rock 'n' roll that I think I have ever heard." The NME's Bob Woffinden wrote a notably unfavourable assessment of the Dark Horse album, in which he found "Hari's on Tour" to be "an unevenly paced boogie thing that has George blowing most of his licks straightaway and Tom Scott coming on with a few quasi-Jnr. Walker bursts". Woffinden continued: "Which, you feel, would not be a bad appetiser for the real meat to follow. Unfortunately, Hari's vegetarian." In an equally unfavourable review of the album, Jim Miller of Rolling Stone dismissed the track as "banal". Harrison biographer Alan Clayson refers to Hari's on Tour" as "an instrumental that went in one ear and out the other", while in The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler described it as sounding like "a backing track from which the vocal line has mysteriously been deleted". Author Elliot Huntley acknowledges that the musicians "performed brilliantly" on the recording, but adds, "unfortunately brilliant musicians alone do not a good song make". Echoing the magazine's earlier support for the tour, Brian Harrigan of Melody Maker praised Harrison's "nifty slide guitar" on the opening song and throughout the album, which he felt "should certainly do a tremendous amount to salvage George's battered reputation". In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever, Nicholas Schaffner similarly opined that "Hari's on Tour" "boasts some mean licks" while commenting that neither the tour nor the album "warrant[ed] all the abuse they got". Writing more recently for AllMusic, Richard Ginell describes the recording as "Tom Scott's L.A. Express churning out all-pro L.A.-studio jazz/rock" and adds that the song "gets the doomed project off to a spirited start". Simon Leng views this "neat instrumental" as a collaborative effort between Harrison and Scott, and a logical step for the guitarist, given Harrison's early appreciation of Chet Atkins' instrumentals. Leng regrets Harrison's apparent abandoning of his "meticulous approach" to recording in favour of uncharacteristic spontaneity, and concludes: "Ultimately, this good-time guitar showcase is as relevant as Dylan's 'Nashville Skyline Rag'." Ian Inglis writes of Scott's soprano sax producing an "atmosphere of anticipation" similar to a successful film or television theme, and identifies "Hari's on Tour" as an indication that Harrison, some years before his career became focused on movie production, was able to "effectively incorporate the conventions of a soundtrack within the codes of rock". Reviewing the 2014 reissue of Dark Horse, Joe Marchese of The Second Disc describes the track as "a bright opening to an album that would considerably darken in tone". ## Live version Harrison recorded and filmed several of the 1974 concerts for a planned release, but only live versions of this instrumental and "For You Blue" have ever been issued officially. In 1992, "Hari's on Tour" appeared on the four-song EP accompanying Songs by George Harrison 2, a limited-edition, hand-bound book produced by Genesis Publications. Text accompanying this disc gives the recording information as simply "live in Washington DC in 1974", referring to Harrison's 13 December show at the Capital Centre in Landover, Maryland, a suburb of Washington. The book was limited to a print run of 2500 and published on 22 June 1992. Described by Leng as "the leading performers of the period", Harrison's tour band comprised Scott and Robben Ford from the L.A. Express, Preston on keyboards, jazz percussionist Emil Richards, the rhythm section of Willie Weeks and Andy Newmark, and additional horn players Jim Horn and Chuck Findley. Jim Keltner joined as second drummer midway through the tour, and some of Ravi Shankar's musicians played during Harrison's portion of each show. The sound heard during the opening seconds of "Hari's on Tour" is a sarangi, played by Sultan Khan, who was one of the fifteen musicians in Shankar's orchestra. The Washington stop was among the highlights of the tour. At the invitation of Jack Ford – son of US president Gerald Ford – Harrison, Shankar, Scott, Preston and others in the entourage visited the White House on 13 December, where Harrison met with President Ford. Surprised at the "good vibes" there so soon after the Watergate hearings, Harrison asked Ford to personally intercede in both John Lennon's struggle to be allowed to remain in the United States, and the US Treasury's audit of the funds raised through the Concert for Bangladesh. Madinger and Easter write that this released version of the song is most likely a composite of performances from the evening show at Landover and the 6 December matinee performance at Toronto's Maple Leaf Gardens. As with all the tracks from the highly priced Songs by George Harrison volumes, "Hari's on Tour (Express)" is available unofficially on bootleg compilations such as Pirate Songs. ## Personnel - George Harrison – slide guitar, acoustic guitar - Tom Scott – saxophones, horn arrangement, organ - Robben Ford – electric guitar - Roger Kellaway – piano - Max Bennett – bass - John Guerin – drums - uncredited – tambourine
30,487,307	New Harmony Toll Bridge	1,163,672,138	Bridge across the Wabash River	[ "1930 establishments in Illinois", "1930 establishments in Indiana", "2012 disestablishments in Illinois", "2012 disestablishments in Indiana", "Bridges completed in 1930", "Buildings and structures in White County, Illinois", "Former toll bridges in Illinois", "Former toll bridges in Indiana", "Parker truss bridges in the United States", "Road bridges in Illinois", "Road bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana", "Steel bridges in the United States", "Transportation buildings and structures in Posey County, Indiana", "Wabash River" ]	The New Harmony Toll Bridge, also known as the Harmony Way Bridge, is a now-closed two-lane bridge across the Wabash River that connects Illinois Route 14 with Indiana State Road 66, which is Church Street in New Harmony, Indiana. The bridge links White County, Illinois with Posey County, Indiana and carried U.S. Route 460 from 1947 until 1974 when the highway was decommissioned in Illinois and Indiana. The four-span bridge is owned by the White County Bridge Commission and was built without federal funds in 1930 by the Big Wabash Bridge Company of Carmi, Illinois. The next bridge across the Wabash about 15 miles (24 km) downstream is the Wabash Memorial Bridge near Mount Vernon, Indiana and the next bridge upstream is for Interstate 64, which does not allow farm vehicles. ## Details As originally designed, the bridge is 2,579 feet (0.49 of a mile) long. It has 47 spans and a 20 foot wide concrete roadway. The bridge is the first highway bridge erected across the lower Wabash River and the oldest remaining bridge in use over the Wabash's length in Illinois and half of Indiana. The original owner was a private company, the Big Wabash Bridge Company of Carmi, Illinois, which was chartered by Congress to build and operate the bridge on May 1, 1928. The company contracted with the Nashville Bridge Company of Nashville, Tennessee to build it. The bridge opened on December 21, 1930, and 10,000 people attended the dedication of the bridge on December 30, 1930. In 1941, Congress created the White County Bridge Commission as a joint Illinois-Indiana agency to purchase the bridge from the Big Wabash Bridge Company for \$895,000. About 900 vehicles crossed the bridge each day. The bridge collected an average of \$30,000 in monthly tolls and had \$22,000 in monthly expenses. The bridge was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 in part because of its relationship to historic New Harmony, Indiana, as well as the bridge's age. The three-member commission was established by Congress on April 12, 1941, but Congress repealed the statute providing for an appointment mechanism in 1998. The commission's general manager, who is 75, speculated that the bridge would close if the three current commissioners would resign or die. In 1951, the current toll booth on the western edge of the river was constructed by the Electronic Signal Company, to replace an earlier booth on the eastern edge. In 1952, a tollpayer sued to exercise his right to inspect the books and records of the commission, but lost his lawsuit and was not allowed access. In 1955, the General Accounting Office issued a report critical of the commission and claiming that one commissioner had a conflict of interest. In response, the U.S. Department of Justice filed a suit seeking removal of the commissioner and recovery of the misapplied funds. However, the courts dismissed the case. In 1994, the commission contracted to apply an epoxy coating on the bridge's surface, but the coating delaminated and the commission refused to pay the contractor claiming that the coating had not been applied correctly. After a trial, the commission lost the lawsuit and paid. From September 2007 to April 2008, the bridge to closed to all traffic when cracks appeared in some of the concrete support piers. During the closure, contractors added new pilings to the existing piers and made other required repairs. In 2010, engineers determined that the bridge required an additional \$6 million in repairs. The National Bridge Inventory rated the bridge "Structurally Deficient." ## Closure On May 21, 2012, it was announced that the bridge would close permanently at noon on May 29, 2012. White County Bridge Commission member Jim Clark stated, "the cost to make repairs was more than we could imagine." However, Clark then made the decision to close the bridge immediately after receiving the complete report from a team of nine engineers who inspected the bridge. "I knew it was bad, but didn't know just how bad until I received their full report by email Monday morning," Clark said. "Once I saw their weight-load calculations, I knew we had to shut it down right away. We couldn't wait until May 29." The thirteen toll booth employees were laid off. As of the closure there are \$49,015 in toll tickets that have not been used. Refunds were given for thirty days from the closure. The closure of the New Harmony Bridge as reported in the Evansville Courier & Press would have a significant impact on farmers in the area and the oil industry. The bridge's closure increases the distance between New Harmony and Crossville, Illinois, by about ten miles. The New Harmony Toll Bridge was identified as a top priority among the thousands of rural bridges in the United States worthy of repair in President Biden's “American Jobs Plan” proposed on March 31, 2021. The Bill must first be approved by The US Congress, including votes by Indiana's 8th Congressional District Representative Larry Bucshon and US Senators Todd Young and Mike Braun. All three subsequently voted against the final bill. On the Illinois side, Mary Miller of Illinois's 15th congressional district voted no, while Senators Dick Durbin and Tammy Duckworth voted yes.
