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8,538,329	Arlington Senior High School	1,087,867,761	null	[ "1996 establishments in Minnesota", "2010 disestablishments in Minnesota", "Educational institutions disestablished in 2010", "Educational institutions established in 1996", "High schools in Saint Paul, Minnesota", "Magnet schools in Minnesota", "Public high schools in Minnesota" ]	Arlington Senior High School was a public high school in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. It was located in the city's North End neighborhood, north of Downtown Saint Paul. Arlington opened on September 3, 1996, and was the districts first new high school since Humboldt Senior High School opened twenty years earlier. By 2010, the school enrolled only 875 students in grades 9–12, despite having operated near its capacity of 2,000 most of the years it was open. The school consistently served a population that was around 95% students of color, 50-60% ELL, and 90-95% students on free/reduced price lunch. The school was closed after the 2010–2011 school year. Arlington was the only high school in Saint Paul with no attendance boundaries and enrolled students from throughout the city. Beginning in the 2009 school year, the school's main educational focus was "Bio-SMART," a program that emphasizes bioscience and the use of technology in health care. The school offered several Advanced Placement classes as well as several College in the Schools classes, in conjunction with the University of Minnesota. Following the schools closure, Washington Middle School took over the school grounds and the school is now known as the Washington Technology Magnet School, hosting grades 6-12 and continuing the Bio-SMART program, fulfilling the ultimate goal of Arlington Senior High School. ## History As early as 1991 the school district began to plan for an additional high school. Initial projections were to add 2 new high schools to the then 6 operating by 2000. However a lack of funds allowed the construction of only one high school. The increasing number of children who attend public rather than non-public schools was attributed to part of the need. In 1974, 53% of children born in St. Paul later entered kindergarten in the city public schools. In 1990, 67% of the city's children attended public schools. Overcrowding was so severe that in 1992 a citizen's group recommended moving 9th grade back into junior high buildings. The overcrowding was blamed on a surge in the birthrate in Saint Paul and a sudden influx of students from the suburbs, an unusual occurrence in an inner city school district. Plans for a "high tech" high school were put in place in as early as 1992. ### Construction In order to accommodate an estimated 4,000 additional students, existing commercial buildings were sought to convert into high school buildings. After scouring the city, two possible sites were chosen. One near the Minnesota State Fairgrounds and the other near the school's current location. The proposed area was the former site of an auto scrap yard. Officials were worried that the location would be polluted and would require an expensive cleanup. As a result, the location was moved to a site approximately .5 miles (0.80 km) west. Of the current 29 acres (0.05 sq mi; 0.12 km<sup>2</sup>) acre campus, roughly 20 acres (0.03 sq mi; 0.08 km<sup>2</sup>) were from a failed housing project and the other 9 acres (0.01 sq mi; 0.04 km<sup>2</sup>) were from homes that were bought and cleared. Some of the soil on the site was unstable and was replaced. Critics considered the location for being too close to Como Park and Johnson high schools and for being located in a residential neighborhood. Original estimates for the project cost \$54.3 million and as a result the Saint Paul school district authorized a \$20 million bond. Knutson Construction Co. was chosen for the project. ### Naming The high school was the first new high school to be built in Saint Paul or Minneapolis since the 1970s. The school district was also not expecting to build another high school for 40 years after. As a result, the competition to name the school was fierce. The name Arlington High School was eventually chosen from a list of 85 suggestions. Two names, Arlington and Mechanic Arts, were quickly favored. Mechanic Arts was the initial favorite after alumni of the former school campaigned for the name to be reused after the first Mechanic Arts High School was closed down in 1976 after operating for 86 years. The alumni created a lobbying group and even enlisted the help of U.S. Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun, a 1925 graduate of Mechanic Arts. However, the school board's policy of naming schools after local neighborhoods and street names eventually won out with the name Arlington being chosen in a 5–2 vote. The chosen school colors, blue and white, were the colors of Mechanic Arts. ### Closing In the spring of 2010 Saint Paul Public schools faced a \$27.2 million budget shortfall. To save money, plans to close the school began. The school's projected enrollment would only be 650 students. 2009–2010 Juniors would have been allowed to graduate from Arlington as the high school's last class but only half of the required number of students committed to attending Arlington for the 2010–2011 school year. The district set a goal of 150 Junior students staying for a viable program. 2009–10 Juniors and Sophomores were required to transfer to other schools with Freshmen able to stay on as part of Washington Middle School's BioSmart program. The high school was closed for the 2010–2011 school year with Washington Middle School's grades 7–10 taking over the school's space. Eventually Washington Middle School took over the space, and the former Arlington Senior High School is now known as the Washington Technology Magnet School, hosting grades 6-12. ## Campus Before the school was built many of the high schools in the Saint Paul Public Schools District were not up to date in technology. Consequently, an emphasis was placed on technology being built into the school and providing the ability to add to the existing facilities in the future. The school has extensive high tech facilities. The entire campus comprises 29 acres (120,000 m<sup>2</sup>) in a residential neighborhood. The outside of the building is composed of tall narrow windows and a curving facade which has led to one architectural critic comparing it to a suburban office park. The "houses" that the freshmen and sophomores are divided into can be seen as wings projecting from the building. The houses were planned to separate the school into manageable sections so that the school does not seem as large to the students. ## Students Students were enrolled from throughout the city. Often the school was used to reassign students who could not be enrolled into other high schools. As of the 2006–2007 school year, Arlington enrolled 1,825 students. The plurality were Asian, at 48%, with Black, 35% and Hispanic, 11% being the other major ethnic groups. 5% of students identified as White. The school had the highest rate of poverty in high schools from the Saint Paul Public School system with 89% of students qualifying for Free and Reduced Price Lunch. Free and Reduced Price Lunch is the measure of poverty for the district. The school had a large percentage of students who have limited English proficiency (58%). 14% of students qualify for special education. The school had an Adequate Yearly Progress graduation rate of 83% while roughly three out of five students who initially enrolled graduated within 4 years. 35% of students had grade level reading proficiency and 13% of students had proficiency in mathematics. Enrollment dropped considerably in the last years with only 875 students enrolled in 2010 and projections of only 650 for 2011. ## Education As the first new high school built in several years, many unorthodox ideas were suggested. After many of the ideas were criticized the school district requested parental input on the direction of the school's curriculum and held meetings around the city to show their plans for the curriculum. School officials wished to create a balance of college prep classes and vocational programs. The school was planned as a citywide magnet school with no attendance boundary. An emphasis on technology was integrated into the plans for the school. Arlington offered language classes in French and Spanish. The school also participated in the University of Minnesota's College in the Schools program. Advanced Placement classes were also offered. Arlington used a teaching program called "Small Learning Communities". These smaller learning communities separated particular student interests into different areas of the school. They provide goal- or interest-oriented learning. Freshmen and sophomores were separated into "houses" of smaller learning groups. Upper classmen followed specified career paths. Originally the school was opened with four focus areas; liberal arts, medical and environmental sciences, informational technologies and communication and policy-making and government but beginning with the 2008–2009 school year those career paths had changed. In October 2007, the school received a three-year, \$6 million grant from the U.S. Department of Education to help transform the school. The grant was used to create a "Bio-Smart" school for grades 11-12. The money was used for hiring additional staff and adding more high-tech equipment and supplies to the school's "extensive" existing facilities. Students were to choose between three career pathways: bioengineering and technology, bio-business and marketing or biomedical and health sciences. Students would take elective classes related to their pathway as well as core classes, such as math and English. The grant was sought to help reinvent the school. Arlington had the lowest test scores and highest concentration of poverty for Saint Paul Public Schools. In addition, the school was described as an "academically struggling high school". As a result of not meeting Adequate Yearly Progress as a part of No Child Left Behind Arlington faced restructuring. However, the school's restructuring was already underway with the biotech program. ## Extracurricular activities In 2006, the Saint Paul Neighborhood Network's youth department produced a short video, reporting on Arlington's diminishing financial support for its art program, a video that would win SPNN the 2007 Alliance for Community Media Hometown Video Award for Visual Art-Youth entry. Arlington was one of three schools in Minnesota and one of two in Saint Paul to have a Naval Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps unit. Arlington's NJROTC unit was named a Distinguished Unit for the fifth consecutive year. Only 20 percent of units earn the Distinguished Unit recognition yearly. The Mural is the school's student published newspaper. Issues are published monthly. A number of partnerships with community organizations are offered. Local colleges such as Saint Paul College, Century College and the University of Minnesota's Carlson School of Management. Internships with local multinational conglomerate 3M are also offered. The school also participates in Upward Bound with the University of Minnesota, Advancement Via Individual Determination Program (AVID) and Admission Possible, a program that helps low-income students attend college. The school has a Multicultural Excellence Program (MEP) that gives guidance to students of color who wish to earn a college degree. ### Athletics Arlington is a member of the Minnesota State High School League. The school's athletic teams compete in the Saint Paul City Conference. The first year the school opened the athletic teams only competed in junior varsity competitions. The following year the school competed fully with varsity teams. The school has won two boys Cross Country conference championships in 2001 and 2002. The school has also won three boys track and field conference championships in 1998, 2000 and 2003. Arlington offers nine boys' and nine girls' varsity sports. These include football (boys), wrestling (boys), tennis (boys and girls), basketball (boys and girls), baseball (boys), softball (girls), golf (boys and girls), soccer (boys and girls), volleyball (girls), badminton (girls), cross country (boys and girls) and track and field (boys and girls). Sports that are not offered at Arlington are played in co-ops with other Saint Paul City Conference members. ## In popular culture ### Films and television - "Sugar & Spice" (2001) Many interior and exterior locations at Arlington Senior High School feature prominently in the film, including the main entrance, gym, and vaulted locker bays among others. It is presented in the film as the fictitious "Lincoln High School", a primary setting of the film. Many contemporary students of the school appeared as extras in the film. Filming occurred on site in July 1999.
28,277,476	Anomochilus weberi	1,172,212,624	Species of snake	[ "Anomochilidae", "Endemic fauna of Indonesia", "Fauna of Sumatra", "Reptiles described in 1890", "Reptiles of Borneo", "Reptiles of Indonesia" ]	Anomochilus weberi, commonly known as Weber's dwarf pipesnake or the Sumatran giant blind snake, is a species of snake in the dwarf pipesnake family Anomochilidae. It is endemic to the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, where it inhabits montane and lowland dipterocarp forest at altitudes of 300–1,000 m (980–3,280 ft). Described by the herpetologist Theodorus Willem van Lidth de Jeude in 1890, the species is a stout, cylindrical snake with a small head and short, conical tail. It is the smallest species in its genus, with a total length of 230 mm (9.1 in). It is mostly black in color, with pale stripes along its sides and pale blotches bordering the vertebral scales, as well as a variety of other pale spots and markings on the tail and head. It can be told apart from the other species in its genus by its small size, the presence of a pale stripe along its sides, and the presence of pale blotches along its back. The species is nocturnal and fossorial (adapted to living underground). It most likely feeds on earthworms, snakes, and legless lizards. The species lays eggs in clutches of four, unusually for its superfamily, where most species give birth to live young. The IUCN Red List currently classifies A. weberi as being data deficient due to a lack of information about its range and threats to the species; however, it may be threatened by habitat loss caused by logging and urbanisation. ## Taxonomy and systematics In 1890, the Dutch herpetologist Theodorus van Lidth de Jeude described the species Anomalochilus weberi on the basis of a female specimen of the species from Sumatra. He also described the genus Anomalochilus in the same paper, creating it for the species. In 1901, the naturalist Charles Berg renamed the genus to Anomochilus, as the name Anomalochilus was already in use for a genus of beetles. The specific name, weberi, is in honor of German-Dutch zoologist Max Wilhelm Carl Weber van Bosse. A. weberi is one of three species in the dwarf pipesnake genus Anomochilus, which is the only genus in the family Anomochilidae. Anomochilidae is one of three families in the superfamily Uropeltoidea, along with Uropeltidae and Cylindrophiidae. However, genetic studies indicate that Cylindrophiidae is paraphyletic (not containing all the descendants of a common ancestor) with respect to Anomochilidae, and some authorities merge Anomochilidae into Cylindrophiidae. ## Description Like other species in its genus, A. weberi is cylindrical with a small, rounded head and short, conical tail. It is the smallest Anomochilus snake, with a total length of 230 mm (9.1 in). The head is continuous with the neck, and, despite the fossorial (adapted to living underground) nature of the species, the snout has no reinforcements to aid in burrowing. The dorsum is smooth, with slightly larger scales than the underside. The species also completely lacks the left lung. It has a completely black underside and a black upperside with pale stripes along its sides and pale blotches bordering the vertebral scales. The prefrontal scales and anal scales are whitish, and the underside of the tail has a whitish band that forms a half-ring around the tail. The undersides have two rows of irregular white spots and the very tip of the tail also has two small pale spots. When preserved in alcohol, the species' color changes to mainly brown. A. weberi has 19 rows of scales (excluding ventral scales) in the middle of the body. It has 242–248 midventral scales (scales down the middle of the underside) and 6–8 subcaudal scales (scales between the cloaca and tip of the tail). The species can be differentiated from other snakes outside of its genus by its small head and eyes, the large scales on the forehead, a single nasal scale bordering the second supralabial scale, the absence of the loreal and preocular scales, a lone postocular scale, and the lack of a mental groove. The species is the only Anomochilus on Sumatra, but co-occurs with both of its congeners on Borneo. It differs from both A. monticola and A. leonardi by the presence of pale stripes along its sides and a paired parietofrontal scale on the forehead. ## Distribution and habitat A. weberi is currently only known from the Greater Sunda Islands in the Indonesian Archipelago, where it occurs on Sumatra and Borneo. On Borneo, it is found near Kutai, Kalimantan; on Sumatra, it is known from the Padang Highlands and Mount Talakmau in western Sumatra. It is thought to inhabit montane and lowland dipterocarp forests at altitudes of 300–1,000 m (980–3,280 ft), and like other species in its genus, is fossorial. ## Ecology and conservation A. weberi is nocturnal and fossorial. The ecology of the species is poorly studied, and little is known about its diet and reproductive habits. The absence of the mental groove suggests that the snake feeds on elongate invertebrates like earthworms and perhaps on small, slim vertebrates like other snakes and legless lizards. The species lays eggs in clutches of four; this is unique within the superfamily Uropeltoidea, the rest of which give birth to live young. The species is currently classified as being data deficient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to a lack of information about its range, population size, and threats affecting it. It may be threatened by habitat loss caused by logging and urbanisation.
6,774,506	The Kingdom of This World	1,170,467,822	Book by Alejo Carpentier	[ "1949 novels", "20th-century Cuban novels", "Cuban magic realism novels", "Cultural depictions of Toussaint Louverture", "Novellas", "Novels about revolutions", "Novels by Alejo Carpentier", "Novels set in Haiti", "Novels set in the 1790s", "Novels set in the 1800s", "Novels set in the Haitian Revolution" ]	The Kingdom of This World (Spanish: El reino de este mundo) is a novel by Cuban author Alejo Carpentier, published in 1949 in his native Spanish and first translated into English in 1957. A work of historical fiction, it tells the story of Haiti before, during, and after the Haitian Revolution led by Toussaint Louverture, as seen by its central character, Ti Noel, who serves as the novel's connecting thread. Carpentier's work has been influenced by his multi-cultural experience and his passion for the arts, as well as by authors such as Miguel de Cervantes. The novel stems from the author's desire to retrace the roots and history of the New World, and is embedded with what Carpentier calls "lo real maravilloso" or "the marvelous real"—a concept he introduced to the world of literature (not to be confused with magical realism). Throughout the novel, varying perceptions of reality that arise due to cultural differences between its characters are emphasized and contrasted. Carpentier explores hybridization, nature, voodoo, ethnicity, history and destiny, confusion, violence, and sexuality in a style that blends history with fiction and uses repetition to emphasize the cyclical nature of events. The novel was largely well-received with much attention paid to Carpentier's inclusion of magic realism and The Kingdom of This World has been described as an important work in the development of this genre in Caribbean and Latin American literature. However, some technical aspects of his style have been ignored by the academic community, and the novel's narrative organization has been criticized. ## Background ### Author Alejo Carpentier was born on December 26, 1904, in Lausanne, Switzerland and grew up in Havana, Cuba. He subsequently moved to France in 1933 (at the age of 29) and returned to Cuba six years later, in 1939. Once in Cuba, Carpentier joined a group of young writers whose goal was to establish a literature faithful to the New World, by recovering origins, history, and tradition. In 1943, he travelled to Haiti, where he was made aware of Dominique Hyppolyte's play, Le Torrent, about the Haitian Revolution, which features a character named Ti Noel. As The Kingdom of This World coincides with Carpentier's return to Cuba, it is very much influenced by the author's re-encounter with himself and his origins. ### Setting The Kingdom of This World takes place prior to, during, and after the Haitian Revolution which began in 1791 and led to the declaration of Haitian independence in 1804. This revolution was a turning point in global history because it was unthinkable that such a massive anti-slavery revolt would not only take place, but also be successful; therefore, it challenged the prejudices of its time and ultimately influenced abolitionist movements throughout the Americas. Haitians became the second nation to break from their European colonizer (following the US). The Haitian revolution differed from the American Revolution however, as it involved the formation of a new national identity. Unlike in the US, the entire social and economic order that had been put in place through the practice of plantation slavery in Haiti was transformed. In contrast to the intense single character focus of his first novel, ¡Ecue-Yamba-O! (Praised Be the Lord!), Carpentier offers a diversified understanding of black society and its beliefs in The Kingdom of This World. There exists remarkable respect for accuracy on all sides including historical facts, character names, place names, and even street names. This adds to the key blend of marvellous fantasy and historical accuracy. ## Influences ### Other authors Carpentier was influenced by a number of authors. Jean Price Mars's Ainsi parla l'oncle (So Spoke the Uncle) presents two arguments that Carpentier applied to his historical approach: firstly, from the perspective of a Haitian peasant, the Revolution did nothing more than replace leaders, since the exploitation continued; secondly, Price Mars assumes the authenticity of the belief in African gods, in contrast with a shallow Catholicism. William Seabrook's The Magic Island made connections between religion and history and was considered a beautiful book by Carpentier. Carpentier was a great admirer of Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, having cited him in a number of different texts throughout his career. The Prologue begins with a quote from Cervantes' Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda (Persiles and Sigismunda), which is subsequently mentioned, with a focus on the character of Rutilio. The mention of Rutilio is noteworthy, as the episode has been of interest to critics due to its magical subject matter, concerning lycanthropy. Both works feature a distant and exotic land where the marvellous is present by means of metamorphoses, and viewed from the characters' perspective. ### Theatre Theatre also greatly influenced Alejo Carpentier's work. In all his work, Carpentier uses the characters he creates to explore the notions of subjectivity and identity, analyzing the way in which individuals see themselves and others within cultural settings. In order to achieve such an analysis, Carpentier makes use of spectatorship: his characters perceive a spectacle in alterable ways which parallel their alterable ways of experiencing the world. Spectacle situations are also sometimes used by Carpentier as a tool for the characters to reframe and rethink the world, as well as to establish individual and group identity. As an example, the execution scene in The Kingdom of This World puts European and autochthonous cultures in opposition through the use of the spectator-performer relationship. In this spectacle situation, Carpentier is able to juxtapose the Europeans' experience of Macandal's body falling into the flames with the autochthonous (Afro-Haitian) experience of Macandal's body flying off the stake. Through the different, mutable views of the performance that he creates, Carpentier is able to represent an unstable cultural identity. As a second example, the scene that Ti Noel constructs around himself after the sacking of the Sans-Souci Palace presents the reader with a dramatic rehearsal in which Ti Noel represents culturally mobile subjectivity by performing different identities on his own. Carpentier lastly equates the idea of Western theatre with that of a sham through Ti Noel's realization that disguising oneself to assume a role does not lead to community: "As Ti Noel was there in disguise, and did not for a moment consider himself one of the species, he took refuge by himself under his table." Theatre is also undermined when Ti Noel flees with Ruth (his wife and an actress), and in the end is faced with nothing but theatre on her behalf. ## Plot summary ### Prologue The prologue to the novel is Carpentier's most often quoted text, in which he coins the term lo real maravilloso ("marvellous reality") in reference to seemingly miraculous occurrences in Latin America. Furthermore, his trip to Haiti in 1943 is recounted, as well as some of the research he did to gather facts for the novel. Carpentier also denounces the commonplace and formulaic instances of the marvellous that is found in surrealist novels due to its inorganic and false origins, as opposed to the natural magic that is found in Latin America. ### Part one Ti Noel recalls the tales that a fellow slave, Macandal, would regale on the plantation of their master, Lenormand de Mezy. Macandal would tell tales of magical characters and mythical kingdoms with rivers rising in the sky. He is said to not only have irresistible qualities that appeal to black women, but also the ability to captivate men. He suffers an accident in which his left hand is caught in machinery, and his arm is dragged in up to the shoulder. Being useless to his owner, he departs for the mountains and discovers many secret herbs, plants, and fungi that appear to have magical qualities. Ti Noel joins Macandal and both learn about the magical attributes of these natural elements. Macandal suggests that the time has come, and no longer goes to the plantation. After the rain season has passed, Ti Noel meets with him in a cave populated with strange items. Macandal has established contact with surrounding plantations, and gives instructions to ensure the death of cows using secret herbs. The poison spreads, killing livestock by the hundreds as well as Frenchmen, wiping out adults and children. Madame Lenormand de Mezy dies as a result, and the deaths continue with entire families suffering the same fate. At gunpoint, a slave eventually explains that Macandal has superhuman powers and is the Lord of Poison. Death within the plantations returns to normal rates as a result and the Frenchmen return to playing cards and drinking, as months pass with no word of Macandal. Macandal, now with the ability to transform into animal forms, like bird, fish, or insect, visits the plantation to affirm faith in his return. The slaves decide to wait four years for Macandal to complete his metamorphoses and once again become a human. After four years, he returns during a celebration and all present are delighted. The chanting alerts the white men, and preparations are made to capture Macandal. He is captured and tied to a post in order to be lashed and burned in front of massive black crowds, but he escapes, flying overhead, and lands among the crowd. He is again captured and burned, but the slaves are certain that he has been saved by African Gods and return to their plantations, laughing. ### Part two Lenormand de Mezy's second wife has died and the city has made remarkable progress. Henri Christophe is a master chef. Twenty years have gone by and Ti Noel has fathered twelve children by one of the cooks. He has told these children many stories of Macandal and they await his return. A secret gathering of trusted slaves takes place: Bouckman, the Jamaican, speaks of possible freedom for the blacks emerging in France and also mentions the opposition from the plantation landowners. An uprising is planned; as a result of this meeting, conch-shell trumpets sound and slaves, armed with sticks, surround the houses of their masters. Upon hearing the conch-shells Lenormand de Mezy is frightened and manages to hide. The slaves kill the white men and drink much alcohol. Ti Noel, after drinking, rapes Mademoiselle Floridor, who is Lenormand de Mezy's latest mistress. The uprising is defeated and Bouckman is killed. The governor, Blanchelande, advocates for the complete extermination of the colony's black population, as they pose a threat with their voodoo and secret religion. Several of the rebels are gathered to be publicly executed, but Lenormand de Mezy secures the release of his slaves, including Ti Noel, intending to sell them in the slave markets in Cuba. Lenormand de Mezy takes Ti Noel and other slaves to Cuba, where he becomes lazy, conducts no business, enjoys the women, drinks alcohol, and gambles away his slaves. Pauline Bonaparte accompanies Leclerc, her army general husband, to Haiti. On the way there, she enjoys sexually tempting the men on the ship. Solimán, a black slave, massages her body and lavishes loving care on her beauty. Leclerc develops yellow fever, and Pauline trusts in the voodoo and magic of Solimán to cure him. Leclerc dies, and Pauline returns to Paris while the Rochambeau government treats the blacks very poorly. However, there is the emergence of black priests who allow the slaves to conduct more business internally. ### Part three Ti Noel has been won in a card game by a plantation owner based in Santiago, and Lenormand de Mezy dies in abject poverty shortly afterwards. Ti Noel saves enough money to buy his passage, and as a free man, he discovers a free Haiti. Now much older, he realizes that he has returned to the former plantation of Lenormand de Mezy. Haiti has undergone great development, and the land has come under the control of the black man. Ti Noel is abruptly thrown into prison and once again made to work as a slave among children, pregnant girls, women, and old men. Henri Christophe, formerly a cook and now king due to the black uprising, is using slaves to construct lavish statues, figures, and a magnificent fortress. Ti Noel considers slavery under a fellow black man worse than that endured at the hands of Lenormand de Mezy. In times past, the loss of a slave would be a financial loss, but as long as there are black women to continue supplying slaves, their deaths are insignificant. Ti Noel escapes and returns to the former plantation of Lenormand de Mezy, where he remains for some time, and later returns to the city to find it gripped by fear of Henri Christophe's regime. King Christophe is tormented by thunder strikes and ghosts of formerly tortured subjects, and eventually he and Sans-Souci Palace are overrun by the blacks and by voodoo. Left alone, he commits suicide and his body is taken by the remaining African pages to the magnificent fortress where they bury him in a pile of mortar. The entire mountain becomes the mausoleum of the first King of Haiti. ### Part four Henri Christophe's widow and children are taken to Europe by English merchants, who used to supply the royal family. Solimán accompanies them and enjoys the summers in Rome, where he is treated well and tells embellished tales of his past. He encounters a statue of Pauline whose form brings back memories, and sends him into a howl, causing the room to be rushed. He is reminded of the night of Henri Christophe's demise and flees before succumbing to malaria. Ti Noel recalls things told by Macandal, and the former plantation of Lenormand de Mezy has become a happy place, with Ti Noel presiding over celebrations and festivities. Surveyors disrupt the peace at the plantation, and mulattoes have risen to power; they force hundreds of black prisoners to work by whiplash, and many have lost hope as the cycle of slavery continues. Ti Noel, thinking of Macandal, decides to transform into various animals to observe the ongoing events; he metamorphoses into a bird, a stallion, a wasp, and then an ant. He eventually becomes a goose, but is rejected by the clan of geese. He understands that being a goose does not imply that all geese are equal, so he returns to human form. The book concludes with the end of Ti Noel's life, and his own self-reflection upon greatness and The Kingdom of This World. ## Characters The characters in the novel are integral to its understanding. Not only do they highlight the temporal and political context of voodoo and other forces, but they also allow Carpentier to surpass temporal and spatial limitations to reach the ultimate reality of life: the universal essence that lies in every human being. ### Ti Noel Ti Noel, an illiterate slave, is a protagonist of African origin. He begins as a young slave who, during the unravelling of the novel, travels to Cuba before returning to Haiti. He is twice branded as a slave but now is a free man. Although he grows old, he remains a witness rather than actor and more often reacts to, as opposed to causes, events throughout the novel. He is in admiration of Macandal's qualities prior to the loss of Macandal's arm; he accompanies Macandal into the mountains and is saddened by his departure. Ti Noel is well established early on as not only a witness to events, but also as someone who makes observations and offers reflection. It is he who considers slavery under Henri Christophe worse than that under French rule because blacks are now enslaving fellow blacks. It is also he who offers reflections about the difficulty of this world allowing for the possibility of greatness during the concluding remarks of the novel. His perspective represents that of the folk, including his belief in the African gods. Ti Noel has been considered a product of creolization, combining the African magical perspective of Macandal with the Catholic realism of Henri Christophe. A key aspect of the novel is that the main character is of interest not because of his skin colour, but rather for his human attributes that allow universal reflection beyond the realm of race. In this sense, magic realism is a necessary tool of expression and the technique serves to confront the novel's hero, better develop his purpose as a man, and advance a simultaneously profound and straightforward understanding of the human experience. ### Macandal Macandal is a black slave, first introduced on the same plantation as Ti Noel. He is admired for his qualities that are irresistible to black women and his ability to captivate men. He regales tales of great kingdoms and speaks of epic battles in which the animals were allies of men, of the incarnation of the serpent, of a queen who was the Rainbow, and of horses adorned with silver coins. Macandal has his left arm amputated after a machinery accident on the plantation of Lenormand de Mezy and, unable to complete heavy work, is put in charge of pasturing the cattle. He departs for the mountains and discovers many secret herbs, plants, and fungi about which he is taught more by an old, mysterious woman who is something of a witch. Macandal leaves the plantation, attains the ability to transform into various beings, and is represented as having superhuman powers due to his possession by the gods. He spreads poison and kills much livestock and many Frenchmen to prepare for an uprising, but is forced into exile as the French become aware of his actions and begin to search for him. He returns after four years, but is captured and tied to a post to be lashed and burned in front of a massive black audience. While tied to the post, he metamorphoses into an insect and flies overhead before landing in the crowds. During the ensuing pandemonium he is again captured by ten men and burned in the fire. The slaves are certain that he has been saved and remain in defiant and jubilant spirits. The memory of Macandal is not extinguished in the flames. Ti Noel tells his children the stories he was told by Macandal, and they await his return many years later. Macandal represents the link between spirituality and history; he is the inspiration for the rebellion, and the first one to employ the marvelous as a weapon of resistance. ### Henri Christophe Henri Christophe first appears at the beginning of Part Two. He is described as a black master chef who has just bought the lodgings at the Auberge de la Couronne from Mademoiselle Monjean. His dishes are famous for the perfection of their seasoning and/or for the abundance of ingredients that allow for visitors from across the world to be satisfied. He is said to have a magic touch with turtle vol-au-vent or wood pigeons. In Part Three, Henri Christophe has become the first King of Haiti and subjects the black population to worse slavery than that experienced under French rule. His regime carries out brutal torture and grips the city in fear. He is later tormented by thunder strikes and magical, ghostly appearances of previously tortured subjects. As the black population revolts against his rule, he finds himself alone and deserted. In this state he commits suicide by shooting himself. His body is taken to be buried in a fortress on a mountain and this becomes his mausoleum. Carpentier's portrayal of Christophe has been considered "hollow" and one-sided, representing an archetypal tyrant at his most deteriorated state, seen only through the eyes of Ti Noel. This goes against the principle of historical accuracy, which should present a faithful portrait of society with characters who are fully conscious of their role in history. Carpentier portrays Henri Christophe, like most leaders, as a pompous fool, since the cycle of history continues regardless of his presence: his influence on the lives of people like Ti Noel is minimal. On the other hand, Christophe has also been seen as a representation of man's potential, rising from cook to soldier to king, reaching extremes of extravagance that exceed that of the previous French rulers, and ultimately falling pathetically. ### Pauline Bonaparte Pauline Bonaparte first appears on the ship of dogs being transported from Cuba to Haiti in Part Two of the novel. She is described as a beautiful woman who, despite her tender years, is familiar with the male body. She enjoyed tempting the men on board and for that reason would let the wind ruffle her hair and breeze through her clothes to reveal the grace of her breasts. She would also sleep out in the open. Pauline has Solimán massage her body and tend to her beauty. They form a relationship and when her husband, Leclerc, falls ill she puts her faith in the voodoo of Solimán designed to cure him. Leclerc dies and Pauline makes her way back to Paris. Pauline Bonaparte is represented as immature, expecting an ideal life of fantasy in the Caribbean, while engaging in affairs with young officers. Her function in the novel has been a matter of debate, with different critics viewing her as a representation of white decadence, the immorality of the colony, or sexuality. It is a statue of Pauline that causes the beginning of Solimán's madness. ### Minor characters Lenormand de Mezy: Lenormand de Mezy is the white master of a plantation and owns Ti Noel and Macandal among other black slaves. He has multiple wives, mistresses, and sexual encounters during the course of the novel. Following the quelled black uprising in Part Two, Lenormand de Mezy leaves his state of hiding and arrives in time to spare the lives of Ti Noel and some of his other slaves. He takes them to Cuba to protect his assets, but while there, he gambles with his slaves, drinks much alcohol, enjoys the company of women, and loses what remains of his wealth. Having lost Ti Noel in a card game, Lenormand de Mezy dies shortly after in abject poverty. Lenormand de Mezy's name may be based on an eponymous Haitian plantation where the historical Bouckman is said to have conducted his famous Bois Caiman ritual. Bouckman: Bouckman is of Jamaican origin and leads the secret gathering of trusted slaves, where he speaks of French requests for freedom for black slaves, but also of the resistance displayed by plantation landowners. He is present when staff is named and an uprising is planned. After the uprising is defeated, Bouckman is killed at the same location as Macandal is burned alive. Solimán: Solimán is first introduced in the text as the slave who receives the fortune of massaging the body of Pauline and also lavishing her beauty with great care. He begins to conduct voodoo rituals with Pauline for the sake of Leclerc, who has contracted yellow fever. Following the demise of Henri Christophe, Solimán ends up in Europe, where he enjoys the summers. He is given food and drink freely and his appearance is the subject of much attention. He regales exaggerated and embellished tales of his past and even makes an appearance at theatre performances. He later comes across a marble statue of Pauline and this, coupled with memories of the night that witnessed the demise of Henri Christophe, causes him to fall into madness, flee, and eventually succumb to malaria. ## Major themes ### Reactionary vs. revolutionary The Kingdom of This World has a deep focus on the nature of revolution, and the novel itself can be viewed as a reflection of Carpentier's ideological perspective towards revolutions. Carpentier tries to establish the idea that a distinction must be made between revolutions and reactions. While a revolution produces progress, a reaction does not. In the novel, the Afro-Caribbean slave population violently react to the oppressive regime imposed on them by the French colonials. The end result of this armed reaction is the emergence of a brutal regime in which the oppressed become the oppressors. Sadly, the leaders of the newly produced regime fail to break the mold imposed by the French colonials. The ruling Afro-Caribbeans end up enslaving and oppressing their own kind and the resulting social situation is devoid of any progress. Carpentier's perspective on the Haitian revolution is revealed in the way that he portrays the cyclical nature of reactionary violence. ### Hybridization Hybridization, or the formation of a hybrid identity, is a theme commonly found in texts that deal with cultural differences. The theory of hybridization was originally developed by Homi K. Bhabha in an effort to explain the effects of interacting cultures. Bhabha's theory contends that, through the process of what he refers to as cultural translation, the interactions between two distinct cultures result in the formation of a hybrid identity. As the word "hybrid" suggests, the new identity is a mix of the two original cultures and the end result is a new unique cultural entity. In The Kingdom of This World, Carpentier writes about the struggles and conflicts that arise between the French colonials and the Afro-Caribbean population in Haiti during a time of revolution. Carpentier's prose is rich with examples of hybridization. One of the most striking examples is found in the chapter titled "San Trastorno," where black priests combine Voodoo and Catholic religious practices to form a hybridized religious entity. The hybridized religious entity can be viewed as heretical since it is a blasphemous, bastardized departure from both pure Voodoo and Catholic practices. Carpentier also has a tendency to hybridize many other components of his novel. The titles of the chapters themselves provide further examples of hybridization. Carpentier creatively chose chapter titles that had a well established connotative significance and distorted their meaning. For instance, the chapter titled "Las metamorfosis," does not tell the mythic stories of Ovid, but rather speaks of the metamorphosis of the slave Mackandal. Carpentier's fascination with the notion of hybridity, and the associated cultural distortion is inevitably a reflection of his own search for a cultural identity. During his time in Paris, there was a profound public interest in the Americas. Although well versed in the French surrealist tradition and possessing a deep mastery of the French language, Carpentier never fully identified himself as a French writer. Instead, he preferred to define himself as a Spanish American writing in French. Furthermore, Carpentier was known to shuttle between claiming French or Spanish as his mother tongue, which further illustrated his cultural indecisiveness. In the end, due to his conflicting cultural influences, Carpentier's own feelings of being somewhat of a hybrid entity himself are mirrored in his prose. ### Nature Macandal has expert knowledge of the nature of the forest, using its herbs and fungi as weapons against the planters. The ecological landscape of Haiti is used to represent the wreckage of the Revolution, being initially described as fertile and bountiful with the plantations, but later as worn down and bare. The powerful climate of the Caribbean is more similar to Africa than Europe, making nature an ally of the slaves. Natural elements also act on their own, with Henri Christophe's Citadel being attacked by fungi and thunderstorms before its completion. ### Voodoo, Vodou, Voudou, Vodun Although Jean-Jacques Dessalines, a pivotal figure in the Haitian Revolution, is barely mentioned in the novel, the one page dedicated to him emphasizes his connection to African gods while neglecting to mention any of his other features that made him an effective leader. While Dessaline's belief in African gods is highlighted, Henri Christophe's abandonment of the religion is stressed, being identified as the reason for his downfall. The drum is the main feature of Voodoo in the novel, always accompanying the slaves. Drums, including conch shells and even thunder, announce all the armed revolts by the blacks and serve as a means of communication during war. Vodou is central to The Kingdom of This World because of how the slaves practice. As a religion, vodou unifies the slaves through common practice and common language. In the novel, vodou is what motivates and inspires the slaves to rise up in rebellion. Through the use of vodou practices, Macandal is able to poison thousands of people. In the novel, vodou is used both to protect the slaves and to wage war against the slave owners. This point is drawn from an article by Rachel Beauvoir-Dominique, who says, "During the night of 14 August 1791 a Voodoo ceremony held in a place called Bois Caiman was a fundamental step in the unification of the slave population of Saint-Domingue. A week later the plantations (which were mainly sugarcane) were on fire, and the revolution had started. It was to last for thirteen years, until 1804" (Dominique 103). In conclusion, vodou was an integral practice in unifying the slaves and inspiring the revolt. ### Contrast between black and white ethnicities Carpentier's historical account is greatly simplified in order to increase the contrast between the white land owners and their black slaves. The marvellous, one of the most notable features of the novel, is used as a marker of contrast between the two groups: firstly, because mention of the magical always takes the form of the slaves' point of view, while the more real interpretation of each event is from the whites' perspective; secondly, because the marvellous is used as a weapon to fight injustice. Instances of cruelty and violence between the groups are recounted grotesquely in great detail, which enhances the rivalry. More importantly, by allowing readers to see through the slaves' point of view, Carpentier brings to light the power and durability of the Haitian community and destabilizes the narrative of Western supremacy. ### History and destiny A sense of destiny is present in the novel through patterns of repetition, including reversals of destiny in a number of characters. Characters who are paired together tend to suffer the same destiny: Ti Noel and Monsieur Lenormand de Mezy both witness the marvels of the age and slowly decline; both Pauline and Solimán indulge in their wealthy positions and then sink into madness. There is a clear pattern of succession from fortune to misfortune. There is a socio-political cycle of order and disorder where, regardless of who is in power, the same injustices take place: when the blacks take control, they betray their own traditions and follow the example of European states. By means of these repeated scenarios, history is presented as a cyclical re-enactment of the same human dilemmas. ### Confusion The theme of confusion appears through the transplantation of characters from one world to another, for example from the characters' childhood culture to the one imposed upon them as occurs in The Kingdom of This World. Often, the characters find that reality does not lie entirely in either world. It is possible that this theme is well-developed in Alejo Carpentier's work because of the author's own personal experience with cultural transplantation (Carpentier grew up in Havana but later moved to France for six years and travelled extensively). ### Violence and sexuality The brutality of the Spanish American dictatorship is omnipresent in The Kingdom of This World through the images of torture, fire, suppression, and hungry dogs for example. Carpentier's characters often find consolation in sexuality (which is closely related to the sadism of the violence theme) after experiencing violence. ## Genre The Kingdom of This World is a work of historical fiction. While the setting and the majority of the characters are based on fact, many of the events that occur during the novel are Carpentier's rendition of the actual events that took place during the course of the Haitian revolution. In the Prologue to the novel, Carpentier defines the phenomenon of lo real maravilloso, which has been considered one of the starting points for the genre of magic realism. Carpentier and Miguel Ángel Asturias are considered "pioneers of the contemporary Spanish-American novel" because of their mythologizing of the Latin American experience. Their work in between the late 1940s and early 1960s led to the Latin American Boom, one of whose main features was the use of magic realism. This being one of the first books in the genre, Carpentier had no guarantee of finding an audience and even covered publication costs himself. His conception of 'marvellous reality' revolves around the natural fantastic qualities of Latin America and the Caribbean, as opposed to the overly forced and cliché efforts by European surrealists to portray magical occurrences. The result was the presentation of impossible or fantastic events described as if they were completely usual and natural, such as the metamorphoses of Macandal and Ti Noel. These events, however, often represent the beliefs of other characters in the novel. For a more detailed account of the differences between magic realism and Carpentier's real maravilloso, see the page on magic realism. ## Style ### The "marvellous" There are many instances of marvellous occurrences in the novel, such as Macandal and Ti Noel's metamorphoses and Henri Christophe's encounter with a spectre. Carpentier mixes elements of history and fiction with no clear division in between the two, which has been said to increase the liveliness of the novel. Furthermore, the lack of transition in between perspectives grants authenticity to the marvellous. The historical episodes and characters were chosen based on which are the most interesting and unusual and not on which are most important to accurately recount the history of Haiti. Roberto González Echevarría questions the historical accuracy of the work by arguing that Carpentier manipulated dates so that he could achieve meaningful associations in his novel. Most moments in which there is a fantastic occurrence constitute a change in point of view, from the omniscient narrator to a specific character with particular beliefs. The introduction of magical events from the perspective of the slaves highlights their otherness, because while they may believe, for instance, that Macandal survived his execution, the whites, and especially the readers, know that he did not. The marvellous, emphasized in the Prologue, is a product of the characters' beliefs, which is why there is the shift in perspectives when presenting it. ### Repetition Carpentier reduces the individuality of the characters, enhancing the notion of humanity, keeping in line with the theme of history as a repetition of patterns regardless of who is in power. The simultaneous presence of fact and fiction and the cycle of reversal of fortunes presents characters as functional variants of each other. Through frequent use of metonymy, whereby a part replaces a whole, for example, referring to soldiers as uniformes (uniforms), Carpentier shifts the focus from individuals to the collective. In The Kingdom of This World, Carpentier creates a succession of characters that engage in very similar actions. This repetition, a stylistic tool that resembles baroque writings, constructs a cyclical pattern in the novel which depicts the author's social views. The succession of characters (as well as places) that replace each other without fully developing on their own (or blocked from developing, in a sense) represent Carpentier's view of the social context in which forces are preventing characters from developing. ### French stylistic influences As a young writer, Carpentier spent a great deal of time in Europe. Due to his European heritage, Carpentier had a firm grasp of the French language and was also well versed in the French surrealist tradition. Although Carpentier could have easily become a successful French writer, he instead chose to write in Spanish. However, Carpentier never fully dislocated himself from his European heritage as Baroque elements are present in all of his works, including The Kingdom of this World. More specifically, Carpentier is notorious for writing in a sort of "heightened" language, which is best described as a hybrid of his European and Latin American heritages. Carpentier's heightened language takes the form "Frenchifying" Spanish-American prose. As such, it is not uncommon for Carpentier to apply French constructions and usages to Spanish words. For example, Carpentier used the intransitive Spanish verb desertar [to desert] transitively, as déserter is used in French. Carpentier was an admirer of the elegance and wit in the work of satirical French writers and artists of the eighteenth century, and often employed grotesques in his descriptions to ridicule the ostentation of colonial aristocracy. Examples include Ti Noel's comparison of wax heads at a barber's shop to white men's heads being served at a banquet, or the portrayal of the decadence of Mademoiselle Floridor, a fourth-rate actress who performs for slaves as an outlet for her desire to act. Carpentier further satirizes the pomp of those in power through a series of details of protocol and ceremony whose cumulative effects ridicule the object of description, as is the case with Henri Christophe's chambers. ## Reception The Kingdom of This World is considered to be Alejo Carpentier's first great novel. He is praised for his skillful inclusion of Haitian voodoo, myth, and history in the work, as well as for contributing to the definition of Latin American identity. Although the presence of fantastic realism in The Kingdom of This World has been acclaimed by critics and discussed at length within the academic community, this concern is paralleled by a lack of interest in Carpentier's technical work in the novel. In particular, his vision of time has been widely ignored. The Kingdom of This World has also been criticized for its narrative organization, which predominantly relies on apposition rather than on succession: the novel does not present history in terms of a sequence of events and their consequences. The gaps within chronological time that occur throughout this novel as well as the sudden changes of perspective and minimal transitional narrative have led some to criticize the book for the chaotic first impression it gives the reader.
4,370,165	Newcastle town wall	1,142,480,743	Medieval defensive wall in England	[ "Archaeological sites in Tyne and Wear", "Buildings and structures in Newcastle upon Tyne", "City walls in the United Kingdom", "Grade I listed buildings in Tyne and Wear", "History of Newcastle upon Tyne", "Scheduled monuments in Tyne and Wear", "Tourist attractions in Newcastle upon Tyne", "Walls in England" ]	The Newcastle town wall is a medieval defensive wall, and Scheduled Ancient Monument, in Newcastle upon Tyne, northern England. It was built during the 13th and 14th centuries, and helped protect the town from attack and occupation during times of conflict. It was approximately 3 kilometres (2 mi) long, at least 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick, up to 7.6 metres (25 ft) high, and had six main gates: Close Gate, West Gate, New Gate, Pilgrim Gate, Pandon Gate and Sand Gate. It also had seventeen towers, as well as several smaller turrets and postern gates. The town wall was kept in good repair whilst there was a threat of invasion from Scottish armies, and the town was successfully defended on at least two occasions; but with the decline of the border wars between England and Scotland, the wall was allowed to deteriorate. During the English Civil War, the Scots were able to breach the wall using mines and artillery. By the mid-18th century the wall had become obsolete and, as the town was redeveloped, large sections were demolished leaving only parts standing. The most substantial remains are the West Walls, on the western side of the city. ## Construction The town wall was constructed during the 13th and 14th centuries to repel Scottish invaders. Newcastle is about 97 kilometres (60 mi) from the River Tweed, which marks the border between England and Scotland, as it did then. At that time there was a power struggle between England and Scotland, that eventually led to the Wars of Scottish Independence. The Scottish kings were always ready to take advantage of any weakness in English rule to invade the North of England. An example of this is David I of Scotland, who took advantage of the civil war between Stephen and Matilda to invade Northumberland in three successive years—1136–8. In the Treaty of Durham (1139), David's son Henry was given the earldom of Northumberland. Newcastle was not included in this grant but the Scots ignored this clause and occupied Newcastle until 1157. Although the town had a strong castle, built by Robert Curthose in 1080, and improved by Henry II between 1172 and 1177, it did not provide sufficient protection for the local merchants' properties, and so it was decided that a fortified town wall was needed. A special tax, or "murage", was levied by the borough to pay for the construction, murus being Latin for wall. It was first levied in 1265, so it can be assumed that construction began soon after that date. The payment of murage continued for the next hundred years, so construction was probably not finished until at least the mid-14th century. The plans for the route of the wall changed somewhat during construction. In the original plan, the castle was to be included in the wall as a strongpoint. However, the castle was set on high ground above the river bank and there were strong objections to this route, as it would miss out the area by the river where many of the principal burgesses lived, leaving their residences without protection. The route was therefore changed so that the wall turned southward at the Neville Tower and ran down to the river. A similar adjustment to the route was made to the east of the city. In 1299 the village of Pandon was formally incorporated as part of the city, and so the wall made a sharp turn to the east to skirt around Pandon until it reached the river. From Pandon, the wall ran westward along the river, separating the town from the quay. Here, the wall was pierced by a number of water gates that allowed access to the river for loading and unloading of ships. In 1616 it was ordered that these gates were to be closed at night to prevent servants from throwing rubbish into the river. One or two were left open to allow seamen to return to their ships, but these were watched all night. When completed, the wall was approximately 3 kilometres (2 mi) long, at least 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick and up to 7.6 metres (25 ft) high. It had six main gateways and seventeen towers as well as several smaller turrets and postern gates. The towers projected out from the walls and were within bowshot of each other, so that attackers trying to scale the walls were exposed to fire from both sides (i.e., from the towers), as well as from the front (i.e., from the walls). The postern gates were provided for institutions, such as the Dominican Order of Blackfriars and the Hospital of St Mary the Virgin (which still exists as an almshouse charity), so that they could access their property outside the walls. Even before the walls were complete, they were supplemented by an outer ditch, known as the King's Dyke. The ditch was over 11 metres (36 ft) wide and 4.5 metres (15 ft) deep in front of the Herber and Morden Towers. It was completed by 1317. ## Subsequent history The town wall was kept in good repair whilst there was a threat of invasion from the Scots. In 1342, David II of Scotland invaded Northumberland and laid siege to Newcastle, without success. In 1388, another Scottish army under the Earl of Douglas assaulted the town, but was repulsed. As the border wars between England and Scotland became less frequent, and in particular following the union of the two crowns in 1603, the wall was allowed to deteriorate. In 1640, during the Bishops' Wars and in 1644, during the English Civil War, Scottish armies were able to invade Newcastle despite the presence of the town wall. In 1648 the Parliamentarian governor had the wall repaired. Further repairs were carried out in 1667. During the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and 1745, it was substantially strengthened in preparation for an invading Jacobite army, but there were no attacks on those occasions. A long decline then began, during which the wall was demolished piecemeal to make way for new developments and to create better access to the town centre. The last repairs to the wall were made in the early 19th century, during the Napoleonic Wars. After this it was thought that the town no longer needed a defensive barrier. The first part of the wall to be demolished was the stretch on the quayside, as it was regarded as "a very great obstacle to carriages and a hindrance to the despatch of business". The quayside section was pulled down in 1763 and the Sand Gate followed in 1798. ## Gates There were six main gateways through the wall, they were (clockwise from western end): Close Gate – This gate was situated at the end of Close, the street that ran west from Sandhill, parallel with the river. In early times, Close was the principal residence of the wealthy traders of the town, and was lined with merchants’ houses backing on to the river, with their own wharves. It is believed that the town wall ran only a short distance eastwards along the river from the Close Gate. On the north side of the Close Gate was the Whitefriars Tower, and it was the section of wall near there that the Scottish forces under General Leven broke through in the siege of 1644, after breaching the wall by use of mines and artillery fire. Close Gate was demolished in 1797. West Gate – This gate led to the West Road which followed the line of the old Roman Wall. It had large oak gates and iron doors, and was described by the antiquary, John Leland, as "a mightye strong thinge." It was, at one time, used as a prison, and later became the hall of the incorporated company of House Carpenters. 17 prisoners were held there during the Civil War, but they managed to escape. It was demolished in 1811. New Gate – This gate had heavy fortifications, and from 1399, these were used as the town gaol. Condemned prisoners would be taken from there along Gallowgate to the gallows on the Town Moor. East and west wings were constructed in 1702 and 1706, respectively; a north gate was later added. By 1820, the gaol was considered to be in a poor state of repair and insecure. A new gaol was built in Carliol Square, and the demolition of New Gate began in June 1823. The east wing was pulled down first, followed by the west wing and the north gate; the oldest part of the structure remained standing but, despite opposition, it was removed the following September. New Gate is believed to have replaced an earlier gateway known as Berwick Gate. Pilgrim Gate or Pilgrim Street Gate – This gate, at the north end of Pilgrim Street, led out towards Jesmond. Pilgrims would use this gate when travelling to St Mary's Chapel, which was situated overlooking what is now Jesmond Dene; the chapel's ruins survive. A room above the Gate was used by the Joiners' Company. It was demolished in 1802. Pandon Gate – This gate led northeast from the village of Pandon and had folding iron gates, but no portcullis. Until 1648, it was used as a hall for the Barber Chirurgeons. It was demolished in 1795. Sand Gate – This gate led to the riverbank to the east of the town. It was demolished in 1798. Until 1695 the Gates were closed at night. ## The walls today Large amounts of the wall were demolished during the 18th and 19th centuries; the most substantial remains are on the western side of the city. The longest continuous section runs the length of Back Stowell Street, in the Chinatown area. It includes three towers: Herber Tower, Morden Tower and Ever Tower; since 1964, Morden Tower has been used as a venue for poetry readings. At the northern end of this section, the wall has been cut through by St Andrew's Street, with fragmentary remains in St Andrew's churchyard, opposite; at the southern end, Stowell Street cuts through onto Bath Lane. The outer ditch has been recreated along this part of the wall. From Stowell Street, a complete section of wall, which includes Durham Tower, stretches southeast along Bath Lane, ending close to Westgate Road. The walls between Westgate Road and St Andrew's Street are known as the West Walls. Near the river, a partially demolished section of wall is visible on the steep bank between Hanover Street and Close which, between the 1840s and the 1980s, was covered by warehouses. Another substantial portion of the wall stands north of Hanover Street, adjacent to Orchard Street, and the excavated foundations of Gunner Tower can be seen in Pink Lane. On the eastern side of the city stand three towers: Plummer Tower in Croft Street, Corner Tower at the junction of City Road and Melbourne Street, and Sallyport Tower in Tower Street. Plummer Tower was modified by the Company of Cutlers in the 17th century, and the Company of Masons, who added an upper storey and a new western facade, in the 18th century. Sallyport Tower was altered by the addition of a banqueting hall on the first floor in 1716 which was used by the Shipwrights' Company. The walls are a Scheduled Ancient Monument. ## See also - List of town walls in England and Wales
2,404,105	Freddy Sanchez	1,170,537,141	American baseball player (born 1977)	[ "1977 births", "Augusta GreenJackets players", "Baseball players from Los Angeles", "Boston Red Sox players", "Dallas Baptist Patriots baseball players", "Fresno Grizzlies players", "Glendale Vaqueros baseball players", "Indianapolis Indians players", "Living people", "Lowell Spinners players", "Major League Baseball infielders", "Nashville Sounds players", "National League All-Stars", "National League batting champions", "Oklahoma City Stars baseball players", "Pawtucket Red Sox players", "People from Hollywood, Los Angeles", "Pittsburgh Pirates players", "San Francisco Giants players", "San Jose Giants players", "Trenton Thunder players" ]	Frederick Phillip Sanchez Jr. (born December 21, 1977) is an American former professional baseball second baseman. Sanchez played in Major League Baseball for the Boston Red Sox (2002–2003), Pittsburgh Pirates (2004–2009) and San Francisco Giants (2009–2011). He batted and threw right-handed. Born with a severely pigeon-toed left foot and a club right foot, Sanchez defied doctors' expectations by learning how to walk normally. He was named the Most Valuable Player of the Foothill League his senior year at Burbank High School, getting drafted by the Atlanta Braves in the 30th round of the 1996 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft. However, Sanchez chose to attend college instead, spending two years at Glendale Community College, one year at Dallas Baptist University, and one year at Oklahoma City University, where he was a National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics All-Star. Following his college career, he was drafted by the Red Sox in the 11th round of the 2000 draft. Sanchez made his major league debut with the Red Sox in 2002 and played a few games with them in 2003 before getting traded to the Pirates. He suffered an injury in his first game with the Pirates' Triple-A affiliate and missed the remainder of the 2003 season, as well as the first half of 2004. Sanchez spent most of 2004 in the minor leagues, only playing nine games for Pittsburgh. In his first full season, he received many of the starts at third base and second base for the Pirates, batting .291. Still, he was just a reserve player to begin the 2006 season, but that would be the best year of his career. Given a chance to start at third base when Joe Randa was injured in May, Sanchez had 200 hits and led the National League (NL) with a .344 batting average, the highest by a Pirate since Roberto Clemente batted .345 in 1969. He made the All-Star Game that year as well as 2007, when he batted .304. After hitting .271 in 2008, Sanchez reached his third All-Star Game with the Pirates in 2009 but was traded to the Giants on July 31. Expected to help the Giants contend for the playoffs in the latter part of 2009, Sanchez spent much of his time with them injured. He missed the start of the 2010 season with a shoulder injury but became a key part of their infield as their starting second baseman after making his season debut on May 19. He batted .292 as San Francisco won the NL West. In Game 3 of the 2010 National League Division Series against Atlanta, he hit a two-out single against Craig Kimbrel in the ninth inning of a game the Giants trailed 2–1; they rallied to win 3–2 that inning. Sanchez batted .320 in the 2010 National League Championship Series against the Philadelphia Phillies, then became the first player to have doubles in his first three World Series at bats in Game 1 of the 2010 World Series, helping the Giants win their first World Series since 1954 as they defeated the Texas Rangers. Sanchez batted .289 through 60 games in 2011 but suffered another shoulder injury on June 10. He spent the next season and a half on the disabled list, then announced his retirement on December 21, 2015. ## Early life Frederick Phillip Sanchez Jr. was born to Freddy Sr. and Michelle at Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center on December 21, 1977. At birth, he had a severely pigeon-toed left foot and a club right foot, and his parents received an initial medical prognosis that he might never walk. After they sought specialized medical attention through the Children's Orthopaedic Center at Children's Hospital Los Angeles, they had him undergo surgery to correct his foot problems at 13 months. Sanchez then had to undergo years of physical therapy before he could walk properly. His father was a truck driver who got his son interested in baseball by playing catch with him in the backyard. Sanchez and his father were big fans of the Los Angeles Dodgers. After a full day of work, Freddy Sr. would come home, then drive his son 30–45 minutes to play Little League baseball, as there were few fields near where the Sanchez family lived in downtown Los Angeles. During Sanchez's sixth grade year, the family moved to Burbank. In 1996, Sanchez graduated from Burbank High School, where he was a three-year varsity player. In his senior year he was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the Foothill League of the California Interscholastic Federation. While in high school, he played on a summer league team with Jack Wilson, who would eventually be his teammate in the major leagues with the Pittsburgh Pirates. His senior year, he was the No. 3 prospect in his region. He was drafted by the Atlanta Braves in the 30th round of the 1996 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft out of Burbank High but opted to attend college instead. "They told me they were going to do a draft-and-watch," Sanchez said of the Braves, "So I didn't even have the choice of being signed." Initially, Sanchez planned to attend Los Angeles Valley College, the closest community college to where he lived. However, he went to Glendale Community College instead after they hired Denny Barrett as their coach; Sanchez had played under Barrett on a travel team and looked forward to being on his team again. In two years at Glendale, he batted .407, won the Western State Conference MVP Award, and led the team to a co-championship in the conference. He transferred to Dallas Baptist University of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) as a junior, where he played in the NAIA World Series. Dallas Baptist switched coaches after Sanchez's junior year, prompting him to transfer to Oklahoma City University (OCU) for his senior year in 2000. Sanchez batted .434 with 13 home runs and 59 runs batted in (RBI) for the OCU Stars, getting named a NAIA All-Star. The Stars advanced all the way to the Sooner Athletic Conference championship game, which they lost to Oklahoma Baptist University. Sanchez credits OCU coaches Denney Crabaugh and Keith Lytle with his eventual success in the major leagues; Lytle taught him to hit to all fields, as opposed to just being a pull hitter. After being recommended to the Boston Red Sox by scout Ernie Jacobs, Sanchez was chosen by Boston in the 11th round of the 2000 draft, signing with the team nine days later. ## Career ### Boston Red Sox: Major league debut In the 2000 season, Sanchez split the year between the Single-A short season Lowell Spinners and the Single-A Augusta. For Lowell he hit .288, and for Augusta he hit .301. He began 2001 playing for the Single-A advanced Sarasota Red Sox, where he batted .339 in 69 games. Promoted to the Double-A Trenton Thunder that season, he hit .326 in 44 games. Sanchez split the majority of the 2002 season between Trenton and the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox. With Trenton, he batted .328 in 80 games, reaching the Eastern League All-Star Game before earning a promotion to Pawtucket on July 16. To this point, he had mostly been used as a shortstop, but the Red Sox started having him play second base at Pawtucket as well because Nomar Garciaparra was firmly entrenched as Boston's shortstop in the major leagues. With Pawtucket, Sanchez batted .301 in 45 games. A September call-up by Boston, Sanchez made his major league debut for the Red Sox on September 10 against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, when he pinch-hit for Rey Sánchez with the bases loaded. He had a two-RBI single against Steven Kent as the Red Sox won 12–1. Sanchez played 12 games for the Red Sox that September, batting .188 with three runs scored, three hits, and three RBI in 16 at bats. In 2003, Sanchez started the year with Pawtucket. He led the International League in batting with a .384 average before getting promoted by Boston on May 30. With Boston, his average was just .235 in 20 games. Demoted to Pawtucket at the end of July, he batted .208 before July 31, the 2003 trade deadline. On that day, Sanchez was dealt (along with left-handed pitcher Mike Gonzalez) to the Pittsburgh Pirates in return for pitchers Jeff Suppan, Brandon Lyon and Anastacio Martínez. ### Pittsburgh Pirates: Batting title, All-Star #### 2003–04 Upon acquiring Sanchez, the Pirates assigned him to the Triple-A Nashville Sounds; he played only one game there before an ankle injury forced him onto the disabled list. Following the season, Sanchez had surgery to remove a bone spur from his right foot. Hoping to be ready for 2004 spring training, he ultimately spent the first half of the 2004 season on the disabled list, not playing for Nashville until July. Though his .264 average (in 44 games) was his lowest at any minor league level, he joined the Pirates as a September callup. In nine games, he batted .158, with three hits and two runs scored. #### 2005 2005 was Sanchez's first full season in the major leagues. He began the season as a backup infielder, filling in for other players at second base, shortstop, and third base. On May 28, he took over as the starting third baseman from Ty Wigginton, who was batting .196. He got a majority of the starts at third base until August 22, when he was moved to second base after José Castillo suffered a season-ending injury to his medial collateral ligament. On July 3, he had three hits and two RBI, including his first home run (a solo shot in the seventh inning against Doug Davis) in an 11–10 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers. He finished the season on a 17-game hitting streak, getting 11 hits in a four-day span from September 19 through September 22. He appeared in 132 games and made 100 starts (39 at second base, 6 at shortstop and 55 at third base), compiling a .291 batting average with five home runs and 35 RBI. #### 2006 Sanchez began the 2006 season as a bench player, valuable to the Pirates for his ability to play multiple positions. When third baseman Joe Randa went on the disabled list with a foot injury at the beginning of May, Sanchez took over the position, becoming a starter for the rest of the year. On June 29, he had four hits, including a walk-off home run against Cliff Politte as Pittsburgh snapped a 13-game losing streak, defeating the Chicago White Sox 7–6. Three hits the day before gave him seven in a two-day span, and the 29th was the last day of a 13-game hitting streak for Sanchez. Not on the 2006 All-Star ballot because he was a bench player to start the season, Sanchez still received over 850,000 write-in votes for the All-Star Game, an MLB record. He finished fifth in the voting to David Wright, who was the National League (NL) starter at third base, but Sanchez still made the NL All-Star squad as a reserve selected by NL manager Phil Garner. In pregame introductions, Sanchez and teammate Jason Bay received an ovation from the fans, as the game was played at their home stadium, PNC Park. Sanchez entered the game in the fifth inning at shortstop, replacing Édgar Rentería. He made a stellar leaping catch in the fifth inning to rob Mark Loretta of a hit, then also darted far to the right of second base in the eighth inning to complete a putout of Grady Sizemore. Sanchez finished the game at second base and went 0 for 2 at the plate with two groundouts. On August 31, he had four RBI, including an 11th-inning RBI against Ryan Dempster that capped Pittsburgh's three-run comeback in a 10–9 victory over the Cubs. Sanchez was the final out on September 24 when Trevor Hoffman of the San Diego Padres set what was at the time the major league record for saves with his 479th. The 2006 season was the best of Sanchez's career. He won the NL batting title with a .344 average, beating Florida Marlins third baseman Miguel Cabrera on the last day of the season and becoming the first Pirate to win a batting title since Bill Madlock in 1983. The .344 average was the highest by a Pirate since Roberto Clemente batted .345 in 1969. Paul Meyer of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette dubbed 2006 Sanchez's "storybook season" for his rise from a high-ceiling, limited-visibility prospect to an All-Star and batting champion. Pirates' manager Jim Tracy admitted his surprise and praised him: "If you handed out ballots at the start of the season listing potential candidates to win the National League batting championship, I don't know that his name would have been on it. Now? He's a guy people are going to keep an eye on for many years to come." In addition to leading the league in hitting, Sanchez recorded 200 hits in 2006, leading the NL in doubles with 53 and setting a career-high with 85 RBI. After the season, Sanchez received the Tony Conigliaro Award, an annual award to a player who overcomes obstacles and adversity to succeed, in recognition of his having led the NL in hitting even though doctors once wondered if he would ever walk. #### 2007 In 2007, Sanchez was moved to second base, replacing Castillo so that José Bautista could be the Pirates third baseman. A knee injury caused him to miss much of spring training and the beginning of the regular season, as Sanchez did not make his first appearance until the sixth game of the season. For the second year in a row, Sanchez was named to the NL All-Star team as a reserve, selected by Tony La Russa. This time, he was the only Pirate All-Star. On August 11, he had four hits and five RBI, including a home run against Tim Lincecum in a 13–3 victory over the San Francisco Giants. Against the Colorado Rockies on August 22, he had his fourth four-hit game of the season and hit a home run against Ramón Ortiz as the Pirates won 11–2. He had five RBI in the first game of a doubleheader on August 28, including a grand slam against Elizardo Ramírez as the Pirates defeated the Cincinnati Reds by a score of 6–4. Sanchez also missed Pittsburgh's final five games of the year, undergoing surgery to repair a separated shoulder, an injury he had played through for much of the season. He finished the season with a .304 batting average and a career-high 11 home runs. #### 2008 On February 5, the Pirates and Sanchez agreed to a two-year deal, with an option for 2010. The contract paid Sanchez \$11 million guaranteed but had the potential to be as high as \$18.4 million. On May 4, he had three hits and scored two runs in a 5–4 victory over the Giants. Batting .230 entering the Pirates' game on July 21, Sanchez hoped for improved performance in the remainder of the year. On July 21, he hit a three-run inside-the-park home run against Tim Byrdak as the Pirates defeated the Houston Astros 9–3. The next day, he had three hits and two RBI, including a solo home run against Jack Cassel as the Pirates defeated the Astros 8–2. On September 6, he had a season-high four hits, two runs scored, and two RBI, but the effort came in a 7–6 loss to the Giants. By batting .347 in his final 54 games (starting July 21), Sanchez raised his season average to .271 by the end of the year. He also hit nine home runs and had 52 RBI in 2008. #### 2009 Almost rested for a game on May 25, 2009, Sanchez had six hits as the Pirates defeated the Cubs 10–8, the first six-hit game by a Pirate since Wally Backman had one in 1990. He had two hits on June 13, including a grand slam against Nate Robertson as the Pirates defeated the Detroit Tigers by a score of 9–3. Eight days later, he had a home run and three RBI, but the Pirates lost 5–4 to Colorado. Selected to the All-Star Game amidst trade rumors, Sanchez was one of two NL position players not to be used in the game (along with Hunter Pence) but became the first Pittsburgh infielder to be selected to the game three times since Bill Mazeroski. On July 16, reports broke that the Pirates had discussed long term contracts with Sanchez and Jack Wilson. Both players rejected Pittsburgh's initial offers, causing Pirates' general manager Neal Huntington to question their willingness to remain with the club. On July 29, 2009, Sanchez was traded to the San Francisco Giants for minor league pitcher Tim Alderson. In 86 games with Pittsburgh, Sanchez batted .296 with 6 home runs and 34 RBI. ### San Francisco Giants: World Series champion #### 2009 On August 26, Sanchez was placed on the 15-day disabled list (retroactive to August 18) due to a strained left shoulder. "It's just one of those deals, I apologize to the fans and to the organization and my teammates and everybody," Sanchez said, as the Giants were hoping he would help them contend for the playoffs. "I got traded here for a reason and that was to play. For me not to be out there hurts." He was activated off the disabled list in September and returned to the lineup September 17, but he played only 12 more games before twisting his left knee on September 21 and missing the last 12 games of the season with the injury. The Giants were eliminated from the NL Wild Card race on September 30, missing the playoffs. In 25 games with San Francisco, Sanchez batted .284 with one home run and seven RBI. His combined totals between the ball clubs included a .293 average, seven home runs, and 41 RBI in 111 games. On October 30, Sanchez signed a two-year, \$12 million contract to remain with the Giants. He had surgery on his left knee after the 2009 season, as well as arthroscopic surgery on his left shoulder. #### 2010: World Series champion Sanchez was a key member of the Giants' infield in 2010. Because of his shoulder surgery, his season debut was postponed to May 19, but he served as the Giants' everyday second baseman for the rest of the year. On June 20, he hit a three-run home run against Brian Tallet in a 9–6 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays. On August 23 and 24, he had back-to-back four hit games in victories over the Reds. He also had four hits on September 23 in a 13–0 victory over the Chicago Cubs. Three days later, he hit a two-run home run against Jorge de la Rosa as the Giants defeated the Rockies by a score of 4–2. Sanchez finished the season batting .292 with seven home runs and 47 RBI as the San Francisco Giants won the NL West, reaching the playoffs for the team's first time since 2003 and Sanchez's first time ever. In the 2010 National League Division Series against the Braves, Sanchez batted .125 but scored two runs. In Game 3, Sanchez batted in the ninth inning with two outs and the Giants down 2–1. Craig Kimbrel got two strikes on him, but Sanchez hit a single, then later scored the tying run as the Giants came back to win the game 3–2 that inning. The Giants defeated Atlanta in four games. He batted .320 in the 2010 National League Championship Series against the Philadelphia Phillies, with three multi-hit games as the Giants beat the Phillies in six games. In Game 1 of the 2010 World Series against the Texas Rangers, he became the first player in history to collect three doubles in his first three World Series at-bats during the Giants' 11–7 victory over the Rangers. "I think it’s crazy to have my name up there with all the guys that have played in the World Series that have done that before," he said. "Obviously for no one to have done that yet, I think it’s something special. For just a little guy like me to go out there and be able to do it. But getting the win was the most important thing, but that’s something special and something I can enjoy along with the win." Sanchez had four hits total in that game, and he had two more in the Series. In Game 4, he made a leaping catch of a line drive off the bat of Jeff Francoeur with two outs in the second inning, falling on his back but hanging onto the ball. The Giants won that game 4–0, then won the series in five games, earning their first World Series title since 1954. Bothered by his left shoulder late in the year, Sanchez had a second surgery on it following the 2010 season. Dave Groeschner, the Giants' trainer, explained that the surgery severed Sanchez's biceps tendon, cleaning up the back of the second baseman's shoulder. #### 2011 On April 1, the Giants extended Sanchez's contract an additional year for \$6 million in 2012. The next day, he had three hits, three RBI, and a home run against Lance Cormier in a 10–0 victory over the Dodgers. With the Giants trailing the Diamondbacks 3–2 in the sixth inning on April 16, Sanchez had an RBI double to drive in the tying run, then had a two-RBI single in the seventh to put the Giants ahead as they won 5–3. Sanchez hit a home run against Maikel Cleto on June 2, driving in four runs total as the Giants beat the St. Louis Cardinals 12–7. On June 10, Sanchez dislocated his shoulder diving for a ground ball by Reds second baseman Brandon Phillips. He was placed on the disabled list, and on August 1, it was announced that Sanchez would have season-ending surgery the next day. Sanchez batted .289 with three home runs and 24 RBI in 60 games in what would be his final major league season. #### 2012, retirement Sanchez started the year on the disabled list. He attempted to return to the Giants, playing three games for the Single-A Advanced San Jose Giants on a rehab assignment. However, on July 4, Sanchez underwent back surgery which kept him out for the rest of the season. Unsigned after the 2012 season, Sanchez considered a comeback attempt. Finally, he officially retired on December 21, 2015, his 38th birthday. ### Career statistics Sanchez played 646 games at second base, 172 games at third base and 55 games at shortstop. ## Personal life Sanchez married his high school sweetheart, Alissa Dowdy, in 2002. An actress, she had made appearances in The Nanny and The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air. They have two sons; Evan (born (April 19, 2005) and Ryan (born January 26, 2008). During his playing career, he used a webcam to keep in touch with his children while on road trips. Sanchez has been good friends with Jack Wilson since the two played together in a travel league. When Sanchez was called up by Pittsburgh in September 2004, Wilson let him and his wife stay at his house. Sanchez said Wilson "is like a brother to me." Since his retirement, he and his family have resided in Chandler, Arizona. Burbank High School, Glendale Community College, and Oklahoma City University have all inducted Sanchez into their Halls of Fame. Additionally, Burbank High School retired Sanchez's number 21. ## See also - List of Major League Baseball batting champions - List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders - List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders
25,828,666	Early European modern humans	1,173,161,555	Earliest anatomically modern humans in Europe	[ "Anatomically modern humans", "Early European modern humans", "Paleoanthropology", "Peopling of Europe", "Upper Paleolithic Europe" ]	Early European modern humans (EEMH), or Cro-Magnons, were the first early modern humans (Homo sapiens) to settle in Europe, migrating from western Asia, continuously occupying the continent possibly from as early as 56,800 years ago. They interacted and interbred with the indigenous Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) of Europe and Western Asia, who went extinct 40,000 to 35,000 years ago. The first wave of modern humans in Europe from 45,000-40,000 (Initial Upper Paleolithic) left no genetic legacy to modern Europeans; however, from 37,000 years ago a second wave succeeded in forming a single founder population, from which all EEMH descended and which contributes ancestry to present-day Europeans. EEMH produced Upper Palaeolithic cultures, the first major one being the Aurignacian, which was succeeded by the Gravettian by 30,000 years ago. The Gravettian split into the Epi-Gravettian in the east and Solutrean in the west, due to major climate degradation during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), peaking 21,000 years ago. As Europe warmed, the Solutrean evolved into the Magdalenian by 20,000 years ago, and these peoples recolonised Europe. The Magdalenian and Epi-Gravettian gave way to Mesolithic cultures as big game animals were dying out and the Last Glacial Period drew to a close. EEMH were anatomically similar to present-day Europeans, West Asians and North Africans, but were more robust, having larger brains, broader faces, more prominent brow ridges, and bigger teeth. The earliest EEMH specimens also exhibit some features that are reminiscent of those found in Neanderthals. The first EEMH would have had darker skin tones than most modern Europeans; natural selection for lighter skin would not begin until 30,000 years ago. Before the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), EEMH had overall low population density, tall stature similar to post-industrial humans, and expansive trade routes stretching as long as 900 km (560 mi), and hunted big game animals. EEMH had much higher populations than the Neanderthals, possibly due to higher fertility rates; life expectancy for both species was typically under 40 years. Following the LGM, population density increased as communities travelled less frequently (though for longer distances), and the need to feed so many more people in tandem with the increasing scarcity of big game caused them to rely more heavily on small or aquatic game, and more frequently participate in game drive systems and slaughter whole herds at a time. The EEMH arsenal included spears, spear-throwers, harpoons, and possibly throwing sticks and Palaeolithic dogs. EEMH likely commonly constructed temporary huts while moving around, and Gravettian peoples notably made large huts on the East European Plain out of mammoth bones. EEMH are well renowned for creating a diverse array of artistic works, including cave paintings, Venus figurines, perforated batons, animal figurines, and geometric patterns. They also wore decorative beads, and plant-fibre clothes dyed with various plant-based dyes. For music, they produced bone flutes and whistles, and possibly also bullroarers, rasps, drums, idiophones, and other instruments. They buried their dead, though possibly only people who had achieved or were born into high status received burial. Remains of Palaeolithic cultures have been known for centuries, but they were initially interpreted in a creationist model, wherein they represented antediluvian peoples which were wiped out by the Great Flood. Following the conception and popularisation of evolution in the mid-to-late 19th century, EEMH became the subject of much scientific racism, with early race theories allying with Nordicism and Pan-Germanism. Such historical race concepts were overturned by the mid-20th century. During the first wave feminism movement, the Venus figurines were notably interpreted as evidence of some matriarchal religion, though such claims had mostly died down in academia by the 1970s. ## Chronology ### Initial Upper Palaeolithic When early modern humans (Homo sapiens) migrated onto the European continent, they interacted with the indigenous Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) which had already inhabited Europe for hundreds of thousands of years. In 2019, Greek palaeoanthropologist Katerina Harvati and colleagues argued that two 210,000 year old skulls from Apidima Cave, Greece, represent modern humans rather than Neanderthals — indicating these populations have an unexpectedly deep history — but this was disputed in 2020 by French paleoanthropologist Marie-Antoinette de Lumley [fr] and colleagues. About 60,000 years ago, marine isotope stage 3 began, characterised by volatile climatic patterns and sudden retreat and recolonisation events of forestland in way of open steppeland. The earliest indication of Upper Palaeolithic modern human migration into Europe is a series of modern human teeth with Neronian industry stone tools found at Mandrin Cave, Malataverne in France, dated in 2022 to between 56,800 and 51,700 years ago. The Neronian is one of the many industries associated with modern humans classed as transitional between the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. Beyond this there is the Balkan Bohunician industry beginning 48,000 years ago, likely deriving from the Levantine Emiran industry, and the next oldest fossils date to roughly 45–43 thousand years ago in Bulgaria, Italy, and Britain. It is unclear, while migrating westward, if they followed the Danube or went along the Mediterranean coast. About 45 to 44 thousand years ago, the Proto-Aurignacian culture, the first widely-recognised European Upper Palaeolithic culture, spread out across Europe, probably descending from the Near Eastern Ahmarian culture. ### Aurignacian After 40,000 years ago with the onset of Heinrich event 4 (a period of extreme seasonality), the Aurignacian proper evolved perhaps in South-Central Europe, and rapidly replaced other cultures across the continent. This wave of modern humans replaced Neanderthals and their Mousterian culture. In the Danube Valley, the Aurignacian features sites few and far between, compared to later traditions, until 35,000 years ago. From here, the "Typical Aurignacian" becomes quite prevalent, and extends until 29,000 years ago. ### Gravettian The Aurignacian was gradually replaced by the Gravettian culture, but it is unclear when the Aurignacian went extinct because it is poorly defined. "Aurignacoid" or "Epi-Aurignacian" tools are identified as late as 18 to 15 thousand years ago. It is also unclear where the Gravettian originated from as it diverges strongly from the Aurignician (and therefore may not have descended from it). Nonetheless, genetic evidence indicates that not all Aurignacian bloodlines went extinct. Hypotheses for Gravettian genesis include evolution: in Central Europe from the Szeletian (which developed from the Bohunician) which existed 41 to 37 thousand years ago; or from the Ahmarian or similar cultures from the Near East or the Caucasus which existed before 40,000 years ago. It is further debated where the earliest occurrence is identified, with the former hypothesis arguing for Germany about 37,500 years ago, and the latter Buran-Kaya [ru] III rockshelter in Crimea about 38 to 36 thousand years ago. In either case, the appearance of the Gravettian coincides with a significant temperature drop. Also around 37,000 years ago, the founder population of all later early European modern humans (EEMH) existed, and Europe would remain in genetic isolation from the rest of the world for the next 23,000 years. ### Last Glacial Maximum Around 29,000 years ago, marine isotope stage 2 began and cooling intensified. This peaked about 21,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) when Scandinavia, the Baltic region, and the British Isles were covered in glaciers, and winter sea ice reached the French seaboard. The Alps were also covered in glaciers, and most of Europe was polar desert, with mammoth steppe and forest steppe dominating the Mediterranean coast. Consequently, large swathes of Europe were uninhabitable, and two distinct cultures emerged with unique technologies to adapt to the new environment: the Solutrean in Southwestern Europe which invented brand new technologies, and the Epi-Gravettian from Italy to the East European Plain which adapted the previous Gravettian technologies. Solutrean peoples inhabited the permafrost zone, whereas Epi-Gravettian peoples appear to have stuck to less harsh, seasonally frozen areas. Relatively few sites are known through this time. The glaciers began retreating about 20,000 years ago, and the Solutrean evolved into the Magdalenian, which would recolonise Western and Central Europe over the next couple thousand years. Starting during the Older Dryas roughly 14,000 years ago, Final Magdalenian traditions appear, namely the Azilian, Hamburgian, and Creswellian. During the Bølling–Allerød warming, Near Eastern genes began showing up in the indigenous Europeans, indicating the end of Europe's genetic isolation. Possibly due to the continual reduction of European big game, the Magdalenian and Epi-Gravettian were completely replaced by the Mesolithic by the beginning of the Holocene. ### Mesolithic Europe was completely re-peopled during the Holocene climatic optimum from 9 to 5 thousand years ago. Mesolithic Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG) contributed significantly to the present-day European genome, alongside Ancient North Eurasians (ANE) which descended from the Siberian Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG). Most present-day Europeans have a 40–60% WHG ratio, and the 8,000 year old Mesolithic Loschbour man seems to have had a similar genetic makeup. Near Eastern Neolithic farmers which split from the European hunter-gatherers about 40,000 years ago started to spread out across Europe by 8,000 years ago, ushering in the Neolithic with Early European Farmers (EEF). EEF contribute about 30% of ancestry to present-day Baltic populations, and up to 90% in present-day Mediterranean populations. The latter may have inherited WHG ancestry via EEF introgression. The Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHG) population identified around the steppes of the Urals also dispersed, and the Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers appear to be a mix of WHG and EHG. Around 4,500 years ago, the immigration of the Yamnaya and Corded Ware cultures from the eastern steppes brought the Bronze Age, the Proto-Indo-European language, and more or less the present-day genetic makeup of Europeans. ## Classification EEMH have historically been referred to as "Cro-Magnons" in scientific literature until around the 1990s, when the term "anatomically modern humans" became more popular. The name "Cro-Magnon" comes from the five skeletons discovered by French palaeontologist Louis Lartet in 1868 at the Cro-Magnon rock shelter, Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France, after the area was accidentally discovered while land was being cleared for a railway station. Fossils and artifacts from the Palaeolithic had actually been known for decades, but these were interpreted in a creationist model (as the concept of evolution had not yet been conceived). For example, the Aurignacian Red Lady of Paviland (actually a young man) from South Wales was described by geologist Reverend William Buckland in 1822 as a citizen of Roman Britain. Subsequent authors contended the skeleton was either evidence of antediluvian (before the Great Flood) people in Britain, or was swept far from the inhabited lands farther south by the powerful floodwaters. Buckland assumed the specimen was a woman because he was adorned with jewellery (shells, ivory rods and rings, and a wolf-bone skewer), and Buckland also stated (possibly in jest) the jewellery was evidence of witchcraft. Around this time, the uniformitarianism movement was gaining traction, headed principally by Charles Lyell, arguing that fossil materials well predated the biblical chronology. Following Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, racial anthropologists and raciologists began splitting off putative species and subspecies of present-day humans based on unreliable and pseudoscientific metrics gathered from anthropometry, physiognomy, and phrenology continuing into the 20th century. This was a continuation of Carl Linnaeus' 1735 Systema Naturae, where he invented the modern classification system, in doing so classifying humans as Homo sapiens with several putative subspecies classifications for different races based on racist behavioural definitions (in accord with historical race concepts): "H. s. europaeus" (European descent, governed by laws), "H. s. afer" (African descent, impulse), "H. s. asiaticus" (Asian descent, opinions), and "H. s. americanus" (Native American descent, customs). The racial classification system was quickly extended to fossil specimens, including both EEMH and the Neanderthals, after the true extent of their antiquity was recognised. In 1869, Lartet had proposed the subspecies classification "H. s. fossilis" for the Cro-Magnon remains. Other supposed fossil human species included (among many others): "H. pre-aethiopicus" for a skull from Dordogne which had "Ethiopic affinities"; "H. predmosti" or "H. predmostensis" for a series of skulls from Brno, Czech Republic, purportedly transitional between Neanderthals and EEMH; H. mentonensis for a skull from Menton, France; "H. grimaldensis" for Grimaldi man and other skeletons near Grimaldi, Monaco; and "H. aurignacensis" or "H. a. hauseri" for the Combe-Capelle skull. These fossil races, alongside Ernst Haeckel's idea of there being backwards races which require further evolution (social darwinism), popularised the view in European thought that the civilised white man had descended from primitive, low browed ape ancestors through a series of savage races. Prominent brow-ridges were classified as an ape-like trait; consequently, Neanderthals (as well as Aboriginal Australians) were considered a lowly race. These European fossils were considered to have been the ancestors to specifically living European races. Among the earliest attempts to classify EEMH was done by racial anthropologists Joseph Deniker and William Z. Ripley in 1900, who characterised them as tall and intelligent proto-Aryans, superior to other races, who descended from Scandinavia and Germany. Further race theories revolved around progressively lighter, blonder, and superior races evolving in Central Europe and spreading out in waves to replace their darker ancestors, culminating in the "Nordic race". These aligned well with Nordicism and Pan-Germanism (that is, Aryan supremacy), which gained popularity just before World War I, and was notably used by the Nazis to justify the conquest of Europe and the supremacy of the German people in World War II. Stature was among the characteristics used to distinguish these sub-races, so taller EEMH such as specimens from the French Cro-Magnon, Paviland, and Grimaldi sites were classified as ancestral to the "Nordic race", and smaller ones such as Combe-Capelle and Chancelade man (both also from France) were considered the forerunners of either the "Mediterranean race" or "Eskimoids". The Venus figurines — sculptures of pregnant women with exaggerated breasts and thighs — were used as evidence of the presence of the "Negroid race" in Palaeolithic Europe, because they were interpreted as having been based on real women with steatopygia (a condition which causes thicker thighs, common in the women of the San people of Southern Africa) and the hairdos of some are supposedly similar to some seen in Ancient Egypt. By the 1940s, the positivism movement — which fought to remove political and cultural bias from science and had begun about a century earlier — had gained popular support in European anthropology. Due to this movement and raciology's associations with Nazism, raciology fell out of practice. ## Demographics The beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic is thought to have been characterised by a major population increase in Europe, with the human population of Western Europe possibly increasing by a factor of 10 in the Neanderthal/modern human transition. The archaeological record indicates that the overwhelming majority of Palaeolithic people (both Neanderthals and modern humans) died before reaching the age of 40, with few elderly individuals recorded. It is possible the population boom was caused by a significant increase in fertility rates. A 2005 study estimated the population of Upper Palaeolithic Europe by calculating the total geographic area which was inhabited based on the archaeological record; averaged the population density of Chipewyan, Hän, Hill people, and Naskapi Native Americans which live in cold climates and applied to this to EEMH; and assumed that population density continually increased with time calculated by the change in the number of total sites per time period. The study calculated that: from 40 to 30 thousand years ago the population was roughly 1,700–28,400 (average 4,400); from 30 to 22 thousand years ago roughly 1,900–30,600 (average 4,800); from 22 to 16.5 thousand years ago roughly 2,300–37,700 (average 5,900); and 16.5–11.5 thousand years ago roughly 11,300–72,600 (average 28,700). Following the LGM, EEMH are thought to have been much less mobile and featured a higher population density, indicated by seemingly shorter trade routes as well as symptoms of nutritional stress. ## Biology ### Physical attributes For 28 modern human specimens from 190 to 25 thousand years ago, average brain volume was estimated to have been about 1,478 cc (90.2 cu in), and for 13 EEMH about 1,514 cc (92.4 cu in). In comparison, present-day humans average 1,350 cc (82 cu in), which is notably smaller. This is because the EEMH brain, though within the variation for present-day humans, exhibits longer average frontal lobe length and taller occipital lobe height. The parietal lobes, however, are shorter in EEMH. It is unclear if this could equate to any functional differences between present-day and early modern humans. EEMH are physically similar to present-day humans, with a globular braincase, completely flat face, gracile brow ridge, and defined chin. However, the bones of EEMH are somewhat thicker and more robust. The earliest EEMH often display features that are reminiscent of those seen in Neanderthals. Aurignacians in particular featured a higher proportion of traits somewhat reminiscent of Neanderthals, such as (though not limited to) a slightly flattened skullcap and consequent occipital bun protruding from the back of the skull (the latter could be quite defined). Their frequency significantly diminished in Gravettians, and in 2007, palaeoanthropologist Erik Trinkaus concluded these were remnants of Neanderthal introgression which were eventually bred out of the gene pool in his review of the relevant morphology. In early Upper Palaeolithic Western Europe (before the Last Glacial Maximum), 20 men and 10 women were estimated to have averaged 176.2 cm (5 ft 9 in) and 162.9 cm (5 ft 4 in), respectively. This is similar to post-industrial modern Northern Europeans. In contrast, in a sample of 21 and 15 late Upper Palaeolithic Western European men and women (after the Last Glacial Maximum), the averages were 165.6 cm (5 ft 5 in) and 153.5 cm (5 ft), similar to pre-industrial modern humans. It is unclear why earlier EEMH were taller, especially considering that cold-climate creatures are short-limbed and thus short-statured to better retain body heat (Allen's rule). This has variously been explained as: retention of a hypothetically tall ancestral condition; higher-quality diet and nutrition due to the hunting of megafauna which later became uncommon or extinct; functional adaptation to increase stride length and movement efficiency while running during a hunt; increasing territorialism among later EEMH reducing gene flow between communities and increasing inbreeding rate; or statistical bias due to small sample size or because taller people were more likely to achieve higher status in a group before the LGM and thus were more likely to be buried and preserved. Prior to genetic analysis, it was generally assumed that EEMH, like present-day Europeans, were light skinned as an adaptation to better generate vitamin D from the less luminous sun farther north. However, of the 3 predominant genes responsible for lighter skin in present-day Europeans — KITLG, SLC24A5, and SLC45A2 — the latter two, as well as the TYRP1 gene associated with lighter hair and eye colour, experienced positive selection as late as 19 to 11 thousand years ago during the Mesolithic transition. The variation of the gene which is associated with blue eyes in present-day humans, OCA2, seems to have descended from a common ancestor about 10–6 thousand years ago somewhere in Northern Europe. Such a late timing was potentially caused by overall low population and/or low cross-continental movement required for such an adaptive shift in skin, hair, and eye colouration. However, KITLG experienced positive selection in EEMH (as well as East Asians) beginning approximately 30,000 years ago. ### Genetics While anatomically modern humans have been present outside of Africa during some isolated time intervals potentially as early as 250,000 years ago, present-day non-Africans descend from the out of Africa expansion which occurred around 65–55 thousand years ago. This movement was an offshoot of the rapid expansion within East Africa associated with mtDNA haplogroup L3. Mitochondrial DNA analysis places EEMH as the sister group to Upper Palaeolithic East Asian groups, divergence occurring roughly 50,000 years ago. Initial genomic studies on the earliest EEMH in 2014, namely on the 37,000-year-old Kostenki-14 individual, identified 3 major lineages which are also present in present-day Europeans: one related to all later EEMH; a "Basal Eurasian" lineage which split from the common ancestor of present-day Europeans and East Asians before they split from each other; and another related to a 24,000-year-old individual from the Siberian Mal'ta–Buret' culture (near Lake Baikal). Contrary to this, Fu et al. (2016), evaluating much earlier European specimens, including Ust'-Ishim and Oase-1 from 45,000 years ago, found no evidence of a "Basal Eurasian" component to the genome, nor did they find evidence of Mal'ta–Buret' introgression when looking at a wider range of EEMH from the entire Upper Palaeolithic. The study instead concluded that such a genetic makeup in present-day Europeans stemmed from Near Eastern and Siberian introgression occurring predominantly in the Neolithic and the Bronze Age (though beginning by 14,000 years ago), but all EEMH specimens including and following Kostenki-14 contributed to the present-day European genome and were more closely related to present-day Europeans than East Asians. Earlier EEMH (10 tested in total), on the other hand, did not seem to be ancestral to any present-day population, nor did they form any cohesive group in and of themselves, each representing either completely distinct genetic lineages, admixture between major lineages, or have highly divergent ancestry. Because of these, the study also concluded that, beginning roughly 37,000 years ago, EEMH descended from a single founder population and were reproductively isolated from the rest of the world. The study reported that an Aurignacian individual from Grottes de Goyet, Belgium, has more genetic affinities to the Magdalenian inhabitants of Cueva de El Mirón, Spain, than to more or less contemporaneous Eastern European Gravettians. Haplogroups identified in EEMH are the patrilineal (from father to son) Y-DNA haplogroups IJ, C1, and K2a; and matrilineal (from mother to child) mt-DNA haplogroup N, R, and U. Y-haplogroup IJ descended from Southwest Asia. Haplogroup I emerged about 35 to 30 thousand years ago, either in Europe or West Asia. Mt-haplogroup U5 arose in Europe just prior to the LGM, between 35 and 25 thousand years ago. The 14,000 year old Villabruna 1 skeleton from Ripari Villabruna, Italy, is the oldest identified bearer of Y-haplogroup R1b (R1b1a-L754\* (xL389,V88)) found in Europe, likely brought in from eastern introgression. The Azilian "Bichon man" skeleton from the Swiss Jura was found to be associated with the WHG lineage. He was a bearer of Y-DNA haplogroup I2a and mtDNA haplogroup U5b1h. Genetic evidence suggests early modern humans interbred with Neanderthals. Genes in the present-day genome are estimated to have entered about 65 to 47 thousand years ago, most likely in West Asia soon after modern humans left Africa. In 2015, the 40,000 year old modern human Oase 1 was found to have had 6–9% (point estimate 7.3%) Neanderthal DNA, indicating a Neanderthal ancestor up to four to six generations earlier, but this hybrid Romanian population does not appear to have made a substantial contribution to the genomes of later Europeans. Therefore, it is possible that interbreeding was common between Neanderthals and EEMH which did not contribute to the present-day genome. The percentage of Neanderthal genes gradually decreased with time, which could indicate they were maladaptive and were selected out of the gene pool. Valini et al. 2022 found that Europe was populated by three distinct lineages. The earliest inhabitants (represented by Zlaty Kun \~50kya) split from the common Eurasian lineage before the divergence of Western and Eastern Eurasians, but after the divergence of the hypothetical Basal-Eurasians. This earliest sample did not cluster with any modern human population, including Africans, and died out without leaving ancestry to modern peoples. The second wave (represented by Bacho Kiro \~45kya) appeared to be more closely related to modern East Asians and Australasians compared to Europeans, suggesting that this lineage split initially after the formation of Eastern Eurasians, and migrated instead northwestwards into Europe. This lineage similarly did not contribute ancestry to later populations, and was replaced by a West-Eurasian lineage (\~40kya), which expanded into Europe and Siberia. Proper Aurignacian people (40-26kya) were still part of a large Western Eurasian "meta-population", related to Paleolithic Siberian and Western Asian populations. Earlier samples (such as the Bacho Kiro sample) were relatively closer to East Asians and Australasians, although distinct from them. In a genetic study published in Nature in March 2023, the authors found that the ancestors of the Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs) were populations associated with the Epigravettian culture, which largely replaced populations associated with the Magdalenian culture about 14,000 years ago. The Magdalenian-associated individuals descended from populations associated with the western Gravettian, Solutrean and Aurignacian cultures. ## Culture There is a notable technological complexification coinciding with the replacement of Neanderthals with EEMH in the archaeological record, and so the terms "Middle Palaeolithic" and "Upper Palaeolithic" were created to distinguish between these two time periods. Largely based on Western European archaeology, the transition was dubbed the "Upper Palaeolithic Revolution," (extended to be a worldwide phenomenon) and the idea of "behavioural modernity" became associated with this event and early modern cultures. It is largely agreed that the Upper Palaeolithic seems to feature a higher rate of technological and cultural evolution than the Middle Palaeolithic, but it is debated if behavioural modernity was truly an abrupt development or was a slow progression initiating far earlier than the Upper Paleolithic, especially when considering the non-European archaeological record. Behaviourly modern practices include: the production of microliths, the common use of bone and antler, the common use of grinding and pounding tools, high quality evidence of body decoration and figurine production, long-distance trade networks, and improved hunting technology. In regard to art, the Magdalenian produced some of the most intricate Palaeolithic pieces, and they even elaborately decorated normal, everyday objects. ### Hunting and gathering Historically, ethnographic studies on hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies have long placed emphasis on sexual division of labour and most especially the hunting of big game by men. This culminated in the 1966 book Man the Hunter, which focuses almost entirely on the importance of male contributions of food to the group. As this was published during the second-wave feminism movement, this was quickly met with backlash from many female anthropologists. Among these was Australian archaeologist Betty Meehan in her 1974 article Woman the Gatherer, who argued that women play a vital role in these communities by gathering more reliable food plants and small game, as big game hunting has a low success rate. The concept of "Woman the Gatherer" has since gained significant support. It has typically been assumed that EEMH closely studied prey habits in order to maximise return depending on the season. For example, large mammals (including red deer, horses, and ibex) congregate seasonally, and reindeer were possibly seasonally plagued by insects rendering fur sometimes unsuitable for hideworking. There is much evidence that EEMH, especially in Western Europe following the LGM, corralled large prey animals into natural confined spaces (such as against a cliff wall, a cul-de-sac, or a water body) in order to efficiently slaughter whole herds of animals (game drive system). They seem to have scheduled mass kills to coincide with migration patterns, in particular for red deer, horses, reindeer, bison, aurochs, and ibex, and occasionally woolly mammoths. There are also multiple examples of consumption of seasonally abundant fish, becoming more prevalent in the mid-Upper-Palaeolithic. Nonetheless, Magdalenian peoples appear to have had a greater dependence on small animals, aquatic resources, and plants than predecessors, probably due to the relative scarcity of European big game following the LGM (Quaternary extinction event). Post-LGM peoples tend to have a higher rate of nutrient deficiency related ailments, including a reduction in height, which indicates these bands (probably due to decreased habitable territory) had to consume a much broader and less desirable food range to survive. The popularisation of game drive systems may have been an extension of increasing food return. In particularly southwestern France, EEMH depended heavily upon reindeer, and so it is hypothesised that these communities followed the herds, with occupation of the Perigord and the Pyrenees only occurring in the summer. Epi-Gravettian communities, in contrast, generally focused on hunting one species of large game, most commonly horse or bison. It is possible that human activity, in addition to the rapid retreat of favourable steppeland, inhibited recolonisation of most of Europe by megafauna following the LGM (such as mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, Irish elk, and cave lions), in part contributing to their final extinction which occurred by the beginning of or well into the Holocene depending on the species. For weapons, EEMH crafted spearpoints using predominantly bone and antler, possibly because these materials were readily abundant. Compared to stone, these materials are compressive, making them fairly shatterproof. These were then hafted onto a shaft to be used as javelins. It is possible that Aurignacian craftsmen further hafted bone barbs onto the spearheads, but firm evidence of such technology is recorded earliest 23,500 years ago, and does not become more common until the Mesolithic. Aurignacian craftsmen produced lozenge-shaped (diamond-like) spearheads. By 30,000 years ago, spearheads were manufactured with a more rounded-off base, and by 28,000 years ago spindle-shaped heads were introduced. During the Gravettian, spearheads with a bevelled base were being produced. By the beginning of the LGM, the spear-thrower was invented in Europe, which can increase the force and accuracy of the projectile. A possible boomerang made of mammoth tusk was identified in Poland (though it may have been unable to return to the thrower), and dating to 23,000 years ago, it would be the oldest known boomerang. Stone spearheads with leaf- and shouldered-points become more prevalent in the Solutrean. Both large and small spearheads were produced in great quantity, and the smaller ones may have been attached to projectile darts. Archery was possibly invented in the Solutrean, though less ambiguous bow technology is first reported in the Mesolithic. Bone technology was revitalised in the Magdalanian, and long-range technology as well as harpoons become much more prevalent. Some harpoon fragments are speculated to have been leisters or tridents, and true harpoons are commonly found along seasonal salmon migration routes. ### Society #### Social system As opposed to the patriarchy prominent in historical societies, the idea of a prehistoric predominance of either matriarchy or matrifocal families (centred on motherhood) was first supposed in 1861 by legal scholar Johann Jakob Bachofen. The earliest models of this believed that monogamy was not widely practiced in ancient times — thus, the paternal line was resultantly more difficult to keep track of than the maternal — resulting in a matrilineal (and matriarchal) society. Matriarchs were then conquered by patriarchs at the dawn of civilisation. The switch from matriarchy to patriarchy and the hypothetical adoption of monogamy was seen as a leap forward. However, when the first Palaeolithic representations of humans were discovered, the so-called Venus figurines — which typically feature pronounced breasts, buttocks, and vulvas (areas generally sexualised in present-day Western Culture) — they were initially interpreted as pornographic in nature. The first Venus discovered was named the "Vénus impudique" ("immodest Venus") by the discoverer Paul Hurault, 8th Marquis de Vibraye, because it lacked clothes and had a prominent vulva. The name "Venus", after the Roman goddess of beauty, in itself implies an erotic function. Such a pattern in the representation of the human form led to suggestions that human forms were generally pornography for men, meaning men were primarily responsible for artwork and craftsmanship in the Palaeolithic whereas women were tasked with child rearing and various domestic works. This would equate to a patriarchal social system. The Palaeolithic matriarchy model was adapted by prominent communist Friedrich Engels, who instead argued that women were robbed of power by men due to economic changes which could only be undone with the adoption of communism (Marxist feminism). The former sentiment was adopted by the first-wave feminism movement, who attacked the patriarchy by making Darwinist arguments of a supposed natural egalitarian or matrifocal state of human society instead of patriarchal, as well as interpreting the Venuses as evidence of mother goddess worship as part of some matriarchal religion. Consequently, by the mid-20th century, the Venuses were primarily interpreted as evidence of some Palaeolithic fertility cult. Such claims died down in the 1970s as archaeologists moved away from the highly speculative models produced by the previous generation. Through the second-wave feminism movement, the prehistoric matriarchal religion hypothesis was primarily propelled by Lithuanian-American archaeologist Marija Gimbutas. Her interpretations of the Palaeolithic were notably involved in the Goddess movement. Equally ardent arguments against the matriarchy hypothesis have also been prominent, such as American religious scholar Cynthia Eller's 2000 The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory. Looking at the archaeological record, depictions of women are markedly more common than of men. In contrast to the commonplace Venuses in the Gravettian, Gravettian depictions of men are rare and contested, the only reliable one being a fragmented ivory figurine from the grave of a Pavlovian site in Brno, Czech Republic (it is also the only statuette found in a Palaeolithic grave). 