54,270,854	Terrorist Recognition Handbook	1,173,559,930	Book by Malcolm Nance	[ "2003 non-fiction books", "American non-fiction books", "Books about Islamic fundamentalism", "Books about al-Qaeda", "Books about counterterrorism", "Books by Malcolm Nance", "Non-fiction books about jihadism", "Non-fiction books about war", "Political science books" ]	Terrorist Recognition Handbook: A Practitioner's Manual for Predicting and Identifying Terrorist Activities is a non-fiction book about counterterrorism strategies, written by U.S. Navy retired cryptology analyst Malcolm Nance. The book is intended to help law enforcement and intelligence officials with the professional practice of behavior analysis and criminal psychology of anticipating potential terrorists before they commit criminal acts. Nance draws from the field of traditional criminal analysis to posit that detecting domestic criminals is similar to determining which individuals are likely to commit acts of terrorism. The book provides resources for the law enforcement official including descriptions of devices used for possible bombs, a database of terrorist networks, and a list of references used. Nance gives the reader background on Al-Qaeda tactics, clandestine cell systems and sleeper agents, and terrorist communication methods. Terrorist Recognition Handbook received two separate book reviews in the academic journal Perspectives on Terrorism. The journal placed the book on its "Top 150 Books on Terrorism and Counterterrorism". Its second review of the book wrote that the Terrorist Recognition Handbook "provides a comprehensive and detailed treatment of terrorism and counter-terrorism." A review published by RSA Conference called it "required reading", and "a must-read for anyone tasked with or interested in anti-terrorism activities." Midwest Book Review rated it "highly recommended for those in charge of security and community library military collections." ## Background Malcolm Nance is a retired U.S. Navy Senior Chief Petty Officer in naval cryptology. He garnered expertise within the fields of intelligence and counterterrorism. He served in the U.S. Navy for 20 years, from 1981 to 2001. Nance was an interpreter for Russian, and began working in the intelligence field through research into the history of the Soviet Union and its spying agency the KGB. He devoted years of research to analyzing Middle East terrorism and sovereign nations with ties to Russia. He graduated from New York's Excelsior College with a degree in Arabic. Nance took part in combat operations which occurred after the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings, was involved with the 1986 United States bombing of Libya, served on USS Wainwright during Operation Praying Mantis and participated in the sinking of Iranian missile boat Joshan, served on USS Tripoli during the Gulf War, and assisted during a Banja Luka, Bosnia air strike. After retiring from military service, Nance founded a consulting company based in Georgetown, Washington, D.C. where he provided advising services to United States Special Operations Command. During the September 11 attacks, Nance personally witnessed American Airlines Flight 77 crash into The Pentagon and he assisted in rescue operations at the impact site. He created a training center called the Advanced Terrorism, Abduction and Hostage Survival School. Nance manages a think tank analyzing counterterrorism called "Terror Asymmetrics Project on Strategy, Tactics and Radical Ideologies", consisting of Central Intelligence Agency and military intelligence officers with direct prior field experience. Nance is a member of the board of directors for the International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C. Nance's books on counter-terrorism include: The Terrorists of Iraq, An End to al-Qaeda, The Plot to Hack America, Defeating ISIS, and Hacking ISIS. ## Summary The book serves as a manual for counter-terrorism and law enforcement officials to prevent terrorist attacks. It is organized into six sections, covering topics including the motivations and methods of terrorists, warning signs of terrorism, intelligence collection management strategies, post-attack mitigation measures, and weapons used by terrorists, including weapons of mass destruction. Appendix resources include indexes of explosive materials and terrorist groups. Nance discusses suicide bombers, noting that it is crucial to understand their extremist religious views in order to anticipate their attacks. Nance also covers the modus operandi of terrorist cells which are a key component of terror operations. His analysis includes the different types of cells, as well as their common tactics, communication and recruitment methods. The book provides background on worldwide extremism ideologies and the operations of al-Qaeda across the world. It explains how al-Qaeda categorizes their targets as "Near Enemies" or "Far Enemies". The former group includes federal bureaucracies in India, Bangladesh, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. The latter includes Israel, Europe, Australia, and the United States. Nance emphasizes the splintered nature of al-Qaeda, which operates as a collective of smaller groups inspired by Osama bin Laden, with the Internet serving as a central organizing hub. He observes that where al-Qaeda had previously functioned as a set of terrorist entities, it shaped its operations to become more business-like, serving to disseminate information, motivate members, and provide economic funding for terrorist operations. ## Release and reception The book was first published in 2003. Its third edition was published in 2013 by CRC Press. An e-book edition was released the same year. CRC Press published another release of the third edition of the book, both in print and e-book formats. Nance's work received a book review from Midwest Book Review, which wrote: "Terrorist Recognition Handbook offers an examination of common and uncommon terrorist tactics – and how to identify an attack before it happens." The review concluded, "Terrorist Recognition Handbook: A Practitioner's Manual for Predicting and Identifying Terrorist Activities is highly recommended for those in charge of security and community library military collections." Terrorist Recognition Handbook received two separate book reviews in the academic journal Perspectives on Terrorism. The journal placed the book on its "Top 150 Books on Terrorism and Counterterrorism". Joshua Sinai wrote for Perspectives on Terrorism, "Written by a 20-year veteran of the U.S. intelligence community, this book provides an assessment of terrorists' motivations and methods, including a listing of pre-incident indicators of potential terrorist activity, and the methodologies required to organize such information into actionable intelligence for effective response measures." Sinai wrote of the resources contained within the monograph, "The information is explained through numerous illustrations, including explanations of the types of conventional weapons and weapons of mass destruction that might be used by terrorists." In his second review of the book for Perspectives on Terrorism, Sinai wrote that the book, "provides a comprehensive and detailed treatment of terrorism and counter-terrorism." Ben Rothke reviewed the book for RSA Conference, and called it "required reading". Rothke praised the author's expertise and writing style, "Terrorist Recognition Handbook: A Practitioner's Manual for Predicting and Identifying Terrorist Activities, is unique in that author Malcolm Nance is a 20-year veteran of the U.S. intelligence community and writes from a first hand-perspective, but with the organization and methodology of writers such as Pipes and Emerson. Those combined traits make the book extraordinarily valuable and perhaps the definitive text on terrorist recognition." Rothke's review concluded, "The Terrorist Recognition Handbook is a must-read for anyone tasked with or interested in anti-terrorism activities. One would hope that every TSA and Homeland Security manager and employee get a copy of this monumental reference." ## See also - List of books about al-Qaeda - Islamic extremism - Islamic fundamentalism - Islamic terrorism - Muslim attitudes toward terrorism
8,918,557	Ambush predator	1,171,590,734	Predator that sits and waits for prey to come to it	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Ethology", "Predation" ]	Ambush predators or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture or trap prey via stealth, luring or by (typically instinctive) strategies utilizing an element of surprise. Unlike pursuit predators, who chase to capture prey using sheer speed or endurance, ambush predators avoid fatigue by staying in concealment, waiting patiently for the prey to get near, before launching a sudden overwhelming attack that quickly incapacitates and captures the prey. The ambush is often opportunistic, and may be set by hiding in a burrow, by camouflage, by aggressive mimicry, or by the use of a trap (e.g. a web). The predator then uses a combination of senses to detect and assess the prey, and to time the strike. Nocturnal ambush predators such as cats and snakes have vertical slit pupils helping them to judge the distance to prey in dim light. Different ambush predators use a variety of means to capture their prey, from the long sticky tongues of chameleons to the expanding mouths of frogfishes. Ambush predation is widely distributed in the animal kingdom, spanning some members of numerous groups such as the starfish, cephalopods, crustaceans, spiders, insects such as mantises, and vertebrates such as many snakes and fishes. ## Strategy Ambush predators usually remain motionless (sometimes hidden) and wait for prey to come within ambush distance before pouncing. Ambush predators are often camouflaged, and may be solitary. Pursuit predation becomes a better strategy than ambush predation when the predator is faster than the prey. Ambush predators use many intermediate strategies. For example, when a pursuit predator is faster than its prey over a short distance, but not in a long chase, then either stalking or ambush becomes necessary as part of the strategy. ## Bringing the prey within range ### Concealment Ambush often relies on concealment, whether by staying out of sight or by means of camouflage. #### Burrows Ambush predators such as trapdoor spiders and Australian crab spiders on land and mantis shrimps in the sea rely on concealment, constructing and hiding in burrows. These provide effective concealment at the price of a restricted field of vision. Trapdoor spiders excavate a burrow and seal the entrance with a web trapdoor hinged on one side with silk. The best-known is the thick, bevelled "cork" type, which neatly fits the burrow's opening. The other is the "wafer" type; it is a basic sheet of silk and earth. The door's upper side is often effectively camouflaged with local materials such as pebbles and sticks. The spider spins silk fishing lines, or trip wires, that radiate out of the burrow entrance. When the spider is using the trap to capture prey, its chelicerae (protruding mouthparts) hold the door shut on the end furthest from the hinge. Prey make the silk vibrate, and alert the spider to open the door and ambush the prey. #### Camouflage Many ambush predators make use of camouflage so that their prey can come within striking range without detecting their presence. Among insects, coloration in ambush bugs closely matches the flower heads where they wait for prey. Among fishes, the warteye stargazer buries itself nearly completely in the sand and waits for prey. The devil scorpionfish typically lies partially buried on the sea floor or on a coral head during the day, covering itself with sand and other debris to further camouflage itself. The tasselled wobbegong is a shark whose adaptations as an ambush predator include a strongly flattened and camouflaged body with a fringe that breaks up its outline. Among amphibians, the Pipa pipa's brown coloration blends in with the murky waters of the Amazon Rainforest which allows for this species to lie in wait and ambush its prey. ### Aggressive mimicry Many ambush predators actively attract their prey towards them before ambushing them. This strategy is called aggressive mimicry, using the false promise of nourishment to lure prey. The alligator snapping turtle is a well-camouflaged ambush predator. Its tongue bears a conspicuous pink extension that resembles a worm and can be wriggled around; fish that try to eat the "worm" are themselves eaten by the turtle. Similarly, some reptiles such as Elaphe rat snakes employ caudal luring (tail luring) to entice small vertebrates into striking range. The zone-tailed hawk, which resembles the turkey vulture, flies among flocks of turkey vultures, then suddenly breaks from the formation and ambushes one of them as its prey. There is however some controversy about whether this is a true case of wolf in sheep's clothing mimicry. Flower mantises are aggressive mimics, resembling flowers convincingly enough to attract prey that come to collect pollen and nectar. The orchid mantis actually attracts its prey, pollinator insects, more effectively than flowers do. Crab spiders, similarly, are coloured like the flowers they habitually rest on, but again, they can lure their prey even away from flowers. ### Traps Some ambush predators build traps to help capture their prey. Lacewings are a flying insect in the order Neuroptera. In some species, their larval form, known as the antlion, is an ambush predator. Eggs are laid in the earth, often in caves or under a rocky ledge. The juvenile creates a small, crater shaped trap. The antlion hides under a light cover of sand or earth. When an ant, beetle or other prey slides into the trap, the antlion grabs the prey with its powerful jaws. Some but not all web-spinning spiders are sit-and-wait ambush predators. The sheetweb spiders (Linyphiidae) tend to stay with their webs for long periods and so resemble sit-and-wait predators, whereas the orb-weaving spiders (such as the Araneidae) tend to move frequently from one patch to another (and thus resemble active foragers). ## Detection and assessment Ambush predators must time their strike carefully. They need to detect the prey, assess it as worth attacking, and strike when it is in exactly the right place. They have evolved a variety of adaptations that facilitate this assessment. For example, pit vipers prey on small birds, choosing targets of the right size for their mouth gape: larger snakes choose larger prey. They prefer to strike prey that is both warm and moving; their pit organs between the eye and the nostril contain infrared (heat) receptors, enabling them to find and perhaps judge the size of their small, warm-blooded prey. In addition to the assessment aspect, sometimes when the predator cannot fit the prey into their mouth, they will 'put the prey back or leave it alone; this can be defined as "gape limitation" and typically make predators be seen as generalists (L15-BSCI361-Predation). The deep-sea tripodfish Bathypterois grallator uses tactile and mechanosensory cues to identify food in its low-light environment. The fish faces into the current, waiting for prey to drift by. Several species of Felidae (cats) and snakes have vertically elongated (slit) pupils, advantageous for nocturnal ambush predators as it helps them to estimate the distance to prey in dim light; diurnal and pursuit predators in contrast have round pupils. An ambush tactic done by wolves or lions can be considered a tactic by cooperative hunters, where a flock of a particular species hunts for their prey in a group so they can obtain much larger prey (L15-BSCI361-Predation). ## Capturing the prey Ambush predators often have adaptations for seizing their prey rapidly and securely. The capturing movement has to be rapid to trap the prey, given that the attack is not modifiable once launched. Zebra mantis shrimp capture agile prey such as fish primarily at night while hidden in burrows, striking very hard and fast, with a mean peak speed 2.30 m/s (5.1 mph) and mean duration of 24.98 ms. Chameleons (family Chamaeleonidae) are highly adapted as ambush predators. They can change colour to match their surroundings and often climb through trees with a swaying motion, probably to mimic the movement of the leaves and branches they are surrounded by. All chameleons are primarily insectivores and feed by ballistically projecting their tongues, often twice the length of their bodies, to capture prey. The tongue is projected in as little as 0.07 seconds, and is launched at an acceleration of over 41 g. The power with which the tongue is launched, over 3000 W kg<sup>−1</sup>, is more than muscle can produce, indicating that energy is stored in an elastic tissue for sudden release. All fishes face a basic problem when trying to swallow prey: opening their mouth may pull food in, but closing it will push the food out again. Frogfishes capture their prey by suddenly opening their jaws, with a mechanism which enlarges the volume of the mouth cavity up to 12-fold and pulls the prey (crustaceans, molluscs and other whole fishes) into the mouth along with water; the jaws close without reducing the volume of the mouth cavity. The attack can be as fast as 6 milliseconds. ## Taxonomic range Ambush predation is widely distributed across the animal kingdom. It is found in many vertebrates including fishes such as the frogfishes (anglerfishes) of the sea bottom, and the pikes of freshwater; reptiles including crocodiles, snapping turtles, the mulga dragon, and many snakes such as the black mamba; mammals such as the cats; and birds such as the anhinga (darter). The strategy is found in several invertebrate phyla including arthropods such as mantises, purseweb spiders, and some crustaceans; cephalopod molluscs such as the colossal squid; and starfish such as Leptasterias tenera. ## See also - Phrynus longipes#Predation
24,646,314	Whitehall Building	1,162,527,927	Mixed-use building in Manhattan, New York	[ "Financial District, Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "Privately owned public spaces", "Residential skyscrapers in Manhattan", "Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan", "West Side Highway" ]	The Whitehall Building is a three-section residential and office building near the southern tip of Manhattan Island in New York City, adjacent to Battery Park in lower Manhattan. The original 20-story structure on Battery Place, between West Street and Washington Street, was designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, while the 31-story Whitehall Building Annex on West Street was designed by Clinton and Russell. The original building and annex are both at 17 Battery Place. Another 22-story addition at 2 Washington Street, an International Style building located north of the original building and east of the annex, was designed by Morris Lapidus. The original Whitehall Building and its annex has a Renaissance Revival style facade, and the two original structures' articulations consist of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column—namely a base, shaft, and capital. Since the building is located on landfill along the Hudson River, its foundation incorporates a non-standard design. The Whitehall Building is named after the nearby estate of New Amsterdam colonial governor Peter Stuyvesant. The original building was built as a speculative development in 1902–1904 for Robert A. and William H. Chesebrough, a real estate company. The annex was built in 1908–1910, and 2 Washington Street was built in 1972. In 2000, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the Whitehall Building as an official city landmark. The upper floors of the original building and annex were converted to apartments, while the lower floors remain in use as an office building. ## Site The Whitehall Building is located near the southernmost point on Manhattan Island, closer to its western shore. The original building faces West Street to the west, Battery Place to the south, and Washington Street and the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel portal to the east. It is adjacent to the Downtown Athletic Club building at 20 West Street to the north, which occupies the entire width of the block between West and Washington Streets. The annex on West Street and the 2 Washington Street addition each occupy half the width of the block between Washington and West Streets. The building stands on filled land along the shore of the North River (an archaic name for the southernmost portion of the Hudson River). The surrounding neighborhood, the Financial District, was the first part of Manhattan to be developed as part of New Netherland and later New York City; its population growth led city officials to add land on Manhattan's shore by filling and land reclamation in the 18th and 19th centuries. As the North River shoreline was deeper and had a denser concentration of buildings than the East River shoreline on the east side of Manhattan Island, the land under the Whitehall Building was not filled until 1835, when debris from the Great Fire of New York was dumped there. These filling operations also led to the expansion of Battery Park, directly to the south. The site of the Whitehall Building was first occupied by small landowners who built houses in the area. The surrounding neighborhood became a financial and shipping hub during the late 19th century, and as the Financial District became more densely developed, the residential landowners moved uptown and their former lands were replaced with larger commercial buildings. ## Architecture ### Original structure and annex The original structure (also called the Lesser Whitehall or just the Whitehall Building) is a 20-story building on Battery Place. It was designed by Henry J. Hardenbergh, and according to Moses King, had 400 offices. The Whitehall Building's annex, also known as the Whitehall Extension or Greater Whitehall, is a 31-story skyscraper on West Street, north of the original Whitehall Building's western section. Designed by Clinton and Russell, it was the largest office building in New York City at the time of its completion. Both structures contain Renaissance Revival facades with colorful granite, brick, limestone, and architectural terracotta cladding, which in turn was inspired from the sites' highly visible location at the southern tip of Manhattan Island. #### Form The original building measures 150.6 feet (45.9 m) along Battery Place to the south. Due to the irregular shape of the lot, its western boundary along West Street is 69.1 feet (21.1 m) long and the eastern boundary on Washington Street is 63.4 feet (19.3 m) long. The annex occupies a lot measuring 181 feet (55 m) along West Street, with a depth ranging from 63 to 69 feet (19 to 21 m). A two-bay-wide, two-story section facing West Street, as well as an elevator structure toward the center of the block between West and Washington Streets, connect the annex and original building. The elevator structure is the same height as the annex and consists of a convex section with cast-iron cladding, as well as a straight section with brick facade. The original structure and annex form an "L" shape and appear as two slabs, as viewed from Battery Park. #### Facade The facade of the original structure is designed into three horizontal layers: a base, tower, and crown. The original structure is composed of 12 vertical bays facing Battery Place; the center six bays are slightly recessed, and at ground level, contain three double-width, double-height entrance arches with ornate lintels. The base, which is composed of the basement, first floor, and mezzanine, have a facade of rusticated blocks of limestone. The second through fifth floors contain a facade of tan brick and stone, and a cornice above the fifth floor. The fourth-floor windows on Battery Place are elaborately ornamented, with cast-iron railings in the six center windows on Battery Place, and pediments above the remaining windows. On the sixth through sixteenth floors, the center six bays on Battery Place are faced with red brick and mortar, while the outer bays and the side facades have a facade of yellow brick with pink strips. The terracotta-faced eighteenth floor acts as a transitional story. Above the 20th story is a large cornice with brick piers that emulate the base's articulation, and above the Battery Place facade, a triangular brick pediment with an ornate depiction of an oculus. The West Street facade of the original building is five bays wide and contains similar materials and symbolic elements as on the Battery Place facade. The first floor and mezzanine are faced with rusticated limestone, the second through fifth floors contain a facade of tan brick, and the upper floors are faced with yellow brick. The center bay on West Street contains four steps, leading to a window that replaced a former entrance. The metal cornices atop the building on West and Washington Streets have been removed. The northern facade is faced with plain brick. The original building's Washington Street facade is four bays wide, but otherwise is the same as the West Street facade in design. The annex has its principal facade on West Street, which is eleven bays wide. The annex has a base of limestone that rises to the sixth story, and as with the original building, the basement, first floor and mezzanine consist of rusticated blocks of limestone. The seventh through 23rd floors each contain two rectangular window openings per bay, and have a brick facade; there are cornices at the top and bottom of the 23rd floor. On West Street, the 24th through 29th floor windows are slightly recessed behind an arched arcade that wraps around the rest of the annex, and contain decorated terracotta detailing; the 29th floor windows are rounded and semicircular. The 30th floor contains elaborate terracotta detailing, with two windows per bay, and a 31st floor contains penthouses recessed behind a balustrade. At the top of the tower that rises above the annex, there is a south-facing rounded pediment and a water tower. The northern elevation of the annex contains a three-bay-wide largely plain yellow-brick facade. The piers at each corner are rusticated. The outer bays contain a single window on each floor. The 24th through 29th floor windows are arranged as in an arcade, the 30th-story windows are round headed, and the 31st-story windows are square-headed. The eastern facade of the annex has similar ornamentation as on West Street. #### Features The original building measures 259 feet (79 m) to its rooftop while the annex measures 416 feet (127 m) to its rooftop. Underlying the site, a layer of hardpan was present between 27 and 36 feet (8.2 and 11.0 m) below the ground, while rock was 33 to 65 feet (10 to 20 m) below the ground. The foundation of the original building was dug by 48 pneumatic caissons sunk to 45 feet (14 m) below the curb. Of these, 32 were cylindrical while the other 16 were rectangular. The original building's caissons support 53 steel columns in the original building's superstructure. Air shafts and air locks for the workers were inside the caissons. The