2-D Magdalenian engravings from 15 to 11 thousand years ago do depict males, indicated by an erect penis and facial hair, though profiles of women with an exaggerated buttock are much more common. There are less than 100 depictions of males in the EEMH archaeological record (of them, about a third are depicted with erections.) On the other hand, most individuals which received a burial (which may have been related to social status) were men. Anatomically, the robustness of limbs (which is an indicator of strength) between EEMH men and women were consistently not appreciably different from each other. Such low levels of sexual dimorphism through the Upper Pleistocene could potentially mean that sexual division of labour, which characterises historic societies (both agricultural and hunter-gatherer), only became commonplace in the Holocene. #### Trading The Upper Palaeolithic is characterised by evidence of expansive trade routes and the great distances at which communities could maintain interactions. The early Upper Palaeolithic is especially known for highly mobile lifestyles, with Gravettian groups (at least those analysed in Italy and Moravia, Ukraine) often sourcing some raw materials upwards of 200 km (120 mi). However, it is debated if this represents sample bias, and if Western and Northern Europe were less mobile. Some cultural practices such as creating Venus figurines or specific burial rituals during the Gravettian stretched 2,000 km (1,200 mi) across the continent. Genetic evidence suggests that, despite strong evidence of cultural transmission, Gravettian Europeans did not introgress into Siberians, meaning there was a movement of ideas but not people between Europe and Siberia. At the 30,000 year old Romanian Poiana Cireşului site, perforated shells of the Homalopoma sanguineum sea snail were recovered, which is significant as it inhabits the Mediterranean at nearest 900 km (560 mi) away. Such interlinkage may have been an important survival tool in lieu of the steadily deteriorating climate. Given low estimated population density, this may have required a rather complex, cross-continental social organisation system. By and following the LGM, population densities are thought to have been much higher with the marked decrease of habitable lands, resulting in more regional economies. Decreased land availability could have increased travel distance, as habitable refugia may have been few and far between, and increasing population density within these few refugia would have made long-distance travel less economic. This trend continued into the Mesolithic with the adoption of sedentism. Nonetheless, there is some evidence of long-distance Magdalenian trade routes. For example, at Lascaux, a painting of a bull had remnants of the manganese mineral hausmannite, which can only be manufactured in heat in excess of 900 °C (1,650 °F), which was probably impossible for EEMH; this means they likely encountered natural hausmannite which is known to be found 250 km (160 mi) away in the Pyrenees. Unless there was a hausmannite source much closer to Lascaux which has since been depleted, this could mean that there was a local economy based on manganese ores. Also, at Ekain, Basque Country, the inhabitants were using the locally rare manganese mineral groutite in their paintings, which they possibly mined out of the cave itself. Based on the distribution of Mediterranean and Atlantic seashell jewellery even well inland, there may have been a network during the Late Glacial Interstadial (14 to 12 thousand years ago) along the rivers Rhine and Rhône in France, Germany, and Switzerland. #### Housing EEMH cave sites quite often feature distinct spatial organisation, with certain areas specifically designated for specific activities, such as hearth areas, kitchens, butchering grounds, sleeping grounds, and trash pile. It is difficult to tell if all material from a site was deposited at about the same time, or if the site was used multiple times. EEMH are thought to have been quite mobile, indicated by the great lengths of trade routes, and such a lifestyle was likely supported by the constructions of temporary shelters in open environments, such as huts. Evidence of huts is typically associated with a hearth. Magdalenian peoples, especially, are thought to have been highly migratory, following herds while repopulating Europe, and several cave and open-air sites indicate the area was abandoned and revisited regularly. The 19,000 year old Peyre Blanque site, France, and at least the 260 km<sup>2</sup> (100 sq mi) area around it may have been revisited for thousands of years. In the Magdalenian, stone lined rectangular areas typically 6–15 m<sup>2</sup> (65–161 sq ft) were interpreted as having been the foundations or flooring of huts. At Magdalenian Pincevent, France, small, circular dwellings were speculated to have existed based on the spacing of stone tools and bones; these sometimes featured an indoor hearth, work area, or sleeping space (but not all at the same time). A 23,000 year old hut from the Israeli Ohalo II was identified as having used grasses as flooring or possibly bedding, but it is unclear if EEMH also lined their huts with grass or instead used animal pelts. A 13,800 year old slab from Molí del Salt, Spain, has 7 dome-shaped figures engraved onto it, which are postulated to represent temporary dome-shaped huts. Over 70 dwellings constructed by EEMH out of mammoth bones have been identified, primarily from the Russian Plain, possibly semi-permanent hunting camps. They seem to have built tipis and yarangas. These were typically constructed following the LGM after 22,000 years ago by Epi-Gravettian peoples; the earliest hut identified comes from the Molodova I site, Ukraine, which was dated to 44,000 years ago (making it possible it was built by Neanderthals). Typically, these huts measured 5 m (16 ft) in diameter, or 4 m × 6 m (13 ft × 20 ft) if oval shaped. Huts could get as small as 3 m × 2 m (9.8 ft × 6.6 ft). One of the largest huts has a diameter of 12.5 m (41 ft) — a 25,000 year old hut identified in Kostenki, Russia — and was constructed out of 64 mammoth skulls, but given the little evidence of occupation, this is postulated to have been used for food storage rather than as a living space. Some huts have burned bones, which has typically been interpreted as bones used as fuel for fireplaces due to the scarcity of firewood, and/or disposal of waste. A few huts, however, have evidence of wood burning, or mixed wood/bone burning. Mammoth hut foundations were generally made by pushing a great quantity of mammoth skulls into the ground (most commonly, though not always, with the tusks facing up to possibly be used as further supports), and the walls by putting into the ground vertically shoulder blades, pelvises, long bones, jaws, and the spine. Long bones were often used as poles, commonly placed on the end of another long bone or in the cavity of where tusk used to be. Foundation may have extended as far as 40 cm (16 in) underground. Generally, multiple huts were built in a locality, placed 1–20 m (3–70 ft) apart depending on location. Tusks may have been used to make entrances, skins pulled over for roofing, and the interior sealed up by loess dug out of pits. Some architectural decisions seem to have been purely for aesthetics, best seen in the 4 Epi-Gravettian huts from Mezhyrich, Mezine, Ukraine, where jaws were stacked to create a chevron or zigzag pattern in 2 huts, and long bones were stacked to create horizontal or vertical lines in respectively 1 and 2 huts. The chevron was a commonly used symbol on the Russian Plain, painted or engraved on bones, tools, figurines, and mammoth skulls. #### Dogs At some point in time, EEMH domesticated the dog, probably as a result of a symbiotic hunting relationship. DNA evidence suggests that present-day dogs split from wolves around the beginning of the LGM. However, potential Palaeolithic dogs have been found preceding this — namely the 36,000-year-old Goyet dog from Belgium and the 33,000-year-old Altai dog from Siberia — which could indicate there were multiple attempts at domesticating European wolves. These "dogs" had a wide size range, from over 60 cm (2 ft) in height in Eastern Europe to less than 30–45 cm (1 ft–1 ft 6 in) in Central and Western Europe, and 32–41 kg (71–90 lb) in all of Europe. These "dogs" are identified by having a shorter snout and skull, and wider palate and braincase than contemporary wolves. Nonetheless, an Aurignacian origin for domestication is controversial. At the 27 to 24 thousand year old Předmostí site, Czech Republic, 3 "dogs" were identified with their skulls perforated (probably to extract the brain), and 1 had a mammoth bone in its mouth. The discoverers interpreted this as a burial ritual. The 14,500-year-old Bonn-Oberkassel dog from Germany was found buried alongside a 40-year-old man and a 25-year-old woman, as well as traces of red hematite, and is genetically placed as an ancestor to present-day dogs. It was diagnosed with canine distemper virus and probably died between 19 and 23 weeks of age. It would have required extensive human care to survive without being able to contribute anything, suggesting that, at this point, humans and dogs were connected by emotional or symbolic ties rather than purely materialistic personal gain. The exact utility of these proto-dogs is unclear, but they may have played a vital role in hunting, as well as domestic services such as transporting items or guarding camp or carcasses. ### Art When examples of Upper Palaeolithic art were first discovered in the 19th century—engraved objects—they were assumed to have been "art for art's sake" as Palaeolithic peoples were widely conceived as having been uncultured savages. This model was primarily championed by French archaeologist Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet. Then, detailed paintings found deep within caves were discovered, the first being Cueva de Altamira, Spain, in 1879. The "art for art's sake" model came apart by the turn of the century as more examples of cave art were found in hard-to-reach places in Western Europe such as Combarelles and Font-de-Gaume, for which the idea of it being simply a leisure activity became increasingly untenable. #### Cave art EEMH are well known for having painted or engraved geometric designs, hand stencils, plants, animals, and seemingly human/animal hybrid creatures on cave walls deep inside caves. Typically the same species are represented in caves which have such art, but the total number of species is quite numerous, and namely includes creatures such as mammoths, bison, lions, bears, and ibex. Nonetheless, some caves were dominated by certain forms, such as Grotte de Niaux where over half of the animals are bison. Images could be drawn on top of one another. Landscapes were never depicted, with the exception of a supposed depiction of a volcanic eruption at Chauvet-Pont d'Arc, France, dating to 36,000 years ago. Cave art is found in dark cave recesses, and the artists either lit a fire on the cave floor or used portable stone lamps to see. Drawing materials include black charcoal and red and yellow ochre crayons, but they, along with a variety of other minerals, could also be ground into powder and mixed with water to create paint. Large, flat rocks may have been used as palettes, and brushes may have included reeds, bristles, and twigs, and possibly a blowgun was used to spray paint over less accessible areas. Hand stencils could either be made by holding the hand to the wall and spitting paint over it (leaving a negative image) or by applying paint to the hand and then sticking it to the wall. Some hand stencils are missing fingers, but it is unclear if the artist was actually missing the finger or simply excluded it from the stencil. It has generally been assumed that the larger prints were left by men and the smaller ones by boys, but the exclusion of women entirely may be improbable. Though many hypotheses have been proposed for the symbolism of cave art, it is still debated why these works were created in the first place. One of the first hypotheses regarding their symbolism was forwarded by French religious historian Salomon Reinach who supposed that, because only animals were depicted on cave walls, the images represented totem veneration, in which a group or a group member identifies with a certain animal associated with certain powers, and honours or respects this animal in some way such as by not hunting it. If this were the case, then EEMH communities within a region would have subdivided themselves into, for example, a "horse clan", a "bison clan", a "lion clan", and so forth. This was soon contested as some caves contain depictions of animals wounded by projectiles, and generally multiple species are represented. In 1903, Reinach proposed that the cave art represented sympathetic magic (between the painting and the painting's subject), and by drawing an animal doing some kind of action, the artist believed they were exerting that same action onto the animal. That is, by being the master of the image, they could master the animal itself. The hunting magic model—and the idea that art was magical and utilitarian in EEMH society—gained much popularity in the following decades. In this model, herbivorous prey items were depicted as having been wounded prior to a hunt in order to cast a spell over them; some animals were incompletely depicted to enfeeble them; geometric designs were traps; and human/animal hybrids were sorcerers dressed as animals to gain their power, or were gods ruling over the animals. Many animals were depicted as completely healthy and intact, and sometimes pregnant, which this model interprets as fertility magic to promote reproduction; however, if the animal was a carnivore, then this model says that the depiction served to destroy the animal. By the mid-20th century, this model was being contested because of how few depictions of wounded animals exist; the collection of consumed animal bones in decorated caves often did not match types of animals depicted in terms of abundance; and the magic model does not explain hand stencils. Following the 1960s, begun by German-American art historian Max Raphael, the study of cave art took on a much more statistical approach, analysing and quantifying items such as the types and distribution of animals depicted, cave topography, and cave wall morphology. Based on such structuralist tests, horses and bovines seem to have been preferentially clustered together typically in a central position, and such binary organisation led to the suggestion that this was sexual symbolism, and some animals and iconography were designated by EEMH as either male or female. This conclusion has been heavily contested as well, due to the subjective definition of association between two different animals, and the great detail the animals were depicted in, permitting sexual identification (and further, the hypothesis that bison were supposed to be feminine contradicts the finding that many are male). Also in the late 20th century, with the popularisation of the hypothesis that EEMH practised shamanism, the human/animal hybrids and geometrical symbols were interpreted within this framework as the visions a shaman would see while in a trance (entoptic phenomena). Opponents mainly attack the comparisons made between Palaeolithic cultures and present-day shamanistic societies for being in some way inaccurate. In 1988, archaeologists David Lewis-Williams and Thomas Dowson suggested trances were induced by hallucinogenic plants containing either mescaline, LSD, or psilocybin; but there is no evidence EEMH purposefully ate them. #### Portable art Venus figurines are commonly found associated with EEMH and are the earliest well-acknowledged representation of human figures. These are most frequently found in the Gravettian (notably in the French Upper Périgordian, the Czech Pavlovian, and West Russian Kostenkian) most dating from 29 to 23 thousand years ago. Almost all Venuses depict naked women, and are generally hand-held sized. They feature a downturned head, no face, thin arms which end at or cross over voluminous breasts, a rotund buttocks, a distended abdomen (interpreted as pregnancy), tiny and bent legs, and pegged or unnaturally short feet. Venuses vary in proportions which may represent limitations using certain materials over others, or intentional design choices. Eastern European Venuses seem have more of an emphasis on the breasts and stomach, whereas Western European ones emphasise the hips and thighs. The earliest interpretations of the Venuses believed these were literal representations of women with obesity or steatopygia (a condition where a woman's body stores more fat in the thighs and buttocks, making them especially prominent). Another early hypothesis was that ideal womanhood for EEMH involved obesity, or that the Venuses were used by men as erotica due to the exaggeration of body parts typically sexualised in Western Culture (as well as the lack of detail to individualising traits such as the face and limbs). Extending present-day Western norms to Palaeolithic peoples was contested, and a counter interpretation is that either Venuses were mother goddesses, or that EEMH believed depictions of things had magical properties over the subject, and that such a depiction of a pregnant woman would facilitate fertility and fecundity. This is also contested as it assumes women are only thought of in terms of child rearing. EEMH also carved perforated batons out of horn, bone, or stone, most commonly through the Solutrean and Magdalenian. Such batons disappear from the archaeological record at the Magdalenian's close. Some batons seem phallic in nature. By 2010, about 60 batons had been hypothesised to be representations of penises (all with erections), of which 30 show decoration, and 23 are perforated. Several phallic batons are depicted as circumcised and seemingly bearing some ornamentation such as piercings, scarification, or tattooing. The purpose of perforated batons has been debated, which suggestions for spiritual or religious purposes, ornamentation or status symbol, currency, drumsticks, tent holders, weaving tools, spear straighteners, spear throwers, or dildos. Unperforated phallic batons, measuring just a few centimetres long to up to 30 cm (12 in), were interpreted as sex toys quite early on. Depictions of animals were commonly produced by EEMH. As of 2015, as many as 50 Aurignacian ivory figurines and fragments have been recovered from the German Swabian Jura. Of the discernible figures, most represent mammoths and lions, and a few horses, bison, possibly a rhino, waterfowl, fish, and small mammals. These sculptures are hand-sized and would have been portable works, and some figurines were made into wearable pendants. Some figurines also featured enigmatic engravings, dots, marks, lines, hooks, and criss-cross patterns. EEMH also made purely symbolic engravings. There are several plaques of bone or antler (referred to as polishers, spatulas, palettes, or knives) which feature series of equidistantly placed notches, most notably the well-preserved 32,000 year old Blanchard plaque from L'Abri Blanchard, France, which features 24 markings in a seemingly serpentine pattern. The discoverer, British palaeontologist Thomas Rupert Jones, speculated in 1875 this was an early counting system for tallying items such as animals killed, or some other notation system. In 1957, Czech archaeologist Karel Absolon suggested they represent arithmetic. In 1972, Marshack postulated they may be calendars. Also in 1972, Marshack identified 15 to 13 thousand year old Magdalenian plaques bearing small, abstract symbols seemingly into organised blocks or sets, which he interpreted as representing an early writing system. Czech archaeologist Bohuslav Klíma speculated a complex engraving on a mammoth tusk he discovered in the Gravettian Pavlov site, Czech Republic, as being a map, showing a meandering river centre-left, a mountain centre-right, and a living grounds at the centre indicated by a double circle. A few similar engravings have been identified across Europe (in particular the Russian Plain), which he also postulated were maps, plans, or stories. #### Body art EEMH are commonly associated with large pieces of pigments ("crayons"), namely made of red ochre. For EEMH, it is typically assumed that ochre was used for some symbolic purposes, most notably for cosmetics such as body paint. This is because ochre in some sites had to be imported from incredibly long distances, and it is also associated with burials. It is unclear why they specifically chose red ochre instead of other colours. In terms of colour psychology, popular hypotheses include the putative "female cosmetic coalitions" hypothesis and the "red dress effect". It is also possible that ochre was chosen for its utility, such as an ingredient for adhesives, hide tanning agent, insect repellent, sunscreen, medicinal properties, dietary supplement, or as a soft hammer. EEMH appear to have been using grinding and crushing tools to process ochre before applying it to the skin. In 1962, French archaeologists Saint-Just and Marthe Péquart identified bi-pointed needles in the Magdalenian Le Mas-d'Azil, which they speculated might have been used in tattooing. Hypothesised depictions of penises from most commonly the Magdalenian (though a few dating back to the Aurignacian) appear to be decorated with tattoos, scarification, and piercings. Designs include lines, plaques, dots or holes, and human or animal figures. #### Clothing EEMH produced beads, which are typically assumed to have been attached to clothing or portable items as body decoration. Beads had already been in use since the Middle Palaeolithic, but production dramatically increased in the Upper Palaeolithic. It is unclear why communities chose specific raw materials over other ones, and they seem to have upheld local bead making traditions for a very long time. For example, Mediterranean communities used specific types of marine shells to make beads and pendants for more than 20,000 years; and Central and Western European communities often used pierced animal (and less commonly human) teeth. In the Aurignacian, beads and pendants were being made of shells, teeth, ivory, stone, bone, and antler; and there are a few examples of use of fossil materials including a belemnite, nummulite, ammonite, and amber. They may have also been producing ivory and stone rings, diadems, and labrets. Beads could be manufactured in numerous different styles, such as conical, elliptical, drop-shaped, disc-shaped, ovoid, rectangular, trapezoidal, and so on. Beads may have been used to facilitate social communication, to display the wearer's socio-economic status, as they could have been capable of communicating labour costs (and thereby, a person's wealth, energy, connections, etc.) simply by looking at them. The distribution of ornaments on buried Gravettian individuals, and the likeliness that most of the buried were dressed with whatever they were wearing upon death, indicates that jewellery was primarily worn on the head as opposed to the neck or the torso. The Gravettian Dolní Věstonice I and III and Pavlov I sites in Moravia, Czech Republic, yielded many clay fragments with textile impressions. These indicate a highly sophisticated and standardised textile industry, including the production of: single-ply, double-ply, triple-ply, and braided string and cordage; knotted nets; wicker baskets; and woven cloth including simple and diagonal twined cloth, plain woven cloth, and twilled cloth. Some cloths appear to have a design pattern. There are also plaited items which may have been baskets or mats. Due to the wide range of textile gauges and weaves, it is possible they could also produce wall hangings, blankets, bags, shawls, shirts, skirts, and sashes. These people used plant rather than animal fibres, possibly nettle, milkweed, yew, or alder which have historically been used in weaving. Such plant fibre fragments have also been recorded at the Russian Kostenki and Zaraysk as well as the German Gönnersdorf site. The inhabitants of Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia, appear to have been staining flax fibres with plant-based dyes, including yellow, red, pink, blue, turquoise, violet, black, brown, gray, green, and khaki. The emergence of textiles in the European archaeological record also coincides with the proliferation of the sewing needle in European sites. Ivory needles are found in most late Upper Palaeolithic sites, which could correlate to frequent sewing, and the predominance of small needles (too small to tailor clothes out of hide and leather) could indicate work on softer woven fabrics or accessory stitching and embroidery of leather products. There is some potential evidence of simple loom technology. However, these have also been interpreted as either hunting implements or art pieces. Rounded objects made of mammoth phalanges from Předmostí and Avdeevo, Russia, may have been loom weights or human figures. Perforated, washer-like ivory or bone discs from across Europe were potentially spindle whorls. A foot-shaped piece of ivory from Kniegrotte, Germany, was possibly a comb or a decorative pendant. On the basis of wearing analyses, EEMH are also speculated to have used net spacers or weaving sticks. In 1960, French archaeologist Fernand Lacorre suggested that perforated batons were used to spin cordage. Some Venuses depict hairdos and clothing worn by Gravettian women. The Venus of Willendorf seems to be wearing a cap, possibly woven fabric or made from shells, featuring at least seven rows and an additional two half-rows covering the nape of the neck. It may have been made starting at a knotted centre and spiraling downward from right to left, and then backstitching all the rows to each other. The Kostenki-1 Venus seems to be wearing a similar cap, though each row seems to overlap the other. The Venus of Brassempouy seems to be wearing some nondescript open, twined hair cover. The engraved Venus of Laussel from France seems to be wearing some headwear with rectangular gridding, and could potentially represent a snood. Most East European Venuses with headwear also display notching and checkwork on the upper body which are suggestive of bandeaux (a strip of cloth bordering around the tops of the breasts) with some even featuring straps connecting it to around the neck; these seem to be absent in Western European Venuses. Some also wear belts: in Eastern Europe, these are seen on the waist; whereas in Central and Western Europe they are worn on the low hip. The Venus of Lespugue seems to be wearing a plant fibre string skirt comprising 11 cords running behind the legs. #### Music EEMH are known to have created flutes out of hollow bird bones as well as mammoth ivory, first appearing in the archaeological record with the Aurignacian about 40,000 years ago in the German Swabian Jura. The Swabian Jura flutes appear to have been able to produce a wide range of tones. One virtually complete flute made of the radius of a griffon vulture from Hohle Fels measures 21.8 cm (8.6 in) in length and 0.8 cm (0.31 in) in diameter. The bone had been smoothed down and was pierced with holes. These finger holes exhibit cut marks, which could indicate the exact placement of these holes was specifically measured to create concert pitch (that is, to make the instrument in tune) or a scale. The part near the elbow joint had two V-shaped carvings, presumably a mouthpiece. Ivory flutes would have required a great time investment to make, as it requires more skill and precision to craft compared to a bird bone flute. A section of ivory must be sawed off to the correct size, cut in half so it can be hollowed out, and then the two pieces have to be refitted and stuck together by an adhesive in an air-tight seal. EEMH also created bone whistles out of deer phalanges. Such sophisticated music technology could potentially speak to a much longer musical tradition than the archaeological record indicates, as modern hunter-gatherers have been documented to create instruments out of: more biodegradable materials (less likely to fossilise) such as reeds, gourds, skins, and bark; more or less unmodified items such as horns, conch shells, logs, and stones; and their weapons, including spear thrower shafts or boomerangs as clapsticks, or a hunting bow. It is speculated that a few EEMH artefacts represent bullroarers or percussion instruments such as rasps, but these are harder to prove. One probable bullroarer is identified at Lalinde, France, dating to 14 to 12 thousand years ago, measuring 16 cm (6.3 in) long and decorated with geometric incisions. In the mammoth-bone houses at Mezine, Ukraine, an 80 cm × 20 cm (31.5 in × 7.9 in) thigh-bone, a 53 cm × 50 cm (21 in × 20 in) jawbone, a 57 cm × 63 cm (22 in × 25 in) shoulder blade, and a 63 cm × 43 cm (25 in × 17 in) pelvis of a mammoth bear evidence of paint and repeated percussion. These were first proposed by archaeologist Sergei Bibikov to have served as drums, with either a reindeer antler or mammoth tusk fragment also found at the site being used as a drum stick, though this is contested. Other European sites have yielded potential percussion mallets made of mammoth bone or reindeer antler. It is speculated that some EEMH marked certain sections of caves with red paint which could be struck to produce a note that would resonate throughout the cave chamber, somewhat like a xylophone. ### Language The early modern human vocal apparatus is generally thought to have been the same as that in present-day humans, as the present-day variation of the FOXP2 gene associated with the neurological prerequisites for speech and language ability seems to have evolved within the last 100,000 years, and the modern human hyoid bone (which supports the tongue and facilitates speech) evolved by 60,000 years ago demonstrated by the Israeli Skhul and Qafzeh humans. These indicate Upper Palaeolithic humans had the anatomical basis for language and the same range of potential phonemes (sounds) as present-day humans. Though EEMH languages likely contributed to present-day languages, it is unclear what early languages would have sounded like because words denature and are replaced by entirely original words quite rapidly, making it difficult to identity language cognates (a word in multiple different languages which descended from a common ancestor) which originated before 9 to 5 thousand years ago. Nonetheless, it has been controversially hypothesised that Eurasian languages are all related and form the "Nostratic languages" with an early common ancestor existing just after the end of the LGM. In 2013, evolutionary biologist Mark Pagel and colleagues postulated that among "Nostratic languages", frequently used words more often have speculated cognates, and that this was evidence that 23 identified words were "ultraconserved" and supposedly changed very little in use and pronunciation, descending from a common ancestor about 15,000 years ago at the end of the LGM. Archaeologist Paul Heggarty said that Pagel's data was subjective interpretation of supposed cognates, and the extreme volatility of sound and pronunciation of words (for example, Latin [ˈakwã] (aquam) "water" → French [o] (eau) in just 2,000 years) makes it unclear if cognates can even be identified that far back if they do indeed exist. ### Religion #### Shamanism Several Upper Palaeolithic caves feature depictions of seemingly part-human, part-animal chimaeras (typically part bison, reindeer, or deer), variously termed "anthropozoomorphs", "therianthropes", or "sorcerers". These have typically been interpreted as being the centre of some shamanistic ritual, and to represent some cultural revolution and the origins of subjectivity. The oldest such cave drawing has been identified at the 30,000 year old Chauvet Cave, where a figure with a bison upper body and human lower body was drawn onto a stalactite, facing a depiction of a vulva with two tapering legs. The 17,000 year old Grotte de Lascaux, France, has a seemingly dead bird-human hybrid between a rhino and a charging bison, with a bird on top of a pole placed near the figure's right hand. A bird on a stick is used as a symbol of mystical power by some modern shamanistic cultures who believe that birds are psychopomps, and can move between the land of the living and the land of the dead. In these cultures, they believe the shaman can either transform into a bird or use a bird as a spirit guide. The 14,000 year old Grotte des Trois-Frères, France, features 3 sorcerers. The so-called "The Dancing Sorcerer" or "God of Les Trois Frères" seems to bear human legs and feet, paws, a deer head with antlers, a fox or horse tail, a beard, and a flaccid penis, interpreted as dancing on all-fours. Another smaller sorcerer with a bison head, human legs and feet, and upright posture stands above several animal depictions, and is interpreted as holding and playing a musical bow to herd all the animals. The third sorcerer has a seemingly bison upper body and human lower body with testicles and an erection. Some drawn human figures feature lines radiating out. These are generally interpreted as wounded people, with the lines representing pain or spears, possibly related to some initiation process for shamans. One such "wounded man" at Grotte de Cougnac, France, is drawn on the chest of a red Irish elk. A wounded sorcerer with a bison head is found at the 17,000 year old Grotte de Gabillou. Some caves featured "vanquished men", lying presumably dead at the foot of generally a bull or bear. For tangible art, the early Aurignacian Hohlenstein-Stadel, Swabian Jura, has yielded the famous lion-human sculpture. It is 30 cm (12 in) tall, which is much larger than the other Swabian Jura figurines. A possible second lion-human was also found in the nearby Hohle Fels. An ivory slab from Geissenklösterle has a carved relief of a human figure with its arms raised in the air wearing a hide, the "worshipper". A 28,000 year old "puppet" was identified at Brno, Czech Republic, consisting of an isolated head piece, torso piece, and left arm piece. It is presumed that the head and torso were connected by a rod, and the torso and arm by some string allowing the arm to move. Because it was found in a grave, this is speculated to have belonged to a shaman for use in rituals involving the dead. A 14,000 year old large stone from Cueva del Juyo, Spain, seems to have been carved to be the conjoined face of a man on the right and a big cat on the left (when facing it). The man half seems to feature a moustache and a beard. The cat half (either a leopard or a lion) has slanting eyes, a snout, a fang, and spots on the muzzle suggestive of whiskers. Spanish archaeologists Leslie G. Freeman and Joaquín González Echegaray argued that Cueva del Juyo was specifically modified to serve as a sanctuary site to carry out rituals. They said the inhabitants dug out a triangular trench and filled it with offerings including Patella (limpets), the common periwinkle (a sea snail), pigments, the legs and jaws (possibly with meat still on them) of red and roe deer, and a red deer antler positioned upright. The trench and offerings were then filled in with dirt, and a seemingly flower-like arrangement of bright cylindrical pieces of red, yellow, and green pigments was placed on top. This was then buried with clay, stone slabs, and bone spearpoints. The clay shell was covered by a 900 kg (2,000 lb) slab of limestone supported by large flat stones. Somewhat similar structures associated with some representation of a human have also been found elsewhere in Magdalenian Spain, such as at Cueva de Erralla, Entrefoces rock shelter, Cueva de Praileaitz, Cueva de la Garma, and Cueva de Erberua. #### Mortuary practices EEMH buried their dead, commonly with a variety symbolic grave goods as well as red ochre, and multiple people were often buried in the same grave. However, the archaeological record has yielded few graves, less than 5 preserved per millennium, which could indicate burials were seldom given. Consequently, it is unclear if they represent isolated burials or form a much more generalised mortuary tradition. Across Europe, some graves contained multiple individuals, in this case most often featuring both sexes. Most burials are dated to the Gravettian (most notably 31–29 thousand years ago) and towards the end of the Magdalenian (from 14 to 11 thousand years ago). None are identified during the Aurignacian. Gravettian burials seem to differ from post-LGM ones. The former ranged across Europe from Portugal to Siberia, whereas the latter conspicuously restricted to Italy, Germany, and southwest France. About half of buried Gravettians were infants, whereas infant burials were much less common post-LGM, but it is debated if this was due to social differences or infant mortality rates. Graves are also commonly associated with animal remains and tools, but it is unclear if this was intentional or was coincidentally a part of the filler. They are much less common post-LGM, and post-LGM graves are more commonly associated with ornaments than Gravettian graves. The most lavish Palaeolithic burial is a grave from the Gravettian of Sungir, Russia, where a boy and a girl were placed crown-to-crown in a long, shallow grave, and adorned with thousands of perforated ivory beads, hundreds of perforated arctic fox canines, ivory pins, disc pendants, ivory animal figurines, and mammoth tusk spears. The beads were a third the size of those found with a man from the same site, which could indicate these small beads were specifically designed for the children. Only two other Upper Palaeolithic graves were found with grave goods other than personal adornment (one from Arene Candide, Italy, and Brno, Czech Republic), and the grave of these two children is unique in bearing any functional implements (the spears) as well as a bone from another individual (a partial femur). The 5 other buried individuals from Sungir did not receive nearly as many grave goods, with one seemingly given no formal treatment whatsoever. However, most Gravettian graves feature few ornaments, and the buried were probably wearing them before death. Due to such rich material culture and the marked difference of treatment between different individuals, it has been suggested that these peoples had a complex society beyond band level, and with social class distinction. In this model, young individuals given elaborate funerals were potentially born into a position of high status. However, about 75% of EEMH skeletons were men, which sharply contrasts with the predominance of depictions of women in art. Because of the great amount of time, labour, and resources all these grave goods would have required, it has been hypothesised that the grave goods were made long in advance of the ceremony. Because of such planning for multiple burials as well as their abundance in the archaeological record, the seemingly purposeful presence of both sexes, and an apparent preference for individuals with some congenital disorder (about a third of identified burials), it is generally speculated that these cultures practiced human sacrifice either in fear, disdain, or worship of those with abnormal features, like in many present-day and historical societies. Intricate funerals, in addition to evidence of shamanism and ritualism, has also provoked hypotheses of the belief of an afterlife by EEMH. The earliest evidence of skull cups, and thus ritual cannibalism, comes from the Magdalenian of Gough's Cave, England. Further concrete evidence of such rituals does not appear until after the Palaeolithic. The Gough's Cave cup seems to have followed a similar method of scalping as those from Neolithic Europe, with incisions being made along the midline of the skull (whereas the Native American method of scalping involved a circular incision around the crown). Earlier examples of non-ritual cannibalism in Europe do not seem to have followed the same method of defleshing. At least 1 skull cup was transported from a different site. In addition, Gough's Cave also yielded a human radius with a zig-zag engraving. Compared to other artefacts in the cave or common to the Magdalenian period, the radius was modified quite little, with the engraving probably quickly etched on (indicated by scrape marks not recorded on any other Magdalenian engraving), and the bone broken and discarded soon thereafter. This may indicate the bone's only function was as a tool in some cannibalistic and/or funerary ritual, rather than being prepared to be carried around by the group as an ornament or tool. ## In media The "caveman" archetype is quite popular in both literature and visual media and can be portrayed as highly muscular, hairy, or monstrous, and to represent a wild and animalistic character, drawing on the characteristics of a wild man. Cavemen are often represented in front of a cave or fighting a dangerous animal; wielding stone, bone, or wooden tools usually for combat; and dressed in an exposing fur cloak. Men often are depicted with unkempt, unstyled, shoulder-length or longer hair, usually with a beard. Cavemen first appeared in visual media in D. W. Griffith's 1912 Man's Genesis, and among the first appearances in fictional literature were Stanley Waterloo's 1897 The Story of Ab and Jack London's 1907 Before Adam. Cavemen have also been popularly portrayed (inaccurately) as confronting dinosaurs, first done in Griffith's 1914 Brute Force (the sequel to Man's Genesis) featuring a Ceratosaurus. EEMH are also portrayed interacting with Neanderthals, such as in J.-H. Rosny's 1911 Quest for Fire, H. G. Wells' 1927 The Grisly Folk, William Golding's 1955 The Inheritors, Björn Kurtén's 1978 Dance of the Tiger, Jean M. Auel's 1980 Clan of the Cave Bear and her Earth's Children series, and Elizabeth Marshall Thomas' 1987 Reindeer Moon and its 1990 sequel The Animal Wife. EEMH are generally portrayed as superior in some way to Neanderthals which allowed them to take Europe. ## See also - Châtelperronian - Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician - Federmesser culture - Ahrensburg culture - Swiderian culture
55,487,903	Anywhere (Rita Ora song)	1,173,126,506	null	[ "2017 singles", "2017 songs", "Dance-pop songs", "Electropop songs", "Number-one singles in Poland", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Rita Ora songs", "Songs written by Alesso", "Songs written by Ali Tamposi", "Songs written by Andrew Watt (record producer)", "Songs written by Brian Lee (songwriter)", "Songs written by Digital Farm Animals", "Songs written by Rita Ora", "Songs written by Sir Nolan" ]	"Anywhere" is a song by British singer Rita Ora from her second studio album, Phoenix (2018). The song was written by Ora, Ali Tamposi, Brian Lee, Nick Gale and its producers Alesso, Watt and Sir Nolan. It was released as a single on 20 October 2017 through Atlantic Records UK. A wistful, dance-pop and electropop love song about escapism, it features a breakdown of stuttering vocal loops. The song has received positive reviews from music critics, and it was chosen as The Guardian's track of the week. Commercially, the song reached the top-10 in 15 countries, including Ireland, Netherlands, Poland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom where it peaked at number two, becoming Ora's eleventh UK top-10 single. "Anywhere" has since been certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). An accompanying music video, directed by Declan Whitebloom, shows Ora in various locations throughout New York City. Ora performed the song at the 2017 MTV Europe Music Awards. ## Background and release Ora said that the story behind the song came from Avicii's single "Lonely Together" (2017), which she featured on, as both were "cut from the same cloth", being developed from a similar guitar line by some of the songwriters who worked with her on "Anywhere". Ora co-wrote "Anywhere" with Ali Tamposi, Andrew Watt, Brian Lee, Alesso, Digital Farm Animals and Sir Nolan. The core of the track was written in Los Angeles in early 2017 and stemmed from the initial hook, "Take me anywhere, anywhere away from here", which then became "...anywhere away with you". It was inspired by Ora wanting to go on a road trip with her friends to escape Los Angeles. "Anywhere" was first made available for pre-order on 13 October 2017. The song was released by Atlantic Records UK as the album's second single on 20 October 2017. The same day, Ora appeared on The Radio 1 Breakfast Show as a host alongside Nick Grimshaw to premiere "Anywhere". Remixes by R3hab and Willy William were released on 24 November 2017. The following day, "Anywhere" was promoted with its own filter on Snapchat. ## Composition and lyrics Musically, "Anywhere" is a wistful, dance-pop and electropop song. Featuring dream-like production, the track has a firm electronic beat which acts as a metronome for Ora's vocal. Having a moderate tempo of 107 beats per minute, the song is written in the key of B minor and follows the chord progression of Em–A–D–Bm in the first refrain. Instrumentation is provided by keyboards and guitar. The song has two refrains; the first begins with Ora singing "Over the hills and far away, a million miles from L.A, just anywhere away with you," while the second is a breakdown of stuttering vocal loops. Interviewed about the song in November 2017, Ora said, "I actually have no idea what I'm saying... My voice was just chopped up, so I actually am not saying anything." As interpreted by the singer, "Anywhere" is a love song about escapism and "having a desperation of wanting to break free from whatever it is you're going through". Ora also felt the song's message of breaking free was relevant to what British citizens had experienced in 2017. Andrew R. Chow of The New York Times wrote that the lyrics are driven by wanderlust. Due to the processed vocal loops, the second chorus is lyrically inaudible and has no meaning. Ora said lyrics to it can be made up. ## Reception ### Critical reception "Anywhere" was chosen by The Guardian as their track of the week. Journalist Peter Robinson deemed the song a "well-judged electropop romp" and "the modern answer" to ABBA's "Super Trouper" (1980), adding that it "sounds like something that sparks minor online controversy when it only comes third in Sweden's annual Eurovision heats – and Melodifestivalen followers will know there is no higher compliment". Laurence Day of The Line of Best Fit regarded it as "a glittering return". Rolling Stone's Sarah Grant opined that unlike on "Lonely Together", Ora "sounds refreshingly unadorned". A critic from The Observer wrote, "Pensive, poised and ludicrously catchy, Rita Ora continues her patient rebirth with this delicate banger." Writing for Billboard magazine, Jon Ali called "Anywhere" Ora's "finest single to date", noting, "it sounds like Rita's finally found her footing in the pop musical landscape, and it's on the dancefloor". ### Commercial performance The song debuted at number 20 on the UK Singles Chart on 27 October 2017, selling 16,085 units in its first week. In its fourth week, the song reached number two with sales of 38,159 units. "Anywhere" became Ora's 11th top-10 song in the United Kingdom and her third of 2017 (following "Your Song" and "Lonely Together"). The song has been certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The song topped the chart in Scotland, marking Ora's fifth chart-topper and 11th top-ten song in the country. "Anywhere" peaked at number three on the Euro Digital Song Sales chart, becoming Ora's ninth top-10 song on the chart. "Anywhere" reached the top-10 in Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary,Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. In Australia, the song peaked at number 14 on the ARIA Charts and was subsequently certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Furthermore, "Anywhere" reached the top 20 in Austria, Belgium, Germany and Russia. In the United States, "Anywhere" reached number six on the Dance Club Songs chart, and marked Ora's sixth top-10 song on the chart. The song topped the Mexico Ingles Airplay chart for five weeks. ## Music video Directed by Declan Whitebloom, the music video for "Anywhere" was filmed over 14 hours in New York City on 5 October 2017. The video was produced by Randy Bobbit for Black Dog Films and commissioned by Dan Curwin. Most of Ora's jewellery and footwear in the visual were designed by Alexis Bittar and Sophia Webster, respectively. One of the scenes see Ora dancing in a restaurant that remained open while the video was being filmed. The video personifies the song's message of romantic escapism although a love interest is absent. It finds Ora dancing and singing in nine different high fashion ensembles in various locations. The music video premiered on YouTube at 12:00 GMT on 20 October 2017. It begins with Ora singing at Times Square, wearing a half-and-half Halpern Fall 2017 collection piece and large square earrings by Bittar. She is then shown on a hotel rooftop overlooking the Hudson River in a Tezenis black bodysuit, a red coat from Vaquera The Handmaid's Tale Collection and Double Disco earrings. Other segments take place at a shop, restaurant, hair salon and in the streets of the Meatpacking District and Chinatown, Manhattan. In the next scene, Ora holds blue balloons while walking through traffic and on sidewalks, sporting a matching blue velveteen coatdress and knee-high boots from Off White's Fall 2017 collection. The singer is also shown on a moving carriage in an Attico multi-patterned halter gown, Colin LoCascio red faux-fur coat and Saint Laurent Niki Swarovski crystal-embellished leather knee-high boots. In other scenes, she has hip hop-style looks including a Mulberry jumpsuit, a black Paco Rabanne top and bottom, and a Madeleine Thompson rainbow cashmere tracksuit with a pink bucket hat by Kangol and Marc Jacobs. In a scene near the end of the video, Ora runs in a street in a vintage Vivienne Westwood wedding dress, Gigi Burris veil and Mulberry boots. MTV UK's Sam Prance regarded it among Ora's best videos, writing, "From the incredible outfits to the setting and the carefree vibe, it's a total joy to watch". Ross McNeilage from the same publication described it as "super-fun" and "like a high-fashion Rita in Wonderland". ## Live performances Ora's first televised performance of "Anywhere" was on The Jonathan Ross Show on 21 October 2017. The following day, she performed the song in a medley with "Your Song" and "Lonely Together" at the 2017 BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards. On 5 November 2017, Ora performed "Anywhere" on The X Factor UK. She performed a medley of "Anywhere" and "Your Song" at the 2017 MTV Europe Music Awards on 12 November, and at Germany's 2017 Bambi Awards on 16 November. Ora also performed "Anywhere" on the Children in Need 2017 telethon on 18 November, Australian breakfast programme Sunrise on 22 November, and Sounds Like Friday Night on 1 December. She performed an acoustic version of "Anywhere" alongside a cover of the Wham! classic "Last Christmas" on Radio 1's Live Lounge on 11 December. On 21 February 2018, Ora performed "Anywhere" live during a medley, with "Your Song" and "For You" with Liam Payne, at the Brit Awards 2018. On 12 April 2018, she performed the song live during a similar medley at the German Echo Music Prize. ## Track listings - Digital download 1. "Anywhere" – 3:35 - Digital download (R3hab Remix) 1. "Anywhere" (R3hab Remix) – 2:54 - Digital download (Willy William Remix) 1. "Anywhere" (Willy William Remix) – 3:33 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Rita Ora – composition, vocals - Ali Tamposi – composition, backing vocals - Alesso – composition, production, keyboard, programming - Watt – composition, production, backing vocals, keyboard, guitar, programming, vocal production - Nolan Lambroza – composition, production, keyboard, instruments, programming - Nicholas Gale – composition - Brian Lee – composition - John Hanes – mix engineering - Dave Kutch – master engineering - Daniel Zaidenstadt – engineering - Serban Ghenea – mixing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## See also - List of number-one songs of 2018 (Mexico) - List of number-one singles of 2018 (Poland)
142,056	Madonna	1,171,389,113	American singer and actress (born 1958)	[ "1958 births", "20th-century American actresses", "20th-century American businesspeople", "20th-century American businesswomen", "20th-century American singers", "20th-century American women singers", "21st-century American actresses", "21st-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American businesswomen", "21st-century American singers", "21st-century American women singers", "Activists from Michigan", "Activists from New York City", "Actresses from Michigan", "Actresses from New York City", "American LGBT rights activists", "American cosmetics businesspeople", "American dance musicians", "American electronic musicians", "American expatriates in Portugal", "American expatriates in the United Kingdom", "American fashion businesspeople", "American female dancers", "American film actresses", "American gun control activists", "American humanitarians", "American mezzo-sopranos", "American music industry executives", "American nonprofit businesspeople", "American people of French-Canadian descent", "American people of Italian descent", "American philanthropists", "American pop guitarists", "American pop rock singers", "American women film directors", "American women in business", "American women in electronic music", "American women pop singers", "American women record producers", "American women rock singers", "American women singer-songwriters", "Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners", "Brit Award winners", "Businesspeople from Michigan", "Businesspeople from New York City", "Dance-pop musicians", "Dancers from Michigan", "Dancers from New York (state)", "Feminist musicians", "Film directors from Michigan", "Film directors from New York (state)", "Golden Globe Award-winning musicians", "Grammy Award winners", "Grammy Award winners for dance and electronic music", "Interscope Records artists", "Ivor Novello Award winners", "Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners", "Living people", "MTV Europe Music Award winners", "Madonna", "Maverick Records artists", "Modern dancers", "People from Bay City, Michigan", "People from the East Village, Manhattan", "People named in the Paradise Papers", "Record producers from Michigan", "Record producers from New York (state)", "Sex-positive feminists", "Singer-songwriters from Michigan", "Singer-songwriters from New York (state)", "Singers from New York City", "Sire Records artists", "Warner Records artists", "Women humanitarians", "World Music Awards winners", "World record holders" ]	Madonna Louise Ciccone (/tʃɪˈkoʊni/; ; born August 16, 1958) is an American singer, songwriter, and actress. Known as the "Queen of Pop", Madonna has been widely recognized for her continual reinvention and versatility in music production, songwriting, and visual presentation. She has pushed the boundaries of artistic expression in mainstream music while maintaining control over every aspect of her career. Her works, which incorporate social, political, sexual, and religious themes, have generated both controversy and critical acclaim. A prominent cultural figure spanning both the 20th and 21st centuries, Madonna remains one of the most "well-documented figures of the modern age", with a broad array of scholarly reviews, literature, and art works about her, as well as an academic mini subdiscipline devoted to her called Madonna studies. Madonna moved to New York City in 1978 to pursue a career in modern dance. After performing as a drummer, guitarist, and vocalist in the rock bands Breakfast Club and Emmy, she rose to solo stardom with her debut studio album, Madonna (1983). She followed it with a series of successful albums, including all-time bestsellers Like a Virgin (1984), True Blue (1986), and The Immaculate Collection (1990), as well as Grammy Award winners Ray of Light (1998) and Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005). Madonna has amassed many chart-topping singles throughout her career, including hits such as "Like a Virgin", "La Isla Bonita", "Like a Prayer", "Vogue", "Take a Bow", "Frozen", "Music", "Hung Up", and "4 Minutes". Madonna's popularity was enhanced by roles in films such as Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), Dick Tracy (1990), A League of Their Own (1992), and Evita (1996). While the lattermost won her a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress, many of her other films were not as well received. As a businesswoman, Madonna founded the company Maverick in 1992, which included Maverick Records, one of the most successful artist-run labels in history. Her other ventures include fashion brands, written works, health clubs, and filmmaking. She contributes to various charities, having founded the Ray of Light Foundation in 1998 and Raising Malawi in 2006, and she advocates for gender equality and LGBT rights. With sales of over 300 million records worldwide, Madonna is the best-selling female recording artist of all time. She holds the record for being the most successful solo artist in the history of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and has achieved the most number-one singles by a woman in Australia, Canada, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom. With revenue exceeding US\$1.5 billion from her concert tickets, she remains the highest-grossing female touring artist worldwide. Forbes has named Madonna the top-earning female musician annually a record 11 times across four decades (1980s–2010s). She was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2008, her first year of eligibility. VH1 ranked Madonna as the greatest woman in music, while MTV and Billboard ranked her as the greatest music video artist ever. Rolling Stone also included her in their lists of the greatest artists and greatest songwriters of all time. ## Life and career ### 1958–1978: Early life Madonna Louise Ciccone was born on August 16, 1958, in Bay City, Michigan, to Catholic parents Madonna Louise (née Fortin) and Silvio Anthony "Tony" Ciccone. Her father's parents were Italian emigrants from Pacentro while her mother was of French-Canadian descent. Tony Ciccone worked as an optics engineer for Chrysler and General Dynamics on military projects. Since Madonna had the same name as her mother, family members called her "Little Nonnie". Her mother died of breast cancer on December 1, 1963. Madonna later adopted Veronica as a confirmation name when getting confirmed in the Catholic Church in 1966. Madonna was raised in the Detroit suburbs of Pontiac and Avon Township (now Rochester Hills), alongside her two older brothers Anthony and Martin; and three younger siblings, Paula, Christopher, and Melanie. In 1966, Tony married the family's housekeeper Joan Gustafson. They had two children, Jennifer and Mario. Madonna resented her father for getting remarried and began to rebel against him, which strained their relationship for many years afterward. Madonna attended St. Frederick's and St. Andrew's Catholic Elementary Schools, and West Middle School. She was known for her high grade point average and achieved notoriety for her unconventional behavior. Madonna would perform cartwheels and handstands in the hallways between classes, dangle by her knees from the monkey bars during recess, and pull up her skirt during class—all so that the boys could see her underwear. She later admitted to seeing herself in her youth as a "lonely girl who was searching for something. I wasn't rebellious in a certain way. I cared about being good at something. I didn't shave my underarms and I didn't wear make-up like normal girls do. But I studied and I got good grades... I wanted to be somebody." Madonna's father put her in classical piano lessons, but she later convinced him to allow her to take ballet lessons. Christopher Flynn, her ballet teacher, persuaded her to pursue a career in dance. Madonna later attended Rochester Adams High School and became a straight-A student as well as a member of its cheerleading squad. After graduating in January 1976, she received a dance scholarship to the University of Michigan and studied over the summer at the American Dance Festival in Durham, North Carolina. In 1978, Madonna dropped out of college and relocated to New York City. She said of her move to New York, "It was the first time I'd ever taken a plane, the first time I'd ever gotten a taxi cab. I came here with \$35 in my pocket. It was the bravest thing I'd ever done." Madonna soon found an apartment in the Alphabet City neighborhood of the East Village and had little money while working at Dunkin' Donuts and with modern dance troupes, taking classes at the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, and eventually performing with Pearl Lang Dance Theater. She also studied dance under the tutelage of Martha Graham, the noted American dancer and choreographer. Madonna started to work as a backup dancer for other established artists. One night, while returning from a rehearsal, a pair of men held her at knifepoint and forced her to perform fellatio. She later found the incident to be "a taste of my weakness, it showed me that I still could not save myself in spite of all the strong-girl show. I could never forget it." ### 1979–1983: Career beginnings, rock bands, and Madonna In 1979, Madonna became romantically involved with musician Dan Gilroy. Shortly after meeting him, she successfully auditioned to perform in Paris with French disco artist Patrick Hernandez as his backup singer and dancer. During her three months with Hernandez's troupe, she also traveled to Tunisia before returning to New York in August 1979. Madonna moved into an abandoned synagogue where Gilroy lived and rehearsed in Corona, Queens. Together they formed her first band, the Breakfast Club, for which Madonna sang and played drums and guitar. While with the band, Madonna briefly worked as a coat-check girl at the Russian Tea Room, and she made her acting debut in the low-budget indie film A Certain Sacrifice, which was not released until 1985. In 1980, Madonna left the Breakfast Club with drummer Stephen Bray, who was her boyfriend in Michigan, and they formed the band Emmy and the Emmys. They rekindled their romance and moved into the Music Building in Manhattan. The two began writing songs together and they recorded a four-song demo tape in November 1980, but soon after, Madonna decided to promote herself as a solo artist. In March 1981, Camille Barbone, who ran Gotham Records in the Music Building, signed Madonna to a contract with Gotham and worked as her manager until February 1982. Madonna frequented nightclubs to get disc jockeys to play her demo. DJ Mark Kamins at Danceteria took an interest in her music and they began dating. Kamins arranged a meeting with Madonna and Seymour Stein, the president of Sire Records, a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Records. Madonna signed a deal for a total of three singles, with an option for an album. Kamins produced her debut single, "Everybody", which was released in October 1982. In December 1982, Madonna performed the song live for the first time at Danceteria. She made her first television appearance performing "Everybody" on Dancin' On Air in January 1983. In February 1983, she promoted the single with nightclub performances in the United Kingdom. Her second single, "Burning Up", was released in March 1983. Both singles reached number three on Billboard magazine's Hot Dance Club Songs chart. During this period, Madonna was in a relationship with artist Jean-Michel Basquiat and living at his loft in SoHo. Basquiat introduced her to art curator Diego Cortez, who had managed some punk bands and co-founded the Mudd Club. Madonna invited Cortez to be her manager, but he declined. Following the success of the singles, Warner hired Reggie Lucas to produce her debut album, Madonna. However, Madonna was dissatisfied with the completed tracks and disagreed with Lucas' production techniques, so she decided to seek additional help. She asked John "Jellybean" Benitez, the resident DJ at Fun House, to help finish the album's production and a romance ensued. Benitez remixed most of the tracks and produced "Holiday", which was her first international top-ten song. The album was released in July 1983, and peaked at number eight on the Billboard 200. It yielded two top-ten singles on the Billboard Hot 100, "Borderline" and "Lucky Star". In late 1983, Madonna's new manager, Freddy DeMann, secured a meeting for her with film producer Jon Peters, who asked her to play the part of a club singer in the romantic drama Vision Quest. ### 1984–1987: Like a Virgin, first marriage, True Blue, and Who's That Girl In January 1984, Madonna gained more exposure by performing on American Bandstand and Top of the Pops. Her image, performances, and music videos influenced young girls and women. Madonna's style became one of the female fashion trends of the 1980s. Created by stylist and jewelry designer Maripol, the look consisted of lace tops, skirts over capri pants, fishnet stockings, jewelry bearing the crucifix, bracelets, and bleached hair. Madonna's popularity continued to rise globally with the release of her second studio album, Like a Virgin, in November 1984. It became her first number-one album in Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, the UK, and the US. Like a Virgin became the first album by a female to sell over five million copies in the U.S. It was later certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold over 21 million copies worldwide. The album's title track served as its first single, and topped the Hot 100 chart for six consecutive weeks. It attracted the attention of conservative organizations who complained that the song and its accompanying video promoted premarital sex and undermined family values, and moralists sought to have the song and video banned. Madonna received huge media coverage for her performance of "Like a Virgin" at the first 1984 MTV Video Music Awards. Wearing a wedding dress and white gloves, Madonna appeared on stage atop a giant wedding cake and then rolled around suggestively on the floor. MTV retrospectively considered it one of the "most iconic" pop performances of all time. The second single, "Material Girl", reached number two on the Hot 100. While filming the single's music video, Madonna started dating actor Sean Penn. They married on her birthday in 1985. Madonna entered mainstream films in February 1985, beginning with her cameo in Vision Quest. The soundtrack contained two new singles, her U.S. number-one single, "Crazy for You", and another track "Gambler". She also played the title role in the 1985 comedy Desperately Seeking Susan, a film which introduced the song "Into the Groove", her first number-one single in the UK. Her popularity caused the film to be perceived as a Madonna vehicle, despite how she was not billed as a lead actress. The New York Times film critic Vincent Canby named it one of the ten best films of 1985. Beginning in April 1985, Madonna embarked on her first concert tour in North America, the Virgin Tour, with the Beastie Boys as her opening act. The tour saw the peak of Madonna wannabe phenomenon, with many female attendees dressing like her. At that time, she released two more hits, "Angel" and "Dress You Up", making all four singles from the album peak inside the top five on the Hot 100 chart. In July, Penthouse and Playboy magazines published a number of nude photos of Madonna, taken when she moonlighted as an art model in 1978. She had posed for the photographs because she needed money at the time, and was paid as little as \$25 a session. The publication of the photos caused a media uproar, but Madonna remained "unapologetic and defiant". The photographs were ultimately sold for up to \$100,000. She referred to these events at the 1985 outdoor Live Aid charity concert, saying that she would not take her jacket off because "[the media] might hold it against me ten years from now." In June 1986, Madonna released her third studio album, True Blue, which was inspired by and dedicated to her husband Penn. Rolling Stone was impressed with the effort, writing that the album "sound[s] as if it comes from the heart". Five singles were released—"Live to Tell", "Papa Don't Preach", "True Blue", "Open Your Heart", and "La Isla Bonita"—all of which reached number one in the U.S. or the UK. The album topped the charts in 28 countries worldwide, an unprecedented achievement at the time, and remains Madonna's bestselling studio album, with sales of 25 million copies. True Blue was featured in the 1992 edition of Guinness World Records as the bestselling album by a woman of all time. Madonna starred in the critically panned film Shanghai Surprise in 1986, for which she received her first Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress. She made her theatrical debut in a production of David Rabe's Goose and Tom-Tom; the film and play both co-starred Penn. The next year, Madonna was featured in the film Who's That Girl. She contributed four songs to its soundtrack, including the title track and "Causing a Commotion". Madonna embarked on the Who's That Girl World Tour in June 1987, which continued until September. It broke several attendance records, including over 130,000 people in a show near Paris, which was then a record for the highest-attended female concert of all time. Later that year, she released a remix album of past hits, You Can Dance, which reached number 14 on the Billboard 200. After a tumultuous two years' marriage, Madonna filed for divorce from Penn on December 4, 1987, but withdrew the petition a few weeks later. ### 1988–1991: Like a Prayer, Dick Tracy, and Truth or Dare She made her Broadway debut in the production of Speed-the-Plow at the Royale Theatre from May to August 1988. According to the Associated Press, Madonna filed an assault report against Penn after an alleged incident at their Malibu home during the New Year's weekend. Madonna filed for divorce on January 5, 1989, and the following week she reportedly asked that no criminal charges be pressed. In January 1989, Madonna signed an endorsement deal with soft-drink manufacturer Pepsi. In one Pepsi commercial, she debuted "Like a Prayer", the lead single and title track from her fourth studio album. The music video featured Catholic symbols such as stigmata and cross burning, and a dream of making love to a saint, leading the Vatican to condemn the video. Religious groups sought to ban the commercial and boycott Pepsi products. Pepsi revoked the commercial and canceled her sponsorship contract. "Like a Prayer" topped the charts in many countries, becoming her seventh number-one on the Hot 100. Madonna co-wrote and co-produced the album Like a Prayer with Patrick Leonard, Stephen Bray, and Prince. Music critic J. D. Considine from Rolling Stone praised it "as close to art as pop music gets ... proof not only that Madonna should be taken seriously as an artist but that hers is one of the most compelling voices of the Eighties." Like a Prayer peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 15 million copies worldwide. Other successful singles from the album were "Express Yourself" and "Cherish", which both peaked at number two in the US, as well as the UK top-five "Dear Jessie" and the U.S. top-ten "Keep It Together". By the end of the 1980s, Madonna was named as the "Artist of the Decade" by MTV, Billboard and Musician magazine. Madonna starred as Breathless Mahoney in the film Dick Tracy (1990), with Warren Beatty playing the title role. The film went to number one on the U.S. box office for two weeks and Madonna received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Actress. To accompany the film, she released the soundtrack album, I'm Breathless, which included songs inspired by the film's 1930s setting. It also featured the U.S. number-one song "Vogue" and "Sooner or Later". While shooting the film, Madonna began a relationship with Beatty, which dissolved shortly after the premiere. In April 1990, Madonna began her Blond Ambition World Tour, which ended in August. Rolling Stone called it an "elaborately choreographed, sexually provocative extravaganza" and proclaimed it "the best tour of 1990". The tour generated strong negative reaction from religious groups for her performance of "Like a Virgin", during which two male dancers caressed her body before she simulated masturbation. In response, Madonna said, "The tour in no way hurts anybody's sentiments. It's for open minds and gets them to see sexuality in a different way. Their own and others". The live recording of the tour won Madonna her first Grammy Award, in the category of Best Long Form Music Video. In October 1990, Madonna lent her voice to a Public Service Announcement (PSA) supporting Rock the Vote's efforts in voter registration. The Immaculate Collection, Madonna's first greatest-hits compilation album, was released in November 1990. It included two new songs, "Justify My Love" and "Rescue Me". The album was certified diamond by RIAA and sold over 30 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling compilation album by a solo artist in history. "Justify My Love" reached number one in the U.S. becoming her ninth number-one on the Hot 100. Her then-boyfriend model Tony Ward co-starred in the music video, which featured scenes of sadomasochism, bondage, same-sex kissing, and brief nudity. The video was deemed too sexually explicit for MTV and was banned from the network. Her first documentary film, Truth or Dare (known as In Bed with Madonna outside North America), was released in May 1991. Chronicling her Blond Ambition World Tour, it became the highest-grossing documentary of all time (surpassed eleven years later by Michael Moore's Bowling for Columbine). ### 1992–1997: Maverick, Erotica, Sex, Bedtime Stories, Evita, and motherhood In 1992, Madonna starred in A League of Their Own as Mae Mordabito, a baseball player on an all-women's team. It reached number one on the box-office and became the tenth-highest-grossing film of the year in the U.S. She recorded the film's theme song, "This Used to Be My Playground", which became her tenth number-one on the Billboard Hot 100, the most by any female artist at the time. In April, Madonna founded her own entertainment company, Maverick, consisting of a record company (Maverick Records), a film production company (Maverick Films), and associated music publishing, television broadcasting, book publishing and merchandising divisions. The deal was a joint venture with Time Warner and paid Madonna an advance of \$60 million. It gave her 20% royalties from the music proceedings, the highest rate in the industry at the time, equaled only by Michael Jackson's royalty rate established a year earlier with Sony. Her company later went on to become one of the most successful artist-run labels in history, producing multi-platinum artists such as Alanis Morissette and Michelle Branch. Later that year, Madonna co-sponsored the first museum retrospective for her former boyfriend Jean-Michel Basquiat at the Whitney Museum of American Art. In October 1992, Madonna simultaneously released her fifth studio album, Erotica, and her coffee table book, Sex. Consisting of sexually provocative and explicit images, photographed by Steven Meisel, the book received strong negative reaction from the media and the general public, but sold 1.5 million copies at \$50 each in a matter of days. The widespread backlash overshadowed Erotica, which ended up as her lowest selling album at the time. Despite positive reviews, it became her first studio album since her debut album not to score any chart-topper in the U.S. The album entered the Billboard 200 at number two and yielded the Hot 100 top-ten hits "Erotica" and "Deeper and Deeper". Madonna continued her provocative imagery in the 1993 erotic thriller, Body of Evidence, a film which contained scenes of sadomasochism and bondage. It was poorly received by critics. She also starred in the film Dangerous Game, which was released straight to video in North America. The New York Times described the film as "angry and painful, and the pain feels real." In September 1993, Madonna embarked on the Girlie Show, in which she dressed as a whip-cracking dominatrix surrounded by topless dancers. In Puerto Rico she rubbed the island's flag between her legs on stage, resulting in outrage among the audience. In March 1994, she appeared as a guest on the Late Show with David Letterman, using profanity that required censorship on television, and handing Letterman a pair of her panties and asking him to smell it. The releases of her sexually explicit book, album and film, and the aggressive appearance on Letterman all made critics question Madonna as a sexual renegade. Critics and fans reacted negatively, who commented that "she had gone too far" and that her career was over. Around this time, Madonna briefly dated basketball player Dennis Rodman and rapper Tupac Shakur. Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli described her ballad "I'll Remember" (1994) as an attempt to tone down her provocative image. The song was recorded for Alek Keshishian's 1994 film With Honors. She made a subdued appearance with Letterman at an awards show and appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno after realizing that she needed to change her musical direction in order to sustain her popularity. With her sixth studio album, Bedtime Stories (1994), Madonna employed a softer image to try to improve the public perception. The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 and generated two U.S. top-five hits, "Secret" and "Take a Bow", the latter topping the Hot 100 for seven weeks, the longest period of any Madonna single. Something to Remember, a collection of ballads, was released in November 1995. The album featured three new songs: "You'll See", "One More Chance", and a cover of Marvin Gaye's "I Want You". An enthusiastic collector of modern art, Madonna sponsored the first major retrospective of Tina Modotti's work at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in 1995. The following year, she sponsored an exhibition of Basquiat's paintings at the Serpentine Gallery in London. The following year, she sponsored artist Cindy Sherman's retrospective at the MoMA in New York. In February 1996, Madonna began filming the musical Evita in Argentina. For a long time, Madonna had desired to play Argentine political leader Eva Perón and wrote to director Alan Parker to explain why she would be perfect for the part. After securing the title role, she received vocal coaching and learned about the history of Argentina and Perón. During filming Madonna became ill several times, after finding out that she was pregnant, and from the intense emotional effort required with the scenes. Upon Evita's release in December 1996, Madonna's performance received praise from film critics. Zach Conner of Time magazine remarked, "It's a relief to say that Evita is pretty damn fine, well cast and handsomely visualized. Madonna once again confounds our expectations." For the role, she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. The Evita soundtrack, containing songs mostly performed by Madonna, was released as a double album. It included "You Must Love Me" and "Don't Cry for Me Argentina"; the latter reached number one in countries across Europe. Madonna was presented with the Artist Achievement Award by Tony Bennett at the 1996 Billboard Music Awards. On October 14, 1996, she gave birth to Lourdes "Lola" Maria Ciccone Leon, her daughter with fitness trainer Carlos Leon. Biographer Mary Cross writes that although Madonna often worried that her pregnancy would harm Evita, she reached some important personal goals: "Now 38 years old, Madonna had at last triumphed on screen and achieved her dream of having a child, both in the same year. She had reached another turning point in her career, reinventing herself and her image with the public." Her relationship with Carlos Leon ended in May 1997 and she declared that they were "better off as best friends". ### 1998–2002: Ray of Light, Music, second marriage, and touring comeback After Lourdes's birth, Madonna became involved in Eastern mysticism and Kabbalah, introduced to her by actress Sandra Bernhard. Her seventh studio album, Ray of Light, (1998) reflected this change in her perception and image. She collaborated with electronica producer William Orbit and wanted to create a sound that could blend dance music with pop and British rock. American music critic Ann Powers explained that what Madonna searched for with Orbit "was a kind of a lushness that she wanted for this record. Techno and rave were happening in the 90s and had a lot of different forms. There was very experimental, more hard stuff like Aphex Twin. There was party stuff like Fatboy Slim. That's not what Madonna wanted for this. She wanted something more like a singer-songwriter, really. And William Orbit provided her with that." The album garnered critical acclaim, with Slant Magazine calling it "one of the great pop masterpieces of the '90s" Ray of Light was honored with four Grammy Awards—including Best Pop Album and Best Dance Recording—and was nominated for both Album of the Year and Record of the Year. Rolling Stone listed it among "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". Commercially, the album peaked at number-one in numerous countries and sold more than 16 million copies worldwide. The album's lead single, "Frozen", became Madonna's first single to debut at number one in the UK, while in the U.S. it became her sixth number-two single, setting another record for Madonna as the artist with the most number-two hits. The second single, "Ray of Light", debuted at number five on the Billboard Hot 100. The 1998 edition of Guinness Book of World Records documented that "no female artist has sold more records than Madonna around the world". Madonna founded Ray of Light Foundation which focused on women, education, global development and humanitarian. She recorded the single "Beautiful Stranger" for the 1999 film Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me, which earned her a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. Madonna starred in the 2000 comedy-drama film The Next Best Thing, directed by John Schlesinger. The film opened at number two on the U.S. box office with \$5.9 million grossed in its first week, but this quickly diminished. She also contributed two songs to the film's soundtrack—a cover of Don McLean's 1971 song "American Pie" and an original song "Time Stood Still"—the former became her ninth UK number-one single. Madonna released her eighth studio album, Music, in September 2000. It featured elements from the electronica-inspired Ray of Light era, and like its predecessor, received acclaim from critics. Collaborating with French producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï, Madonna commented: "I love to work with the weirdos that no one knows about—the people who have raw talent and who are making music unlike anyone else out there. Music is the future of sound." Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt that "Music blows by in a kaleidoscopic rush of color, technique, style and substance. It has so many depth and layers that it's easily as self-aware and earnest as Ray of Light." The album took the number-one position in more than 20 countries worldwide and sold four million copies in the first ten days. In the U.S., Music debuted at the top, and became her first number-one album in eleven years since Like a Prayer. It produced three singles: the Hot 100 number-one "Music", "Don't Tell Me", and "What It Feels Like for a Girl". The music video of "What It Feels Like for a Girl" depicted Madonna committing acts of crime and vandalism, and was banned by MTV and VH1. Madonna met director Guy Ritchie in mid-1998, and gave birth to their son Rocco John Ritchie in Los Angeles on August 11, 2000. Rocco and Madonna suffered complications from the birth due to her experiencing placenta praevia. He was christened at Dornoch Cathedral in Dornoch, Scotland, on December 21, 2000. Madonna married Ritchie the following day at nearby Skibo Castle. After an eight-year absence from touring, Madonna started her Drowned World Tour in June 2001. The tour visited cities in the U.S. and Europe and was the highest-grossing concert tour of the year by a solo artist, earning \$75 million from 47 sold-out shows. She also released her second greatest-hits collection, GHV2, which compiled 15 singles during the second decade of her recording career. The album debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200 and sold seven million units worldwide. Madonna starred in the film Swept Away, directed by Ritchie. Released direct-to-video in the UK, the film was a commercial and critical failure. In May 2002 she appeared in London in the West End play Up for Grabs at the Wyndhams Theatre (billed as 'Madonna Ritchie'), to universally bad reviews and was described as "the evening's biggest disappointment" by one. That October, she released "Die Another Day", the title song of the James Bond film Die Another Day, in which she had a cameo role, described by Peter Bradshaw from The Guardian as "incredibly wooden". The song reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for both a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song. ### 2003–2006: American Life and Confessions on a Dance Floor In 2003, Madonna collaborated with fashion photographer Steven Klein for an exhibition installation named X-STaTIC Pro=CeSS, which ran from March to May in New York's Deitch Projects gallery and also traveled the world in an edited form. The same year, Madonna released her ninth studio album, American Life, which was based on her observations of American society. She explained that the record was "like a trip down memory lane, looking back at everything I've accomplished and all the things I once valued and all the things that were important to me." Larry Flick from The Advocate felt that "American Life is an album that is among her most adventurous and lyrically intelligent" while condemning it as "a lazy, half-arsed effort to sound and take her seriously." The original music video of its title track caused controversy due to its violence and anti-war imagery, and was withdrawn after the 2003 invasion of Iraq started. Madonna voluntarily censored herself for the first time in her career due to the political climate of the country, saying that "there was a lynch mob mentality that was going on that wasn't pretty and I have children to protect." The song stalled at number 37 on the Hot 100, while the album became her lowest-selling album at that point with four million copies worldwide. Madonna gave another provocative performance later that year at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards, when she kissed singers Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera while singing the track "Hollywood". In October 2003, she provided guest vocals on Spears' single "Me Against the Music". It was followed with the release of Remixed & Revisited. The EP contained remixed versions of songs from American Life and included "Your Honesty", a previously unreleased track from the Bedtime Stories recording sessions. Madonna also signed a contract with Callaway Arts & Entertainment to be the author of five children's books. The first of these books, titled The English Roses, was published in September 2003. The story was about four English schoolgirls and their envy and jealousy of each other. The book debuted at the top of The New York Times Best Seller list and became the fastest-selling children's picture book of all time. Madonna donated all of its proceeds to a children's charity. The next year Madonna and Maverick sued Warner Music Group and its former parent company Time Warner, claiming that mismanagement of resources and poor bookkeeping had cost the company millions of dollars. In return, Warner filed a countersuit alleging that Maverick had lost tens of millions of dollars on its own. The dispute was resolved when the Maverick shares, owned by Madonna and Ronnie Dashev, were purchased by Warner. Madonna and Dashev's company became a wholly-owned subsidiary of Warner Music, but Madonna was still signed to Warner under a separate recording contract. In mid-2004, Madonna embarked on the Re-Invention World Tour in the U.S., Canada, and Europe. It became the highest-grossing tour of 2004, earning around \$120 million and became the subject of her documentary I'm Going to Tell You a Secret. In November 2004, she was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame as one of its five founding members, along with the Beatles, Elvis Presley, Bob Marley, and U2. Rolling Stone ranked her at number 36 on its special issue of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time, featuring an article about her written by Britney Spears. In January 2005, Madonna performed a cover version of the John Lennon song "Imagine" at Tsunami Aid. She also performed at the Live 8 benefit concert in London in July 2005. Her tenth studio album, Confessions on a Dance Floor, was released in November 2005. Musically the album was structured like a club set composed by a DJ. It was acclaimed by critics, with Keith Caulfield from Billboard commenting that the album was a "welcome return to form for the Queen of Pop." The album won a Grammy Award for Best Electronic/Dance Album. Confessions on a Dance Floor and its lead single, "Hung Up", went on to reach number one in 40 and 41 countries respectively, earning a place in Guinness World Records. The song contained a sample of ABBA's "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", only the second time that ABBA has allowed their work to be used. ABBA songwriter Björn Ulvaeus remarked "It is a wonderful track—100 per cent solid pop music." "Sorry", the second single, became Madonna's twelfth number-one single in the UK. Madonna embarked on the Confessions Tour in May 2006, which had a global audience of 1.2 million and grossed over \$193.7 million, becoming the highest-grossing tour to that date for a female artist. Madonna used religious symbols, such as the crucifix and Crown of Thorns, in the performance of "Live to Tell". It caused the Russian Orthodox Church and the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia to urge all their members to boycott her concert. At the same time, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) announced officially that Madonna had sold over 200 million copies of her albums alone worldwide. While on tour Madonna founded charitable organization Raising Malawi and partially funded an orphanage in and traveling to that country. While there, she decided to adopt a boy named David Banda in October 2006. The adoption raised strong public reaction, because Malawian law requires would-be parents to reside in Malawi for one year before adopting, which Madonna did not do. She addressed this on The Oprah Winfrey Show, saying that there were no written adoption laws in Malawi that regulated foreign adoption. Madonna described how Banda had been suffering from pneumonia after surviving malaria and tuberculosis when they first met. Banda's biological father, Yohane, commented, "These so-called human rights activists are harassing me every day, threatening me that I am not aware of what I am doing ... They want me to support their court case, a thing I cannot do for I know what I agreed with Madonna and her husband." The adoption was finalized in May 2008. ### 2007–2011: Filmmaking, Hard Candy, and business ventures Madonna released and performed the song "Hey You" at the London Live Earth concert in July 2007. She announced her departure from Warner Bros. Records, and declared a new \$120 million, ten-year 360 deal with Live Nation. In 2008, Madonna produced and wrote I Am Because We Are, a documentary on the problems faced by Malawians; it was directed by Nathan Rissman, who worked as Madonna's gardener. She also directed her first film, Filth and Wisdom. The plot of the film revolved around three friends and their aspirations. The Times said she had "done herself proud" while The Daily Telegraph described the film as "not an entirely unpromising first effort [but] Madonna would do well to hang on to her day job." On March 10, 2008, Madonna was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in her first year of eligibility. She did not sing at the ceremony but asked fellow Hall of Fame inductees and Michigan natives the Stooges to perform her songs "Burning Up" and "Ray of Light". Madonna released her eleventh studio album, Hard Candy, in April 2008. Containing R&B and urban pop influences, the songs on Hard Candy were autobiographical in nature and saw Madonna collaborating with Justin Timberlake, Timbaland, Pharrell Williams and Nate "Danja" Hills. The album debuted at number one in 37 countries and on the Billboard 200. Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone complimented it as an "impressive taste of her upcoming tour", while BBC correspondent Mark Savage panned it as "an attempt to harness the urban market". "4 Minutes" was released as the album's lead single and peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100. It was Madonna's 37th top-ten hit on the chart and pushed her past Elvis Presley as the artist with the most top-ten hits. In the UK she retained her record for the most number-one singles for a female artist; "4 Minutes" becoming her thirteenth. At the 23rd Japan Gold Disc Awards, Madonna received her fifth Artist of the Year trophy from Recording Industry Association of Japan, the most for any artist. To further promote the album, she embarked on the Sticky & Sweet Tour, her first major venture with Live Nation. With a total gross of \$408 million, it ended up as the second highest-grossing tour of all time, behind the Rolling Stones's A Bigger Bang Tour. It remained the highest-grossing tour by a solo artist until Roger Waters' the Wall Live surpassed it in 2013. In July 2008, Christopher Ciccone released a book titled Life with My Sister Madonna, which caused a rift between Madonna and him, because of unsolicited publication. By fall, Madonna filed for divorce from Ritchie, citing irreconcilable differences. In December 2008, Madonna's spokesperson announced that Madonna had agreed to a divorce settlement with Ritchie, the terms of which granted him between £50–60 million (\$– million), a figure that included the couple's London pub and residence and Wiltshire estate in England. The marriage was dissolved by District Judge Reid by decree nisi at the clinical Principal Registry of the Family Division in High Holborn, London. They entered a compromise agreement for Rocco and David, then aged eight and three respectively, and divided the children's time between Ritchie's London home and Madonna's in New York, where the two were joined by Lourdes. Soon after, Madonna applied to adopt Chifundo "Mercy" James from Malawi in May 2009, but the country's High Court rejected the application because Madonna was not a resident there. She re-appealed, and on June 12, 2009, the Supreme Court of Malawi granted her the right to adopt Mercy. Madonna concluded her contract with Warner by releasing her third greatest-hits album, Celebration, in September 2009. It contained the new songs "Celebration" and "Revolver" along with 34 hits spanning her musical career with the label. Celebration reached number one in several countries, including Canada, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. She appeared at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards to speak in tribute to deceased pop singer Michael Jackson. Madonna ended the 2000s as the bestselling single artist of the decade in the U.S. and the most-played artist of the decade in the UK. Billboard also announced her as the third top-touring artist of the decade—behind only the Rolling Stones and U2—with a gross of over \$801 million, 6.3 million attendance and 244 sell-outs of 248 shows. Madonna performed at the Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief concert in January 2010. Her third live album, Sticky & Sweet Tour, was released in April, debuting at number ten on the Billboard 200. It also became her 20th top-ten on the Oricon Albums Chart, breaking the Beatles' record for the most top-ten album by an international act in Japan. Madonna granted American television show, Glee, the rights to her entire catalog of music, and the producers created an episode featuring her songs exclusively. She also collaborated with Lourdes and released the Material Girl clothing line, inspired by her punk-girl style when she rose to fame in the 1980s. In October, she opened a series of fitness centers around the world named Hard Candy Fitness, and three months later unveiled a second fashion brand called Truth or Dare which included footwear, perfumes, underclothing, and accessories. Madonna directed her second feature film, W.E., a biographical account about the affair between King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson. Co-written with Alek Keshishian, the film was premiered at the 68th Venice International Film Festival in September 2011. Critical and commercial response to the film was negative. Madonna contributed the ballad "Masterpiece" for the film's soundtrack, which won her a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. ### 2012–2017: Super Bowl XLVI halftime show, MDNA, and Rebel Heart In February 2012, Madonna headlined the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show at the Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana. Her performance was visualized by Cirque Du Soleil and Jamie King and featured special guests LMFAO, Nicki Minaj, M.I.A. and CeeLo Green. It became the then most-watched Super Bowl halftime show in history with 114 million viewers, higher than the game itself. During the event, she performed "Give Me All Your Luvin'", the lead single from her twelfth studio album, MDNA. It became her record-extending 38th top-ten single on the Billboard Hot 100. MDNA was released in March 2012 and saw collaboration with various producers, including William Orbit and Martin Solveig. It was her first release under her three-album deal with Interscope Records, which she signed as a part of her 360 deal with Live Nation. She was signed to the record label since Live Nation was unable to distribute music recordings. MDNA became Madonna's fifth consecutive studio record to debut at the top of the Billboard 200. The album was mostly promoted by the MDNA Tour, which lasted from May to December 2012. The tour featured controversial subjects such as violence, firearms, human rights, nudity and politics. With a gross of \$305.2 million from 88 sold-out shows, it became the highest-grossing tour of 2012 and then-tenth highest-grossing tour of all time. Madonna was named the top-earning celebrity of the year by Forbes, earning an estimated \$125 million. Madonna collaborated with Steven Klein and directed a 17-minute film, secretprojectrevolution, which was released on BitTorrent in September 2013. With the film she launched the Art for Freedom initiative, which helped to promote "art and free speech as a means to address persecution and injustice across the globe". The website for the project included over 3,000 art related submissions since its inception, with Madonna regularly monitoring and enlisting other artists like David Blaine and Katy Perry as guest curators. By 2013, Madonna's Raising Malawi had built ten schools to educate 4,000 children in Malawi at a value of \$400,000. When Madonna visited the schools in April 2013, President of Malawi Joyce Banda accused her of exaggerating the charity's contribution. Madonna was saddened by Banda's statement, but clarified that she had "no intention of being distracted by these ridiculous allegations". It was later confirmed that Banda had not approved the statement released by her press team. Madonna also visited her hometown Detroit during May 2014 and donated funds to help with the city's bankruptcy. The same year, her business ventures extended to skin care products with the launch of MDNA Skin in Tokyo, Japan. Madonna's thirteenth studio album, Rebel Heart, was released in March 2015, three months after its thirteen demos leaked onto the Internet. Unlike her previous efforts, which involved only a few people, Madonna worked with a large number of collaborators, including Avicii, Diplo and Kanye West. Introspection was listed as one of the foundational themes prevalent on the record, along with "genuine statements of personal and careerist reflection". Madonna explained to Jon Pareles of The New York Times that although she has never looked back at her past endeavors, reminiscing about it felt right for Rebel Heart. Music critics responded positively towards the album, calling it her best effort in a decade. From September 2015 to March 2016, Madonna embarked on the Rebel Heart Tour to promote the album. The tour traveled throughout North America, Europe and Asia and was Madonna's first visit to Australia in 23 years, where she also performed a one-off show for her fans. Rebel Heart Tour grossed a total of \$169.8 million from the 82 shows, with over 1.045 million ticket sales. While on tour, Madonna became engaged in a legal battle with Ritchie, over the custody of their son Rocco. The dispute started when Rocco decided to continue living in England with Ritchie when the tour had visited there, while Madonna wanted him to travel with her. Court hearings took place in both New York and London. After multiple deliberations, Madonna withdrew her application for custody and decided to resolve the matter privately. In October 2016, Billboard named Madonna its Woman of the Year. Her "blunt and brutally honest" speech about ageism and sexism at the ceremony received widespread coverage in the media. The next month Madonna, who actively supported Hillary Clinton during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, performed an impromptu acoustic concert at Washington Square Park in support of Clinton's campaign. Upset that Donald Trump won the election, Madonna spoke out against him at the Women's March on Washington, a day after his inauguration. She sparked controversy when she said that she "thought a lot about blowing up the White House". The following day, Madonna asserted she was "not a violent person" and that her words had been "taken wildly out of context". In February 2017, Madonna adopted four-year-old twin sisters from Malawi named Estere and Stella, and she moved to live in Lisbon, Portugal, in mid-2017 with her adoptive children. In July, she opened the Mercy James Institute for Pediatric Surgery and Intensive Care in Malawi, a children's hospital built by her Raising Malawi charity. The live album chronicling the Rebel Heart Tour was released in September 2017, and won Best Music Video for Western Artists at the 32nd Japan Gold Disc Award. That month, Madonna launched MDNA Skin in select stores in the United States. A few months earlier, the auction house Gotta Have Rock and Roll had put up Madonna's personal items like love letters from Tupac Shakur, cassettes, underwear and a hairbrush for sale. Darlene Lutz, an art dealer who had initiated the auction, was sued by Madonna's representatives to stop the proceedings. Madonna clarified that her celebrity status "does not obviate my right to maintain my privacy, including with regard to highly personal items". Madonna lost the case and the presiding judge ruled in favor of Lutz who was able to prove that in 2004 Madonna made a legal agreement with her for selling the items. ### 2018–present: Madame X, catalog reissues, and the Celebration Tour While living in Lisbon, Madonna met Dino D'Santiago, who introduced her to many local musicians playing fado, morna, and samba music. They regularly invited her to their "living room sessions", thus she was inspired to make her 14th studio album, Madame X. Madonna produced the album with several musicians, primarily her longtime collaborator Mirwais and Mike Dean. The album was critically well received, with NME deeming it "bold, bizarre, self-referential and unlike anything Madonna has ever done before." Released in June 2019, Madame X debuted atop the Billboard 200, becoming her ninth number-one album there. All four of its singles—"Medellín", "Crave", "I Rise", and "I Don't Search I Find"—topped the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart, extending her record for most number-one entries on the chart. The previous month, Madonna appeared as the interval act at the Eurovision Song Contest 2019 and performed "Like a Prayer", and then "Future" with rapper Quavo. Her Madame X Tour, an all-theatre tour in select cities across North America and Europe, began on September 17, 2019. In addition to much smaller venues compared to her previous tours, she implemented a no-phone policy in order to maximize the intimacy of the concert. According to Pollstar, the tour earned \$51.4 million in ticket sales. That December, Madonna started dating Ahlamalik Williams, a dancer who began accompanying her on the Rebel Heart Tour in 2015. However, the Madame X Tour faced several cancellations due to her recurring knee injury, and eventually ended abruptly on March 8, 2020, three days before its planned final date, after the French government banned gatherings of more than 1,000 people due to COVID-19 pandemic. She later admitted to testing positive for coronavirus antibodies, and donated \$1 million to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to help fund research creating a new vaccine. Madonna and Missy Elliott provided guest vocals on Dua Lipa's single "Levitating", from Lipa's 2020 remix album Club Future Nostalgia. She also started work on a film biopic about her life, which she intended to direct. Erin Cressida Wilson and Diablo Cody worked on the script at various points and Julia Garner was cast as Madonna before the project was postponed. Madonna released Madame X, a documentary film chronicling the tour of the same name, on Paramount+ in October 2021. On her 63rd birthday, she officially announced her return to Warner in a global partnership which grants the label her entire recorded music catalog, including the last three albums released under Interscope. Under the contract, Madonna launched a series of catalog reissues beginning in 2022, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of her recording career. A remix album titled Finally Enough Love: 50 Number Ones was released on August 19, with an 16-track abridged edition being available for streaming since June 24. Consisting of her 50 number-one songs on Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart, the remix album highlighted "how meaningful dance music has always been" to Madonna's career, and became her 23rd top-ten album on the Billboard 200. In September 2022, Madonna released "Hung Up on Tokischa", a remix of "Hung Up", featuring rapper Tokischa. The song utilizes dembow. On December 29, 2022, Madonna released the demo version of "Back That Up to the Beat" to all digital outlets. The song was originally recorded in 2015 sessions, with an alternative version being released on the deluxe 2-CD version of her 2019 Madame X album. In January 2023, Madonna announced the Celebration Tour, her first greatest hits concert tour, which will run from July 2023 to January 2024 with special guest Bob the Drag Queen. The following March, it was announced that she would collaborate on three songs of the Christine and the Queens album Paranoïa, Angels, True Love. On June 2, 2023, Madonna collaborated with The Weeknd and Playboi Carti on the single "Popular", which was taken from the soundtrack to the drama series The Idol. On June 24, 2023, Madonna was hospitalized after being found unresponsive in her New York City apartment. She was treated in the intensive care unit and was intubated. Madonna spent five days in the hospital to receive treatment for a "serious bacterial infection" following a low-grade fever. As a result, the initial North American leg of her Celebration Tour was postponed. ## Artistry ### Influences According to Taraborrelli, the death of her mother had the most influence in shaping Madonna into the woman she would become. He believed that the devastation and abandonment Madonna felt at the loss of her mother taught her "a valuable lesson, that she would have to remain strong for herself because, she feared weakness—particularly her own." Author Lucy O'Brien opines that the impact of the sexual assault Madonna suffered in her young adult years was the motivating factor behind everything she has done, more important than the death of her mother: "It's not so much grief at her mother's death that drives her, as the sense of abandonment that left her unprotected. She encountered her own worst possible scenario, becoming a victim of male violence, and thereafter turned that full-tilt into her work, reversing the equation at every opportunity." Madonna has called Nancy Sinatra one of her idols. She said Sinatra's "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" made a major impression on her. As a young woman, she attempted to broaden her taste in literature, art, and music, and during this time became interested in classical music. She noted that her favorite style was baroque, and loved Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Frédéric Chopin because she liked their "feminine quality". Madonna's major influences include Debbie Harry, Chrissie Hynde, Karen Carpenter, the Supremes and Led Zeppelin, as well as dancers Martha Graham and Rudolf Nureyev. She also grew up listening to David Bowie, whose show was the first rock concert she ever attended. During her childhood, Madonna was inspired by actors, later saying, "I loved Carole Lombard and Judy Holliday and Marilyn Monroe. They were all incredibly funny, and they were silly and sweet and they were girls and they were feminine and sexy. I just saw myself in them, my funniness and my need to boss people around and at the same time be taken care of. My girlishness. My knowingness and my innocence. Both." Her "Material Girl" music video recreated Monroe's look in the song "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend", from the film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953). She studied the screwball comedies of the 1930s, particularly those of Lombard, in preparation for the film Who's That Girl. The video for "Express Yourself" (1989) was inspired by Fritz Lang's silent film Metropolis (1927). The video for "Vogue" recreated the style of Hollywood glamour photographs, in particular those by Horst P. Horst, and imitated the poses of Marlene Dietrich, Carole Lombard, and Rita Hayworth, while the lyrics referred to many of the stars who had inspired her, including Bette Davis, described by Madonna as an idol. Influences also came to her from the art world, such as through the works of Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. The music video of the song "Bedtime Story" featured images inspired by the paintings of Kahlo and Remedios Varo. Madonna is also a collector of Tamara de Lempicka's Art Deco paintings and has included them in her music videos and tours. Her video for "Hollywood" (2003) was an homage to the work of photographer Guy Bourdin; Bourdin's son subsequently filed a lawsuit for unauthorized use of his father's work. Pop artist Andy Warhol's use of sadomasochistic imagery in his underground films were reflected in the music videos for "Erotica" and "Deeper and Deeper". Madonna's Catholic background has been reflected throughout her career, from her fashion use of rosary to her musical outputs, including on Like a Prayer (1989). Her album MDNA (2012) has also drawn many influences from her Catholic upbringing, and since 2011 she has been attending meetings and services at an Opus Dei center, a Catholic institution that encourages spirituality through everyday life. In a 2016 interview, she commented: "I always feel some kind of inexplicable connection with Catholicism. It kind of shows up in all of my work, as you may have noticed." Her study of the Kabbalah was also observed in Madonna's music, especially albums like Ray of Light and Music. Speaking of religion in a 2019 interview with Harry Smith of Today Madonna stated, "The God that I believe in, created the world ... He/Her/They [sic] isn't a God to fear, it's a God to give thanks to." In an appearance on Andrew Denton's Interview she added, "The idea that in any church you go, you see a man on a cross and everyone genuflects and prays to him ... in a way it's paganism/idolatry because people are worshipping a thing." ### Musical style and composition Madonna's music has been the subject of much analysis and scrutiny. Robert M. Grant, author of Contemporary Strategy Analysis (2005), commented that Madonna's musical career has been a continuous experimentation with new musical ideas and new images and a constant quest for new heights of fame and acclaim. Thomas Harrison in the book Pop Goes the Decade: The Eighties deemed Madonna "an artist who pushed the boundaries" of what a female singer could do, both visually and lyrically. Professor Santiago Fouz-Hernández asserted, "While not gifted with an especially powerful or wide-ranging voice, Madonna has worked to expand her artistic palette to encompass diverse musical, textual and visual styles and various vocal guises, all with the intention of presenting herself as a mature musician." Madonna has remained in charge in every aspect of her career, including as a writer and producer in most of her own music. Her desire for control had already been seen during the making of her debut album, where she fought Reggie Lucas over his production output. However, it was not until her third album that Warner allowed Madonna to produce her own album. Stan Hawkins, author of Settling the Pop Score explained, "it is as musician and producer that Madonna is one of the few female artists to have broken into the male domain of the recording studio. Undoubtedly, Madonna is fully aware that women have been excluded from the musical workplace on most levels, and has set out to change this." Producer Stuart Price stated: "You don't produce Madonna, you collaborate with her... She has her vision and knows how to get it." Despite being labeled a "control freak", Madonna has said that she valued input from her collaborators. She further explained: > I like to have control over most of the things in my career but I'm not a tyrant. I don't have to have it on my album that it's written, arranged, produced, directed, and stars Madonna. To me, to have total control means you can lose objectivity. What I like is to be surrounded by really, talented intelligent people that you can trust. And ask them for their advice and get their input. Madonna's early songwriting skill was developed during her time with the Breakfast Club in 1979. She subsequently became the sole writer of five songs on her debut album, including "Lucky Star" which she composed on synthesizer. As a songwriter, Madonna has registered more than 300 tracks to ASCAP, including 18 songs written entirely by herself. Rolling Stone has named her "an exemplary songwriter with a gift for hooks and indelible lyrics." Despite having worked with producers across many genres, the magazine noted that Madonna's compositions have been "consistently stamped with her own sensibility and inflected with autobiographical detail." Patrick Leonard, who co-wrote many of her hit songs, called Madonna "a helluva songwriter", explaining: "Her sensibility about melodic line—from the beginning of the verse to the end of the verse and how the verse and the chorus influence each other—is very deep. Many times she's singing notes that no one would've thought of but her." Barry Walters from Spin credited her songwriting as the reason of her musical consistency. Madonna has been nominated for being inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame three times. In 2015, Rolling Stone ranked Madonna at number 56 on the "100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time" list. Madonna's discography is generally categorized as pop, electronica, and dance. Nevertheless, Madonna's first foray into the music industry was dabbling in rock music with Breakfast Club and Emmy. As the frontwoman of Emmy, Madonna recorded about 12–14 songs that resemble the punk rock of that period. Madonna soon abandoned playing rock songs by the time she signed to Gotham Records, which eventually dropped her since they were unhappy with her new funk direction. According to Erlewine, Madonna began her career as a disco diva, in an era that did not have any such divas to speak of. In the beginning of the 1980s, disco was an anathema to the mainstream pop, and Madonna had a huge role in popularizing dance music as mainstream music. Arie Kaplan in the book American Pop: Hit Makers, Superstars, and Dance Revolutionaries referred to Madonna as "a pioneer" of dance-pop. According to Fouz-Hernández, "Madonna's frequent use of dance idioms and subsequent association with gay or sexually liberated audiences, is seen as somehow inferior to 'real' rock and roll. But Madonna's music refuses to be defined by narrow boundaries of gender, sexuality or anything else." The "cold and emotional" ballad "Live to Tell", as well as its parent album True Blue (1986), is noted as Madonna's first musical reinvention. PopMatters writer Peter Piatkowski described it as a "very deliberate effort to present Madonna as a mature and serious artist." She continued producing ballads in between her upbeat material, although albums such as Madonna (1983) and Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005) consist of entirely dance tracks. With Ray of Light (1998), critics acknowledged Madonna for bringing electronica from its underground status into massive popularity in mainstream music scene. Her other sonically drastic ventures include the 1930s big-band jazz on I'm Breathless (1990); lush R&B on Bedtime Stories (1994); operatic show tunes on Evita (1996); guitar-driven folk music on American Life (2003); as well as multilingual world music on Madame X (2019). ### Voice and instruments Possessing a mezzo-soprano vocal range, Madonna has always been self-conscious about her voice. Mark Bego, author of Madonna: Blonde Ambition, called her "the perfect vocalist for lighter-than-air songs", despite not being a "heavyweight talent". According to Tony Sclafani from MSNBC, "Madonna's vocals are the key to her rock roots. Pop vocalists usually sing songs 'straight', but Madonna employs subtext, irony, aggression and all sorts of vocal idiosyncrasies in the ways John Lennon and Bob Dylan did." Madonna used a bright, girlish vocal timbre in her early albums which became passé in her later works. The change was deliberate since she was constantly reminded of how the critics had once labeled her as "Minnie Mouse on helium". During the filming of Evita (1996), Madonna had to take vocal lessons, which increased her range further. Of this experience she commented, "I studied with a vocal coach for Evita and I realized there was a whole piece of my voice I wasn't using. Before, I just believed I had a really limited range and was going to make the most of it." Besides singing, Madonna has the ability to play several musical instruments. Piano was the first instrument taught to her as a child. In the late 1970s, she learned to play drum and guitar from her then-boyfriend Dan Gilroy, before joining the Breakfast Club lineup as the drummer. She later played guitar with the band Emmy as well as on her own demo recordings. After her career breakthrough, Madonna was absent performing with guitar for years, but she is credited for playing cowbell on Madonna (1983) and synthesizer on Like a Prayer (1989). In 1999, Madonna had studied for three months to play the violin for the role as a violin teacher in the film Music of the Heart, but she eventually left the project before filming began. Madonna decided to perform with guitar again during the promotion of Music (2000) and recruited guitarist Monte Pittman to help improve her skill. Since then, Madonna has played guitar on every tour, as well as her studio albums. She received a nomination for Les Paul Horizon Award at the 2002 Orville H. Gibson Guitar Awards. ### Music videos and performances In The Madonna Companion, biographers Allen Metz and Carol Benson noted that Madonna had used MTV and music videos to establish her popularity and enhance her recorded work more than any other recent pop artist. According to them, many of her songs have the imagery of the music video in strong context, while referring to the music. Cultural critic Mark C. Taylor in his book Nots (1993) felt that the postmodern art form par excellence is the video and the reigning "queen of video" is Madonna. He further asserted that "the most remarkable creation of MTV is Madonna. The responses to Madonna's excessively provocative videos have been predictably contradictory." The media and public reaction towards her most-discussed songs such as "Papa Don't Preach", "Like a Prayer", or "Justify My Love" had to do with the music videos created to promote the songs and their impact, rather than the songs themselves. Morton felt that "artistically, Madonna's songwriting is often overshadowed by her striking pop videos." In 2003, MTV named her "The Greatest Music Video Star Ever" and said that "Madonna's innovation, creativity, and contribution to the music video art form is what won her the award." In 2020, Billboard ranked her atop the 100 Greatest Music Video Artists of All Time. Madonna's initial music videos reflected her American and Hispanic mixed street style combined with a flamboyant glamor. She was able to transmit her avant-garde Downtown Manhattan fashion sense to the American audience. The imagery and incorporation of Hispanic culture and Catholic symbolism continued with the music videos from the True Blue era. Author Douglas Kellner noted, "such 'multiculturalism' and her culturally transgressive moves turned out to be highly successful moves that endeared her to large and varied youth audiences." Madonna's Spanish look in the videos became the fashion trend of that time, in the form of boleros and layered skirts, accessorizing with rosary beads and a crucifix as in the video of "La Isla Bonita". Academics noted that with her videos, Madonna was subtly reversing the usual role of male as the dominant sex. This symbolism and imagery was probably the most prevalent in the music video for "Like a Prayer". The video included scenes of an African-American church choir, Madonna being attracted to a black saint statue, and singing in front of burning crosses. Madonna's acting performances in films have frequently received poor reviews from film critics. Stephanie Zacharek stated in Time that, "[Madonna] seems wooden and unnatural as an actress, and it's tough to watch because she's clearly trying her damnedest." According to biographer Andrew Morton, "Madonna puts a brave face on the criticism, but privately she is deeply hurt." After the critically panned box-office bomb Swept Away (2002), Madonna vowed never to act again in a film. While reviewing her career retrospective titled Body of Work (2016) at New York's Metrograph hall, The Guardian's Nigel M. Smith wrote that Madonna's film career suffered mostly due to lack of proper material supplied to her, and she otherwise "could steal a scene for all the right reasons". Metz noted that Madonna represents a paradox as she is often perceived as living her whole life as a performance. While her big-screen performances are panned, her live performances are critical successes. Madonna was the first artist to have her concert tours as reenactments of her music videos. Author Elin Diamond explained that reciprocally, the fact that images from Madonna's videos can be recreated in a live setting enhances the original videos' realism. She believed that "her live performances have become the means by which mediatized representations are naturalized". Taraborrelli said that encompassing multimedia, latest technology and sound systems, Madonna's concerts and live performances are "extravagant show piece[s], [and] walking art show[s]." Chris Nelson from The New York Times commented that "artists like Madonna and Janet Jackson set new standards for showmanship, with concerts that included not only elaborate costumes and precision-timed pyrotechnics but also highly athletic dancing. These effects came at the expense of live singing." Thor Christensen of The Dallas Morning News commented that while Madonna earned a reputation for lip-syncing during her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour, she has subsequently reorganized her performances by "stay[ing] mostly still during her toughest singing parts and [leaves] the dance routines to her backup troupe ... [r]ather than try to croon and dance up a storm at the same time." To allow for greater movement while dancing and singing, Madonna was one of the earliest adopters of hands-free radio-frequency headset microphones, with the headset fastened over the ears or the top of the head, and the microphone capsule on a boom arm that extended to the mouth. Because of her prominent usage, the microphone design came to be known as the "Madonna mic". ## Legacy Madonna has built a legacy that transcends music and has been studied by sociologists, historians, and other scholars, contributing to the rise of Madonna studies, a subfield of American cultural studies. According to Rodrigo Fresán, "saying that Madonna is just a pop star is as inappropriate as saying that Coca-Cola is just a soda. Madonna is one of the classic symbols of Made in USA." Rolling Stone Spain wrote, "She became the first master of viral pop in history, years before the internet was massively used. Madonna was everywhere; in the almighty music television channels, 'radio formulas', magazine covers and even in bookstores. A pop dialectic, never seen since the Beatles's reign, which allowed her to keep on the edge of trend and commerciality." William Langley from The Daily Telegraph felt that "Madonna has changed the world's social history, has done more things as more different people than anyone else is ever likely to." Professor Diane Pecknold noted that "nearly any poll of the biggest, greatest, or best in popular culture includes [Madonna's] name". In 2012, VH1 ranked Madonna as the greatest woman in music. Spin writer Bianca Gracie stated that "the 'Queen of Pop' isn't enough to describe Madonna—she is Pop. [She] formulated the blueprint of what a pop star should be." According to Sclafani, "It's worth noting that before Madonna, most music mega-stars were guy rockers; after her, almost all would be female singers ... When the Beatles hit America, they changed the paradigm of performer from solo act to band. Madonna changed it back—with an emphasis on the female." Howard Kramer, curatorial director of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, asserted that "Madonna and the career she carved out for herself made possible virtually every other female pop singer to follow ... She certainly raised the standards of all of them ... She redefined what the parameters were for female performers." Andy Bennett and Steve Waksman, authors of The SAGE Handbook of Popular Music (2014), noted that "almost all female pop stars of recent years—Britney Spears, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Katy Perry, Lady Gaga, and others—acknowledge the important influence of Madonna on their own careers." Madonna has also influenced male artists, inspiring rock frontmen Liam Gallagher of Oasis and Chester Bennington of Linkin Park to become musicians. Madonna's use of sexual imagery has benefited her career and catalyzed public discourse on sexuality and feminism. The Times wrote that she had "started a revolution amongst women in music ... Her attitudes and opinions on sex, nudity, style, and sexuality forced the public to sit up and take notice." Professor John Fiske noted that the sense of empowerment that Madonna offers is inextricably connected with the pleasure of exerting some control over the meanings of self, of sexuality, and of one's social relations. In Doing Gender in Media, Art and Culture (2009), the authors noted that Madonna, as a female celebrity, performer, and pop icon, can unsettle standing feminist reflections and debates. According to lesbian feminist Sheila Jeffreys, Madonna represents woman's occupancy of what Monique Wittig calls the category of sex, as powerful, and appears to gleefully embrace the performance of the sexual corvée allotted to women. Professor Sut Jhally has referred to her as "an almost sacred feminist icon". Writing for The Guardian, Matt Cain stated that Madonna has "broke[n] down social barriers" and brought marginalized groups to the forefront, by frequently featuring LGBT, Latino, and black culture in her works. An author said that "by making culture generally available, Madonna becomes the culture of all social classes". Canadian professor Karlene Faith gave her point of view saying that Madonna's peculiarity is that "she has cruised so freely through so many cultural terrains" and she "has been a 'cult figure' within self-propelling subcultures just as she became a major." GLAAD president Sarah Kate Ellis stated that Madonna "always has and always will be the LGBTQ community's greatest ally," while The Advocate dubbed her as "the greatest gay icon". Madonna has received acclaim as a role model for businesswomen, "achieving the kind of financial control that women had long fought for within the industry", and generating over \$1.2 billion in sales within the first decade of her career. According to Gini Gorlinski in the book The 100 Most Influential Musicians of All Time (2010), Madonna's levels of power and control were "unprecedented" for a woman in the entertainment industry. London Business School academics called her a "dynamic entrepreneur" worth copying; they identified her vision of success, her understanding of the music industry, her ability to recognize her own performance limits (and thus bring in help), her willingness to work hard and her ability to adapt as the keys to her commercial success. Morton wrote that "Madonna is opportunistic, manipulative, and ruthless—somebody who won't stop until she gets what she wants—and that's something you can get at the expense of maybe losing your close ones. But that hardly mattered to her." ## Awards and achievements Madonna's net worth is estimated between US\$590 million to \$800 million. Forbes has named her the annual top-earning female musician 11 times across the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. She has sold over 300 million records worldwide. The Guinness World Records acknowledged her as the bestselling female music artist of all time. According to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), she is the bestselling female rock artist of the 20th century and the third highest-certified female albums artist in the United States, with 65.5 million certified album units. She has the most RIAA multi-platinum albums by a female artist, with 12 releases (tying with Barbra Streisand). Madonna had generated over US\$1.5 billion from ticket sales of her concert tours throughout her career. According to Billboard Boxscore, she is the highest-grossing female touring artist of all time, grossing over \$1.376 billion between 1990 and 2020. Madonna also remains the only woman in history to have two solo concerts with 100,000 sold tickets; her Who's That Girl World Tour's concert in Parc de Sceaux, Paris, drew over 130,000 audience, while her Girlie Show's concert in Maracanã Stadium, Rio de Janeiro, drew over 120,000 audience. She has also won seven Grammy Awards and twenty MTV Video Music Awards, including the 1986 Video Vanguard Award for which she became the first female recipient. According to Billboard, Madonna is the most successful solo artist in the Hot 100 chart history (second overall behind the Beatles) and the most successful dance club artist of all time. With a total of 50 Dance Club Songs chart-toppers, Madonna became the artist with the most number ones on any singular Billboard chart, pulling ahead of George Strait with 44 number-one songs on the Hot Country Songs chart. She has also scored 38 top-ten singles on the Hot 100; she held the record among all artists for nearly two decades (between 2002 and 2020), before being overtaken by Drake and by Taylor Swift in 2022 among females. Internationally, Madonna holds the record for the most number-one singles by a female artist in Australia (11), Canada (25), Italy (23), Finland (7), Spain (21), and the United Kingdom (13). At the 40th anniversary of the GfK Media Control Charts, Madonna was ranked as the most successful singles artist in German chart history. ## Discography - Madonna (1983) - Like a Virgin (1984) - True Blue (1986) - Like a Prayer (1989) - Erotica (1992) - Bedtime Stories (1994) - Ray of Light (1998) - Music (2000) - American Life (2003) - Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005) - Hard Candy (2008) - MDNA (2012) - Rebel Heart (2015) - Madame X (2019) ## Filmography Films starred - Desperately Seeking Susan (1985) - A Certain Sacrifice (1985) - Shanghai Surprise (1986) - Who's That Girl (1987) - Bloodhounds of Broadway (1989) - Dick Tracy (1990) - Madonna: Truth or Dare (1991) - A League of Their Own (1992) - Body of Evidence (1993) - Dangerous Game (1993) - Four Rooms (1995) - Evita (1996) - The Next Best Thing (2000) - Swept Away (2002) - I'm Going to Tell You a Secret (2005) - Arthur and the Invisibles (2006) - Madame X (2021) Films directed - Filth and Wisdom (2008) - W.E. (2011) ## Tours - The Virgin Tour (1985) - Who's That Girl World Tour (1987) - Blond Ambition World Tour (1990) - The Girlie Show (1993) - Drowned World Tour (2001) - Re-Invention World Tour (2004) - Confessions Tour (2006) - Sticky & Sweet Tour (2008–2009) - The MDNA Tour (2012) - Rebel Heart Tour (2015–2016) - Madame X Tour (2019–2020) - The Celebration Tour (2023–2024) ## Enterprises - Boy Toy, Inc - Siren Films - Slutco - Webo Girl Publishing, Inc (1992) - Maverick (1992–2004) - Ray of Light Foundation (1998) - Raising Malawi (2006) - Hard Candy Fitness (2010–2019) - Truth or Dare by Madonna (2011–2018) ## See also - Forbes Celebrity 100 - Forbes Top 40 - List of dancers - List of most expensive divorces - List of organisms named after famous people (born 1950–present) - List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees - Philanthropy and activism of Madonna
926,689	Bobby Dodd	1,168,602,426	American football coach, player, and athletic director	[ "1908 births", "1988 deaths", "All-Southern college football players", "American football halfbacks", "American football punters", "American football quarterbacks", "Baseball coaches from Tennessee", "Baseball players from Tennessee", "Basketball players from Tennessee", "Coaches of American football from Tennessee", "College Football Hall of Fame inductees", "Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets athletic directors", "Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets baseball coaches", "Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football coaches", "People from Galax, Virginia", "People from Kingsport, Tennessee", "Players of American football from Tennessee", "Tennessee Volunteers baseball players", "Tennessee Volunteers basketball players", "Tennessee Volunteers football players", "Tennessee Volunteers men's track and field athletes", "Track and field athletes from Tennessee" ]	Robert Lee Dodd (November 11, 1908 – June 21, 1988) was an American college football player and coach, college baseball coach, and college athletics administrator. He served as the head football coach at Georgia Tech from 1945 to 1966, compiling a record of 165–64–8. His teams won consecutive Southeastern Conference (SEC) title in 1951 and 1952, and his 1952 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team won the 1953 Sugar Bowl and was recognized as a national champion by a number of selectors though they finished second behind Michigan State in both major polls. Dodd was also Georgia Tech's head baseball coach from 1932 to 1939, tallying a mark of 43–64–2, and the school's athletic director from 1950 until 1976. All together, Dodd served Georgia Tech 57 years in various capacities. Dodd starred as quarterback at the University of Tennessee, playing for teams coached by Robert Neyland from 1928 to 1930. He also lettered in baseball, basketball, and track at Tennessee. He was a member of Sigma Nu Fraternity. Dodd began his coaching career at Georgia Tech, working as an assistant under William Alexander from 1931 until succeeding Alexander as head football coach in 1945. Dodd was inducted to the College Football Hall of Fame as a player in 1959 and a coach in 1993. He is one of four individuals to be so honored, along with Amos Alonzo Stagg, Bowden Wyatt, and Steve Spurrier. ## Early life Robert Lee "Bobby" Dodd was born in 1908 in Galax, Virginia. He was named after Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Dodd was the youngest of Edwin and Susan Dodd's four children. In the fall of 1921, the Dodd family relocated to Kingsport, Tennessee. When Dodd was twelve and weighed only 100 pounds, he made the seventh-grade team of Kingsport's first organized football program. During the next three seasons, the Kingsport Indians were very successful, gaining two state titles. They were helped by Dodd, who moved from end to quarterback and kicker. Dodd is in the school's hall of fame. However, the happiness of Bobby Dodd's early life came to a sad end in 1924 when his father committed suicide due to business failure and financial troubles. The family was forced to move, but was held together by the perseverance of Dodd's mother. In 1926, Bobby Dodd graduated and was admitted to the University of Tennessee with a football scholarship. Dodd wanted to play for Georgia Tech but was not offered a scholarship. ## Player at Tennessee Dodd played college football as a quarterback, tailback, and punter for the Tennessee Volunteers football team from 1928 to 1930, under head coach Robert Neyland. He also won varsity letters in baseball, basketball, and track during his time at Tennessee. Dodd stood 6'1", weighed 170 pounds, and on the football team wore number 17. In the games that Dodd started at Tennessee, the Vols held a record of 27–1–2. He led Tennessee to back-to-back unbeaten seasons with identical 9–0–1 records his sophomore and junior years, leading the "Hack and Mack" backfield of Buddy Hackman and Gene McEver. Tennessee fans even developed a catch phrase for Dodd during his time there: "In Dodd we trust". Dodd twice earned All-Southern honors, in his junior and senior years. "It is doubtful if any quarterback in the south can match Dodd on all-around ability. He is a fine passer, a punter of ability, and the greatest field general to ever grace southern turf since the days of the one and only Pooley Hubert", according to one newspaper article of this era. In 1959, Dodd was named to the University of Tennessee's Hall of Fame and to the College Football Hall of Fame as a player. He was elected in the same year as teammate Herman Hickman. He was nominated though not selected for an Associated Press All-Time Southeast 1920–1969 era team. ### 1928 During his sophomore year, his first year on the varsity, Dodd was the difference in the rivalry game against Alabama in Tuscaloosa, "Dodd threw a touchdown pass in that game to tie Alabama, 13–13. Then he punted out of bounds inside the Alabama 1-yard line and Tennessee got a safety on the next play to win, 15–13." To close the season, Dodd led the Vols to a victory in the mud over previously undefeated Florida, replacing the injured starter Roy Witt. ### 1929–1930 The Vols went 33 games without a loss until an 18–6 setback against national champion Alabama in 1930, which ranks as the longest unbeaten streak in UT history. After the loss, Dodd and his teammates helped start a 28-game unbeaten streak that ranks as the second longest. "The Dodger" again showed his versatility in a 13–0 win against Vanderbilt. Dodd finished with 14 punts with a 42-yard average, had nine carries for 39 yards, was 7-of-12 passing for 159 yards and two touchdowns and intercepted two passes. During that game, Dodd gained 212 all-purpose yards, collecting all but 14 of Tennessee's team total of 226. Another instance in Dodd's career foreshadowed the creativity he would use in his coaching career. > "Against Florida in 1930 he got his teammates in a huddle and told them about a play he had used in high school. When the ball was snapped, it was placed on the ground unattended. The players ran in one direction. Then the center returned, picked up the ball, and waltzed to the winning touchdown." The Vols finished the 1930 season with a 9–1 record. Dodd was named to Grantland Rice's All-American team in 1930, making him the second ever granted that honor at Tennessee (following Gene McEver). ## Coach and athletic director at Georgia Tech After being recognized as 1928 national champions, the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team struggled during the next two seasons. Georgia Tech football coach William Alexander began looking for a new assistant. During the 1930 football season, Alexander sent his line coach, Mack Tharpe, to scout future opponent North Carolina, playing Tennessee in Knoxville. Tharpe's car broke down and by the time he reached Knoxville, the game was over. Tharpe asked Tennessee head coach Bob Neyland for information, who suggested that he talk to Dodd. When Tharpe returned to Atlanta he told Alexander: "Dodd's analysis of Carolina is better than any scouting report that I could have made." Tech managed to tie the Tar Heels. ### Assistant (1931–1944) Alexander was also impressed by reports of Dodd's performance during games. On December 27, 1930, Dodd signed a contract to join Alexander's staff as backfield coach for the 1931 season. Dodd served as an assistant coach at Tech for 14 years, even though he received many offers for head coaching positions from other schools during that time frame. Dodd lionized Coach Alexander which was later reflected in his coaching style. "He taught me to treat athletes as men, not boys – to never use their failings as an alibi for a loss", Dodd said. ### Head coach (1945–1966) Dodd took over the Georgia Tech football program with the late president Blake Van Leer's support in 1945 following Coach Alexander's retirement as head football coach. Dodd's coaching philosophy revolved around player treatment and character development. He did not believe in intense physical practices but rather precise and well executed practices. Dodd's philosophy translated to winning; he set the record for career wins at Tech with 165, including a 31-game unbeaten streak from 1951–1953. He also managed to capture two Southeastern Conference (SEC) championships (1951 and 1952) and the 1952 national title, which concluded a perfect 12–0 season and Sugar Bowl conquest of Ole Miss. Under Dodd's leadership, Tech played in 13 major bowl games, winning 9, including six in a row. Bobby Dodd compiled a 165–64–8 record as head coach at Georgia Tech. Football was Dodd's lifelong passion, but at Tech he was just as obsessed with the notion that his players should get an education as he was with teaching them how to play football. Other coaches and sportswriters of his era were united in their puzzlement that anyone could coach with such a light hand and still win so many games. However, Coach Dodd knew that his "Books First" reputation caused parents to favor Georgia Tech over his competition. Georgia Tech football was Atlanta's one major sports franchise during this time frame. To hold a ticket to watch the Yellow Jackets play was highly valued and was difficult to obtain. During the games, Bobby Dodd sat in a folding chair at a card table on the side line, rarely standing or showing interest in the game. Dodd took his seat and left the pacing to his assistants. When a crisis arose, Dodd would decide which plays to be run and the designated players to run them. Dodd sometimes made unusual substitutions, as in the 1952 game against Georgia, when Georgia Tech seemed about to be upset. Dodd sent in a small halfback who had been frequently injured during his career, who then broke to the right faking a run, stopped, threw a pass for a touchdown and returned to the bench. What Dodd brought to Grant Field was a kind of unbruising football other coaches couldn't understand: runty halfbacks; lightweight linemen; rarely a classic quarterback. Once free substitution became possible, no one made more use of it than Dodd. #### Rivalries ##### Alabama Georgia Tech had an intense rivalry with the University of Alabama which ended during Bobby Dodd's tenure as head football coach. Until that time, the matchup between the Crimson Tide and the Yellow Jackets was a fall football classic. The two teams have met on the gridiron a total of 52 times with Georgia Tech coming away victorious in 21 of those matchups, with 3 ties. Bobby Dodd's football teams won 7 of 17 games played against Alabama. The contests were annual events until Georgia Tech withdrew from the SEC. Dodd considered his two biggest victories to have come against Alabama, including a 7–3 victory in 1952 and a 7–6 victory in 1962. The former victory secured a perfect season for Georgia Tech which led to a national title. The latter victory came against a top ranked Alabama team and cost the Crimson Tide another national title. Alabama head coach Bear Bryant once said that he would rather look across the field and see anyone other than Bobby Dodd. ##### Georgia Dodd also understood the deep-seated rivalry with the Georgia Bulldogs. His teams won eight games in a row over Georgia from 1949 to 1956, outscoring the Bulldogs 176–39. This 8–game winning streak is still the longest winning streak for either side in the series and commonly referred to as "The Drought" by UGA football fans. Dodd finish his career with a 12–10 record against the Bulldogs. #### "Dodd's luck" By the end of his coaching career, Dodd had built a reputation not only as a good coach, but also as a lucky one. Georgia Tech often played teams that were physically superior but Bobby Dodd would still find a way to win. The experts called it "Dodd's luck", but his success actually came from an understanding of motivational psychology, football strategy, and innovative game-planning. University of Georgia's longtime football coach Wallace Butts once said "If Bobby Dodd were trapped in the center of an H-Bomb explosion, he'd walk away with his pockets full of marketable uranium." However, the following describes Dodd's perspective regarding his luck: > Lucky. Bet your life I am lucky. I'm lucky and so are my teams. It's a habit. You know, if you think you're lucky you are. ### Athletic director (1950–1976) In 1967, Dodd stepped down as head football coach due to health concerns, and he was succeeded by assistant Bud Carson. Dodd simply retained his athletic director position, which he had acquired in 1950 from William Alexander. Dodd retired as athletic director in 1976 and was followed in the position by Doug Weaver. Dodd continued to serve during his retirement years as an Alumni Association consultant and as a fundraiser for Georgia Tech. In 1983, he expressed interest in running a United States Football League team if Atlanta were awarded one, but the league folded before Atlanta received a team. ### Legacy Dodd was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a player in 1959 and as a coach in 1993. He was voted Southeastern Conference Coach of the Year by his fellow coaches in 1951, and "National Coach of the Year" by the New York Daily News poll in 1952. After retiring, he was awarded a special "Citation of Honor" by the Football Writers Association of America for his accomplishments and contributions to football. Dodd also developed 22 recognized All-America football players as head football coach. Dodd was also inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame in 1973. Coach Dodd has also received honors not related to football. The Bobby Dodd Institute is an organization that helps people with disabilities; it is named in honor of Coach Dodd for his assistance to the disabled. #### Bobby Dodd Stadium Georgia Tech named its stadium Bobby Dodd Stadium in honor of the legendary coach in April 1988, two months before he died. In 1989 part of Third Street located next to Bobby Dodd Stadium was rechristened Bobby Dodd Way. On Friday September 14, 2012, Georgia Tech provided another honor for the former coach by unveiling the Bobby Dodd statue in Callaway Plaza on the Georgia Tech campus, which was funded by former players for Coach Dodd. In attendance for the unveiling were the athletic director, members of the 1952 national championship squad, President of the Institute Bud Peterson, Head Coach Paul Johnson, and Bobby Dodd's son and daughter. #### Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award While Bobby Dodd was a determined competitor, he cared deeply for those who played for him. Unlike some other coaches, he did not believe in winning at any costs; he truly believed that the most important aspect of college football was the college football player. As a testament to the character of Bobby Dodd, each year a Division I college coach whose team excels on the field, in the classroom, and in the community is awarded the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award, presented by the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Foundation. #### Georgia Tech's withdrawal from SEC Dodd's tenure included Georgia Tech's withdrawal from the Southeastern Conference (SEC) after the 1963 season. ##### Feud with Bear Bryant The initial spark for Dodd's withdrawal was a historic feud with Alabama Crimson Tide coach Bear Bryant. The feud began when Tech was playing the Tide at Legion Field in Birmingham in 1961. After a Tech punt, Alabama fair-caught the ball. Chick Graning of Tech was playing coverage and relaxed after the signal for the fair catch. Darwin Holt of Alabama continued play and smashed his elbow into Graning's face, causing severe fracturing in his face, a broken nose, and blood-filled sinuses. Graning was knocked unconscious and suffered a severe concussion, the result of which left him unable to play football again. Dodd sent Bryant a letter asking Bryant to suspend Holt after game film indicated Holt had intentionally injured Graning; but Bryant never suspended Holt. The lack of discipline infuriated Dodd and sparked Dodd's interest in withdrawing from the SEC. (Georgia Tech lost that game 10–0, and Alabama went on to win its first Associated Press national championship.) ##### Over-recruitment Another issue of concern for Dodd was Alabama's and other SEC schools' over-recruitment of players. Universities would recruit more players than available space on their rosters. During the summer the teams in question would cut the players well after signing day. This practice prevented the cut players from being able to play for other colleges during the following football season. Dodd appealed to the SEC administration to punish the "tryout camps" of his fellow SEC members but the SEC did not. Finally, Dodd withdrew Georgia Tech from the SEC after the 1963 football season. Tech would remain an independent like Notre Dame and Penn State (at the time) during the final three years of Dodd's coaching tenure. Dodd insisted the only reason he left the SEC was due to the "140 Rule", which allowed colleges to over-recruit. The 140 Rule stated a college program could only have 140 football and basketball players on scholarship at any one time, but the teams were still allowed to sign up to 45 players a year. Therefore, if a school recruited its full allotment of players each year it would exceed the 140 maximum even with normal attrition. Dodd would sign about 30–32 football players a year to meet the guidelines, but the other schools in the SEC were offering 45 scholarships a year, and most were allotting all but a nominal amount to football. Players not good enough to fall under the 140 Rule had their scholarships withdrawn before the end of each year by the other schools. Dodd insisted the recruiting of athletes by this method amounted to nothing more than a tryout for a scholarship. Dodd would not allow any of the football players choosing Tech to be dismissed from Tech, just because they were not the best players. Dodd said, "It is not the recruit's fault for not making the squad, it was the coaches' fault for misjudging their talents." If a recruit came to Tech, he would stay on a football scholarship until he graduated. Dodd wanted the SEC to limit the amount of scholarships to about 32 per year, which would keep the other schools from offering 45 scholarships, picking the best, and withdrawing scholarships from the rest. A vote was to be taken by the presidents of the colleges on the issue, and Dodd made it clear that Tech would leave the SEC unless the rule was changed. Bear had promised Dodd he would get his president to vote for Dodd's position, which would have changed the rule; when the meeting was held on January 24, 1964, the Alabama president voted against Dodd's position and the 140 Rule was upheld when the presidents split 6–6. Tech's president immediately walked to the podium and announced Tech was withdrawing from the SEC. #### Integration During Bobby Dodd's tenure, Georgia Tech played against several integrated football teams while the South was resisting integration. Georgia Tech played against Notre Dame in 1953 with Wayne Edmonds starting at offensive tackle and defensive end for the Irish. Edmonds was the first black player to win a monogram at Notre Dame. Georgia Tech lost to Notre Dame 27–14. Georgia Tech also participated in the first integrated bowl game in the Deep South. The 1956 Sugar Bowl featured the 7th ranked Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets, and the 11th ranked Pitt Panthers. There was controversy over whether Bobby Grier from Pitt should be allowed to play because he was black, and whether Georgia Tech should even play at all due to Georgia governor Marvin Griffin's opposition to integration. Governor Griffin threatened Tech's Blake R. Van Leer publicly after he let the game go forward. Dodd would back Van Leer's decision as well. Ultimately, Bobby Grier played, which made the game the first integrated Sugar Bowl and the first integrated bowl game in the Deep South. Georgia Tech won the 1956 Sugar Bowl by the score 7–0. As athletic director Dodd oversaw the integration of Georgia Tech's football team. Eddie McAshan was the first African American football player to start for Georgia Tech. Bud Carson started McAshan in 1970 at quarterback as a sophomore and McAshan would go on to set several career records for Georgia Tech (which have since been broken by Shawn Jones and Joe Hamilton). McAshan's first career start was on September 12, 1970 against South Carolina. His start marked the first time that an African American had ever started at quarterback for a major Southeastern university and McAshan did not disappoint. He rallied Tech from a fourth-quarter deficit, defeating the Gamecocks 23–20 with two late touchdown drives. McAshan threw for 32 touchdowns during his college football career, and Georgia Tech had a 22–13–1 record during that time frame. #### Coaching tree Many coaches have been influenced by Dodd's style and approach to the game, including Vince Dooley, University of Georgia's longtime football coach, who was the first recipient of the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award. In addition, several assistant coaches for Bobby Dodd went on to have successful careers as head football coaches for other colleges, including Frank Broyles with Arkansas. Broyles led the Razorbacks to a 14–7 victory over the Yellow Jackets in the 1960 Gator Bowl, which was the first bowl game Georgia Tech had lost with Bobby Dodd as head coach. Dodd's coaching tree includes: 1. Frank Broyles, Dodd assistant, coached at Arkansas 2. Vince Dooley, influenced by Dodd's style, coached at Georgia 3. Ray Graves, Dodd assistant, coached at Florida 4. Pepper Rodgers, Tech quarterback, coached at Kansas ## Family, personal life, and death Dodd married Alice Davis in 1933, and they had two children, Linda Dodd Thompson and Robert Lee Dodd Jr., who played quarterback for the University of Florida from 1960–61. Dodd Jr. had wanted to play for Georgia Tech, but Dodd thought it would be best if he played for another college. On October 1, 1960, Dodd Jr. contributed to Florida's 18–17 upset of the Yellow Jackets at Florida Field with Ray Graves, Dodd's former assistant, as Gator head coach. Alice Davis was a younger sister to Wink Davis, who played halfback at Georgia Tech. Dodd met Alice in 1931 through Ed Hamm, who was the track coach. They went on a few double dates together before Bobby started dating Alice. They postponed their wedding until after the 1933 football season since Dodd was coaching his future brother-in-law. Bobby Dodd and Bear Bryant ended their feud in 1975 after Bill Curry helped negotiate a peace settlement between the two old football coaches. As a result, Georgia Tech and Alabama resumed their series from 1979–84. Dodd stayed in touch with many of his former football players over the years and he was like a father to them until his death. "The record I am most proud of", he said, "is from all those years of coaching I probably don't have five former players who are bitter at me or Georgia Tech....means more than the number of games we won." He died on June 21, 1988, at the age of 79, in Atlanta. Alice Dodd was named honorary alumnus of the Georgia Tech Alumni Association in 1967. After her husband's death in 1988, she continued to attend homecoming functions and special events, such as the 1991 Florida Citrus Bowl which led to Georgia Tech winning its fourth national championship. Dodd will be portrayed in the upcoming film Bowl Game Armageddon about the 1956 Sugar Bowl. ## Head coaching record ### Football ## Baseball
2,486,567	1920 APFA season	1,158,832,912	Sports season	[ "1920 American Professional Football Association season", "National Football League controversies", "National Football League seasons" ]	The 1920 APFA season was the inaugural season of the American Professional Football Association, renamed the National Football League in 1922. An agreement to form a league was made by four independent teams from Ohio on August 20, 1920, at Ralph Hay's office in Canton, Ohio, with plans to invite owners of more teams for a second meeting on September 17, 1920.[^1] The "American Professional Football Conference" (APFC) was made up of Hay's Canton Bulldogs, Akron Pros, the Cleveland Tigers and the Dayton Triangles, who decided on a six-game schedule to play each other at home-and-away, an agreement to respect each other's player contracts, and to take a stand against signing college students whose class had not yet graduated. A second organizational meeting was held in Canton on September 17, 1920, with the original four APFC clubs, as well as a fifth Ohio team that had played informally in what historians later dubbed the "Ohio League" (the Columbus Panhandles) and four teams from Illinois (Chicago Cardinals and Chicago Tigers, Decatur Staleys, and Rock Island Independents), two from Indiana (Hammond Pros and Muncie Flyers), two from New York (Buffalo All-Americans and Rochester Jeffersons), and the Detroit Heralds from Michigan for a total of 14. At the meeting, the name of the league became the American Professional Football Association. Four other teams also joined the Association during the year. Meanwhile, Jim Thorpe of the Canton Bulldogs was named the APFA's first president but continued to play for the team. Scheduling was left up to each team: there were wide variations, both in the overall number of games played, and in the number played against other Association members. Thus, no official standings were maintained. In addition, football teams in the APFA also faced independent football teams not associated with the league. For instance, the Rochester Jeffersons played a schedule consisting mostly of local teams from their local sandlot circuit and the NYPFL, not the APFA. The Akron Pros ended the season as the only undefeated team in the Association. Despite this, two one-loss teams, the Decatur Staleys and Buffalo All-Americans, who both tied Akron that year, made cases for a co-championship. At the league meeting in Akron on April 30, 1921, the Pros were awarded the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup for the 1920 season, the only year the trophy was used. Had modern NFL tie-breaking rules been in force in 1920, the Buffalo All-Americans (9–1–1) would have been co-champions with the Akron Pros (8–0–3), as both teams had a win percentage of .864 and their only game was tied, while the Staleys (10–1–2) would have finished third with .846. In this regard, if games against non-APFA teams are excluded, Akron (6–0–3) would still have won the championship with .833, but the All-Americans (4–1–1) and the Staleys (5–1–2) would have finished equal second with .750 as they did not play each other. Of the 14 teams that played in the APFA/NFL's inaugural season, the Chicago Cardinals, now the Arizona Cardinals, and the Decatur Staleys, now the Chicago Bears, are the only teams that remain in the league. ## Formation Prior to the APFA, there were several other loose, professional organizations; most of the APFA teams were from either the Ohio League or the New York Pro Football League. On August 20, 1920, a meeting attended by representatives of four Ohio League teams—Ralph Hay and Jim Thorpe for the Canton Bulldogs, Jimmy O'Donnell and Stan Cofall for the Cleveland Tigers, Carl Storck for the Dayton Triangles, and Frank Nied and Art Ranney for the Akron Pros—was held. At the meeting, the representatives tentatively agreed to call their new league the American Professional Football Conference, introduce a salary cap for the teams, and not to sign college players nor players under contract with another team. According to the Canton Evening Repository, the purpose of the league was to "raise the standard of professional football in every way possible, to eliminate bidding for players between rival clubs and to secure cooperation in the formation of schedules, at least for the bigger teams." The representatives then contacted other major professional teams and invited them to a meeting for September 17. At that meeting, held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay's Hupmobile showroom in Canton, Ohio, representatives of the Rock Island Independents, the Muncie Flyers, the Decatur Staleys, the Racine Cardinals, the Massillon Tigers, the Chicago Tigers, and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league. Representatives of the Buffalo All-Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting, but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league. Team representatives changed the league's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers, installing Thorpe as president, Cofall as vice-president, Ranney as secretary-treasurer. Under the new league structure, teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed, so there were no minimum or maximum number of games needed to be played. Also, representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy. ## Teams The APFA had 14 teams that played during its inaugural season. ## Schedule The regular-season schedule was not fixed but was created dynamically by each team as the season progressed. The first game involving an APFA team occurred on September 26, when the Rock Island Independents beat the St. Paul Ideals 48–0. The first official game between APFA (NFL) members occurred on October 3, when the Dayton Triangles beat the Columbus Panhandles 14-0. The Triangles' Lou Partlow scored the league's first touchdown and George "Hobby" Kinderline kicked the first extra point. An historic marker placed by the Ohio Historical Society at Triangle Park in Dayton marks the location of that first ever game. The final game of the season was a 14–14 tie between the Chicago Cardinals and the non-league Chicago Stayms on December 19, 1920. The Decatur Staleys and the Canton Bulldogs played the most games in the season (13), while the Muncie Flyers played the fewest (1). The Buffalo All-Americans scored the most points all season (258), and the Akron Pros allowed the fewest points (7). ## Final standings ## Postseason and legacy As there was no playoff system in the APFA until 1932, a meeting was held to determine the 1920 Champions. Each team that showed up had a vote to determine the champions. Since the Akron Pros never lost a game, the Pros were awarded the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup on April 30, 1921. The trophy was a "silver loving cup", donated by the Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company. This decision, however, would arise with controversy. The Staleys and the All-Americans each stated that they should win the award because they had more wins and were not beaten by the Akron Pros. Each player from the Pros was also awarded with a golden fob; this was in the shape of a football and inscribed with "1920", "WORLD CHAMPIONS", and each player's first initial and last name. The Pros did not officially celebrate their championship season until the following year. In October 1921, most of the team was invited to the Elks Club of Akron, which was labeled as "a grand homecoming celebration for the world's champions". Fritz Pollard was congratulated during an Akron Merchants Association of Colored Business Men's meeting. The Pros were the first team in the history of the APFA to complete a non-modern "perfect season". Only four other teams have since accomplished this feat: the 1922 Canton Bulldogs at 10–0–2, the 1923 Canton Bulldogs at 11–0–1, the 1929 Green Bay Packers at 12–0–1, and the 1972 Miami Dolphins at 17–0–0. In 1972, the NFL changed the rules, so ties count as a half-win and a half-loss. Even though the Pros were given the trophy in 1920, the league lost track of the event, and for a long time published in its own record books that the 1920 championship was undecided. It was not until the 1970s that the NFL discovered this early vote on awarding the Akron Pros the championship. ## Awards ### All-Pro Bruce Copeland, sportswriter for the Rock Island Argus'', compiled the All-Pro list for 1920. He used the games played in Rock Island, other newspapers, and his own memory to determine the first-, second-, and third-team All-Pro list. Pro-Football-Reference.com uses this list as the official All-Pro list of 1920. Twenty of the players were from Illinois and thirteen were from Ohio. The Rock Island Independents had the most players on the list (9), and Racine Cardinals had the least (1). First-Team All-Pro Second-Team All-Pro Third-Team All-Pro [^1]: "Football Managers Make Plans", Akron (O.) Beacon Journal", August 21, 1920, p10
30,843,620	Development of Duke Nukem Forever	1,170,538,875	null	[ "Development of specific video games", "Duke Nukem" ]	The video game Duke Nukem Forever spent more than 14 years in development, from 1996 to 2011. It is a first-person shooter for Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, developed by 3D Realms, Triptych Games, Gearbox Software and Piranha Games. It is the sequel to the 1996 game Duke Nukem 3D, as part of the long-running Duke Nukem video game series. Intended to be groundbreaking, it became an infamous example of vaporware due to its severely protracted development schedule. Director George Broussard, one of the creators of the original Duke Nukem game, announced the development in 1997, and promotional information for the game was released from 1997 until its release in 2011. After repeatedly announcing and deferring release dates, 3D Realms announced in 2001 that Duke Nukem Forever would be released "when it's done". In 2009, 3D Realms was downsized, resulting in the loss of the game's development team. Statements indicated that the project was due to "go gold" soon with pictures of final development. Take-Two Interactive, which owns the Duke Nukem Forever publishing rights, filed a lawsuit in 2009 against 3D Realms over their "failure to finish development". 3D Realms responded that Take-Two's legal interest was limited to their publishing right. The case was settled with prejudice and details undisclosed in 2010. On September 3, 2010, 14 years after the start of development, Duke Nukem Forever was announced by 2K Games to be in development at Gearbox Software, with an expected release date of 2011. Duke Nukem Forever was released on June 10, 2011, to mostly negative reviews. It holds the Guinness world record for the longest development for a video game. ## Background Scott Miller was a lifelong gamer who released his text-based video games as shareware in the 1980s. By 1988, the shareware business was a \$10 to \$20 million a year market, but the distribution method had never been tried for video games. Miller found that gamers were not willing to pay for something they could get for free, so he came up with the idea of offering only the opening levels of his games; players could purchase the game to receive the rest. George Broussard, whom Miller met while he was in high school, joined Miller at his company, Apogee, which published and marketed games developed by other companies. While Miller was quiet, with a head for business, Broussard was an enthusiastic "creative impresario". Apogee (from which a new brand name was made in 1994, 3D Realms) grew from a small startup to a successful corporation. Among the games they published was id Software's Commander Keen in 1990 and Wolfenstein 3D in 1992. Commander Keen was met with great success and inspired the development of many sidescrollers for the DOS platform, including many developed by Apogee and using the same engine that powered the Keen games, and Wolfenstein was highly successful, popularizing 3D gaming and establishing the first-person shooter (FPS) genre. In 1994, Broussard began working on 3D Realms' own first-person shooter. Rather than the faceless marine of other games, players controlled as Duke Nukem, the protagonist of two 2D platform games from Apogee, Duke Nukem (1991) and Duke Nukem II (1992). Broussard described Duke as a combination of the film stars John Wayne, Clint Eastwood and Arnold Schwarzenegger. After a year and a half of work, Duke Nukem 3D was released in January 1996. Aspects that appealed to players were environmental interaction and adult content, including blood and strippers. In the mid-1990s, 3D Realms began developing a new 2D Duke Nukem game. It featured pre-rendered graphics, achieved by rendering Duke Nukem 3D graphics as sprites, creating a style similar to the 1994 game Donkey Kong Country. According to the developer Aaron Hurd, Duke would fall in love with a Russian soldier named Eva; as this was the fourth Duke Nukem game, the developers chose the title Duke Nukem 4 Eva, which became Duke Nukem Forever. This game was canceled due to the rising popularity of 3D games and the title was used for the next 3D Duke Nukem project. ## Development ### 1997–1998: Quake II engine 3D Realms announced Duke Nukem Forever on April 27, 1997. Barely a year after the release of Duke Nukem 3D, its graphics and its game engine, the Build engine, were antiquated. For Forever, Broussard licensed Id Software's superior Quake II engine. The licensing cost was steep—estimates were as high as \$500,000—but Broussard reasoned that it would save time used to write a new engine. Because the Quake II engine was not finished, 3D Realms began development with the Quake engine, planning to incorporate the Quake II features as they were completed. Broussard and Miller decided to fund Duke Nukem Forever using the profits from Duke Nukem 3D and other games, turning marketing and publishing rights over to GT Interactive. In August and September, the first screenshots of Duke Nukem Forever were released in PC Gamer. As 3D Realms did not receive the Quake II engine code until November 1997, the screenshots were mockups made with the Quake engine. 3D Realms unveiled the first video footage of Duke Nukem Forever using the Quake II engine at the 1998 E3 conference, showcasing Duke fighting on a moving truck and firefights with aliens. While critics were impressed, Broussard was not happy with progress. ### 1998–2003: Unreal Engine Soon after E3, a programmer suggested that 3D Realms make the switch to Unreal Engine, a new engine developed by Epic Games. The Unreal Engine was more realistic than Quake II and was better suited to producing open spaces; 3D Realms had struggled to render the Nevada desert. They unanimously agreed to the change, which meant discarding much of their work, including significant changes they had made to the Quake II engine. In June 1998, 14 months after announcing that they would use the Quake II engine, 3D Realms announced that they had switched to Unreal Engine. Broussard said that Duke Nukem Forever would not be significantly delayed and would be back to where it was at E3 within a month to six weeks. He also said that no content seen in the E3 trailer would be lost. However, according to programmer Chris Hargrove, the change amounted to a complete restart. By the end of 1999, Duke Nukem Forever had missed several release dates and was largely unfinished; half of its weapons remained concepts. Broussard responded to criticisms of the development time as the price of modern game development. A significant factor contributing to the protracted development was that Broussard was continually looking to add new elements. 3D Realms employees would joke that they had to stop Broussard from seeing new games, as he would want to include portions of it in Duke Nukem Forever. Later in 1999, Broussard decided to upgrade to a new version of Unreal Engine designed for multiplayer. Employees recalled that Broussard did not have a plan for what the game would look like. At the same time, GT Interactive was facing higher-than-expected losses and hired Bear Stearns to look into selling the company or merging it. Later that year, Infogrames Entertainment announced it was purchasing a controlling interest in GT Interactive. The publishing rights for Duke Nukem Forever passed to Gathering of Developers in early December 2000. Following the death of one of Gathering of Developers' co-founders and continuing financial problems, in 2003 their Texas offices were shut down and absorbed into the parent company, Take-Two Interactive. To placate anxious fans, Broussard decided to create another trailer for E3 2001, the first public showing in three years. The video showed a couple of minutes of footage, including a Las Vegas setting and a demonstration of the player interacting with a vending machine to buy a sandwich. The trailer impressed viewers and Duke Nukem was the talk of the convention.IGN reported on the graphics: "Characters come to life with picturesque facial animations that are synced perfectly with speech, hair that swings as they bob their heads, eyes that follow gazes, and more. The particle effects system, meanwhile, boasts impressive explosion effects with shimmering fire, shattered glass, and blood spilt in every direction ... Add in real-time lighting effects, interactive environments, and a variation in locales unequaled in any other first-person shooter and you begin to see and understand why Duke Nukem Forever has been one of the most hotly anticipated titles over the last couple of years." Staff at 3D Realms recalled a sense of elation after the presentation, feeling they were ahead of the competition. While many staff expected Broussard to make a push for finishing the game, he still did not have a finished product in mind. In 2022, two builds close to the one shown at E3 2001 were leaked online. Responding to the leak, Broussard said that much of what was shown at E3 was "smoke/mirrors [sic] for an E3 video [they] should have never done"; he described the leaked game as a "smattering of barely populated test levels". Miller said the E3 trailer had overrepresented what was playable in the game at that point. ### 2003–2006: Conflict with Take-Two By 2003, only 18 people at 3D Realms were working on Duke Nukem Forever. One former employee said that Broussard and Miller were still operating on a "1995 mentality", before games became large-team, big budget development affairs. Because they were financing the project themselves, the developers could also ignore pressure from their publisher; their standard reply to when Duke Nukem Forever would ship was "when it's done". In 2003, Take-Two CEO Jeffrey Lapin reported that the game would not be out that year. He said the company was writing off \$5.5 million from its earnings due to Duke Nukem Forever's lengthy development. Broussard responded that "Take-Two needs to STFU ... We don’t want Take-Two saying stupid-ass things in public for the sole purposes of helping their stock. It's our time and our money we are spending on the game. So either we're absolutely stupid and clueless, or we believe in what we are working on." Later that year, Lapin said 3D Realms had told him that Duke Nukem Forever was expected by the end of 2004 or the beginning of 2005. In 2004, GameSpot reported that Duke Nukem Forever had switched to the Doom 3 engine. Many gaming news sites mailed Broussard, asking him to confirm or deny the rumor. After receiving no answer from him, they published the rumor as fact, but Broussard explicitly denied it soon after. Soon after 3D Realms replaced the game's Karma physics system with one designed by Meqon, a relatively unknown Swedish firm. Closed-doors demonstrations of the technology suggested that the physics would be superior to the critically acclaimed Half-Life 2. Rumors suggested that the game would appear at 2005 E3. While 3D Realms' previously canceled Prey was shown, Duke Nukem Forever was not. According to Miller, around this point he approached the Canadian developers Digital Extremes, known for co-developing the Unreal games, to take over development, as Duke Nukem Forever was "in deep trouble". Digital Extremes and Take-Two were willing, but the takeover was rejected by others at 3D Realms. In January 2006, Broussard said that many of Duke Nukem Forever's elements were finished, and that the team was "basically pulling it all together and trying to make it fun". Later that year, Broussard demonstrated samples of the game, including an early level, a vehicle sequence, and a few test rooms. Among the features seen was the interactive use of an in-game computer to send actual emails. Broussard seemed contrite and affected by the long delays; while a journalist demoed the game, Broussard referenced note cards and constantly apologized for the state of the game. In filing with the US Securities and Exchange Commission, Take-Two revealed they had renegotiated the Duke Nukem Forever deal, with Take-Two receiving \$4.25 million instead of \$6 million on release of the game. Take-Two offered a \$500,000 bonus if Duke Nukem Forever was released by 2007. However, Broussard said that 3D Realms did not care about the bonus, and would "never ship a game early". Staff were tired of the delays. Duke Nukem Forever was the only 3D game many had ever worked on, giving them little to put on a resume, and as much of 3D Realms' payment hinged on profit-sharing after release, the continual delays meant deferred income. By August 2006, between 7 and 10 employees had left since 2005, a majority of the Duke Nukem Forever team, which by this point had shrunk to around 18 staff. While Shacknews speculated that the departures would lead to further delays, 3D Realms denied this, stating that the employees had left over a number of months and that the game was moving ahead. Creative director Raphael van Lierop, hired in 2007, played through the completed content and realized that there was more finished than he expected. Lierop told Broussard that he felt they could push the game and "blow everyone out of the water", but Broussard felt it was still two years from completion. ### 2007–2009: Final years with 3D Realms The delays strained Broussard and Miller's relationship. By the end of 2006, Broussard appeared to have become serious about finishing the game. On January 25 and May 22, 2007, Broussard posted two Gamasutra job ads with small screenshots of Duke Nukem and an enemy. The team quickly doubled in size; among the new hires was project lead Brian Hook, who became the first person to resist Broussard's requests for changes. On December 19, 2007, 3D Realms released the first Duke Nukem Forever trailer in more than six years. It was made by 3D Realms employees as part of holiday festivities. While Broussard refused to give a release date, he said that "you can expect more frequent media releases [and] we have considerable work behind us". While the Dallas Business Journal reported a 2008 release date, Broussard said that this was based on a misunderstanding. In-game footage appeared in 2008 premiere episode of The Jace Hall Show. Filmed entirely on hand-held cameras but not originally expected to be publicly released, the video showed host Jason Hall playing of a level at 3D Realms' offices. The footage was shot six months prior to the episode air date; according to Broussard, it contained particle and combat effects that had since been replaced. The game did not appear at E3 2008, which Miller described as "irrelevant". As Duke Nukem Forever neared completion, funding began to deplete. Having spent more than \$20 million of their own money, Broussard and Miller asked Take-Two for \$6 million to complete the game. According to Broussard and Miller, Take-Two initially agreed, but then only offered \$2.5 million. Take-Two maintained that they offered \$2.5 million up front and another \$2.5 million on completion. Broussard rejected the counteroffer, and on May 6, 2009, suspended development. ### 2009–2010: Layoffs and downsizing 3D Realms laid off the Duke Nukem Forever staff on May 8, 2009, due to lack of funding; inside sources claimed it would operate as a smaller company. Take-Two stated that they retained the publishing rights for Duke Nukem Forever, but were not funding it. Previously unreleased screenshots, concept art, pictures of models and a goodbye message from 3D Realms were posted by alleged former employees. Similar leaks followed after May 8, 2009. In 2009, Take-Two filed a lawsuit against 3D Realms over their failure to complete Duke Nukem Forever, citing \$12 million paid to Infogrames in 2000 for the publishing rights. 3D Realms argued that they had not received that money, as it was a direct agreement between Infogrames and Take-Two. The lawsuit seemed to be over a contractual breach, but not regarding the \$12 million. Take-Two asked for a restraining order and a preliminary injunction to make 3D Realms keep the Duke Nukem Forever assets intact during proceedings, but the court denied the request for a temporary restraining order. In December 2009, Miller denied that development had ceased, and confirmed only that the team had been laid off. Around this time, a former 3D Realms staff member released a showreel with footage of Duke Nukem Forever. It was mistaken for a trailer, which confused the public. The video was taken down soon after. 3D Realms planned to hire an external developer to complete the game while continuing to downsize, and ended development on another game, Duke Begins. An unofficial compilation of gameplay footage was also released in December 2009. By 2010, 3D Realms and Take-Two had settled the lawsuit and dismissed it with prejudice. ### 2010–2011: Gearbox revival and release Despite the discontinuation of internal game development at 3D Realms, development did not cease entirely. Nine ex-employees, including key personnel such as Allen Blum, continued development throughout 2009 from their homes. These employees would later become Triptych Games, an independent studio housed in the same building as Gearbox, with whom they collaborated on the project. After ceasing internal game development, 3D Realms approached game developers Gearbox Software and asked them if they were interested in helping Triptych Games polish the near-finished PC version and port it to the consoles. Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford, who had worked on an expansion to Duke Nukem 3D and very briefly on Forever before he left to found Gearbox, felt that "Duke can't die" and decided that he was going to help "in Duke’s time of need". He started providing funding for the game and contacted 2K Games' president to persuade his company that Gearbox and Triptych could complete the development of the game and get it released on all platforms in time. Duke Nukem Forever was originally intended to be a PC exclusive game; however, 2K and Gearbox had hired Piranha Games to port the game designed for PC to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 and added a multiplayer to raise sales. The game was re-announced at the Penny Arcade Expo 2010 on September 3, 2010. It was the first time in the game's development history that gamers were able to actually try the game—according to Pitchford, "the line has gotten up to four hours long to see the game". Gearbox Software subsequently purchased the Duke Nukem intellectual property from 3D Realms, and 2K Games held the exclusive long-term publishing rights of the game. Development was almost complete with only minor polishing to be done before the game was to be released in 2011. A playable demo of Duke Nukem Forever was released by Gearbox, with some differences from the versions available at PAX and Firstlook. Early access to the demo was granted to purchasers of the Game of the Year Edition of Borderlands, including those that purchased the standard version of Borderlands on Steam prior to October 12, 2010. Duke Nukem Forever was initially scheduled for release on May 3 in the United States and May 6 internationally. After a final delay, Gearbox announced the game had 'gone gold' on May 24, 2011, bringing its development to a close after 14 years and 44 days; the game was released weeks later on June 14 in North America and June 10 worldwide. Duke Nukem Forever holds the Guinness world record for the longest development for a video game, at 14 years and 43 days, though this period was exceeded in 2022 by Beyond Good and Evil 2.[^1] ## Press coverage Wired News awarded Duke Nukem Forever its Vaporware Award several times. It placed second in June 2000 and topped the list in 2001 and 2002. Wired created the Vaporware Lifetime Achievement Award exclusively for DNF and awarded it in 2003. Broussard accepted the award, simply stating, "We're undeniably late and we know it." In 2004, the game did not make the top 10; Wired editors said that they had given DNF the Lifetime Achievement Award to get it off of the list. However, upon readers' demands, Wired reconsidered and DNF won first place in 2005, 2006, and 2007. In 2008, Wired staff officially considered removing DNF from their annual list, citing that "even the best jokes get old eventually", only to reconsider upon viewing the handheld camera footage of the game in The Jace Hall Show, awarding the game with first place once again. In 2009, Wired published Wired News' Vaporware Awards 2009: Duke Nukem Forever was excluded from consideration on the grounds that the project was finally dead. With the game since in development at Gearbox Software and a subsequent playable demo, Duke made a comeback with an unprecedented 11th place award on Wired's 2010 Vaporware list. When the GameSpy editors compiled a list of the "Top 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming History" in June 2003, Duke Nukem Forever placed \#18. Duke Nukem Forever has drawn a number of jokes related to its development timeline. The video gaming media and public in general have routinely suggested names in place of Forever, calling it "Never", "(Taking) Forever", "Whenever", "ForNever", "Neverever", and "If Ever". The game has also been ridiculed as Duke Nukem: Forever In Development''; "Either this is the longest game ever in production or an elaborate in-joke at the expense of the industry". ## Additional references [^1]:
67,209,701	La Carreta Mexican Restaurant	1,166,187,882	Mexican restaurant in Portland, Oregon, U.S.	[ "1990 establishments in Oregon", "Brooklyn, Portland, Oregon", "Defunct Latin American restaurants in Portland, Oregon", "Defunct Mexican restaurants in the United States", "Mexican restaurants in Portland, Oregon", "Restaurants established in 1990" ]	La Carreta Mexican Restaurant was a Mexican restaurant in Portland, Oregon. The menu offered traditional cuisine including burritos, chile rellenos, chimichangas, enchiladas, fajitas, flautas, quesadilla, taquitos, and tostadas. Established in 1990, La Carreta had a banquet hall upstairs and hosted a variety of events. The restaurant's colorful interior featured hanging plants, murals, flags, tiled tables, and stucco walls. The restaurant received a generally positive reception, especially for its margaritas and other drink options. ## Description La Carreta Mexican Restaurant was located at the intersection of McLoughlin and Holgate Boulevards in southeast Portland's Brooklyn neighborhood. Willamette Week's Martin Cizmar described the restaurant as a "mazelike Mexican roadhouse", with murals of people and prickly pears on stucco walls. The interior had hanging plants, some of which were decorated with small American and Mexican flags. There were tiled tables, chairs upholstered with traditional blankets, and booths. In 2013, the Portland Mercury's Ned Lannamann described La Carreta as a "funky, homey Mexican joint" serving "ample Mexican fare and dizzying margaritas". Lannamann continued, "It's a Portland old-school favorite, unsullied by the hands of hipsterdom." The second level had a private banquet hall for events. The menu offered Mexican cuisine such as burritos, chile colorado, chile rellenos, chimichangas, enchiladas, fajitas (chicken or beef), tostadas, tortillas, rice and beans, and chips and salsa; meals ended with a complementary scoop of ice cream with whipped cream and chocolate syrup. As of 2002, the Fiesta Platter featured quesadillas with green chili and Monterey Jack cheese, flautas with shredded beef, taquitos, and "deluxe" nachos. The drink menu included more than 20 varieties of tequila as of 2002, when blended margaritas were available for \$2 during happy hour. As recently as 2015, the drink menu also included margaritas, beers, and coffee cocktails. The La Carreta coffee blended beans with Baileys Irish Cream, Frangelico, and Kahlúa, and was topped with whipped cream and a cherry. La Carreta operated until midnight on weekdays and 2 a.m. on weekends. The magazine PDX Parent described the restaurant as "spacious and colorful" and noted children could eat for free on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays after 4 p.m. ## History The site occupied by La Carreta previously housed a Waddle's Drive-In restaurant. La Carreta opened in 1990, according to its website. La Carreta hosted a variety of events. In 1991, the restaurant hosted the Portland–Guadalajara Sister City Association's eighth-anniversary celebration. The event was attended by former Portland City Commissioner Mildred Schwab and sister city scholarship recipients, featuring cantina music. In 2001, a representative from the Oregon Employment Department delivered a presentation on labor issues on behalf of the Pacific Printing & Imaging Association. The restaurant hosted a gathering following the death of a Vietnam War veteran and Purple Heart recipient in 2005. The Portland Mercury co-hosted the 2014 La Carreta Meltdown, a rock and roll show benefiting the Sisters of the Road nonprofit cafe located in Portland, with performances by the Pynnacles, Eyelids (including John Moen), and Hutch Harris of The Thermals. The Multnomah County Republican Party's 2020 Lincoln Day dinner at the restaurant featured chairman James Buchal as a guest speaker, as well as state representative Mike Nearman and local political candidates. Novelist Peter Rock references La Carreta in The Bewildered: A Novel (2005). ## Reception Writing for The Oregonian in 2002, Susan Fitzgerald described La Carreta's atmosphere as "cheery faux-Mexican" and recommended the restaurant for comfort food. After describing the menu, she wrote, "Pair any of these options with a bottomless basket of fresh, warm tortilla chips and salsa, and you'll end up nicely carbo-loaded for a long winter nap." The newspaper's Kyle O'Brien said La Carreta offered the "best margarita on the cheap" and recommended the "tasty and cool" happy hour margaritas. He wrote, "At these prices, might as well get two while wolfing down the decent chips and salsa. The old-school cantina pipes in Mexi-Muzak over the sound system to ensure a bueno time." In 2008, La Carreta was named the "best Mexican restaurant" in a "City's Best" survey published by AOL's CityGuide. In 2015, Cizmar ranked La Carreta the city's best sit-down, midrange family-style Mexican restaurant, as well as Portland's best Mexican restaurant for drinks. He described the atmosphere as "fully immersive" and complimented the beef enchiladas and frozen strawberry margaritas. Cizmar also called the La Carreta coffee "very nice", but described the salsa as "watery" and "not very spicy" and said the rice and beans were "nothing to get excited about". In addition to performing at La Carreta, members of Eyelids frequented the restaurant. In a 2014 article about the group, John Chandler of Vortex Music Magazine described La Carreta as a "venerable Mexican eatery ... known for its roving band of mariachis, dubious cuisine and towering cocktails". ## See also - Hispanics and Latinos in Portland, Oregon - List of defunct restaurants of the United States - List of Mexican restaurants