basement of the annex, which contains the building's boiler room and electrical equipment, was dug by timber and steel caissons. The annex basement is enclosed in a concrete cofferdam with 7-foot-thick (2.1 m) walls, made of caissons joined from end to end. While the basement floor is 10 feet (3.0 m) below sea level and consists of a 2-foot-thick (0.61 m) concrete layer, the walls of the cofferdam descend 33 to 40 feet (10 to 12 m) below the floor of the basement. Other portions of the foundation included I-beam grillages and distributing girders. The annex superstructure contains 71 main columns, 53 of which sit atop forty-five granite foundation piers. The other 18 main columns are inside the boiler room walls and are carried down directly to the hardpan. As with the original building, the annex's caissons contained air shafts and air locks. The annex incorporates 30 elevators, 14,000 short tons (13,000 t) of structural steel, 8,400,000 short tons (7,600,000 t) of brick, and 45,000 imperial barrels (1,900,000 U.S. gal) of cement. The superstructure of the annex contains a steel frame with floors made of inverted concrete arches; tile partitions; copper windows; and steel stairs with marble treads. ### 2 Washington Street 2 Washington Street (also known as 17 Battery Place North or One Western Union International Plaza), was built in 1972 and measures 271 feet (83 m) with 22 floors. The structure was designed by Morris Lapidus in the International Style, and unlike the other two sections, does not have official landmark protection. The facade is a simple glass curtain wall. On the eastern side of 2 Washington Street is a privately owned public space. ## History ### Development of original structure The Real Estate Record and Guide reported in 1901 that a land plot measuring 150 feet (46 m) on the north side of Battery Place, 22 feet (6.7 m) on West Street, and 33.10 feet (10.09 m) on Washington Street, had been sold. The buyer was Century Realty Company, another company owned by Chesebrough, which intended to resell the land to Battery Place Realty Company. The Battery Place Realty Company, which would develop what would become the Whitehall Building, was led by Robert Chesebrough, a chemist known for discovering Vaseline, along with his son William A. Chesebrough. At the time, building sites near Broadway, two blocks east of the Whitehall Building, were considered to be optimal for development, especially after the 1907 completion of the U.S. Custom House at Broadway and Battery Place. The Whitehall Building's location across from Battery Park ensured a direct view of the New York Harbor, since the park faced the harbor on its other end. The Chesebroughs were responsible for developing other Lower Manhattan structures as well. The original building was constructed from 1902 as a speculative office building designed by Henry Hardenbergh. Because the streets surrounding the site of the building were not heavily trafficked at the time, construction offices were placed directly on the street. The old cellars of the previous structures on the site were excavated, and three 8-hour shifts of 100 men each were employed to drive the caissons. The initial structure opened in May 1903, and was completed in 1904. The structure was named for Peter Stuyvesant's 17th-century home, "White Hall", which had been located nearby. Rents per square foot at the Whitehall Building were generally lower than those on Broadway, and so many tenants started to move into the building. ### Development of annex The Battery Place Realty Company had expanded its land holdings by 1904, so that they owned 150 feet of the block frontage on West and Washington Streets. The company purchased the addresses 4–7 West Street and 6–7 Washington Street, thus controlling a lot of over 14,000 square feet (1,300 m<sup>2</sup>) though the firm publicly stated that it had "no intention of erecting any addition to the building". By 1906 all land acquisition had been completed. The Battery Place Realty Company started soliciting construction bids for an annex to the Whitehall Building in 1908. Clinton and Russell had been hired to plan the structure, which was initially set to be 36 stories. The following year, the United States Realty and Improvement Company bought the Battery Place Realty Company's stock and took over the construction process. By then, United States Realty had 307 feet (94 m) on West and Washington Street, but intended to build the annex as a 31-story structure on West Street, a smaller 16-story section on Washington Street, and the 36-story tower in the center, rising 447 feet (136 m). At the time, the annex was to be the largest single office building in the city. The combined lot area for the two buildings was 51,515 square feet (4,786 m<sup>2</sup>), which was 20,000 square feet (1,900 m<sup>2</sup>) larger than the lot area of the City Investing Building, the next-largest office building in New York City. Seventeen structures were demolished to make way for the annex. Work on the foundations of the annex commenced in December 1909. Twelve derricks were placed on the site to install the beams and caissons. Work for the annex was driven by two 12-hour shifts of 450 men each, while the foundations were dug by three 8-hour shifts of 100 sandhogs each. The foundations of the annex were dug by the O'Rourke Engineering Construction Company, which extracted 13,000 cubic feet (370 m<sup>3</sup>) of earth through open excavation and 6,000 cubic feet (170 m<sup>3</sup>) through caissons. The superstructure was erected under the supervision of general contractor George A. Fuller Company. The steel frame was then erected from May 1910 at a rate of four stories per week, with trucks delivering the steel beams from offsite, and gangs of workers completing the concrete floors as the steel structure was being completed. The annex was completed by late 1910, excluding the section facing Washington Street, which was not constructed during that time. The annex was cited as being "one of the largest commercial structures in the world" and the largest individual office structure in Manhattan, with 12,000,000 cubic feet (340,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of space. ### Office use By 1911, rents at the original Whitehall Building and its annex averaged \$1.70 per square foot (\$18.3/m<sup>2</sup>), cheaper than comparable structures. The building complex was described in the Real Estate Record and Guide as "one of the best investments of its kind in the city". The Whitehall Club, a lunch club for Lower Manhattan merchants and businesspersons, was housed on the top four floors of the Whitehall Building's annex. This lunch club became the premier maritime club in New York City during that era and hosted famous shipping figures. One office tenant in the mid-20th century was the Moran Towing Company, operator of a fleet of tugboats. In the days before radio dispatching, a man high in the building would watch with a telescope for incoming ships, and then use a six-foot megaphone to shout instructions to the Moran tugboats docked at the Battery. Other long term tenants included the Gulf Refining Company, Tide Water Oil Company, United States Weather Bureau, Internal Revenue Service, and the Penn Coal and Coke Company. The consulate of Germany in New York City and the Communist Daily Worker newspaper also had offices at 17 Battery Place, which were damaged in a 1940 bombing perpetrated by opponents of Nazi Germany. The German consulate moved out the year after the bombing. The United States Realty and Improvement Company owned the building until 1932. Afterward, the Whitehall Improvement Corporation owned the building until 1950 when it was sold to the New York Life Insurance Company. By then, the building was known as the "Whitehall-Sheraton Building". On the Washington Street side of the block, east of the annex and north of the original building, the twenty-two-story 2 Washington Street was erected in 1971. The newest addition was originally called One Western Union International Plaza (or "One WUI Plaza") because Western Union's spin-off international record carrier division, Western Union International, was headquartered there. It was also called 17 Battery Place North. In 1974, a fire at 2 Washington Street forced the evacuation of 5,000 office workers across the entire Whitehall complex; The New York Times reported that the computers of one tenant, securities firm Hayden, Stone & Co., continued to handle transactions automatically during the evacuation. By the 1970s, the Moran Towing Company had moved to the World Trade Center, while the McAllister Brothers, a rival firm, had occupied the Whitehall Building's 15th floor. Another tenant at the Whitehall Building complex was Tidewater Oil. The membership of the Whitehall Club atop the annex declined significantly from 1,000 in the 1960s to 600 in 1990, and the club had closed by the end of the 1990s. ### Hotel and residential conversion In 1997, the developer Allen I. Gross bought the original building, annex, and 2 Washington Street for \$70 million and proposed converting the original structure and annex's upper stories into a hotel and condominiums, retaining commercial uses on lower floors. The first through 13th floors were to be purchased by SL Green Realty and operated as office space; the 14th through 23rd floors would be a Ritz-Carlton hotel, and the annex above the 24th floor would contain residences. At the time, 30% of the 1,200,000 square feet (110,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of usable space was not occupied. The hotel proposal failed in 1998, and SL Green ultimately paid \$59 million for the second through 13th floors in the original building and annex, as well as the entirety of 2 Washington Street. In 1999 the Moinian Group paid \$42 million for the basement, ground floor, and the 14th through topmost floors of the older two buildings. The group intended to convert the upper floors to a rental-apartment building with its main address at One West Street. The ground floor was to be used as a business center, while the residential structure would contain a parking lot, health club, and rooftop deck. The Whitehall Building and Annex were designated by the Landmarks Preservation Commission on February 8, 2000. SL Green sold the original building and its annex later that year to an affiliate of the Moinian Group. SL Green received \$53 million from the sale, most of which it intended to use to pay for another building, 1370 Broadway. The residential conversion was nearly completed in 2001, when developer Richard Bassuk arranged for Deutsche Bank to give Moinian a \$208.5 million loan to finish the project. However, because of the September 11 attacks at the nearby World Trade Center, Bassuk estimated that occupancy at 17 Battery Place went from nearly 100% before the attacks to 10% afterward. SL Green sold 2 Washington Place to Moinian in 2003 for \$70 million. By that year, 17 Battery Place was almost completely rented. To attract tenants after the September 11 attacks, Moinian used "clever tactics" such as furnished model apartments as well as large retailers at ground level. In 2005, the southernmost portion of West Street was reconstructed, including the portal over the Battery Park Underpass directly to the west. As part of the reconstruction project, a 9,600-square-foot (890 m<sup>2</sup>) public plaza was erected outside the Whitehall Building, east of West Street. Nyack College moved into 2 Washington Street in 2013, and the following year, the New York Film Academy moved to the first floor of 17 Battery Place. By 2019, the Moinian Group intended to convert 2 Washington Street into a residential structure with 345 units. ## Critical reception When originally built, the Whitehall Building was described as having "resembled a big chimney" and that it was the single most prominent structure for vessels docking on the East or North (Hudson) rivers. Art critic Russell Sturgis said "Mr. Hardenbergh has shown, in his Whitehall Building, that simplicity is not incompatible with dignity, and that this dignity may have a decided quality of beauty", but that this form was not emulated by other buildings' designs. One New York Times article later described the Whitehall Building as being "an elegant orange-colored building with ornate gargoyles" next to the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel's ventilation building, an "overgrown tombstone". Architectural historians Sarah Landau and Carl W. Condit wrote that the original Whitehall Building and its annex complemented each other, even though the Whitehall Building's annex "is irregularly shaped and somewhat overwhelming in impact" compared to the older building. The annex was so much larger than the original Whitehall Building that the original structure was described as "suited as offices for little people only". ## See also - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street