206,818	Seven (1995 film)	1,173,177,599	1995 American film by David Fincher	[ "1990s American films", "1990s English-language films", "1990s chase films", "1990s police films", "1990s psychological thriller films", "1990s serial killer films", "1995 crime drama films", "1995 crime thriller films", "1995 drama films", "1995 films", "1995 independent films", "American chase films", "American crime drama films", "American crime thriller films", "American independent films", "American neo-noir films", "American police detective films", "American serial killer films", "CinemaScope films", "Films about murder", "Films about religion", "Films directed by David Fincher", "Films produced by Arnold Kopelson", "Films scored by Howard Shore", "Films shot in California", "Films with screenplays by Andrew Kevin Walker", "New Line Cinema films", "Seven deadly sins in popular culture" ]	Seven (stylized as Se7en) is a 1995 American crime thriller film directed by David Fincher and written by Andrew Kevin Walker. It stars Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, and John C. McGinley. Set in an unnamed, crime-ridden city, Seven's plot follows disenchanted, near-retirement detective William Somerset (Freeman) and his newly transferred partner David Mills (Pitt) as they attempt to stop a serial killer before he can complete a series of murders based on the seven deadly sins. Walker, an aspiring writer, based Seven on his experiences of moving from a suburban setting to New York City during a period of rising crime and drug addiction in the late 1980s. His script was optioned by an Italian film company that underwent financial difficulties and sold the rights to New Line Cinema. Executives were opposed to the script's bleak ending and mandated a more-mainstream, upbeat outcome. Fincher, who was eager to prove himself after the failure of his first feature-film project Alien 3, read Walker's original script—which he was sent by mistake—and agreed to direct the project provided the ending remained. The studio continued trying to change the ending but faced opposition from Fincher and the cast. On a \$33–\$34 million budget, principal photography took place mainly on location in Los Angeles. Rob Bottin headed the special effects team responsible for realizing the elaborate murders using makeup and prosthetics. Seven received middling test audience results; it was not expected to perform well due to its violent and mature content but it earned \$327.3 million worldwide, becoming a surprise success and the seventh highest-grossing film of the year. Contemporaneous reviews were mixed; critics praised Freeman's performance but criticized the film's dark cinematography, explicit and implied violence, and bleak ending. Seven revitalized Fincher's career and helped Pitt move from roles based on his appearance to more serious, dramatic roles. In the years since its release, consensus on the movie has shifted; Seven is now regarded as one of the best thriller, crime, and mystery films ever made. It remains influential in filmmaking, inspiring many imitators of its aesthetic, style, and premise of detectives investigating serial killers with distinctive methods and motives. The film's title sequence, which depicts the killer preparing for his actions later in the film, is considered an important design innovation and has also influenced later credit sequences, while the film's twist ending has been named as one of the best in cinematic history. ## Plot In an unnamed city overcome with violent crime and corruption, disillusioned police detective William Somerset is one week from retirement. He is partnered with David Mills, a short-tempered, idealistic detective who recently relocated to the city with his wife, Tracy. On Monday, Somerset and Mills investigate an obese man who was forced to eat until his stomach burst, killing him. The detectives find the word "gluttony" written on a wall. Somerset, considering the case too extreme for his last investigation, asks to be reassigned to another case but his request is denied. The following day, another victim, who had been forced to cut one pound (0.45 kg) of flesh from his body is found; the crime scene is marked "greed." Clues at the scene lead Somerset and Mills to the sloth victim, a drug-dealing pederast who they find emaciated and restrained to a bed. Photographs reveal the victim was restrained for exactly one year. Somerset surmises the murders are based on the Christian concept of the seven deadly sins. Tracy invites Somerset to share supper with her and Mills, helping the detectives overcome their mutual hostility. On Friday, Tracy meets privately with Somerset because she has no other acquaintances in the city. She reveals her unhappiness at moving there, especially after learning she is pregnant, and believes the city is an unfit place to raise a child. Somerset sympathizes with Tracy, having persuaded his former girlfriend to abort their child for similar reasons and regretting it ever since; he advises Tracy to inform Mills only if she intends to keep the child. A comment by Mills inspires Somerset to research libraries for anyone checking out books based on the seven deadly sins, leading the pair to the apartment of John Doe. Doe unexpectedly returns home and is pursued by Mills, who is incapacitated after Doe strikes him with a tire iron. Doe momentarily holds Mills at gunpoint but soon flees. The police investigate Doe's apartment, finding a large amount of cash, hundreds of notebooks revealing Doe's psychopathy, and photographs of some of his victims; the cache includes images of Somerset and Mills by a person they believed was an intrusive journalist at the sloth crime scene. Doe calls the apartment and speaks of his admiration for Mills. On Saturday, Somerset and Mills investigate the fourth victim, lust, a prostitute who has been raped with a custom-made, bladed strap-on by a man held at gunpoint. The following day, the pride victim is found; she is a model whom Doe facially disfigured and died by suicide rather than live without her beauty. As Somerset and Mills return to the police station, Doe arrives and surrenders himself. He threatens to plead insanity at his trial, potentially escaping punishment, unless Mills and Somerset escort him to an undisclosed location where they will find the envy and wrath victims. During the drive, Doe says he believes God has chosen him to send a message about the ubiquity of, and apathy toward, sin. Doe has no remorse for his victims, believing the shocking murders will force society to pay him attention. Doe leads the detectives to a remote location, where a delivery van approaches. Somerset intercepts the vehicle, whose driver was instructed to deliver to Mills a package at this specific time. Somerset is horrified at the package's contents and tells Mills to put down his gun. Doe reveals he himself represents envy because he envied Mills' life with Tracy, and implies the package contains her severed head. He urges Mills to become wrath, telling him Tracy begged for her life and that of her unborn child, and takes pleasure in realizing Mills was unaware of the pregnancy. Despite Somerset's pleas, Mills, distraught and enraged, shoots Doe dead, completing Doe's plan. Police remove the catatonic Mills, and Somerset tells his captain he will "be around." Somerset says in voiceover: "Ernest Hemingway once wrote: 'The world is a fine place, and worth fighting for.' I agree with the second part." ## Cast - Brad Pitt as David Mills: A well-meaning but impulsive homicide detective - Morgan Freeman as William Somerset: A veteran police officer disillusioned with his job - Gwyneth Paltrow as Tracy Mills: Detective Mills' pregnant wife - R. Lee Ermey as Police Captain: The detectives' grizzled superior - John C. McGinley as California: A SWAT team leader - Kevin Spacey as John Doe: A serial killer inspired by the seven deadly sins - Richard Roundtree as Martin Talbot: The district attorney Seven also features Julie Araskog as Mrs. Gould, John Cassini as Officer Davis, Reg E. Cathey as Doctor Santiago, Peter Crombie as Doctor O'Neil, Richard Portnow as Doctor Beardsley, Richard Schiff as Mark Swarr, and Mark Boone Junior as a "greasy FBI man". Hawthorne James appears as George the library night guard, Michael Massee portrays "man in massage parlor booth", Leland Orser plays "crazed man in massage parlor", Pamala Tyson portrays a thin vagrant outside Doe's apartment, and Doe's delivery man is played by Richmond Arquette. Doe's victims include: Bob Mack as gluttony, a morbidly obese man who is force-fed until his stomach bursts; Gene Borkan as greed, a criminal attorney who is forced to cut off his own flesh; and Michael Reid MacKay as the sloth victim Theodore "Victor" Allen, a drug dealer and child abuser. Cat Mueller portrays the lust victim, a sex worker who is impaled with a bladed sex toy, and Heidi Schanz appears as model Rachel Slade, pride, who Doe disfigures. Writer Andrew Kevin Walker makes a cameo appearance as a corpse Somerset investigates during the film's opening scene; Morgan Freeman's son Alfonso appears as a fingerprint technician; and columnist George Christy portrays the police department janitor scraping Somerset's name from his door. ## Production ### Writing In 1986, aspiring screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker moved from the suburbs of Pennsylvania to New York City, and described the "culture shock" of living in a city undergoing significant rises in crime and drug abuse. While working as a sales assistant for Tower Records in 1991, Walker began writing a spec script called Seven, which is set in an unnamed, bleak and gloomy city that was inspired by his "depressing" time in New York. Walker said; "it's true that if I hadn't lived there I probably wouldn't have written Seven ... I think it's that way for anything—the right time and the right mood, and the right inspiration, whatever inspiration is. That's what's so scary about writing". Film studios were eager for high concept spec scripts; Walker believed his thriller about police officers pursuing a serial killer driven by the seven deadly sins would attract attention and help begin a professional writing career. Walker intended to leave the script's narrative open to interpretation to avoid invalidating the opinions of the prospective audience. He wanted to defy audience expectations, and leave them feeling "violated and exhausted" by the conclusion. According to Walker, "there's lots of evil out there, and you're not always going to get the satisfaction of having any sort of understanding of why that is. That's one of the things that scares people the most about serial killers". For inspiration for writing the killer, Walker recounted his own experiences of walking down city streets, and observing crimes and sins being openly committed on every corner, and asking what would happen if someone specifically focused on these sins. He had Doe surrender himself to the police because it would rob the audience and characters of the anticipated satisfaction, and make them uncomfortable before the finale. In the early 1990s, Italian company Penta Film, under manager Phyllis Carlyle, optioned the script. Walker was paid the minimum fee allowed by the Writers Guild of America, which he described as not being "fuck you money" but enough to quit his job, relocate to Los Angeles, and work on Seven. ### Development To lead the project, Penta Film hired director Jeremiah S. Chechik, who had recently directed the successful comedy film National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989) and was looking for a more serious project. Chechik and Penta Film mandated several script changes, including the removal of the bleak "head-in-the-box" ending, in which Tracy's severed head is delivered in a box. Given the option to refuse the requests and risk being replaced or the project canceled, Walker acquiesced and wrote a more-mainstream ending in which the detectives confront Doe in a church that is described as either on fire or burned out. In the revised version of the script, Doe embodies the sin of envy and kills Mills before being shot dead by Somerset, while a pregnant Tracy leaves the city. In a 2017 interview, Walker said he felt he was ruining his script and should have left the project. In total, he wrote thirteen drafts to meet the studio's demands. The project failed to progress; because the option was expiring and Penta Film was experiencing financial difficulties—eventually dissolving in 1994—the studio sold the rights to producer Arnold Kopelson, who took it to New Line Cinema. Chechik also left the project, and Guillermo del Toro and Phil Joanou were approached to replace him; Joanou rejected the offer because he found the story too bleak. David Fincher was mainly known for directing popular music videos, such as "Vogue" and "Who Is It". His only feature film, Alien 3 (1992), had been a negative experience and the film was edited by its studio against Fincher's intent. Fincher disowned the film, saying "I'd rather die of colon cancer than make another movie". His agent, however, brought him the Seven script. Fincher was uninterested in the police procedural aspects but found himself drawn in by the gradual revelation of Doe's plans, saying; "I found myself getting more and more trapped in this kind of evil ... and even though I felt uncomfortable about being there, I had to keep going." He determined the script matched his own creative sensibilities, particularly its "meditation on evil and how evil gets on you and you can't get it off", and uncompromising ending in which "[Tracy's] been dead for hours and there's no bullshit chase across town and the guy driving on sidewalks to get to the woman, who's drawing a bath while the serial killer sneaks in the back window". Fincher expressed his interest to the studio, which realized he had been sent Walker's original script. New Line Cinema sent Fincher an up-to-date draft in which Tracy survives but Fincher would only agree to direct the original script. He met with New Line Cinema's president of production Michael De Luca, who also preferred the original script, and they agreed to start filming that version in six weeks, believing further delay risked executives noticing and interfering with their plan. Kopelson and studio executives made efforts to lighten Seven's tone and change the ending. Fincher was resistant to any changes, and was unwilling to compromise his creative control and vision. De Luca remained supportive of Fincher, and the original ending gained further backing as the project secured prominent actors, including Freeman, Pitt, and Spacey. Pitt said he joined Seven on condition the head-in-the-box ending was retained, and that Mills "[shoots] the killer in the end. He doesn't do the 'right' thing, he does the thing of passion." Pitt was upset the original ending to his previous film Legends of the Fall (1994) had been cut in response to negative test-audience responses. Kopelson was persuaded to support Fincher after being reassured the severed head would not be shown, saying "it needed this horrendous event to kick off the last sin, wrath" that would be discussed for decades. Walker said; "there's nothing wrong with [positive] endings, it's just that the dark ending of Seven was what it was about. To change the ending to something else was to remove the very heart of the story." Walker refined the script; his change included extending a chase sequence depicting Mills cautiously pursuing Doe, aiming to avoid typical cinematic chases in which characters frantically pursue their target. He said; "I always thought, 'God, if someone was shooting at me, I would be terrified to turn any corner!'" A shooting script was completed by August 1994. ### Casting Pitt had established himself as a credible film star following successes with Interview with the Vampire (1994) and Legends of the Fall, but Fincher had not considered him to portray Mills because "I'd never seen Mills as particularly accomplished, and I was concerned that [Pitt] seemed too together. But when I met him, I thought, this guy is so likable he can get away with murder—he can do anything and people will forgive him for it". Kopelson was aware of Pitt's popularity and importance to Seven's potential success; he shortened the pre-production schedule from twelve weeks to five to fit Pitt's schedule. Pitt rejected several offers from other films because he wanted to escape his typecasting as a romantic lead character in favor of something with a more "documentary feel" with urban settings and a focus on dialogue, akin to thriller films such as The Conversation (1974). He said; "I just wanted to escape the cheese ... I came to find out [Fincher] had a lactose intolerance as well, so I was very happy about it". Pitt described Mills as a well-intentioned "idiot" who "speaks before he really knows what he's talking about". He cut his hair for the role and lost weight to reduce the muscle he developed for Legends of the Fall. Sylvester Stallone and Denzel Washington rejected the role. Walker named the character Somerset after writer W. Somerset Maugham. Walker envisioned William Hurt playing the character but Fincher cast Freeman; the studio was concerned pairing a black detective with a white one would make Seven seem derivative of the action film Lethal Weapon (1987). Robert Duvall, Gene Hackman, and Al Pacino rejected the role. The script was further modified after Pitt's and Freeman's castings to better match their acting styles; Mills was made more verbose and Somerset's dialogue was reduced, and made more precise and direct. Robin Wright auditioned for the role of Tracy and Christina Applegate rejected it before Paltrow was cast. Pitt had recommended Paltrow after being impressed by her audition for Legends of the Fall. Fincher also preferred Paltrow but those involved told him she would not be interested in a "dark" film like Seven. Fincher auditioned about 100 people before Pitt contacted Paltrow to meet with them. Fincher said Tracy is "so important because it's the only sunshine we have in the film. This is the feel-bad movie of [1995] ... we needed someone who could take those little seconds she gets and fill them with soul, and that's what I'd always seen in [Paltrow's] performances". Fincher and Walker wanted Ned Beatty to play John Doe because of his resemblance to the 1969 composite sketch of the Zodiac Killer; Beatty declined, describing the script as the "most evil thing I've ever read". Michael Stipe, lead vocalist of the rock band R.E.M., was considered but filming dates conflicted with the band's tour. Val Kilmer declined the role; R. Lee Ermey auditioned but Fincher said his portrayal was "completely unsympathetic" and without depth. Kevin Spacey was preferred by Pitt but executives refused to pay his salary. Doe's scenes were initially filmed with an unknown actor portraying Doe; the filmmakers quickly decided to replace them and Pitt helped negotiate Spacey's involvement. Spacey, who filmed his scenes in twelve days, said; "I got a call on a Friday night, and on Monday morning I was on a plane to Los Angeles, shooting on Tuesday". Spacey wanted his name omitted from the film's marketing and opening credits to ensure the killer's identity remained secret. He said: > I'd just done Swimming With Sharks (1994), The Usual Suspects, and Outbreak (both 1995) ... I knew that if any of those movies did well, my profile would be ... different. How would that affect my billing in Se7en? If I'm the third-billed actor in a movie where the top two billings are trying to find somebody and they don't find that somebody until the last reel, then it's obvious who that somebody is. It was a bit of a shit-fight for a couple of days, but I felt very strongly that it was the right thing to do for the movie. We finally won because it was a deal-breaker; I was either going to be on a plane to shoot the movie or I wasn't. The 480 lb (220 kg) actor Bob Mack made his film debut as gluttony, who was described as a "very heavy guy face down in spaghetti". Gene Borkan was cast to play the greed victim because the filmmakers wanted someone who resembled lawyer Robert Shapiro. He did not realize his character would already be dead and refused a request to perform nude, telling Fincher; "I'll be naked if you're naked. Otherwise, you don't get that." On the set, when he realized what his scene entailed, Borkan renegotiated his salary, receiving "five times [the \$522 Screen Actors Guild day-scale fee]". Michael Reid MacKay's audition for the sloth victim involved him portraying a corpse that slowly turned his head towards the camera; his performance was deemed "creepy" enough. Set decorator Cat Mueller portrayed the lust victim after Fincher's assistant said she had the personality and body to portray a "dead hooker". She received \$500 for six hours of filming over two days but described being nude in front of Pitt as a perk. Model Heidi Schanz was cast as the pride victim after the previous actor dropped out. Fincher, who was running low on time, wanted a model with existing headshots and pictures that could be displayed in the character's apartment. She said; "even though I'm dead, I think it's the most glamorized murder". The film's content made casting and crewing Seven difficult; Gary Oldman turned down an unspecified role, Fincher's former costume designer declined to work on the film, and talent agents refused to pass offers on to their clients, describing Seven as "evil and misogynistic". ### Filming Principal photography began on December 12, 1994, and concluded on March 10, 1995. Assistant director Michael Alan Kahn recalled the start of filming: "I went up to Fincher and I said, 'Look at this! Look! It's here! We're here! You did it! We're shooting a movie ... isn't this amazing? ...' And he looked at me as though I were from outer space and said, 'No, it's awful ... now I have to get what's in my head out of all you cretins.'" Walker was on set throughout filming to provide suggestions or on-spec rewrites but did not give Fincher much input, believing he should adapt the script as he wanted. Location filming took place entirely in downtown Los Angeles. Fincher wanted to film in Oakland, California, because it had "beautiful clapboard houses" but the schedule would not allow for this. Rain often fell during filming; Fincher decided to film in rain to avoid continuity errors and because Pitt was only available for fifty-five days before he began filming 12 Monkeys (1995). Fincher also said the rain introduced an inescapable element for the characters because conditions were bad inside and outside, and that the rain made the film's city appear less like Los Angeles, which is associated with sunny weather. Seven's aesthetic was influenced by films such as All That Jazz (1979), The Silence of the Lambs (1991), and The French Connection (1971), as well as the "vulnerable", over-the-shoulder viewpoint of documentary television show Cops. Cinematographer Darius Khondji named the crime thriller Klute (1971), as a significant influence because of its "use of toplight ... widescreen compositions for intimacy rather than big vistas, the way that vertical strips of the city are shown in horizontal mode, the fragments of faces and bodies ... the look of Se7en has this heightened sense of realism—a realism that's been kicked up several notches and becomes its own style." Fincher chose one scene in Klute in which the only illumination is the character's flashlight, saying he disliked other films in which characters state visibility is low but the audience can clearly see the scene. Khondji used a mixture of lighting, using the warm light of Chinese lanterns to represent the past and present, and the cold light of Kino Flos to represent the future. The studio was unhappy with the darkness of the dailies; Khondji suggested printing the footage brighter but Fincher refused to compromise. Available footage was made into a well-received promotional showreel for the theater-owner convention ShoWest, after which complaints about the darkness ceased. Khondji used Panavision Primo lenses, which offered a sharp image with good contrast, and Kodak film stocks that could capture the "gritty" interiors and deep blacks for night-time exteriors. Khondji described the scene in which Mills pursues Doe as one of the most-difficult scenes to film due to its length, fast camera movements in rain, and tight, barely lit interior spaces. One segment had to be re-filmed because the location was too dark for the camera to capture Freeman's face. Pitt insisted on performing his own stunts for the scene; he slipped on a rain-slicked car bonnet, crashing through the windshield and sustaining injuries including cut tendons and nerves in his left hand; Fincher said he saw exposed bone. Pitt returned to the set a few days later, having received stitches and a forearm cast, which had to be written into later scenes. For scenes set prior to the chase, Pitt would keep his hand in his pocket or otherwise obscured to hide the injury. Pitt said he regretted not disrobing for a separate scene of Mills and Somerset shaving their chests to wear concealed listening devices. He disliked the public attention given to his body but later came to believe taking off his shirt off would have conveyed the growing partnership between Mills and Somerset. The crew had to clear used condoms and crack pipes from the location of the sloth victim sequence, replacing them with prop crack pipes and air fresheners. The actors were not told the sloth victim was a person in costume; McGinley's shock at the body's movement is real. Lights with green color gels were shone through the window from the adjacent building to impart the scene with a green tint. Leland Orser, who portrays the man who is forced to kill the lust victim, deprived himself of sleep to achieve a "deranged mindset"; his scene was postponed so he stayed awake another night. He breathed rapidly between scenes to make himself hyperventilate on camera. The ending was scripted to take place directly beneath transmission towers, a location Doe selects to interfere with the police communications; the towers, however, interfered with the film crew's radios and the actors had to use cell phones to communicate with the crew from afar. ### Ending and post-production The film's ending remained a point of contention between New Line Cinema and the filmmakers; Fincher, intending to stun the audience, wanted to follow Mills shooting of Doe with a sudden cut to black but executives believed this would alienate audiences. Fincher instructed staff at a test screening to keep off the lights following the cut to black so the audience could take it in but his instructions were not followed. Afterward the screening, one female audience member walking by Fincher said; "the people who made that movie should be killed". According to Fincher, the screening invitation said; "Would you like to see a new movie starring Brad Pitt and Morgan Freeman?", both of whom were known for films very different in tone to Seven; Fincher said; "I don't know what the fuck they thought they were gonna see ... but I'm telling you, from the reaction of the people in there, they were bristling. They couldn't have been more offended." Executives wanted a mainstream conclusion in which Mills and Somerset pursue Doe and a kidnapped Tracy, who would survive. According to Pitt; "[the studio says] 'You know, he would be much more heroic if he didn't shoot John Doe—and it's too unsettling with the head in the box. We think maybe if it was [Mills'] dog's head in the box.'" Freeman preferred a storyboarded sequence of Somerset killing Doe, sparing Mills from losing his career as well, but Pitt believed Mills had to kill Doe and test audiences preferred that version. Another alternative ending depicted Mills shooting Somerset to stop him killing Doe first. Fincher and Pitt refused to compromise on the head-in-the-box ending but settled for a longer epilogue showing Mills being arrested and Somerset delivering a concluding narration, offering some optimism. Pitt and Fincher were unhappy with the car-ride scene leading into the ending because the dialogue had to be overdubbed because too much ambient sound had been picked up during filming. Pitt believed this caused the scene to "lose its breath", affecting the pacing and emotion. The helicopter scenes were also filmed in post-production because there was no time during principal photography; the studio agreed extra time and funding if the scenes were deemed necessary. Because these scenes were filmed several months later that the rest of the film, the green ground had turned brown and the ground-based scenes had to be color-corrected to match the new footage. The opening credits were scripted to be set over footage of Somerset visiting a countryside home he intended to purchase for his retirement, taking a piece of the wallpaper he would carry through the film, before returning to the city by train. This was intended to create a stark contrast between the countryside and the darkness of the city but there was insufficient budget to film it. As a result, scenes of Somerset looking at the wallpaper piece had to be cut. Richard Francis-Bruce edited the 127-minute theatrical cut. His style focused on "having a motivated cut", believing every cut needed to be done with a specific purpose. For the finale, he introduced more rapid cuts to emphasize the tension as Doe's plan is revealed, and a brief, four-frame insert of Tracy as Mills pulls the trigger to compensate for not showing the contents of the box. To emphasize the darkness, Fincher and Khondji used an expensive, lengthy bleach bypass chemical process that retained some of the silver that would normally be removed from the film stock. The silver created a luminous effect in light tones and deeper, darker colors. Of the 2,500 prints sent to theaters, only a few hundred used the process. Seven was budgeted at \$30–\$31 million but Fincher persuaded studio executives to provide further funding to achieve his vision for the film, eventually pushing it \$3 million over budget, to \$33–\$34 million, making it New Line Cinema's most expensive film at that point. A studio employee said executives "would go into these meetings with [Fincher], saying, 'Absolutely not, not a penny more' ... but he was so relentless and persuasive that they'd come out all ga-ga-eyed, and give him more money." About \$15 million of the budget was spent on below-the-line costs. ### Music and sound Fincher hired Howard Shore to score Seven based on his score for The Silence of the Lambs (1991). Shore said Fincher would attend recording sessions but rarely interfered with Shore's process. The score, which was performed by an orchestra of up to 100 musicians, combines elements of brass, percussion, piano, and trumpets. "Portrait of John Doe" serves as the central theme with two cue notes; a rising version is used for Tracy's appearances. Shore described the film's ending as having a "visceral, kind of primal effect on me"; he incorporated his reaction into the sequence's score, providing little accompaniment during the dialogue between Mills, Somerset, and Doe, but using it to punctuate significant moments such as Somerset opening the box. Shore said; "the music starts, and it turns the scene, it turns it into John Doe's perspective ... the music enters, and you realize, the look of the horror on his face, it's a chilling moment". Shore's opening theme "The Last Seven Days", which is described as a more-upbeat piece, was replaced with Nine Inch Nails's song "Closer", which was remixed by Coil and Danny Hyde. David Bowie's song "The Hearts Filthy Lesson" is used for the end credits. Seven features songs including "In the Beginning" by The Statler Brothers, "Guilty" by Gravity Kills, "Trouble Man" by Marvin Gaye, "Speaking of Happiness" by Gloria Lynne, "Suite No. 3 in D Major, BWV 1068 Air" by Stuttgarter Kammerorchester and Karl Münchinger, "Love Plus One" by Haircut One Hundred, "I Cover the Waterfront" by Billie Holiday, "Now's the Time" by Charlie Parker, and "Straight, No Chaser" by Thelonious Monk. Fincher hired his friend Ren Klyce as sound designer. They inserted sounds on the outside of each frame, such as rain or screaming, to create a psychological impression that terrifying things are occurring even when the audience cannot see or escape it. Klyce and sound designer Steve Boedekker also produced the music that is heard at the entrance to the sex club where the lust victim is murdered. ## Design ### Style and set design Fincher, Khondji, production designer Arthur Max, and costume designer Michael Kaplan collaborated on establishing a unified vision for the art direction. Fincher established the design rules for the film, saying: "This is a world that's fucked up and nothing works". He wanted every design to look neglected and in a state of decay. The photography of William Eggleston and Robert Frank influenced Fincher, who focused on "coolness", making the visuals simultaneously gritty, stylized, classic, and contemporary; Khondji said Frank's style could be seen in Seven's very bright exteriors and dark interiors. Many of the film's interior scenes were underexposed to create a stark contrast, which made the exteriors stand out more. Interior lighting was often provided by external sources, using only a few interior artificial lights. The final scene with Mills, Somserset, and Doe, has inconsistent lighting because the actors were always lit from behind by the sun regardless of their placement in the scene, which Khondji described as "a bit of a nightmare and never realistic in terms of continuity". Fincher wanted precise staging for every scene to make the audience feel as if they were in the location. Believing it was important to create limitations to challenge himself, Fincher had sets built without removable walls, and the crew had to film within their confines. Doe's murder scenes were influenced by photography, such as the work of Joel-Peter Witkin. The "gluttony" set was wrapped in plastic to contain the cockroaches; a cockroach wrangler was used to help control them. The sloth scene in particular was influenced by the work of painter Edvard Munch, drawing on the green and "claustrophobic" imagery. The ceilings of the sex club in which the lust victim is murdered were lowered to make the space more claustrophobic, and was sprayed on the walls to give texture and to imply they are covered in bodily fluids. A former bank was used as the library and 5,000 books, which were supplemented with fiberglass replicas, were rented to fill the space. The shaking in Mills apartment, which is caused by a passing train, was created using gas-powered engines attached to the set. Walker's script extensively described Doe's home, whose windows are painted black for privacy and a drawer is filled with empty painkiller bottles to help Doe cope with regular headaches. ### Victims Rob Bottin led development of practical effects. He researched crime-scene photographs and police evidence files, observed an autopsy, and studied the effects of obesity to realize his designs. For the gluttony victim, Mack spent up to 10 hours a day having makeup and prosthetics applied. A scuba-like device was used to let Mack breathe while face-down in spaghetti. Mack said he was unaware he would be surrounded by live insects until reading the daily call sheet and noticing a "cockroach wrangler"; Pitt would flick some roaches off Mack between takes. The character's autopsy used a fiberglass replica with a deliberately enlarged penis; Fincher said after Mack spent so long in makeup for 30 seconds of screen time, he could "at least give him a huge cock". Bottin's team spent 11 days experimenting on the aesthetic and prosthetics for the sloth victim, who MacKay portrayed. MacKay was 5.5 ft (170 cm) tall and weighed 96 to 98 lb (44 to 44 kg) during filming, offering a slight frame for the emaciated character. The filmmakers asked him to lose more weight but he refused. The effects team made a body cast of MacKay to develop rubber prosthetics that could be applied all over his body. The appliances were painted to appear bruised and scarred, veins were airbrushed onto MacKay, and he was fitted with gelatin sores, overgrown fingernails, skeletal teeth, and matted hair. The process took up to 14 hours, requiring MacKay to begin at 5 am for filming at 8 pm. He was taken to the set in costume; Freeman said "you don't look so good". MacKay described filming the scene as "real heavy-duty", and was left "breathing very hard and crying". He had to remain fairly still during four hours of filming, having to limit his breathing to prevent his stomach rising and falling, and the cold on set was worsened by makeup artists repeatedly spraying his body with water. Unable to move, he tensed his muscles to warm himself. He described the moment he was permitted to cough in McGinley's inspecting face as a "great relief" because he could move and breathe again. For Schanz's pride victim, Fincher added blood to her while her nose was taped to the side and her face was covered in gauze. To secure the film's release, several scenes of Bottin's effects work had to be cut. Fincher described Seven as psychologically violent, implying violence without overtly showing it. In the opening scene, Walker portrays a corpse lying in a pool of blood; he said the blood was very cold and he had a minor panic attack once in place because he was worried about moving and ruining the shot. ### Title credits Following the removal of the planned opening train-ride scene with Somerset, Fincher needed a temporary title sequence to screen Seven for studio executives. He recruited R/GA designer Kyle Cooper and his team to assemble a montage slideshow reflecting Doe's perspective. This helped establish the character and his threat earlier in the film because Doe does not appear until Seven's final act. The sequence was set to the "Closer" remix at Fincher's request. The sequence was well-received by executives, who suggested retaining it for the theatrical release. Fincher did not want to appear to be accepting their suggestion and instructed Cooper to develop a new concept; Cooper persuaded Fincher to use a more-elaborate and detailed version of his slideshow. Cooper focused on Doe's elaborate journals, which are briefly glimpsed in the film, while Fincher suggested the sequence should depict Doe. Fincher wanted Mark Romanek to direct the sequence, being a fan of his music video for "Closer" and sharing similar design sensibilities but Cooper secured the role because of his previous experience on similar title sequences. Fincher told Cooper; "all I want is for the audience to want to run screaming from the theater during the title section". The title sequence depicts Doe's preparations and routines for his murderous plans, such as cutting off his fingertips, processing photographs in his bathtub, and making tea. This was inspired by Cooper's appreciation for the "elegant" way Doe stirs his tea following his surrender. The sequence focuses on Doe writing his journal and crossing out words such as "pregnancy" and "marriage", and other elements representing a "perfect life", which he does not believe people deserve. Fincher said; "it was a way of introducing the evil. The idea was that you're watching title sequences from the mind of somebody who's lost it ... [the audience] won't understand while they're watching it, but they'll get it later". Clive Piercy and John Sabel made Doe's journals, which cost tens of thousands of dollars each to fill with text and images; about six complete journals were made, supplemented by blank ones on shelves. Artist Wayne Coe storyboarded the sequence, which Harris Savides filmed and Angus Wall edited. Cooper regularly conferred with Wall on ideas, and spent the night before filming locating items such as fish hooks and loose hairs from his drain, which he believed would make interesting inclusions. Filming took place over eight days, including two days filming a hand-model stand-in for Doe. Fincher was upset at the casting because the model's hands were shorter and chunkier than Spacey's. A further five weeks were spent assembling the sequence. Although digital options were available, Cooper's team chose to assemble the sequence by hand, believing any irregularities and accidents in the images would enhance the overall aesthetic, and manually added scratches, tears, and pen marks direct to the film negative. Fincher and Cooper devised a rough-looking text for the credits to appear as if written by a "disturbed hand". Fincher said: "I always liked the idea that the titles would be written by Doe, hand-lettered ... [Cooper and I] wanted to have them look personal, not typeset. I liked that it wasn't slick." The text was etched onto a black-surfaced scratchboard and visually manipulated while being transferred to film to add a smear effect combined with variants of the same text achieved by placing the text over a light box and filming them over-exposed, creating an animation-style effect. "Disquieting" sounds were added throughout the sequence at a low frequency, such as barking dogs and screams. The title sequence cost \$50,000. ## Release ### Context The theatrical box office of 1994 achieved record grosses, with nine films earning more than \$100 million and the highest attendance (1.29 billion) since 1960 (1.3 billion). By 1995, however, the average cost of making and marketing a film had doubled since 1990, reaching \$50.4 million, making turning a profit more difficult. The rising salary cost of actors was a contributing factor; studios vied to secure popular actors such as Harrison Ford, Jim Carrey, Tom Cruise, and Arnold Schwarzenegger who could generally guarantee a minimum level of box-office success and held broad appeal outside of the United States and Canada. If notable stars were unavailable, studios were forced to pay exorbitant salaries for less-well-known stars and pay other cast lower salaries to offset costs. In 1995, theatrical box-office revenue was falling; the first quarter was about \$90 million lower than the same period in 1994. Markets outside of the U.S. and Canada were growing, accounting for 41% of a film's total revenue—including theatrical and home media profits—and outperformed the U.S. and Canadian box offices for the first time in 1994. Anticipated films such as Batman Forever, Crimson Tide, and Pocahontas were scheduled for release alongside Waterworld, the most-expensive film of its time. New Line Cinema had low expectations for Seven based on middling scores from test audiences. ### Marketing New Line Cinema's marketing president Chris Pula called the advertising campaign for Seven "risky" because it had to "prepare people" for the film's dark, violent content while making it a topic of discussion among potential audiences. Early trailers and newspaper, television, and radio advertisements focused on the seven sins, presenting Seven as an "edgy" prestige film rather than a jumpscare-style horror. Entertainment professionals believed violent or horrific films had a limited appeal and rarely received positive reviews. Fincher's public image had been tarnished by the failure of Alien 3, and although Freeman and Pitt were proven stars who were capable of attracting audiences, New Line Cinema struggled to capitalize on Pitt's popularity. Pitt's core audience, teenage girls, were not the film's target audience and research showed young men would avoid taking a romantic partner to films featuring Pitt because they felt "threatened" by his appeal. The positive word-of-mouth following Seven's theatrical release led the marketing campaign to shift focus toward targeting Pitt's female fans. The premiere of Seven took place on September 19, 1995, at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in Beverly Hills, California. The event was attended by over 800 guests, including Fincher, Freeman, McGinley, Spacey, Tia Carrere, Elliott Gould, Matthew Modine, Lori Petty, Lou Diamond Phillips, Michael Rapaport, Eric Roberts, Robert Rodriguez, Steven Seagal, John Singleton, Christian Slater, Quentin Tarantino, and Jennifer Tilly. ### Box office Seven was released in the United States and Canada on September 22, 1995. During its opening weekend, Seven earned \$14 million across 2,441 theaters—an average of \$5,714 per theater—making it the number-one film of the weekend, ahead of the debut of Showgirls (\$8.1 million), and To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (\$4.5 million), in its third week of release. Seven had the highest-grossing September opening weekend of its time, replacing 1991's Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare (\$12.6 million). The successful opening was credited to the marketing campaign overcoming audience skepticism and Pitt's popularity with males and females—although a higher percentage of the opening audience were male—and the competing action films. New Line Cinema distribution executive, Mitch Goldman had preponed the release date of Seven to avoid competition and strategically opened the film in more theaters than usual to target suburban and small-town locations where Pitt's recent films had fared well. Seven remained number one in its second weekend, ahead of the debuts of Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers (\$7.3 million) and Devil in a Blue Dress (\$5.4 million), and in its third weekend ahead of the debuting Assassins (\$9.4 million) and Dead Presidents (\$8 million). Seven remained the most-popular film until its fifth weekend, falling to number 3 behind the debuts of Get Shorty (\$12.7 million) and Now and Then (\$7.4 million), and was among the ten-highest-grossing films for nine weeks. Seven had grossed about \$87 million by the end of December, when it received a wide re-release in select locations to raise its profile during the nomination period for the 1996 Academy Awards. The re-release helped raise Seven's box-office revenue to about \$100.1 million, making it the ninth-highest-grossing film of 1995 behind Casper (\$100.3 million), Jumanji (\$100.5 million), GoldenEye (\$106.4 million), Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls (\$108.4 million), Pocahontas (\$141.6 million), Apollo 13 (\$173.8 million), Batman Forever (\$184 million), and Toy Story (\$192.5 million). According to estimates by industry experts, as of 1997, the box office returns to the studio minus the theaters' share was \$43.1 million. Seven also performed well outside the U.S. and Canada, receiving positive audience reactions and successful debuts in Australia (\$1.8 million), South Korea (\$808,009), Seoul (\$961,538), New Zealand, and the Netherlands. Seven is estimated to have earned a further \$227.2 million, giving it a worldwide gross of \$327.3 million, and making it the seventh-highest-grossing film worldwide behind Apollo 13 (\$335.8 million), Batman Forever (\$336.5 million), Pocahontas (\$347.1 million), GoldenEye (\$356.4 million), Toy Story (\$365.3 million), and Die Hard: With a Vengeance (\$366.1 million). Seven was an unexpected success and became one of the most-successful and most-profitable films of 1995. ## Reception ### Critical response Critics such as Roger Ebert and Desson Howe described Seven as an intelligent, well-made film that could comfortably stand alongside other thrillers. Others compared Seven unfavorably with The Silence of the Lambs and The Usual Suspects, saying Seven lacks the other films' intelligent narrative, and takes itself too seriously as an examination of evil instead of a "silly piece of pulp". The Orlando Sentinel said, however, Seven offers a "terrific film-noir atmosphere" and excellent performances, with The Seattle Times saying the film would be "unendurable" without Freeman and Spacey. Critics unanimously praised Freeman's performance. Terrence Rafferty and Kenneth Turan wrote Freeman's "exceptional" performance is mainly responsible for making Seven watchable in spite of itself. Howe and James Berardinelli said the performance elevated Pitt's own to appear "actorly", although Freeman often steals every scene in which he appears, providing a fresh take on an otherwise-cliché role. Reviews of Pitt's performance were polarized between those who found it "energetic" and impressive and those who believed the role was beyond his acting abilities. Some reviewers said Pitt's performance continued his successful transition to more-serious roles from those based mainly on his appearance, although Howe said Pitt's presence does more for Seven than his acting. The Orlando Sentinel said what could have been a cliché role was saved by Mills not being inept or inexperienced, just out of his depth in this case. Some reviews said the character is underdeveloped, pointless, stupid, and not particularly likeable, and that Pitt's performance lacks the subtlety or effectiveness to compensate. Critics positively received Paltrow's performance, saying she made the most of her limited screentime and was generally underused while considering the character a "flimsy contrivance". Spacey's performance was also praised for its creepy, understated portrayal of an intelligent character who does not undermine himself with "a moment of sheer stupidity". Fincher's directorial style was praised for its "striking craftmanship" and "stunning" visuals that often simultaneously thrill and exasperate the viewer. In contrast, Rafferty said his style is less effective when stretched over the film's runtime, and that Fincher mistook darkness for profundity and chose style over coherence. Although Siskel considered Walker's script to be smartly written, several critics were less enthusiastic, finding the dialogue trite, many scenes implausible, and character motivations weak. Jami Bernard and Richard Schickel wrote Seven lacks many of the essentials prevalent in its genre such as suspense, witty dialogue and cathartic humor, and the psychological depth to match the intellectual thrills of The Silence of the Lambs. The violent content of Seven was generally negatively received. Critics such as Berardinelli and Gene Siskel found the gore excessive and "gratuitous". While some found the violent visuals to be tiresome and detracting, others said Fincher skilfully avoided showing the violence that led to the deaths, preventing them from distracting from Seven's more enjoyable aspects. According to Ebert and Turan, however, Seven would be too disturbing for many viewers. Fincher responded: "I didn't set out to piss off the people who are upset. I was told that Michael Medved [film critic at New York Post] wrote that the movie was evil, but I'm sure he slows down when he passes an accident just like everyone else. Death fascinates people, but they don't deal with it." Howe and Owen Gleiberman said the ending is "like an act of treachery against the viewer", undermining any hope for a positive outcome; and Barry Norman said it denies the audience "even of the final comfort they fully deserve". Ebert, however, found the ending to be "satisfying" but underwhelming compared to the film's earlier events. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on a scale of A+ to F. ### Accolades Seven received one nomination at the 68th Academy Awards for Best Film Editing (Richard Francis-Bruce), and Walker was nominated for Best Original Screenplay at the 49th British Academy Film Awards. At the MTV Movie Awards, Seven received three awards; Best Movie, Most Desirable Male (Pitt), and Best Villain (Spacey). New Line Cinema re-released Seven in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, on December 26 and in New York City on December 29, 1995, in an unsuccessful attempt to generate Academy Award nominations for Freeman, Pitt, and Fincher. ## Post release ### Home media Seven was released on VHS, DVD, and Laserdisc in 1996. A two-disc special edition DVD that was released in 2000 introduced additional features including a remastered picture scanned from the original film negative, extended and deleted scenes, the original opening with Somerset and cut-to-black ending, production photographs and designs, and storyboards for an alternative ending. The release also includes four commentary tracks: Pitt, Fincher, and Freeman discussing Seven; a discussion between Fincher, De Luca, Francis-Bruce, Walker, and film-studies professor Richard Dyer; Khondji, Max, Dyer, Francis-Bruce, and Fincher; and an isolated music and effects score with commentary by Shore, Klyce, Dyer, and Fincher. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc in 2010; the release features remastered visuals and contains all of the additional content in the special edition, with an additional collectible DigiBook version containing production notes and photographs. In 2023, Fincher revealed he was developing a 4K resolution remaster of Seven from the original film negative. Fincher said he would not alter the film's content, but intended to enhance some visual elements to take advantage of modern technology and conceal any flaws made obvious by the higher resolution. The soundtrack of Seven was released in November 1995; the 11-track compact disc and cassette-tape release contains several of the songs used in the film such as "Guilty" and "In the Beginning", and two pieces of the score ("Portrait of John Doe" and "Suite from Seven") but omits "Closer" and "The Hearts Filthy Lesson". A bootleg recording of the score was released in the late 1990s and an official debut of the full 16-piece score was released in 2016. ### Other media A novelization of Seven that was written by Anthony Bruno was released alongside the film in November 1995. A seven-issue comic-book series was released between September 2006 and October 2007 by Zenescope Entertainment; serving as a prequel to the film's events of the film, the comic book focuses on Doe and the planning of his crimes. ## Thematic analysis ### Apathy and hope The apathy of the film's unnamed city's inhabitants is a central theme in Seven. Somerset does not believe the city can be saved, intending to retire beyond its confines, and telling Mills women are taught to yell "fire" rather than "help" because people are more likely to pay attention if they selfishly think themselves in danger. Taubin described the city as an infection point for corruption in which signs of violence and decay are omnipresent in its dark corners and rain, television reports, fights, screams, and children in impoverished apartments. Dyer compared the near-constant rain to films such as Blade Runner (1982), as a near-inescapable presence, which in Seven can represent sin seeping into every gap. The city's bleak aesthetic implies a layer of moral decay and indifference by its inhabitants that enables Doe's plan. Somerset has not stopped caring but has become as apathetic as those around him because of the futility of his efforts. Seven reinforces this in several scenes, such as the dismissal of his concerns a child witnessed a murder, the police captain's indifference to a mugger needlessly stabbing out his victim's eyes, and the sex club manager who dislikes his role but sees no alternative. Somerset tries to spare Tracy from the influence of the city by advising her to leave with her unborn child. Both Somerset and Doe perceive the ubiquity of sin and indifference toward it. There are parallels between the characters, both of whom live alone, are devoted to their work, and have no meaningful relationships. Although there is mention of Somerset's former partner and some degree of respect for his colleagues, he tells Tracy; "anyone who spends a significant amount of time with me finds me disagreeable". Doe's apartment is a reflection of his isolation from society. They differ, however, in their response to sin; Somerset has surrendered to apathy and sorrow, while Doe feels contempt for society and has assumed a role as its punisher. It is implied Somerset was once passionate about his work until he realized he could not change things; Doe is dedicated and passionate, believing wholeheartedly in the change his work will bring. Somerset has never killed anyone, and retains a spark of hope for humanity's improvement, while Doe kills freely, believing humanity is beyond saving. When Mills tells Doe he is killing innocent people, Doe replies: > only in a world this shitty could you even try to say these were innocent people and keep a straight face. But that's the point. We see a deadly sin on every street corner, in every home, and we tolerate it. We tolerate it because it's common, it's trivial. We tolerate it morning, noon, and night. Well, not anymore. Mills and Somerset are contrasting characters in terms of temperament, morality, intelligence, and personal connections. Somerset is analytical, wise, experienced, and meticulous while Mills is young, messy, and inexperienced but full of potential. Mills is optimistic and relatively light-hearted, choosing to move to the city because he believes he could have a positive influence until everything is taken from him. According to Goldberg, Mills and Tracy are naïve to the city's corruption; for example, they are tricked into renting an apartment that experiences constant shaking from nearby trains. Dyer said Tracy in particular represents potential virtue but her impact is reduced because she is infrequently used to conceal her eventual fate. Doe's plan works, shocking Somerset out of his apathy, and inspiring him to defer his retirement and fight for a better future. Walker said the ending is: > about "optimist Mills" ... going up against this pessimistic kind of world-weary detective in Somerset ... those dramatically opposed points of view are pushing and pulling each other throughout the story. And then once pessimism is confirmed, even to the optimist who's been arguing that the fight is always worth fighting, will the pessimist in the light of confirmation of all his worst predictions, will he stay or will he walk away? Rosenbaum described it as a "touching, old-fashioned faith in the power of good to reassert itself", tempered by the fact the hope is inspired by a self-martyred serial killer. He said Seven chose style over substance, giving the overall message we "remain exactly where we are". Dyer compared Doe to Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, in terms of ability to out-think and manipulate the authorities combined with his artistic method of arranging his murders, but that they are contrasted by their different social statuses; Lecter being an educated professional with a preference for luxury, while Doe is seemingly self taught, unemployed, and obsessed with his mission. Rosenbaum, however, said unlike The Silence of the Lambs, Seven does not "exploit its psycho killer for cheap laughs or blind hero worship". Nayman found Seven problematic, believing it venerates Doe as having a valid criticism of society. ### Religion and order Somerset describes Doe's murders as his sermons to the masses. According to Dyer and Saunders, Doe is conducting a violent crusade, demonstrating the consequences of moral decay and sinning, based on his own interpretation of Christian ideology, in a city rather than the biblical Sodom and Gomorrah. Writer Patricia Moir said theorists in the late 1990s believed a growing trend in North America resulted in the decay of social meta narratives of order that were created by religion, science and art, in turn diminishing societal norms; and that in absence of these paradigms, all that remains is the chaos of existence. Somerset tries to create order using the ticking of a metronome to disguise the disordered noise of sirens and screams outside his apartment. According to Dyer, Somerset's smashing of the metronome is him acknowledging he can no longer ignore the city's darkness. Doe creates order by filtering literature about the seven deadly sins and works by authors such as John Milton through a lens of religious fanaticism. He believes his purpose is God-given, which is reflected in the opening credits depicting Doe cutting the word "God" from a dollar bill; Kyle Cooper said, "I hesitated on that one but decided to do it because John Doe took it on himself to play God". Doe rationalizes everyone is guilty of sin or wishing ill on other sinners. According to Dyer, Doe is conscious he is also a sinner so his plan involves his own death. Goldberg said Doe is the true sin of wrath, which is evident in his violent acts; to complete his plan, however, Doe must make Mills "become" wrath, and gives himself the sin of "envy". His resigned acceptance of the sin is, according to Goldberg, because there is no other sin for him to take and he is conscious sins will not end with his death. Doe's transferring of wrath to Mills also demonstrates the infectiousness and pervasiveness of sin. Mills' killing of Doe can be considered an act of good and justice, eliminating a remorseless force of evil; Mills, however, commits the act purely for revenge. Film professor Richard Dyer says Doe does not know how to conclude his plan until meeting with Mills while disguised as a photographer, during which Mills displays his wrath. Writer Shaina Weatherhead said Seven foreshadows the importance of the wrath and envy throughout, identifying the color red as a representation of wrath and green as a representation of envy; these colors are frequently seen—Somerset has a red lamp, Mills drinks from a green mug, and there are green buildings with red address numbering in the background. Seven includes subtle references to the number seven, reinforcing the religious subtext; Doe's plan culminates on a Sunday, the seventh day of the week and the biblical day of rest, on which Doe's package for Mills is delivered at 7:01 pm. While researching Doe, Somerset references material including "The Parson's Tale" by Geoffrey Chaucer, which discusses penance; Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy and its seven terraces of purgatory; a Catholic dictionary; and a reference to seven children being slain. There are also references to art such as a stack of spaghetti cans resembling Campbell's Soup Cans by Andy Warhol. Journalist Kim Newman said each of Doe's kills is arranged as an artistic piece dedicated to each sin. Commentary appears on the excesses of performance art and culture of celebrity; Mills refers to Doe as a "movie of the week" and a "fucking T-Shirt", implying his legacy will be brief before fading into obscurity. Moir said Seven provides no final answers about Doe's legacy but implies things have potentially only worsened. ## Legacy ### Critical reassessment Seven is now regarded as one of the best thriller, crime, and mystery films ever made. Some publications have listed Seven among the greatest films of all time. A 2014 poll of 2,120 entertainment industry professionals by The Hollywood Reporter ranked Seven the eighty-fifth-best film of all time. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes offers a approval rating from the aggregated reviews of critics, with an average score of . The website's critical consensus says: "A brutal, relentlessly grimy shocker with taut performances, slick gore effects, and a haunting finale". The film has a score of 65 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 22 critics' reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Retrospective reviews have said Seven retains its appeal over its peers due to its bleak, often imitated but rarely equaled ending, and Fincher's story-focused directorial style. Critic Matt Goldberg described Seven as timeless because of its stylized reality that is not linked to any particular time or place, and its lack of popular culture references, advertisements, and focus on technology. Discussing Seven's lasting positive legacy as a thriller, Walker said: > I know a lot of people hate Seven and think it's just garbage, so it's good to be humbled in that way. I'm really proud of it ... Looking back at the time that's passed, I feel extremely lucky that they never managed to make a sequel to it ... I've been lucky that they've not managed to make a prequel to it, which, in my opinion, sucks all of the kind of meaning and energy out of who and what John Doe represents. I love that it's still a standalone piece." Seven is included in the 2013 film reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, and has been listed among Pitt's and Fincher's best films. ### Cultural influence Seven helped Pitt's transition into more-serious and dramatic acting roles. He and Paltrow became romantically involved before the film's release, and Pitt would work again with Fincher on films such as Fight Club (1999). It also established Freeman as a mentor-type figure, an archetype he reprised in many later projects. After the failure of Alien 3, Seven revitalized Fincher's film career, establishing him among the most iconoclastic Hollywood directors of his generation; over the next few years, he directed The Game (1997), Fight Club, and Panic Room (2002). Walker and Shore worked with Fincher on several other projects. Describing the personal impact on himself, Walker said; "ten years down the line, if nothing else got produced. I'd still have this great movie on video ... when I'm run out of town, living my old age, running a miniature golf shop, I can always have what I've dreamt of having since I was very young." In a 2022 interview, MacKay, who played the sloth victim, said he was still earning "healthy residual payments" for his role, and was occasionally recognized in public by fans. He said: "people still think they used a dummy in that scene ... I get that a lot. But that was me". Seven inspired many filmmakers, and is considered influential on crime-based films and television shows that replicated its grim aesthetic, body horror imagery, lighting, and premise of disenchanted detectives pursuing criminals with distinctive killing methods and motivations, including Kiss the Girls (1997), The Bone Collector (1999), Along Came a Spider, The Pledge (both 2001), the Saw series (2003), and television series Prodigal Son (2019–2021). Collider said Seven caused a resurgence in faith-based horror, supernatural, and apocalyptic mystery films. The superhero film The Batman (2022) has a similar style and tone to Seven; Rolling Stone called it "part superhero blockbuster, part 1970s-antihero homage, and part Seven remake". Seven's use of alternative music by Nine Inch Nails is also seen as contributing to increased use of similar songs in films such as Final Destination (2000), Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001), and Resident Evil (2002). The New York Times called the title credit sequence for Seven "one of the most important design innovations of the 1990s". Art of the Title described it as the beginning of a "renaissance in title design, particularly in the horror genre, and its influence is evident over two decades after Seven's release. In 2011, IFC ranked the sequence as the third-best-ever behind those of Vertigo (1958) and A Hard Day's Night (1964), and its style can be seen in the opening credits of films such as The Bone Collector, Red Dragon, and Taking Lives (2004). The film's twist ending is considered one of the best in cinematic history. Pitt's line "What's in the box?" as he asks Somerset to confirm the contents of Doe's box, has become iconic, and is used in popular culture and memes. Walker said; "[The twist is] one of the reasons I think Seven did well ... because people went in and they did not know in the first ten minutes exactly how the movie was going to end". Although it is only implied Tracy's head is in the box, Fincher recalled an encounter with a woman who said: "'There is no need to make a stand in of Gwyneth Paltrow's head to find in the box. You don't need to see that.' And I said, 'Well, we didn't.' And she said, 'Oh yes, you did.' So, the imagination, if properly primed, can do more than any army of makeup artists." Several publications have named John Doe as one of the great cinematic villains. ## Sequel In 2002, New Line Cinema proposed a sequel named Ei8ht that would be based on a repurposed spec script titled Solace by Ted Griffin about a psychic serial killer who is pursued by a similarly psychic detective, Somerset. The idea was abandoned after principal Seven cast and crew, including Freeman and Pitt, expressed no intention to return for a sequel. Fincher said; "I would be less interested in that than I would in having cigarettes put out in my eyes". The script was made into the standalone thriller named Solace (2015), which was a critical and commercial failure.
57,578,644	Mississippi Highway 388	1,054,759,791	Highway in Mississippi	[ "State highways in Mississippi", "Transportation in Noxubee County, Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 388 (MS 388) is a state highway in eastern Mississippi. The route starts at the intersection of U.S. Route 45 Alternate (US 45 Alt.) and MS 852 in Brooksville, and it travels east to US 45 soon after. The route intersects MS 792 near Cliftonville, and it ends at Alabama State Route 86 (SR 86) at the Alabama–Mississippi state line. MS 388 was designated around 1957, from US 45 to a point west of the state line. The route was extended to Bigbee Valley and to the state line by 1974 and 1990, respectively. ## Route description All of MS 388 is located eastern in Noxubee County. The route is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3, and all of it is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT), as part of the Mississippi State Highway System. The route starts at the intersection of US 45 Alt. and MS 852 in Brooksville, and it travels east to US 45. The road leaves the city limits of Brooksville east of the intersection, and it travels south-southeast to Pilgrims Rest Road, where it turns east towards Deerbrook. The road crosses over Bogue Chitto and passes through Deerbrook. West of Cliftonville, MS 388 intersects the southern terminus of MS 792. Continuing through rural Noxubee County, the route turns northeast at Stevenson Road. At Togo Road, MS 388 turns eastward. After turning northeast at Fox Chase Road west of Bigbee Valley, the road enters into a forest and turns southeast at Clayton Road. At the Alabama–Mississippi state line, MS 388 ends and SR 86 continues east to Pickensville. ## History By 1957, MS 388 was designated along an asphalt road from US 45 east of Brooksville to a gravel road leading to the Alabama–Mississippi state line. The western terminus was moved to the northeast of Brooksville one year later. By 1963, the gravel road east of the eastern terminus in Cliftonville was transferred from state maintenance to county maintenance. MS 388 was extended eastwards to Bigbee Valley by 1974. The route was widened and built up from Brooksville to Bigbee Valley in 1986, to improve access to a Weyerhaeuser paper mill. Improvements to the route east of Bigbee Valley were not completed, as it was owned by Noxubee County, and MDOT could not take ownership until the road was upgraded. This led to truck drivers taking longer routes to the mill, as their loads were above the legal limit for the route. In March 1988, a Weyerhaeuser pulp mill was approved for construction, and Noxubee County received federal funding to rebuild the route. MS 388 was extended to the state line by 1990, with all sections paved in asphalt. ## Major intersections
57,566,046	All Mine (Kanye West song)	1,160,357,535	null	[ "2018 singles", "2018 songs", "Kanye West songs", "Obscenity controversies in music", "Song recordings produced by Kanye West", "Song recordings produced by Mike Dean (record producer)", "Songs written by Ant Clemons", "Songs written by Consequence (rapper)", "Songs written by Cyhi the Prynce", "Songs written by Jeremih", "Songs written by Kanye West", "Songs written by Malik Yusef", "Songs written by Mike Dean (record producer)", "Songs written by Pardison Fontaine", "Songs written by Ty Dolla Sign" ]	"All Mine" is a song by American rapper Kanye West from his eighth studio album, Ye (2018). The song features vocals from American singers Ty Dolla Sign and Ant Clemons. The song's production relies on a simplistic drum-led style and was primarily handled by West, while it was co-produced by Mike Dean and additional production was handled by Francis and the Lights, and Scott Carter. West co-wrote the song alongside 13 others, with the information being revealed what lyrics co-writer Consequence was responsible for. On July 20, 2018, West picked "All Mine" to be the second single from the album. Four days later, the song was released as a single to US rhythmic contemporary radio stations by GOOD Music and Def Jam. It features industrial sounds, alongside organ music. Throughout the song, West defends his dating preferences as well as taking a look at various dating choices and responding to criticism. Controversial lyrics are included within it in reference to Khloé Kardashian's relationship with Tristan Thompson, which she seemingly responded to via Snapchat. "All Mine" received generally positive reviews from music critics. While most commented on its sexual nature, some critics praised the production and the song's position in West's career. It reached number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 2018 and charted in numerous other countries, including New Zealand and Australia. The song has since been certified double platinum and silver in the United States and the United Kingdom by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and British Phonographic Industry (BPI), respectively. A lyric video for it was released on June 19, 2018, which features visuals reminiscent of the cover art for Ye. ## Background and recording "All Mine" originated as a demo by American singer Jeremih, who is credited as a songwriter on the track. Jeremih collaborator Bongo ByTheWay introduced him to the relatively-unknown Ant Clemons, with Bongo ByTheWay having previously recorded 11 records in a single day with Clemons. Jeremih was invited to Wyoming by West for participation in the recording sessions for Ye in 2018 and he played the demo for West, who then performed for it. Clemons saw an increase in fame after working with West. Along with "All Mine", Ty Dolla Sign contributed vocals on Ye tracks "Violent Crimes" and "Wouldn't Leave". On June 4, 2018, three days after the album's release, a collaborative album with West was teased by Ty Dolla Sign. He recalled "going off on the backgrounds, no Auto-Tune" when working with West in a phone conversation with Rolling Stone on August 30 of that year. American pop project Francis and the Lights had previously released a cover version of West's hit single "Can't Tell Me Nothing" (2007), which West shared a link to via his blog on February 7, 2009. The two subsequently collaborated on the 2016 single "Friends" alongside Bon Iver and the track's music video includes an appearance from West. Outside of "All Mine", Francis and the Lights has production credits on Ye tracks "I Thought About Killing You" and "Ghost Town". The possessive pronoun "Mine" being included in the title of the song is linked to the subject matter. West had been criticized for dating options in the past, specifically when he dated American model and actress Amber Rose. "All Mine" does not stand as the only song linked to West's perspective of women on the album, as he raps about protecting them on "Violent Crimes". ## Composition and lyrics "All Mine" features an unpolished beat, which includes industrial screeches. Organ music heard in a church is juxtaposed with references to celebrity icons in "All Mine", including Naomi Campbell and Stormy Daniels. The intro of the song consists of Clemons singing and Ty Dolla Sign providing various ad-libs. Falsetto vocals are featured in the intro, which are performed by Clemons. He sings the song's chorus, with the "genie in a bottle" metaphor of the lyrics "Get to rubbin' on my lamp/Get the genie out the bottle" doubling as a sexual innuendo. West defends his dating preferences whilst taking a look at various dating choices within his two verses on the song, as well as responding to critics. The first verse also sees West rap about scandals and affairs, among other forms of infidelity. In West's second verse, crashes of sound are heard every time he raps "Ay". ## Writing and production "All Mine" was written by West, Mike Dean, Francis Starlite, Cyhi the Prynce, Consequence, Jeremih, 070 Shake, Clemons, Uforo Ebong, Ty Dolla Sign, Malik Yusef, Kenneth Pershon, Bump J and Pardison Fontaine. It was revealed by West in an interview with The New York Times on June 25, 2018 that co-writer Consequence, credited under his real name of Dexter Mills, was the one who came up with the lyrics "I could have Naomi Campbell/And still might want me a Stormy Daniels." A screenshot of an Instagram photo about West revealing Consequence to have wrote such content was shared to Consequence's Instagram the following month. Alongside the screenshot, Consequence added a caption featuring text about how he only writes for multi-millionaires and/or his loved ones. West produced the track, with co-production from Dean and additional production from Francis and the Lights, and Scott Carter. Francis and the Lights contributed to both the production and writing of it. The track's production relies on a simplistic drum-led style, with it being where the harmonic progression of the album momentarily stops. ## Release and promotion On June 1, 2018, "All Mine" was released as the third track on West's eighth studio album Ye. West subsequently selected the song as the second single from the album on July 20 of that year, succeeding the lead single "Yikes"; it was set to be serviced to radio stations across the United States in the next week. Despite the first single "Yikes" debuting at \#8 on the Billboard Hot 100, West's record labels GOOD Music and Def Jam tried their best to make sure that Ye did not lose momentum by readying a second single to be pushed. The song was the album's top performing track on Spotify in the US at the time of being picked by West for release as a single, sitting at approximately 600,000 streams a day. Four days after being selected as a single by West, it was serviced to US rhythmic contemporary radio stations through his record labels. A lyric video was officially released for the song on June 19, 2018, along with one for fellow album track "Violent Crimes". The lyric video features a panning view of Jackson Hole with lyrics written over it, visually resembling the official cover art for Ye and the lyrics are written in the same font that appears on the album's cover. West used simplicity for not embellishing more than he needs to. The thumbnail image for the visual was provided by Jewel Samad of Agence France-Presse (AFP). Though the lyric videos were released by West, he had not released any music videos for the album or his collaborative studio album Kids See Ghosts with Kid Cudi, as Kids See Ghosts; West's last released music video was for 2016 single "Fade". ## Critical reception "All Mine" was met with generally positive reviews from music critics, who often noted its sexual nature. Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic put forward the idea of the track as being what continues West's "career-long meltdown about monogamy." In reference to the track's position on Ye, Lucy Jones from The Daily Telegraph described it as where West "moves into more explicit territory" and viewed the beat as being "dirty and mechanical," while also writing that it "feels like Life Of Pablo or Yeezus-era Kanye." Sam Moore of Metro pointed out that the song shows West indulging "in one of his favourite pastimes: name-checking celebrities" and noted the sexual nature of West's lyricism. Consequence of Sound writer Wren Graves listed it as one of the album's essential tracks. The Independent's Christopher Hooton claimed that the song "has an irresistible bounce to it" and is where "Kanye stamps well-trodden lyrical ground." The song's lyrics "I could have Naomi Campbell/And still might want me a Stormy Daniels" were viewed by Hooton as "just an alternate" to West's lyrics "See I could have me a good girl/And still be addicted to them hood rats" from his 2010 Pusha T-featuring single "Runaway". Clayton Purdom from The A.V. Club labeled the song as a minimal collage "of organ drones, a rotating cast of sinuous hook-men, and what are apparently the best jokes about ejaculate and breast implants Kanye came up with in the past couple years." In Tiny Mix Tapes, Adam Rothbarth praised the way West "uses space and silence" in the song and also complemented its production. However, not all reviews were positive. Andrew Barker gave the song a negative review for Variety, branding it as being an "embarrassing sex track," and Barker compared the song to West's Yeezus track "I'm In It" (2013). The Guardian's Alexis Petridis opined that the "scampering, falsetto vocals" on the song "quickly grate." For Billboard, Michael Saponara ranked it as the worst track on Ye and commented that the "sultry vocals" set the tone for the song before West's sexualized rapping. ### Accolades The track ranked as the 85th most streamed song of 2018 worldwide on Apple Music and the year's 67th most streamed in the US. It was voted by listeners of Australian radio station Triple J as the 158th most popular song of 2018. On Run The Trap's list of the Top 25 Hip-Hop Songs Of 2018, the track ranked at number 15, with Aaron Root of the site calling it where "Kanye talks about the topic of infidelity" and claiming that he "goes as far to call out many celebrities for their infidelity." ## Controversy West raps a diss to his sister-in-law Khloé Kardashian over her decision to date Canadian basketball player Tristan Thompson in "All Mine" with the lyrics "All these thots on Christian Mingle/Almost what got Tristan single/If you don't ball like him or Kobe/Guarantee that bitch gon' leave you." Thompson was effectively excluded from family affairs by the Kardashian family, while West's wife Kim Kardashian had previously called the couple's cheating scandal "so fucked up." One day after the release of Ye, Khloé Kardashian seemingly insulted West by sharing a Snapchat post of her working out to the track "Delicate" (2018) by his rival Taylor Swift, whom West dissed most recently in his 2016 single "Famous" by calling her "that bitch." Despite this, Kardashian had praise for the album overall, tweeting out fire emojis next to its title. Her younger half-sister Kylie Jenner rapped along with the diss to Thompson in a video posted to Jenner's Snapchat at a later date with Anastasia Karanikolaou and the video clip gathered more attention after it surfaced on Instagram. ## Commercial performance Following its release as a single, "All Mine" was a commercial success, charting in a total of 20 countries worldwide in 2018. The song made its debut at number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 upon the release of Ye, despite not being released as a single initially, becoming the most streamed song of the week. By topping the US Streaming Songs chart, the song surpassed the entry of West's track "Gone" (2005) at number four in 2013 for the title of his highest debut on the chart, while giving West his first number one by exceeding his previous peak position of number two attained by "Bound 2" that same year. The streams were counted at 36.3 million, while 6,000 digital sales were logged. That same week, the song entered at number nine on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and marked West's 26th entry in the top 10; "All Mine" and "Yikes" became West's first top 10 singles on the chart since "All Day" in 2015. In total, the song remained on the Hot 100 for nine weeks. It ranked at number 96 on the year-end US Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for 2018. On September 21, 2018, the track was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for amassing 1,000,000 certified units in the US, around two months after having been released as a single. This made it the first track from Ye to achieve the certification and the song became West's first platinum single in the US since the 2016 GOOD Music collaborative single "Champions". The former was later awarded a double platinum certification by the RIAA for pushing 2,000,000 certified units in the country on June 28, 2021. On the NZ Singles Chart and Slovakia's Singles Digitál Top 100, the song performed best by peaking at number five on both of the charts, respectively. On the ARIA Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 12. The following week, it rose two places to number 10. The song reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart, standing as West's second highest entry on the chart issue that fell on his 41st birthday and also gave him his third top 40 entry for that issue. On March 6, 2020, "All Mine" was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales of 200,000 units in the United Kingdom. The song also entered the top 20 of the charts in Portugal, Ireland, Greece, Estonia, and Canada. However, the song experienced a lesser degree of success on charts in other countries. "All Mine" charted at number 23 on the Norwegian Singles Chart. It reached similar positions of numbers 25 and 26 on the Czech Republic Singles Digitál Top 100 and Danish Tracklisten chart respectively. The song also reached the top 40 of the Swedish Sverigetopplistan chart, Icelandic Singles Chart and Ö3 Austria Top 40. On the Schweizer Hitparade chart, it peaked at number 43 and charted at a similar position of number 46 on the Netherlands Single Top 100. "All Mine" reached number 75 on both the Official German Chart and French SNEP chart. The track experienced its worst performance on the FIMI Singles Chart, peaking at number 96. ## Credits and personnel Recording - Recorded at West Lake Ranch, Jackson Hole, Wyoming Personnel - Kanye West – production, songwriter - Mike Dean – co-production, songwriter, engineering, mixing - Francis and the Lights – additional production - Scott Carter – additional production - Ant Clemons – songwriter, vocals - Ty Dolla Sign – songwriter, vocals - Cydel Young – songwriter - Danielle Balbuena – songwriter - Dexter Mills – songwriter - Francis Starlite – songwriter - Jeremy Felton – songwriter - Jordan Thorpe – songwriter - Kenneth Pershon – songwriter - Malik Yusef – songwriter - Terrence Boykin – songwriter - Uforo Ebong – songwriter - Andrew Dawson – engineering, programming - Mike Malchicoff – engineering - Zack Djurich – engineering - Sean Solymar – assistant recording engineering - Jess Jackson – mixing Credits adapted from Tidal. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - 2018 in hip hop music - List of number-one Billboard Streaming Songs of 2018 - List of top 10 singles in 2018 (Australia)
383,925	Hamilton Fish	1,172,423,725	American politician (1808–1893)	[ "1808 births", "1893 deaths", "19th-century American Episcopalians", "19th-century American politicians", "American people of Dutch descent", "American people of English descent", "Columbia College (New York) alumni", "Fish family", "Governors of New York (state)", "Grant administration cabinet members", "Lieutenant Governors of New York (state)", "Livingston family", "New York (state) Republicans", "People of New York (state) in the American Civil War", "Presidents of the New York Public Library", "Presidents of the Saint Nicholas Society of the City of New York", "Schuyler family", "United States Secretaries of State", "United States senators from New York (state)", "Whig Party United States senators", "Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)", "Whig Party state governors of the United States", "Winthrop family", "Woodhull family" ]	Hamilton Fish (August 3, 1808 – September 7, 1893) was an American politician who served as the 16th governor of New York from 1849 to 1850, a United States senator from New York from 1851 to 1857, and the 26th U.S. secretary of state from 1869 to 1877. Fish is recognized as the pillar of Ulysses S. Grant's presidency and considered by scholars as one of the nation's most effective U.S. secretaries of state, known for his judiciousness and efforts towards reform and diplomatic moderation. Fish settled the controversial Alabama Claims with Great Britain through his development of the concept of international arbitration. Fish and Grant kept the United States out of war with Spain over Cuban independence by coolly handling the volatile Virginius incident. In 1875, Fish initiated the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom that ultimately led to statehood for Hawaii by negotiating a reciprocal trade treaty for the island nation's sugar production. He also organized a peace conference and treaty in Washington, D.C., between South American countries and Spain. Fish worked with James Milton Turner to settle the Liberia-Grebo War in 1876. President Grant said he trusted Fish the most for political advice. Fish came from prominence and wealth. His Dutch American family was long-established in New York City. He attended Columbia College and later passed the New York state bar. Initially working as commissioner of deeds, he ran unsuccessfully for New York State Assembly as a Whig candidate in 1834. After marrying, he returned to politics and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843. Fish ran for New York's lieutenant governor in 1846, falling to a Democratic Anti-Rent Party contender. When the office was vacated in 1847, Fish ran and was elected to the position. In 1848, he ran and was elected governor of New York, serving one term. In 1851, he was elected U.S. Senator for New York, serving one term. Fish gained valuable experience serving on Committee on Foreign Relations. Fish was a moderate on the question of maintaining or dissolving slavery; he opposed the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the expansion of slavery. After traveling to Europe, Fish returned to the United States and supported Abraham Lincoln, the Republican nominee for president in the 1860 U.S. presidential election. During the American Civil War, Fish raised money for the Union war effort and served on Lincoln's presidential commission that made successful arrangements for Union and Confederate troop prisoner exchanges. Fish returned to his law practice after the Civil War, and was thought to have retired from political life. When Ulysses S. Grant was elected president in 1868, he appointed Fish as U.S. secretary of state in 1869. Fish took on the State Department with vigor, reorganized the office, and established civil service reform. During his tenure, Fish had to contend with Cuban belligerency, the settlement of the Alabama claims, Canada–U.S. border disputes, and the Virginius incident. Fish implemented the new concept of international arbitration, where disputes between countries were settled by negotiations, rather than military conflicts. Fish was involved in a political feud between U.S. senator Charles Sumner and President Grant in the latter's unsuccessful efforts to annex the Dominican Republic. Fish organized a naval expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to open trade with Korea in 1871. Leaving office and politics in 1877, Fish returned to private life and continued to serve on various historical associations. Fish died quietly of old age in his luxurious New York State home in 1893. Fish has been praised by historians for his calm demeanor under pressure, honesty, loyalty, modesty, and talented statesmanship during his tenure under President Grant, briefly serving under President Hayes. The hallmark of his career was the Treaty of Washington, peacefully settling the Alabama Claims. Fish also ably handled the Virginus incident, keeping the United States out of war with Spain. Fish's lesser-known, but successful South American détente and armistice, has been forgotten by historians. Fish, while Secretary of State, lacked empathy for the plight of African Americans, and opposed annexation of Latin American countries. Fish has been traditionally viewed to be one of America's top ranked Secretaries of State by historians. Fish's male descendants would later serve in the U.S. House of Representatives for three generations. ## Early life and education Fish was born on August 3, 1808, in what is the present-day Hamilton Fish House in Greenwich Village in New York City, to Nicholas Fish and Elizabeth Stuyvesant, a daughter of Peter Stuyvesant and direct descendant of New Amsterdam's Director-General Peter Stuyvesant. He was named after his parents' friend Alexander Hamilton, a Founding Father and the nation's first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury under George Washington. Nicholas Fish (1758–1833) was a leading Federalist politician and notable figure of the American Revolutionary War. Colonel Fish was active in the Yorktown Campaign, which featured the final battles of the American Revolutionary War and led to the surrender of Lord Cornwallis and American independence. Peter Stuyvesant was a prominent founder of New York, then a Dutch Colony, and his family owned much property in Manhattan. Fish received his primary education at M. Bancel, a private school. In 1827, Fish graduated from Columbia College, having obtained high honors. At Columbia, Fish became fluent in French, a language that would later help him as U.S. Secretary of State. After his graduation, Fish studied law for three years in the law office of Peter A. Jay, served as president of the Philolexian Society, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1830, practicing briefly with William Beach Lawrence. Influenced politically by his father, Fish aligned himself to the Whig Party. He served as commissioner of deeds for the city and county of New York from 1831 through 1833, and was an unsuccessful Whig candidate for New York State Assembly in 1834. On December 15, 1836, Fish married Julia Kean, a sister of Col. John Kean, both descendants of William Livingston, a New Yorker who went on to become New Jersey's first governor. The couple's lengthy married life was described as happy and Mrs. Fish was known for her "sagacity and judgement." The couple had three sons and five daughters. ## Career ### New York political career ### U.S. Congress For eight years after his defeat as a Representative in the New York State Assembly, Fish was reluctant to run for office. However, Whig party leaders in 1842 convinced him to run for the House of Representatives. In November, Fish was elected to the House of Representatives; having defeated Democrat John McKeon and serving in the 28th Congress from New York's 6th District between 1843 and 1845. The Whigs at this time were in the minority in the House; however, Fish gained valued national experience serving on the Committee of Military Affairs. Fish failed to win a re-election bid for a second term in the House. ### Lieutenant governor Fish was the Whig candidate for Lieutenant Governor of New York in 1846, but was defeated by Democrat Addison Gardiner who had been endorsed by the Anti-Rent Party. Leasing farmers in New York refused to pay rent to large land tract owners and sometimes resorted to violence and intimidation. Fish had opposed the Anti-Rent Party for the use of illegal tactics not to pay rent. Gardiner was elected in May 1847 a judge of the New York Court of Appeals and vacated the office of lieutenant governor. Fish was then in November 1847 elected to fill the vacancy, and was Lieutenant Governor in 1848. Lieut. Gov. Fish had a favorable reputation for being "conciliatory" and for his "firmness" over the New York Senate. ### Governor In November 1848, he was elected Governor of New York, defeating John A. Dix and Reuben H. Walworth, and served from January 1, 1849, to December 31, 1850. At 40 years of age, Fish was one of the youngest governors to be elected in New York history. Fish advocated and signed into law free public education facilities throughout New York state. He also advocated and signed into law the building of an asylum and school for the intellectually disabled. During his tenure the canal system in the state of New York was increased. In 1850, Fish recommended that the state legislature form a committee to collect and publish the Colonial Laws of New York. None of the bills that Governor Fish vetoed were overturned by the New York legislature. In his annual messages Fish spoke out against the extension of slavery from land acquired from the Mexican–American War, including California and New Mexico. His anti-slavery messages gave Fish national attention and President Zachary Taylor, also a Whig, was going to nominate Fish to the Treasury Department in a cabinet shakeup. However Taylor died in office before he could nominate Fish. Despite his national popularity Fish was not renominated for Governor. ### U.S. Senator After Fish retired from office as governor, he did not openly seek the nomination to be elected U.S. Senator. However, Fish's supporters, the William H. Seward-Thurlow Weed Whigs, in January 1851 nominated him as a candidate for U.S. Senator. A deadlock ensued over his nomination because one New York legislature Whig Senator was upset about Fish not publicly supporting the Compromise of 1850. Before the election Fish had only stated government should enforce the laws. Although Fish did not favor the spread of slavery he was hesitant to support the free soil movement. Finally, when two Democratic Senators who were against Fish's nomination were conspicuously absent, the Senate took action and voted. On March 19, 1851, Fish was elected a U.S. Senator from New York and he took his seat on December 1, serving alongside future Secretary of State William H. Seward. In the U.S. Senate, he was a member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations until the end of his term on March 4, 1857. Fish became friends with President Franklin Pierce's Secretary of State William L. Marcy and Attorney General Caleb Cushing. He was a Republican for the latter part of his term and was part of a moderately anti-slavery faction. During the 1850s, the Republican Party replaced the Whig Party as the central party against the Democratic Party. By 1856, Fish privately considered himself a Whig although he knew that the Whig Party was no longer viable politically. Fish was a quiet Senator, rather than an orator, who liked to keep to himself. Fish often was in disagreement with Senator Sumner, who was firmly opposed to slavery and advocated equality for blacks. His policy was to vote for legislation on the side of "justice, economy, and public virtue." He strongly opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Fish often voted with the Free Soil faction and was strongly against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. In February 1855, merchants represented by Moses H. Grinnell, criticized Fish's bill on immigration and maritime commerce. Fish's bill was designed to protect Irish and German immigrants who were dying on merchant ships during oceanic passage to America. The merchants believed that Fish's bill was oppressive to commercial interests over human interests. During his tenure, the nation and Congress were in tremendous political upheaval over slavery, that included violence, disorder, and disturbances of the peace. In 1856, pro-slavery advocates invaded Kansas and used violent tactics against those who were anti-slavery. In May 1856, Senator Charles Sumner was viciously attacked by Preston Brooks in the Senate Chamber. At the expiration of his term, he traveled with his family to Europe and remained there until shortly before the opening of the American Civil War, when he returned to begin actively campaigning for the election of Abraham Lincoln. While in France, Fish studied foreign policy with diplomats and distinguished Americans, and gained valuable experience that would eventually benefit his tenure as U.S. Secretary of State. ### American Civil War Fish had several important roles during the American Civil War. Fish's private secretary was involved in the attempt of the merchant ship Star of the West to bring relief supplies to Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. During this period, Fish often met with General Winfield Scott, commander-in-chief of the US Army. Fish was dining with Scott in New York when a telegram reported that Confederates had fired on Star of the West. Fish said that this meant war; Scott replied "Don't utter that word, my friend. You don't know what a horrid thing war is." In 1861–1862, Fish participated in the Union Defense Committee of the State of New York, which cooperated with New York City in raising and equipping Union Army troops, and disbursed more than \$1 million for the relief of New York volunteers and their families. The committee included chairman John A. Dix, William M. Evarts, William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart, John Jacob Astor, and other New York men. Fish was appointed chairman of the committee after Dix joined the Union Army. In 1862, President Lincoln appointed Fish and Bishop Edward R. Ames as commissioners to visit Union prisoners in Richmond, Virginia. The Confederate government, however, would not allow them to enter the city. Instead, Fish and Rev. Ames started the prisoner exchange program which continued virtually unchanged throughout the war. After the war ended, Fish went back to private practice as a lawyer in New York. From 1860 to 1869, Fish was trustee of The Bank for Savings in the City of New-York stepping down from that role when he became US Secretary of State. ### U.S. Secretary of State Fish was appointed Secretary of State by President Ulysses S. Grant and served between March 17, 1869, and March 12, 1877. He was President Grant's longest-serving Cabinet officer. Upon assuming office in 1869, Fish was initially underrated by some statesmen including former Secretaries of State William H. Seward and John Bigelow. Fish, however, immediately took on the responsibilities of his office with diligence, zeal, and intelligence. Fish's tenure as Secretary of State was lengthy, almost eight years, and he had to contend with many foreign policy issues including the Cuban insurrection, the Alabama Claims, and the Franco-Prussian War. During Reconstruction, Fish was not known to sympathize with Grant's policy to eradicate the Ku Klux Klan, racism in the Southern states, and promote African American equality. Fish complained of being bored at Grant's cabinet meetings when Grant's U.S. Attorney General Amos T. Akerman told of atrocities of the Klan against black citizens. #### Alabama Claims Throughout Fish's tenure during Grant's first term in office, Fish periodically threatened to resign. After Fish's and Grant's high-water mark accomplishment of settling the Alabama Claims, Fish told Grant he would resign on August 1, 1871. Grant, however, needed Fish's professional advice and pleaded with Fish to remain in office. Grant told Fish he could not replace him. Fish remained in office, 13 years Grant's senior, even under ill health. When Fish assumed office he immediately began a series of reforms in the Department of State. After appropriations were given to his office by Congress, Fish cataloged and organized 700 volumes of miscellaneous State Department documents and created the Bureau of Indexes and Archives. Fish introduced indexing of State Department files so subordinates could easily find documents. Fish implemented civil service reform by having State Department applicants be required to pass an entry examination before being appointed consultant. This policy was sometimes hampered, since President Grant could appoint any person to office without the person having to take an examination. However, the policy of testing overall improved the staff at the State Department. Fish's methods of organization included disciplined staff and prompt copying of dispatches. The method of record keeping, however, was cumbersome and had remained unchanged since John Quincy Adams' presidency. Rather than world regions, countries were listed in alphabetical order; the correspondence was embedded in bound diplomatic and consular category archives, rather than by subject matter. Added to countries' information was a miscellaneous category filed chronologically. This resulted in a tedious and time-consuming process to make briefings for Congress. Diplomatic ministers, only 23 in 1877, were not kept informed of current world events that took place in other parts of the world. By 1869, Cuban nationals were in open rebellion against their mother country Spain, due to the unpopularity of Spanish rule. American sentiment favored the Cuban rebels and President Grant appeared to be on the verge of acknowledging Cuban belligerency. Fish, who desired settlement over the Alabama Claims, did not approve of recognizing the Cuban rebels, since Queen Victoria and her government had recognized Confederate belligerency in 1861. Recognizing Cuban belligerency would have jeopardized settlement and arbitration with Great Britain. In February 1870, Senator John Sherman authored a Senate resolution that would have recognized Cuban belligerency. Working behind the scenes Fish counseled Sherman that Cuban recognition would ultimately lead to war with Spain. The resolution went to the House of Representatives and was ready to pass, however, Fish worked out an agreement with President Grant to send a special message to Congress that urged not to acknowledge the Cuban rebels. On June 13, 1870, the message written by Fish was sent to Congress by the President and Congress, after much debate, decided not to recognize Cuban belligerency. President Grant continued the policy of Cuban belligerent non recognition for the rest of his two administrations. This policy, however, was tested in 1873 with the Virginius Affair. #### Annexation of Santo Domingo After President Grant assumed office on March 4, 1869, one of his immediate foreign policy interests was the annexation of the Caribbean island nation of the Dominican Republic, at that time referred to as Santo Domingo, to the United States. Grant believed the annexation of Santo Domingo would increase the United States' mineral resources and alleviate the effects of racism against African Americans in the South. Hamilton Fish, though loyal to Grant, racially opposed annexation of Latin American countries, saying "the incorporation of those peopled by the Latin race would be but the beginnings of years of conflict and anarchy." The divided island nation, run by mulatto leader President Buenaventura Báez, had been troubled with civil strife. Báez had controversially imprisoned an American citizen, Davis Hatch, for speaking out against the Báez government, susceptible to a Haitian military take over. Fish told Grant that the U.S. Senate would not be ready to pass a Santo Domingo annexation treaty. In April 1869, Fish gave Grant's private secretary Orville Babcock "special agent" status to search the island. Babcock, a military aide, who had served with merit in the Civil War, was a proponent of annexation, and racially open to annexing a Latin American mixed race country, by the United States. In September 1869, Babcock made a preliminary treaty that would annex Santo Domingo to the United States and give it the opportunity to apply for statehood. In October 1869, Fish drew up a formal treaty that included: a \$1,500,000 payment of the Dominican national debt; Samaná Bay would be leased to the United States for \$150,000 yearly payment; Santo Domingo would eventually be given statehood. In a private conference with Grant, Fish agreed to support the Santo Domingo annexation if Grant sent Congress a non-belligerency statement not to get involved with the Cuban rebellion against Spain. Charles Sumner, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, was against the treaty, believing that Santo Domingo needed to remain independent, and that racism against U.S. black citizens in the South needed to be dealt with in the continental United States. Sumner believed that blacks on Santo Domingo did not share Anglo-American values. On January 10, 1870, Grant submitted the Santo Domingo treaty to the United States Senate. Fish believed senators would vote for annexation only if statehood was withdrawn; however, President Grant refused this option. The Senate took its time deliberating, and finally rejected the treaty on June 30, 1870. Eighteen senators led by Charles Sumner defeated the treaty. Grant, angered at Sumner's refusal to support the treaty, fired Sumner's friend J. Lothrop Motley, Grant's ambassador to England, for disregarding Fish's instructions regarding the Alabama Claims. Grant believed that Sumner had in January 1870 stated his support for the Santo Domingo treaty. Sumner was then deprived of his chairmanship of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1871 by Grant's allies in the Senate. ### 1870: Colombian inter-oceanic canal treaty President Grant and Secretary Fish were interested in establishing an inter-oceanic canal through Panama. Secretary Fish organized a treaty signing on January 26, 1870, in Bogota between the United States and Colombia that established a Panama route for the inter-oceanic canal. The Colombian Senate, however, amended the treaty so much that the strategic value of the inter-oceanic canal construction became ineffective. As a result, the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty. ### 1871: Treaty of Washington During the previous administration of President Andrew Johnson, Secretary of State Seward attempted to resolve the Alabama Claims with the Johnson-Clarendon convention and treaty. The Alabama Claims had arisen out of the American Civil War, when Confederate raiding ships built in British ports (most notably the C.S.S. Alabama) had sunk a significant number of Union merchant ships. Sumner also stated the Civil War would have ended by 1863 if the British weren't complicit in allowing its blockade runners to smuggle hundreds of thousands of weapons through the Union blockade to the Confederacy. As such, Sumner demanded that Britain pay \$2 billion or simply cede Canada to the United States for the Alabama Claims. The Johnson-Clarendon treaty, presented to Congress by President Ulysses S. Grant, was overwhelmingly defeated by the Senate and the claims remained unresolved. Anglophobia led by Charles Sumner was at an all-time high when Fish became Secretary of State. In late 1870, an opportunity arrived to settle the Alabama Claims under Prime Minister William Gladstone. Fish, who was determined to improve relations with Britain, along with President Grant and Senate supporters, had Charles Sumner removed by vote from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and the door was open for renewed negotiations with Britain. On January 9, 1871, Fish met with British representative Sir John Rose in Washington and an agreement was made, after much negotiation, to establish a Joint Commission to settle the Alabama Claims to be held in Washington under the direction of Hamilton Fish. At stake was the financing of America's debt with British bankers during the Civil War, and peace with Britain was required. On February 14, 1871, both distinguished High Commissioners representing Britain, led by the Earl of Ripon, George Robinson, and the United States, led by Fish, met in Washington, D.C., and negotiations over settlement went remarkably well. Also representing Britain was Canadian Prime Minister John A. Macdonald. After 37 meetings, on May 8, 1871, the Treaty of Washington was signed at the State Department and became a "landmark of international conciliation". The Senate ratified the treaty on May 24, 1871. On August 25, 1872, the settlement for the Alabama claims was made by an international arbitration committee meeting in Geneva and the United States was awarded \$15,500,000 in gold only for damage done by the Confederate warships. Under the treaty settlement over disputed Atlantic fisheries and the San Juan Boundary (concerning the Oregon boundary line) was made. The treaty was considered an "unprecedented accomplishment", having solved border disputes, reciprocal trade, and navigation issues. A friendly perpetual relationship between Great Britain and America was established, with Britain having expressed regret over the Alabama damages. ### 1871: South American détente and armistice On April 11, 1871, a peace-trade conference, presided over by Hamilton Fish, was held in Washington D.C., between Spain and the South American republics of Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia, which resulted in an armistice between the countries. These countries had been in a "technical" state of war since 1866, and the United States in 1871 served as mediator under the direction of Hamilton Fish. Representing Spain was Mauricio Lopez Roberts; Manuel Freyer represented both Peru and Bolivia; Joaquín Godoy represented Chile; and Antonio Flores represented Ecuador. President Grant gave Fish full powers to control negotiations at the détente meeting between the five countries. The signed armistice treaty consisted of seven articles; hostilities were to cease for a minimum of three years and the countries would allow commercial trade with neutral countries. ### 1871: Korean expedition and conflict In 1871, Korea was known as the "Hermit Kingdom", a country determined to remain isolated from other nations, specifically from commerce and trade from Western nations, including the United States. In 1866, U.S. relations with Korea were troubled when Christian missionaries were beheaded by the Korean Daewongun, regent to King Kojong, and the crew of the General Sherman, a U.S. trading ship, were massacred. Secretary Seward, under President Johnson, demanded redress for what was perceived as the outrageous actions of the Korean government. U.S. Naval warships were ordered to the Orient, however, when Seward's term ended in 1869, he was unable to organize a naval expedition. When Fish took office, he organized the Korean naval expedition and broadened the purposes. In April 1871, Fish ordered Frederick F. Low, minister to China, to take the Asiatic Fleet and voyage to Seoul. The purpose of the expedition was to seek retribution for the assaulted sailors and to open up a commercial treaty with the King of Korea. Fish had told the fleet not to use force unless the honor of the U.S. flag was infringed by the Koreans. On May 8, 1871, Low and Rear Admiral John Rodgers, commander of the Asiatic Squadron, voyaged to Korea with five warships, 85 guns, and 1,230 sailors and marines. On May 16, the naval squadron reached Nagasaki Bay, and a week later lowered anchor near the mouth of the Han River. The Koreans sent unofficial representatives to stall for time and hope the American squadron would leave. In June, the American fleet was performing a nautical survey and was fired upon by the Korean forts on the Han River leading to Seoul. The American fleet fired back, damaging the forts. The Americans demanded an apology on the grounds that the honor of the American flag had been violated. On June 10, a U.S. military expedition was launched after the Koreans failed to apologize for the attack; the objective was to destroy the Korean forts on Ganghwa Island. The U.S.S. Monocacy pounded the forts with 9 inch guns while 546 sailors and 105 marines landed on the island and captured and destroyed the Korean forts. The "Citadel" fortress, on a steep 115-foot hillside, put up the stiffest resistance to the American troops, who fought in hand-to-hand combat with the Korean Tiger Hunters. All of the Korean forts taken were destroyed and leveled on June 11. Three hundred fifty Korean Tiger Hunters were killed, compared with only one American officer and two American sailors. Lieut. Hugh W. McKee was the first U.S. Navy officer to die in battle in Korea. The Asiatic Squadron remained on the Han River for three weeks, but the Koreans would not open negotiations for a commercial treaty. As the American squadron left, the Koreans believed that they had won a great victory over the Americans. The attempt to open Korea up to trade was similar to how Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854 had approached the opening of Japan. Korea, however, proved to be more isolated than Japan. In 1881, Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt, without using a naval fleet, went to a more conciliatory Korean government and made a commercial treaty. The U.S. was the first Western nation to establish formal trade with Korea. ### 1873: Virginius affair During the 1870s, Cuba was in a state of rebellion against Spain. In the United States, Americans were divided on whether to militarily aid the rebel Cubans. Many jingoists believed the United States needed to fight for the Cuban rebels and pressured the Grant Administration to take action. A privately owned ship, the Virginius, was used to run guns, ammunition, and vital supplies to the Cuban rebels. The captain of the Virginius was Joseph Fry, former officer of the Confederate and Federal Navies. On October 31, 1873, the Virginius was run down in neutral waters by the Spanish warship, the Tornado, off of Morant Bay, Jamaica. After being hit, the Virginius took on water and was forced to surrender to the Spanish authorities. The 103 crew members consisted of Cuban rebel recruits and 52 American and British citizens. The Spanish hauled down and trampled the American flag, and brought the prisoners to Santiago. A total of 53 Virginius crew members were executed by the Spanish authorities. The Spanish finally stopped the carnage as a British warship appeared with guns ready to fire on Santiago. The American Navy, at this time, although formidable worldwide, was in decline after the American Civil War. When news reached the United States of the executions, President Grant and Secretary Fish were forced to make an immediate response. Many Americans demanded a full-scale war with Spain. Fish found out that the registration was falsified under American ownership, however, the executions of Americans demanded action. Fish coolly handled the situation, calling upon Spanish minister, Admiral José Polo de Bernabé in Washington D.C., and holding a conference. A settlement was made where Spain relinquished the severely damaged Virginius to the U.S. Navy, while survivors were released that included 13 Americans. The Spanish Captain who ordered the executions was censured, and Spain paid \$80,000 reparations to American families whose family members were executed in Santiago. The national honor of both Spain and the United States was preserved and it was chiefly due to the restraint and moderation of Fish and Bernabé that a satisfactory settlement of the Virginius Affair was reached by the United States and Spain. ### 1875: Hawaiian reciprocal trade treaty Fish also negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 with the Hawaiian Kingdom under the reign of King Kalākaua. Hawaiian sugar was made duty-free, while the importation of manufactured goods and clothing was allowed into the island kingdom. By opening Hawaii to free trade the process for annexation and eventual statehood into the United States had begun. ### 1876: Liberian-Grebo War The U.S. settled the Liberian-Grebo War in 1876 when Hamilton Fish dispatched the USS Alaska, under President Grant's authority, to Liberia. Liberia was in practice an American colony. U.S. envoy James Milton Turner, the first African American ambassador, requested a warship to protect American property in Liberia. Turner, bolstered by U.S. naval presence in harbor and support of the USS Alaska captain, negotiated the incorporation of Grebo people into Liberian society and the ousting of foreign traders from Liberia. ### 1876: Republican convention As the 1876 Republican convention approached during the U.S. presidential election, President Grant, unknown to Fish, had written a letter to Republican leaders to nominate Fish for the Presidential ticket. The letter was never read at the convention and Fish was never nominated. President Grant believed that Fish was a good compromise choice between the rival factions of James G. Blaine and Roscoe Conkling. Cartoonist Thomas Nast drew a caricature of Fish and Rutherford B. Hayes as the Republican Party ticket. Fish, who was ready to retire to private life, did not desire to run for president and was content at returning to private life. Fish found out later that President Grant had written the letter to the convention. ### 1877: Nicaragua inter-oceanic canal negotiations President Grant at the close of his second term, and Secretary Fish, remained interested in establishing an inter-oceanic canal treaty. Fish and the State Department negotiated with a special envoy from Nicaragua in February 1877 for an inter-oceanic treaty. Negotiations, however, failed as the status of the neutral zone could not be established. ## Later life and health After leaving the Grant Cabinet in 1877 and briefly serving under President Hayes, Fish retired from public office and returned to private life practicing law and managing his real estate in New York City. Fish was revered in the New York community and enjoyed spending time with his family. Fish resided in Glen Clyffe, his estate near Garrison, New York, in Putnam County, New York, in the Hudson River Valley. His health remained good until around 1884, having suffered from neuralgia. ### Death, funeral, and burial On September 6, 1893, Fish had retired from the evening having played cards with his daughter. The following morning on September 7, Fish, at the age of 85, suddenly died. His death was attributed to advanced age. On September 11, 1893, Fish was buried in Garrison at St. Philip's Church-in-the-Highlands Cemetery under waving trees on the hills along the Hudson River shoreline. He was buried next to his wife and oldest daughter near the grave of Edwards Pierrepont, President Grant's U.S. Attorney General. Many notable persons attended Fish's funeral, and Bishop Potter conducted services. Julia Grant, widowed wife of Grant, attended Fish's funeral. ## Historical reputation Charles Francis Adams described Fish as "a quiet and easy-going man; but, when aroused, by being, as he thought, 'put upon', he became very formidable. Neither was it possible to placate him." Fish's 20th Century biographer, A. Elwood Corning, stated that Fish was free from "petty jealousies and prejudices which so often drag the reputation of statesmen down to the level of politicians" and that Fish "used the language and practiced the manners of a gentleman." As an invaluable member of the Grant Administration, Fish commanded "men's confidence, and respect by his firmness, candor, and justice." A survey of scholars in the December 1981 American Heritage magazine ranked Fish third on a list of top ten Secretaries of State, noting his settlement of the Alabama Claims in 1871, his settlement of the Virginius Incident, and his role in the Hawaiian treaty ratified by the Senate in 1875. There is a memorial to Fish at the Cathedral of All Saints (Albany, New York). The Hamilton Fish Newburgh-Beacon Bridge, which spans the Hudson River 50 miles north of New York City between Dutchess and Orange Counties, is named after Fish. Fish was a long time member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati by right of his father's service as an officer in the Continental Army. Fish succeeded to his father's seat in the Society upon his father's death in 1833. In 1848, Fish became the Vice President General of the national society and, in 1854, he became its president general. In 1855, Fish was elected president of the New York Society. Fish served as both president general of the national society and president of the New York Society until his death in 1893. His 39-year tenure in office as president general is by far the longest of in Society of the Cincinnati history. ## Notable descendants Three of Fish's direct descendants, all named Hamilton, served in the U.S. House of Representatives, representing New York state. Hamilton Fish II, Fish's son, served one term as U.S. Representative from 1909 to 1911. Fish II also served as assistant to his father at the U.S. State Department. Hamilton Fish III, Fish's grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1920 to 1945. Hamilton Fish IV, Fish's great-grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1969 to 1995. Another son Stuyvesant Fish was an important railroad executive. Another son, Nicholas Fish II, was a U.S. diplomat, who was appointed second secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was chargé d'affaires at Berne in 1877–1881, and minister to Belgium in 1882–1886, after which he engaged in banking in New York City. Hamilton Fish, Fish's grandson by Nicholas, was an 1895 graduate of Columbia College, saw service in the Spanish–American War as one of the storied Rough Riders. He was the first member of that regiment to be killed in action, at the Battle of Las Guasimas, Cuba. His great nephew Thomas Kean was New Jersey governor from 1982 until 1990 and chairman of the 9/11 Commission following the September 11, 2001 attacks.
75,610	Benjamin Harrison V	1,171,699,498	American Founding Father, planter, and merchant (1726-1791)	[ "1726 births", "1791 deaths", "18th-century American politicians", "American Episcopalians", "American people of English descent", "American planters", "American slave owners", "Carter family of Virginia", "College of William & Mary alumni", "Continental Congressmen from Virginia", "Delegates to the Virginia Ratifying Convention", "Fathers of presidents of the United States", "Founding Fathers of the United States", "Governors of Virginia", "Harrison family of Virginia", "House of Burgesses members", "People from Charles City County, Virginia", "Signers of the Continental Association", "Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence", "Speakers of the Virginia House of Delegates" ]	Benjamin Harrison V (April 5, 1726 – April 24, 1791) was an American planter, merchant, and politician who served as a legislator in colonial Virginia, following his namesakes' tradition of public service. He was a signer of the Continental Association, as well as the United States Declaration of Independence, and was one of the nation's Founding Fathers. He served as Virginia's governor from 1781 to 1784. He was born into the Harrison family of Virginia at their homestead, the Berkeley plantation. He served an aggregate of three decades in the Virginia House of Burgesses, alternately representing Surry County and Charles City County. Harrison was among the early patriots to formally protest measures that King George III and the British Parliament imposed upon the American colonies, leading to the American Revolution. He was a slaveholder, though, in 1772, he joined a petition to the king, requesting that he abolish the slave trade. As a delegate to the Continental Congress and chair of its Committee of the whole, Harrison attended and presided over the final debate of the Declaration of Independence. He was one of its signers in 1776. The Declaration included a foundational philosophy of the United States: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." Harrison was elected as Virginia's fifth governor; his administration was marked by its futile struggle with a state treasury decimated by the Revolutionary War. He later returned to the Virginia House for two final terms. In disagreement with his traditional ally George Washington, Harrison, in 1788, cast one of his last votes in opposition to the nation's Constitution for its lack of a bill of rights. He left two descendants who became United States presidents—son William Henry Harrison and great-grandson Benjamin Harrison. ## Family ### Parents and siblings Harrison was born April 5, 1726, in Charles City County, Virginia; he was the oldest of ten children of Benjamin Harrison IV and Anne Carter; Anne was a daughter of Robert Carter I. The first Benjamin Harrison arrived in the colonies around 1630 and by 1633 began a family tradition of public service when he was recorded as clerk of the Virginia Governor's Council. Benjamin II and Benjamin III followed this example, serving as delegates in the Virginia House of Burgesses. Benjamin IV and his wife Anne built the family's manor house at Berkeley Plantation; he served as a justice of the peace and represented Charles City County in the Virginia House of Burgesses. (Biographer Clifford Dowdey notes that the family did not employ the roman numeral suffixes, which historians have assigned.) Benjamin V, in his youth, was "tall and powerfully built," with "features that were clearly defined, and a well-shaped mouth above a strong pointed chin." He spent a year or two at the College of William & Mary. His brother Carter Henry became a leader in Cumberland County. Brother Nathaniel was elected to the House of Burgesses, then to the Virginia Senate. Brother Henry fought in the French and Indian War and brother Charles became a brigadier general in the Continental Army. ### Inheritance and slaveholding Harrison's father, at age 51 and with a child in hand, was struck by lightning as he shut an upstairs window during a storm on July 12, 1745; he and his daughter Hannah were killed. Benjamin V inherited the bulk of his father's estate, including Berkeley and several surrounding plantations, as well as thousands of acres extending to Surry County and the falls of the James River. Also among his holdings was a fishery on the river and a grist mill in Henrico County. He also assumed ownership and responsibility for the manor house's equipment, stock, and numerous enslaved people. His siblings inherited another six plantations, possessions, and enslaved people, as the father chose to depart from the tradition of leaving the entire estate to the eldest son. Harrison and his ancestors enslaved as many as 80 to 100 people. Harrison's father was adamant about not breaking up slave families in the distribution of his estate. As with all planters, the Harrisons sustained enslaved people on their plantations. Nevertheless, the enslaved people’s status was involuntary, and according to Dowdey, "among the worst aspects of their slaveholding is the assumption that the men in the Harrison family, most likely the younger, unmarried ones, and the overseers, made night trips to the slaves' quarters for carnal purposes." Benjamin Harrison V owned mulattoes, though no record has been revealed as to their parentage. Dowdey portrays the Harrisons' further incongruity, saying the enslaved people in some ways "were respected as families, and there developed a sense of duty about indoctrinating them in Christianity, though other slaveholders had reservations about baptizing children who were considered property." ### Marriage and children In 1748, Harrison married Elizabeth Bassett of New Kent County; she was the daughter of Colonel William Bassett and Elizabeth Churchill. Harrison and his wife had eight children during their 40-year marriage. Among them was eldest daughter Lucy Bassett (1749–1809), who married Peyton Randolph. Another daughter, Anne Bassett (1753–1821), married David Coupland. The eldest son was Benjamin Harrison VI (1755–1799), a briefly successful merchant who served in the Virginia House of Delegates but who died a self-indulgent, troubled, young widower. Another was Carter Bassett Harrison (c.1756–1808), who served in the Virginia House of Delegates and the U.S. House of Representatives. The youngest child was General William Henry Harrison (1773–1841), who became a congressional delegate for the Northwest Territory and also was governor of the Indiana Territory. In the 1840 United States presidential election, William Henry defeated incumbent Martin Van Buren but fell ill and died just one month into his presidency. Vice President John Tyler, a fellow Virginian and Berkeley neighbor succeeded him. William Henry's grandson, Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901), was a brigadier general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Benjamin served in the U.S. Senate and was elected president in 1888 after defeating incumbent Grover Cleveland. ## Virginia delegate In 1749, Harrison first took his father's path in being elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, initially for Surry County; however, he was not of legal age to assume his burgesses seat, which was delayed until 1752. His county representations in the Burgesses were as follows: - 1752–1761 – Surry County - 1766–1781 – Charles City County - 1785–1786 – Surry County - 1787–1790 – Charles City County In his first year in the House of Burgesses in 1752, Harrison was appointed to the Committee of Propositions and Grievances and thereby participated in a confrontation with King George and his Parliament and their appointed Governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie. There developed a dispute with the governor over his levy of a pistole (a Spanish gold coin) upon all land patents, which presaged the core issue of the American Revolution two decades later—taxation without representation. Harrison assisted in drafting a complaint to the governor and the Crown, which read that the payment of any such levy would be "deemed a betrayal of the rights and privileges of the people." When the British Privy Council received the complaint, it replied: "that the lower house is a subordinate lawmaking body, and where the King's decisions are concerned, it counts for nothing." On this occasion, a compromise was reached, allowing the governor's levy on parcels of less than 100 acres lying east of the mountains. Harrison again joined the fray with Britain after it adopted the Townshend Acts, formally asserting the Parliament's right to tax the colonies. He was appointed in 1768 to a special committee to draft a response for the colony. A resolution asserted the right of British subjects to be taxed only by their elected representatives. The American colonies achieved their objective with a repeal of the Townshend Acts through the action of Lord North, who nevertheless continued the tax on tea. Harrison was a 1770 signer of the Virginia Association, an association of Virginia lawmakers and merchants boycotting British imports until the British Parliament repealed its tea tax. He also sponsored a bill declaring that Parliament's laws were illegal without the colonists' consent. Harrison, at this time, also served as a justice in Charles City County. When the city of Williamsburg lacked the funds for the construction of a courthouse, he and fellow delegate James Littlepage organized a group of "Gentlemen Subscribers" who purchased an unused building and presented it to the city in 1771. Early in 1772, Harrison and Thomas Jefferson were among a group of six Virginia house delegates assigned to prepare and deliver an address to the king which called for an end to the importation of enslaved people from Africa. Biographer Howard Smith indicates that the request was delivered and was unambiguous in its object to close the slave trade; the king rejected it. ## Congressional delegate in Philadelphia In 1773, colonists protested the British tax on tea by destroying a shipment during the Boston Tea Party. While all of the colonies were inspired by the news, some patriots, including Harrison, had misgivings and believed the Bostonians had a duty to reimburse the East India Company for its losses at their hands. The British Parliament responded to the protest by enacting more punitive measures, which colonists called the Intolerable Acts. Despite his qualms, Harrison was among 89 members of the Virginia Burgesses who signed a new association on May 24, 1774, condemning Parliament's action. The group also invited other colonies to convene a Continental Congress and called for a convention to select its Virginia delegates. At the First Virginia Convention, Harrison was selected on August 5, 1774, as one of seven delegates to represent Virginia at the Congress, to be located in Philadelphia. Harrison set out that month, leaving his home state for the first time. He was armed with a positive reputation built in the House of Burgesses, which Edmund Randolph articulated to the Congress: "A favorite of the day was Benjamin Harrison. With strong sense and a temper not disposed to compromise with ministerial power, he scruples not to utter any untruth. During a long service in the House of Burgesses, his frankness, though sometimes tinctured with bitterness, has been the source of considerable attachment." Harrison arrived in Philadelphia on September 2, 1774, for the First Continental Congress. According to biographer Smith, he gravitated to the older and more conservative delegates in Philadelphia; he was more distant from the New Englanders and the more radical, particularly John and Samuel Adams. The genuine and mutual enmity between the Adams cousins and Harrison also stemmed from their Puritan upbringing in aversion to human pleasures and Harrison's appreciation for bold storytelling, fine food, and wine. John Adams described Harrison in his diary as "another Sir John Falstaff," as "obscene," "profane," and "impious." However, he also recalled Harrison's comment that he was so eager to participate in the Congress that "he would have come on foot." Politically, Harrison aligned with John Hancock and Adams with Richard Henry Lee, whom Harrison had adamantly opposed in the House of Burgesses. In October 1774, Harrison signed the Continental Association, an association with the other delegates dictating a boycott of exports and imports with Britain, effective immediately. This was modeled after the Virginia Association, which Harrison had earlier signed in his home state. The First Congress concluded that month with a Petition to the King, signed by all delegates, requesting the king's attention to the colonies' grievances and restoration of harmony with the crown. Upon his return home, Harrison received a letter from Thomas Jefferson advising of his order for 14 sash windows from London just before the passage of the boycott and apologizing for his inability to cancel the order. In March 1775, Harrison attended a convention at St. John's Parish in Richmond, Virginia, made famous by Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty, or give me death!" speech. A defense resolution was passed by a vote of 65–60 for raising a military force. It represented Virginia's substantial step in transitioning from a colony to a commonwealth. Biographer Smith indicates Harrison was probably in the minority, though he was named to a committee to carry the resolution into effect. He was also re-elected as a delegate to the new session of the Continental Congress. ## Second Continental Congress and Declaration of Independence When the Second Continental Congress convened in May 1775, Harrison took up residence in north Philadelphia with two roommates—his brother-in-law Peyton Randolph and George Washington. The two men left him to reside alone when Randolph suddenly died, and Washington assumed command of the Continental Army. Harrison was kept busy with the issues of funding and supplying Washington's army and corresponded with him at length. In the spring of 1775, an effort was made in Congress to seek reconciliation with the King of Britain through the Olive Branch Petition, authored by John Dickinson. A heated debate ensued with Dickinson's remark that he disapproved of only one word in the petition: "Congress." Harrison angrily rose from his seat and replied, "There is but one word in the paper, Mr. President, of which I do approve, and that is the word 'Congress.'" The petition passed and was submitted to the Crown but remained unread by the king as he formally declared that the colonists were traitors. In November 1775, Harrison was appointed to a select committee to review the army's needs. He went to Cambridge, Massachusetts with Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Lynch to assess the needs, as well as the morale, of the forces. After a 10-day inspection, the committee concluded that the pay for the troops should be improved and that the ranks should be increased to over 20,000 men. Harrison then returned to Philadelphia to work closely with fellow delegates for the defense of his state as well as South Carolina, Georgia, and New York. Harrison attended until the session's end in July 1776, frequently serving as chair of the Committee of the Whole. As such, he presided over the final debates of the Lee Resolution offered by Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee. This was the Congress' first expression of its objective of freedom from the Crown. Harrison oversaw the final debates and amendments of the Declaration of Independence. The Committee of Five presented Thomas Jefferson's draft of the Declaration on June 28, 1776, and the Congress resolved on July 1 that the Committee of the Whole should debate its content. The Committee amended it on July 2 and 3, then adopted it in final form on Thursday, July 4. Harrison duly reported this to Congress and gave a final reading of the Declaration. The Congress unanimously resolved to have the Declaration engrossed and signed by those present. Harrison was known for his audacious sense of humor. Even detractor John Adams conceded in his diary that "Harrison's contributions and many pleasantries steadied rough sessions." Pennsylvania delegate Benjamin Rush in particular recalled the Congress' atmosphere during a signing of the Declaration on August 2, 1776. He described a scene of "pensive and awful silence". He said that Harrison singularly interrupted "the silence and gloom of the morning" as delegates filed forward to inscribe what they thought was their ensuing death warrant. Rush said that the rotund Harrison approached the diminutive Elbridge Gerry, who was about to sign the Declaration, and said, "I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing. From the size and weight of my body I shall die in a few minutes and be with the Angels, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air an hour or two before you are dead." ## Revolutionary War From December 1775 until March 1777, the Congress was on two occasions threatened by British forces and forced to remove itself—first to Baltimore and later to York, Pennsylvania–circumstances that Harrison distinctly disliked. This has been attributed to some unspecified illness he was experiencing then. In 1777, Harrison became a member of the newly created Committee of Secret Correspondence for Congress. The committee's primary objective was to establish secure communication with American agents in Britain concerning the colonies' interests. Harrison was also named as Chairman of the Board of War, whose initial purpose was to review the movements of the army in the north and the exchange of prisoners. At that time, Harrison found himself at odds with Washington over Marquis de Lafayette's commission, which Harrison insisted was honorary only and without pay. He also stirred controversy by endorsing the rights of Quakers not to bear arms per their religion. He unsuccessfully argued throughout the formation of the Articles of Confederation that Virginia should be given greater representation than other states based on its population and land mass. His Congressional membership permanently ended in October 1777; biographer John Sanderson indicates that when Harrison retired from Congress, "his estates had been ravaged" and "his fortune had been impaired." Harrison returned to Virginia, where he quickly renewed his efforts in the Virginia legislature. In May 1776, the House of Burgesses had ended and was replaced by the House of Delegates, according to Virginia's new constitution. He was elected Speaker in 1777, defeating Thomas Jefferson by a vote of 51–23; he returned to the speakership on several occasions. He concerned himself in the ensuing years with many issues, including Virginia's western land interests, the condition of Continental forces, and the defense of the commonwealth. In January 1781, a British force of 1,600 was positioned at the mouth of the James River, led by turncoat Benedict Arnold; Harrison was called upon to return immediately to Philadelphia to request military support for his state. He knew that Berkeley was one of Arnold's primary targets, so he relocated his family before setting out. In Philadelphia, his pleas for Virginia were heard, and he obtained increased gunpowder, supplies, and troops, but only on a delayed basis. Meanwhile, Arnold advanced up the James, wreaking havoc on both sides of the river. The Harrison family avoided capture in Arnold's January raid on Berkeley, but Arnold, intent that no likeness of the family survive, removed and burned all the family portraits there. Most of Harrison's other possessions and a large portion of the house were destroyed. Other signers were similarly targeted with more horrific consequences. Harrison took up the rehabilitation of his home, returned to his correspondence with Washington, and continued efforts to obtain armaments, troops, and clothing supplies for other southern states. ## Governor of Virginia The new nation secured its Revolutionary War victory in October 1781 at Yorktown, Virginia–this provided only brief respite for Harrison, who began to serve a month later as the fifth Governor of Virginia. He was also the fourth governor to assume the office in that year–wartime events in Virginia occasioned multiple successions. Money was the primary problem he confronted, as the war had drained the coffers of the Virginia treasury, and creditors, both domestic and foreign, plagued the government. Hence, there was no capacity for military action outside of the immediate area, so Harrison steadfastly opposed offensive action against combative Indians in the Kentucky and Illinois country. He instead pursued a policy of treating with the Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Creek Indian tribes, which allowed peace to last for the remainder of his term. The situation resulted in some contentious exchanges with General George Rogers Clark who urged aggressive operations in the west. As Harrison's term was ending, Washington accepted an invitation to visit with the Harrisons in Richmond, saying, "And I shall feel an additional pleasure, in offering this tribute of friendship and respect to you, by having the company of Marsqs. de la Fayette". The general visited in November 1784, though Lafayette could not accompany him. Harrison's service as governor was lauded, despite his inability to solve the financial problems that plagued his administration. ## Return to legislature and death In 1786, Harrison and other legislature members were deeply divided over the issue of state aid to religion. He joined with his brother and fellow delegate Carter Henry Harrison in supporting a measure offered by Patrick Henry to provide funds for teachers of the Christian religion. The proposal failed, and the assembly enacted Thomas Jefferson's famous Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, establishing a separation of church and state. Harrison participated as a member of the Virginia Ratifying Convention for the United States Constitution in 1788. However, along with Patrick Henry, George Mason, and others, he was skeptical of a large central government and opposed the Constitution because of the absence of a bill of rights. He was in the minority when the constitution won ratification with a margin of 5 out of 170 votes cast. He overcame his ill health sufficiently to address those who opposed the result, imploring them to seek redress through the legitimate channels of amendments to the Constitution. Though Washington had promoted the Constitution, he praised Harrison, saying, "Your individual endeavors to prevent inflammatory measures from being adopted redound greatly to your credit." Despite his chronic gout and weakened financial condition, Harrison continued his work in the House. He died on April 24, 1791, at his home after celebrating re-election. His cause of death is unknown, though his persistent corpulence has been documented. He was buried at his home, along with his wife, Elizabeth Bassett. His son William Henry, aged 18, had just begun medical studies in Philadelphia. Still, adequate funds were lacking, so he soon abandoned medicine for military service and his own path of leadership. ### Legacy A residence hall at the College of William & Mary is named for Harrison, as is a primary bridge spanning the James River near Hopewell, Virginia. Harrison is included in the Washington, D.C. Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence.
674,758	Mike Cuellar	1,166,221,869	Cuban baseball player (1937–2010)	[ "1937 births", "2010 deaths", "American League All-Stars", "American League wins champions", "Azules de Coatzacoalcos players", "Baltimore Orioles players", "California Angels players", "Cincinnati Redlegs players", "Cuban emigrants to the United States", "Cuban expatriate baseball players in the United States", "Cy Young Award winners", "Deaths from cancer in Florida", "Deaths from stomach cancer", "Havana Sugar Kings players", "Houston Astros players", "Indianapolis Indians players", "Industriales de Valencia players", "Jacksonville Suns players", "Jersey City Jerseys players", "Knoxville Smokies players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Major League Baseball players from Cuba", "Mexican League baseball players", "National League All-Stars", "Screwball pitchers", "Sportspeople from Santa Clara, Cuba", "St. Louis Cardinals players", "Sultanes de Monterrey players", "Syracuse Chiefs players", "Winter Haven Super Sox players" ]	Miguel Ángel Cuellar Santana (KWAY-ar; May 8, 1937 – April 2, 2010) was a Cuban professional baseball player. He played for 15 seasons in Major League Baseball as a left-handed pitcher in 1959 and from 1964 through 1977, most prominently as a member of the Baltimore Orioles who won the American League (AL) pennant in each of Cuellar's first three seasons with the team. During that time, Cuellar and the Orioles won the 1970 World Series. Cuellar also played for the Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals, Houston Astros and California Angels. Cuellar and Denny McLain each won the AL Cy Young Award in 1969, due to a tie in the voting. For the Orioles, Cuellar won 20-or-more games in a season four times from 1969 through 1974. Along with Jim Palmer, Dave McNally, and Pat Dobson, he was one of four Oriole starters to win at least 20 games in 1971. Cuellar, nicknamed Crazy Horse because of his superstitious nature, ranks among Baltimore's top five career leaders in wins (143), strikeouts (1,011), shutouts (30) and innings pitched (2,028). In 1982, Cuellar was inducted into the Baltimore Orioles Hall of Fame. ## Life and career ### Early life and first stints in the majors Miguel Angel Cuellar Santana was born in Santa Clara, Cuba, on May 8, 1937. One of four brothers, Cuellar's family made their living working in Cuban sugar mills. Not interested in pursuing that as a career, Cuellar joined the Cuban Army, which allowed him to play baseball on weekends. He threw a no-hitter for an army team in 1955, drawing attention from scouts. Following his army service, he pitched for a Nicaraguan independent team in 1956, then joined the Almendares winter league team over the offseason. In the 1950s, the Cincinnati Reds executed a working agreement with the Havana Sugar Kings of the Triple-A International League (IL), helping them acquire many Cuban players, including Cuellar. Cuellar struck out seven Montreal Royals in just over two innings of work in his first game with Havana in 1957. Used as a starting pitcher and as a relief pitcher (44 games, 16 starts), he posted an 8–7 record and led the IL in earned run average (ERA) with a 2.44 mark. The next season, he had a 2.77 ERA and a 13–12 record, pitching 220 innings. Entering the 1959 season, Cuellar was featured on a baseball card in a Topps set for the very first time, though the company misspelled his name as "Cueller." Part of Cincinnati's roster to begin the season, Cuellar made his major league debut with Cincinnati against the Philadelphia Phillies at Crosley Field on April 18, 1959. He entered the contest in relief of Don Newcombe in the second inning with the Reds losing 4–2. In his two innings of work, Cuellar surrendered a grand slam to Gene Freese in the third and a two-run double to Al Schroll in the fourth. The Reds went on to lose 14–9. His only other appearance with the Reds came three days later against the Milwaukee Braves. Again he pitched two innings in relief, giving up two runs as the Reds lost 7–4. After that, he was returned to Havana; it would be several years before he pitched in the major leagues again. For the rest of 1959, Cuellar had a 10–11 record and 111 strikeouts. Though his 11 losses were tied with four others for eighth in the league, he ranked eighth with a 2.80 ERA and fifth with 220 innings pitched. Havana won the IL championship and defeated the Minneapolis Millers in the Junior World Series. The Sugar Kings moved to Jersey City, New Jersey, in the middle of the 1960 season in response to Fidel Castro's nationalization of American businesses in Cuba. In 33 games (21 starts) for the franchise, Cuellar had a 6–9 record, a 3.53 ERA, and 74 strikeouts in 148 innings pitched. He split the 1961 season between three Triple-A teams: Jersey City of the IL and the Indianapolis Indians of the American Association (both Reds affiliates) and the Syracuse Chiefs of the IL (an affiliate of the Minnesota Twins). Exact statistics for this year are unknown. Cuellar spent the 1962 season with the Sultanes de Monterrey of the Triple-A Mexican League, appearing in 37 games. He split the 1963 minor league season between affiliates of the Detroit Tigers and Cleveland Indians. For the Knoxville Smokies (Detroit) of the Double-A South Atlantic League, he had a 1–1 record, a 2.54 ERA, and 39 strikeouts. With the IL's Jacksonville Suns (Cleveland), he had a 6–7 record, a 3.79 ERA, and 85 strikeouts in 24 games (16 starts). After being stuck in the minors for five years, Cuellar experienced improvement in 1964. During the offseason, while he had been playing winter ball, teammate Ruben Gomez had suggested he start throwing a screwball. Signed by the St. Louis Cardinals in 1964, Cuellar used the pitch about 30 percent of the time while pitching for Jacksonville, now an affiliate of the Cardinals. He made 10 starts for Jacksonville, posting a 1.78 ERA while winning six of seven decisions. Seeing his success, the Cardinals decided to promote him in mid-June. Cuellar was used primarily as a relief pitcher for the rest of the year, though he also made seven starts. One of these came in the second game of a doubleheader against the Pittsburgh Pirates; Cuellar allowed five runs in 7+1⁄3 innings but earned the win (his first) in a 12–5 Cardinal victory. Cuellar also beat the Pirates on August 26, this time allowing just two runs in a complete game, 4–2 victory. Freese, who had hit a grand slam off of Cuellar five years earlier, made the last out. The hitter said that "he's a lot faster and has come with quite a scroogie". In 32 games (seven starts), Cuellar had a 5–5 record, a 4.50 ERA, 56 strikeouts, 33 walks, and 80 hits allowed in 72 innings pitched. The Cardinals made a late-season surge as the Phillies collapsed in September. This took the Cardinals and Cuellar to the 1964 World Series. Though Cuellar did not pitch in any of the games, he became a World Series champion for the first time as the Cardinals defeated the New York Yankees in seven games. In 1965, Cuellar failed to make the Cardinals roster and was assigned to Jacksonville to begin the year. With the Suns, he posted a 2.51 ERA and a 9–1 record. At the June 15 trade deadline, Cuellar and Ron Taylor were traded to the Houston Astros for Hal Woodeshick and Chuck Taylor. ### Houston Astros (1965–68) Cuellar spent the rest of 1965 in the major leagues with the Astros, mainly as a relief pitcher, though he also made four starts. He posted a 5.81 ERA in his first 15 games, then posted an 0.72 ERA in his last 10. Twice in September, he had relief outings in which he pitched more than five scoreless innings. His record for the season was 1–4, and he struck out 46 batters in 56 innings, posting a 3.54 ERA. After beginning the 1966 season as a relief pitcher, Cuellar was added to the starting rotation on April 25. Facing the Reds, Cuellar held his old team to five hits and one unearned run in a 2–1 victory. After Cuellar posted a 1.29 ERA in his first four starts, manager Grady Hatton said: "I've created a monster". Hatton explained: "For a while, all Cuellar wanted to do was throw screwballs. But this year, he's mixing 'em up with fast balls and curves, and making the batters hit the ball. He's got good control and a good fast ball, and he's finally making use of them." Cuellar had learned the curveball from Astro pitching coach Gordon Jones, and he was also throwing his screwball on 50-60 percent of his pitches. He strained a muscle in his side and had to leave a game on May 21 but was back to action by June 2. Cuellar ultimately won his first six decisions, the last a 3–2 complete game over the Cardinals at the Astrodome on June 25, in which he recorded a career-high 15 strikeouts. He suffered two close losses during the campaign. On August 12, he held the San Francisco Giants to four hits and one run in eight innings, but Gaylord Perry of the Giants threw a 92-pitch shutout. On September 10, he and Don Drysdale of the Dodgers held each other's teams scoreless through nine innings; Cuellar took the loss when he gave up a run in the 10th. Cuellar threw his first major league shutout on August 29, defeating the Pirates by a score of 2–0. In Cuellar's final start of the campaign, a 4–3 road win over Cincinnati in the second match of a September 28 twi-night doubleheader, he hit his first major-league home run, off Sammy Ellis, to lead off the top of the fifth. Cuellar finished with a 12–10 record, 175 strikeouts, and a 2.22 ERA, (second in the National League (NL) to Sandy Koufax' 1.73). Following a loss on May 17, 1967, Cuellar won six straight games, posting a 1.18 ERA over the span. The first of these was a 2–0 shutout of the Giants on May 21. He made the first of four All-Star Game appearances at Anaheim Stadium on July 11. He came into the contest in relief of Chris Short in the 11th. Of the seven batters he faced, the only baserunner he allowed in the two shutout innings he pitched was Carl Yastrzemski, who recorded a 12th-inning single. The NL eventually won 2–1 in 15 innings. On July 24, Cuellar had held the Phillies to one hit and no runs through eight innings, as Houston led 1–0. During the ninth, Philadelphia manager Gene Mauch called him a name from the dugout, hoping to start a fight and get both players ejected. Eddie Mathews of Houston acted as a peacemaker, but Cuellar would allow an unearned run in the inning (due to a Mathews error). However, he finished the game, allowing only two hits total as Houston prevailed 2–1 in 11 innings. He threw back-to-back shutouts on September 22 and 27 against the New York Mets and Philadelphia; the latter of these was an 11-inning game in which he struck out 12. Five times Cuellar struck out 10 or more batters in a game in 1967, the most coming on June 6, when he struck out 13 in a 3–2 win over the Cardinals. Cuellar improved his record to 16–11 in 1967, with a 3.03 ERA. He tied with four other pitchers for fifth in the NL in wins and ranked fifth in strikeouts (203, the most he would ever record in a season). After the major league seasons, Cuellar had typically played winter baseball in Latin America over the offseasons. However, the Astros asked him not to do so in the 1967-68 offseason because they thought he was pitching too much. When he returned to the team in 1968, he complained of arm soreness. He pitched only once in April and did not make a start until May 19. Cuellar won his first three starts. On May 30, he threw a seven-hit shutout against the Braves in an 11–0 victory. He struck out a season-high 12 on June 21 and held the Phillies to one unearned run in a complete game, 2–1 victory. With a four-hit shutout of the Dodgers on July 29, Cuellar's record improved to 6–5. However, he lost five straight decisions, not winning again until September 17. In 28 games (24 starts), he had an 8–11 record, though his ERA was 2.74. He struck out 133 batters in 170+2⁄3 innings. On December 4, the Astros traded Cuellar, Enzo Hernández, and Tom Johnson to the Baltimore Orioles for Curt Blefary and John Mason. ### Baltimore Orioles (1969–76) #### 1969–71 With Baltimore, Cuellar "blossomed into a star," according to reporter Matt Schudel. As the pitcher joined fellow starters Jim Palmer and Dave McNally, and sluggers Frank Robinson, Brooks Robinson and Boog Powell, the Orioles began a three-year run atop the American League (AL) in 1969. In his Baltimore debut on April 10, he pitched 10 innings and allowed just one unearned run against the Boston Red Sox. Though he did not get a decision, the Orioles prevailed 2–1 in 13 innings. He threw 10 innings in another game on April 23 (this one a 3–2 win over the Tigers), then threw a shutout against the Yankees four days later. Facing the Kansas City Royals on May 10, he threw a two-hit shutout in a 5–0 victory. On June 17 and 21, Cuellar pitched a pair of complete-game four-hit, one-run victories, striking out 12 and nine batters respectively. He held the Red Sox to three hits on July 12 in a 4–0 shutout. In August, Cuellar retired 35 batters in a row. The streak was ended on August 10 by César Tovar of the Minnesota Twins, as Cuellar was three outs away from recording his first career no-hitter; Tovar's hit, which came in the top of ninth inning, was the only one the Twins would manage against Cuellar in his complete-game shutout (a 2–0 victory). He won seven straight games from July 24 through August 19 (the last of which was a shutout of the California Angels), then won six straight from August 27 to September 18. During the 1969 season, Cuellar achieved a win–loss record of 23–11, struck out 182 batters, and recorded a 2.38 ERA, as Baltimore won a club-record 109 games and the very first AL East Division title. Cuellar's 23 wins ranked second in the AL to Denny McLain's 24, his 2.38 ERA ranked third (behind Dick Bosman's 2.19 and Palmer's 2.34), and his 182 strikeouts tied Joe Coleman for fifth. His five shutouts were third behind McLain's nine and Palmer's six. For his outstanding year, Cuellar tied McLain for the AL Cy Young Award. Cuellar became the first pitcher born in Latin America to win the Cy Young Award. He also finished eighth in AL Most Valuable Player (MVP) voting. The Orioles faced the Minnesota Twins in the American League Championship Series. In Game 1, Cuellar allowed three runs (two earned) in eight innings, leaving with his team trailing 3–2. Baltimore tied it in the ninth on a Boog Powell home run, then scored the winning run in the 12th on a Paul Blair RBI single to win the game 4–3. The Orioles went on to sweep the Twins three games to none en route to winning the American League Pennant and earning a berth in the World Series against the New York Mets. Cuellar again got the start in Game 1, allowing one run over four innings and outpitching Tom Seaver in a 4–1 victory. The two faced off again in Game 4; Cuellar pitched seven innings, allowing just a home run to Donn Clendenon, but the Orioles were losing 1–0 when Cuellar exited the game. Brooks Robinson tied the game with a sacrifice fly in the ninth, taking Cuellar off the hook for the loss, but the Orioles lost the game 2–1 in 10 innings. In the next game, the Mets completed one of the biggest World Series upsets ever, winning the 1969 Series four games to one against the heavily favored Orioles. Cuellar's triumph in Game One wound up being the only Baltimore victory. On May 29, 1970, Cuellar struck out 10 batters, including four in the same inning, as he threw a four-hit shutout against the Angels. Twice in the first half of the season, he allowed only two hits in a game, on May 24 and June 11 (both Oriole wins). He threw a four-hit shutout against the Tigers on July 3, then pitched all 10 innings of a 6–2 victory over the Yankees four days later. Cuellar made the All-Star team for the second time, picked by Weaver, who was managing the team. Through June, his ERA was 4.34 (though his record was 8–5), but Cuellar only lost three times for the rest of the season while winning 16 more games and posting a 2.78 ERA. On August 11, he threw a four-hit shutout against the Angels for the second time that season. On August 27, Cuellar became the second pitcher in the AL (after teammate McNally) to win 20 games, allowing 10 hits but earning the win in a 6–4 victory over the Athletics. He threw his fourth shutout of the season on September 9, necessary for Baltimore's 1–0 victory over the Yankees. Cuellar's win–loss record was 24–8 in 1970; he recorded a 3.48 ERA and 190 strikeouts. Cuellar's 24 wins tied with McNally and Jim Perry for the major league lead. He led the AL in games started (40, tied with four others), and complete games (21), also ranking among the AL leaders in strikeouts (fifth), shutouts (four, tied with two others for third), and innings pitched (297+2⁄3, third, behind Palmer and Sam McDowell's 305). However, Cuellar finished in fourth place in the voting for the American League Cy Young Award. "He should have won the Cy that year, but not doing so never affected his performance," teammate Palmer opined. In the AL MVP voting, Cuellar finished 11th. Cuellar, Palmer, and McNally combined for 68 wins, the most for a starting trio since three Detroit Tigers did so in 1944. The Orioles faced the Twins again in the ALCS, and Cuellar started Game 1. Struggling on the mound in the cold weather at Metropolitan Stadium, he surrendered six runs in 4+1⁄3 innings. However, he contributed offensively in the fourth inning, when he hit a pitch from Jim Perry that barely stayed fair as it passed over the right field fence for a grand slam. The Orioles won 10–6, then went on to sweep the Twins for the second year in a row. Cuellar had a rocky start in Game 2 of the 1970 World Series against the Reds, lasting only 2+1⁄3 innings and giving up four runs (though only one was earned). However, Baltimore rallied to win the game 6–5. In Game 5, Cuellar was hit hard early, giving up three runs to the Reds in the first inning. It was then that his pitching coach, George Bamberger, advised Cuellar to stop throwing his screwball for the rest of the game. Cuellar settled himself down and followed Bamberger's advice by relying on his fastball, curveball, and changeup, to shut out the Reds for the next eight innings for an impressive 9-3 complete game victory that clinched the World Series title for the Orioles. Forty years later, reporter Mike Klingaman wrote, "Of his 185 big league victories, none meant more than that World Series win to Cuellar." Facing the Indians in his second start of the year on April 14, 1971, Cuellar only struck out two batters but only allowed four hits in a 3–0 shutout win. He took pleasure in a complete game, 3–2 win over the Indians on May 26. Earlier in the year, Cleveland manager Alvin Dark had said that Cuellar's fastball "couldn't blacken an eye." He won 11 decisions in a row from May 12 through July 8, posting a 2.17 ERA in that span. The first of these was a 6–0 shutout of the Kansas City Royals on May 12 in which Jerry May had the only hit off of him, a third-inning single. He shut out the Milwaukee Brewers on June 4, then held the Minnesota Twins to one run in a complete game, 2–1 victory five days later. Teammate Pat Dobson was so impressed with Cuellar's success, he started wearing his socks for good luck. With a 13–1 record and a 2.88 ERA in the first half, Cuellar was selected to his third All-Star Game. In the second half, he was only 7–8, but his ERA was 3.34. Against the Twins on August 10, he gave up Harmon Killebrew's 500th home run. He held the White Sox to four hits on August 24 in a 1–0 shutout. In 1971, Cuellar's regular-season win–loss record was 20–9, and he had a 3.08 ERA and 124 strikeouts. His 20 wins tied with four others for sixth in the AL, his four shutouts were tied with 10 others for seventh, his 292+1⁄3 innings pitched were fourth in the AL (behind Mickey Lolich's 376, Wilbur Wood's 334, and Vida Blue's 312), and his 21 complete games were also fourth (behind Lolich's 29, Blue's 24, and Wood's 22). Palmer and McNally each won 20 games again, and newcomer Dobson did so as well, making the Orioles the first team to have four twenty-game winners since the 1921 Chicago White Sox. Though Cuellar did not get any Cy Young votes, he finished 24th in AL MVP voting. This year in the ALCS, the Orioles faced the Athletics instead of the Twins. Cuellar started Game 2, allowing just one run and six hits in a complete game, 5–1 victory. The Orioles swept the ALCS for the third year in a row and earned a berth in the World Series against the Pirates. In Game 3, Cuellar allowed five runs (four earned) in six innings, suffering the defeat in the 5–1 loss. He allowed just two runs over eight innings in Game 7, but Steve Blass of the Pirates allowed only one run, and Pittsburgh won the series as Cuellar suffered a difficult loss. #### 1972–76 On May 26, 1972, Cuellar threw a four-hit shutout in a 2–0 victory over the Indians. He won only two of his first nine games in 1972, though his ERA was 3.50. After June 4, he posted a 16–7 record for the rest of the year, with a 2.36 ERA. Though striking out only two Yankees on June 28, he allowed five hits and no runs in a 4–0 shutout. A little over a month later, he allowed just three hits in a 5–0 shutout of the Yankees on July 30. On August 11, he struck out a season-high 13 batters in a 2–1 win over Boston. From August 25 through September 16, he won five straight decisions for the Orioles. Nine shutout innings on September 3 were not enough for a win as the Angels scored a run against Eddie Watt in the 10th to win 1–0, but Cuellar threw nine more shutout innings four days later, getting credit for the win this time in a 9–0 victory over the Tigers. In 35 starts, he had an 18–12 record, a 2.57 ERA, and 132 strikeouts in 248+1⁄3 innings pitched. His 18 wins were tied with Clyde Wright for 10th in the AL. Cuellar got off to a 2–6 start in 1973, posting a 5.00 ERA through June 9. Afterwards, he went 16–7, posting a 2.56 ERA. He held the Texas Rangers to three hits on June 15 in a 1–0 shutout. Ten days later, he pitched all 12 innings of a 4–3 win over the Brewers. On July 19, he struck out 12 batters and pitched all 11 innings of a 3–1 victory over the Angels. He threw a five-hit shutout against the White Sox on August 18 in a 3–0 victory. From August 9 through September 1, he won six starts in a row; after losing on September 5, he won his last four decisions of the year. On September 17, he allowed four runs (two earned) and struck out nine as he pitched all 10 innings of a 5–4 win over the Yankees. In 38 starts, he had an 18–13 record, a 3.27 ERA, and 140 strikeouts in 267 innings. After a one-year absence from the playoffs, the Orioles won the AL East again, facing the defending World Series Champion Athletics in the ALCS. The starter for Game 3, Cuellar pitched every inning of an 11-inning game, matching pace with Ken Holtzman of the Athletics for 10 innings before finally giving up a game-ending home run to Bert Campaneris in a 2–1 loss. The Athletics won the series in five games. During 1974 spring training, Cuellar began parking in a special spot in the reporters-only parking lot, perhaps thinking that The Cuban Star referred to him. "Who else is Cuban star on this club?" he asked. Despite a broken toe, he was ready for the start of the season. After losing all three of his April decisions, he won nine straight decisions before finally suffering another loss on June 21. Included in that streak were two shutouts: a rain-shortened seven-inning game against Boston on May 17 and a 1–0 victory over the Twins on June 17. Against the Yankees on June 30, Cuellar struck out only one batter but threw a six-hit shutout in a June 30. He was selected to the All-Star Game for the fourth time in his career. On August 15, he struck out a season-high 10 batters and held the White Sox to six hits and one run in a complete game, 2–1 victory. After a loss on August 24, Cuellar won seven of his last nine games, and the two he did not get the decision in were also Oriole victories. In early September, Cuellar, Palmer, McNally, and Ross Grimsley set an AL record with five consecutive shutouts. Cuellar threw two in the streak, both 1–0 victories. Cuellar had a great season in 1974, finishing with a win–loss record of 22–10, a 3.11 ERA, and 106 strikeouts. He led the AL in winning percentage with a .688 mark, and his 22 wins were third in the league behind Hunter's and Fergie Jenkins's 25. Cuellar pitched 20 complete games (tied with Steve Busby for eighth), including five shutouts (tied with Jim Bibby for fourth), as he earned a sixth-place finish in the Cy Young Award voting. From 1969 through 1974, Cuellar's .665 winning percentage was the best in the major leagues. Again, the Orioles won the Eastern Division and faced the Athletics in the ALCS. In Game 1, Cuellar gave up three runs over eight innings, pitching craftily and earning the victory as the Orioles won 6–3. He allowed just one hit in Game 4, but his control was not good; he walked nine hitters and was lifted in the fifth inning after walking in a run. The Athletics only scored one more all game, but that was enough for a series-clinching, 2–1 win. It would be Cuellar's final postseason start; in playoff games, he had gone 4–4 and posted a 2.85 ERA. In Cuellar's second start of 1975 on April 16, he allowed just three hits in a 2–0 shutout of the Brewers. On May 31, a third-inning single by Bruce Bochte was the only hit Cuellar allowed in a 1–0, shutout victory over the Angels. He gave up six hits in a shutout of the Red Sox on June 22, a 6–0 victory in the first game of a doubleheader. After the Tigers knocked Cuellar out in the second inning of a game on June 26, 1975, he returned three days later and held Detroit to five hits and one run in a complete game, 2–1 victory. On July 26, he took a no-hitter into the seventh inning against the Brewers and finished with one hit allowed (a single to George Scott) and 10 strikeouts in a 4–0 victory over the Brewers. He allowed just two hits on August 11 in a 4–0 shutout of the Royals. On September 2, in the first game of a doubleheader against Cleveland, he pitched all 10 innings, allowing 11 hits but just two runs as the Orioles won 3–2. Cuellar's ERA in 1975 was 3.66, the highest it had been since 1964-though his five shutouts tied his career high, his pitching was not as consistent as usual. He had a 14–12 record and struck out 105 batters in 256 innings. The five shutouts tied with three others for third in the AL, behind Palmer's 10 and Hunter's seven. By 1976, Cuellar was 39 years old, and his age negatively impacted his performance. He did shut out the Rangers on June 20, limiting Texas to three hits in a 2–0 victory. After posting a 4–12 record and a 5.14 ERA through the end of July, he was moved to the bullpen. He made five relief appearances for the Orioles in August, then did not pitch at all once the Orioles made their September call-ups. In 26 games (19 starts), he had a 4–13 record, a 4.96 ERA, and 32 strikeouts in 107 innings pitched. He was released on December 21, ending his eight-year tenure with the Orioles. With the Orioles, Cuellar would enjoy three consecutive 20-win seasons. ### California Angels (1977), later career On January 25, 1977, Cuellar was signed by the California Angels. Harry Dalton, their general manager (GM), was friends with Cuellar from his time as the Orioles' GM previously. However, Cuellar struggled in spring training and did not even appear in a regular season game until April 26, California's 19th game of the season. In a start against the Yankees on May 3, Cuellar allowed seven hits and six runs in 3+1⁄3 innings, taking the loss in an 8–1 defeat. He was released on May 16, having only appeared in two games. That would be the end of his major league career. In 1979, Cuellar joined the San Juan Boricuas of the newly created independent Inter-American League. He suffered a pulled hamstring in his third start but continued to appear in games despite the injury. Plagued by financial troubles and visa issues, the league folded on June 30. Cuellar continued to play in Puerto Rican winter leagues and the Mexican League through 1983 before retiring for good. While in Puerto Rico in 1983, he taught Willie Hernández how to throw a screwball. Hernández would win the AL Cy Young and MVP Awards in 1984. During his 15-season career, Cuellar had a win–loss record of 185–130 with a 3.14 ERA, 1,632 strikeouts, 172 complete games, 36 shutouts, and 11 saves in 453 games and 2,808 innings pitched. In five American League Championship Series and three World Series appearances, Cuellar pitched in 12 games, winning four games and losing four with a 2.85 ERA while recording 56 strikeouts. ## Pitching style Cuellar was a "junkball" pitcher, relying heavily on his excellent screwball and change-up rather than a hard fastball, according to Baltimore Sun reporter Mike Klingaman. Klingaman observed that by cleverly selecting which pitches to throw, Cuellar set up hitters for strikeouts. Fellow Oriole pitcher Dick Hall recalled: "To watch him pitch was amazing. It seemed like every time hitters took a pitch, it was right at the knees for a strike, and if they swung, it wasn't." Sports Illustrated said he had "the trickiest screwball since Carl Hubbell." In 2016, they said he had the fifth-best screwball of all time. Ken McMullen of the Angels said: "Cuellar's screwball is a pitch nobody else in baseball throws, and he can change speeds on it". "Miguel was a magician out there," said Oriole first baseman Boog Powell. "He made hitters look comical, like they could have swung three times before the ball got there. A couple of times, I almost had to call time-out because I was laughing my head off." He tended to struggle early in a season, then pitch better as the weather got warmer. "Cold weather no good for baseball or me," he said. Usually he displayed a quiet personality and worked quickly on the mound, but struggles could occasionally cause him to lose his temper. ## Personal life When Cuellar joined the Orioles, he was in the process of breaking up with his wife, and he was struggling with debt. He divorced soon after he joined the team, leaving his wife and 2 children, and the Orioles helped rectify his financial issues. Shortly after joining Baltimore, he married Myriam, who would be his wife for the rest of his life. He had two additional children: Lydia and Mike, Jr. The Toronto Blue Jays signed Mike Jr. his first son, as a minor league pitcher in 1978, and he spent five years in their organization, advancing as far as Double-A with the Knoxville Blue Jays. After his baseball career ended, Cuellar resided in the Orlando, Florida, metropolitan area. He worked at a golf course, also helping out during Orioles' spring training each year. For a while, he was a pitching coach in Puerto Rico, and he served as an instructor for the Orioles in the latter years of his life. He also was a frequent attendee when the Orioles had team reunions. On April 2, 2010, Cuellar died of stomach cancer at the Orlando Regional Medical Center. He was the third of the Orioles' four 20-game winners in 1971 to perish, following Dave McNally in 2002 and Pat Dobson in 2006. Only Jim Palmer survives them. ## Legacy Along with Palmer and McNally, Cuellar gave the Orioles one of the best starting rotations in history during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Blair recalled that "With Cuellar, McNally, and Palmer, you could almost ring up 60 wins for us when the season started because each of them was going to win 20. And with Cuellar and McNally, you never knew they were winning 10-0 or losing 0-10. They were the same guys. They were two really great left-handers, and the reason they were so great was they didn't have the talent Palmer had. They didn't have the 95-mile-per-hour fastball Palmer had. They had to learn to pitch, know the hitters, hit corners, and they did it. And they never complained. Those kind of guys, you just die for. You break your neck to go out there and win for them.” Palmer remembered him as "like an artist. He could paint a different picture every time he went out there. He could finesse you. He could curveball you to death or screwball you to death. From 1969 to ’74, he was probably the best left-hander in the American League.” Cuellar ranks among Baltimore's top five career leaders in wins (143, fourth behind Palmer's 268, McNally's 181, and Mike Mussina's 147), strikeouts (1,011, fifth), shutouts (30, third behind Palmer's 53 and McNally's 33) and innings pitched (fifth, 2,028). He trails only Dave McNally among left-handers in wins and shutouts. He is among the Orioles' single-season records in other categories, as well. His 24 wins in 1970 are tied for second-most behind Steve Stone's 25 in 1981, and Cuellar holds two of the other top 10 win seasons as well (his 23 in 1969 are tied for sixth, and his 22 in 1974 are tied for ninth). He is one of four Orioles to make 40 starts in a season. "Crazy Horse" was a nickname given Cuellar by his Oriole teammates because of his superstitious nature. Each game, he would sit in the same place on the team bench. He stayed in the dugout until his catcher put his gear on, refused to step on the foul line, and refrained from signing autographs on days he was pitching. In 1969, early success in games in which coach Jim Frey caught his pregame warmup pitches caused Cuellar to insist that Frey catch his pregame warmups for the rest of the year. During a game against the Indians on May 26, 1972, Cuellar twice refused to catch a baseball thrown to him. When Boog Powell finally got him to catch it on a third try, Cuellar asked for a new ball, which he also refused to catch until Bobby Grich finally rolled it to the mound. When he forgot his lucky cap on a road trip to Milwaukee, the Orioles had it airmailed to him before Cuellar's start. In 1982, Cuellar was inducted into the Baltimore Orioles Hall of Fame. Columnist Harry Stein, in a 1976 Esquire magazine article, published an "All-Time All-Star Argument Starter" consisting of five ethnic baseball teams. Cuellar was the left-handed pitcher on Stein's Latino team. ## See also - List of Houston Astros team records - List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders - List of Major League Baseball single-inning strikeout leaders
158,448	Rachel Weisz	1,172,981,057	British actress (born 1970)	[ "1970s births", "20th-century English actresses", "21st-century American Jews", "21st-century American women", "21st-century English actresses", "Actresses from London", "Age controversies", "Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge", "American film actresses", "American people of Austrian-Jewish descent", "American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent", "American people of Italian descent", "American stage actresses", "American television actresses", "Audiobook narrators", "Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners", "Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award winners", "Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners", "British child models", "Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners", "English emigrants to the United States", "English female models", "English film actresses", "English people of Austrian-Jewish descent", "English people of Hungarian-Jewish descent", "English people of Italian descent", "English stage actresses", "English television actresses", "Jewish American actresses", "Jewish English actresses", "Jewish female models", "Laurence Olivier Award winners", "Living people", "Models from London", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners", "People educated at Benenden School", "People educated at North London Collegiate School", "People educated at St Paul's Girls' School", "People from Westminster", "People from the East Village, Manhattan", "Theatre World Award winners" ]	Rachel Hannah Weisz (/vaɪs/; born 7 March 1970) is a British actress. She began acting in stage and television productions in the early 1990s, and made her film debut in Death Machine (1994). She won a Critics' Circle Theatre Award for her role in the 1994 revival of Noël Coward's play Design for Living, and went on to appear in the 1999 Donmar Warehouse production of Tennessee Williams' drama Suddenly, Last Summer. Her film breakthrough came with her starring role as Evelyn Carnahan in the Hollywood action films The Mummy (1999) and The Mummy Returns (2001). Weisz went on to star in several films of the 2000s, including Enemy at the Gates (2001), About a Boy (2002), Runaway Jury (2003), Constantine (2005), The Fountain (2006), The Lovely Bones (2009) and The Whistleblower (2010). For her performance as an activist in the 2005 thriller The Constant Gardener, she won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, and for playing Blanche DuBois in a 2009 revival of A Streetcar Named Desire, she won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress. In the 2010s, Weisz continued to star in big-budget films such as the action film The Bourne Legacy (2012) and the fantasy film Oz the Great and Powerful (2013) and achieved critical acclaim for her performances in the independent films The Deep Blue Sea (2011), Denial (2016), and The Favourite (2018). For her portrayal of Sarah Churchill in The Favourite, she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and received a second Academy Award nomination. Weisz has since played Melina Vostokoff in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Black Widow (2021) and starred as twin obstetricians in the thriller miniseries Dead Ringers (2023). Weisz was engaged to filmmaker Darren Aronofsky from 2005 to 2010, with whom she has a son. In 2011, she married Daniel Craig, with whom she has a daughter. She also became a US citizen. ## Early life and family Weisz was born on 7 March 1970 in Westminster, London, and grew up in Hampstead Garden Suburb. Her father, George Weisz, was a Hungarian Jewish mechanical engineer. Her mother, Edith Ruth (née Teich), was a teacher-turned-psychotherapist originally from Vienna, Austria. Her parents emigrated to the United Kingdom as children around 1938, prior to the outbreak of World War II, in order to escape the Nazis. Her maternal grandfather's ancestry was Austrian Jewish; her maternal grandmother was Catholic and of Italian ancestry. The scholar and social activist James Parkes helped her mother's family to leave Austria for England. Weisz's mother was raised in the Catholic church and formally converted to Judaism upon marrying Weisz's father. Weisz's maternal grandfather was Alexander Teich, a Jewish activist who had been a secretary of the World Union of Jewish Students. Her younger sister Minnie Weisz is a visual artist. Weisz's parents valued the arts; they also encouraged their children to form opinions of their own by engaging their participation in family debates. Weisz left North London Collegiate School and attended Benenden School for one year, completing A-levels at St Paul's Girls School. Known for being an "English rose", Weisz began modelling at the age of 14. In 1984, she gained public attention when she turned down an offer to star in King David with Richard Gere. Weisz went to Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where she read English. She graduated with upper second-class honours. During her university years she was a contemporary of Sacha Baron Cohen, Alexander Armstrong, Emily Maitlis, Sue Perkins, Mel Giedroyc, Richard Osman and Ben Miller (whom she briefly dated), and appeared in various student dramatic productions, co-founding a student drama group called Cambridge Talking Tongues. The group won a Guardian Student Drama Award at the 1991 Edinburgh Festival Fringe for an improvised piece called Slight Possession, directed by David Farr. ## Career ### 1990s In 1992, Weisz appeared in the television film Advocates II, followed by roles in the Inspector Morse episode "Twilight of the Gods", and the BBC's steamy period drama Scarlet and Black, alongside Ewan McGregor. Dirty Something, a BBC Screen Two, hour-long television film made in 1992, was Weisz's first film, in which she played Becca, who met and fell in love with a traveller, Dog (Paul Reynolds), at the end of Glastonbury Festival. The opening scenes were filmed at the festival. Also starring as an older fellow traveller and sage was Larry (Bernard Hill). Weisz's breakthrough role on the stage was that of Gilda in Sean Mathias's 1994 revival of Noël Coward's Design for Living at the Gielgud Theatre, for which she received the London Critics' Circle Award for the most promising newcomer. Her portrayal was described as "wonderful" by a contemporary review. Weisz started her film career with a minor role in the 1994 film Death Machine, but her first major role came in the 1996 film Chain Reaction, which also starred Keanu Reeves and Morgan Freeman. While the film received mostly negative reviews–it holds a 16% rating on Rotten Tomatoes–it was a minor financial success. She next appeared as Miranda Fox in Stealing Beauty, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci, where she was first labelled an "English rose". Following this, Weisz found roles in the 1997 American drama Swept from the Sea, the 1998 British television comedy-drama My Summer with Des, Michael Winterbottom's crime film I Want You, and David Leland's The Land Girls, based on Angela Huth's book of the same name. In 1999, Weisz played Greta in the historical film Sunshine. The same year, her international breakthrough came with the 1999 adventure film The Mummy, in which she played the female lead opposite Brendan Fraser. Her character, Evelyn Carnahan, is an English Egyptologist, who undertakes an expedition to the fictional ancient Egyptian city of Hamunaptra to discover an ancient book. Variety criticised the direction of the film, writing: "(the actors) have been directed to broad, undisciplined performances [...] Buffoonery hardly seems like Weisz's natural domain, as the actress strains for comic effects that she can't achieve". She followed this up with the sequel The Mummy Returns in 2001, which grossed an estimated \$433 million worldwide, (equivalent to \$ million in dollars) higher than the original's \$260 million (equal to \$ million in dollars). Also in 1999, she played the role of Catherine in the Donmar Warehouse production of Tennessee Williams' Suddenly Last Summer, What's on Stage called her "captivating", stating that she brought "a degree of credibility to a difficult part". The same year, Weisz appeared in Neil LaBute's The Shape of Things at the Almeida Theatre, then temporarily located in London's King's Cross, for which she received a Theatre World Award. CurtainUp called her "a sophisticated, independent artist" with "great stage presence". ### 2000s In 2000, she portrayed Petula in the film Beautiful Creatures, following this up with 2001's Enemy at the Gates, and the 2002 comedy-drama About a Boy, with Hugh Grant, based on Nick Hornby's 1998 novel. In 2003, she played Marlee in the adaptation of John Grisham's legal thriller novel The Runaway Jury, along with Dustin Hoffman, John Cusack, and Gene Hackman; and starred in the film adaptation of the romantic comedy-drama play The Shape of Things. In 2004, Weisz appeared in the comedy Envy, opposite Ben Stiller, Jack Black, and Christopher Walken. The film failed at the box office. Variety opined that Weisz and co-star Amy Poehler "get fewer choice moments than they deserve." Her next role was alongside Keanu Reeves in Constantine, based on the comic book Hellblazer. Film Threat called her portrayal "effective at projecting scepticism and, eventually, dawning horror". Her next appearance, in 2005, was in Fernando Meirelles's The Constant Gardener, a film adaptation of a John le Carré thriller set in the slums of Kibera and Loiyangalani, Kenya. Weisz played an activist, Tessa Quayle, married to a British embassy official. The film was critically acclaimed, earning Weisz the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress, and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role. UK newspaper The Guardian noted that the film "established her in the front rank of British actors", while the BBC wrote: "Weisz is exceptional: film star charisma coupled with raw emotion in a performance to fall in love with". In 2006, she received the BAFTA Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year. In 2006, Weisz starred in Darren Aronofsky's romantic drama The Fountain. The San Francisco Chronicle found her portrayal of Queen Isabel "less convincing" than other roles. That same year, she provided the voice for Saphira the dragon in the fantasy film Eragon; and rejected an offer to star in The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor due to script issues. The part eventually went to Maria Bello. Her subsequent films include the 2007 Wong Kar-wai drama My Blueberry Nights, and Rian Johnson's 2008 caper film The Brothers Bloom, alongside Adrien Brody and Mark Ruffalo. In 2009, she played the lead role of Hypatia of Alexandria in the historical drama film Agora, a Spanish production directed by Alejandro Amenábar. The New York Times called her portrayal "adept", noting that she imparted "a sympathetic presence". That same year, she appeared as Blanche DuBois, in Rob Ashford's revival of the play A Streetcar Named Desire. Her performance in the play was praised by the critics, the Daily Telegraph noted that she "rises to the challenge magnificently". ### 2010s Weisz starred in the film The Whistleblower, which debuted at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2010. The film was based on the true story of human trafficking by employees of contractor DynCorp. During its première, the intense depiction of the treatment meted out to victims by the kidnappers made a woman in the audience faint. Variety magazine wrote "Weisz's performance holds the viewer every step of the way." That same year, she guest-starred in the animated series The Simpsons, in the 22nd season episode "How Munched is That Birdie in the Window?". Weisz's 2011 roles included an adaptation of Terence Rattigan's play The Deep Blue Sea, Fernando Meirelles' psychosexual drama 360 opposite Jude Law again and Anthony Hopkins, the BBC espionage thriller Page Eight, and the thriller film Dream House, alongside Daniel Craig. She filmed scenes for To the Wonder, a 2012 romantic drama film written and directed by Terrence Malick, alongside Ben Affleck, Olga Kurylenko, Javier Bardem, and Rachel McAdams; her scenes were cut. She has also starred in the 2012 action thriller film The Bourne Legacy based on the series of books by Robert Ludlum. In 2013, Weisz starred on Broadway alongside her husband, Daniel Craig, in a revival of Harold Pinter's Betrayal. It opened 27 October 2013, and closed 5 January 2014. Despite mixed reviews, box office receipts of \$17.5 million made it the second highest grossing Broadway play of 2013. That same year, Weisz played Evanora in the fantasy film Oz the Great and Powerful. In 2015, she appeared in drama film Youth and in science fiction film The Lobster. The film won Cannes Jury Prize. In 2016, she appeared in the drama film The Light Between Oceans, with Michael Fassbender and Alicia Vikander, and portrayed Holocaust historian Deborah Lipstadt in Denial, a film based on Lipstadt's book, and directed by Mick Jackson. In 2017 Weisz starred in My Cousin Rachel, a drama based on Daphne du Maurier's novel, and in 2018 co-starred in a British biographical film about sailor Donald Crowhurst, The Mercy, directed by James Marsh. Weisz's production company, LC6 Productions, released its first feature film, Disobedience, in 2017, starring Weisz and Rachel McAdams. Weisz grew up three underground stops away from where the film is set in London. Raised Jewish, she never fully connected to the faith. She claims she was "really disobedient" herself and has never felt she fits in anywhere. In 2018, Weisz played Sarah Churchill in The Favourite, winning the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and receiving her second nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. In April 2019, she entered talks to join Scarlett Johansson in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Black Widow. In July of that year, Weisz was announced to play Melina Vostokoff in the film, which was released on 9 July 2021. ### 2020s Weisz next starred and executive produced Dead Ringers, a remake of the 1988 film of the same name for Amazon Prime Video. She is set to portray actress Elizabeth Taylor in the biographical drama A Special Relationship, though the film remains in development. The film will chronicle Taylor's life and career from actress to activist. It is set to be directed by Bert and Bertie, and produced by See-Saw Films, with a script written by Simon Beaufoy. She is attached to star alongside Colin Farrell in Love Child, directed by Todd Solondz. She is also set to star in a film adaptation of Seance on a Wet Afternoon, based on the 1961 suspense novel of the same name by Mark McShane and directed by Tomas Alfredson. ## Personal life In the summer of 2001, Weisz began dating American filmmaker and producer Darren Aronofsky. They met backstage at London's Almeida Theatre, where she was starring in The Shape of Things. Weisz moved to New York with Aronofsky the following year; in 2005, they were engaged. Their son was born in May 2006 in New York City. The couple resided in the East Village in Manhattan. Noted mohel Philip Sherman performed their son's brit milah. In November 2010, Weisz and Aronofsky announced that they had been apart for months, but remained close friends and were committed to bringing up their son together in New York. Weisz and actor Daniel Craig had been friends for many years and worked together on the film Dream House. They began dating in December 2010 and they married on 22 June 2011 in a private New York ceremony, with four guests in attendance, including Weisz's son and Craig's daughter. On 1 September 2018, it was reported that they had their first child together, a daughter. Throughout her career, Weisz has been featured on the covers of magazines, such as Vogue. She served as a muse to fashion designer Narciso Rodriguez, and was named L'Oréal's global ambassador in 2010. Weisz learned karate for her role in The Brothers Bloom. A British citizen by birth, Weisz became a naturalised US citizen in 2011. ## Filmography ### Film ### Television ### Theatre ## Awards and nominations ## See also - List of British Academy Award nominees and winners - List of Jewish Academy Award winners and nominees - List of actors with Academy Award nominations - List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories
26,522,978	1995 Football League Third Division play-off final	1,170,272,895	null	[ "1994–95 Football League Third Division", "1995 Football League play-offs", "1995 sports events in London", "Bury F.C. matches", "Chesterfield F.C. matches", "EFL League Two play-off finals", "Football League Third Division play-off finals", "May 1995 sports events in the United Kingdom" ]	The 1995 Football League Third Division play-off Final was an association football match which was played on 27 May 1995 at Wembley Stadium, London, between Chesterfield and Bury to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from the Football League Third Division to the Second Division. The top two teams of the 1994–95 Football League Third Division, Carlisle United and Walsall, gained automatic promotion to the Second Division, while the those placed from third to sixth place in the table took part in play-offs. The winners of the play-off semi-finals competed for the final place for the 1995–96 season in the Second Division. The losing semi-finalists were Preston North End and Mansfield Town. The match, refereed by Paul Alcock, was played in front of 22,814 spectators. Chesterfield won the match 2–0 with first-half goals from Tony Lormor and Phil Robinson to gain promotion back to the third tier of English football five seasons after being relegated. For the club's manager, John Duncan, it was his second success with Chesterfield as a manager, having won the Fourth Division title in 1985. His counterpart, Mike Walsh, parted company with Bury less than four months later. Chesterfield's next season saw them end in seventh position in the Second Division, one place and one point below the play-offs. Bury ended their following campaign in third place in the Third Division, securing automatic promotion to the Second Division for the 1996–97 season. ## Route to the final Chesterfield finished the regular 1994–95 season in third position in the Football League Third Division, the third tier of the English football league system, one place and one point ahead of Bury. Both therefore missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the Second Division and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the third promoted team. Chesterfield finished two points behind Walsall (who were promoted in second place) and ten behind league winners Carlisle United. Bury's opponents in their play-off semi-final were Preston North End with the first match of the two-legged tie taking place at Deepdale in Preston on 13 May 1995. The visiting side took the lead in the 40th minute when David Pugh received a pass from Nick Daws before striking the ball from 10 yards (9.1 m), past Preston North End goalkeeper John Vaughan. Despite having a number of chances to score, Preston North End could not level the match and it ended 1–0 to Bury. The second leg was held at Gigg Lane in Bury three days later. Tony Rigby put the home team ahead with a 20-yard (18 m) volley in the 88th minute, and although Tony Kelly was sent off seconds later, the game finished 1–0, with Bury progressing to the final with a 2–0 aggregate win. Chesterfield faced Mansfield Town in their semi-final and the first leg was played at Field Mill in Mansfield. After a goalless first half, Phil Robinson gave Chesterfield the lead in the 64th minute after out-pacing the Mansfield Town defence and scoring past Darren Ward in goal. Stewart Hadley levelled the score eight minutes later when he struck from the edge of the Chesterfield penalty area after the defence failed to clear a free kick, and the match ended 1–1. The second leg took place at Saltergate in Chesterfield three days later. Paul Holland gave Mansfield the lead after three minutes with a header before Tony Lormor equalised midway through the first half. Steve Wilkinson then restored Mansfield's lead with a goal on 32 minutes but Robinson equalised and regular time ended by the score at 2–2, and 3–3 on aggregate, sending the game into extra time. Kevin Lampkin was sent off for Mansfield before Nicky Law scored from a penalty. Mark Peters was then also dismissed, leaving Mansfield with nine players, and further strikes from Jonathan Howard and Robinson made the final score 5–2 with Chesterfield progressing to the final with a 6–3 aggregate victory. ## Match ### Background Chesterfield were making their second appearance in a play-off final, having lost 1–0 against Cambridge United in the 1990 Football League Fourth Division play-off final. They had played in the fourth tier of English football since suffering relegation in the 1988–89 season. Bury had participated in play-offs on two previous occasions, losing in the semi-finals in both: 2–0 on aggregate to Tranmere Rovers in 1990 and 2–1 over the two legs to Bolton Wanderers in 1991. Bury had played in the fourth tier since being relegated in the 1991–92 season. It was Bury's first match at the national stadium. In the two matches between the sides during the regular season, Bury had won 2–1 at Gigg Lane in September 1994 while the return fixture at Saltergate the following March ended in a goalless draw. Chesterfield's manager John Duncan had led the team to promotion in a previous spell in charge as champions of the Fourth Division in the 1984–85 season. His second period at the club came three years after leaving Ipswich Town in 1990. The referee for the match was Paul Alcock of Redhill, Surrey. Among the substitutes for Chesterfield was the 43-year-old commercial manager of the club, Jim Brown, as Billy Stewart, their third-choice goalkeeper, was in the starting line-up. ### Summary The final kicked off around 3 p.m. at Wembley Stadium on 27 May 1995 in front of 22,814 spectators. Bury dominated the first half, with Don Beet writing in The Guardian that they "flung everything at Billy Stewart's goal from the start". Midway through the first half, a long throw-in flew deep into the Bury penalty area and after Des Hazel challenged a defender, the ball fell to Lormor who struck it cleanly past Gary Kelly in the Bury goal to make it 1–0. In the 41st minute, Chesterfield doubled their lead: Law sent in another long throw-in and Robinson headed it into the Bury net despite the attention of a number of defenders. At half time, Bury made their first change of the game with Mark Carter being substituted off for John Paskin. The 68th minute saw Bury's closest chance to score when Rigby struck a free kick against the Chesterfield goalpost. Late in the game, Kelly saved attempts to score from both Robinson and second-half substitute Kevin Davies. The match ended 2–0 to Chesterfield who were promoted to the Second Division. ### Details ## Post-match Laws described Bury's early dominance as "like Custer's last stand out there", but his manager John Duncan said that his goalkeeper had been "solid as a rock". Despite his side's loss, Mike Walsh still favoured the play-offs, suggesting that "they are great for the supporters". He left Bury in September 1995 with the club in seventeenth position in the Third Division. Chesterfield's next season saw them end in seventh position in the Second Division, one place and one point below the play-offs. Bury ended their following campaign in third place in the Third Division, securing automatic promotion to the Second Division for the 1996–97 season.