8,096,834	Henry M. Mathews	1,170,734,173	American military officer, lawyer, and politician	[ "1830s births", "1884 deaths", "19th-century American lawyers", "19th-century American politicians", "Beta Theta Pi", "Bourbon Democrats", "Burials in West Virginia", "Confederate States Army officers", "Democratic Party governors of West Virginia", "Educators from West Virginia", "Mathews family of Virginia and West Virginia", "Military personnel from West Virginia", "People from Greenbrier County, West Virginia", "People from Lewisburg, West Virginia", "People of Virginia in the American Civil War", "People of West Virginia in the American Civil War", "The Greenbrier people", "University of Virginia School of Law alumni", "University of Virginia alumni", "Virginia lawyers", "Washington and Lee University School of Law alumni", "West Virginia Attorneys General", "West Virginia lawyers" ]	Henry Mason Mathews (March 29, 1834 – April 28, 1884) was an American military officer, lawyer, and politician in the U.S. State of West Virginia. Mathews served as 7th Attorney General of West Virginia (1873–1877) and 5th Governor of West Virginia (1877–1881), being the first former Confederate elected to the governorship in the state. Born into a Virginia political family, Mathews attended the University of Virginia and afterward practiced law before the outbreak of the American Civil War. When Virginia seceded from the United States, in 1861, he volunteered for the Confederate States Army and served in the western theater as a major of artillery. Following the war, Mathews was elected to the West Virginia Senate, but was denied the seat due to state restrictions on former Confederates. Mathews participated in the 1872 state constitutional convention that overturned these restrictions, and in that same year was elected attorney general of West Virginia. After one term, he was elected governor of West Virginia. Mathews was identified as a Redeemer, the southern wing of the conservative, pro-business Bourbon faction of the Democratic Party that sought to oust the Radical Republicans who had come to power across the postwar South. However, Mathews took the uncommon practice of appointing members from both parties to important positions, causing his administration to be characterized as "an era of good feelings." He sought to attract industry to the state, and courted immigration. His administration faced challenges related to the Long Depression, most notably the outbreak of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, as a labor protest to wage cuts. After several failed attempts to quell the strike with state militia, Mathews called on President Rutherford B. Hayes for federal assistance, which brought national attention to the strike that spread to other states in what would be the first national labor strike in United States history. Mathews' handling of the strike, and his portrayal of the strikers, was criticized by labor activists at the time, and his calling for Federal assistance was questioned, though the involvement of the federal government in breaking up the strike has come to be seen as inevitable by modern historians. In later life, Mathews served as president of the White Sulphur Springs Company (now The Greenbrier resort). ## Early life Henry Mason Mathews was born on March 29, 1834, in Frankford, Virginia, U.S., (located in modern-day West Virginia) to Eliza Shore (née Reynolds) and Mason Mathews. His family had been politically prominent in western Virginia for several generations, and his father was a merchant and politician who served in the Virginia House of Delegates. His ancestry was Scotch-Irish and/or Welsh. Mathews received a primary education at the local Lewisburg Academy, and afterward attended the University of Virginia, earning a Bachelor of Arts in 1855 and a Master of Arts in 1856. He was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity. In his Masters Thesis, "Poetry in America," Mathews advocated the study of fine arts and reconciled their apparent decline in the face of industrialism with the potential for societal advancement such industry implied. On the completion of his graduate degree, Mathews entered Lexington Law School and studied under John W. Brockenbrough, graduating in 1857 with a degree of Bachelor of Laws. He was admitted to the bar and began practicing in the fall of that year. Soon afterward he accepted the professorship of Language and Literature at Alleghany College, Blue Sulphur Springs, retaining the privilege to practicing law in the courts. In November 1857, at age 22, Mathews married Lucy Fry Mathews, daughter of Judge Joseph L. Fry. They would go on to have 5 children: Lucile "Josephine", Mason, William Gordon, Henry Edgar, and Laura Herne. Mathews became active in local politics in the years proceeding the outbreak of the American Civil War, organizing for Democratic presidential candidate John C. Breckinridge during the 1860 presidential campaign. Breckinridge lost the national vote to Abraham Lincoln, who did not receive a single vote in Mathews' home county of Greenbrier. Nevertheless, Greenbrier was generally opposed to secession in the United States and voted against it in the Virginia Secession Convention of 1861. ## Military service Mathews chose to follow his home state of Virginia on its joining of the Confederate States of America. Along with his two brothers, he volunteered for the Confederate States Army (CSA) in 1861 at the rank of private. Early in the war he was assigned to recruiting and enlisting duties Virginia. In 1863, he was moved to the staff of his uncle, Brigadier General Alexander W. Reynolds, in Major General Carter L. Stevenson's division of Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton's army. He was promoted to major of artillery and served the Vicksburg Campaign. When general Stevenson's division advanced to Baker's Creek for the Battle of Champion Hill, Mathews was left in Vicksburg as the chief of his department. Throughout the war, Mathews frequently ran into difficulties with the Confederate military. He contemplated leaving the army in 1863, and also in that year applied for a transfer from his uncle's brigade to Richmond, Virginia, though the results of this request are unclear. In the fall of 1864, he was arrested by orders of General Robert E. Lee due to a misunderstanding of a courier's message regarding ordnance movement. Lee dismissed the charges on receipt of Mathews' explanation. By the end of 1864, Mathews had finally lost all enthusiasm for the war and was relieved from active duty at his request. ## Political career ### Political rise While at war Mathews' reputation as a leader had spread at home. In a post-war state dominated by the Republican party, Mathews, a Democrat, was elected to the West Virginia Senate in 1865 but was denied the seat due to the restriction that prohibited former Confederates from holding public office. As in-state Democratic support increased in subsequent years, Republicans amended the West Virginia State Constitution to return state rights to former Confederates in an attempt to appeal to voters. The effort backfired as this enabled the Democratic party to regained control of the legislature. Mathews was sent as a Democratic delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1872 to overhaul the 1863 Republican-drafted state constitution. The drafting of this new constitution enabled Mathews' rise in the politics of the state. The following year, 1873, he was elected attorney general of the state under Governor John J. Jacobs, succeeding Joseph Sprigg, and served one term in which his popularity within his party rose. At the conclusion of his term as attorney general, Mathews defeated Republican Nathan Goff by 15,000 votes in the most one-sided race for governor in state history at that time. Thus, on March 4, 1877, Mathews became fifth governor of West Virginia, and the first Confederate veteran to be elected to the state governorship. Mathews' conservative, pro-business platform aligned with the Bourbon Democratic movement sweeping the South. Mathews was the first of the Bourbons to ascend to a governorship, though many would follow all over the South in the 1880s. ### Governor of West Virginia In his inaugural address, Mathews emphasized unity and progress in the wake of war, promising: > The legitimate results of the war have been accepted in good faith, and political parties are no longer aligned upon the dead issues of the past. We have ceased to look back mournfully, and have said "Let the dead past bury its dead," and with reorganized forces have moved up to the living issues of the present. Mathews' address was well-received across the state. The Republican Morgantown Post praised the "broad, manly, and liberal address, which possesses, to our mind, an honesty of purpose, and a freedom from disguise, that is truly refreshing." His inaugural celebration, which included "flowers and flags and banners and music, feasting and revelry," had been a more elaborate affair than previous gubernatorial inaugurations in the state, setting a precedent that has continued to the present. On assembling his cabinet, Mathews sought to reduce post-war political tension. He appointed both Republican and Democratic party members to his cabinet, a move that was uncommon in the post-war political climate. #### Great Railroad Strike Awaiting Mathews in office were economic woes associated with the Panic of 1873 and the subsequent Long Depression. In July 1877, four months into his term, he was alerted that Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) workers in Martinsburg, West Virginia, had been stopping trains to protest wage cuts. Mathews called out local militia under Colonel Charles J. Faulkner to disperse the protest, but unbeknownst to Mathews, several in the company were rail workers themselves, and many others were sympathetic to the strike. The militia acted indecisively on arrival, and in the confusion a striker named William Vandergriff fired on the militia and was mortally wounded by return fire. Local papers blamed Mathews for the death and deemed Vandergriff a "martyr." The militia officially conveyed to Mathews that they would thereon refuse his orders. Mathews responded by sending another militia company—this time with no rail workers were among them—to address the growing strike, but he was informed that this company too would not act against the strikers. Mathews finally complied with the urging of his administration to request Federal troops from newly elected President Rutherford B. Hayes. Mathews' decision to call for federal support garnered significant national notice to the strikes. Local newspapers were highly critical of the governor's characterization of the strikes to Hayes as an "insurrection" rather than an act of desperation, with one notable paper recorded a striking worker's perspective that, "[he] had might as well die by the bullet as to starve to death by inches." Mathews' decision to call for federal assistance has been vindicated by historians, who have come to view federal involvement as inevitable. Hayes had vowed not to involve the Federal government in domestic matters during his candidacy several months prior, and he sought to solve the matter diplomatically. After failed negotiations with leaders of the railway "insurrection," he reluctantly dispatched Federal troops to Martinsburg. However, by this time the strike, by then referred to as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, had reverted to peaceful protest in Martinsburg while violence spread to Maryland, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Missouri. The strike gained considerable support in other states across the country. In 1880, Mathews was again required to dispatch the militia, this time to Hawks Nest, West Virginia, to stop the state's first major coal strike, as miners from Hawks Nest were being threatened with violence to cease productivity by a rival constituent. #### Relocating the capitol From 1863, when West Virginia was formed, through 1875, the capital of West Virginia had alternated between Wheeling and Charleston, with its location largely dependent on political party control of the state, with Republicans favoring Wheeling and Democrats favoring Charleston. Early in Mathews' administration, a vote was held to determine a permanent location for the capital, which was currently located in Wheeling. Three options of Charleston, Clarksburg, and Martinsurg were presented (Wheeling was not listed as a voting option). During the campaigning, state Democrats employed a young Booker T. Washington to engage in a speaking tour to consolidate Black opinion in favor of Charleston. Charleston won the vote, and has remained the state capital since. #### State debt and treasury Questions of debt owed by West Virginia to Virginia persisted throughout Mathews' term in office. The question arose quickly when in 1863 West Virginia was created from the northwestern Virginia region. While both states recognized that a debt existed, determining the value of the debt proved difficult. Virginia authorities had determined that West Virginia should assume approximately one-third of the state debt as of January 1, 1861 — the year Virginia was seceded from the United States, determining West Virginia's total to be \$953,360.32. Mathews' advisers countered with the figure of \$525,000. Another figure given to him by the Virginians was \$7,000,000, owed by West Virginia to its eastern counterpart. Unable to determine the accuracy of these reports, and recognizing that the question had taken on political meaning, Mathews pursued policy intended to suspend a resolution until the specifics had become clear. His successor, Jacob B. Jackson, inherited the same problem and further suspended the resolution of the matter. The argument dragged on throughout the 1800s and the debt was not retired until 1939. During Mathews' administration, Attorney General Robert White secured a decision by the United States Supreme Court in favor of levying taxes against the burgeoning railroad industry, which to that point had not paid any taxes to the State of West Virginia. This decision resulted in an influx of thousands of dollars into the State treasury. #### Race issues Before the Civil War, western Virginia had a relatively low slave population compared to the eastern part of the state, or the South as a whole (4% in western Virginia as compared to about 30% in the South). Mathews was raised in one such slaveholding western Virginia household. Mathews' precise views on race and slavery are unclear, though he was a member of several local political conventions that issued statements and resolutions opposing racial equality, both before and after the Civil War. He was also a delegate to the state convention that drafted the 1872 West Virginia Constitution which codified policies of segregation in the state. During Mathews' political career he was identified as a Redeemer – the Southern faction of the Bourbon Democrats. Redeemers dominated Southern politics in most areas from the 1870s to 1910 and were generally led by wealthy former planters, businessmen, and professionals who sought to expel the freedmen, carpetbaggers, and scalawags from Southern government and reestablished white supremacy in the South. However, West Virginia historian Otis K. Rice objects to this characterization of the West Virginia Redeemers: > This fails to do justice to the flexibility of West Virginia Bourbons. The West Virginia Democrats who followed the Republican founders of the state included Governors Mathews, Jackson, Wilson, Fleming, and MacCorkle. These men were ready to adjust to changing political conditions and to the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments to the federal Constitution, which conferred freedom, citizenship, and the right to vote and hold office upon former slaves. From 1865 to 1957, West Virginia passed eleven Jim Crow laws under Democratic leadership. None of these were passed during Mathews' administration. In 1881, following the ruling of the Strauder v. West Virginia Supreme Court case, Mathews reversed a 1873 state law that prohibited Black citizens from serving on juries. In his closing address to the West Virginia legislature in January 1881, Mathews urged his fellow statesmen to adopt a progressive attitude towards the divisive issues that precipitated the Civil War: > It is necessary . . . to fully realize that institutions under which some of us were reared and which have left an enduring impress on our character, -- which have influenced not only our habits of living, but also our opinions and habits of thought -- are now of the past and no longer factors of existing social or political problems; that while the fundamental principles of our republican institutions are forever true and sufficient for all time, yet they must be adapted to the changed conditions produced by the result of the civil war, an increasing population and an advancing civilization. West Virginia should be aligned with the most progressive of her sister States, between whose institutions and her own there is no longer any conflict . . . Fast notes that the "liberal-minded" spirit of Mathews' administration received a setback during the campaign of his predecessor, Jacob B. Jackson, under whom "[t]he old sores of war were torn upon and bled afresh." ## Later life Mathews retired from politics in 1881, at which point he returned to his law practice. He additionally served as president of the White Sulfur Springs Company (now The Greenbrier resort) following its post-war reopening. The resort became a place for many Southerners and Northerners alike to vacation, and the setting for many famous post-war reconciliations, including the White Sulphur Manifesto, which was the only political position issued by Robert E. Lee after the Civil War, that advocated the merging of the two societies. The resort went on to become a center of regional post-war society. Henry M. Mathews died unexpectedly on April 28, 1884, and is buried in the Old Stone Church cemetery in Lewisburg, West Virginia. ## Legacy As West Virginia governor Mathews established a state immigration bureau to attract new workers to the state, expanded the coal and oil industries, improved transportation, and funded a state geological survey. His administration at large has been characterized as "an era of good feeling," due to his appointing of Republicans to office during his Democratic tenure. Historian Mary L. Rickard, in the Calendar of the Henry Mason Mathews Letters and Papers in the State Department of Archives and History (1941), offered a critical analysis of his administration: "At this time there was less wealth per capita in West Virginia than in 1865, the result of which had a pronounced effect upon State politics. Those highest up in the social scale held the highest political positions and the entire organization became dangerously corrupt." However, West Virginia historian Richard Fast notes that no committee to investigate any alleged scandal or mismanagement was appointed during Mathews' term. Fellow West Virginia Governor William A. MacCorkle, in Recollections of Fifty Years of West Virginia (1928), said of him: "He was not a good come-and-take debater, but when he had prepared himself to make an oration on the issues of the day, he was splendid. His oratory was easy, smooth, perfectly balanced, his voice was splendidly modulated, his gestures were perfect, and he could make as fine an impression on a rather cultivated audience as any man in the state." Because Mathews was the first state governor to call on federal troops in response to the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, this action has been recognized as a catalyst that would help to transform the United States National Guard.
53,315,673	Paddington tube station (Bakerloo, Circle and District lines)	1,168,588,045	London Underground station	[ "1868 establishments in England", "Bakerloo line stations", "Circle line (London Underground) stations", "District line stations", "Former London Electric Railway stations", "Former Metropolitan Railway stations", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1868", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1913", "Tube stations in the City of Westminster" ]	Paddington is a London Underground station served by the Bakerloo, Circle and District lines. It is located on Praed Street to the south of Paddington mainline station and has entrances from Praed Street and from within the mainline station. On the Bakerloo line the station is between Warwick Avenue and Edgware Road and on the Circle and District lines it is between Bayswater and Edgware Road. It is in London Fare Zone 1. The station is in two parts: sub-surface platforms, opened in 1868 and deep-level platforms, opened in 1913. It is one of two separate Underground stations of the same name. The other station, to the north of the mainline station, is served by the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines. Although shown on the London Underground map as a single station, the two stations are not directly linked and interchange between them is via the concourse of the mainline station. ## History ### Sub-surface station The Circle line and District line share tracks in the sub-surface station. It was opened as Paddington (Praed Street) by the Metropolitan Railway (MR, later the Metropolitan line) on 1 October 1868 when the company opened a branch from its main route between Hammersmith and Moorgate Street. The branch ran southwards to Gloucester Road and was planned as part of the Inner Circle, a circuitous route being constructed in conjunction with the District Railway (DR, now the District line) that was intended to link most of the capital's mainline stations. The extension was constructed mostly in shallow tunnels using the cut-and-cover technique. Services were provided by both the MR and the DR, with each company running Inner Circle trains over the other's tracks. The station has two platforms positioned in a cutting partially covered with a glazed roof and partially exposed to the atmosphere. It was designed by John Fowler, the MR's chief engineer. The brick-built street-level entrance building featured a balustrade along the edge of the roof decoratively topped with urns. Fowler's building was demolished and reconstructed to a design by the MR's architect Charles W Clark in 1914 with a cladding of white faïence blocks. The building is listed Grade II by Historic England. The brickwork of the platform retaining walls was restored in 1986 during a renovation of the station. The station was the second opened by the MR at Paddington. The earlier station, named Paddington (Bishop's Road), opened on 10 January 1863. It is north of the mainline station and is served by trains on the Hammersmith branch. From 1 November 1926, the MR provided all Inner Circle services. DR services on the west side of the circular route terminated at Edgware Road using two platforms that had been constructed by the MR for an abandoned plan for a new route between Edgware Road and Finchley Road. "Praed Street" was dropped from the name of the sub-surface station on 11 July 1947 to match the name used for the deep-level platforms. From 1949, the Circle line was identified on tube maps as a separate line replacing the Metropolitan line service. The sub-surface station has twice been damaged by explosions. On 30 October 1883, a bomb planted by Fenians campaigning for an independent Irish Republic exploded on a train near the station. The bomb damaged the train it was on and a passing train along with part of the station and the signal box. Sixty-two passengers were injured. On the night of 13 October 1940, the station was hit by German bombs dropped during The Blitz, killing five people in the station; four more subsequently died of injuries. ### Deep-level station The deep-level station was opened by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (BS&WR, later the Bakerloo line) on 1 December 1913 as the temporary terminus of its extension from Edgware Road. To enable the BS&WR to continue its route to the north-west of Paddington, the station platforms were constructed in a tight curve. A cross-over between tracks and reversing tunnels were provided beyond the new station. Construction work continued beyond the station to extend the line further to Queen's Park where it met the mainline tracks of the London and North Western Railway. The extension opened in stages, with the first trains running to and from Warwick Avenue on 31 January 1915. Unlike most previous BS&WR stations, a separate station building was not constructed at Paddington. A small pedestrian entrance on the north-west corner of the junction of London Street and Praed Street provides access to the below-ground ticket hall. Following their successful introduction at Earl's Court in 1911, the station was the first on the line to be designed to use escalators instead of lifts. ### New Bakerloo line ticket hall In December 2016, Westminster City Council approved proposals to construct a new mixed-use development called Paddington Square on a site adjacent to the mainline station. The plans include reconstruction of the Bakerloo line station, providing a new ticket hall – four times larger than the current ticket hall, and twice the number of ticket barriers – as well as step free access between platforms and street level. The development is set to be completed in 2022. ### 1980s refurbishment The ticket hall and platforms are decorated with tiling designs by David Hamilton installed during a £6 million refurbishment of the station between 1984 and 1987 incorporating elements of technical drawings by Marc Isambard Brunel and other engineers. ### Connection to Elizabeth line As part of the construction of the Crossrail project, a new 170m long pedestrian tunnel was dug from the Bakerloo line platforms to the new Paddington Elizabeth line station at a cost of £40m. To achieve this, the Bakerloo line station was closed for 5 months in 2016 to allow for construction to take place, as well as the replacement of escalators. The new link will include 2 escalators, as well as lifts allowing the Bakerloo line platforms to become accessible for the first time – albeit via the Elizabeth line station entrances. ## Arrangement The station has three ticket halls: one for the Circle and District lines above the platforms of the sub-surface station, one below ground for the Bakerloo line station and one under the mainline station. The sub-surface station and the deep-level station ticket halls are linked via the ticket hall under the mainline station, but not to each other directly. Entrances are on Praed Street and from within the mainline station. On the tube map the station is shown jointly with the other separate Underground station and passenger usage data for both is combined. Interchange with the other station is through the mainline station concourse without extra charge if the change is made within the permitted time. ## Services The station is between Bayswater and Edgware Road stations on the Circle and District lines and between Warwick Avenue and Edgware Road on the Bakerloo line. It is in London Fare Zone 1. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but, generally, Circle line trains run every 10 minutes from approximately 05:31 to 00:39 eastbound and 05:07 to 00:45 westbound; they are supplemented by District line trains that operate every 10 minutes from approximately 05:44 to 00:06 eastbound and 05:57 to 00:22 westbound. Some late night Circle line trains continue beyond Edgware Road. Bakerloo line trains generally operate every 3 minutes from approximately 05:45 to 00:22 southbound and 05:55 to 00:41 northbound. ## Connections The station is served by London Buses day and night routes on Praed Street.