40,546,544	The sea in culture	1,153,295,048	Influence of the sea on aspects of human culture	[ "Sea in culture" ]	The role of the sea in culture has been important for centuries, as people experience the sea in contradictory ways: as powerful but serene, beautiful but dangerous. Human responses to the sea can be found in artforms including literature, art, poetry, film, theatre, and classical music. The earliest art representing boats is 40,000 years old. Since then, artists in different countries and cultures have depicted the sea. Symbolically, the sea has been perceived as a hostile environment populated by fantastic creatures: the Leviathan of the Bible, Isonade in Japanese mythology, and the kraken of late Norse mythology. In the works of the psychiatrist Carl Jung, the sea symbolises the personal and the collective unconscious in dream interpretation. The sea and ships have been depicted in art ranging from simple drawings on the walls of huts in Lamu to seascapes by Joseph Turner and Dutch Golden Age painting. The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai created colour prints of the moods of the sea, including The Great Wave off Kanagawa. The sea has appeared in literature since Homer's Odyssey (8th century BC). The sea is a recurring theme in the Haiku poems of the Japanese Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō (松尾芭蕉) (1644–1694). The sea plays a major role in Homer's epic poem the Odyssey, describing the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus who struggles to return home across the sea, encountering sea monsters along the way. In the Middle Ages, the sea appears in romances such as the Tristan legend, with motifs such as mythical islands and self-propelled ships. Pilgrimage is a common theme in stories and poems such as The Book of Margery Kempe. From the Early Modern period, the Atlantic slave trade and penal transportation used the sea to transport people against their will from one continent to another, often permanently, creating strong cultural resonances, while burial at sea has been practised in various ways since the ancient civilisations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Contemporary sea-inspired novels have been written by Joseph Conrad, Herman Wouk, and Herman Melville; poems about the sea have been written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Rudyard Kipling and John Masefield. The sea has inspired much music over the centuries including sea shanties, Richard Wagner's The Flying Dutchman, Claude Debussy's La mer (1903–1905), Charles Villiers Stanford's Songs of the Sea (1904) and Songs of the Fleet (1910), Edward Elgar's Sea Pictures (1899) and Ralph Vaughan Williams' A Sea Symphony (1903–1909). ## Humans and the sea Human reactions to the sea are found in, for example, literature, art, poetry, film, theatre, and classical music, as well as in mythology and the psychotherapeutic interpretation of dreams. The importance of the sea to maritime nations is shown by the intrusions it makes into their culture; its inclusion in myth and legend; its mention in proverbs and folk song; the use of ships in votive offerings; the importance of ships and the sea in initiation ceremonies and in mortuary rites; children playing with toy boats; adults making model ships; crowds gathering at the launch of a new ship; people congregating at the arrival or departure of a vessel and the general attitude towards maritime matters. Trade and exchange of ideas with neighbouring nations is one of the means by which civilizations advance and evolve. This happened widely among the ancient peoples living in lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea, as well as in India, China and other Southeast Asian nations. The World Oceans Day takes place every 8 June. ## Early history Petroglyphs depicting boats made of papyrus are among rock art dating back 40,000 years on the shores of the Caspian Sea. James Hornell studied traditional, indigenous watercraft and considered the significance of the "oculi" or eyes painted on the prows of boats which may have represented the watchful gaze of a god or goddess protecting the vessel. The Vikings portrayed fierce heads with open jaws and bulging eyes at bow and stern of their longships to ward off evil spirits, and the figureheads on the prows of sailing ships were regarded with affection by mariners and represented the belief that the vessel needed to find its way. The Egyptians placed figures of holy birds on the prow while the Phoenicians used horses representing speed. The Ancient Greeks used boars' heads to symbolise acute vision and ferocity while Roman boats often mounted a carving of a centurion representing valour in battle. In northern Europe, serpents, bulls, dolphins and dragons were customary used to decorate ships' prows and by the thirteenth century, the swan was commonly used to signify grace and mobility. ## Symbolism, myth and legend Symbolically, the sea has long been perceived as a hostile and dangerous environment populated by fantastic creatures: the gigantic Leviathan of the Bible, the shark-like Isonade in Japanese mythology, and the ship-swallowing Kraken of late Norse mythology. The Greek mythology of the sea includes a complex pantheon of gods and other supernatural creatures. The god of the sea, Poseidon, is accompanied by his wife, Amphitrite, who is one of the fifty Nereids, sea nymphs whose parents were Nereus and Doris. The Tritons, sons of Poseidon, who were variously represented with the tails of fish or seahorses, formed Poseidon's retinue along with the Nereids. The mythic sea was further peopled by dangerous sea monsters such as Scylla. Poseidon himself had something of the shifting character of the sea, presiding not only over the sea, but also earthquakes, storms and horses. Neptune occupied a similar position in Roman mythology. Another Greek sea-god, Proteus, specifically embodies the domain of sea change, the adjectival form "protean" meaning mutable, able to assume many forms. Shakespeare makes use of this in Henry VI, Part 3, where Richard III boasts "I can add colors to the chameleon, Change shapes with Proteus for advantages". In Southeast Asia, the importance of the sea gave rise to many myths of epic ocean voyages, princesses on distant islands, monsters and magical fish lurking in the deep. In Northern Europe, kings were sometimes given ship burials when the body was laid in a vessel surrounded by treasure and costly cargo and set adrift on the sea. In North America, various creation stories have a duck or other creature dive to the bottom of the sea and bring up some mud out of which the dry land was formed. Atargatis was a Syrian deity known as the mermaid-goddess and Sedna was the goddess of the sea and marine animals in Inuit mythology. In Norse mythology Ægir was the sea god and Rán, his wife, was the sea goddess while Njörðr was the god of sea travel. It was best to propitiate the gods before setting out on a voyage. In the works of the psychiatrist Carl Jung, the sea symbolizes the personal and the collective unconscious in dream interpretation: > [Dream] By the sea shore. The sea breaks into the land, flooding everything. Then the dreamer is sitting on a lonely island.[Interpretation] The sea is the symbol of the Collective unconscious, because unfathomed depths lie concealed beneath its reflecting surface. > [Footnote] The sea is a favourite place for the birth of visions (i.e. invasions by unconscious contents). ## In art The sea and ships have been depicted in art ranging from simple drawings of dhows on the walls of huts in Lamu to seascapes by Joseph Turner. The genre of marine art became especially important in the paintings of the Dutch Golden Age, with works showing the Dutch navy at the peak of its military prowess. Artists such as Jan Porcellis, Simon de Vlieger, Jan van de Cappelle, Hendrick Dubbels, Willem van de Velde the Elder and his son, Ludolf Bakhuizen and Reinier Nooms created maritime paintings in a wide variety of styles. The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai created colour prints of the moods of the sea, including The Great Wave off Kanagawa showing the destructive force of the sea at the same time as its ever-changing beauty. The 19th century Romantic artist Ivan Aivazovsky created some 6,000 paintings, the majority of which depict the sea. ## In literature and film ### Ancient The sea has appeared in literature since at least the time of the Ancient Greek poet Homer who describes it as the "wine dark sea" (oînops póntos). In his epic poem the Odyssey, written in the 8th century BC, he describes the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus who struggles to return home across the sea after the war with Troy described in the Iliad. His wandering voyage takes him from one strange and dangerous land to another, experiencing among other maritime hazards shipwreck, the sea-monster Scylla, the whirlpool Charybdis and the island Ogygia of the nymph Calypso. The soldier Xenophon, in his Anabasis, told how he witnessed the roaming 10,000 Greeks, lost in enemy territory, seeing the Black Sea from Mount Theches, after participating in Cyrus the Younger's failed march against the Persian Empire in 401 BC. The 10,000 joyfully shouted "Thálatta! Thálatta! "(Greek: Θάλαττα! θάλαττα!) — "The Sea! The Sea!" The famous shout has come to symbolise victory, national freedom, triumph over hardship, and more romantically the "longing for a return to the primal sea." The sea is a recurring theme in the Haiku poems of the leading Japanese Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō (松尾芭蕉) (1644–1694). Ptolemy, writing in his Geographia in about 150 AD, described how the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean were great enclosed seas and believed that a vessel venturing into the Atlantic would soon reach the countries of the East. His map of the then known world was remarkably accurate but from the fourth century onwards, civilisation suffered a setback at the hands of barbarian invaders and knowledge of geography took a backward step. In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville produced a "wheel map" in which Asia, Africa and Europe were arranged like segments in an orange, separated by the "Mare Mediterranean", "Nilus" and "Tanais" and surrounded by "Oceanus". It was not until the fifteenth century that Ptolemy's maps were used again and Henry the Navigator of Portugal initiated ocean exploration and maritime research. Encouraged by him, Portuguese navigators explored, mapped and charted the west coast of Africa and the Eastern Atlantic and this knowledge prepared the way for the great voyages of exploration that were to follow. ### Medieval Medieval literature offers rich encounters with the sea, as in the well-known romance of Tristan and The Voyage of Saint Brendan. The sea acts as an arbiter of good and evil and the barrier of fate, as in the mercantilist fifteenth-century poem The Libelle of Englyshe Polycye. Medieval romances frequently ascribe a prominent role to the sea. The originally Mediterranean family of Apollonius of Tyre romances use the Odyssean format of the extended sea voyage. The story may have influenced Guillaume Roi d'Angleterre and Chaucer’s The Man of Law's Tale. Other romances, such as the Romance of Horn, the Conte del Graal of Chrétien de Troyes, Partonopeu de Blois or the Tristan legend employ the sea as a structural feature and source of motifs: setting adrift, mythical islands, and self-propelled ships. Some of these maritime motifs appear in the lais of Marie de France. Many religious works written in the Middle Ages reflect on the sea. The ascetic sea desert (heremum in oceano) appears in Adomnán’s Life of Columba or The Voyage of Saint Brendan, an entirely seaborne tale cognate with the Irish immram or maritime pilgrimage tale. The Old English poem The Seafarer has a similar background. Sermons sometimes speak of the sea of the world and the ship of the Church, and moralistic interpretations of shipwreck and floods. These motifs in chronicles such as the Chronica majora of Matthew Paris, and Adam of Bremen’s History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen. Similar motives are treated in Biblical paraphrases, e.g. the anonymous Middle English poem Patience, and pilgrimage narratives and poems such as The Book of Margery Kempe, Saewulf's Voyage, The Pilgrims' Sea Voyage. Marian devotion created prayers to Mary as the Star of the Sea (stella maris), both as lyrics and as features in larger works like John Gower's Vox Clamantis. ### Early modern William Shakespeare makes frequent and complex use of mentions of the sea and things associated with it. The following, from Ariel's Song in Act I, Scene ii of The Tempest, is felt to be "wonderfully evocative", indicating a "profound transformation": > Full fathom five thy father lies: > Of his bones are coral made: > Those are pearls that were his eyes: > Nothing of him that doth fade > But doth suffer a sea-change > Into something rich and strange. Other early modern authors to have made use of the cultural associations of the sea include John Milton in his poem Lycidas (1637), Andrew Marvell in his Bermudas (1650) and Edmund Waller in his The Battle of the Summer Islands (1645). The scholar Steven Mentz argues that "the oceans .. figure the boundaries of human transgression; they function symbolically as places in the world into which mortal bodies cannot safely go". In Mentz's view, the European exploration of the oceans in the fifteenth century caused a shift in the meanings of the sea. Whereas a garden symbolised happy coexistence with nature, life was threatened at sea: the ocean counterbalanced the purely pastoral. ### Modern In modern times, the novelist Joseph Conrad wrote several sea-inspired books including Lord Jim and The Nigger of the 'Narcissus''' which drew on his experience as a captain in the merchant navy. The American novelist Herman Wouk writes that "Nobody, but nobody, could write about storms at sea like Conrad". One of Wouk's own marine novels, The Caine Mutiny (1952), won the Pulitzer Prize. Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick was described by the poet John Masefield as speaking "the whole secret of the sea". A large seabird, the albatross, played a central part in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's influential 1798 poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which in turn gave rise to the usage of albatross as metaphor for a burden. In his 1902 poem The Sea and the Hills, Rudyard Kipling expresses the urge for the sea, and uses alliteration to suggest the sea's sound and rhythms: "Who hath desired the Sea?—the sight of salt water unbounded— The heave and the halt and the hurl and the crash of the comber wind-hounded?" John Masefield also felt the pull of the sea in his Sea Fever, writing "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky." The Argentine Jorge Luis Borges wrote the 1964 poem El mar (The Sea), treating it as something that constantly regenerates the world and the people who contemplate it, and that is very close to the essence of being human. Numerous books and films have taken war at sea as their subject, often dealing with real or fictionalised incidents in the Second World War. Nicholas Monsarrat's 1951 novel The Cruel Sea follows the lives of a group of Royal Navy sailors fighting the Battle of the Atlantic during World War II; it was made into a 1952 film of the same name. The novelist Herman Wouk, reviewing "five best nautical yarns", writes that "The Cruel Sea was a major best seller and became a hit movie starring Jack Hawkins. Its authenticity is unmistakable ... His description of a torpedoed crew, terrified, clinging to life rafts in the blackest of nights, is, indeed, too authoritative for comfort—we soon feel ourselves in that sea." Anthony Asquith used a dramatised documentary style in his 1943 film We Dive at Dawn, while Noël Coward and David Lean's 1942 In Which We Serve combined information with drama. Pat Jackson's 1944 Western Approaches was, unusually for the time, shot in Technicolor, at sea in rough weather and sometimes actually in battle. Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger's 1956 The Battle of the River Plate tells a tale of "gentlemanly gallantry" of the scuttling of the Admiral Graf Spee. A very different message, of "duplicitous diplomacy [and] flawed intelligence" is the theme of Richard Fleischer, Toshio Masuda and Kinji Fukasaku's \$22 million epic Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970). Depicting an earlier era of naval warfare in the age of sail, Peter Weir's 2003 Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World, based on Patrick O'Brian's series of Aubrey-Maturin novels. Submarine films like Robert Wise's 1958 Run Silent, Run Deep constitute a distinctive subgenre of the war film, depicting the stress of submarine warfare. The genre makes distinctive use of the soundtrack, which attempts to bring home the emotional and dramatic nature of conflict under the sea. For example, in the 1981 Das Boot, the sound design works together with the hours-long film format to depict lengthy pursuit with depth charges and the many times repeated ping of sonar, as well as the threatening sounds of a destroyer's propeller and of an approaching torpedo. ## In music A sailor's work was hard in the days of sail. When off duty, many sailors played musical instruments or joined in unison to sing folksongs such as the mid-eighteenth century ballad The Mermaid, a song which expressed the sailors' superstition that seeing a mermaid foretold a shipwreck. When on duty, there were many repetitive tasks, such as turning the capstan to raise the anchor and heaving on ropes to raise and lower the sails. To synchronise the crew's efforts, sea shanties were sung, with a lead singer performing the verse and the sailors joining in the chorus. In the Royal Navy in Nelson's time, these work songs were banned, being replaced by the notes of a fife or fiddle, or the recitation of numbers. The sea has inspired much music over the centuries. In Oman, Fanun Al Bahr (Sea Music) is played by an ensemble with kaser, rahmani and msindo drums, s'hal cymbals, tassa tin drums, and mismar bagpipes; the piece called Galfat Shobani plays through the work of renewing the caulking of a wooden ship. Richard Wagner stated that his 1843 opera The Flying Dutchman was inspired by a memorable sea crossing from Riga to London, his ship being delayed in the Norwegian fjords at Tvedestrand for two weeks by storms. The French composer Claude Debussy's 1903–1905 work La mer (The Sea), completed at Eastbourne on the English Channel coast, evokes the sea with "a multitude of water figurations". Other works composed at about this time include Charles Villiers Stanford's Songs of the Sea (1904) and Songs of the Fleet (1910), Edward Elgar's Sea Pictures (1899) and Ralph Vaughan Williams' choral work, A Sea Symphony (1903–1909). The English composer Frank Bridge wrote an orchestral suite called The Sea in 1911, also completed at Eastbourne. Four Sea Interludes (1945) is an orchestral suite by Benjamin Britten that forms part of his opera Peter Grimes''. ## Human cargo Humans have gone to sea also for the specific purpose of transporting other humans. This has included for penal transportation, such as from Britain to Australia; the slave trade, including the post-1600 Atlantic slave trade from Africa to the Americas; and the ancient practice of burial at sea. ### Penal transportation From around 1600 until the American War of Independence, convicts sentenced to "transportation", often for minor crimes, were carried to America; after that, such convicts were taken to New South Wales, in what is now Australia. Some 20% of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts. The convict era has inspired novels, films, and other cultural works, and it has significantly shaped Australia's national character. ### Atlantic slave trade In the Atlantic slave trade, enslaved people, mostly from central and western Africa and usually sold by West Africans to European slave traders, were carried across the sea, mainly to the Americas. The slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route from Europe (with manufactured goods) to West Africa and on to the Americas (with slaves), and then back to Europe (with goods such as sugar). The South Atlantic and Caribbean economies depended on a secure supply of labour for agriculture and manufacturing of goods to sell in Europe, and in turn the European economy depended in large part on the profits from the trade. Some 12 million Africans arrived in the Americas, and many more died on the journey, powerfully influencing the culture of the Americas. ### Burial at sea The burial of entire or cremated bodies at sea has been practised by countries around the world since ancient times, with instances recorded from the ancient civilisations in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Practices vary by country and by religion; for example, the United States allows human remains to be buried at sea at least 3 nautical miles from land, and if the remains are uncremated the water must be at least 600 feet deep, while in Islam burial by lowering a weighted clay vessel into the sea is permitted when a person dies on a ship. ## General sources The following books are useful on many aspects of the topic.
720,034	Friends (The Beach Boys album)	1,171,001,102	1968 album by the Beach Boys	[ "1968 albums", "Albums produced by the Beach Boys", "Albums recorded in a home studio", "Capitol Records albums", "Lo-fi music albums", "The Beach Boys albums" ]	Friends is the 14th studio album by American rock band the Beach Boys, released on June 24, 1968, through Capitol Records. The album is characterized by its calm and peaceful atmosphere, which contrasted the prevailing music trends of the time, and by its brevity, with five of its 12 tracks running less than two minutes long. It sold poorly, peaking at number 126 on the Billboard charts, the group's lowest U.S. chart performance to date, although it reached number 13 in the UK. Fans generally came to regard the album as one of the band's finest. As with their two previous albums, Friends was recorded primarily at Brian Wilson's home with a lo-fi production style. The album's sessions lasted from February to April 1968 at a time when the band's finances were rapidly diminishing. Despite crediting production to "the Beach Boys", Wilson actively led the entire project, later referring to it as his second unofficial solo album (the first being 1966's Pet Sounds). Some of the songs were inspired by the group's recent involvement with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and his Transcendental Meditation practice. It was the first album to feature songs from Dennis Wilson. One single was issued from the album: "Friends", a waltz that reached number 47 in the U.S. and number 25 in the UK. Its B-side was the Dennis co-write "Little Bird". In May, the group scheduled a national tour with the Maharishi, but it was canceled after five shows due to low ticket sales and the Maharishi's subsequent withdrawal. A standalone single, "Do It Again", was released in July. It reached the U.S. top twenty, became their second number one hit in the UK, and was included in foreign pressings of Friends. Friends received favorable reviews in the music press, but like their records since Smiley Smile (1967), the album's simplicity divided critics and fans. Despite the failure of a collaborative tour with the Maharishi, the group remained supporters of him and his teachings. Dennis contributed more songs on later Beach Boys albums, eventually culminating in a solo record, 1977's Pacific Ocean Blue. In 2018, session highlights, outtakes, and alternate takes were released for the compilation Wake the World: The Friends Sessions. ## Background In September and December 1967, the Beach Boys released Smiley Smile and Wild Honey, respectively. Music fans were generally disappointed that the band twice failed to deliver on the hype surrounding their unreleased album Smile, which was advertised as the follow-up to the sophistication of Pet Sounds and "Good Vibrations" (both 1966). Instead, the group were making a deliberate choice to produce music that was simpler and less refined. Commenting on Wild Honey, Mike Love said the band made a conscious decision to be "completely out of the mainstream for what was going on at that time, which was all hard rock/psychedelic music. [The album] just didn’t have anything to do with what was going on." Wild Honey saw a reduced share of involvement from the group's producer and principal songwriter, Brian Wilson. Although Wild Honey charted higher than Smiley Smile in the US, it was ultimately the group's lowest-selling album to that point. Apart from a two-week U.S. tour in November 1967, the band was not performing live during this period, and their finances were rapidly diminishing. That same month, the group stopped wearing their longtime striped-shirt stage uniforms in favor of matching white, polyester suits that were similar to a Las Vegas show band. Dennis Wilson, Al Jardine, and Mike Love were among the many rock musicians who discovered the teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi following the Beatles' public endorsement of his Transcendental Meditation technique in August 1967. In December, the touring group attended a lecture by the Maharishi at a UNICEF Variety Gala in Paris and were moved by the simplicity and effectiveness of his meditation process as a means to obtaining inner peace. They were invited to meet the Maharishi in his hotel room the same day, and according to Brian, "they came back and [Carl was] just floating. ... it got to me through him." He recalled that he had "already been initiated" beforehand, but "for some ridiculous reason I hadn't followed through with it, and when you don't follow through with something you can get all clogged up. ... we're all meditating together now." In a January 1968 interview, Brian stated that the group was unsure what their next production would be, but that "it won't be very long now until I come up with a song about meditation. It shouldn't be more than a month." He also expressed an interest in "pull[ing] out of conventional sound making and get[ting] into sounds that have never been made before ever." In early February, the group performed scattered gigs in the U.S. with Buffalo Springfield. The Beach Boys attended the Maharishi's public appearances in New York and Cambridge, Massachusetts, after which he invited Love to join the Beatles at his training seminar in Rishikesh in northern India. Love stayed there from February 28 to March 15. In his absence, the rest of the group began recording the album that would become Friends. ## Recording history Friends was recorded primarily at the Beach Boys' private studio, located within Brian's Bel Air home, from late February to early April 1968. It was written, performed, or produced mainly by the Wilson brothers with what Stebbins terms "a strong assist" from Al Jardine. Jardine remembered how he still "felt that [Brian] had a lot to offer. ... We wrote [most of the Friends music] at his house right under that beautiful stained glass Wild Honey cover window." He added: "We'd get together in the morning. A lot of activity took place in the kitchen. ... We were in there as much as in the studio. God, we ate well." It was the first Beach Boys album not to consistently have Brian as primary composer, and the first to feature significant songwriting contributions from other group members. Asked as to the level of Wilson's input, band archivists Mark Linett and Alan Boyd said that Wilson led the entire project, even on the songs that he did not compose. In a 1976 interview, Wilson referred to Friends as his second "solo album", the first being Pet Sounds. Stephen Desper was recruited as the band's recording engineer, a role he would keep until 1972. He was recently contacted to convert Brian's semi-portable home recording set-up to a more permanent "full-fledged recording studio with the capacity of any other". Session musicians were used more than on Smiley Smile and Wild Honey, but in smaller configurations than on the Beach Boys' records from 1962 through 1966. From February 20 or 27 to March 15, the band tracked "Little Bird", "Be Here in the Mornin'", and "Friends". After Love returned from his retreat, they began recording "When a Man Needs a Woman", "Passing By", "Busy Doin' Nothin'", "Wake the World", "Meant for You", "Anna Lee, the Healer", and "Be Still". By the spring of 1968, the Beach Boys were overdue to submit an album to Capitol, and so Brian rushed to finish the Friends album while his bandmates were on tour. Sessions concluded with "Diamond Head" on April 12. Desper mixed the album for stereo. It was the band's first album to be mixed and released exclusively in true stereo, as the band's releases since The Beach Boys Today! (1965) had only been available in mono or Duophonic. ## Music and lyrics The LP has a relatively short length; only two of its 12 tracks last longer than three minutes, and five run short of two minutes. In author Jon Stebbins' description, the album "reflects the peaceful and quietly centered aura" that the band had gained from their introduction to Transcendental Meditation. Bruce Johnston described the album as a conscious attempt to make something "really subtle ... that wasn't concerned with radio". Retrospectively, the album may be viewed as the final installment in a consecutive three-part series of lo-fi Beach Boys albums. Columnist Joel Goldenburg believes the lightly produced album was the closest the group ever came to sunshine pop, a genre they had influenced but never fully embraced. For the album's 1990 CD liner notes, Brian recalled that he "had a good thing rollin' in my head. The bad things that had happened to me had taken their toll and I was free to find out just how much I had grown through the emotional pain that had come my way. ... I think that the Beach Boys’ sound was evolving right along." The few tracks where he served as primary author contained his usual composing trademarks, such as unexpected harmonic changes, descending stepwise progressions, and unusually structured musical phrases. As on much of his compositions of the period, there was a heavy influence drawn from Burt Bacharach. Subject matter ranges from Transcendental Meditation to bearing children and "doin' nothin'". Rolling Stone's Jim Miller characterized Friends as a "return to Smiley's dryness, minus the weirdness". Musicologist Daniel Harrison said Miller's observation was only true of "Meant for You", and that the remaining songs "have few of the formal or harmonic quirks of the earlier album, though there is no lack of clever and interesting effects, such as the bass harmonica line in 'Passing By' or the repetitive monophonic organ line in the break of 'Be Here in the Morning.'" The group's influences, according to rock critic Gene Sculatti, seemed to derive "primarily from Pet Sounds, Smiley Smile, Wild Honey, and little else. The characteristic innocence and somewhat childlike visions imparted to their music are applied directly to the theme of the album: friendships. As usual, the lyrics tend to be basic, yet as expressive as they need to be; words, like individual voices or instruments, are all part of the larger whole of music". Johnston was unhappy with the group's "wimpy" songs and opined that the new material—with the sole exception of the title track—did not represent Brian "at full strength". When asked why the band did not pursue harder rock styles, Jardine responded that "for Carl and me, we were painting a canvas. Jimi [Hendrix] was one of the best in the world, but they were more of a performance phenomenon, representing an era. ... We didn't have that need, because I think it’s a need." Brian similarly felt no pressure to make "heavy" music: "We never needed to. It's already been done." ## Content ### Side one "Meant for You" is a 38-second introduction to the album and the shortest song in the group's catalog. It was originally conceived as "You'll Find it Too", with a longer runtime of about two minutes, and featured additional lyrics about a pony and a puppy. "Friends" is a waltz that was originally composed in 4/4 time. The song was arranged and co-written by Brian, who described it as his favorite on the album. "Wake the World" was the first original songwriting collaboration between Brian and Jardine. It was another song that Brian said was "my favorite cut [on the album]. It was so descriptive to how I felt about the dramatic change over from day to night." The song is the first on the album that demonstrates his then-recent "a-day-in-a-life-of" songwriting habit. "Be Here in the Mornin''" and "When a Man Needs a Woman" were written about some particular comforts of Brian's daily life. The former is another waltz and features the Wilsons' father Murry contributing a bass vocal. The song makes a passing lyrical reference to the Wilsons' cousin Steve Korthof, road manager Jon Parks, and Beach Boys manager Nick Grillo. Parks and Korthof themselves shared a writing credit on "When a Man Needs a Woman". The song was inspired by Marilyn Wilson's pregnancy with her and Brian's first child Carnie, although the lyric suggests that Brian thought it would be a boy. "Passing By" is wordless, with the melody hummed by Brian. The piece had discarded lyrics written for it: "While walking down the avenue / I stopped to have a look at you / And then I saw / You were just passing by". ### Side two "Anna Lee, the Healer" is about a masseuse Mike Love encountered in Rishikesh. The arrangement consists only of vocals, piano, bass, and hand drumming. "Little Bird" was composed by Dennis Wilson with poet Stephen Kalinich, which Brian said "blew my mind because it was so full of spiritualness. He was a late bloomer as a music maker. He lived hard and rough but his music was as sensitive as anyone's." The bridge section incorporates elements of "Child Is Father of the Man", a then-unreleased song from Smile. According to Kalinich, Brian composed virtually the entirety of "Little Bird", but chose not to receive an official writing credit. "Be Still", another Dennis/Kalinich song, only features Dennis' singing and Brian playing organ. Biographer Peter Ames Carlin compared the song to a "Unitarian hymn" and interpreted the lyrics to be a description of "the sacred essence of life and the human potential to interact with God." The final three tracks are genre experiments that break stylistically from the rest of the album. "Busy Doin' Nothin'" is a flirtation with bossa nova, one of several autobiographic slice-of-life songs written by Brian during this era, and one of the only tracks on the album where he exclusively used session musicians. The lyrics contain step-by-step instructions on how to find his house, albeit without mentioning where to start: "Drive for a couple miles / You'll see a sign and turn left / For a couple blocks ... " "Diamond Head" is an instrumental exotica lounge jam that echoed the use of extended forms from Smile, and is the album's longest piece at 3 minutes and 39 seconds. Biographer Mark Dillon surmised that it was likely inspired by the group's visit to Hawaii during the previous year. "Transcendental Meditation" contrasts all that comes before it with its raucous tone. Asked about the song, Dennis explained that the group "wanted to get away from anything that sounded too pompous, too religious. It would have been easy to do something peaceful, very Eastern, but we were trying to reach listeners on all levels." Jardine viewed it as a weak effort. ### Leftover Leftover tracks from the sessions include "Untitled \#1", "Away", "Our New Home" (or "Our Happy Home"), "New Song" (unofficially known as "Spanish Guitar"), "You're As Cool As Can Be", covers of Burt Bacharach and Hal David's "My Little Red Book" and Buffalo Springfield's "Rock & Roll Woman", a demo for "Time to Get Alone", and an early version of "All I Wanna Do". "Our Happy Home" was described by music journalist Brian Chidester as "a short, bouncy riff that maintains the gentle air of the Friends sessions". It was later reworked as "Our Sweet Love" for their 1970 album Sunflower. "All I Wanna Do" was also reworked for Sunflower. "New Song" contains a melody that was recycled for "Transcendental Meditation". "You're As Cool As Can Be" is an instrumental of unknown authorship that features an upbeat piano melody played by Brian. "Away" was a song Dennis wrote with touring musician Billy Hinsche in December 1967. ## Maharishi tour On April 5, 1968, the band began "the Million Dollar Tour", a series of self-financed concerts across the American south. Featuring Buffalo Springfield and Strawberry Alarm Clock as supporting acts, these shows were poorly attended due in part to the political mood following the assassination of Martin Luther King that April. Six of the 35 dates were canceled, while two were rescheduled. They lost \$350,000 in expected revenue (equivalent to \$ in ). Mike Love arranged that the group tour the U.S. with the Maharishi in May. According to Nick Grillo, the band hoped that touring with the Maharishi would recuperate some of their financial losses. The Beatles also became disenchanted with the Maharishi and the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and publicly expressed their concerns around this time, which had a detrimental effect on the guru's standing among music fans. In Stebbins' description, the Maharishi became a pariah. The shows with the Maharishi were advertised as "The Most Exciting Event of the Decade!" and comprised a set of songs by the Beach Boys followed by the Maharishi's lecture on the benefits of meditation. The tour started on May 3 and ended abruptly after five shows. A performance at the Singer Bowl in Queens, New York was canceled twenty minutes before the group were scheduled to perform when only 800 people showed up to the 16,000-capacity venue. Writing in New York magazine, Loraine Alterman reported on the hostile audience reaction to the Maharishi but said that the songs the band included from Friends worked well beside the group's previous hits "because they were happy and full of love". She added that, unlike the Maharishi's lecture, the song "Transcendental Meditation" "did not tax anyone's brain. It just repeated how transcendental meditation 'makes you feel grand' against a moving beat." Because of the disappointing audience numbers and the Maharishi's subsequent withdrawal to fulfill film contracts, the remaining 24 tour dates were canceled at a cost estimated at \$250,000 for the band (equivalent to \$ in ). Afterward, Love and Carl told journalists that the racial violence following King's assassination was to blame for the tour's demise. Carl said: "A lot of people just would not let their children out. Nobody wants to get hurt." He added that the group's goal was to appeal mainly to young people, "but not the teeny-boppers", while Love commented that the shows were "not put together for commercial purposes". In his 2016 autobiography, Love wrote: "I take responsibility for an idea that didn't work. But I don't regret it. I thought I could do some good for people who were lost, confused, or troubled, particularly those who were young and idealistic but also vulnerable, and I thought that was true for a whole bunch of us." ## Sleeve design Friends was packaged with a cover artwork, designed by David McMacken, that depicted the band members in a psychedelic visual style. Love remembered that the group lacked "savvy marketing and design", and that while in Rishikesh, Paul McCartney had urged him "to take more care of what you put on your album covers". Johnston opined that the Friends cover ultimately ranked second to Pet Sounds for being the worst "in the history of the music business". Matijas-Mecca said the artwork "did nothing to convince anyone that the Beach Boys were in touch with anything in particular". ## Release Lead single "Friends" was issued on April 8 and reached number 47 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it their lowest-charting single in six years. On June 4, the Beach Boys appeared on The Les Crane Show and discussed their support of the Maharishi. The Friends album followed on June 24. On July 2, the group embarked on a three-week U.S. tour with further dates continuing throughout August, including some stops in Canada. Their setlists included "Friends", "Little Bird", and "Wake the World". Several supporting musicians accompanied the group (keyboardist Daryl Dragon, bassist Ed Carter, percussionist Mike Kowalski, and a brass section). Johnston remembered that performing the Friends songs caused him to "wince", and that it was difficult to maintain the "subtle" nature of the songs in a live setting. On July 6, Friends debuted on the Billboard Top LPs chart at number 179 and subsequently peaked at number 126 while artists such as the Doors and Cream occupied the top positions. On July 8, the band released "Do It Again" as a standalone single backed with "Wake the World". "Do It Again" was recorded within the prior two months as a self-conscious throwback to the group's early surf songs, and the first time they had embraced the subject matter since 1964. It reached the top twenty in the U.S. and was a number one hit in the UK. When Friends was issued in Japan, the song was included in the album's track list. Love recalled that the album's commercial failure caused Capitol to "panic". On August 5, the label issued the greatest hits album Best of the Beach Boys Vol. 3 to recuperate from the LP's poor sales. Matijas-Mecca wrote that this was a sign that the label had "given up" on the group, repeating a tactic they used after the release of Pet Sounds and again with Smiley Smile. While the first two volumes were quickly certified as gold records, biographer David Leaf said that the label was "more than a little horrified to watch [the third volume] sink like a stone, unable to even outperform Friends." A collection of Beach Boys backing tracks, Stack-o-Tracks, was issued by Capitol on August 19. The album became the first Beach Boys LP that failed to chart in the U.S. and UK. Friends ended its 10-week stay on the Billboard charts on September 7. Ultimately, the album's record sales in the U.S. (estimated at 18,000 units) were the group's worst to date. In the UK, the album fared better, reaching number 13 on the UK Albums Chart. ## Critical reception ### Contemporary Friends received a number of positive reviews, but according to historian Keith Badman, most were published "too late to influence sales". According to a Mojo retrospective, the band's remaining fanbase reacted to the album with the abandonment of "any hope that Brian Wilson would deliver a true successor to his 1966 masterwork", Pet Sounds. Stebbins noted that its "quirky gentleness in the context of political protests, race riots, and the war-torn social landscape of 1968 [made] it about as square a peg as one can imagine". Music critic Richie Unterberger said that the group lost most of their audience by being "less experimental" with their music. Upon release, a Billboard reviewer predicted that "the group should score high on the charts" with the album and highlighted "Anna Lee, the Healer" and "Transcendental Meditation" as "catchy numbers". Rolling Stone's Arthur Schmidt wrote in his review of the album: "Everything on the first side is great. ... Listen once and you might think this album is nowhere. But it's really just at a very special place, and after a half-dozen listenings, you can be there." Jazz & Pop's Gene Sculatti reported that there were detractors of the Beach Boys who most frequently took issue with the band's "apparently excessive immersion in and identification with mass culture and 'commercialism'". In spite of such criticisms, he deemed Friends "[perhaps] their best" work yet, calling it "the culmination of the efforts and the results of their last three LPs. ... It is another showcase for what is the most original and perhaps the most consistently satisfying rock music being created today." In his review for NME, Allen Evans commented on the brevity of several of the tracks and described "Transcendental Meditation" as "a weirdo piece" and "Passing By" as "quite delightful" in its use of "voices ... as instruments". He concluded: "Varied and interesting, though maybe not their best LP." Writing in the same publication's annual for 1968, Keith Altham reported that "Do It Again" "seemed like two steps backwards" but had nevertheless re-established the Beach Boys as hit-makers, while Friends received "considerable criticism from critics who complained that one entire side of the album lasted just a few minutes longer than the hit single 'MacArthur Park'". In Disc & Music Echo, Penny Valentine wrote of the "Friends" single, "Whither the progressive Beach Boys? ... If The Beach Boys are as bored as they sound, they should stop bothering ... They are no longer the brilliant Beach Boys. They are grey and they are making sad little grey records." Record Mirror's David Griffiths referred to "Transcendental Meditation" as "the most disappointing Beach Boys track of the year". ### Retrospective In its 1990 liner notes, David Leaf wrote that Friends was since reevaluated as "one of the Beach Boys' finest artistic efforts," whereas critic Will Hermes wrote in 2019: "The music from this period has generally been considered subpar by the impossible-to-match standards set by Pet Sounds". AllMusic's Donald A. Guarisco described the album as a "cult favorite" among hardcore fans and highlighted the title track as "mellow", "lovely", and "a good example of the Beach Boys' late-'60s output: it is far less musically complex than 'California Girls' or 'Wouldn't It Be Nice' but possesses a homespun charm all its own." An uncredited writer for Mojo opined that "Given distance and hindsight ... Friends is a uniquely rewarding Beach Boys album that, excepting Pet Sounds, is the group's most sonically and thematically unified." The A.V. Club contributor Noel Murray said the album was "lovely" and one of the group's "warmest and most spiritual records". Brooklyn Vegan's Andrew Sacher characterized it as "the most underrated Beach Boys album", "prettier and less quirky" than Smiley Smile and Wild Honey, and lamented that it is not as widely praised as the Byrds' contemporary effort The Notorious Byrd Brothers. Jason Fine wrote in the 2004 edition of The Rolling Stone Album Guide: "If you can get past sappy wannabe-hippie tracks such as 'Wake the World' and 'Transcendental Meditation', the album is gorgeous, with standout moments including 'Meant for You', one of Mike Love’s finest vocals, and Brian’s 'Busy Doin' Nothin''". In his review for AllMusic, Richie Unterberger said that, relative to its unveiling in 1968, "Today [the album] sounds better, but it's certainly one of the group's more minor efforts", adding that the production and harmonies "remained pleasantly idiosyncratic, but there was little substance at the heart of most of the songs." In 1971, Robert Christgau dismissed Friends as the band's "worstever" work. Biographer Steven Gaines described the LP as "boring" and "emotionless". Among other musicians, journalist and Saint Etienne co-founder Bob Stanley called the album a "lost gem" with a "timeless quality in its simplicity, underlined by the basic instrumentation". Paul Weller named it as one of his favorite albums of all time. It was voted number 662 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000). ## Legacy In his book Turn Off Your Mind: The Mystic Sixties and the Dark Side of the Age of Aquarius, Gary Lachman describes Friends as "the Beach Boys TM album" and considers their public association with the Maharishi to have been a "disastrous flirtation" that, for Dennis Wilson, was soon superseded by a more damaging personal association with the Manson Family cult. Despite the ignominy of the tour, the Beach Boys remained ardent supporters of the Maharishi and Transcendental Meditation. They continued to record songs inspired by the Maharishi or his teachings, including both "He Come Down" and "All This Is That" on 1972's Carl and the Passions, and both "Everyone's in Love with You" and "T M Song" on 1976's 15 Big Ones. Subsequent albums would also see Dennis contribute more songs, eventually culminating in a solo record, 1977's Pacific Ocean Blue. Stebbins recognizes Friends as marking "the true beginning of the Beach Boys as a group of six relatively equal creative partners". It was the last Beach Boys album where Brian held most of the writing or co-writing credits until 1977's The Beach Boys Love You. The band's following album 20/20 was released in February 1969, with a substantial portion of the LP consisting of leftover singles recorded in 1968 and outtakes from earlier albums. Brian produced virtually none of the newer recordings. In the summer of 1969, Brian worked with Stephen Kalinich to produce a spoken-word LP, A World of Peace Must Come, which included an extended run-through of "Be Still". The album was not released until 2008. Shortly after the sale of Sea of Tunes, friend Stanley Shapiro persuaded Brian to rewrite and rerecord a number of Beach Boys songs to restore his public and industry reputation. After contacting fellow songwriter Tandyn Almer for support, the trio spent a month reworking cuts from Friends, including "Passing By", "Wake the World", "Be Still", and the album's title track. As Shapiro handed demo tapes to A&M Records executives, they found the product favorable before they learned of Wilson and Almer's involvement, and refused to support the project. Most of these recordings remain unreleased. In November 1974, a double album reissue that paired Friends and Smiley Smile hit number 125 on the Billboard 200. Brian cited Friends as his favorite Beach Boys album, and said that while Smile "had potential ... Friends has been good listening no matter what mood I'm in." He rerecorded "Meant for You" for his 1995 solo album I Just Wasn't Made for These Times and performed songs from the Friends album live with Jardine in 2019. Among cover versions of the Friends tracks: Pizzicato Five recorded "Passing By" for their album Sister Freedom Tapes (1996), and the High Llamas contributed a version of "Anna Lee, the Healer" to the tribute album Caroline Now!: The Songs of Brian Wilson and the Beach Boys (2000). Noel Murray remarked that without Friends, "the High Llamas probably wouldn't exist." Lo-fi musician R. Stevie Moore based his 1975 song "Wayne Wayne (Go Away)" on Friends. ## Track listing ### Original release Track information per David Leaf. ### Wake the World On December 7, 2018, Capitol released Wake the World: The Friends Sessions, a digital-only compilation. Included are session highlights, outtakes, and alternate versions of Friends tracks, as well as some unreleased material by Dennis and Brian Wilson. It is the successor to 1967 – Sunshine Tomorrow from the previous year. Along with I Can Hear Music: The 20/20 Sessions, Wake the World was not issued on physical media due to the record company's wish not to interfere with the release of The Beach Boys with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. ## Personnel Per band archivist Craig Slowinski. The Beach Boys - Al Jardine – vocals, electric bass (on "Passing By" [uncertain credit]) - Bruce Johnston – vocals, keyboard (on "Passing By"), piano (on "Meant for You") - Mike Love – vocals - Brian Wilson – vocals, organ (on "Meant for You", "When a Man Needs a Woman", "Passing By", "Be Here in the Mornin'", and "Be Still"), piano (on "Wake the World" and "Anna Lee the Healer"), percussion (on "Diamond Head" [uncertain credit]) - Carl Wilson – vocals, guitar (on "Friends", "When a Man Needs a Woman", and "Passing By"), bass (on "Anna Lee the Healer") - Dennis Wilson – vocals, harmonium (on "Little Bird"), congas (on "Anna Lee the Healer" [uncertain credit]) Guests - Marilyn Wilson – vocals (on "Busy Doin' Nothin'" and "Be Here in the Mornin'), wordless vocals (on "Passing By" [uncertain credit]) - Murry Wilson – vocals (on "Be Here in the Mornin'") Session musicians - Jim Ackley - keyboard, guitar - Arnold Belnick - violin - Jimmy Bond – upright bass - Norman Botnick - viola - David Burk – viola - David Cohen – guitar - Roy Caton – trumpet - John DeVoogt – violin - Bonnie Douglas – violin - Don Englert - clarinet, saxophone - Alan Estes – vibraphone, woodblocks, chimes - Dick Forrest – trumpet - Jim Gordon - drums, woodblocks, bell, congas, timbales - Bill Green – saxophone - Jim Horn - saxophone, clarinet - Dick Hyde – tuba, flugelhorn - Norm Jeffries - drums - Robert T. Jung – saxophone - Meyer Hirsch J. Kenneth Jensen – saxophone - Raymond Kelley – cello - William Kurasch - violin - Jacqueline Lustgarden - cello - Tommy Morgan - harmonica, bass harmonica - Leonard Malarsky - violin - Jay Migliori - saxophone, clarinet, bass clarinet - Ollie Mitchell – trumpet - Gene Pello – drums - Bill Perkins – saxophone - Lyle Ritz - electric bass, upright bass, ukulele - Jay Rosen – violin - Ralph Schaeffer – violin - Tom Scott – bass flute, saxophone - David Sherr – oboe, saxophone - Paul Shure – violin - Tony Terran – trumpet - Al Vescovo – banjo, guitar, lap steel guitar Technical staff - Jim Lockert – engineer ## Charts
682,482	Human	1,173,896,905	Species of hominid in the genus Homo	[ "Apex predators", "Articles containing video clips", "Humans", "Mammals described in 1758", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus", "Tool-using mammals" ]	Humans, or modern humans (Homo sapiens), are the most common and widespread species of primate. A great ape characterized by their hairlessness, bipedalism, and high intelligence, humans have a large brain and resulting cognitive skills that enable them to thrive in varied environments and develop complex societies and civilizations. Humans are highly social and tend to live in complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families and kinship networks to political states. As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, languages, and rituals, each of which bolsters human society. The desire to understand and influence phenomena has motivated humanity's development of science, technology, philosophy, mythology, religion, and other conceptual frameworks. Although some scientists equate the term "humans" with all members of the genus Homo, in common usage it generally refers to Homo sapiens, the only extant member. Other members of the genus Homo are known as archaic humans. Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago in Africa, evolving from Homo heidelbergensis or a similar species and migrating out of Africa, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans. For most of their history, humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–60,000 years ago. The Neolithic Revolution, which began in Southwest Asia around 13,000 years ago (and separately in a few other places), saw the emergence of agriculture and permanent human settlement. As populations became larger and denser, forms of governance developed within and between communities, and a large number of civilizations have risen and fallen. Humans have continued to expand, with a global population of over 8 billion as of 2023. Genes and the environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility, mental abilities, body size, and life span. Though humans vary in many traits (such as genetic predispositions and physical features), any two humans are at least 99% genetically similar. Humans are sexually dimorphic: generally, males have greater body strength and females have a higher body fat percentage. At puberty, humans develop secondary sex characteristics. Females are capable of pregnancy, usually between puberty, at around 12 years old, and menopause, around the age of 50. Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material, and have used fire and other forms of heat to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus. Humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food and several days without water. Humans are generally diurnal, sleeping on average seven to nine hours per day. Childbirth is dangerous, with a high risk of complications and death. Often, both the mother and the father provide care for their children, who are helpless at birth. Humans have a large, highly developed, and complex prefrontal cortex, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition. Humans are highly intelligent, capable of episodic memory, have flexible facial expressions, self-awareness, and a theory of mind. The human mind is capable of introspection, private thought, imagination, volition, and forming views on existence. This has allowed great technological advancements and complex tool development to be possible through complex reasoning and the transmission of knowledge to subsequent generations. Language, art, and trade are defining characteristics of humans. Long-distance trade routes might have led to cultural explosions and resource distribution that gave humans an advantage over other similar species. ## Etymology and definition All modern humans are classified into the species Homo sapiens, coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 1735 work Systema Naturae. The generic name "Homo" is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin homō, which refers to humans of either sex. The word human can refer to all members of the Homo genus, although in common usage it generally just refers to Homo sapiens, the only extant species. The name "Homo sapiens" means 'wise man' or 'knowledgeable man'. There is disagreement if certain extinct members of the genus, namely Neanderthals, should be included as a separate species of humans or as a subspecies of H. sapiens. Human is a loanword of Middle English from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the adjectival form of homō ('man' – in the sense of humankind). The native English term man can refer to the species generally (a synonym for humanity) as well as to human males. It may also refer to individuals of either sex. Despite the fact that the word animal is colloquially used as an antonym for human, and contrary to a common biological misconception, humans are animals. The word person is often used interchangeably with human, but philosophical debate exists as to whether personhood applies to all humans or all sentient beings, and further if one can lose personhood (such as by going into a persistent vegetative state). ## Evolution Humans are apes (superfamily Hominoidea). The lineage of apes that eventually gave rise to humans first split from gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo), then gorillas (genus Gorilla), and finally, chimpanzees and bonobos (genus Pan). The last split, between the human and chimpanzee–bonobo lineages, took place around 8–4 million years ago, in the late Miocene epoch. During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from the joining of two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. Following their split with chimpanzees and bonobos, the hominins diversified into many species and at least two distinct genera. All but one of these lineages – representing the genus Homo and its sole extant species Homo sapiens – are now extinct. The genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus. Though fossils from the transition are scarce, the earliest members of Homo share several key traits with Australopithecus. The earliest record of Homo is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species are Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis which evolved by 2.3 million years ago. H. erectus (the African variant is sometimes called H. ergaster) evolved 2 million years ago and was the first archaic human species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia. H. erectus also was the first to evolve a characteristically human body plan. Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago from a species commonly designated as either H. heidelbergensis or H. rhodesiensis, the descendants of H. erectus that remained in Africa. H. sapiens migrated out of the continent, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans. Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–70,000 years ago, and possibly earlier. The "out of Africa" migration took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, the second (Southern Dispersal) around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago. H. sapiens proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000 years ago, Australia around 65,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280 CE. Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species. Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution. DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non sub-Saharan African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day non sub-Saharan African humans. Human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are hairlessness, obligate bipedalism, increased brain size and decreased sexual dimorphism (neoteny). The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate. ## History Until about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers. The Neolithic Revolution (the invention of agriculture) first took place in Southwest Asia and spread through large parts of the Old World over the following millennia. It also occurred independently in Mesoamerica (about 6,000 years ago), China, Papua New Guinea, and the Sahel and West Savanna regions of Africa. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture and sedentary lifestyle led to the emergence of early civilizations. An urban revolution took place in the 4th millennium BCE with the development of city-states, particularly Sumerian cities located in Mesopotamia. It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, cuneiform script, appeared around 3000 BCE. Other major civilizations to develop around this time were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilisation. They eventually traded with each other and invented technology such as wheels, plows and sails. Astronomy and mathematics were also developed and the Great Pyramid of Giza was built. There is evidence of a severe drought lasting about a hundred years that may have caused the decline of these civilizations, with new ones appearing in the aftermath. Babylonians came to dominate Mesopotamia while others, such as the Poverty Point culture, Minoans and the Shang dynasty, rose to prominence in new areas. The Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE resulted in the disappearance of a number of civilizations and the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages. During this period iron started replacing bronze, leading to the Iron Age. In the 5th century BCE, history started being recorded as a discipline, which provided a much clearer picture of life at the time. Between the 8th and 6th century BCE, Europe entered the classical antiquity age, a period when ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished. Around this time other civilizations also came to prominence. The Maya civilization started to build cities and create complex calendars. In Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum overtook the declining Kingdom of Kush and facilitated trade between India and the Mediterranean. In West Asia, the Achaemenid Empire's system of centralized governance became the precursor to many later empires, while the Gupta Empire in India and the Han dynasty in China have been described as golden ages in their respective regions. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Europe entered the Middle Ages. During this period, Christianity and the Church would provide centralized authority and education. In the Middle East, Islam became the prominent religion and expanded into North Africa. It led to an Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. The Christian and Islamic worlds would eventually clash, with the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire declaring a series of holy wars to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. In the Americas, complex Mississippian societies would arise starting around 800 CE, while further south, the Aztecs and Incas would become the dominant powers. The Mongol Empire would conquer much of Eurasia in the 13th and 14th centuries. Over this same time period, the Mali Empire in Africa grew to be the largest empire on the continent, stretching from Senegambia to Ivory Coast. Oceania would see the rise of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire which expanded across many islands in the South Pacific. The early modern period in Europe and the Near East (c. 1450–1800) began with the final defeat of the Byzantine Empire, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, Japan entered the Edo period, the Qing dynasty rose in China and the Mughal Empire ruled much of India. Europe underwent the Renaissance, starting in the 15th century, and the Age of Discovery began with the exploring and colonizing of new regions. This includes the British Empire expanding to become the world's largest empire and the colonization of the Americas. This expansion led to the Atlantic slave trade and the genocide of Native American peoples. This period also marked the Scientific Revolution, with great advances in mathematics, mechanics, astronomy and physiology. The late modern period (1800–present) saw the Technological and Industrial Revolution bring such discoveries as imaging technology, major innovations in transport and energy development. The United States of America underwent great change, going from a small group of colonies to one of the global superpowers. The Napoleonic Wars raged through Europe in the early 1800s, Spain lost most of its colonies in the New World, while Europeans continued expansion into Africa – where European control went from 10% to almost 90% in less than 50 years – and Oceania. A tenuous balance of power among European nations collapsed in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War, one of the deadliest conflicts in history. In the 1930s, a worldwide economic crisis led to the rise of authoritarian regimes and a Second World War, involving almost all of the world's countries. Following its conclusion in 1945, the Cold War between the USSR and the United States saw a struggle for global influence, including a nuclear arms race and a space race. The current Information Age sees the world becoming increasingly globalized and interconnected. ## Habitat and population Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and – depending on the lifestyle – other natural resources used for subsistence, such as populations of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livestock. Modern humans, however, have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of technology, irrigation, urban planning, construction, deforestation and desertification. Human settlements continue to be vulnerable to natural disasters, especially those placed in hazardous locations and with low quality of construction. Grouping and deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of providing protection, accumulating comforts or material wealth, expanding the available food, improving aesthetics, increasing knowledge or enhancing the exchange of resources. Humans are one of the most adaptable species, despite having a low or narrow tolerance for many of the earth's extreme environments. Through advanced tools, humans have been able to extend their tolerance to a wide variety of temperatures, humidity, and altitudes. As a result, humans are a cosmopolitan species found in almost all regions of the world, including tropical rainforest, arid desert, extremely cold arctic regions, and heavily polluted cities; in comparison, most other species are confined to a few geographical areas by their limited adaptability. The human population is not, however, uniformly distributed on the Earth's surface, because the population density varies from one region to another, and large stretches of surface are almost completely uninhabited, like Antarctica and vast swathes of the ocean. Most humans (61%) live in Asia; the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%). Within the last century, humans have explored challenging environments such as Antarctica, the deep sea, and outer space. Human habitation within these hostile environments is restrictive and expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Humans have briefly visited the Moon and made their presence felt on other celestial bodies through human-made robotic spacecraft. Since the early 20th century, there has been continuous human presence in Antarctica through research stations and, since 2000, in space through habitation on the International Space Station. Estimates of the population at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. Bubonic plagues, first recorded in the 6th century AD, reduced the population by 50%, with the Black Death killing 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa alone. Human population is believed to have reached one billion in 1800. It has since then increased exponentially, reaching two billion in 1930 and three billion in 1960, four in 1975, five in 1987 and six billion in 1999. It passed seven billion in 2011 and passed eight billion in November 2022. It took over two million years of human prehistory and history for the human population to reach one billion and only 207 years more to grow to 7 billion. The combined biomass of the carbon of all the humans on Earth in 2018 was estimated at 60 million tons, about 10 times larger than that of all non-domesticated mammals. In 2018, 4.2 billion humans (55%) lived in urban areas, up from 751 million in 1950. The most urbanized regions are Northern America (82%), Latin America (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%), with Africa and Asia having nearly 90% of the world's 3.4 billion rural population. Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime, especially in inner city and suburban slums. Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. They are apex predators, being rarely preyed upon by other species. Human population growth, industrialization, land development, overconsumption and combustion of fossil fuels have led to environmental destruction and pollution that significantly contributes to the ongoing mass extinction of other forms of life. ## Biology ### Anatomy and physiology Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology. The human body consists of the legs, the torso, the arms, the neck, and the head. An adult human body consists of about 100 trillion (10<sup>14</sup>) cells. The most commonly defined body systems in humans are the nervous, the cardiovascular, the digestive, the endocrine, the immune, the integumentary, the lymphatic, the musculoskeletal, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system. The dental formula of humans is: . Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their third molars, with some individuals having them congenitally absent. Humans share with chimpanzees a vestigial tail, appendix, flexible shoulder joints, grasping fingers and opposable thumbs. Apart from bipedalism and brain size, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in smelling, hearing and digesting proteins. While humans have a density of hair follicles comparable to other apes, it is predominantly vellus hair, most of which is so short and wispy as to be practically invisible. Humans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many more than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on the palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet. It is estimated that the worldwide average height for an adult human male is about , while the worldwide average height for adult human females is about . Shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals but tends to be typical in the extremely aged. Throughout history, human populations have universally become taller, probably as a consequence of better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions. The average mass of an adult human is 59 kg (130 lb) for females and 77 kg (170 lb) for males. Like many other conditions, body weight and body type are influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals. Humans have a far faster and more accurate throw than other animals. Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances. Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances. ### Genetics Like most animals, humans are a diploid and eukaryotic species. Each somatic cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent; gametes have only one set of chromosomes, which is a mixture of the two parental sets. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. Genes and environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility and mental abilities. The exact influence of genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood. While no humans – not even monozygotic twins – are genetically identical, two humans on average will have a genetic similarity of 99.5%-99.9%. This makes them more homogeneous than other great apes, including chimpanzees. This small variation in human DNA compared to many other species suggests a population bottleneck during the Late Pleistocene (around 100,000 years ago), in which the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs. The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years. The human genome was first sequenced in 2001 and by 2020 hundreds of thousands of genomes had been sequenced. In 2012 the International HapMap Project had compared the genomes of 1,184 individuals from 11 populations and identified 1.6 million single nucleotide polymorphisms. African populations harbor the highest number of private genetic variants. While many of the common variants found in populations outside of Africa are also found on the African continent, there are still large numbers that are private to these regions, especially Oceania and the Americas. By 2010 estimates, humans have approximately 22,000 genes. By comparing mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago. ### Life cycle Most human reproduction takes place by internal fertilization via sexual intercourse, but can also occur through assisted reproductive technology procedures. The average gestation period is 38 weeks, but a normal pregnancy can vary by up to 37 days. Embryonic development in the human covers the first eight weeks of development; at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed a fetus. Humans are able to induce early labor or perform a caesarean section if the child needs to be born earlier for medical reasons. In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (7–9 lb) in weight and 47–53 cm (19–21 in) in height at birth. However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions. Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous, with a much higher risk of complications and death. The size of the fetus's head is more closely matched to the pelvis than other primates. The reason for this is not completely understood, but it contributes to a painful labor that can last 24 hours or more. The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries. Both the mother and the father provide care for human offspring, in contrast to other primates, where parental care is mostly done by the mother. Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 15 to 17 years of age. The human life span has been split into various stages ranging from three to twelve. Common stages include infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages have varied across cultures and time periods but is typified by an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence. Human females undergo menopause and become infertile at around the age of 50. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring, and in turn their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age. The life span of an individual depends on two major factors, genetics and lifestyle choices. For various reasons, including biological/genetic causes, women live on average about four years longer than men. As of 2018, the global average life expectancy at birth of a girl is estimated to be 74.9 years compared to 70.4 for a boy. There are significant geographical variations in human life expectancy, mostly correlated with economic development – for example, life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong is 87.6 years for girls and 81.8 for boys, while in the Central African Republic, it is 55.0 years for girls and 50.6 for boys. The developed world is generally aging, with the median age around 40 years. In the developing world, the median age is between 15 and 20 years. While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older. In 2012, the United Nations estimated that there were 316,600 living centenarians (humans of age 100 or older) worldwide. ### Diet Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material. Human groups have adopted a range of diets from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture and has led to the development of food science. Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with wild game, which must be hunted and captured in order to be consumed. It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus. Around ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of dairy farming providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults. The types of food consumed, and how they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture. In general, humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days, with a maximum of one week. In 2020 it is estimated 9 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However, global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed and a few developing countries. Worldwide, over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic." Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet. ### Biological variation There is biological variation in the human species – with traits such as blood type, genetic diseases, cranial features, facial features, organ systems, eye color, hair color and texture, height and build, and skin color varying across the globe. The typical height of an adult human is between 1.4 and 1.9 m (4 ft 7 in and 6 ft 3 in), although this varies significantly depending on sex, ethnic origin, and family bloodlines. Body size is partly determined by genes and is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet, exercise, and sleep patterns. There is evidence that populations have adapted genetically to various external factors. The genes that allow adult humans to digest lactose are present in high frequencies in populations that have long histories of cattle domestication and are more dependent on cow milk. Sickle cell anemia, which may provide increased resistance to malaria, is frequent in populations where malaria is endemic. Populations that have for a very long time inhabited specific climates tend to have developed specific phenotypes that are beneficial for those environments – short stature and stocky build in cold regions, tall and lanky in hot regions, and with high lung capacities or other adaptations at high altitudes. Some populations have evolved highly unique adaptations to very specific environmental conditions, such as those advantageous to ocean-dwelling lifestyles and freediving in the Bajau. Human hair ranges in color from red to blond to brown to black, which is the most frequent. Hair color depends on the amount of melanin, with concentrations fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Skin color can range from darkest brown to lightest peach, or even nearly white or colorless in cases of albinism. It tends to vary clinally and generally correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area, with darker skin mostly around the equator. Skin darkening may have evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation. Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. There is relatively little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that occurs is at the individual level. Much of human variation is continuous, often with no clear points of demarcation. Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are almost as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups. Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other. Genetic research has demonstrated that human populations native to the African continent are the most genetically diverse and genetic diversity decreases with migratory distance from Africa, possibly the result of bottlenecks during human migration. These non-African populations acquired new genetic inputs from local admixture with archaic populations and have much greater variation from Neanderthals and Denisovans than is found in Africa, though Neanderthal admixture into African populations may be underestimated. Furthermore, recent studies have found that populations in sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly West Africa, have ancestral genetic variation which predates modern humans and has been lost in most non-African populations. Some of this ancestry is thought to originate from admixture with an unknown archaic hominin that diverged before the split of Neanderthals and modern humans. Humans are a gonochoric species, meaning they are divided into male and female sexes. The greatest degree of genetic variation exists between males and females. While the nucleotide genetic variation of individuals of the same sex across global populations is no greater than 0.1%–0.5%, the genetic difference between males and females is between 1% and 2%. Males on average are 15% heavier and 15 cm (6 in) taller than females. On average, men have about 40–50% more upper body strength and 20–30% more lower body strength than women at the same weight, due to higher amounts of muscle and larger muscle fibers. Women generally have a higher body fat percentage than men. Women have lighter skin than men of the same population; this has been explained by a higher need for vitamin D in females during pregnancy and lactation. As there are chromosomal differences between females and males, some X and Y chromosome-related conditions and disorders only affect either men or women. After allowing for body weight and volume, the male voice is usually an octave deeper than the female voice. Women have a longer life span in almost every population around the world. There are intersex conditions in the human population, however these are rare. ## Psychology The human brain, the focal point of the central nervous system in humans, controls the peripheral nervous system. In addition to controlling "lower," involuntary, or primarily autonomic activities such as respiration and digestion, it is also the locus of "higher" order functioning such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction. These cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology. Humans have a larger and more developed prefrontal cortex than other primates, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition. This has led humans to proclaim themselves to be more intelligent than any other known species. Objectively defining intelligence is difficult, with other animals adapting senses and excelling in areas that humans are unable to. There are some traits that, although not strictly unique, do set humans apart from other animals. Humans may be the only animals who have episodic memory and who can engage in "mental time travel". Even compared with other social animals, humans have an unusually high degree of flexibility in their facial expressions. Humans are the only animals known to cry emotional tears. Humans are one of the few animals able to self-recognize in mirror tests and there is also debate over to what extent humans are the only animals with a theory of mind. ### Sleep and dreaming Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Having less sleep than this is common among humans, even though sleep deprivation can have negative health effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including reduced memory, fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort. During sleep humans dream, where they experience sensory images and sounds. Dreaming is stimulated by the pons and mostly occurs during the REM phase of sleep. The length of a dream can vary, from a few seconds up to 30 minutes. Humans have three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven. Dreamers are more likely to remember the dream if awakened during the REM phase. The events in dreams are generally outside the control of the dreamer, with the exception of lucid dreaming, where the dreamer is self-aware. Dreams can at times make a creative thought occur or give a sense of inspiration. ### Consciousness and thought Human consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience or awareness of internal or external existence. Despite centuries of analyses, definitions, explanations and debates by philosophers and scientists, consciousness remains puzzling and controversial, being "at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives". The only widely agreed notion about the topic is the intuition that it exists. Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied and explained as consciousness. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is sensory experience itself, and access consciousness, which can be used for reasoning or directly controlling actions. It is sometimes synonymous with 'the mind', and at other times, an aspect of it. Historically it is associated with introspection, private thought, imagination and volition. It now often includes some kind of experience, cognition, feeling or perception. It may be 'awareness', or 'awareness of awareness', or self-awareness. There might be different levels or orders of consciousness, or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with different features. The process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses is known as cognition. The human brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective views of existence and the passage of time. The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Psychologists have developed intelligence tests and the concept of intelligence quotient in order to assess the relative intelligence of human beings and study its distribution among population. ### Motivation and emotion Human motivation is not yet wholly understood. From a psychological perspective, Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a well-established theory that can be defined as the process of satisfying certain needs in ascending order of complexity. From a more general, philosophical perspective, human motivation can be defined as a commitment to, or withdrawal from, various goals requiring the application of human ability. Furthermore, incentive and preference are both factors, as are any perceived links between incentives and preferences. Volition may also be involved, in which case willpower is also a factor. Ideally, both motivation and volition ensure the selection, striving for, and realization of goals in an optimal manner, a function beginning in childhood and continuing throughout a lifetime in a process known as socialization. Emotions are biological states associated with the nervous system brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. They are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity, and motivation. Emotion has a significant influence on human behavior and their ability to learn. Acting on extreme or uncontrolled emotions can lead to social disorder and crime, with studies showing criminals may have a lower emotional intelligence than normal. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as joy, interest or contentment, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like anxiety, sadness, anger, and despair. Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some define it as experiencing the feeling of positive emotional affects, while avoiding the negative ones. Others see it as an appraisal of life satisfaction or quality of life. Recent research suggests that being happy might involve experiencing some negative emotions when humans feel they are warranted. ### Sexuality and love For humans, sexuality involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. Because it is a broad term, which has varied with historical contexts over time, it lacks a precise definition. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual response cycle. Sexuality also affects and is affected by cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life. Sexual desire, or libido, is a basic mental state present at the beginning of sexual behavior. Studies show that men desire sex more than women and masturbate more often. Humans can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation, although most humans are heterosexual. While homosexual behavior occurs in some other animals, only humans and domestic sheep have so far been found to exhibit exclusive preference for same-sex relationships. Most evidence supports nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation, as cultures that are very tolerant of homosexuality do not have significantly higher rates of it. Research in neuroscience and genetics suggests that other aspects of human sexuality are biologically influenced as well. Love most commonly refers to a feeling of strong attraction or emotional attachment. It can be impersonal (the love of an object, ideal, or strong political or spiritual connection) or interpersonal (love between humans). When in love dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin and other chemicals stimulate the brain's pleasure center, leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. ## Culture Humanity's unprecedented set of intellectual skills were a key factor in the species' eventual technological advancement and concomitant domination of the biosphere. Disregarding extinct hominids, humans are the only animals known to teach generalizable information, innately deploy recursive embedding to generate and communicate complex concepts, engage in the "folk physics" required for competent tool design, or cook food in the wild. Teaching and learning preserves the cultural and ethnographic identity of human societies. Other traits and behaviors that are mostly unique to humans include starting fires, phoneme structuring and vocal learning. ### Language While many species communicate, language is unique to humans, a defining feature of humanity, and a cultural universal. Unlike the limited systems of other animals, human language is open – an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of symbols. Human language also has the capacity of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring but reside in the shared imagination of interlocutors. Language differs from other forms of communication in that it is modality independent; the same meanings can be conveyed through different media, audibly in speech, visually by sign language or writing, and through tactile media such as braille. Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct. ### The arts Human arts can take many forms including visual, literary and performing. Visual art can range from paintings and sculptures to film, interaction design and architecture. Literary arts can include prose, poetry and dramas; while the performing arts generally involve theatre, music and dance. Humans often combine the different forms (for example, music videos). Other entities that have been described as having artistic qualities include food preparation, video games and medicine. As well as providing entertainment and transferring knowledge, the arts are also used for political purposes. Art is a defining characteristic of humans and there is evidence for a relationship between creativity and language. The earliest evidence of art was shell engravings made by Homo erectus 300,000 years before modern humans evolved. Art attributed to H. sapiens existed at least 75,000 years ago, with jewellery and drawings found in caves in South Africa. There are various hypotheses as to why humans have adapted to the arts. These include allowing them to better problem solve issues, providing a means to control or influence other humans, encouraging cooperation and contribution within a society or increasing the chance of attracting a potential mate. The use of imagination developed through art, combined with logic may have given early humans an evolutionary advantage. Evidence of humans engaging in musical activities predates cave art and so far music has been practiced by virtually all known human cultures. There exists a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics; with humans' musical abilities being related to other abilities, including complex social human behaviours. It has been shown that human brains respond to music by becoming synchronized with the rhythm and beat, a process called entrainment. Dance is also a form of human expression found in all cultures and may have evolved as a way to help early humans communicate. Listening to music and observing dance stimulates the orbitofrontal cortex and other pleasure sensing areas of the brain. Unlike speaking, reading and writing does not come naturally to humans and must be taught. Still, literature has been present before the invention of words and language, with 30,000-year-old paintings on walls inside some caves portraying a series of dramatic scenes. One of the oldest surviving works of literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh, first engraved on ancient Babylonian tablets about 4,000 years ago. Beyond simply passing down knowledge, the use and sharing of imaginative fiction through stories might have helped develop humans' capabilities for communication and increased the likelihood of securing a mate. Storytelling may also be used as a way to provide the audience with moral lessons and encourage cooperation. ### Tools and technologies Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago. The use and manufacture of tools has been put forward as the ability that defines humans more than anything else and has historically been seen as an important evolutionary step. The technology became much more sophisticated about 1.8 million years ago, with the controlled use of fire beginning around 1 million years ago. The wheel and wheeled vehicles appeared simultaneously in several regions some time in the fourth millennium BC. The development of more complex tools and technologies allowed land to be cultivated and animals to be domesticated, thus proving essential in the development of agriculture – what is known as the Neolithic Revolution. China developed paper, the printing press, gunpowder, the compass and other important inventions. The continued improvements in smelting allowed forging of copper, bronze, iron and eventually steel, which is used in railways, skyscrapers and many other products. This coincided with the Industrial Revolution, where the invention of automated machines brought major changes to humans' lifestyles. Modern technology is observed as progressing exponentially, with major innovations in the 20th century including: electricity, penicillin, semiconductors, internal combustion engines, the Internet, nitrogen fixing fertilisers, airplanes, computers, automobiles, contraceptive pills, nuclear fission, the green revolution, radio, scientific plant breeding, rockets, air conditioning, television and the assembly line. ### Religion and spirituality Religion is generally defined as a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. Some religions also have a moral code. The evolution and the history of the first religions have recently become areas of active scientific investigation. While the exact time when humans first became religious remains unknown, research shows credible evidence of religious behaviour from around the Middle Paleolithic era (45–200 thousand years ago). It may have evolved to play a role in helping enforce and encourage cooperation between humans. There is no accepted academic definition of what constitutes religion. Religion has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective in alignment with the geographic, social, and linguistic diversity of the planet. Religion can include a belief in life after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife), the origin of life, the nature of the universe (religious cosmology) and its ultimate fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral. A common source for answers to these questions are beliefs in transcendent divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are theistic. Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure, a majority of humans profess some variety of religious or spiritual belief. In 2015 the plurality were Christian followed by Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists. As of 2015, about 16%, or slightly under 1.2 billion humans, were irreligious, including those with no religious beliefs or no identity with any religion. ### Science and philosophy An aspect unique to humans is their ability to transmit knowledge from one generation to the next and to continually build on this information to develop tools, scientific laws and other advances to pass on further. This accumulated knowledge can be tested to answer questions or make predictions about how the universe functions and has been very successful in advancing human ascendancy. Aristotle has been described as the first scientist, and preceded the rise of scientific thought through the Hellenistic period. Other early advances in science came from the Han Dynasty in China and during the Islamic Golden Age. The scientific revolution, near the end of the Renaissance, led to the emergence of modern science. A chain of events and influences led to the development of the scientific method, a process of observation and experimentation that is used to differentiate science from pseudoscience. An understanding of mathematics is unique to humans, although other species of animals have some numerical cognition. All of science can be divided into three major branches, the formal sciences (e.g., logic and mathematics), which are concerned with formal systems, the applied sciences (e.g., engineering, medicine), which are focused on practical applications, and the empirical sciences, which are based on empirical observation and are in turn divided into natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology) and social sciences (e.g., psychology, economics, sociology). Philosophy is a field of study where humans seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves and the world in which they live. Philosophical inquiry has been a major feature in the development of humans' intellectual history. It has been described as the "no man's land" between definitive scientific knowledge and dogmatic religious teachings. Philosophy relies on reason and evidence, unlike religion, but does not require the empirical observations and experiments provided by science. Major fields of philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics). ## Society Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. Humans are highly social and tend to live in large complex social groups. They can be divided into different groups according to their income, wealth, power, reputation and other factors. The structure of social stratification and the degree of social mobility differs, especially between modern and traditional societies. Human groups range from the size of families to nations. The first form of human social organization is thought to have resembled hunter-gatherer band societies. ### Gender Human societies typically exhibit gender identities and gender roles that distinguish between masculine and feminine characteristics and prescribe the range of acceptable behaviours and attitudes for their members based on their sex. The most common categorisation is a gender binary of men and women. Many societies recognise a third gender, or less commonly a fourth or fifth. In some other societies, non-binary is used as an umbrella term for a range of gender identities that are not solely male or female. Gender roles are often associated with a division of norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power, with men enjoying more rights and privileges than women in most societies, both today and in the past. As a social construct, gender roles are not fixed and vary historically within a society. Challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies. Little is known about gender roles in the earliest human societies. Early modern humans probably had a range of gender roles similar to that of modern cultures from at least the Upper Paleolithic, while the Neanderthals were less sexually dimorphic and there is evidence that the behavioural difference between males and females was minimal. ### Kinship All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance. All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited, and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations. ### Ethnicity Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area. Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed. Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level. Also, there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group. Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries. ### Government and politics As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between these different groups increased. This led to the development of governance within and between the communities. Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily, including previously strong political alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages. This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies, with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances. Governments create laws and policies that affect the citizens that they govern. There have been many forms of government throughout human history, each having various means of obtaining power and the ability to exert diverse controls on the population. As of 2017, more than half of all national governments are democracies, with 13% being autocracies and 28% containing elements of both. Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances, the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states. ### Trade and economics Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids. Evidence suggests early H. sapiens made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals. Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian. The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods. Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving instead of a bartering system. Early money consisted of commodities; the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells. Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins, paper and electronic money. Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people. There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population. ### Conflict Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates, but have an increased preference for killing adults, infanticide being more common among other primates. It is predicted that 2% of early H. sapiens would be murdered, rising to 12% during the medieval period, before dropping to below 2% in modern times. There is great variation in violence between human populations with rates of homicide in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence at about 0.01%. The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e., war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought holds that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and has always been an innate human characteristic. Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and has appeared due to changing social conditions. While not settled, current evidence indicates warlike predispositions only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many places much more recently than that. War has had a high cost on human life; it is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war. ## See also - List of human evolution fossils