29,265,868	Blowing from a gun	1,171,790,616	Execution method	[ "Cannon", "Capital punishment in the United Kingdom", "Execution methods", "Firearm techniques", "History of South Asia", "South Asian culture" ]	Blowing from a gun is a method of execution in which the victim is typically tied to the mouth of a cannon which is then fired, resulting in death. George Carter Stent described the process as follows: > The prisoner is generally tied to a gun with the upper part of the small of his back resting against the muzzle. When the gun is fired, his head is seen to go straight up into the air some forty or fifty feet; the arms fly off right and left, high up in the air, and fall at, perhaps, a hundred yards distance; the legs drop to the ground beneath the muzzle of the gun; and the body is literally blown away altogether, not a vestige being seen. Blowing from a gun was a reported means of execution as long ago as the 16th century and was used until the 20th century. The method was used by Portuguese colonialists in the 16th and 17th centuries, from as early as 1509 across their empire from Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka) to Mozambique to Brazil. The Mughals used the method throughout the 17th century and into the 18th, particularly against rebels. This method of execution is most closely associated with the British colonial rule in India. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, "blowing from a gun" was a method the British used to execute rebels as well as for Indian sepoys who were found guilty of desertion. Using the methods previously practised by the Mughals, the British began implementing blowing from guns in the latter half of the 18th century. Destruction of the body and scattering of the remains over a wide area had a religious function as a means of execution in the Indian subcontinent as it prevented the necessary funeral rites of Hindus and Muslims. Accordingly, for believers the punishment was extended beyond death. This was well understood by foreign occupiers and the practice was not generally employed by them as concurrent foreign occupiers of Africa, Australasia, or the Americas. Most recently there was an exceptional use of the practice in Afghanistan in 1930, against 11 Panjshiri rebels. ## Rituals A commonly reported method of blowing a person from a gun is to tie them in front of the muzzle of the gun and then have them shot. Loading the cannon with an actual cannonball is on occasion reported; but, more commonly, the use of blank cartridge or grapeshot is attested. The following description of the manner of tying up the convicted is from Afghanistan, 7 July 1839, ordered by Shuja Shah, during the campaign against Dost Mohammad Khan: > The three men were then tied with ropes to the guns, their backs against the muzzle. The rope, fastened to one of the spokes of the wheel, passed with a knot round the arms, over the muzzle of the gun, round the other arm, and then to the spoke of the opposite wheel, which kept the body fixed. Although immobilizing a victim in front of a gun before firing the cannon is by far the most reported method, a case from Istanbul in 1596 alleges that the victim was actually put into the gun and executed in that manner. Reports exist that attest that, on occasion, people were fastened to rockets and blown into the air. This is said to have been the punishment for a Brahmin during Hyder Ali's reign (1761–1782), and also, in an 1800 treason case, in the Maratha Empire. ## Problems with the method Things did not always work out according to plan at such executions. At a mass execution at Firozpur in 1857, there was an order that blank cartridges should be used, but some guns were loaded with grapeshot instead. Several of the spectators facing the cannons were hit by the grapeshot and some had to have limbs amputated as a result. In addition, some of the soldiers had not been withdrawn properly and sustained injuries from being hit by pieces of flesh and bone. In another case, a soldier who was to be shot managed to fall down just as the shot went off, with the following result: > One wretched fellow slipped from the rope by which he was tied to the guns just before the explosion, and his arm was nearly set on fire. While hanging in his agony under the gun, a sergeant applied a pistol to his head; and three times the cap snapped, the man each time wincing from the expected shot. At last, a rifle was fired into the back of his head, and the blood poured out of the nose and mouth like water from a briskly handled pump. This was the most horrible sight of all. I have seen death in all its forms, but never anything to equal this man's end. Others reported how birds of prey circled above the execution place and swooped down to catch pieces of human flesh in the air, while others were nauseated by the dogs loitering about the place of execution and rushing to the scene to devour some of the body pieces spread around as a result of the execution. ## Mughal Empire Blowing from a gun as a method of execution has a long and varied history in the Indian subcontinent, and many reports from the mid-18th century and onwards testify to its varied use. The execution method was used during rebellions and as punishment for a variety of crimes. Here, a focus is chosen upon the Mughal tradition of blowing from guns as a local tradition preceding, for example, the British tradition in the same subcontinent. Several historians note that blowing people from the guns as a method of execution was an "old Mughal punishment" in the Indian subcontinent. Just prior to the institution of the reign of the first Mughal emperor, Babur, his son Humayun is said to have blown from guns 100 Afghan prisoners on 6 March 1526, in one incident of his father's many struggles against the Lodi dynasty. During the latter half of the 17th century, members of the Jat people in Northern India rebelled and raided against the Mughal Empire, and the emperor Aurangzeb is said in one account to have ordered one of their leaders blown from a gun. Purbeel Singh, said to have been the last Hindu chief of Umga, close to Aurangabad in today's Bihar state, was reportedly taken by an unnamed Mughal emperor to Aurungabad, and blown from a gun. The Sikh rebel Banda Singh Bahadur was finally vanquished in 1716 by the emperor Farrukhsiyar, and after his execution, Banda's son was ordered to be "blown to bits by a cannon". While the preceding cases are examples of rebels or military adversaries being blown from guns, the Mughal era also contained a few examples of using this form of execution for other crimes. For example, in a rather anecdotal story from the times of Jahangir (r. 1605 – 1627), the emperor had six mullahs blown from guns, for having consented to, and given approval of, the forcible abduction and marriage of a Hindu girl to a Muslim officer. In 1714, thieves were a severe annoyance to a marching army; a trap was made, and two thieves caught by the concealed guards were later blown from guns. During a siege in 1719, the problem of deserters was eventually solved for the commander of the Mughal army by blowing four deserters caught in the act from guns, in the presence of his troops. ## Portuguese Empire Portuguese colonialists are, in several accounts, charged with having used blowing from a gun as a form of capital punishment in many of their colonies. A short review follows: ### Sri Lanka The Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida is reported to have blown many individuals from guns at Ceylon, around 1509. During the Dutch siege of Colombo in 1656, the city population endured extreme famine. One nursing mother became so starved that her production of milk stopped, and her infant was dying. She chose to kill it, and eat it. Once the Portuguese general became aware of her act of cannibalism, he ordered her blown from a gun, but in this particular instance, the clergy and the principal citizens dissuaded him from carrying out the act. ### Mozambique During explorer Francisco Barreto's 1569–73 campaign in Monomotapa, he at one time imprisoned some 50 Muslim individuals, and had them "impaled, blown from mortars, torn apart on tree-trunks, axed or shot". In mid-18th-century Tete, in north-western Portuguese Mozambique, the capital punishment for slaves is said to have been to be blown from guns, and, in the first decade of the 19th century, it is reported that an inveterate raider chief was caught by the Portuguese and blown from a gun. ### Brazil In 1618 Brazil, indigenous resistance against the Portuguese was unshaken, although a leader of them, Amaro, was taken prisoner and blown from a gun. ## British India ### Before 1857 The British had a long tradition prior to the Indian Rebellion of executing sepoys found guilty of mutiny or desertion in this manner. According to one historian, the British tradition began in 1760, when the British East India Company examined the modes of capital punishment in use. In the district of the 24 Perganas, it was found that the common military mode of capital punishment was flogging to death. Regarding blowing from a gun as an old Mughal punishment, the East India Company opted for this technique, as being, relative to death by flogging, more deterrent, more public and more humane. Already in 1761, orders were given in Lakhipur "to fire off at the mouth of a cannon the leader of the thieves who was made prisoner, that others may be deterred". Technically, in cases of court-martial, it seems that until 1857 the courts were composed of Indian rather than British officers, but it is added: "although they are presided over, and generally led and ruled, by the superintending officer, whose duty, however, is merely to transcribe the evidence, and assist the native officers with advice and counsel". In March 1764, a subedar (native officer) secretly planned to persuade the men under his command to defect to an enemy force; his plan was discovered, and he was court-martialed and blown from a gun in front of his troops. In September the same year, major Hector Munro executed 24 or 25 "ring leaders" who caused a battalion to desert (the desertion being on account of "lack of rewards", "scarcity of provisions" and problems with climate and disease). Approving of the execution, one commenter said: "no disposition to mutiny was thenceforth manifested". In 1775, Muctoom Sahib, the Commandant of the 9th Native Battalion in the Madras Army, refused orders to embark on a transport ship for Bombay. Sahib also persuaded the men under his command to refuse to embark; he was subsequently arrested and charged with exciting the men under his command to mutiny. In February 1775, Sahib was court-martialled and found guilty; the court sentenced him to be blown from a gun in the presence of the battalion. Afterwards, the men previously under his command quietly embarked for Bombay while the rank of "Commandant" was abolished in the Madras Army. In 1782, mutinies broke out in Bardhaman and Barrackpore. Three mutineers were sentenced to death by the court in Bardhaman, two of them to be blown from a gun, the last to be hanged. In the Barrackpore trials, four of the five on trial were sentenced to be blown from a gun, while the last was to receive a thousand lashes and "to be drummed out of the cantonments with a rope around his neck". During the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789–1792), six regiments mutinied over arrears of pay and placed their officers under confinement. When order was restored, two of the most active mutineers were blown from guns. Not only mutineers were blown from guns, but also soldiers found guilty of desertion, as is shown from a few cases in 1781 and 1783. Not only sepoys were executed by being blown from a gun. In 1798, mutiny broke out among the British soldiers in the 1st Battalion of the Madras Foot Artillery. One British soldier was condemned to be blown from a gun. This, however, seems to have been exceptional, and one historian says that the soldier Forster is the only European on record to have been blown from a gun by the British. In 1804, during a military engagement, the troops under lieutenant Birch's command refused to quit the ground of their encampment. Colonel Burn deemed harsh measures were necessary, convened a court-martial, and two of the officers involved were blown from guns and nine others "severely flogged". With full approval of the action, the writer observes: "a measure which, there is every reason to believe, had the best effect, as the corps behaved during the subsequent siege with the greatest steadiness and propriety". In the 1806 Vellore Mutiny, beginning with a nighttime massacre of British officers and soldiers, many sepoys were killed during the suppression, while six mutineers were sentenced to be blown from the guns. In 1812, a plot was discovered at Travancore to kill the European officers; two ring leaders were blown from the guns, and several others were hanged. In 1819, six deserters who had joined the ousted rajah of the annexed Kingdom of Nagpur were apprehended by the British and were blown from the guns on 7 February. In 1832 Bangalore, a conspiracy allegedly designed to exterminate all Europeans was discovered. Out of some 100 implicated, four were sentenced to be blown from the guns, two others to be shot. Sometimes, although a person was condemned to death, he might hope for a pardon or a commuting of the punishment. In 1784, a regiment mutinied over lack of pay. Lieutenant General Laing suppressed the rebels and ordered twelve to be blown from guns. The last of the twelve was very lucky, however: Bound to the cannon's mouth, he had to endure three times that the fuse burnt out. He then asked Lieutenant General Laing whether he was really destined to die in this manner, and Laing chose to pardon him. In 1795 Midnapore, five sepoys were condemned in court-martial to be blown from guns on account of mutiny, three others to be hanged. Their cases were appealed, however, and their sentences were commuted to be dismissed from service instead. In Barrackpore Mutiny of 1824, occasioned by the resentment of sepoys to being shipped to the front in the First Anglo-Burmese War, four days after the bloody suppression of the mutiny, one of the leaders, Bindee Tiwarree of the 47th regiment was found hiding, disguised as a faqir. In the ensuing court-martial, he was condemned to be blown from a gun, but instead he was hung in chains, and after his death his body was placed in a gibbet for a few months. In 1836, a sepoy was found guilty of having fled before the enemy and abandoned his European officers. Rungish was condemned to be blown from a gun, but the sentence was commuted into "transportation beyond the sea". ### The Great Rebellion This method of execution is strongly associated with its use by the British during the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. A sense of the scale and frequency of the executions made by the British during the 1857 insurrection is demonstrated in the reports of incidents given in the journal Allen's Indian Mail, for the year 1857: > On 8 June, two sepoys from the 35th light Infantry were blown from guns. 10 June, in Ludhiana, Peshawar, some 40 from the 54th regiment were blown from guns. On 13 June, ten sepoys from the 45th Regiment at Firozpur were blown from guns, two hanged. The same day, in Ambala, 10 sepoys from the 54th regiment suffered the same fate. The 26th of the same month, in Aurungabad, 1 was blown from a gun, 1 hanged, and 3 were shot. On 8 July, in Jhelum, it is assumed that captured rebels would be blown away. On the 19th, Aurungabad, 1 was blown away, 2 shot. On 5 September, Settara, 6 were blown away. On 17 September, Multan, 1 was blown away, 121 were summarily executed. On 23 September, in Karachi, 1 was blown away, 7 were hanged and 20 deported. (The local body count on court-martialed individuals then came to 4 blown away, 14 hanged, 22 deported and 3 beheadings.) At the end of October, in Rohilkhand near Agra, 1 was blown away. On 16 November, Bombay, two sepoys from the 10th regiment were blown away. As an example of official statistics, rather than a collection of newspaper reports, in an 1859 paper to the British House of Commons on the rebellion in the Peshawar Valley in the Punjab, for the period May–September 1857, 523 were recorded executed, of them 459 shot by musketry, 20 hanged (13 for desertion) and the last 44 blown from a gun. Of those 44, four were executed on charges of desertion, rather than mutiny. Official July–November statistics for the area about Agra says that of 78 who were given capital sentences, two had their sentence commuted into imprisonment, whereas 4 were blown from guns. Other official statistics, this time from Indore, state that, of 393 sepoys officially punished, 32 were executed, 21 of them by being blown from guns. Several Britons also maintained that Indian insurgents had blown British civilians from guns during the rebellion. A specific case, mentioned by several sources, concerns that of Mr. and Mrs. Birch, Mrs. Eckford and Mrs. Defontaine, all of whom were said to have been blown from guns at Fatehgarh. The skull of an Indian sepoy, Alum Bheg, who was blown from a gun was found in a British pub and is the subject of the book, The Skull of Alum Bheg: The Life and Death of a Rebel of 1857. ### After 1857 The Rebellion of 1857 was not the last time that British colonial government used blowing from a cannon as an execution method. In 1871, for example, 65 members of the Sikh sect Kukas or Namdhari were executed by the British, by being blown from guns. ## Afghanistan Within Afghanistan, a tradition of using blowing from a gun as capital punishment is attested from the early nineteenth century up to 1930. The practice was considered especially useful in Afghanistan, where "weak governance, rebellion, and rampant banditry all threatened the legitimacy" of the state. Some examples follow. ### Durrani Dynasty In 1802, the forces of Mahmud Shah Durrani inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ghilzai tribes, and to discourage further aggression, he ordered one leader and his two sons blown from guns, as well as building a minaret out of Ghilzai skulls. In 1803, when Shah Shujah Durrani ousted his half-brother Mahmud from power, he revenged himself on an ally of Mahmud, Ashik, by blowing him from a gun for having captured by means of treachery Shujah's and Mahmud's half-brother Zaman Shah Durrani, who had been king of the Durrani Empire prior to having been ousted by Mahmud in 1800. Following the restoration of Shah Shujah to the throne during the First Anglo–Afghan War, further executions by cannon took place. In 1841, an Afghan man was blown from a gun for the murder of a European writer. Later that year, an Anglo–Durrani expedition commanded by General William Knott captured a rebel leader, who was executed on the orders of Shah Shujah's son. ### The Iron Emir, 1880–1901 In 1880, Abdur Rahman Khan became emir of Afghanistan, and he swiftly gained the nickname "the iron emir" for his perceived brutality and strong rule. For example, one source estimates that, during his 20 years on the throne, an average of 5,000 executions a year took place, several by blowing from guns. For example, in December 1889 alone, 24 are recorded as having been blown from guns, and many others executed in other ways. ### Tajik reign of terror, 1929 In January 1929, a new cycle of extreme violence broke out in Afghanistan when the Tajik Habibullāh Kalakāni became emir. The British official Humphreys wrote: "None was safe, houses were pillaged indiscriminately, women were ravished and a reign of terror was established unprecedented in the annals of bloody Afghan history". Political opponents were often blown from guns or executed in other ways. Habibullah's regime was toppled in October 1929, and then the Kuhestani Tajiks were persecuted. An article in The New York Times from 6 April 1930 was headlined with: "Eleven Afghans Blown from Guns at Kabul".
52,868,410	Night of My Life (Barbra Streisand song)	1,057,574,955	null	[ "2005 singles", "2005 songs", "Barbra Streisand songs", "Columbia Records singles", "Disco songs", "Songs written by Barry Gibb" ]	"Night of My Life" is a song recorded by American singer Barbra Streisand for her 31st studio album, Guilty Pleasures (2005). It was released as the album's second single on September 27, 2005, by Columbia Records. The track was written by Ashley Gibb and Barry Gibb while production was handled by Barry Gibb and John Merchant. It serves as one of Streisand's first of 11 reunion collaborations with Barry Gibb since their work on her album Guilty in 1980. It was released digitally and on 12" and CD in five different formats, each including various remixes of the single. A disco and pop song, Streisand sings about the events that occur during a special night in her life. Barry Gibb's work on "Night of My Life" was praised by one music critic, although the lyrics were criticized by another for being nonsensical. Commercially, the single was successful on Billboard's dance charts, where it peaked at number two on the Dance Club Songs and number nine on the Hot Dance Singles Sales charts. ## Background and release "Night of My Life" was taken from Barbra Streisand's 31st studio album, Guilty Pleasures (2005). The record serves as a reunion album between the singer and musician Barry Gibb, who she had last worked with on Guilty in 1980. The project was first announced on August 29, 2005, and was advertised as a collaborative effort between Gibb and Streisand. "Night of My Life" was written by Ashley Gibb and Barry Gibb while production was handled by Barry Gibb and John Merchant. It features backing vocals from singers Beth Cohen and Leesa Richards, in addition to Barry Gibbs, who backed for Streisand on each of the album's 11 songs. The track was initially released by Columbia Records on August 16, 2005, as a promotional single before its official release on September 27, 2005, as the second of three singles from Guilty Pleasures. Five different physical releases occurred, with two of them being on 12" vinyl. The standard edition 12" record features four remixes by musicians Junior, John Luongo and L.E.X., while the promotional version includes two remixes titled "Love to Infinity Master Mix" and "M\A\S\H Club Mix". Three CD singles were distributed as well; the commercial CD single has the same four remixes from the standard edition 12" single, the maxi CD includes the album version of "Night of My Life" plus ten remixes, and the promotional version features six dubs and mixes as produced by Junior and L.E.X. ## Composition and lyrics Primarily a disco and pop track, Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic suggested that it serves as an attempt for co-writer Barry Gibb to "update his signature sound". Also describing the song as being influenced by "light disco" music, The New York Times's Stephen Holden wrote that "Night of My Life" and album track "Come Together" show off Barry Gibb's "gift for airborne melodic hooks carried on misty whooshes and anchored by feathery beats". The song's beat is produced with "thumping drums and guitar lines that recall the disco era". It also features guitar playing by Barry Gibb and orchestra work from the Miami Symphonic Strings. Lyrically, Streisand sings about finding pleasure during a special night: "I fight to the end for the night of my life / And nothing can get in my way / I shout out my struggles / And send out a message to you". ## Reception Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised Gibb's production work on "Night of My Life" (and on album tracks "Stranger in a Strange Land" and "Hideaway") for "proudly stick[ing] to unfashionable pop styles". Tom Santopietro, author of The Importance of Being Barbra: The Brilliant, Tumultuous Career of Barbra Streisand, felt that the song's lyrics were nonsensical and therefore irrelevant as they "tell us nothing about the vocalist". He asked: "What is Barbra Streisand even singing about here?" "Night of My Life" entered two dance charts, compiled by Billboard, in the United States. On the main Dance Club Songs chart, it peaked at number two, becoming Streisand's second top ten hit and first entry since her chart-topping duet with Donna Summer, "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)", in 1979. On Billboard's Hot Dance Singles Sales component chart, which tracks the best-selling dance singles each week, "Night of My Life" peaked at number nine in 2005. ## Track listings and formats Standard 12" single - A1 "Night of My Life" (Junior's Roxy Anthem) – 7:54 - A2 "Night of My Life" (John Luongo 12" Mix) – 9:05 - B1 "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Club Mix) – 8:50 - B2 "Night of My Life" (John Luongo 7" Mix) – 3:48 US promotional CD single 1. "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Percussive Dub) – 9:40 2. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Beats Mix) – 6:29 3. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Percapella Dub) – 6:28 4. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Padapella Dub) – 5:58 5. "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Radio Mix) – 4:06 6. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Radio Mix) – 3:52 US CD single 1. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Roxy Anthem) – 7:54 2. "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Club Mix) – 8:50 3. "Night of My Life" (John Luongo 12" Mix) – 9:05 4. "Night of My Life" (John Luongo 7" Mix) – 3:48 US maxi CD single 1. "Night of My Life" (Album Version) – 3:59 2. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Roxy Anthem) – 7:54 3. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Night Club of My Life Mix) – 7:01 4. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Radio Mix) – 3:52 5. "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Club Mix) – 8:50 6. "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Roller Coaster Club Mix) – 5:31 7. "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Radio Mix) – 4:05 8. "Night of My Life" (John Luongo 12" Mix) – 9:05 9. "Night of My Life" (John Luongo 7" Mix) – 3:48 10. "Night of My Life" (Junior's Percapella Dub) – 6:28 11. "Night of My Life" (L.E.X. Percapella Dub) – 9:40 UK 12" promotional single - A1 "Night of My Life" (Love to Infinity Master Mix) – 6:43 - B1 "Night of My Life" (M\A\S\H Club Mix) – 7:11 ## Charts

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