156,960	Mount Washington	1,171,353,833	Highest mountain in Northeastern United States	[ "Highest points of U.S. states", "Locations in Native American mythology", "Mount Washington (New Hampshire)", "Mountains of Coös County, New Hampshire", "Mountains of New Hampshire", "Mountains on the Appalachian Trail", "New England Four-thousand footers", "North American 1000 m summits", "Tourist attractions in Coös County, New Hampshire", "Towers in New Hampshire", "White Mountains (New Hampshire)" ]	Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, is the highest peak in the Northeastern United States at 6,288.2 ft (1,916.6 m) and the most topographically prominent mountain east of the Mississippi River. The mountain is notorious for its erratic weather. On the afternoon of April 12, 1934, the Mount Washington Observatory recorded a windspeed of 231 miles per hour (372 km/h) at the summit, the world record from 1934 until 1996. Mount Washington still holds the record for highest measured wind speed not associated with a tornado or tropical cyclone. The mountain is located in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains, in Coös County, New Hampshire. The mountain is in several unincorporated townships, with the summit in the township of Sargent's Purchase. While nearly the whole mountain is in the White Mountain National Forest, an area of 60.3 acres (24.4 ha) surrounding and including the summit is occupied by Mount Washington State Park. The Mount Washington Cog Railway ascends the western slope of the mountain, and the Mount Washington Auto Road climbs to the summit from the east. The mountain is visited by hikers, and the Appalachian Trail crosses the summit. Other common activities include glider flying, backcountry skiing, and annual cycle and running races such as the Auto Road Bicycle Hillclimb and Road Race. ## History Before European settlers arrived in the region, the mountain was known by various indigenous peoples as Kodaak Wadjo ("the top is so hidden" or "summit of the highest mountain") or Agiochook or Agiocochook ("the place of the Great Spirit" or "the place of the Concealed One"). The Algonquians called the summit Waumbik, "white rocks". The Abenaki people inhabiting the region at the time of European contact believed that the tops of mountains were the dwelling place of the gods, and so among other reasons did not climb them out of religious deference to their sanctity. In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano became the first European to mention the mountain. Viewing it from the Atlantic Ocean, he described what he saw as "high interior mountains". In 1642, Darby Field claimed to have made the first ascent of Mount Washington. Field climbed the mountain in June of that year to demonstrate to the Abenaki chief Passaconaway that the Europeans bargaining for tribal land were not subject to the gods believed to inhabit the summit, a primarily political move that facilitated colonists' northern expansion. Field again summited Agiocochook in October 1642 on an early surveying expedition that created maps of land as far as Maine, which allowed people from the Massachusetts colony to identify arable coastal areas. In 1784, a geology party, headed by Manasseh Cutler, named the mountain. In 1819, the Crawford Path, the oldest continuously maintained hiking path in the United States, was laid out from Crawford Notch to the summit and has been in use ever since. In 1821, Ethan Allen Crawford built a house on the summit. The house lasted until a storm in 1826. Little occurred on the summit itself until the mid-19th century, when it was developed into one of the first tourist destinations in the nation, with construction of more bridle paths and two hotels. The Summit House opened in 1852, a 64-foot-long (20 m) stone hotel anchored by four heavy chains over its roof. In 1853, the Tip-Top House was erected to compete. Rebuilt of wood with 91 rooms in 1872–1873, the Summit House burned in 1908, then was replaced in granite in 1915. The Tip-Top House alone survived the fire; today it is a state historic site, recently renovated for exhibits. Other Victorian era tourist attractions include a coach road (1861)—now the Mount Washington Auto Road—and the Mount Washington Cog Railway (1869), both of which are still in operation. For forty years, until 1917, an intermittent daily newspaper, called Among the Clouds, was published by Henry M. Burt at the summit each summer. In 2011 and 2012, Orlando, Florida–based CNL Financial Group, which at the time operated the Mount Washington Hotel at the foot of the mountain, trademarked the "Mount Washington" name when used with a resort or hotel. CNL officials said they were directing their efforts only against hotels and not the numerous businesses in the area that use the name. CNL's application at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office seeks registration of the trademark "Mount Washington" for any retail service, any restaurant service, and any entertainment service. ## Climate The summit station of Mount Washington has an alpine climate or tundra climate (Köppen ET), although it receives an extremely high amount of precipitation, atypical for most regions with such cold weather. However, elevations just beneath treeline have a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) which eventually transitions to a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) near the mountain's base and the surrounding lower elevations. The weather of Mount Washington is notoriously erratic. This is partly due to the convergence of several storm tracks, mainly from the Atlantic to the south, the Gulf region and the Pacific Northwest. The vertical rise of the Presidential Range, combined with its north–south orientation, makes it a significant barrier to westerly winds. Low-pressure areas are more favorable to develop along the coastline in the winter due to the relative temperature differences between the northeastern United States and the Atlantic Ocean. With these factors combined, hurricane-force wind gusts are observed from the summit of the mountain on average of 110 days per year. These extreme winds also contribute to the mountain's very short treeline, with elevations as low as 4,400 feet (1,300 m) being too hostile to support any plant life more than a few inches (centimeters) in height. Mount Washington once held the world record, and still holds the Northern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere record, for directly measured surface wind speed, at 231 mph (372 km/h), recorded on the afternoon of April 12, 1934. A new wind speed record was discovered in 2009: on April 10, 1996, Tropical Cyclone Olivia had created a wind gust of 408 km/h (254 mph) at Barrow Island off the western coast of Australia. The first regular meteorological observations on Mount Washington were conducted by the U.S. Signal Service, a precursor of the National Weather Service, from 1870 to 1892. The Mount Washington station was the first of its kind in the world, setting an example followed in many other countries. For many years, the record low temperature was thought to be −47 °F (−43.9 °C) occurring on January 29, 1934, but upon the first in-depth examination of the data from the 19th century at NOAA's National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, North Carolina, a new record low was discovered. Mount Washington's official record low of −50 °F (−45.6 °C) was recorded on January 22, 1885. The official record low daily maximum is −28 °F (−33.3 °C) on February 6, 1995. Highs of 0 °F (−18 °C; 255 K) or below occur on 13 days annually, while lows at or below 0 °F (−18 °C; 255 K) can be expected from November 17 through April 1; from December to March, temperatures rise above freezing (0 °C (32 °F; 273 K)) on only 15 days. On January 16, 2004, the summit weather observation registered a temperature of −43.6 °F (−42.0 °C) and sustained winds of 87.5 mph (140.8 km/h), resulting in a wind chill value of −102.59 °F (−74.8 °C) at the mountain. During a 71-hour period from approximately 3 p.m. on January 13 to 2 p.m. on January 16, 2004, the wind chill on the summit never went above −50 °F (−45.6 °C). The official record high temperature at the summit is 72 °F (22.2 °C) on June 26, 2003, and August 2, 1975, while the official record high daily minimum is 60 °F (15.6 °C), recorded on the latter date. Readings of 60 °F (15.6 °C) or higher at the summit are seen an average of 13.5 days annually. On February 3–4, 2023, overnight wind gusts of over 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) and a temperature of −47 °F (−43.9 °C) combined to produce a new US record low windchill temperature of −108 °F (−77.8 °C), breaking the previous figure of −103 °F (−75.0 °C). Temperatures remained at or below -45 °F for 13 straight hours on February 3–4, 2023, and a -47 °F reading from the morning of February 4, 2023 was the coldest reading in 89 years, tying a previous record low observed in January 1934. The primary summit building was designed to withstand 300 mph (480 km/h) winds; other structures are chained to the mountain. In addition to a number of broadcast towers, the mountain is the site of a non-profit scientific observatory reporting the weather as well as other aspects of the subarctic climate of the mountain. The extreme environment creates strong winds and ice at the top of Mount Washington making the use of unmanned equipment problematic. The observatory also conducts research, primarily the testing of new weather measurement devices. The Sherman Adams summit building, which houses the observatory, is closed to the public during the winter and hikers are not allowed inside the building except for pre-arranged guided tours. In 1932, the Mount Washington Observatory was built on the summit through a group interested in and noting the worth of a research facility at that demanding location. The observatory's weather data have accumulated a climate record since. Temperature and humidity readings have been collected using a sling psychrometer, a simple device containing two mercury thermometers. Where most unstaffed weather stations have undergone technology upgrades, consistent use of the sling psychrometer has helped provide scientific precision to the Mount Washington climate record. The observatory makes prominent use of the slogan "Home of the World's Worst Weather", a claim that originated with a 1940 article in Appalachia magazine by Charles Brooks, the man generally given the majority of credit for creating the Mount Washington Observatory. The article was titled "The Worst Weather in the World" even though it concluded that Mount Washington most likely did not have the world's worst weather. ### Image gallery ### Precipitation Due in part to its high prominence, to its situation at the confluence of two major storm tracks, and to the north–south orientation of the Presidential Range ridgeline, which it crowns, Mount Washington receives high levels of precipitation, averaging an equivalent of 91.2 in (2,320 mm) of rain per year, with a record high for a calendar year of 130.14 in (3,305.6 mm) in 1969 and a low of 71.34 in (1,812.0 mm) in 1979. Monthly precipitation has ranged from 0.75 in (19.1 mm) in October 1947 to 28.70 in (729.0 mm) in October 2005. Large amounts of precipitation often fall in a short period of time: in October 1996, a record 11.07 in (281.2 mm) of precipitation fell during a single 24-hour period. A substantial amount of this falls as snow, with a seasonal average of around 280 inches (7.1 m) of snow; seasonal accumulation has ranged from 75.8 in (1.93 m) in 1947–48 to 566.4 in (14.39 m) in 1968–69. The record amount of snowfall in a 24-hour period, 49.3 in (125.2 cm), occurred in February 1969, which is also the snowiest month on record with 172.8 in (4.39 m). ## Geographical features Although the western slope that the Cog Railway ascends is straightforward from base to summit, the mountain's other sides are more complex. On the north side, Great Gulf—the mountain's largest glacial cirque—forms an amphitheater surrounded by the Northern Presidentials: Mounts Clay, Jefferson, Adams and Madison. These connected peaks reach well into the treeless alpine zone. Massive Chandler Ridge extends northeast from the summit of Washington to form the amphitheater's southern wall and the incline is ascended by the Mount Washington Auto Road. East of the summit, a plateau known as the Alpine Gardens extends south from Chandler Ridge at about 5,200 feet (1,600 m) elevation. It is notable for plant species either endemic to alpine meadows in the White Mountains or outliers of larger populations in arctic regions far to the north. Alpine Gardens drops off precipitously into two prominent glacial cirques. Craggy Huntington Ravine offers rock and ice climbing in an alpine setting. More rounded Tuckerman Ravine is New England's best-known site for spring back-country skiing as late as June and then a scenic hiking route. South of the summit lies a second and larger alpine plateau, Bigelow Lawn, at 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to 5,500 feet (1,700 m) elevation. Satellite summit Boott Spur and then the Montalban Ridge including Mount Isolation and Mount Davis extend south from it, while the higher Southern Presidentials—Mounts Monroe, Franklin, Eisenhower, Pierce, Jackson and Webster—extend southwest to Crawford Notch. Oakes Gulf separates the two high ridges. ## Uses The mountain is part of a popular hiking area, with the Appalachian Trail crossing the summit and one of the Appalachian Mountain Club's eight mountain huts, the Lakes of the Clouds Hut, located on one of the mountain's shoulders. Winter recreation includes Tuckerman Ravine, famous for its Memorial Day skiing and its 50-degree slopes. The ravine is notorious for its avalanches, of which about 100 are recorded every year, and which have killed six people since 1849. Scores of hikers have died on the mountain in all seasons, due to harsh and rapidly changing conditions, inadequate equipment, and failure to plan for the wide variety of conditions that can occur above tree line. The weather at Mount Washington has made it a site for glider flying. In 2005, it was recognized as the 14th National Landmark of Soaring. ### Hiking The most common hiking trail approach to the summit is via the 4.1-mile (6.6 km) Tuckerman Ravine Trail. It starts at the Pinkham Notch camp area and gains 4,280 feet (1,300 m), leading straight up the bowl of Tuckerman Ravine via a series of steep rock steps that afford views of the ravine and across the notch to Wildcat Mountain. Fatalities have occurred on the trail, both from ski accidents and hypothermia. Water bottles may be refilled at the base of the bowl 2.1 miles (3.4 km) up the trail at a well pump near the Hermit Lake Shelters, which offers snacks, toilets and shelter. At the summit is a center with a museum, gift shop, observation area, cafeteria, and the Mount Washington Observatory. Other routes up the eastern slopes of the mountain include the Lion Head, Boott Spur, Huntington Ravine and Nelson Crag trails, as well as the Great Gulf Trail ascending from the northeast. Routes from the western slopes include the Ammonoosuc Ravine and Jewell trails and the Crawford Path and Gulfside Trail (coincident with the Appalachian Trail from the southwest and from the north, respectively). There are many differences between climbing Mount Washington in summer and climbing it in winter. There are no public facilities on the summit in winter. In the winter months, the most common route is the Lion Head Winter Route, which begins on the Tuckerman Ravine Trail but then turns north to ascend up to Lion Head at elevation 5,033 feet (1,534 m). The winter route variation is recommended to help climbers avoid avalanche danger. Exactly where the route turns from the Tuckerman Ravine Trail depends on the snow conditions. If the amount of snowfall has not been significant, the Lion Head Summer Route may be open. After hiking 2.3 miles (3.7 km) from the visitor center in Pinkham Notch, the trail will take a right turn onto the Lion Head Summer Route. If there has been enough snow accumulation on the summer Lion Head Trail, the Forest Service will open the Lion Head Winter Route, which turns off after approximately 1.7 miles (2.7 km). ### Cog railway Since 1869, the Mount Washington Cog Railway has provided tourists with a train journey to the summit of Mount Washington. It uses a Marsh rack system and was the first successful rack railway in the US. ### Races Every June, the mountain is the site of the Mount Washington Road Race, an event that attracts hundreds of runners. In August the Mount Washington Auto Road Bicycle Hillclimb, a bicycle race, takes place along the same route as the road race. The hillclimb's notable contestants include former Tour de France contender Tyler Hamilton. On August 7, 1932, Raymond E. Welch became the first one-legged man to climb Mount Washington. An official race was held and open only to one-legged people. Mr. Welch climbed the "Jacob's Ladder" route and descended via the carriage road. At the time of his climb, he was the station agent for the Boston & Maine Railroad in Northumberland, New Hampshire. The mountain is also the host to one of the oldest car races in the country, the Mount Washington Hillclimb Auto Race, which has been held on and off since 1904. Travis Pastrana set record ascents in 2010, 2014, 2017, and 2021, driving a Subaru WRX STi to a record of five minutes and 28.67 seconds. In 2014 EVSR created by Entropy Racing was the first electric car to compete at Mt. Washington with an official time for driver Tim O'Neil of seven minutes and 28.92 seconds. ### Backcountry skiing Tuckerman Ravine, a glacial cirque on the mountain's southeast side, is a popular backcountry skiing destination, attracting tens of thousands of skiers to the mountain each year. Skiers have skied down the headwall since 1931, first by two Dartmouth students, John Carleton and Charles Proctor, who were quickly followed by a group from Harvard who skied the headwall from the summit of Mount Washington for the first time. The ravine soon became an important site for extreme skiing in New England. The mountain hosted the first giant slalom race in the United States in 1937, the Franklin Edson Memorial Race. ## Transmission facilities Due to its status as the highest elevation in the northeast United States, the top of the mountain is a popular site for stations that require transmission ranges over a broad territory, but which operate on frequencies that are generally limited to line-of-sight coverage. In 2003, it was reported that the summit was the site used "for three commercial radio stations and dozens of state, federal and private agencies, including the state police". Use of the mountain summit as a transmitter site dates to the 1930s. At this time investigations were begun into establishing radio stations broadcasting on "Very High Frequency" (VHF) assignments above 30 MHz. Reception of stations operating on these frequencies tended to be limited to line-of-sight distances, so operating from the top of Mount Washington was ideal for providing maximum coverage. As of 1938 it was reported that at least five experimental stations were located on the mountain. The most prominent of the early experimental stations was W1XER, originally an "Apex" radio station licensed to the Yankee Network, that was moved from Boston to the mountain in 1937, and initially used to relay meteorological information from the weather observatory. With the aid of Edwin H. Armstrong, the station was converted from an AM transmitter into an FM broadcasting station, although the conversion process turned out to be an arduous undertaking, and W1XER did not start broadcast programming on a regular schedule until December 19, 1940. This station's facilities included construction of the original broadcast tower, the Yankee Building housing the crew and transmitter equipment, and the first power house building. Commercial broadcasting commenced on April 5, 1941, initially with the call sign W39B. Effective November 1, 1943 the station call sign was changed to WMTW, and in late 1946 the call letters were changed again, to WMNE. WMNE ceased operations in late 1948, due to excessive maintenance costs, and concern that a mandatory frequency change to the new FM "high band" would cause an unacceptable decrease in transmission range. In 1954 WMTW, channel 8, licensed to Poland Spring, Maine, constructed a TV tower and transmitter and began operations from the mountain, including local forecasts by (now retired) WMTW transmitter engineer Marty Engstrom. In its first decades, WMTW served as the ABC Network affiliate for the Portland, Burlington, Montreal and Sherbrooke television markets, thanks to its wide coverage area. This station relocated its transmitter away from the mountain in 2002, due to concerns that a mandated switch from analog to digital transmissions would result in insufficient coverage if the transmitter remained at the mountaintop. There are currently two FM stations located at the mountain. 1958 saw the construction of WMTW-FM 94.9 MHz (now WHOM). A second station, WMOU (now WPKQ), moved to the summit in 1987, installing transmitters in the Yankee building and constructing a new broadcast tower behind the building, which is the tallest structure on the summit. WHOM and WMTW-TV shared a transmitter building, which also housed the generators used to supply electrical power to the various facilities atop the mountain. However, on February 9, 2003, a major fire broke out in the generator room of the transmitter building, which had become the property of the state only a year earlier when WMTW left the summit. The fire destroyed the building, including WHOM's transmitters as well as the summit's main generators, and also spread to the adjacent Old Yankee Power House building, which housed the emergency generator, destroying that building also and disrupting all power to the summit. Temporary generators had to be transported up the mountain to restore power to the observatory and to the Yankee building, which houses important public safety communications equipment. A makeshift generator room was constructed underneath the canopy of the Sherman Adams building across from the public entrance to replace the destroyed buildings. The makeshift generator room was later made permanent when power cables were installed in 2009, delivering grid power to the summit for the first time. The original Armstrong tower still stands today. The Yankee Building also remains and continues to serve as a communications facility, housing equipment for numerous tenants including cellular telephone providers and public safety agencies. The old sign from the destroyed Old Yankee Power House building was placed above the doorway to the new generator room. WHOM subsequently built a new transmitter building on the site of the old power building, and also installed a new standby antenna on the Armstrong tower. (For the first time since 1948, the Armstrong tower was used for broadcasts.) The National Weather Service (NWS) forecast office in Gray, Maine, operates NOAA Weather Radio station KZZ41 on 162.5 MHz from the summit of Mount Washington. The NWS coverage map indicates that it can be heard throughout most of New Hampshire, western Maine, northeast Vermont, and portions of southern Canada. During very clear conditions, KZZ41 has the potential to reach the majority of northern Massachusetts (including some northern areas of Greater Boston and much of the North Shore) as well as the majority of Vermont and Maine. In June 2008, the possibility of television returning to Mount Washington arose, with the filing by New Hampshire Public Television to move WLED-TV from its current location near Littleton to the old WMTW mast on top. ## Deaths As of 2019, more than 161 people had died in the Presidential range, since record-keeping began in 1849. Author Nicholas Howe has detailed many of the fatalities on this mountain in his book Not Without Peril published in 2000 and updated in 2009. The foreword to the 2009 edition states that many of the deaths over the past 150 years can be attributed to poor planning and lack of understanding of "the difference in weather between Boston and the mountains. The latter are farther north, farther inland and much higher than the city." William Buckingham Curtis, often posthumously called "the father of American amateur athletics", died from exhaustion on June 30, 1900, near Lakes of the Clouds Hut during a summer snowstorm. ## Artistic tributes Mount Washington has been the subject of several famous paintings, part of a New England school of art known as White Mountain art. Inspired by the Hudson River School of landscape painting, a number of artists during the Victorian era ventured into the White Mountains in search of natural subjects. Train service in the area spurred increased tourism and the construction of the Glen House where Albert Bierstadt and his photographer brother (Bierstadt Brothers) stayed. John P. Soule, John B. Heywood and the Kilburn Brothers also produced stereographic images of scenery in the area. ## See also - Freelan Oscar Stanley - List of mountain peaks of North America - List of mountain peaks of the United States - List of U.S. states by elevation - List of Ultras of the United States ## Explanatory notes
64,806,584	Osthofen concentration camp	1,146,068,495	Nazi concentration camp	[ "Museums in Rhineland-Palatinate", "Nazi concentration camps in Germany" ]	The Osthofen concentration camp (German: KZ Osthofen) was an early Nazi concentration camp in Osthofen, close to Worms, Germany. It was established in March 1933 in a former paper factory. The camp was administered by the People's State of Hesse's Political Police, with guards first drawn from SA and SS, later only SS men. The first prisoners were mostly Communists or Social Democrats, but later Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventists and non-political Jews were also sent to the camp. Usually, Osthofen held 200 people at a time, with a total of about 3,000 prisoners over the existence of the camp. While none of the inmates died in the camp, many became sick due to the poor living conditions and hygiene. Abuse and humiliation of the prisoners, who were used as unpaid labourers, was common. One of the two prisoners who managed to escape from Osthofen, Max Tschornicki, met the author Anna Seghers in her Paris exile, and her novel The Seventh Cross, describes the conditions at a fictional "Westhofen concentration camp", inspired by Osthofen. The site of the concentration camp was used as a furniture factory from 1936 to 1976, and the first plaque commemorating the existence of the camp was not installed until 1978. After activist pressure, the camp site was registered as a protected monument in 1989 and eventually turned into a memorial for the concentration camp by the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ## History The official history of the Osthofen concentration camp begins with a decree by the State Commissar for the Police in Hesse, Werner Best, on 1 May 1933. Anyone arrested for political reasons in Hesse for more than a week or expected to be imprisoned for more than a week was ordered to be sent to Osthofen. By this time, however, the camp had already been operating unofficially for months. After the 28 February 1933 Reichstag Fire Decree, civil liberties in Germany became restricted, and large numbers of Communists were arrested. On 6 March, the empty former paper factory in Ziegelhüttenweg was confiscated from its legal owner, Jewish businessman Karl Joehlinger. Large groups of prisoners began to be sent to the camp from 13 March 1933, with most of the early prisoners Communists or Social Democrats. From summer of 1933, also non-political Jews, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventists and others were imprisoned. The camp was closed in July 1934 as a result of a centralisation of the concentration camps directed by Heinrich Himmler, and the 13 last prisoners were moved to other camps and prisons, including Dachau. ## Administration and guards Osthofen was under the direction of the Hesse Political Police, which later became part of the Gestapo. Karl d'Angelo [de; fr], a SS Sturmbannführer and the local Osthofen Nazi Party chairman, was made honorary camp leader on orders of Werner Best. Camp doctor was Reinhold Daum [de], who declared every single new arrival healthy and medically fit for imprisonment even if they had been mistreated. The camp guards were at first drawn mostly from local SA and SS men turned auxiliary police (95 SA and 99 SS, of which 55 served each day) but the SA were replaced by SS in autumn of 1933, significantly worsening conditions for the prisoners. None of the guards were prosecuted for their actions in the camp after 1945. The existence of the concentration camp was not a secret, and was at the time widely commented on in the press, both locally and internationally. The New York Times reported on the camp and its imprisonment of Jews in August 1933. The camp sign, painted on the building in large letters, was clearly visible from passing trains. ## Conditions in the camp Over the course of its existence, Osthofen held approximately 3,000 people. The average occupancy was about 200 prisoners, who were typically held for two to six weeks, but the length of their stays ranged from one week to one year. The prisoners, all of which were male, were used as unpaid labourers, often for the benefit of D'Angelo or other party members. Despite the poor living conditions and hygiene in the camp, with prisoners originally sleeping on the concrete floor, there are no recorded inmate deaths at Osthofen. Many became sick, however, and contracted chronic urinary tract diseases. The prisoners were routinely abused and humiliated, especially Jews. For example, Ernst Katz was severely beaten on Yom Kippur and forced to eat pork after he regained consciousness. The SPD politician Carlo Mierendorff was forced to straighten nails that his fellow prisoners had to bend. He was also beaten at night by assailants who were claimed to be communists, but that he identified as SA. In a nearby "Camp II", which was used for aggravated detention, prisoners had to spend the nights in wire cages, with lights on that made sleep difficult. ## Site history and legacy The main building was erected in 1872 as a paper factory owned by Gustav Rumpel. Under the ownership of Joseph Kahn, another factory hall was added in 1908. The paper factory was closed in the 1930s. After its use as a concentration camp, the site became a furniture factory from 1936 to 1976. Former prisoners, supported by the Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime, started efforts to commemorate the history in 1972, which was at the time opposed by locals. A first memorial plaque was installed in 1978. A first book with "materials about an almost forgotten concentration camp" was compiled in 1979 by former Buchenwald detainee Paul Grünewald [de]. After further activist involvement by the youth wing of the German Trade Union Confederation and others, the camp building became a protected monument in 1989. The state of Rhineland-Palatinate bought the site in 1991 and turned it into a memorial, which was completed in 2004. ## Literary adaptation In her 1942 novel The Seventh Cross (adapted as a film in 1944), Anna Seghers describes a fictitious "Westhofen" concentration camp located in the same area, clearly referring to Osthofen. Max Tschornicki, one of the two inmates who escaped from Osthofen, had met Seghers in Paris and told her of his experiences in the camp. The novel realistically describes conditions in the camp and the political persecution in Rhenish Hesse. While The Seventh Cross has been called a "memorial" to the Osthofen inmates, its plot, set in 1937, is inspired by an escape from Sachsenhausen concentration camp. ## Notable prisoners - Max Dienemann, rabbi - Georg Fröba [de], trade union activist and chairman of the Darmstadt branch of the KPD - Carlo Mierendorff, SPD politician and member of parliament, imprisoned from 21 June 1933 - Peter Paul Nahm [de], journalist and politician of the Centre Party - Max Tschornicki, Jewish lawyer and resistance member, escaped from the camp on 3 July 1933
408,060	Bekonscot	1,168,090,928	Model village in Beaconsfield, England	[ "1929 establishments in England", "Beaconsfield", "Miniature parks", "Miniature railways in the United Kingdom", "Model railroads", "Model railway shows and exhibitions", "Tourist attractions in Buckinghamshire" ]	Bekonscot Model Village and Railway is a model village built in the 1920s in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, UK at a scale of one inch to one foot. It portrays aspects of England mostly dating from the 1930s and contains several fictitious villages featuring replicas of notable local buildings. The model railway has almost 10 scale miles (400 m) of tracks and in 2001, a 7 1/4 in gauge railway was opened to transport visitors. Bekonscot has become both a popular tourist location and a part of English culture. It is commonly referred to as the oldest surviving model village in the UK and by 2020, had received over 14 million visitors. Authors such as Enid Blyton, Mary Norton and Will Self have been inspired by the village. ## Creation Bekonscot Model Village and Railway was created as a private miniature park in the 1920s by Roland Callingham and his gardener W. A. Berry. Callingham's wife had told him to take his model railway hobby outside their house, so he purchased four acres of land in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, and built an ideal English village with a church, railway and high street, illuminated by electric lights. Everything was constructed at a scale of one inch to one foot. The railway was 1,200 feet (366 m) long and had stations including a London terminus called Maryloo (referencing real stations Marylebone and Waterloo). It was designed by Wenman Joseph Bassett-Lowke, who had also provided a train set made out of silver to the Maharaja of Gwalior. It was opened to the general public in 1929 and three years later it had become a popular tourist attraction. By 1933, it was opened to the public every Sunday between April and September with the railway running and every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday afternoon without the trains working. The entrance fee was donated to the Railway Benevolent Institution and the Queen's Institute of District Nursing. ## History In 1934, Bekonscot was visited by the young Elizabeth II on her eighth birthday. An article published in the National Geographic in 1937 praised the "flawless miniatures of wood and stone, metal, stucco, bright paint, and glass". Bekonscot, alongside Pendon Museum in Oxfordshire and Bourton-on-the-Water in Gloucestershire, inspired a trend for model villages in British seaside resort towns such as Babbacombe, Southport and Southsea. By the 1960s it was owned and run by the Bekonscot Model Railway and Charitable Association. It is commonly referred to as the oldest surviving model village in the UK, although the eccentric Charles Paget Wade constructed a village called Fladbury at his home Snowshill Manor in 1907, which has been restored by National Trust volunteers. Bekonscot was updated with recent developments such as Concorde and office buildings until the 1990s, when it was returned to the 1930s. By 2020, it had incorporated a new town and added a replica of High and Over, a house designed by Amyas Connell in the nearby town of Amersham. The project is now composed of the fictitious villages of Bekonscot, Evenlode new town and colliery, Epwood, Greenhaily, Hanton, Southpool and Splashyng, which are linked together by the model railway. It features replicas of some notable local buildings and contains features such as an airport, a cable car, a cathedral, a castle, a cricket match, pubs, windmills and a zoo. The zoo is named Chessnade after Chessington World of Adventures and Whipsnade Zoo; shops are titled with punning names, such as the butcher Sam and Ella, the dressmaker Miss A. Stitch, the florist Dan D. Lyon and the greengrocer Chris P. Lettis. The model railway now has almost 10 scale miles (400 m) of tracks, with twelve stations and over 3,000 shrubs and trees. Trains run on a 1 gauge track and are powered by electricity. Visitors walk through the model village and can also look down on it from different viewing spots. In 2001, the Bekonscot Light Railway (BLR) was opened as a 7 1/4 in gauge railway which moves visitors around the village. The entire project closes over winter; smaller models are taken indoors, whilst larger buildings and the railway are refurbished on site. ## In popular culture Bekonscot is the oldest participant in the International Association of Miniature Parks (IMAP). By 2020, Bekonscot had received over 14 million visitors and had become part of English culture. The village frequently appears on lists of recommended family days out. It represents an idealised version of traditional English villages and its brochure states it is a "little piece of history that is forever England". Enid Blyton was a Beaconsfield resident and friend of Callingham; she set her short story "The Enchanted Village" in Bekonscot. The Sunday Telegraph reported that Toyland, where her fictional character Noddy lives, was inspired by Bekonscot. In tribute to Blyton, a replica of her now demolished house Green Hedges was installed in 1997. Mary Norton was inspired by Bekonscot when she wrote The Borrowers Aloft and Will Self set his short story "Scale" in the model village. Bekonscot also features in the non-fiction book Dreamstreets: A Journey Through Britain's Village Utopias. Historian Tim Dunn grew up nearby and has written the official guidebook. ## See also - Bollocks to Alton Towers - a book about alternative days out in the UK which features Bekonscot - Madurodam - a Dutch model village - Tucktonia - a model village in Christchurch, Dorset which closed down in 1986
36,962,156	Clique (song)	1,171,097,414	null	[ "2012 singles", "2012 songs", "Big Sean songs", "Def Jam Recordings singles", "GOOD Music singles", "Jay-Z songs", "Kanye West songs", "Song recordings produced by Hit-Boy", "Song recordings produced by Kanye West", "Songs written by Big Sean", "Songs written by Hit-Boy", "Songs written by James Fauntleroy", "Songs written by Jay-Z", "Songs written by Kanye West" ]	"Clique" is a song by American rappers Kanye West, Jay-Z, and Big Sean from West's record label GOOD Music's debut compilation album, Cruel Summer (2012). The song features additional vocals from Cocaine 80s, Aude Cardona, and Travis Jones. It was produced by Hit-Boy, while co-produced by West, and additional production was handled by Anthony Kilhoffer alongside Noah Goldstein. Numerous rappers recorded verses for the song, yet only West, Jay-Z, and Big Sean made the final cut. Two days after it leaked, the song was debuted via West's website on September 7, 2012, and simultaneously released for digital download as the album's fourth and final single, through GOOD Music and Def Jam. "Clique" has a dark beat, with the song including a sample of James Brown's "Funky President (People It's Bad)". The rappers use the lyrics to brag about their clique's strength. The song received generally positive reviews from music critics, with them mostly highlighting the production. Some praised West's verse and a few writers complimented Jay-Z's presence, while critical reception towards Big Sean's verse was somewhat less positive. The song was ranked amongst year-end lists for 2012 by multiple publications, including NME and The Washington Post. It was one of the Award Winning R&B/Hip-Hop Songs at the ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards in 2014. In the United States, "Clique" reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 2 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It further charted within the top 50 on the main charts in six other countries, including Canada and the United Kingdom. The song has been certified quadruple platinum and gold in the US and the UK by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and British Phonographic Industry (BPI), respectively. West ranted over a version of its backing track at the Revil Oviation Hall in December 2012, and performed the song live during The Yeezus Tour (2013–14). A remix of the song, featuring T.I., premiered in November 2012. ## Background and recording "Clique" marked the first musical collaboration between Kanye West and Jay-Z since their joint studio album Watch the Throne (2011), though they had finished the accompanying tour of the same name in the summer of 2012. Speaking to MTV News in September, Big Sean explained that he initially recorded the song's chorus "in London to the beat and 'Ye liked it or whatever", before being the first performer to record his verse. The rapper stated that after sending the verse to West, he "didn't hear anything back for a while [but] then people were talking about it". Big Sean recounted running into fellow rapper 2 Chainz in the meantime and receiving his approval of the song, until he was told during a phone call that Jay-Z was on it and "was like, 'damn'". Due to both West and Jay-Z providing verses, Big Sean confessed that he thought "they're probably gonna take my verse off even though I laced it" yet was told via the phone, "Nah, it's you Kanye and Jay-Z." In an interview with Tim Westwood, Big Sean revealed that many "grade-A rappers" recorded verses for the song but were not selected by West for the final cut. He did remember that the verses "were real legit", despite only him, West, and Jay-Z not being cut. In 2011, record producer Hit-Boy helped produce West and Jay-Z's "Niggas in Paris". The producer recalled "doing me once again" for "Clique", saying he "made a beat" that West liked "and we built on it", before the beat eventually became the song. Of working with West, Hit-Boy explained, "Nothing is ever right the first time, or the second time, or the third time." He continued, asserting that you have to "keep going until it appeases him" and he feels as if West is "always right". The song was produced by Hit-Boy, with co-production from West, and additional production from Anthony Kilhoffer and Noah Goldstein. On September 5, 2012, TMZ leaked a 30-second snippet of "Clique"; West, Jay-Z, Big Sean, and Hit-Boy had been announced earlier that week to be collaborating on the song. The same day as the leak, West posted the song's cover art to his website. West debuted the song in full through the website on September 7, 2012. Simultaneously, it was premiered by DJ Funkmaster Flex for Hot 97 and released as a single. West references his partner Kim Kardashian on the song, following on from him having rapped about his lovers in the past, including Amber Rose. "Cold" was released in April 2012, with it seeing West declare his love for Kardashian. While previewing tracks recorded for Cruel Summer in August 2012, West played a song entitled "Perfect Bitch", which he gave confirmation of being written about her. Fellow rapper Pusha T had recorded a verse for "Clique", though it was instead used by him on Hit-Boy's track "Bussin Moves" in September 2015. ## Composition and lyrics Musically, "Clique" has a dark beat, as well as industrial sounds. It contains a sample of American funk musician James Brown's 1974 recording "Funky President (People It's Bad)". Staccato Stylophone synth lines are prominent throughout the song, being accompanied by hiccups. The song includes throbbing bass, which contains slurs. It also heavily features drums. Big Sean performs first, contributing the hook and a verse to the song. His verse is followed by Jay-Z's, before West performs the last verse for around one minute and 30 seconds. Additional vocals are contributed to the song by Cocaine 80s, Aude Cardona, and Travis Jones. In the lyrics of the song, the rappers boast about the strength of their clique. On the hook, Big Sean asserts that nobody is on the level of his clique. During his verse, Big Sean brags about being up for nine days. Jay-Z delves into his past, reminding listeners of the personal costs from his success as well as the risks taken by him to achieve it. West raps arrogantly about a number of topics, including reflection on race and wealth, his real estate ambitions, and meditating in Pompeii. He expresses pride in Kardashian having become famous as a result of her sex tape with singer Ray J, rapping: "My girl a superstar all from a home movie." ## Release and reception On September 7, 2012, "Clique" was released for digital download in various countries by GOOD Music and Def Jam as the fourth single from the album. 11 days later, the song was included as the second track on GOOD Music's debut compilation album Cruel Summer. The song was met with generally positive reviews from music critics, who were mostly complementary towards the production. Josh Stillman from Entertainment Weekly cited the song as demonstrating West's continuous "incapabl[ity] of making bad music", liking the "off-kilter beat" as well as West's "inventive lyrics" that he considered to lie "among his most clever". In The Independent, Andy Gill acclaimed the production style over it bringing "a sinister, stalking ambience that matches the blend of money, mystery and menace" provided by collaborators on the album. Pitchfork critic Jayson Greene gave praise to Hit-Boy's production on the song, comparing the "transfixing" collection of hiccups and synths to record producer Timbaland's work. He concluded by recognizing the song as "haughty, spotless, and coldly perfect; it sounds like bottle service". In a review of the song for the Chicago Tribune, Adam Lukach and Lucheezy rated it three out of four stars, saying that even though the texture "is relatively thin", the beat "sounds ready to bubble over" in a similar manner to "a pot of molten gold". The writers appreciated the song as "the perfect platform" for West and Jay-Z's lyrical performances while dismissing Big Sean's lyricism and flow, specifically commenting that he stumbles over the latter and opining he is "just here for the hook". For Spin, Christopher R. Weingarten labeled the beat "nothing short of a masterwork" that is reminiscent of "a hiccupping Gil-Scott Heron (via Jamie xx) sneaking under the very last gasp" of rip-offs of Lil Wayne's "A Milli" (2008), while he viewed West's verse as overshadowing other artists' contributions to the album because of the lyrics. Jonah Weiner of Rolling Stone wrote of how Jay-Z's "breezy self-regard overflows into Spanish" on the song, though pointed out West for being the superior performer with his "classic head-spinner" of a verse. Michael Madden was more lukewarm at Consequence of Sound; he admitted to not taking the same liking to the song as others were but assured "its bass-slurs and monstrous opera samples prove worthy" of West and Jay-Z's reunion, and picked "Clique" as one of the essential tracks on Cruel Summer. The New York Times' Jon Caramanica was split in his feelings of the song, being appreciative of West's "volatile" performance for "swerving in new directions with each couplet" but showing disgust towards Big Sean's unforgivable referencing of himself "as B.I.G." due to it "lazily and gratuitously invoking the memory" of fellow rapper the Notorious B.I.G. ### Accolades On September 7, 2012, Pitchfork selected the song as the best new track. Ian Cohen of the publication positively compared Hit-Boy's production to his work on "Niggas in Paris" and disregarded Big Sean's verse, even though he praised Jay-Z's "wholly expected, sorta comforting" performance. Cohen continued; he lauded West for using a platform "to talk his shit again", and finished by questioning that the song may be "center of the universe-type shit". "Clique" was voted 44th on the Pazz & Jop poll of The Village Voice for 2012; it received 10 mentions and was tied with 6 other songs for the position. The track was listed by Complex as the 15th best song of 2012 and the magazine's DD considered the beat "the next best thing" after "Niggas in Paris" as well as praising Big Sean, Jay-Z, and West for delivering "all-star verses". Dagbladet and NME also positioned the track at number 15 on their respective lists of the year's best songs, with Talia Soghomonian of the latter publication citing it as properly proving that West "was still turning out solid gold" after Watch the Throne. The track was ranked by both Goûte mes disques and The Washington Post as the ninth best song of 2012, and its strongest achievement was being picked as the year's fourth best song by Dummy Mag. Jay-Z's verse on the song was named the fifth best of 2012 by Complex, with the staff mostly acclaiming his subject matter. At the 2014 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards, the song was one of the Award Winning R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. "Clique" was awarded as one of the 35 Most Performed R&B/Hip-Hop Songs at the BMI R&B/Hip-Hop Awards in 2014, and received a nomination for World's Best Song at the 2014 World Music Awards. ## Commercial performance On the US Billboard Hot 100, "Clique" entered at number 55. In its second week on the chart, the song climbed to number 12. The song remained on the Hot 100 for a total of 22 weeks. As of May 31, 2018, it ranks as West's 17th biggest hit on the chart. Simultaneously with its peak on the Hot 100, the song reached number two on the US Digital Songs chart, with 209,000 sales. This was a rise of 14 places from the song's position of number 16 one week prior, while it experienced a 182% increase in sales. The song topped the component US Rap Digital Songs chart, becoming West's first track to do so. "Clique" further peaked at number two on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, Hot Rap Songs, and Rhythmic charts. On November 29, 2012, the song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 1,000,000 digital copies in the United States, becoming the second single from Cruel Summer to achieve the certification. It was later certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA for pushing 4,000,000 certified units in the country on April 7, 2022. In Canada, the song debuted at number 79 on the Canadian Hot 100 for the issue dated September 22, 2012, before rising to its peak of number 17 the following week. The song lasted for 11 weeks on the chart. Elsewhere, it peaked at number 22 on the UK Singles Chart. "Clique" spent 18 weeks on the chart and as of August 19, 2017, it stand as Jay-Z's 14th most successful track of all time in the United Kingdom. The song also ranks as West's 20th biggest track of all time in the country up to October 24, 2019. On March 15, 2019, the song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling 400,000 units in the UK. "Clique" further attained top 50 positions on the singles charts in Scotland, Denmark, Australia, and France, while receiving a gold certification from IFPI Denmark for 45,000 shipments in the second of the four countries. ## Live performances and other versions During Big Sean's first arena show at the Palace in his homestate of Michigan on December 1, 2012, he brought out West for a performance of "Clique" as part of the encore. For West's three night concert at the Revil Ovation Hall in Atlantic City, New Jersey, he performed the song as the first night's second track on December 28, 2012. After performing the song, West delivered a 10-minute freestyle rant over a spare acoustic version of its backing track. The rant saw West complain about his lack of nominations for the 2013 Grammy Awards, the criticism of his women's fashion line, and the media, who the rapper responded to by asserting that he "ain't crazy" but is "just not satisfied". West further ranted against American singers Justin Timberlake and Taylor Swift, as well as criticizing corporate sponsorships and wealth, while the rapper also spoke of his cancelled tour with singer Lady Gaga, death threats from people on Twitter, his plans for the future, and skinny jeans. West performed a faithful take on the song at the 2013 Governors Ball, being backed by a modest DJ setup. The song was performed live by him on The Yeezus Tour (2013–14). West delivered a performance of the song for the Wireless Festival in 2014, with the crowd chanting along as he performed. During West's headlining set at the 2015 Glastonbury Festival, he performed the song, starting at the 25:06 mark. The crowd echoed words from the song back at West, who responded with a vague smile. Rapper Rick Ross released a re-worked version of "Clique" on his third mixtape The Black Bar Mitzvah in October 2012, which features fellow rappers Gunplay and Rockie Fresh. On November 13, 2012, DJ MLK premiered a remix of "Clique" that features rapper T.I. The remix includes a 16-bar verse from T.I., with him bragging that nobody does it like his "motherfuckin' clique". Duo gLAdiator posted their remix of the song to SoundCloud on November 26, 2012. A club remix, it heavily adds bass to the vocals. The remix was later included on a 12" vinyl for the song that was released in the UK on January 15, 2013. While appearing alongside Kc Chopz at Power 106 on January 13, 2013, rapper ASAP Rocky freestyled over the original. On January 28, Canadian electronic band Keys N Krates shared a remix of the song. The remix mostly relies on a snare drum for its build, and contains syncopated percussion, vocal stutters, and screwing that is applied to Big Sean's vocals. ## Track listings Digital download 1. "Clique" – 4:53 UK 12" vinyl Remixes A-side 1. "Clique" (Dirty Version) – 4:53 2. "Clique" (Enferno Remix) – 3:13 3. "Clique" (Black Dogs Remix) – 4:21 4. 50 Cent – "What Up Gangsta" (Dennis Blaze Clique Remix) – 3:27 B-side 1. "Clique" (Tek One 128-82 Transition) – 6:00 2. "Clique" (gLAdiator Remix) – 3:29 3. "Clique" (Slinks Trapsteezy Remix) – 5:03 ## Credits and personnel Information taken from Cruel Summer liner notes. Recording - Recorded at Record One (Sherman Oaks, CA) and Jungle City (NYC) - Mixed at Island Sound Studios (Hawaii) Personnel - Hit-Boy – songwriter, production - Kanye West – songwriter, co-production - Sean Anderson – songwriter - Shawn Carter – songwriter - James Fauntleroy – songwriter - Noah Goldstein – additional production, recording - Anthony Kilhoffer – additional production, mixer - Rob Kinelski – recording - Richard Parry – additional recording - Christian Mochizuki – assistant mixer - Eric Kelekolio – assistant mixer - Gaylord Holomalia – assistant mixer - Cocaine 80s – additional vocals - Aude Cardona – additional vocals - Travis Jones – additional vocals ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
26,536,730	Euforia (wrestler)	1,158,321,923	Mexican professional wrestler (born 1974)	[ "1974 births", "20th-century professional wrestlers", "21st-century professional wrestlers", "CMLL World Tag Team Champions", "CMLL World Trios Champions", "Living people", "Masked wrestlers", "Mexican male professional wrestlers", "People from Torreón", "Professional wrestlers from Coahuila", "Unidentified wrestlers" ]	Euforia (born December 5, 1974) is the ring name of a second-generation Mexican luchador Enmascarado, (or masked professional wrestler), currently working for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL). Euforia's real name is not a matter of public record, as is often the case with masked wrestlers in Mexico where their private lives are kept a secret from the wrestling fans. Euforia has a son, Soberano Jr., who also wrestles in CMLL. Euforia is currently in his second stint with the Los Nuevos Infernales stable, under the leadership of El Satánico. He was formerly a part of Los Cancerberos del Infierno under the leadership of Virus, while also forming a tag team with Nosferatu. He was also formerly a part of Los Guerreros del Infierno/Los Guerreros Laguneros under the leadership of Último Guerrero. ## Personal life As Euforia has never been unmasked in the ring via a Lucha de Apuestas ("Bet match") his real name is not a matter of public knowledge, a lucha libre tradition where the names of enmascarados (masked wrestlers) are not reported on. He was born on December 5, 1974 in Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico, son of Pablo Moreno Román. Moreno was a professional wrestler known under the ring name "El Soberano" ("the Sovereign"). Euforia's older brother, Pablo Moreno Leon, wrestled under the ring name Stranger until his death in 2000. A younger brother works under the ring name "El Hijo del Soberano" ("The son of El Soberano"). Euforia's son, born August 12, 1993, followed in his father's and grandfather's footsteps and became a professional wrestler in 2007. He was originally known as "El Niete del Soberano" ("The Grandson of El Soberano") but is better known under the ring name El Soberano Jr. / El Soberano, both of which are used interchangeably. ## Professional wrestling career The wrestler currently known as Euforia made his professional wrestling debut on May 28, 1990 under the name "Soberano Jr." ("Sovereign Jr."). He wrestled for many years alongside both his father and his brother on the Mexican independent circuit, especially around his home region in Torreón, Coahuila. Soberano made his Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) debut on April 23, 2006, in the second match of the show. He only wrestled a limited number of matches before disappearing from CMLL shows. ### Los Nuevos Infernales (2007–2009) In 2007 Soberano Jr. returned to the CMLL rings, but had been repackaged as "Euforia", a darker Rudo character (a "heel", those that portray the villains in wrestling) that was teamed up with El Satánico and Nosferatu to form Los Nuevos Infernales ("The New Infernals"), the latest incarnation of the Los Infernales group. In June 2007, Euforia was one of eight Novatos (rookies) that participated in the 2007 Gran Alternativa tournament, where an experienced wrestler teams up with a newcomer. Euforia teamed up with top Rudo Último Guerrero for the tournament, defeating Súper Comando and Villano V in the first round and Dos Caras Jr. and Valiente in the second round to earn a spot in the finals. The 2007 Gran Alternativa finals saw Místico and La Sombra defeat Último Guerrero and Euforia. In June 2008, Los Nuevos Infernales entered a tournament for the vacant CMLL Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship. In the first round Euforia and Nosferatu defeated Los Rayos Tapatio, in the second round they beat Metallik and Metálico and in the third round they eliminated Ángel Azteca Jr. and Máscara Purpura to earn a spot in the finals. The final match saw Flash and Stuka Jr. defeat Los Nuevos Infernales to win the Arena Coliseo Tag Team Championship. Following their loss Los Nuevo Infernales began a long running rivalry with Flash and Stuka Jr., a rivalry that saw Euforia and Nosferatu unsuccessfully challenge for the Arena Coliseo Tag Team titles on December 14, 2008. Euforia and Nosferatu defeated the champions in a non-title match at CMLL's La Hora Cero pay-per-view on January 11, 2009. By mid-2009 Euforia and Nosferatu teamed less and less. Nosferatu was replaced by Skandalo in a trios match that saw Eurforia, Virus and Skandalo defeat Flash, Stuka Jr. and Metalico on the undercard of the 2009 Infierno en el Ring event. ### Los Cancerberos del Infierno (2009–2012) On November 18, 2009 CMLL presented a new Rudo group that they had formed, Los Cancerberos del Infierno ("The Infernal Cerberi") a team led by veteran mid-ranked worker Virus and consisted of Euforia and Pólvora as well as two new characters never used before - Raziel and Cancerbero. It was later revealed that Raziel and Cancerbero were not two new wrestlers CMLL brought in but actually two low card wrestlers that had been repackaged, Raziel was previously known as Caligula while Cancerbero was called Messala. In late 2009 Pólvora teamed up with Euforia and Virus to represent Los Cancerberos in a tournament to crown the new Mexican National Trios Champion. The team defeated Los Ángeles Celestiales (Ángel Azteca Jr., Ángel de Plata and Ángel de Oro) in the first round, but lost to eventual tournament winners Mascara Dorada, Stuka Jr. and Metro in the second round. Following the tournament loss Los Ángeles Celestiales and Los Cancerberos del Infierno have developed a rivalry between the two groups, facing off on various CMLL shows, including their Friday night CMLL Super Viernes show. In early 2010 Euforia was entered in the inaugural Parejas Incredibles Nacional tournament, a tournament where CMLL groups a tecnico and a Rudo together for a contest where teams represent the region they trained in. Euforia teamed up with Ephesto to form the only "all rudo" team in the group. In the first round Euforia and Ephesto lost to tournament favorites Místico and Averno. In April 2012, Euforia and CMLL World Heavyweight Champion El Terrible won the 2012 Gran Alternativa. The same month he entered the En Busca de un Ídolo tournament/reality television show, where he made it to the finals before losing to Titán. ### Los Guerreros Laguneros (2012–2021) On July 6, 2012, Euforia was named the newest member of Último Guerrero's Los Guerreros del Infierno stable. In January 2013, Euforia made his Japanese debut, when he took part in the three-day Fantastica Mania 2013 event, co-promoted by CMLL and New Japan Pro-Wrestling in Tokyo. During the first night on January 18, he teamed with Okumura in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Tama Tonga and Titán. The following night, Euforia was defeated in a singles match by Atlantis. During the third and final night, Euforia teamed with Kazuchika Okada and Mephisto in a six-man tag team main event, where they were defeated by Atlantis, Hiroshi Tanahashi and Prince Devitt. Euforia was teamed up with tecnico Diamante Azul for the 2013 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles ("National Incredible Pairs Tournament") where the concept was that rivals would team up for a tag team tournament. The team defeated Ángel de Oro and Ephesto in the tournament's first round, but lost to Atlantis and Último Guerrero in the second round. A year later, Euforia won the 2014 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles tournament teaming with Atlantis. On March 28, 2014, Euforia won his first title, when he, Niebla Roja and Último Guerrero defeated Los Estetas del Aire (Máscara Dorada, Místico and Valiente) for the CMLL World Trios Championship. They lost the title to Sky Team (Místico, Valiente and Volador Jr.) on February 13, 2015. Euforia was a participant in the 2017 International Gran Prix. He was eliminated from the torneo cibernetico by Kenny King on September 1. On July 1, 2018, Los Guerreros Laguneros ended Sky Team's 1,223-day reign with the CMLL World Trios Championship as they defeated them in the main event of CMLL's Domingos Arena México show. Subsequently, Los Guerreros were positioned as "Defenders of CMLL" as they began a storyline feud with The Cl4n (Ciber the Main Man, The Chrizh and Sharlie Rockstar), three wrestlers who had made a name for themselves in CMLL's main rival Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide. On September 14, The Cl4n won the World Trios Championship, but Los Guerreros won the championship back two weeks later on September 28. On March 26, 2021, they lost the World Trios Championship to Nueva Generación Dinamita, resulting in Euforia turning on Último Guerrero and leaving the stable. ### Second stint with Los Nuevos Infernales (2021–present) On September 24, 2020, at Aniversario 88, Euforia rejoined the reformed Los Infernales, alongside El Satánico, Mephisto and Hechicero, after the latter defeated Último Guerrero for the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship. ## Championships and accomplishments - Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre - CMLL World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Gran Guerrero - CMLL World Trios Championship (4 times) – with Niebla Roja and Último Guerrero (1), Gran Guerrero and Último Guerrero (2) and Hechicero and Mephisto (1) - CMLL Torneo Gran Alternativa (2012) – with El Terrible - CMLL Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles (2014) – with Atlantis - Copa Dinastías (2022) - with Soberano Jr. - Pro Wrestling Illustrated - Ranked No. 161 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2021
56,294,772	2018 Santiago ePrix	1,096,655,309	null	[ "2017–18 Formula E season", "2018 in Chilean sport", "February 2018 sports events in South America", "Santiago ePrix" ]	The 2018 Santiago ePrix (formally the 2018 Antofagasta Minerals Santiago E-Prix) was a Formula E electric car race held at the Santiago Street Circuit in the Chilean capital city of Santiago on 3 February 2018. It was the fourth round of the 2017–18 Formula E Championship and the inaugural running of the event. The 37-lap race was won by Techeetah driver Jean-Éric Vergne from pole position. Vergne's teammate André Lotterer finished second and e.Dams-Renault driver Sébastien Buemi was third. Vergne won pole position by recording the fastest lap in qualifying, and held off Nelson Piquet Jr. early in the race, which was neutralised for four laps after two cars were left stranded at the side of the track from getting involved in separate accidents on the first lap. Vergne kept the lead after every driver made their mandatory pit stops to enter into a second car and his teammate Lotterer passed Piquet for second. Vergne, who was saving electrical energy due to a loss in pit-to-car radio communication, held off his teammate Lotterer for the rest of the race to win for the second time in Formula E and Lotterer finished second to achieve the first one-two finish in series history. The result moved Vergne to the lead of the Drivers' Championship for the first time with 71 points, five ahead of previous leader Felix Rosenqvist. Sam Bird finished fifth and fell to third as Buemi's third-place finish moved him to fourth. Techeetah took the lead of the Teams' Championship with Mahindra two points behind in second. Virgin fell to third while e.Dams-Renault moved to fourth with eight races left in the season. ## Background In February 2017 a diplomatic committee led by former driver Eliseo Salazar began talking to Formula E CEO Alejandro Agag in Buenos Aires about the possibility of holding a race in the Chilean capital of Santiago. The race was officially confirmed by the world governing body of motorsport, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), in June, and was added to the 2017–18 Formula E calendar by the FIA World Motor Sport Council three months later. It was the fourth of twelve single seater electric car races of the season and took place on 3 February 2018. Prior to the event, a non-championship Formula One race won by Juan Manuel Fangio was held on the streets of Santiago in 1950. Despite also having hosted regional soccer tournament Copa América (in 1991 and 2015) or Dakar Rally (in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015), the press predicted the race would be the largest sporting event in Chile since the 1962 FIFA World Cup, and organisers expected 20,000 people to attend. A total of 20 drivers each representing ten teams of two competitors each were entered for the race. Heading into the ePrix Mahindra driver Felix Rosenqvist led the Drivers' Championship with 54 points, four ahead of Sam Bird in second and a further seven in front of Jean-Éric Vergne in third. Nelson Piquet Jr. was fourth with 25 points and Edoardo Mortara (24 points) was the highest-placed rookie in fifth. In the Teams' Championship, Mahindra led with 75 points with Virgin 18 points behind in second place. Techeetah and Jaguar were third and fourth with 43 and 40 points respectively and Venturi was fifth with 30 points. Starting from Santiago, the minimum pit stop time, which had been implemented since the championship began in 2014, was discarded. It came after the world governing body of motorsport, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), deferred the ruling at the preceding Marrakesh ePrix three weeks before the Santiago race after teams raised concerns over safety. To prepare for the change, chassis manufacturer Spark Racing Technology designed an endurance racing-style seat belt in its aim to improve the efficiency of its application and team and driver safety. Some teams were handed samples to practice with. The FIA later permitted teams to employ spotters behind the pit lane wall and directly opposite their garages to guide drivers into their correct stopping positions. Someone holding a sign to direct the driver into the garages was allowed to move outside the boundaries of their pit box. The layout of the 1.53-mile (2.46 km) clockwise 12-turn track was unveiled on 12 October 2017. Drivers started on Santa Maria Avenue before crossing the Mapocho River and passed through Parque Forestal before returning to Santa Maria Avenue to finish a lap of the circuit. Construction of the track began on 22 January, 12 days before the race, and finished on 2 February. In response to concerns over several dogs frequenting the Parque Forestal, a local veterinary company was employed to feed them in non-circuit areas in an attempt to stop them straying onto the circuit during the weekend. Piquet believed that the layout of the track would be "technical", while the series manager of the championship's tyre supplier Michelin felt it would be a mixture of the Montreal and the Berlin Street Circuits. ## Practice Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second lasted half an hour. A half an hour untimed shakedown session was held on Friday afternoon to allow teams to check the reliability of their cars and their electronic systems. The track was cleaned overnight after drivers described the tarmac surface as dirty and slippery, but nobody chose to set a lap time at 200 kW (270 hp) as several participants ventured onto the track's run-off areas after locking their tyres. Bird set the fastest lap in the cold first practice session at 1 minute, 19.439 seconds, more than two-tenths of a second faster than any one else on the circuit. Rosenqvist, Vergne, Mitch Evans, André Lotterer, Alex Lynn, José María López, Mortara, Oliver Turvey and Piquet rounded out the top ten drivers. Sébastien Buemi pushed, and lost control of his car's rear after losing grip leaving turn twelve. Buemi struck a tyre barrier, damaging his right-rear suspension and ending his session early. Race director Scot Elkins stopped the session with three minutes to go when Maro Engel locked his brakes and understeered into the turn three TecPro barrier, damaging his front wing. Engel was unhurt. In the second practice session, Vergne used 200 kW (270 hp) of power to set the fastest lap of the whole race meeting at 1 minute, 18.662 seconds. Lynn followed three-hundredths of a second behind in second and Evans followed in third. The Mahindra duo of Nick Heidfeld and Rosenqvist were fourth and fifth and Bird, Mortara, Daniel Abt, Buemi and Lucas di Grassi completed the top ten ahead of qualifying. Ten minutes into practice, Piquet slid into the turn three run-off area and stopped his vehicle before he could hit the barrier. An oversteer caused López to make light contact with the turn one wall but was able to return to the pit lane and switch into a second car. Nico Prost ran wide driving towards the 90-degree left-hand turn nine and ploughed into the barrier, removing his rear wing, and prematurely ending the session with five minutes remaining. ## Qualifying Saturday's afternoon qualifying session ran for an hour and was divided into four groups of five cars. Each group was determined by a lottery system and was permitted six minutes of on-track activity. All drivers were limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest five overall competitors in the four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by the competitor's fastest times (Super Pole from first to fifth, and group qualifying from sixth to twentieth). The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships. Car grip appeared to be affected as track temperatures rose between second practice and qualifying and saw many drivers glancing or narrowly avoiding the tyre barriers. In the first group of five runners, Buemi was the early pace setter with Abt second. Heidfeld took third and António Félix da Costa fourth. Evans locked his brakes, meaning he drove straight into the turn three barrier, and began from the tenth row of the grid. Bird was the fastest driver in the second group, followed by Vergne in second and Piquet third. Rosenqvist was fourth-quickest after he made errors, and Mortara locked his front left wheel entering the hairpin, meaning he was the slowest driver in the second group. Lynn led the third group, going a tenth of a second faster than Turvey. Prost was third-fastest while López and Engel rounded out the third group's slowest two drivers. Di Grassi was the initial pace setter in group four until Lotterer surprised everyone by setting the fastest overall lap in group qualifying at 1 minute, 18.796 seconds. Jérôme d'Ambrosio (Dragon), Tom Blomqvist (Andretti) and Luca Filippi (NIO) rounded out group four's top five. At the end of group qualifying, Lotterer, di Grassi, Bird, Vergne and Buemi qualified for super pole. Vergne took his second pole position of the season and the sixth of his career with a time of 1 minute, 19.161 seconds, and was joined on the grid's front row by Buemi. Di Grassi was unable to replicate his pace from group qualifying and was third. Lotterer hit a bump in the tarmac surface entering turn one, and broke his front wing against the turn one wall. Lotterer slowed for the rest of his lap as the front wing slowly lodged itself under his car's bodywork. Bird lost control of the rear of his car entering the turn five and six double-right hand turn through carrying too much speed into the corner. Bird struck a TecPro barrier with his vehicle's rear but was able to drive back to pit lane for a replacement rear wing and the session was briefly red-flagged. After qualifying, di Grassi was automatically demoted ten places on the grid for changing his inverter, and Prost dropped two places for exceeding the number of permitted laps. The rest of the grid lined up after penalties as Piquet, Lynn, Turvey, López, Abt, Prost, Engel, d'Ambrosio, di Grassi, Rosenqvist, Heidfeld, Félix da Costa, Mortara, Blomqvist, Filippi and Evans. ### Qualifying classification Notes: - — Lucas Di Grassi was deducted ten grid places for changing his inverter. - — Nico Prost was deducted two grid places for exceeding the permitted number of laps during qualifying. ## Race The 37-lap race began at 16:00 Chile Summer Time (UTC+03:00). The weather was hot and sunny and the air temperature ranged from 29.1 to 29.9 °C (84.4 to 85.8 °F) and the track temperature was between 36.1 and 36.67 °C (96.98 and 98.01 °F). A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 100 kW (130 hp) of power to use in the driver's second car. The three drivers who were allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. For the Santiago race, Buemi, di Grassi and López were handed the extra power. After his poor qualifying performance, NIO started Filippi from the pit lane for tactical reasons. Vergne led the field into the first corner. Piquet made a quick start to move from fifth to second and Vergne held him off. Lotterer overtook the slow-starting Buemi for third place, while a brisk start from López gained him three places. López attempted to overtake Bird on the outside at turn four; Bird put López into the tyre wall. As drivers swerved to avoid piling into López's stricken car, Heidfeld hit Abt's rear wheel into turn four, causing both of their car's suspensions to fracture. Heidfeld made an unscheduled pit stop while Abt continued driving for a short period of time before doing the same. Engel drew alongside Turvey under braking for turn five and the pair made contact after Turvey braked later than him. Three corners later, Engel drew alongside Turvey on the outside and further contact was made at turn nine, breaking Engel's left-rear suspension. Engel became the race's second retiree when Rosenqvist lunged him on the outside into turn nine, putting him over to the exit and damaged the car's front-left corner, sending him into the right-hand side wall. These incidents prompted Elkins to deploy the safety car to allow marshals to move the cars off the circuit. All surviving vehicles were ordered to drive through the pit lane to prevent any impediment of the recovery work. Amidst all the action, Rosenqvist moved from fourteenth to eleventh while Evans gained eight positions over the same distance in spite of a ten-second penalty for changing one of his car's inverters before the start of the race. The safety car was withdrawn after five laps and Vergne led the field back up to speed at the restart. Piquet was caught off guard, and Vergne distanced himself as Piquet fended off Lotterer and Buemi. Despite this, Piquet closed back up to Vergne. While attacking Vergne, Piquet ran into the rear of the latter's car, detaching its left-rear wheel guard. Piquet chose not to brake later than Vergne as he feared he would be put in the wall like in the 2017 Monaco ePrix. Hence the race began to stagnate as the few battle for positions on the circuit could not be completed due to the tight track. The fastest lap was exchanged between Vergne and Piquet later on as the latter started to form another challenge for the lead. However, Piquet was distanced by Vergne who was looking to extend his advantage at the front before the pit stops. Further back, Abt joined the list of retirements when he drove into his garage because of a loss in power after completing seven laps. Although it was difficult to overtake owing to the tight nature of the circuit, overtaking opportunities occurred throughout the field. Lotterer made an attempt at getting ahead of Piquet for second place but he did not succeed. Di Grassi passed Turvey for eighth, while Mortara half spun on lap 13, dropping him to seventeenth. Di Grassi overtook Prost for seventh soon after. Lotterer steered left onto the inside and overtook Piquet for second place into the turn three right-hander on the 19th lap. The mandatory pit stops to change into a second car began on lap twenty when the leaders drove into the pit lane. Bird and Félix da Costa led the field for one lap before making their own stops. After the completion of the pit stops, the Techeetahs of Vergne and Lotterer retained first and second while Piquet kept third. Swift work from his pit crew moved Rosenqvist to fifth place while Bird fell to seventh. Four cars were affected by problems over the next six laps. An electrical problem slowed di Grassi and he stopped in the centre of the track at the exit of the pit lane to retire on lap 23. Turvey lost power in his car leaving the pit lane and performed a full reset to continue driving. Heidfeld lacked electrical energy to complete the race in his second vehicle and parked inside his garage to retire on lap 26. A gearbox issue traced to an accessory production deviation ended Lynn's race early while in seventh two laps later. As the two Techeetahs began to battle for the lead due to both drivers losing radio communication with their garage owing to a pit lane technical failure and causing Vergne to conserve electrical energy, Buemi used his FanBoost to attack Piquet on lap 28 but the latter blocked the pass. Further round the lap, Buemi tried again, and was successful this time round, passing Piquet for third at the turn eight hairpin. At the front on the following lap, Lotterer attempted to overtake teammate Vergne on the outside for the lead but was forced wide by the latter. A battle between Buemi and Piquet for third position ended when Piquet locked his brakes during a pass on Buemi on the inside into turn three and drove onto the run-off area. Piquet then lightly hit a TecPro barrier and fell to sixth. Bird set the race's fastest lap on the 30th lap, completing a circuit in 1 minute and 20.235 seconds, earning him one point. Meanwhile, Lotterer was focused on closing the distance between himself and teammate Vergne. Driving on the main straight on lap 33, Lotterer attacked Vergne and his attempt caused him to lock his tyres. Lotterer lodged his front nose cone into the rear wing of Vergne's car, pushing him through the braking phase for turn three. Both drivers made the corner without significant damage. This allowed Buemi, Rosenqvist and Bird to close up, and the top five jostled for position on the bumpy tarmac surface over the final four laps. Buemi, Rosenqvist and Bird ran close together but electrical energy management restricted their attempts at overtaking, while Vergne successfully held off teammate Lotterer for the rest of the race by having more usable electrical energy to claim his second career victory. With Lotterer second, Techeetah secured the first one-two finish in Formula E history. Buemi took third to complete the final spot on the podium. Off the podium, Rosenqvist finished fourth with Bird close behind in fifth. The Jaguar duo of Piquet and Evans were sixth and seventh. d'Ambrosio, Félix da Costa and Prost rounded out the top ten. The final finishers were Blomqvist, Filippi, Mortara and Turvey. There was one lead change throughout the race and two drivers reached the front of the field. Vergne led for a total of 36 laps, out of 37. ### Post-race The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Vergne spoke of his relief over winning the race and said he hoped the success would strive his team to achieve more but noted the close competition that is seen in Formula E: "It would be wrong to focus at the championship at the moment because it is won at the end of the season, not now. [This competition] is extremely tough and you need to be on it every time because as soon as you make a small mistake you pay in cash." Lotterer was euphoric over finishing second after a poor start to his season due to misfortune, putting it down to additional set-up work undertaken by Techeetah in their simulator before the race, which led to an improved understanding on how his car worked. Third-place finisher Buemi revealed that a chassis defect reappeared from the season-opening Hong Kong double header led to him losing electrical energy and overall pace. He urged his team to focus on rectifying the issue but reserved congratulations for Techeetah on their achievement. Techeetah and Dragon were placed under investigation by the stewards on the Saturday evening after the race for issues relating to their car's seat belts. Techeetah were issued with a €15,000 fine for each of their cars while Dragon were given the same penalty for d'Ambrosio's vehicle; the FIA mandated full payment within 48 hours. It came after the FIA deemed both teams to have modified the harness of the seat belts without consulting its technical delegate before they installed the extra components. However, unlike previous rulings in series history, the penalties did not alter the final result of the race. Reaction to the penalty was negative with several Formula E figures expressing anger over the FIA's inconsistency in its decision making and the message it sent out. Mark Preston, the team principal of Techeetah, suggested the wording of the FIA regulations was unclear and the sport's governing body responded by announcing it would clarify the rules before the Mexico City round. The motorsport press theorised the ruling was made after discord among fans and series figures was evident after Abt's disqualification from the victory in Hong Kong and spoke of their belief Techeetah's achievements possibly swayed the FIA into not disqualifying them. Engel spoke of his displeasure over retiring on the first lap, accusing Turvey of causing the contact purposefully but stated his feeling Rosenqvist was ahead of him by the time he hit the wall. Turvey did not respond to Engel's accusations. Audi team principal Allan McNish said he was puzzled why Abt did not have the same unreliability as his teammate di Grassi and was uncertain whether it was the same problem from Marrakesh, "That's the frustrating part for us, for Lucas, and for the guys that put in so much effort from Marrakech until now. We thought we'd got a solution and we came away with no points." Di Grassi described the situation concerning the unreliability of his car as "unbelievable", adding that "To have so many issues consecutively, like that, it's really frustrating because we have the pace. The first thing in racing that you learn is to win a race, first you have to finish. We're not finishing any races." Concerning their collision at turn five on the first lap, Abt accepted an apology from Heidfeld on Twitter after Heidfeld admitted to causing it. The result moved Vergne to the lead of the Drivers' Championship for the first time in his career with 71 points. Rosenqvist's fourth-place finish dropped him to second while Bird fell to third another five points behind Vergne. Buemi moved to fourth and Piquet dropped to fifth by finishing sixth. Techeetah's one-two finish promoted to the lead the Teams' Championship with 89 points, two ahead of Mahindra in second place. Virgin fell to third while Jaguar maintained fourth position. e.Dams-Renault's efforts moved them to fifth with eight races left in the season. ## Controversies The route of the track was criticized by residents of Barrio Lastarria who argued the race would lead to the further impoverishment of the existing roadside infrastructure and the natural scenery. Claudio Orrego, the intendent of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, later admitted to the press the natural scenery would be left untouched and there would be no bleachers installed. Furthermore, a group of local residents filed an appeal for protection before the Court of Appeal to cancel the race but it was rejected on 31 January. On 20 February, the mayor of Santiago Felipe Alessandri announced Formula E could remain in the city but Parque Forestal was no longer authorised for racing. Despite Orrego's promise, several residents reported that some cobblestones had been damaged in Purísima Street after the asphalt layer intended to protect from impoverishment was removed. Additionally, while the trackside structures were being dismantled, a truck collided with the Rebeca Matte Bello designed sculpture of Daedalus and Icarus mounted at the entrance to the Chilean National Museum of Fine Arts, moving it from its base and fracturing one of the statues's legs. This prompted race organisers to take responsibility for covering all expenses associated with the restoration of the sculpture. ## Race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. Notes: - — Three points for pole position. - — One point for fastest lap. ## Standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Teams' Championship standings - Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
3,172,207	Potato race	1,128,940,642	Racing event on foot or horseback	[ "Children's games", "Games of physical skill", "Horse racing", "Mounted games", "Novelty running", "Potatoes", "Racing", "Rodeo-affiliated events" ]	A potato race is one of several similar racing events where contestants compete to collect a number of potatoes as quickly as possible. Participants may run on foot or be mounted on horseback, depending on the style of race. It is not clear precisely when or where the potato race originated. Potato races of both types were most popular in Australia, England, Scotland, the United States of America and Wales. Potato races were commonly held at community events such as county fairs, rodeos, picnics, and track and field meets from at least the middle of the 19th century until approximately the 1930s. Potato races run on foot were generally considered events for children, and were often held in schools as playground games or part of physical education, or at local events such as fairs. Mounted events were particularly prevalent in the Southwestern United States. Individual mounted events usually consisted of individuals competing to be the fastest at collecting potatoes along a structured course. Team-based events had no defined course, and were notable for their violence. Players were permitted almost every possible tactic for interfering with the opposing team, including dragging other riders off their horses. Potato races, both on-foot and mounted, are occasionally still held at local gatherings or riding competitions today, although the violent mounted version has died out. ## History It is unclear precisely where and when the potato race was originally developed. It was mentioned by name without elaboration in newspaper reports of athletic events in Scotland, Australia, and Wales as early as the 1860s. The state fair of Wisconsin advertised a potato race "that beats Base Ball all hollow" in 1869, although again there was no description of the rules. In September 1871, newspapers in a number of US states reprinted a report from the Boston Advertiser which detailed an on-foot potato race that had taken place in East Wilton, New Hampshire, with many remarking that such events were becoming fashionable. The county fair of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania listed an on-foot potato race on its program in September 1871, directly referencing these reports. Official rules for potato racing were printed in the 1902 Official Handbook of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States. In 1902, The Courier-Journal of Louisville, Kentucky described a mounted potato race that took place at the Louisville Horse Show, remarking on its violence and noting that it "made a big hit." It was not until 1912 that newspapers reported potato racing as a mounted rodeo event, with advertisements for one large Los Angeles rodeo listing the potato race by name, although without elaboration on the rules. A 1913 report in the San Francisco Chronicle clearly describes a team-based potato race taking place at a Mardi Gras celebration in Salinas, California, calling it a "new riding stunt". By 1913, on-foot potato races were being referred to as old-fashioned. A 1917 article in Popular Mechanics magazine suggested racing to screw in a line of lightbulbs as a substitute for potato races. The popularity of mounted potato races as rodeo events died out by the 1930s. Informal on-foot potato races for children are still featured as a means of entertainment at many local celebrations and events in the United States. Mounted potato races are still used as a part of equestrian gymkhana events for youth today, albeit in a more structured and form that lacks the violence of the team-based rodeo version. ## Foot races Potato races run on foot were commonly held for children as playground games and during physical education classes in schools. They were also featured at local events such as picnics or fairs, and still occasionally are today. Potato races have also been used by researchers to measure physical performance in children. A number of lanes, one per runner, would be marked out. Potatoes would be placed at intervals along each lane, and a basket would be placed several feet behind the lane. Runners would race to retrieve potatoes one by one, returning each one to the basket before returning for the next. The winner was the first to collect all the potatoes in their lane. In one variation, two runners competed to be the first to return fifty potatoes to their own basket, racing simultaneously to take the closest potato from a single line of one hundred potatoes rather than separate lanes. On-foot potato races have been likened to the Zuni game of A-we-wō-po-pa-ne, which involved collecting stones rather than potatoes. Writing in 1915, feminist theorist Charlotte Perkins Gilman described seeing a moving picture of a potato race on ice, and remarked on the notable difference between the performance of men and women, which she attributed to the restrictive clothing worn by women at the time. ## Mounted ### Individual competition Potato races with mounted participants were historically geared toward adult participation. They were prominent in the Southwestern United States. In mounted races, competitors used sharpened stakes to spear potatoes and bring them from one end of a course to another. These races were timed, and the racer whose basket was heaviest at the end was the winner. One less common variation bore some similarities to the blood sport of rooster pulling, but used potatoes rather than partially-buried roosters. A line of potatoes was spaced out along a course, and a rider would ride by at a loping pace, leaning down from their horse and snatching the potatoes from the ground. Riders who failed to maintain speed, or missed a potato, would be disqualified. The fastest remaining rider was the winner. Mounted potato races have been staged with participants riding on vehicles rather than horses. The British Almanac of 1897 mentions a bicycle-mounted potato race in an article describing bicycle gymkhana. A large picnic in Radford, England, in 1908 featured a bicycle potato race whose riders were young women. It was described at the time as a "splendid exhibition". In 1910, 5,000 spectators at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway watched a sort of reverse potato race where passengers in cars tried to throw potatoes from the vehicle into baskets placed along a track. American Motorcyclist magazine reported that the First Annual Motorcycle Rodeo, held in 1970, featured a potato race with riders mounted on motorcycles. ### Team-based tournament > Swinging their laths like swords and crashing into one another, potato racers at Cassoday left the hundred-yard course strewn with potatoes and an occasional horseman as spirits, and tempers, rose. Around the turn of the 20th century some mounted potato races were run as competitions between teams attempting to fill a basket with potatoes. These events were not so much ordered races as they were free-for-alls, which could last as long as ten minutes. They were notably chaotic, as riders were not confined to lanes, and the rules permitted competitors to use their stakes to knock potatoes off the stakes of the other teams. Physical violence often ensued; the autobiography of cowboy Harry Arthur Gant describes one team race at a Frontier Days event in 1909 that became so violent that the judges were forced to halt the competition in the middle. The Courier-Journal noted that violent tactics such as pulling riders off their horses were considered acceptable, and that "biting is about the only thing that is barred." Writing in Plains Folk, James Hoy remarked upon the similarity of these races to the Central Asian sport of buzkashi, which also involves fiercely competitive riders attempting to bring items to a goal, albeit on a much larger scale than potato races. ## See also - Corrida de sortija - Cowboy polo - Egg-and-spoon race
18,272,419	Hungry (The X-Files)	1,172,509,491	null	[ "1999 American television episodes", "Television episodes directed by Kim Manners", "Television episodes set in California", "Television episodes written by Vince Gilligan", "The X-Files (season 7) episodes" ]	"Hungry" is the third episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X-Files. It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on November 21, 1999. It was written by Vince Gilligan, directed by Kim Manners, and featured a guest appearance by Chad Donella. The episode is a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, unconnected to the series' wider mythology. However, unlike previous Monster-of-the-Week stories, "Hungry" is told from the monster's perspective. "Hungry" earned a Nielsen household rating of 9.6, being watched by 16.17 million people in its initial broadcast. The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics. The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. Mulder is a believer in the paranormal, while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work. In this episode, a fast-food employee with unusual cravings becomes the focus of an FBI investigation under the direction of Mulder and Scully. The victims appear with no brain and a suction hole in the forehead. Gilligan wanted to try a "different" approach to The X-Files with "Hungry" by telling the main story through the eyes of the monster. Because both David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson were filming movies, Return to Me and The House of Mirth respectively, the production company decided to film "Hungry" at the start of the season, taking advantage of the episode's concept to minimize the filming time required of the two leads. Actor Chad Donella, who portrayed the monster, was chosen because he possessed a "subtle, interesting quality," according to casting director Rick Millikan. Manners was pleased with Donella's performance, calling him a "great little actor." ## Plot In Costa Mesa, California, a young man named Donald Pankow approaches the drive-thru of a Lucky Boy fast food restaurant. Despite the restaurant being closed, Pankow angrily demands service. The sheepish fast food attendant tells the man to drive to the next window, where he is attacked and violently pulled out of his car. Pankow's body is later discovered with the brain removed from the skull. Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) are assigned to assist the local police in their investigation. The only clue found at the scene is a Lucky Boy employee button. Mulder and Scully check all of the employees and discover that one of the clerks, Derwood Spinks (Mark Pellegrino), is missing his button. Scully suspects Spinks after it is discovered he has a criminal record. Mulder, however, believes that the victim's brain was removed by a proboscis, and suspects another employee, Rob Roberts, of committing the murder. Rob, who is actually a mutant human who wears a disguise to hide his true physical body, subsists on brains in order to survive. When Rob's landlady, Sylvia Jassey, is trailed by a private investigator (Steve Kiziak), Rob kills him and eats in order to placate his hunger, which begins to get more and more uncontrollable. Spinks visits Rob at his home the following day, annoyed at being fired from Lucky Boy for lying about his criminal record. He confronts Rob with evidence of his role in Pankow's murder - a vial of Rob's diet pills with a bloody fingerprint on the lid - and attempts to blackmail him. Later that day, Rob intrudes Spinks' residence to retrieve his pills, but hides in a closet when Spinks returns; noticing that someone is in his home, Spinks arms himself with a baseball bat. As Spinks heads to the closet, Rob takes off his disguise, opens the closet door, and reveals his true self to a stunned Spinks before killing him. Rob later meets with Dr. Mindy Rinehart, a counselor hired by Lucky Boy to consult the employees following Pankow's killing. In session with her, Rob admits that he is battling an "eating disorder." Rinehart sends him to an Overeaters Anonymous meeting, not fully understanding Rob's true nature. Rob is visited by Mulder and Scully about Spinks' disappearance; Mulder then reveals about Pankow's missing brain and that a "tiny shark's tooth" was discovered by Scully embedded in his skull. At the OA meeting, Rob sees Sylvia but does not respond well to the meeting (by discreetly detailing the taste of a brain as "salty", "juicy", and "buttery" and especially visualizing a pulsing brain when a man turns to Sylvia). Rob and Sylvia bond on the trip home. Unfortunately, his hunger is far too overpowering and he is reluctantly compelled to feed upon her. To cover up her murder, Rob disposes of her body and smashes up his own apartment with Spinks' baseball bat. He tells Mulder and Scully that Spinks showed up and accused him of being the killer. Mulder then asks Rob if he recognizes Kiziak, the private investigator, but Rob says no. Both agents leave to find Sylvia. Rinehart shows up to find Rob packing his things, intent on leaving town. After a bitter argument, with Rinehart revealing that she knew Rob murdered Pankow, he reveals his true self to Rinehart. However, before Rob prepares to attack her, she shows deep sympathy for him, throwing Rob off guard. At that moment, the agents arrive with guns drawn, having found Sylvia's body. Rinehart tells Rob to be the good person she knows he is capable of being. Instead, Rob charges at Mulder and is shot twice in the chest, committing suicide by cop. As Rob lies dying, Rinehart asks, "Why?" To which he replies, "I can't be something I'm not." ## Production ### Writing and casting When Vince Gilligan wrote "Hungry," he wanted to write a "different" episode that was told from the viewpoint of the monster and featured Mulder and Scully as the antagonists. Series creator Chris Carter applauded this idea and called the resultant episode a "really great monster show." Gilligan's intention was for the monster to be relatable and resonate with the audience. He later said, "My intention [...] was that at the end, when Mulder and Scully show up and kill the monster, to have the audience out there hoping that they would not show up." Chad Donella was cast as the lead monster because he possessed a "subtle, interesting quality," according to casting director Rick Millikan. Director Kim Manners latter described Donella as a "great little actor." Duchovny's stunt double, Steve Kiziak played the role of the private detective—also called Steve Kiziak—that Roberts kills and eats. Kiziak later said, "It was a lot of fun to be in front of the camera." Kiziak had first appeared as Duchovny's body double in the third season episode "2Shy," and would later appear as a Mulder lookalike in "Fight Club." The character of Rob Roberts was named after a real helicopter pilot from Indiana who Vince Gilligan had taken flying lessons from and who he had promised to name a character on the show after. The name of the therapist, "Mindy Rinehart", is the same as that of the real Roberts's wife. Gilligan quipped in an interview that the character was not actually based on the pilot apart from sharing a name, because the real Roberts "doesn't eat brains". However, some of Roberts's coworkers did serve him brain-shaped Jell-O as a joke after the episode came out. ### Filming and location As both David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson were filming the movies Return to Me and The House of Mirth, respectively, when season seven entered into production, the network decided to film "Hungry" before any of the other episodes, despite the fact that it would be aired third, after "The Sixth Extinction" arc. This allowed Duchovny and Anderson to film their minimal scenes for the episode and complete their movies with relatively little hassle. Some scenes that feature Mulder and Scully together were achieved using stand-ins and doubles due to the stars' conflicting availabilities. Duchovny and Anderson were only available for two combined days of filming for the episode. When designing the sets for "Hungry", the production team found the Lucky Boy Burger restaurant to be relatively easy to create. Originally, restaurant was supposed to be named Burgerlishious, but the restaurant location that was considered ideal for filming had a "Lucky Boy" sign that could not be removed. Later, the design department faced a challenge in creating Roberts' apartment, because the script did not give a detailed account of what it was to look like. ## Broadcast and reception "Hungry" first aired in the United States on November 21, 1999. This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9.6, with a 14 share, meaning that roughly 9.6 percent of all television-equipped households, and 14 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. It was viewed by 16.17 million viewers. The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 2, 2000 and received 0.68 million viewers, making it the seventh most watched episode that week. Fox promoted the episode with the tagline "Taste the terror tonight!" The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode five stars out of five, calling the premise "Dexter a decade early." The two concluded that "the sympathy that Donella gives Rob as he shows his true colours is very touching. [...] The final moments [of the episode] are a typically smart touch to this neglected gem of a story." Paul Goebel of TV Squad listed Rob Roberts among his favorite X-Files monsters. Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote that the episode features a "great setup, but the climax leaves the usual open-ended questions." Zack Handlen on The A.V. Club called the episode "perfectly acceptable" and awarded it a "B+". He was pleased with the episode's unique format, calling it a "good gimmick" that made an otherwise "forgettable at best" episode—had it been constructed in the typical fashion of The X-Files—into a memorable one. He was also positive towards the episode's use of humor, noting that it "is very much on target". Handlen, however, felt that the story showed the series' tiredness and did not possess much suspense to keep the watcher completely engaged. Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a more mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four. She noted that the episode "suffers from a syndrome that has afflicted a great many X-Files episodes in recent seasons [...] the syndrome consists of the audience finding out early on who the guilty party is." Vitaris, however, did note that the episode's "saving grace" was Vince Gilligan's satiric writing tone; she called the scene featuring Roberts hallucinating that the burgers he was frying were actually brains "sick, but hilarious". Other reviews were more negative. Kenneth Silber from Space.com was critical of the episode, noting that, although the change in perspective was unique and interesting, "this bit of originality does not rescue the episode from a familiarity bordering on the mundane. It's not the first time we have seen genetic mutants who have an affinity for human body parts." Tom Kessenich, in his book Examinations, gave the episode a relatively negative review. Despite noting that the episode wasn't a "horrible" entry for The X-Files, Kessenich was unhappy with the characterization of Rob Roberts as well as the fact that the killer was revealed very quickly.
24,930,220	Aircraft camouflage	1,169,266,974	Use of camouflage on military aircraft	[ "Aircraft markings", "Military camouflage" ]	Aircraft camouflage is the use of camouflage on military aircraft to make them more difficult to see, whether on the ground or in the air. Given the possible backgrounds and lighting conditions, no single scheme works in every situation. A common approach has been a form of countershading, the aircraft being painted in a disruptive pattern of ground colours such as green and brown above, sky colours below. For faster and higher-flying aircraft, sky colours have sometimes been used all over, while helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft used close to the ground are often painted entirely in ground camouflage. Aircraft flying by night have often been painted black, but this actually made them appear darker than the night sky, leading to paler night camouflage schemes. There are trade-offs between camouflage and aircraft recognition markings, and between camouflage and weight. Accordingly, visible light camouflage has been dispensed with when air superiority was not threatened or when no significant aerial opposition was anticipated. Aircraft were first camouflaged during World War I; aircraft camouflage has been widely employed since then. In World War II, disruptive camouflage became widespread for fighters and bombers, sometimes combined with countershading. Some air forces such as the German Luftwaffe varied their paint schemes to suit differing flight conditions such as the skyglow over German cities, or the sands of the Mediterranean front. During and after World War II, the Yehudi lights project developed counter-illumination camouflage using lamps to increase the brightness of the aircraft to match the brightness of the sky. This was abandoned with improvements in radar, which seemed to render visible light camouflage redundant. However, aircraft continue to be painted in camouflage schemes; recent experiments have again explored active camouflage systems which allow colours, patterns and brightness to be changed to match the background, and some air forces have painted their fighters in digital camouflage patterns. Stealth technology, as in the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, aims to minimize an aircraft's radar cross-section and infrared signature, effectively providing multi-spectral camouflage at the price of reduced flying performance. Stealth may extend to avoiding or preventing vapour contrails. ## History ### World War I The French were among the first to introduce camouflage, starting with Nieuport fighters with which they tested a variety of schemes during the Battle of Verdun in early 1916. A light blue-grey Nieuport 11 was flown by Georges Guynemer which he named Oiseau Bleu (Blue Bird) while some Voisin IIIs were also painted in the same colour. At the same time, disruptive schemes using several colours were also tried out. By mid-1916 a silver-grey aluminium dope became the norm for Nieuports until the French introduced a standardized disruptive camouflage scheme for combat aircraft in 1917. This was used widely on such aircraft as the Breguet XIV and SPAD XIII that consisted of dark and light green, dark and light brown, black (sometimes omitted) and an underside of grey or beige. In mid-1916, the Germans experimented with a transparent cellulose acetate covering on several aircraft, including a Fokker E.III, that rendered the aircraft nearly invisible from most angles, however the sun reflecting off it defeated it even before its lack of durability did. When the Germans fielded the Albatros D.III biplane, pilots readily confused them with similarly-shaped Nieuports which used the same combination of colours. The solution the Germans came up with was to replace the red-brown with purple, which from a distance still worked well as a camouflage colour, but could readily identify the aircraft as German. As in France, individual manufacturers applied a variety of camouflage finishes, dependent on their own interpretations of what was required. Light grey (LFG Roland C.II), patches of greens and browns (Fokker D.II) and streaky olive green finish over a turquoise base (Fokker Dr.I) were all used until April 1917, when pre-printed lozenge camouflage (Lozenge-Tarnung) was introduced with up to 5 colours. Aircraft of the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service were either coloured on top and sides with a protective dope called PC.10 (a mixture of yellow ochre and lampblack) or PC.12 (iron oxide and lamp black) while the undersides were given a clear dope. These colours were not intended originally as camouflage but were developed to prevent the fabric from being damaged by UV radiation from the sun, and their camouflage effect was an added bonus. Both services also used black for night bombers, while a wide variety of experimental camouflages were tried out for specific roles such as trench strafing, with multiple colours. Alternatives were tested in late 1917 at Orfordness Experimental Station, resulting in the introduction of NIVO (Night Invisible Varnish Orfordness) in early 1918; this was used for all external surfaces on night bombers until superseded by World War II colours. Ship-style dazzle camouflage was tested on aircraft such as Sopwith Camels, but was not used on operational aircraft. ### World War II During the Munich Crisis of 1938, the Royal Air Force implemented plans to camouflage its aircraft in its disruptively patterned Temperate Land Scheme of "Dark Earth" and "Dark Green" above and "Sky" (similar to a duck egg blue) below. This scheme was known colloquially as "Sand and Spinach" when the pattern was painted on at the factory, large rubber mats serving as guides. For many types of aircraft, particularly fighters, the rubber mats were reversed for even and odd serials, named A and B patterns. The undersides, and lower half of the fuselage, of night bombers were painted black. Variations on fighters at the start of the war included painting the underside of one wing black. Later in the war the dark earth was replaced with "ocean grey" and the underside was "Sea Grey". Naval aircraft used two tones of grey over sky. Coastal Command, which carried out patrols for enemy vessel over the open sea, used white instead of sky. In the North Africa campaign a combination of "Dark Earth" and "Middle stone" were used for the top surfaces, the underside was "Azure blue". The same azure was used on day bombers overseas. High flying RAF Photographic Reconnaissance Unit aircraft were given an all over blue colour, but they were given "licence in the camouflaging" of their aircraft. Some United States Army Air Forces aircraft used a variation of the British camouflage schemes (mostly on aircraft originally built to RAF orders) but most USAAF aircraft did not use multiple shades on the top side of the aircraft. Instead, most were camouflaged in olive drab above and neutral gray below, though some had the edges of flying surfaces painted in medium green. In the later stages of the war, camouflage was often dispensed with, both to save time in manufacturing and to reduce weight, leaving aircraft with a natural metal finish. Soviet Air Forces aircraft were painted with shades of green, either plain or in disruptive patterns above, and blue-grey on the undersurfaces. The basic German (Luftwaffe) camouflage during most of the war was based on a light blue undersurface and a two tone splinter pattern of various greens for the upper surfaces. In the first year of the war, the top colours were dark green and black-green; later, lighter and more greyish colours were used for fighters, though bombers mostly maintained the dark green/black green camouflage. The side of the fuselage on fighters and some light bombers often had irregular patches sprayed on, softening the transition from the upper to the lower surface. The undersides of night bombers and night fighters were painted black early in the war, but by 1943 switched to lighter base colours of their usual light blue undersurfaces for aircraft flown by day, and a light gray base coat over the upper surfaces to match the skyglow over the German cities they were tasked with defending. A special pattern was devised for the Mediterranean front, consisting of a sand yellow that often faded to tan, with or without olive green patches. As Germany lost air supremacy, ground camouflage became increasingly important, and late war fighters received a two tone scheme like the British Sand and Spinach, in dark brown and light green. ### Cold War and after During the Cold War, camouflage was partially abandoned; for example, glossy anti-flash white was used on aircraft as protection from nuclear flash, including high-flying Royal Air Force nuclear weapon-carrying V-bombers. When SAMs made high level attack too dangerous, the plans for RAF bombers changed to low level attack and camouflaged top surfaces returned. Apart from American and Soviet strategic forces, however, camouflage continued to be applied tactically. For example in the Korean War, American B-29 bombers were switched to night flying with black undersides when Chinese fighters became a significant threat. In the Vietnam War, North Vietnamese MiG-21 fighters were painted by hand in green ground camouflage patterns, while the USAAF and US Navy both restarted experiments with painted camouflage. In the Soviet–Afghan War, Soviet Mil Mi-24 helicopters were camouflaged in a sand and spinach pattern. In the 1970s, heat-seeking missiles were developed that had a range greater than the visual acuity of pilots. Aircraft camouflage now had two major threats that it was not able to fully defeat—radar and infrared detection. Camouflage accordingly became less important. However, by the 1980s, the human eye was again seen as sufficiently important a threat that aircraft like the ground attack A-10 Thunderbolt (Warthog) were painted in camouflage schemes that included both disruptive ground coloration and automimicry (deceptive self-imitation), in the form of a false canopy on the underside. ## Methods Camouflage for aircraft is complicated by the fact that the aircraft's background varies widely, depending on the location of the observer, the nature of the background and the aircraft's motion. For this reason, military aircraft were often painted to match the sky when viewed from below, and to either match the ground or break up the aircraft's outline when viewed from above. This is a form of countershading, likely to work best on aircraft such as heavy bombers that do not fly inverted during combat. Because of the way light hits it, patterns of dark and light will often be present on an aircraft even if it is entirely one color, making it easier to see Reflections and specular highlights can be counteracted by painting an aircraft in neutral shades with a non-reflective, matte finish. There is a trade-off between the effectiveness of camouflage and the size of recognition markings: larger markings reduce the risk of friendly fire through misrecognition, but compromise camouflage. ### Ground camouflage Ground camouflage is used to delay visual acquisition from the air of an aircraft that is on or near the ground. Light sand has been used for aircraft used over deserts, blues and greys for aircraft over the sea, and greens and browns for aircraft that are expected to operate in forested areas. However, a camouflaged aircraft either on the ground or flying low over the ground in bright sunlight remains vulnerable to being detected from above because of its own shadow cast on the ground. This can reduce an aircraft's camouflage effectiveness at altitudes up to 3,000 feet (910 m), particularly if the ground surface is pale and relatively uniform. Helicopters are often painted in ground camouflage, sometimes in regional or seasonal forms such as snow camouflage. Fixed-wing aircraft, too, are occasionally painted with snow camouflage, as for example on Soviet fighters and Luftwaffe Stukas on the Eastern Front in winter, in Swedish trials in 1970, and RAF Jaguars on exercise in Norway. ### Air camouflage Camouflage for an airborne aircraft may attempt to provide concealment with colours resembling the background. For example, until 1941, Royal Air Force fighters were painted in ground colours (dark green and brown) above, and sky colours below. However, aircraft were being lost, and pilots reported that the colours used made their fighters conspicuously darker than the sky. The Air Fighting Development Unit at RAF Duxford studied the problem, and in the summer of 1941 replaced the dark brown with a paler color, "ocean grey"; the sky blue on the underside was similarly replaced by a paler "sea grey" to reduce visibility against the bright sky. Similar adjustments were made by the Luftwaffe. Towards the end of the war, allied air superiority made visible light camouflage less important, and some American aircraft were flown in unpainted (silver colored) metal to save weight. ### Night camouflage Military aircraft flying at night have often been painted black or other dark colours, applied to just the underside of some aircraft and to the entirety of others, in the hope of reducing the risk of being seen in enemy searchlights or by night fighters. However, aircraft camouflaged with black paint are actually darker than the night sky, making them more visible to observers not using searchlights. The undersides of Heinkel 111 night bombers were painted black. The De Havilland Mosquito was similarly initially painted black when used as a night fighter; matte black was found to be the best at reducing the aircraft's visibility against searchlights, but the aircraft's speed was reduced by 15 mph (24 km/h) compared to glossy black, which, being smoother, produced less drag. Since, however, black camouflage made the planes conspicuous on moonlit nights and against cloud, a variation of a day camouflage scheme was eventually chosen. ### Active camouflage In the early years of World War II, German U-boats often escaped attack by aircraft because they spotted the aircraft while it was still far away as a black dot in the sky, no matter what camouflage colours were used. To solve this problem, in 1943 the U.S. Navy, following the Canadian diffused lighting camouflage trials on warships, conducted secret experiments on counter-illumination in the Yehudi lights project. Sealed beam lights were mounted on the leading edge of the wing of a Grumman TBM-3D Avenger, and around its engine cowling, with the lamps facing forward. The intensity of the lamps was adjusted to match the background sky as seen from an observer in a surface ship. Aircraft with Yehudi lights were not detected until 2 miles (3.2 km) away under conditions where aircraft without the lights were detected 12 miles (19 km) away. Though successful, the system was not put into production because of improved radar detection. During the Vietnam War, Yehudi lights were again tried, this time mounted to an F-4 Phantom painted in a dull blue-and-white camouflage pattern. The experiment reduced by 30% the distance at which an observer visually acquired the Phantom. In 1997, active camouflage was again investigated, this time with thin computer-controlled fluorescent panels or light-emitting polymer covering much of an aircraft's surface. ### Stealth technology Stealth technology aims to make aircraft almost undetectable by radar or other sensors, whether infrared, visible, or acoustic. This is effectively multi-spectral camouflage. Work began on stealth technology in America in 1958. The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk was the first operational aircraft designed to use stealth technology to minimize its radar cross-section; it began operations in secrecy in 1983. Its low detectability was traded-off against performance in other areas, including reduced thrust and only subsonic speed. The aircraft's faceted shape reduced the reflection of radar back to the receiver, at the expense of making the aircraft aerodynamically unstable, requiring a fly-by-wire flight system to maintain controlled flight. The infrared signatures of stealth aircraft can be reduced by designing exhaust nozzles to mix the hot gases with cool ambient air, or by placing the nozzles above the wing to conceal them from ground-based observers, as with the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber. ### Preventing contrails Camouflage may extend beyond an aircraft's airframe. High-flying aircraft can sometimes be detected by their vapor contrails. Researchers have considered whether these might be reduced with the use of chemical additives. Work was carried out on a contrail management system for B-2 stealth bombers in 1994. From the Second World War onwards, reconnaissance pilots took care to avoid creating contrails, varying their altitude as necessary; the Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft was equipped with a mirror to enable the pilot to see if the plane was creating a contrail, and to take action accordingly. ### Digital camouflage Digital camouflage patterns, widely used for uniforms with designs such as CADPAT and MARPAT, have been applied to the aircraft of some armed forces. For example, in 2008 Slovakia repainted its MiG-29 fighters in a disruptive pattern designed by HyperStealth, "Digital Thunder". In 2017, a prototype of the Russian air force's Sukhoi Su-57 flew with a countershaded digital camouflage scheme, all dark above except for a multi-scale pattern at the edges. ## See also - Aircraft livery
32,612,851	I Was Here (song)	1,171,457,449	null	[ "2010s ballads", "2011 songs", "Beyoncé songs", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Music about the September 11 attacks", "Music videos directed by Sophie Muller", "Song recordings produced by Beyoncé", "Song recordings produced by Ryan Tedder", "Songs written by Diane Warren" ]	"I Was Here" is a song recorded by American R&B recording artist Beyoncé from her fourth studio album, 4 (2011). It was written by Diane Warren, while production was handled by OneRepublic members Ryan Tedder and Brent Kutzle, alongside Kuk Harrell; while Beyoncé is credited on the vocal production. "I Was Here" is a reflective R&B ballad, in which Beyoncé vulnerably reviews her past, wanting to leave an impact on the world before her life comes to an end. Described as a "career song" by Warren, its development was motivated by the September 11 attacks in the United States. Following the release of 4, "I Was Here" charted at number 131 on the UK Singles Chart, 74 on the Swiss Singles Chart, and 44 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart in early July 2011. Later, in 2012, the song also appeared on several charts internationally. A music video for the song was released on August 19, 2012 and it features Beyoncé, wearing a Marc Bouwer gown, performing the song live at the United Nations General Assembly Hall while images of volunteers doing humanitarian work were projected on the screen behind her. It was donated to the World Humanitarian Day and aimed to create social media history with one billion people sharing the message of doing something good for another person. Upon its release, it received positive reviews from music critics who praised the projections, Beyoncé's vocal performance and her look. In late July, the song was included on the soundtrack for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup Final. "I Was Here" was also part of Beyoncé's set list for her residency show 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé and was used in the Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live shows during an interlude. The live video from the DVD Live at Roseland: Elements of 4 appeared online on November 16, 2011 containing Beyoncé's home movies and professional highlights. "I Was Here" was covered by Lea Michele for Glee's soundtrack album Glee: The Music, The Graduation Album (2012). ## Development and recording "I Was Here" was written by Diane Warren and was produced by Ryan Tedder, Brent Kutzle, Beyoncé and Kuk Harrell. "I Was Here" is the only song on the record that was not co-written by Beyoncé. On June 1, 2011, Warren revealed in an interview for the New York Post's PopWrap that she wrote "the best [song she has] ever written" a week and a half ago and that Beyoncé had already recorded it for her fourth studio album 4. She described it as "a career song and probably my favorite thing I've ever written". The development of "I Was Here" was motivated by the September 11 attacks. Warren wanted to work with Beyoncé since the Destiny's Child eras, but admitted that "I Was Here" was the ideal timing, "I thought that the one artist who would be my dream to sing ['I Was Here'] would be Beyoncé. This is one of those magical stories where what is meant to be actually happens." In May 2011, Warren played the song on a guitar over the phone to Beyoncé's husband Jay-Z, who then called her. Upon hearing "I Was Here", Beyoncé immediately made up her mind, "Oh my god, I have to have this song." September 2011 was going to mark the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks and Beyoncé thought that the song would perfectly complete her album, which had nearly reached completion. The mastering of 4 was delayed to allow Beyoncé to record the song. Warren was present at the recording sessions, which took place two days following her conversation with Beyoncé and Jay-Z on the phone. She said, "There's nothing better than to hear the song that you came up with [sung back]. It's like your heart found another heart", before adding: > I've never had chills through my entire body like I had from hearing Beyoncé sing this song. 'I Was Here' came from my soul and became the song that was coming from hers. In all my life, I have never heard anything as amazing as this. Hearing her sing 'I Was Here' will forever be one of the best moments of my life, and I know that this song will touch many other lives as well. ## Composition "I Was Here" is a downtempo R&B ballad that is instrumentally based on synthesizers undercurrent, indie rock guitars, musical keyboards and big drums provided by Tedder and Kutzle. The sound of the song's recurring hook uses a combination of a xylophone and a piano. According to the sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing at the website Musicnotes.com, "I Was Here" is written in the key of E minor with a time signature and has a tempo of 37 beats per minute. The song follows a chord progression of Em–C–D–Dsus–Em–C–Em–C, and Beyoncé's vocals span two octaves from E<sub>3</sub> to E<sub>5</sub>. James Reed of The Boston Globe felt that "['I Was Here'] is 'Halo' on steroids — or Valium." It features Beyoncé as the female protagonist, who wants to make her mark on this Earth before her time is up as she wants that the world remember her impact. Ian Walker of AbsolutePunk elaborated on the song's composition: "'I Was Here' is Beyoncé's monument to the ages. The song climbs higher and higher, chorus by chorus, until Beyoncé reaches her apex, delivering some of her best vocals on the album. The lyrics are a bit uninspired, overly triumphant but somewhat humble as the singer contemplates her mark on history. Although she has garnered massive amounts of acclaim through her storied career, Beyoncé is far from satisfied." "I Was Here" begins with quivering reverb and a plaintively plucked guitar setting a somber mood for about fifteen seconds before the beats begin alongside Beyoncé's voice. Her vocals set a hushed and morbid tone on the song as she bring doses of edge and grit, singing: "I wanna leave my footprints on the sands of time / Know there was something that meant something that I left behind / When I leave this world, I'll leave no regrets / I'll leave something to remember, So they won't forget". She further sings throughout the song, "The hearts I have touched will be the proof that I leaved that I made a difference". Watery synths shimmer in the background before Beyoncé adopts an authoritative tone to chant the chorus lines: "I was here / I lived, I loved / I was here / I did, I've done / Everything that I wanted / And it was more than I thought it would be / I will leave my mark so everyone will know / I was here". ## Critical reception "I Was Here" garnered mixed to positive reviews from critics, most of whom felt the song's message was too deep for an artist like Beyoncé to sing, and criticized its placement on the track list of 4. Georgette Cline of The Boombox gave the song a positive review stating that, although the lyrics are a bit on the morbid side, it works in Beyoncé's favor, "proving she can tackle a myriad of subjects". Matthew Horton of BBC criticized the song's order of placement on the track list of 4, stating that "'Run the World (Girls)' is tagged on like a bonus track following 'I Was Here', which sounds like the perfect ending for the album." Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone also had the same view, saying it "disrupts the flow of up-tempo songs on the second half 4". Perpetua however calls it a "showstopper" and added that it "work[s] well as a bittersweet emotional climax for the album". Perpetua finished his review by saying that "'I Was Here' is the blustery ballad one would expect by a Beyoncé/Warren team-up, and stands off as flat and generic when compared to the rest of 4." Another reviewer of the same magazine, Jody Rosen complimented Beyoncé's vocals stating that she sings with authority; however, he coined "I Was Here" as a low point on the album and added that it is "swamped in 'My Way'-style self-mythologizing." Steve Jones of USA Today showed appreciation for "I Was Here": "At 29, the still-in-her-prime Beyoncé seems a little young to be worrying about her legacy, as she does on the Warren power ballad I Was Here. But she puts so much feeling into it that it winds up being the album's most moving song." Joanne Dorken of MTV UK was also positive, praising the song's "simple backing music, and Beyoncé's flawless and beautiful voice." She concluded that "I Was Here" ends up being a "standout song on the album [and] we won't be forgetting Queen B in a hurry." Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic was also positive, writing, "Payoff comes on 11th song, the epically loping 'I Was Here.' Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun commented that "I Was Here" comes to "a show-stopping moment in a Beyonce concert near you". James Reed of The Boston Globe wrote that the collaboration of Diane Warren and Ryan Tedder, introduces "a new strain of her balladry: an ethereal marriage of R&B sensuality and stuttering indie-rock guitars." Condar Tao of the website Sputnikmusic showed his appreciation for the song, writing, "[...] perhaps even more notable is the record's penultimate track, the Ryan Tedder-produced 'I Was Here'. Tedder is arguably one of the most irritating people working in pop today, and considering his track record, it's not a surprise that 'I Was Here' is the most contemporary-sounding song off of 4. What is surprising is just how good it is. The production is predictably icky, making that increasingly common mistake of using distant footsteps and reverbed guitar to convey a clichéd sense of 'epicness'." Gary Graff of Billboard said that the line "I want to leave my footprints on the sands of time" in the song defined the whole album. Simon Goddard of Q magazine chose "I Was Here" as one of the best songs on 4, describing it as a "breast-clutching tour de fource". Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice complimented "I Was Here" as knocking harder than anything on 4'''s "bloated predecessor", I Am ... Sasha Fierce (2008). Similarly, Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes wrote: "'I Was Here' is a heavy brick of a song — overwrought, maudlin, delusionally grandiose — but it is also disarmingly honest about the addictive, undignified dimensions of fame and celebrity." Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club described "I Was Here" as "uncomfortably overwrought" although he said that Beyoncé manages to bring conviction to its lyrical content. Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly also gave the song a mixed review stating that it reached a "lifetime-movie levels of schmaltz". David Amidon of PopMatters stated that "I Was Here" is "plain awkward to here a woman as in her prime physically as Beyoncé is to even approach such a tune. The dull music from Ryan Tedder and an army of co-producers does not help matters." Michael Cragg of The Observer gave the song a negative review, stating that it disappoints as being "corny bluster at odds with the laid-back feel of her most accomplished album yet." Andy Gill of The Independent simply stated that "I Was Here" strains too hard for "Empire State of Mind" (2009) status. Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune described the song as a "toxic string of cliches". Hamish MacBain of NME gave "I Was Here" a mixed review stating the song sounds like an X-Factor winner's single, full of unbelievably trite sentiments. ## Chart performance Although "I Was Here" was never released as a single, it appeared on several charts across the world following the release of 4. Selling 14,173 digital downloads, the song opened at number 44 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart for the week ending July 2, 2011 which became its peak position on that chart. Following the release of 4, "I Was Here" also charted at number 131 on the UK Singles Chart on July 9, 2011. "I Was Here" additionally debuted on the Swiss Singles Chart at number 74 on July 10, 2011, before falling off the chart the following week. On the chart issue dated January 16, 2012, "I Was Here" debuted at number 87 on the Australian Singles Chart and number 26 on its urban chart. After the release of the music video of the song it appeared again on several charts. On the Irish Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 88 for the week ending August 30, 2012 which later became its peak position on that chart. On the Belgian Ultratip Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 83 on September 1, 2012 and four weeks later it peaked at number 16 on September 29, 2012. On the chart issue dated September 8, 2012, the song appeared at number 40 on the UK R&B Chart. The next week it moved three positions up, at number 37, which became its peak position. On the Hungarian Singles Chart, "I Was Here" debuted at number 6 on the chart issue dated September 9, 2012 which also became its peak position on that chart. For the week ending September 22, 2012, the song debuted at number 44 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs. The next week, it moved to number 31, and ascended on the chart over the next weeks. It reached its peak position of number 13 on the chart. ## Music video ### Background and release On July 25, 2012 Beyoncé left a message for her fans on her official website stating "Leave Your Footprints on 19 August 2012", the opening lyrics to the song. On July 27, 2012 it was revealed that Beyoncé would be releasing a music video for the song as part of a global launch of World Humanitarian Day, held by the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). It was helmed by production company Ridley Scott & Associates and directors Kenzo Digital and Sophie Muller. Droga5, Sara Wallace and RSA Films served as producers of the video with the animation done by Dirt Empire NYC. The campaign aimed to reach 1 billion people with a single message when it launched, further making social media history. Several illustrations were launched on Beyoncé's website explaining how people could leave their mark on the world. The campaign was powered and measured by a new platform called Thunderclap created by creative shop DE-DE which aggregated the social reach of campaign supporters. Droga5's creative chairman David Droga further explained the decision to include Beyoncé for the World Humanitarian Day, > "The hope, first and foremost, was to put this on people’s radar. Apart from the UN and a few newsreaders who mention this every year, people don’t even know this day exists. It’s also to make people realize it’s not just about volunteering to go and live in the Congo for four years. It’s as much about working a soup kitchen as it is helping an elderly person. Contributing something positive doesn’t have to be a lifelong commitment; it can just be daily gestures. So, it was about giving the whole issue perspective... One video and a message aren't going to save everything. But when you say things together, maybe the message will be heard and hopefully will provoke action. Inherently people are good, and inherently people are distracted and somewhat lazy, so it comes down to how do you get people’s attention." Prior to the release of the video, Beyoncé said: "We all see the headlines and we think what can I really do to help?... World Humanitarian Day is an opportunity for all of us to work together to make a difference. This is our time to leave our mark on the world and show that we were here and we care." During another interview posted on the UN website, Beyoncé said she was attracted to raising awareness on the day of recognition: "I found out that 22 people lost their lives helping people [in Baghdad]. I thought it was such an incredible thing to turn that into something positive and try to include the world into doing something great for someone else". Another inspiration for Beyoncé to participate in the campaign were the finalists at the 2012 Do Something Awards and their humanitarian work. Beyoncé also enlisted the help of celebrities Gwyneth Paltrow, Rihanna, Lady Gaga, Justin Bieber, Chris Martin, Shakira, Jay-Z and First Lady Michelle Obama to support the cause as well as Coca-Cola, MTV, and Oreo. On August 3, 2012, Beyoncé released a black and white promotional video for the World Humanitarian Day, produced by Sara Wallace. The video featured Beyoncé saying, "On August 19. It’s high time we rise together. Do one thing for a human being. Nothing is too small. ... Make your mark and say I was here." The music video was expected to be released simultaneously in the main platforms of television, cinema, projection screens and facilities prepared for buildings in New York, Dubai and Geneva, on August 19. However, it premiered on August 18, 2012 instead. The next day, it was released on the iTunes Store in the US. The performance of the song received positive reviews from music critics and celebrities who attended. ### Mapping and projection The video was filmed in front of a live audience at the United Nations General Assembly Hall in New York on August 10, 2012. SuperUber worked on integration between animations and technology, the structure design and projection mapping that took over the General Assembly Hall after it was invited by Kenzo Digital. 10 20K HLM Barco projectors were placed and mapping was done using Pandora's widget designer and 5 Pandora's Dual Box servers. The final video had an 8856 x 1664 resolution and was split into 10 slices of 1080 x 1664 pixels, since each projector was turned on its side and the images were projected vertically in order to cover the whole structure. Two slices were fed into each system and SuperUber did the warping and edge blending inside Pandora. The screen which was used was over 12,000 square feet; Lucas Werthein, a representative for SuperUber commented that it was the largest indoor temporary screen that was a tilted compound curve adding that from an engineering standpoint, it is "extremely complex". It was custom-designed to mold to the inside of the General Assembly Hall. It spanned 68m X 15m and surrounded the audience with a 240 degree immersive projection. Ten synchronized and mapped projections covered the screen with 200,000 lumens, creating one continuous giant image. The screen which weighed 1000 pounds was sewn by forty five people. The whole structure, which was hanging off the UN ceiling weighed 6000 pounds. Werthein revealed, "In order to create the proper tension for the screen to hold its shape we had to weld permanent rigging points into the dome of the general assembly." Peter Kirn of Create Digital Motion wrote that the projection mapping was performed onto a fairly simple surface: "What makes the mapping so effective is the way in which it can fill the space, making those pictures immersive on a grand architectural scale. It makes the image a real volume in which the performance can take place." Russ Rive, SuperUber's director said, "It’s an ambitious project that has completely transformed an iconic location – seen as immutable and unchanging, with its goldplated panel and grand volume. By adding a virtual layer to it, we could digitally rebuild it, playing with the architectural elements, and therefore changing the notion of something static. The technology made the integration between animation and architecture. We used projectors to 'paint with light' the UN General Assembly’s Hall – a unique opportunity to transform such an emblematic place." ### Live performance and synopsis On August 10, 2012, Beyoncé appeared at the Assembly for the rehearsals prior to the performance. Julia Stiles, The-Dream and Diane Warren were the celebrities who attended the performance. Prior to the performing the song, Beyoncé met with United Nations leader Ban Ki-moon. Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations Jan Eliasson, announced Beyoncé's performance giving a short introduction about the singer: "Tonight [she] brings more than her stunning talents; she brings inspiration to help another person, to help another human being". He further recalled a "dark day in the history of the U.N." when 22 humanitarian workers lost their lives in a terrorist attack in Iraq on August 19, 2003 adding that the event and the World Humanitarian Day both honor those lost lives and encourage others to join the effort. He further interviewed guests whose relatives lost their lives in the accident. Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator Valerie Amos also appeared encouraging everyone to log on to the website WHD-IWasHere.org by August 19 and commit to doing one good act to help someone in need further saying, "I told Beyoncé: It's great that we have her, because she can reach millions of people. I could spend the rest of my life doing what I do, and I wouldn't reach a 10th of that number. And she said: 'Don't sell yourself short.'. Beyoncé appeared on stage wearing a floor-length white gown with micro-sequins from designer Marc Bouwer's pre-fall collection while her hair was pulled back in a sleek ponytail. She performed on a high-rise stage with a big screen spanning from ceiling to floor behind her. As she sang, the screen filled with images of U.N. aid workers on the scene in various wars, famines, and floods around the world. Following the performance, she announced, "I'd like to ask everyone to make sure they're a part of August 19th... It's such a beautiful, beautiful day, and I'd like to honor the 22 people who lost their lives. God bless you all. Thank you so much for having me." The music video for the song starts with Beyoncé singing the song with the U.N. audience seated in front of her, and images from recent disasters screening in panoramic view behind her. As the song progresses, scenes of globes and constellations turn up; laser lights and a small blue arrow, imprinted with the song's title, trace a path along the globe. The performance footage is also mixed with images of global volunteer efforts; as the giant screen displays globe-reaching graphics they morph into pictures of humanitarian work. The music video ends with the question "What Will You Do?" and offers the official website for the World Humanitarian Day. ### Reception Following Beyoncé's performance, American journalist Anderson Cooper who was present at the Hall and served as a host jokingly asked the crowd, "Is this what happens at the U.N. every Friday night? Because, I've gotta tell you ... I wanna be here every Friday night if this goes on." Diane Warren described the performance as "one of the best experiences ever" in her life. The performance and the music video received positive reviews from critics, who praised Beyoncé's live vocals. Pamela Falk of CBS News described the performance as "breathtaking" and "stunning". Jim Farber of Daily News was also positive about the performance saying that she "delivered a powerful live vocal to the song's musical track". Molly O'Brien of Prefix Magazine commented that the video was "simple and powerful: Beyoncé gives an impeccable live performance of the song... On the album, 'I Was Here' is pompous and a little cloying; live and accompanied by those images, it's got the same change-the-world flavor as Michael Jackson's 'Man in the Mirror.'" Nadeska Alexis of the same publication wrote that Beyoncé belted out her vocals while members of the audience sang along further noting that the moment ended "all too quickly". A writer of OK! magazine praised Beyoncé for being "striking as always" while belting out "I Was Here" in the video. MTV Act's Jose Iniguez described the performance as "phenomenal, flawless, goosebump-inducing, inspiring" adding that it gave him life and made him feel "gobbled up" by the presence of Beyoncé. He added that "I Was Here" couldn't have been a better fit for the campaign and concluded that "Bey[oncé] was simply flawless. Her voice, her dress, her touching (yet short) address after her performance sent chills down very limb." Leslie Gornstein of E! Online praised Beyoncé's dress worn during the video, writing that "[it] reminds us of a long column of light". Lisa Potter from Marie Claire described the floor-length gown as "dramatic". A writer of MTV News also praised Beyoncé's "glamorous [look] in white". A writer of Rap-Up wrote in his review that the singer was "glowing" in her white dress, adding that she put her "powerful pipes on display as she belted out the empowering ballad". E! Online's Sierra Marquina described Beyoncé's look as "stunning". Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly described the gown as "sleek, space-age white" and further praised Beyoncé for "belting out" the song emotionally with tears, comparing it with the live video from Live at Roseland: Elements of 4. Adelle Platon of Vibe magazine praised Beyoncé's look in a "stunning" white gown "belting against a backdrop of worldly images". Jason Lipshutz of Billboard wrote that the images of global volunteer efforts during the video were "striking". Peter Kirn from Create Digital Motion commented that the powerful projection used in the video "can make imagery big enough that it invites big thinking — and debate". Kirn concluded that "In the end, you see a performance in which neither Beyoncé nor the imagery upstages the other – it’s two powerful performances, not just one." The Huffington Post's Sarah Dean described the video as inspiring while "shining a spotlight on humanitarian work". On August 29, 2012, according to Thunderclap 1.13 billion messages were shared worldwide. The video was nominated in the category for Best Video with a Social Message at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards on August 25 but lost to Macklemore's "Same Love". The music video gained 98.69 million views with 847,000 likes on YouTube as of August 16, 2018. ## Live performances Beyoncé performed "I Was Here" live for the first time on August 14, 2011 during her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé in Roseland Ballroom, New York City. She performed the song in front of 3,500 people wearing a gold dress and backed by her all-female band and her backing singers, called the Mamas. "I Was Here" served as the closing song of the residency show with Beyoncé changing the line, on which the title of the song is based, to "Roseland, we were here." Jason Newman of Rap-Up magazine commented that "in less confident hands, the line would have come off as hokey. For Beyoncé, it was the recognition of a singular event before returning to the stadium." According to Brad Wete from Entertainment Weekly, during the performance of the song Beyoncé "bowed, fanatic screams and cheers followed." Mike Wass of Idolator wrote: > [Knowles'] ability to bring new depth and texture to quality material is almost as impressive as her uncanny knack for connecting with the audience on an emotional level. Take, for instance, the final song — it was impossible not to be moved by [Knowles] as she fought tears while tackling the clearly personal lyrics of 'I Was Here'. Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone, who had given the song a negative review wrote that "on record, ['I Was Here'] was a hollow exercise in self-mythologizing. On Sunday night, though, Beyoncé brought the song to life, singing with a tenacious mix of shmaltz and soul that evoked two of her heroes, Barbra Streisand and Aretha Franklin [...] It sounded less like bluster than confession. It was almost intimate." Yolanda Sangweni of Essence magazine stated that ending the show with "I Was Here" was "triumphant note" and that "Diana Ross and Michael Jackson would be proud." During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom, Beyoncé performed "I Was Here" to a selected crowd of fans. The performance from A Night With Beyoncé was later broadcast on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve on December 31, 2011. A writer of Essence magazine noted that she performed a "powerful rendition" of the song further adding that she "looked and sounded glorious". In May 2012, during Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live, a video montage of Beyoncé holding her child Blue Ivy Carter, drinking a pint of Guinness, and going whale-watching was shown while the song was played in the background, before she began singing the first verse of Whitney Houston's "I Will Always Love You". ### Live video The live performance for "I Was Here" as part of 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé, where it served as the closing song, was taped and premiered online on November 16, 2011. It was added on the DVD Live at Roseland: Elements of 4, which was released in late November 2011. The video begins with Beyoncé onstage in a shimmery silver minidress, giving the crowd a bit of a windup about where "I Was Here" came from. She says: "It's taken a lot of hard work to get to where I am. I searched all around the world, and I found myself. You all are my inspiration. I want to sing this last song and dedicate it to all of you guys." The video then turns into a career retrospective in the form of Beyoncé's home movies and her professional highlights. It splices poignant memories throughout Beyoncé's life, from her childhood, to partying and vacations with her family, to most of the locations she visited around the world, to her rise with Destiny's Child into solo stardom and her love story with Jay-Z. Also containing footage from major performances and awards shows, the clip begins with a young Beyoncé thanking the judges in a talent show and later doing the snake in her living room, performing in her TLC-inspired neon overalls. The clip briefly returns to the center of the stage where Beyoncé starts to belt out the ballad over a montage of other home videos. It later shows Beyoncé, as an adult, hugging Michael Jackson, performing with Prince, Tina Turner, her husband, and contains cameos by Oprah Winfrey and Nelson Mandela. The montage additionally contains moments of the everyday behind-the-scenes footage of Beyoncé; her sometimes-awkward teenage hair, Beyoncé playing on a Slip 'n Slide, playing with her nephew in a pool, frolicking on a beach, going for whale watching, and trying on her actual wedding dress at the 3:36 mark. Other footage includes: Beyoncé performing on her world tours in support of her second and third studio albums, her performance at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival where she was the first major solo female headliner to appear on the Pyramid stage in over twenty years, a backstage scene of Beyoncé at the 52nd Grammy Awards, holding her six Grammy awards, which broke the record for most Grammy Awards won by a female artist in one night, The clip ends with Beyoncé revealing her baby bump on 2011 MTV Video Music Awards. a performance of "Run the World (Girls)" at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards, where she was given the Millennium Award for recognizing her career achievements and influence in the music industry. Music critics generally welcomed the video as for most of her time in the spotlight, Beyoncé has been a strictly private celebrity. Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly wrote that it was pleasant to see Beyoncé unguarded as it is a rare occurrence. He added that though the clip is a more professional-looking than most people's home movies, it remains the closest thing that fans have seen so far to "Bey[oncé] just being Bey[oncé]". Similarly, Brent Woodie of The Christian Post commented about how the 2008 wedding of Beyoncé to Jay-Z was kept very private; there were no photographs or videos released from the event, leaving media and gossip columnists to speculate on the nuptials. He welcomed the clip for being the first behind-the-scenes footage of Beyoncé on her wedding day. Luchina Fisher of ABC News described it as "a home movie featuring highlights from Beyonce's decorated life" and felt that it's "the personal moments [in the video] the singer's fans will no doubt devour". Samantha Cortez of Daily News felt that the content of the video which included Beyoncé's most personal moments and the lyrics of the song, "add even more sentiment to the video". At the 43rd NAACP Image Award presented on February 17, 2012, the video for "I Was Here" was nominated in the category for Outstanding Music Video. ## Cover versions A cover version of "I Was Here" performed by Lea Michele was included on Glee's soundtrack album Glee: The Music, The Graduation Album released on May 14, 2012. On November 29, 2012, Diamond White, a contestant of the second season of The X Factor in the US covered "I Was Here". Michele Amabile Angermiller of The Hollywood Reporter noted that "Her performance had some pitch problems, but she pulled it out." Daniel Fienberg from the website HitFix wrote that she made a smart choice with the performance of the song adding that there were "some sharp notes here and there, but she sings her heart out". Bobby Olivier of The Star-Ledger described White's version as "pitchy" while Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post wrote that she "blasts" through the song. American Idol contestant Angela Miller performed the song during the twelfth season of the show in March 2013. Michael Slezak of the website TVLine graded the performance with B− saying that "tears may have affected the vocal a bit". Ericka Alston of Los Angeles Times wrote that Miller made "an appropriate choice" with the song. On April 17, 2014, the song was performed live by Teodora Sava when she was 12 years old, as a special guest of the Romanian kids talent show Next Star. In September 2014, Vanessa Hudgens covered "I Was Here" during the Voices On Point gala in Los Angeles held in support for LGBTQ students. She covered the song to honor Warren who received a Point Leadership Award at the event. Dutch singer Glennis Grace performed the song live on November 10, 2014 during the Dutch national memorial ceremony in front of over 1600 relatives of the victims of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17. Coach Delta Goodrem performed the song with her artist Judah Kelly on the grand finale of the sixth season of The Voice Australia. ## Usage in media On July 19, 2011, "I Was Here" provided the soundtrack for the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup Final. As reported by ABC News on September 11, 2011, Beyoncé paid tribute to the September 11 attacks with "I Was Here" on the commemoration of the tenth anniversary of the event. On September 21, 2011, it was announced via PR Newswire that Boys & Girls Clubs of America (BGCA) would launch "a star-studded" new Public Service Advertising (PSA) campaign and that the soundtrack for the campaign would be "I Was Here". Nationwide, Boys & Girls Clubs provide high-impact, affordable programs, and caring adult mentors, to keep kids on the path to great futures, emphasizing academic success, good character and citizenship, and healthy lifestyles. The director, Ron Howard explained the reason behind choosing "I Was Here" as the soundtrack of their new PSA: "We wanted the most powerful piece of music possible, to underscore the dramatic message that what we do today to shape the future of our children is vitally important. We could not have picked a more moving track. Diane's words and Beyonce's delivery are over the top." In November 2013, the song was included on the relief album Songs for the Philippines; the proceeds of it were donated to the Philippine Red Cross for the victims of Typhoon Haiyan. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from 4'' liner notes. - Beyoncé Knowles – vocals, vocal production - Eric Aylands – assistant engineer - Smith Carlson – assistant engineer - Serban Ghenea – mixer - John Hanes – mix engineer - Kuk Harrell – vocal production, vocal recorder - Brent Kutzle – additional programming, cello, guitar, piano, producer - Phil Seaford – assistant mix engineer - Jon Sher – assistant engineer - Ryan Tedder – additional programming, background vocals, drums, producer - Diane Warren – songwriter ## Charts ## Certifications and sales
399,768	Mount Bailey (Oregon)	1,147,869,193	Relatively young tephra cone and shield volcano in Oregon's Cascade Range	[ "Cascade Range", "Cascade Volcanoes", "Dormant volcanoes", "Landforms of Douglas County, Oregon", "Mountains of Douglas County, Oregon", "Mountains of Oregon", "Pleistocene volcanoes", "Shield volcanoes of the United States", "Subduction volcanoes", "Volcanoes of Oregon", "Volcanoes of the United States" ]	Mount Bailey is a relatively young tephra cone and shield volcano in the Cascade Range, located on the opposite side of Diamond Lake from Mount Thielsen in southern Oregon, United States. Bailey consists of a 2,000-foot (610 m)-high main cone on top of an old basaltic andesite shield volcano. With a volume of 8 to 9 km<sup>3</sup> (1.9 to 2.2 cu mi), Mount Bailey is slightly smaller than neighboring Diamond Peak. Mount Bailey is a popular destination for recreational activities. Well known in the Pacific Northwest region as a haven for skiing in the winter months, the mountain's transportation, instead of a conventional chairlift, is provided by snowcats—treaded, tractor-like vehicles that can ascend Bailey's steep, snow-covered slopes and carry skiers to the higher reaches of the mountain. In the summer months, a 5-mile (8 km) hiking trail gives foot access to Bailey's summit. Mount Bailey is one of Oregon's Matterhorns. Native Americans are credited with the first ascents of Bailey. Spiritual leaders held feasts and prayer vigils on the summit. ## Etymology The origin of the mountain's name is a matter of dispute. Older maps show its name as either "Old Baldy" or "Old Bailey", "Bailey" possibly being a drafting error. The summit's bald, burnt-over appearance might indicate the origin of the designation "Baldy". No record of a person named Bailey who was connected with the peak has been found. In 1992, the Oregon Geographic Names Board voted to name the mountain in honor of naturalists Vernon and Florence Bailey. According to William G. Steel, the Klamath name for the mountain was Youxlokes, which means "Medicine Mountain". According to Klamath tradition, their medicine men and priests would feast on the mountain's summit and commune with the upper world. ## Geography and geology Mount Bailey is part of the High Cascades in the western United States. The High Cascades have long been glaciated, by both Pacific-bred storms and natural, elevation-caused, glaciation. In fact, glaciation probably formed on them as early as the late Miocene. Over time, as the range built up, newer activity diminished older Tertiary age rock. Creating lava plateaus, Pliocene activity, mostly basaltic and andesitic, was probably responsible for the original cones at Bailey, Thielsen, and Union Peak. Mount Bailey heads the Mount Bailey chain, which consists of the mountain and smaller cinder cones trending north. Similarly to its neighbor Mount Thielsen, it is a shield volcano with precipitous summit slopes. Built around the same time as Rodley Butte, according to morphological study, the current volcano is no more than 100,000 years old, and formed relatively close to Diamond Peak's current cone. Despite its similarity to Rodley Butte, both in age and original composition, Bailey switched from erupting basaltic andesite to andesite. Bailey is comprised by a central tephra cone, upon which basaltic andesite eruptions streamed over, building up to create the current volcano. Eventually switching to andesite, it may have been built over several eruptions or even eruptive periods, judging from the silicic nature of its rock. It is currently inactive, having been since approximately the time Mount Mazama became active, sometime in the early Pleistocene epoch. ## Ecology and recreation Diverse flora exists on Mount Bailey. Starting at the lower slopes, the prominent tree type is standard pine, eventually changing to a landscape of mountain hemlock, western white pine, and Shasta fir. Bailey is a popular hiking and skiing site, due to its steep climbs and views of Diamond Lake. It is accessible from Oregon Route 230, starting at the Fox Spring trailhead. Following the Mount Bailey Trail, part of the Diamond Lake Recreational Area, hikers can see "panoramas to the northeast of Diamond Lake and Bailey's dizzying avalanche bowl". To skiers, the peak is known for its method of transportation, featuring snowcats. ## See also - Map of the Southern Oregon Cascade Range
840,636	M-79 (Michigan highway)	1,167,108,632	State highway in Michigan, United States	[ "State highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Barry County, Michigan", "Transportation in Eaton County, Michigan" ]	M-79 is an east–west state trunkline highway in the central portion of Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The western terminus is about three miles (4.8 km) southeast of Hastings at the junction with M-37 and the eastern terminus is in downtown Charlotte at the junction with M-50 and Business Loop Interstate 69 (BL I-69). It passes through Quimby and Nashville, where there is a junction with M-66. The entire highway is undivided surface road. It has no direct access with Interstate 69 (I-69), although a sign for the highway is located on southbound I-69 at exit 61. The highway was first designated in 1919 between Hastings and Battle Creek. It was later moved to run to Charlotte. A section of M-79 was designated as M-214 in the 1930s. M-214 would later be decommissioned as a highway designation and the M-79 designation was reapplied to the roadway. ## Route description M-79 starts south of Hastings at a three-way intersection with M-37 in Hastings Township. The trunkline runs east and parallel to a section of the Thornapple River through wooded terrain that is interspersed with farm fields. South of Thornapple Lake, M-79 angles southeasterly moving from Quimby Road to Scott Road running parallel to the Thornapple River again into the community of Nashville. M-79 meets M-66 and turns south along the latter highway's route along Main and Durkee streets through the community. South of town in Maple Grove Township, M-79 separates from M-66 and turns east along Lawrence Road. Outside of Charlotte, M-79 curves southeast to transition to Lawrence Avenue through town. The eastern terminus is at an intersection with Cochran Avenue, which carries BL I-69 and M-50. ## History M-79 was formed as a state trunkline by July 1, 1919 along part of its present routing. At the time, it ran between Hastings and Nashville as it does today. From Nashville, the trunkline turned south and west to end at the contemporary M-17 in Battle Creek. By 1927, the southernmost section of M-79 was truncated when M-78 was extended to Battle Creek. In late 1930, the southernmost section was shortened once again as a new M-14 designation replaced M-79 south of Nashville. An eastward extension of M-79 at the same time carries the highway designation to Vermontville. M-79 was extended easterly to Charlotte in 1934 at the same time that the section of the trunkline between Nashville and Vermontville was redesignated M-214. M-79 was rerouted along Assyria and Lawrence roads at the time to connect the sections of M-79 on either side of M-214. By 1941, M-214 was shortened to a 3-mile (5 km) connector route in downtown Nashville running between M-79 and M-66. In 1953, M-79 replaced M-214 and the latter designation was retired from the highway system. The last section of gravel roadway in Eaton County was paved by 1960. ## Major intersections ## See also
54,705,969	Caroline Dolehide	1,172,990,729	American tennis player	[ "1998 births", "21st-century American women", "American female tennis players", "Living people", "Medalists at the 2019 Pan American Games", "Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States", "Pan American Games medalists in tennis", "Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States", "Sportspeople from Hinsdale, Illinois", "Tennis people from Illinois", "Tennis players at the 2019 Pan American Games" ]	Caroline Dolehide (/ˈdɒləhaɪd/ DOLL-ə-hyde; born September 5, 1998) is an American professional tennis player. She achieved a career-high ranking of world No. 99 in May 2023 and a doubles ranking of No. 21 in May 2022. She has won one WTA Tour and one WTA 125 doubles titles as well as 18 titles on the ITF Women's Circuit, eight in singles and ten in doubles. Her best performances on the WTA Tour came in doubles at the 2019 and the 2022 US Open events where she reached semifinals with Vania King and Storm Sanders, respectively, and also at the 2021 Wimbledon Championships. As a junior, Dolehide was a two-time major tournament finalist in doubles. She made her WTA Tour debut in July 2017, and won her first WTA title at the Monterrey Open in Mexico in March 2021. Dolehide also won her first Grand Slam match at the 2018 French Open. She has an aggressive style of play, and possesses the ability to hit powerful groundstroke winners, especially on the forehand side. ## Early life and background Dolehide grew up in the Chicago suburbs, where she began playing tennis at five years old. She has an older sister Courtney who played college tennis at UCLA, coached women's tennis at UT Austin, and became the head coach of men's and women's tennis at Georgetown in 2018. Her younger sister Stephanie also plays tennis, and has committed to West Point. Her brother Brian plays collegiate golf at Florida Atlantic University. Dolehide worked with her youth coach Tom Lockhart since the age of six. Dolehide attended Hinsdale Central High School until her sophomore year, when she moved to Florida to train with the United States Tennis Association (USTA). At this point, she began working with Stephen Huss, a former Australian professional tennis player. Dolehide had verbally committed to play tennis at UCLA, but ultimately decided to forgo attending college to pursue a career as a professional. ## Junior career In 2014, Dolehide reached the semifinals of the girls' singles event at the US Open, despite needing to qualify for the main draw. She upset three of the top ten seeds in the tournament, including Markéta Vondroušová in the first round, before losing to the eventual champion Marie Bouzková. Later that year, she also made it to the semifinals of the Eddie Herr Championships and the quarterfinals at the Orange Bowl, two prestigious Grade 1 tournaments. This helped her rise to a career high ITF junior ranking of No. 16 in the world the following summer. Dolehide was then forced to skip the 2015 US Open and most of the remaining events that season after breaking her left foot. This injury prevented her from continuing to climb in the rankings. As a junior, Dolehide was more successful in doubles than in singles. In April 2015, she partnered with Ena Shibahara to win the USTA International Spring Championships, her only title at a Grade 1 event. The following week, the duo made it to another final at the Easter Bowl, this time losing to Sofia Kenin and Katie Swan. In the last few tournaments of her junior career, Dolehide achieved two of her best results with two Grand Slam runner-ups, the first at the 2015 French Open with partner Katerina Stewart and the second at the 2016 US Open with partner Kayla Day. ## Professional career ### 2016–17: First ITF titles & WTA quarterfinal, top 150 Dolehide began playing regularly on the ITF Women's Circuit in 2016, after missing the second half of 2015 with a broken left foot. In June, she won both the singles and doubles events at the \$10k tournament in Buffalo for her first professional titles. The following year, she won two more tournaments at the \$25k-level, including Winnipeg in July. Later that month, Dolehide qualified for the Stanford Classic to make her WTA Tour main-draw debut. She won her first tour-level match against world No. 48, Naomi Osaka, before losing to compatriot Madison Keys in the next round. This success helped her crack the top 200 of the WTA rankings for the first time. After the US Open, Dolehide made her first WTA Tour quarterfinal at the Tournoi de Québec to rise to a career-high ranking of No. 137. Dolehide also played in the doubles event at Stanford with her Junior US Open partner Kayla Day. The pair had already reached two finals and won one title on the ITF Circuit in February, and they continued their success together by making it to the semifinals in their doubles debut on the WTA Tour. The two of them were also awarded a wildcard into the US Open, where they upset 10th-seeded veteran doubles specialists Abigail Spears and Katarina Srebotnik in their Grand Slam debut in doubles. A few weeks later, Dolehide followed up this performance by winning a \$100k title at the Abierto Tampico with veteran María Irigoyen, a victory that helped her finish the year just inside the top 100 of the WTA doubles rankings. ### 2018–21: Major & WTA 1000 debuts in singles, US Open & Wimbledon SF, maiden WTA title & top 25 in doubles In March 2018, Dolehide was awarded a wildcard into the main draw of the Indian Wells Open, where she picked up her first two match wins at a Premier Mandatory tournament, including a second round victory over No. 30 Dominika Cibulková. She also pushed Simona Halep to three sets in her third-round loss to the world No. 1 player. Dolehide continued her momentum into the clay-court season, where she won the \$60k event at Indian Harbour Beach, the biggest title of her career. She closed out the clay-court season by qualifying for the French Open. In her major main-draw debut in singles, Dolehide defeated Viktorija Golubic before losing to Keys in the following match. In the next few months, she also made her debuts at Wimbledon as a lucky loser and the US Open as a direct acceptance, but lost in the opening round in both tournaments. She also received a wildcard into the US Open doubles draw with Christina McHale and reached the third round. Following the US Open, Dolehide did not win multiple main-draw matches at a singles event again, until a \$25k event in April 2019 where she finished runner-up to Barbora Krejčíková. Nonetheless, she dropped out of the top 200 since she was defending points from a \$60k title. Dolehide fared better in doubles in the first half of the year, reaching two \$100k finals. She finished runner-up at Bonita Springs in Florida with Usue Maitane Arconada, before winning a title at the Surbiton Trophy with Jennifer Brady. Dolehide continued to struggle in singles and reached a year-low of No. 283 in the singles rankings on 12 August 2019. Her form began to rebound in a big way after she brought back two medals from the 2019 Pan American Games in Lima, Peru. The first was a gold medal in doubles, pairing with Usue Arconada to make the 20 year-old duo the first American gold medalists in women's doubles at the Pan Am Games since Pam Shriver and Donna Faber in 1991 in Havana. The next day, Dolehide earned a second-place finish in singles and added a silver medal to her haul. Back in the States, Dolehide promptly won her first singles title of the year at the \$60k 2019 Concord Open. She then qualified for the US Open, where she lost her only WTA Tour match of the year to No. 18 Wang Qiang. In the doubles event, Dolehide partnered with compatriot Vania King to produce her best result of the year. The pair reached the semifinals, defeating the 14th-seeded team of Lyudmyla Kichenok and Jeļena Ostapenko, before losing to the eventual champions Elise Mertens and Aryna Sabalenka. With this performance, Dolehide rose to No. 72 in the world in doubles. Before the end of the year, she won another \$60k title at the Charleston Pro to return to the top 200 of the singles rankings. ### 2022–23: Australian Open debut and top 100 in singles, US Open and Wimbledon SF in doubles She made her singles debut at the 2022 Australian Open and the WTA 1000 Guadalajara Open after qualifying. In doubles, she reached the quarterfinals at the Australian Open and the semifinals at the US Open, partnering Storm Hunter. In 2023, Dolehide reached back-to-back quarterfinals at the Australian Open, partnering Anna Kalinskaya. Ranked No. 206, she reached her second tour-level quarterfinal at the 2023 Monterrey Open as a qualifier defeating Jule Niemeier and Anna Karolína Schmiedlová and her first since Québec City in 2017. As a result, she moved close to 40 positions up in the rankings. She reached the round of 16 at the Charleston Open defeating Sabine Lisicki and Linda Fruhvirtová. She lost to eventual champion Ons Jabeur. She made her top 100 singles debut on 22 May 2023, following winning the \$60k title in Naples, Florida. She reached the semifinals in doubles at the Wimbledon Championships with Zhang Shuai. ## Playing style Dolehide is an aggressive baseliner. She is known for having a strong serve and powerful groundstrokes, which she uses to a hit a high number of winners. Her forehand in particular is one of her best shots and was already very advanced while she was still a teenager. CiCi Bellis faced Dolehide at the 2014 Orange Bowl when both players were still juniors and commented that Dolehide "hits probably the hardest by far" compared to Bellis's other opponents and said "her serve is amazing." Venus Williams defeated Dolehide at the 2018 Canadian Open, but commented that "she had a really great second serve." ## Performance timelines Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records. ### Singles Current through the 2023 French Open. ### Doubles Current through the 2022 US Open ## WTA career finals ### Doubles: 4 (1 title, 3 runner-ups) ## WTA 125 finals ### Doubles: 1 (title) ## ITF finals ### Singles: 9 (6 titles, 3 runner-ups) ### Doubles: 13 (9 titles, 4 runner-ups) ## Junior Grand Slam tournament finals ### Girls' doubles: 2 (2 runner-ups)
700,800	Don't Tell Me (Madonna song)	1,166,127,336	2000 single by Madonna	[ "2000 singles", "2000 songs", "American country music songs", "American rock songs", "Canadian Singles Chart number-one singles", "Country rock songs", "Folktronica songs", "Madonna songs", "Maverick Records singles", "Music videos directed by Jean-Baptiste Mondino", "Number-one singles in Italy", "Number-one singles in New Zealand", "Song recordings produced by Madonna", "Song recordings produced by Mirwais Ahmadzaï", "Songs written by Joe Henry", "Songs written by Madonna", "Songs written by Mirwais Ahmadzaï", "Warner Records singles" ]	"Don't Tell Me" is a song recorded by American singer Madonna for her eighth studio album, Music (2000). It was released as the second single from the album on November 14, 2000, by Maverick Records. Madonna co-wrote and co-produced the track with Mirwais Ahmadzaï, with additional writing from her brother-in-law, Joe Henry. Henry originally conceived it as a tango-styled torch song called "Stop"; the demo was later sent to Madonna, who then proceeded to change its musical composition, turning it into a country-dance song. Lyrically, Madonna asks her lover not to control her. "Don't Tell Me" received positive reviews from music critics, who cited the song as one of the album's standouts and praised Madonna's vocals. It was also compared to the work of singer Sheryl Crow. The song attained commercial success, reaching the top of the record charts in Canada, Italy and New Zealand, as well as the top five in several regions. It also became Europe's biggest radio hit of 2001. In the United States, "Don't Tell Me" reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100, tying her with the Beatles as the artist with the second-most top-ten singles in the Hot 100 history. The music video was directed by Jean-Baptiste Mondino and features Madonna as a cowgirl walking down an automated treadmill in front of a projection screen, with cowboys dancing and straddling horses in the backdrop. The clip received two nominations at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards, while also being nominated for a Grammy Award. The song was included in two of Madonna's concert tours: Drowned World (2001) and Re-Invention World Tour (2004). In 2014, Madonna appeared on Miley Cyrus' MTV Unplugged special and performed "Don't Tell Me" in a mashup with Cyrus' 2013 song "We Can't Stop". Two years later, she performed the song on her Madonna: Tears of a Clown show, in Melbourne and Miami. ## Background and release After the critical and commercial success of her seventh studio album, Ray of Light (1998), Madonna had intended to embark on a concert tour in late 1999, but due to the delay of her film, The Next Best Thing (2000), the tour was cancelled. The singer also became pregnant with her son Rocco, from her relationship with director Guy Ritchie. Wanting to distract herself from the media frenzy, Madonna concentrated on the development of her eighth studio album, Music. She worked with French DJ and producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï on the album, describing it as consisting of "Funky, electronic music blended with futuristic folk. Lots of jangly guitars and moody melancholic lines". Following the success of the lead single, "Music", "Don't Tell Me" was released as the second single from the album on November 21, 2000, by Maverick Records. A number of remixes for the song were created by Thunderpuss, Richard "Humpty" Vission and Tracy Young. Warner Bros. Records released various renditions on CD, cassette, maxi, 7-inch and 12-inch singles. The Thunderpuss Club Mix had a more house-inspired sound, with spiraling synth pads and keyboard effects. The filtered beats and tweaked keyboard riffs of Humpty Vission's Radio Mix gave Madonna's voice an "underwater" effect, while Young's remix featured a violin breakdown and sonic elements that reminisce Blondie's 1979 hit "Heart of Glass". AllMusic's Jose F. Promis praised the remixes for "transform(ing) the country-infused track into an awesome dance extravaganza". ## Recording and composition Madonna co-wrote and co-produced "Don't Tell Me" with Ahmadzaï, and her brother-in-law Joe Henry, who is credited as an additional songwriter. Henry had written a tango-styled song titled "Stop", which featured jazz saxophone player Ornette Coleman and Henry singing in "Tom Waits-inspired" vocals; it was eventually included on the latter's eighth studio album, Scar (2001). After Henry played the demo for "Stop" to his wife, Madonna's sister Melanie, she sent the track to Madonna. The singer liked the demo and was drawn to the song's lyrics, its "sentiment of defiance, the attitude of it", but did not prefer its musical tone, since it was not in-line with the compositions for Music. Madonna worked with Ahmadzaï and changed the original string arrangement into a stop-time, acoustic guitar and keyboard composition. She recorded it at Ahmadzaï's studio, accompanied by a Martin D-28 guitar to which Ahmadzaï added a stutter effect. Madonna preferred the sound effect over the final melody. Ahmadzaï also played the acoustic guitar and keyboards on the track. Mark "Spike" Stent mixed the song and Michel Colombier played the strings. > It's probably the last thing I've written with regard to her [...] It's a line I just don't cross. Musically it's never seemed appropriate... I thought the song was a complete throwaway. I had just moved and set up a studio in the guesthouse of my home and was looking to record anything to make sure my things were working. I needed something to record, so I wrote that song in about 25 minutes just to give myself something to do. I was a little embarrassed by it, it starts off a little spoon-in-June and takes a cryptic turn at the end. According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com, "Don't Tell Me" is set in the time signature of common time, with a moderate tempo of 100 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of D major with the singer's vocals ranging from the lower octave of G<sub>3</sub> to the higher note of A<sub>4</sub>. The song follows a basic sequence of D–Am–C–G as its chord progression. Ben Greenbank from Sputnikmusic described the track as a "country meets dance" song with trip hop beats, accompanied by acoustic guitar riffs. Chuck Arnold of Billboard described "Don't Tell Me" as a "twangy trip-hop" track. The song begins with a "plucked" guitar riff in a jagged stop/start beat, with the arpeggios reminiscent of country music. Every fourth beat is followed by a small silence that eventually builds into the chorus. Rikky Rooksby, author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna, described the track as an "electronica meets country rock" song based on a single four-chord sequence, disguised by the mixing. He found that Madonna's expressive lead vocals were double tracked. The strings appeared towards the end with the looping sounds continuing and ultimately fading. According to author Carol Vernallis, the contradictory guitar stops interspersed with the digital electronic sounds made the song sound "authentic" in its portrayal of the country-western genre of music. When asked about the differences between his demo and Madonna's song, Henry pointed out that it was the groove which was important. Lyrically, Madonna urges her lover in the song to stop controlling her actions and feelings; she compares the lyrics to the work of Frank Sinatra. She conjures up unnatural imagery through the lyrics by singing "Tell the bed not to lay / Like the open mouth of a grave, yeah / Not to stare up at me / Like a calf down on its knees". ## Critical response AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave a positive review of "Don't Tell Me", describing it as an "intricate, sensual, folk-psych stunner". Jim Farber from Daily News felt that "[the song] crosses up-to-date electronica with rootsy American blues via a guitar hook that sounds something like Lynyrd Skynyrd's 'Sweet Home Alabama'". He also believed that the imagery conjured up in the song is predominantly American. A reviewer for NME considered "Don't Tell Me" an "alt-alt-country, hacked-up acoustic guitar over knife-sharp beats track", comparing Madonna to Sheryl Crow. Danny Eccleston from Q, also saw similarities to Crow, calling the track "Music's closest cousin to the sonic landscapes of Ray of Light", while also pointing out its "masterful ending – as a rhythm of insectoid whirrs and bendy ARP-style 'wowp!'s join the guitar while Colombier's strings ape the peal of church bells". Digital Spy's Justin Harp felt that "the comparisons [to Sheryl Crow] actually did a disservice to a track that stands out as particularly unique in Madonna's massive catalogue of hits". Louis Virtel, from TheBacklot.com, placed "Don't Tell Me" at number 25 of his list "The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs"; he praised the singer for "invoking some tried-and-true country music imagery" and called it an "unmistakable radio moment of the early 2000s". Shaad D'Souza of Pitchfork described it as "the album’s most indelible song and one of Madonna’s best-ever singles". Samuel R. Murrian from Parade wrote that "Madonna’s defiant, rebellious personality that we love is on full-blast in this extremely clever and infectious song". While ranking Madonna's singles in honor of her 60th birthday, Jude Rogers from The Guardian placed the track at number 32, calling it "brilliantly strange" and praising its catchiness. Jon O'Brien from Paste magazine complimented the track's production, and believed it to be an "immediate standout" on the album. The mix of the guitar riffs, the fractured beats and Colombier's string arrangement were all listed as an "elegiac finale" complementing the cowboy imagery portrayed by Madonna during the album cycle. Similar thoughts were registered by The Huffington Post's Matthew Jacobs who ranked it at number 21 of his list "The Definitive Ranking of Madonna Singles". In his review of the Music album, Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt that Madonna revealed more of her soul in the track. Cinquemani further opined that "Don't Tell Me" was perceived to be an "unlikely" follow-up to "Music", with its "atypical structure and peculiar lyrics [...] [that] made it an unlikely hit to boot. But a hit is exactly what it was [...]", awarding the track a B+. For Medium's Richard LaBeau, "this fascinating merge of country and dance ranks high among the most unique songs of her career". Billboard's Larry Flick called "Don't Tell Me" a "thoughtful, often poetic gem" that features "one of Madonna's most soulful vocal deliveries". In August 2018, Billboard picked it as the singer's 20th greatest single; "a mix of poetically off-center lyrics. a CD-skip stutter effect and that jangly guitar riff, ["Don't Tell Me"] would’ve ended up a mess for many artists. But for Madonna, it landed her yet another top five Hot 100 hit". Author Alejandro L. Madrid felt the song had elements of Nortec music. Steven Humphrey, from The Portland Mercury, hailed it as "a freaking great song. (Perhaps the last great song of [Madonna's] career?) A stuttering combo of trip-hop and hillbilly folk, Madonna's soulful croon perfectly expresses the longing of a gal telling her beau to stop controlling how she feels". A negative review came from Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters who wrote that the song "is another near miss, with admirable attitude but, well, laughable lyrics". Entertainment Weekly's Chuck Arnold listed "Don't Tell Me" as Madonna's 28th best single, writing that "with its acoustic guitar, country stomp, and stop-start trippiness, ['Don't Tell Me'] succeeds against the odds". From Gay Star News, Joe Morgan wrote: "Lyrics don’t make a lot of sense, but that doesn’t matter. This is unique, country-electronic pop". ## Chart performance "Don't Tell Me" debuted at number 78 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, the week of December 9, 2000. Two weeks later it reached the top-40 of the chart at number 35. In February 2001, after its commercial release, the single climbed from number 16 to number four, giving Madonna her 34th top-ten single on the Hot 100. This achievement tied Madonna with the Beatles for second most top-ten singles and put her within reach of Elvis Presley's record of 36 top-ten hits. She later surpassed the record with her 2008 single "4 Minutes", thus becoming the artist with most top-ten singles in Billboard Hot 100 history. In 2015, Billboard ranked "Don't Tell Me" at number 26 on their list of "Madonna's 40 Biggest Hits" on the Hot 100. "Don't Tell Me" was also successful on Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart, being present on the chart for 14 weeks. It outlasted "Music" and tied with "Ray of Light" (1998) and "Bedtime Story" (1995) as Madonna's longest running song on the chart at the time. The track was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on March 28, 2001, for shipments of 500,000 copies, becoming Madonna's 24th Gold-certified single and tying her with the Beatles for the second-most gold records in the United States. In Canada, the song debuted at number 13 on the Canadian Singles Chart the week of January 27, 2001, and reached the first spot the week of February 17, where it remained for one week. It was Madonna's 20th number-one Canadian single. In Australia, the song debuted at number eight, and next week reached a peak of number seven on the Australian Singles Chart, staying for a total of 17 weeks. In 2002, it obtained a Platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipment of 70,000 copies of the single. The song was also successful in New Zealand, where it became Madonna's fifth and second consecutive number-one following "Music". In the United Kingdom, "Don't Tell Me" debuted at number 65 on the UK Singles Chart on December 9, 2000. After a total of 10 weeks on the chart, it peaked at number 4 on February 10, 2001, becoming Madonna's 12th consecutive top-ten single. According to the Official Charts Company, the song has sold 185,000 copies there. In 2017, it was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for equivalent sales of 200,000 copies. "Don't Tell Me" was also successful across Europe: in Italy, it peaked at number one on the FIMI Singles Chart, while reaching the top-ten in Finland, Norway, Poland, Scotland and Spain. Across Europe, the song peaked at number two on the European Hot 100 Singles chart . It also topped the European Top 50 Radio for nine consecutive weeks and eventually became the continent's number-one radio song of 2001. ## Music video ### Background and synopsis Filming for the "Don't Tell Me" music video took place in October 2000. It was directed by Jean-Baptiste Mondino, who had previously collaborated with Madonna in her videos for "Open Your Heart" (1986), "Justify My Love" (1990), "Human Nature" (1995) and "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" (1996), while Jamie King was in charge of the choreography. King described the filming process: "[Mondino] really doesn't write a treatment so much. He may have an idea and Madonna and I really have lots of ideas and then I usually come up with a treatment style thing that he ends up executing and Madonna agrees to it. It's just a really great collaboration". The wardrobe was created by DSquared<sup>2</sup> and longtime Madonna collaborator Arianne Phillips. In a 2016 interview with Billboard, Phillips cited "Don't Tell Me" as one of her favorite Madonna style moments, saying that working with the singer is both rewarding and challenging. The video begins with Madonna—dressed in a blue plaid flannel shirt, dirty jeans, a large buckled belt and boots—walking on a desert highway faced towards the viewer. The camera zooms out to reveal that the highway in the background is actually a projection on a drive-in style backdrop and that Madonna is walking on a treadmill. Her walking freezes simultaneously with the song's silent dropouts. The clip then alternates between scenes of Madonna dancing by herself on the treadmill, playing with sand in a desert, and cowboys line dancing in the video backdrop. Later, the cowboys join the singer in a choreographed dance routine, with Madonna wearing a black western-style jacket, cowboy hat and suede chaps. Towards the end Madonna is seen riding a mechanical bull, while the final scene depicts a cowboy riding a Skewbald horse in slow motion, getting thrown to the ground and getting up again. ### Reception and analysis The New York Daily News' Jim Farber praised the choreography presented in the video, writing that it "lives up to the beauty of 'Open Your Heart', spiced with the zip of the peppiest new Gap ads". Steven Humphrey from The Portland Mercury, felt that the video departed from Mondino and Madonna's previous collaborations due to the following reasons: "[Madonna] is treated more like a set-piece [...] she's just there—not overtly sexual, not trying to prove any point, just there". Humphrey found references of Monidno's earlier work in the clip for "Don't Tell Me", including the "topsy-turvy projections and a placid, near-emotionless narrator" he displayed in singer Don Henley's music video for "The Boys of Summer" (1984). Digital Spy's Justin Harp felt that "the sight of Madonna wearing a cowboy hat and line dancing in the [video] still ranks as one of the iconic visuals from her four-decade career". Author Judith Periano wrote in her book Listening to the Sirens: Musical Technologies of Queer Identity from Homer to Hedwig that the video was comparable to the clip for Judy Garland's "Get Happy". Samuel R. Murrian opined that it "revolutionized cowboy chic". Santiago Fouz-Hernández and Freya Jarman-Ivens, authors of Madonna's Drowned Worlds, questioned whether the singer's portrayal of Western culture in the video was legitimate or if it was meant to be tongue-in-cheek, also criticizing the dancing cowboys. Farber added that "by putting her cowboys on a commercial billboard, [Madonna] not only acknowledges the absurdity of her playing a rural lass, she's implicitly questioning whether there's any difference left between authenticity and fakery in a media-driven world". According to Amy Herzog, the video inverts the traditional male gaze by directing it onto the fallen cowboy at the end — the subversion being a recurrent theme in Madonna's work from her music videos of the 1980s. During the 2001 MTV Movie Awards, hosts Kirsten Dunst and Jimmy Fallon parodied both the video and Madonna's cowgirl look. At one point, Fallon even dropped to the floor to cover himself in sand. The song "Do it With Madonna" by Australian rock band The Androids referenced the music video in the line "Have you seen her where she's wearing the cowboy hat and she's kicking the dirt?". In 2015, television show host Ellen DeGeneres re-created the video by superimposing herself as one of Madonna's cowboys. At the 10th annual Music Video Production Association Awards, which took place on May 16, 2001, the video won two awards: in the categories of Video of the year and Best direction for a female artist. It was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Music Video at the 44th ceremony and for Best Female Video and Best Choreography at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards. In 2009, the video was included on Madonna's compilation, Celebration: The Video Collection. ## Live performances On November 3, 2000, Madonna appeared on The Late Show with David Letterman, her first time on the show since her controversial appearance in 1994. She performed a slow version of "Don't Tell Me" on acoustic guitar; this marked the first time the singer played guitar in public. Dressed in a black bedazzled cowboy shirt and jeans, she was joined by Joe Henry. Shortly afterwards, she traveled to Europe to promote Music and performed "Don't Tell Me" on German TV show Wetten, dass..?. On November 24, she appeared on British television show Top of the Pops and performed both "Don't Tell Me" and "Music". Both songs were also performed during Madonna's visit to French television program Nulle Part Ailleurs that same week, as well as on Italian show Carràmba! Che fortuna. The song was also performed on the promotional concerts for Music, on November 5, 2000, at New York City's Roseland Ballroom, and on November 29 at London's Brixton Academy. During the performance Madonna sat on a bale of hay while Ahmadzaï played guitar. Her wardrobe consisted of a black tank top with the name Britney Spears written on it, cowboy hat and boots. For the London performance, Madonna wore a different t-shirt, with the names of her son Rocco and daughter Lourdes printed on it. On the Drowned World Tour (2001), Madonna performed "Don't Tell Me" as the second song of the Western-themed third act. Dressed as a cowgirl in a black jacket, stars and stripes blouse, a raccoon's tail as an accessory, cowboy hat and mud encrusted jeans with chaps, Madonna reenacted the song's music video with her dancers dressed as cowboys and did a line dance. Phill Gallo from Variety, was impressed with the number, pointing out that it was the tour's first to feature the singer and her dancers doing collective choreography. The performance on August 26, 2001, at The Palace of Auburn Hills, Detroit was recorded and released in the live video album, Drowned World Tour 2001. On May 9, 2003, Madonna performed "Don't Tell Me" at London's HMV Oxford Circus while promoting her ninth studio album American Life. During the Re-Invention World Tour (2004), Madonna performed a "funked-up" version of the song, which was included on the show's acoustic themed third act. She was decked in a black Stella McCartney suit with matching hat and again enacted the video's choreography with her dancers. The performance featured a French skyline as backdrop and sampled The Verve's "Bitter Sweet Symphony" (1997). On January 29, 2014, Madonna made a surprise appearance at singer Miley Cyrus' MTV Unplugged special, and performed a mashup of "Don't Tell Me" with Cyrus' 2013 song "We Can't Stop". Both singers were dressed in rhinestone cowboy outfits. They sang and finished each other's verses while bumping and grinding. Matthew Jacobs from The Huffington Post, wrote that "even if the vocals got a little shoddy toward the mashup's end – [Cyrus and Madonna] staged an impressive collaboration that didn't rely on the amplified production values associated with their typical performances". While on the Rebel Heart Tour (2015–2016), Madonna performed impromptu versions of "Don't Tell Me" on the Amsterdam, Antwerp and Turin stops. In March 2016, the song was included on the Melbourne stop of Madonna's Tears of a Clown show. She performed the song following a monologue aimed at an attendee who asked her why she was still performing into her mid-to-late 50s. On December, she repeated the performance at the Miami stop, which took place in the city's Faena Forum. One month earlier, she performed it during an impromptu acoustic concert at Washington Square Park in support of Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign. ## Track listings and formats - US CD single 1. "Don't Tell Me" (Album version) – 4:40 2. "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss' 2001 Hands in the Air Radio) – 4:26 - US maxi-CD single 1. "Don't Tell Me" (Timo Maas Mix) – 6:55 2. "Don't Tell Me" (Tracy Young Club Mix) – 11:01 3. "Don't Tell Me" (Vission Remix) – 7:52 4. "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss' 2001 Hands in the Air Anthem) – 10:20 5. "Don't Tell Me" (Victor Calderone Sensory Mix) – 6:48 6. "Don't Tell Me" (Vission Radio Mix) – 3:38 7. "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss' 2001 Hands in the Air Radio) – 4:26 8. "Don't Tell Me" (Music Video) - European 12-inch vinyl 1. A1 "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss Club Mix) – 7:53 2. A2 "Don't Tell Me" (Vission Remix) – 7:52 3. B1 "Don't Tell Me" (Tracy Young Club Mix) – 11:01 4. B2 "Cyber-Raga" – 5:31 - UK CD single 1 1. "Don't Tell Me" (Radio edit) – 4:10 2. "Cyber-Raga" – 5:31 3. "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss Club Mix) – 7:53 - UK CD single 2 1. "Don't Tell Me" (Album version) – 4:40 2. "Don't Tell Me" (Vission Remix) – 7:52 3. "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss Radio Mix) – 3:40 - Australian maxi-CD single 1. "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss' 2001 Hands in the Air Anthem) – 10:20 2. "Don't Tell Me" (Timo Maas Mix) – 6:55 3. "Don't Tell Me" (Victor Calderone Sensory Mix) – 6:48 4. "Don't Tell Me" (Tracy Young Club Mix) – 11:01 5. "Don't Tell Me" (Thunderpuss' 2001 Tribe-A-Pella) – 8:31 6. "Don't Tell Me" (Video) – 4:41 ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the CD single and Music. ### Management - Recorded at Sarm West Studios, Notting Hill, London - Mixed at Olympic Studios, London - Mastered at Metropolis Studios, London - Webo Girl Publishing, Inc., Warner Bros. Music Corp (ASCAP), 1000 Lights Music Ltd, Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corp. (BMI) ### Personnel - Madonna – songwriter, producer - Mirwais Ahmadzaï – songwriter, producer, programming, guitar, keyboard - Joe Henry – songwriter - Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing - Jake Davies – engineer - Mark Endert – engineer - Geoff Foster – engineer, string engineer - Michel Colombier – string arrangement - Kevin Reagan – art direction, design - Matthew Lindauer – design - Jean-Baptiste Mondino – photography ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## See also - List of number-one singles of 2001 (Canada) - List of number-one hits of 2000 (Italy) - List of number-one dance singles of 2001 (U.S.) - List of number-one singles in 2001 (New Zealand)
27,740,896	Trams in Rouen	1,171,041,081	Tram network in Rouen, Normandy, France	[ "1877 establishments in France", "1953 disestablishments in France", "600 mm gauge railways in France", "Defunct railroads", "Defunct town tramway systems by city", "History of Rouen", "Rapid transit lines", "Tram transport in France", "Transport in Rouen" ]	There have been two separate generations of trams in Rouen. The first generation tramway was a tram network built in Rouen, Normandy, northern France, that started service in 1877, and finally closed in 1953. There were no trams at all in Rouen between 1953 and 1994, when the modern Rouen tramway opened. Horse-drawn carriages and omnibuses had started at the end of the 18th century and progressively improved, but were no longer enough to provide urban services in an age of industrial and demographic growth. Local officials therefore adopted the tramway as a new mode of transport. At first they were horse-drawn, and later steam-powered; the tramway was electrified in 1896. The network spread quickly through various city-centre districts on the right bank of the Seine, to reach the suburbs of the northern plateau, the hills of Bonsecours in the east, skirting around the textile valley of the River Cailly in the west, crossing the river and serving, in the south, the suburbs and industrial districts of the left bank. At its largest it covered 70 kilometres (43 mi) of route, the longest network in France during the Belle Époque, and contributed to the success of events in the town's history, such as the Colonial Exhibition of 1896 and the Norman Millennium Festival of 1911. Although the 1920s saw a slight growth in traffic, the network's expansion slowed to a halt. Private motoring had arrived to put an end to its monopoly. The rising power of buses and trolleybuses, the Great Depression in France, and above all the Second World War that ravaged Rouen and Normandy, condemned the tramway to death. The last trams stopped running in 1953, after seventy-six years of service. However, in 1994, a new Rouen tramway came to the Norman capital. ## The first tramways ### Horse and steam Rouen was integrated into the French Kingdom after Philip II of France annexed Normandy in 1204, and it continued as one of the largest cities in the kingdom under the Ancien Régime. It prospered during the 19th century, with the traditional trades of textiles and Rouen manufactory (faïence) alongside the newer chemical and papermaking industries. The navigable Seine, emptying at Rouen, had been Parisians' route to the sea ever since the Middle Ages. Napoleon Bonaparte said "Rouen, Le Havre forment une même ville dont la Seine est la grand-rue" ("Rouen and Le Havre form a single town of which the Seine is the High Street"). Rouen and Orléans were the first large cities to be connected by rail to Paris, on 3 May 1843. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 – 1871, the economy of the First Industrial Revolution under the Second Empire, and the ever-growing population, obliged the Rouen city authorities to rethink the travel facilities both within the city centre and between it and the expanding suburbs. Urban services — always horse-drawn, either carriages or omnibuses on the most profitable routes — were not enough to satisfy the needs of a town that already numbered, with its suburbs, more than 170,000 people. From 1873 to 1875 the city fathers commissioned a study into building railways connecting the most populous areas of Rouen. A decree was signed on 5 May 1876, committing to a publicly owned standard gauge () network, and to horse-drawn carriages. Nine lines stretching 27,500 m (90,200 ft), or 1,370 chains were decreed: The town was authorised to tender construction and operation to one or more contractors. It quickly chose the only serious candidate, Gustav Palmer Harding, a British citizen. He was the continental representative of Merryweather & Sons, builders of steam tram engines. This decision knitted the close railway links between the city and Great Britain that remained for nearly half a century. Naturally, Mr Harding wanted to promote his company's machines, so he long made his views known to the municipal authorities. Finally convinced, they authorised him to use steam power from Maromme (Line 1), entering service on 29 December 1877. Merryweather & Sons, whose depot was on the Avenue du Mont-Riboudet, provided the tram units. Small and light — 4.7 tonnes (4.6 long tons; 5.2 short tons) — these reversible locomotives had two coupled axles, fully covered by a wooden body. They looked the same as a normal carriage so as not to frighten the horses. These steam carriages had enclosed lower decks; the upper decks were roofed but had open sides. The first steam trams of Léon Francq's design soon appeared on the Maromme line and coexisted with the horse-drawn tramways that served the city centre. ### Success and doubts The successful first line was soon extended to the Place Saint-Hilaire, opening on 1 June 1878. Harding then founded the Compagnie des Tramways de Rouen ("Rouen Tramways Company") (CTR) and started building new sections from the Town Hall to Mont-Riboudet (Line 8; opened 3 September 1878). He also started steam traction from Darnétal (Line 2; started 23 June 1879). On the other hand, the lines that went through narrow local streets remained horse-drawn when first opened: Line 4 (opened 3 October 1878), Line 5, (opening 12 December 1878), Line 6 (opened 6 February 1879), and Line 3 (opened 27 September 1879). Line 9 was not constructed because of technical difficulties. For more than six years, twenty-three locomotives coexisted with horse-drawn trams on the Rouen network. The speed and regularity of steam trams pleased passengers (the speed limit was 16 km/h (9.9 mph) between Mont-Riboudet and Maromme), but they were also expensive. The frequent stops let the boilers cool down, so coal consumption was high. Moreover, steam power angered both residents — who accused them of being dirty and rough-riding — and coachmen — whose animals were scared by the driver's horn and the "infernal" noise of the trains. Operation thus was totally horse-drawn from 1884. The CTR thus found itself in charge of a "cavalry" of around 350 horses, stabled at Trianon and Maromme, the depot at Mont-Riboudet having been disposed of. ### Electrification In 1895 the mediocrity of horse-drawn service and the prospect of the great Colonial Exposition (due to open in Rouen on 1 April 1896) made the town officials think of extension and electrification of the network. Councillors were sent on study trips both in France and abroad. One councillor even spent a year in the United States. At last, after much debate, the town accepted the CTR's proposals. Electrification was contracted to the company of Thomson Houston, who built the "first network", ten lines of standard gauge, either over new or re-laid tracks: ## Longest electric tramway in France ### Second network Infrastructure works and construction of the power station on the Rue Lemire were swiftly completed. The first electric locomotive entered service on 2 January 1896, the electrified network going live fifteen days ahead of schedule; the last horse-drawn tram saw service on 19 July on the Sotteville line. After teething troubles, the new mode of transport had considerable success: in 1896 it transported over fifteen million passengers. The tram sheds, holding 50 vehicles, were expanded to accommodate 25 more during the first year of service. These were classic tramcars with two axles, powered by two 25 hp (19 kW) motors (one on each axle), and had room for 40 passengers. With its popular success, the network could be completed: the Line 10 extension to Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray was opened on 16 April 1899, an 11th line was constructed from Maromme to Notre-Dame-de-Bondeville (opened 17 December 1899), and a 12th from the Church of Saint-Sever to the Saint-Maur sea wall (6 February 1908). The Rouen tramways had 37 km (23 mi) of lines, the largest electric network in France. Trams were up to three cars long and ran at 20 km/h (12 mph) at 20-minute intervals. The dynamism of public transport in Rouen was an inspiration to Baron Empain who, through the intermediary of his colleague Cauderay, proposed the creation of a second complementary network. He met numerous difficulties to which the CTR was no stranger, but on 17 July 1899, a new company to be called Traction Électrique E. Cauderay (a sister company of the better-known Companie Générale de Traction — CGT —) was granted the concession over five routes: The first services started on Line 1 on 18 January 1900, the other services starting on 10 May that year, but, facing competition from the CTR, the tramway from Petit-Quevilly was curtailed, its terminus becoming Rue Léon-Malétra. ### Towards monopoly The second network was far less efficient than the first; In 1901 the trams transported only 1.46 million passengers over 16 km (9.9 mi) of route, being 91,000 per route kilometre (56,500 per route mile). (In 1908, over 20 million people used public transport in Rouen, 19 million with the CTR, 1.6 million with the CGT.) In 1908 the CGT disposed of the second network to the Compagnie centrale de chemins de fer et de tramways because of administrative problems, a serious accident at Monumental on 6 November 1908 and a considerable deficit. This became an opportunity for the rival CRT, who in 1910 took over the CGT's running rights and so were finally rid of competition. The CTR was now master of all of the public transport in Rouen and its suburbs (having also absorbed the tramway and funicular railway of Bonsecours on 25 September 1909). It reorganised its service to be more integrated. It also expanded the service with later-running trams, and extended Line 12 first to Champ de Courses (opened 1 January 1910) then to Bois-Guillaume (opened 4 June 1911) and Mont-Saint-Aignan (opened 15 March 1913). This last section, running over the local authority's rails, connected Grand-Quevilly (Rue de l’Église) and, on a branch, the district of Petit-Quevilly (opened 1 August 1915). The network had grown to its largest, with 70 km (43 mi) of routes (including the tramway of Bonsecours). ### World War I World War I did not affect tram service in Rouen as much as it did elsewhere. After a short period of disruption during the great August 1914 mobilisation, the CTR maintained normal service during the four years of war. It overcame its reduced staffing levels with overtime, abolition of leave, and redeployment of depot personnel; nearly all conductors were promoted to motormen, to their great satisfaction. At the end of 1916, women (aged 24 or over in 1916, reduced to 23 or over in 1918) joined men on the trams, but, sexism at that time being the norm, the "wattwomen" (female motormen) were only allowed on the "easy" lines of Mont-Saint-Aignan, Bois-Guillaume and Monumental, and were not allowed on steep gradients. To satisfy military requirements, the network extended the Champ de Courses track to the Château du Madrillet, headquarters of an important BEF base. It also built a connection to transport the injured arriving by train at the Gare Saint-Sever to the main hospitals of Rouen. These installations, constructed in record time, disappeared when the war ended. ## Operational difficulties and closure ### Recovery and competition During World War I the track and rolling stock received little maintenance, and by the end of the war they were in a piteous state, while expenses had increased dramatically. The problem became a crisis after the serious fire at the Trianon depot on 30 November 1921, which destroyed 70 of the 155 trams of the CTR. Successive fare rises provided a stopgap, but with the new convention of 29 December 1923 the company announced a reorganisation of the network. A competitor had also arrived: the bus. Trams had always attracted criticism over their limited capacity, slowness and discomfort, and their encumbrance to motor cars in the city centre. Another accident on the Monumental line on 5 October 1925 hastened the inevitable: the trams lost their first route. ### Fightback through innovation Against these setbacks, the CTR still had a record year in 1928, with over 30 million journeys. But from 1929, the buses took to the narrow streets in the city centre, as well as routes with low tram traffic such as Chartreux, Maromme and the circular. The tramways continued as going concerns, and started large programmes of renovation and modernisation in the dozen or so years before World War II. Between 1928 and 1932, 75 first-generation trams were rebuilt to allow one man operation. The Rouen workshops presently devised two prototypes, of classical design, but with double folding doors at the front and safety devices (compressed air on one of the prototypes, electrical on the other) which became the basis for a series of 25 vehicles named "Nogentaises". 25 new trailing cars completed the new rolling stock. In 1931, a "revolutionary" pedal-controlled locomotive was built equipped with disc brakes, but lack of funds meant no more came of it. The 1930s also saw the arrival of the trolleybus, having the twin advantages of electrical traction and pneumatic tyres; these newcomers supplanted the old trams on the Mont-Saint-Aignan line from Sotteville and Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray. In 1938, the tram sheds were enlarged for the arrival of the "Parisiennes", ten reversible trams bought from Paris. ### World War II and after World War II hit Rouen hard, including its transport network. In 1939, before the war started, mobilisation and requisition had reduced the service frequency; the German advance, in 1940, blew up the city's bridges; on 9 June 1940 the Rouen Transporter Bridge was destroyed, which split the tram network in two until 1946. With the German occupation, the lines were progressively reopened. But service was reduced. Difficulties became such during this period that the directors of the CTR had to improvise mobile workshops. The heavy bombing raids of Spring 1944, in particular the destruction of the central part of the Rue Lemire, stopped the trams running. Nazi occupation ended on 30 August 1944 and Liberation slowly healed the town's wounds. It had been a catastrophe for the network: of the 76 trams in circulation in 1939, 24 had been destroyed and 25 damaged; track and overhead lines had been mutilated; the Trianon depot had been bombed several times Still, service was slowly restored, thanks to the staff's hard work and above all passengers' help in shunting trailing cars. In 1945, 38 locomotives and 14 trailing cars were operational, but, despite restoration of service across the Seine on 20 April 1946, the war had struck a fatal blow. Rouen was full of out-of-date equipment and so trams were progressively replaced by buses and trolleybuses. In March 1950 the municipality decided definitely to close the tramway, but its actual closure came somewhat later. It was not until Saturday, 28 February 1953 that the last tram ran on the Champ de Courses line, 76 years after the network's first service. But the Rouennaise did not forget the tram's services rendered, organising a first-class funeral: Just before the last scheduled run, a parade of honour made up of three trams ran from the Hôtel de ville to the Trianon depot, cheered by the crowds. ## Bonsecours funicular railway and tramway Bonsecours is a commune on a plateau to the southwest of Rouen. Until 1890 only an infrequent bus service linked it to Rouen. However, it attracted many hikers, with its splendid panoramas over the meandering Seine, and pilgrims visiting the shrine to the Virgin Mary. ### Early projects A first railway project for the mountain, later known by the name tramways de granit, was presented in 1876 by Cordier; it was one of the far-flung ideas that the railway companies often had in the 19th century. Because classical rail has poor adherence, Cordier designed a raceway made of two granite rails embedded in concrete with a continuous guide rail between them. The 2,200 m (110-chain) line, with a terminus at the Quai de la Bourse, would be served by steam carriages with a capacity of only 30 places, but capable of running on public streets as well as its special track. Because of its technical complexity the line would have been hugely expensive, the 1:1 gradient to Bonsecours requiring no fewer than 30 viaducts spanning overall 250 m (270 yd). The project was soon abandoned. ### Construction In 1892 Bonsecours was finally connected to the "world below" when two Swiss engineers, Ludwig and Schopfer, built a funicular railway with water-filled counterweights. On 8 June 1892 it was formally declared open to the public and first ran eleven days later on 19 June. This mountain railway, 400 m (20 chains) long and rising 132 m (433 ft), ran from the banks of the River Seine to the esplanade of the basilica. Each car could hold 90 people (50 seated), and its water tank could be filled in five minutes. There were twelve journeys each way daily, more on busier days. But the ferry service from its terminus at Eauplet to Rouen was irregular, and by the end of the century it had a dangerous rival: the tramway. At first, in 1899, the tramway was designed to be steam powered, but by 1895 this had changed to electromotive power. The line was built by the Compagnie du Tramway de Bonsecours (CTB), and first ran on 21 May 1899. It was 5,600 m (280 chains) between the two termini (the Pont Corneille and the crossroads in Le Mesnil-Esnard of the RN 14 and the Belbeuf roads), with timetabling of up to 7 trams. The trams had greater power than their Rouen counterparts, with 38 hp (28 kW) motors. They could climb steep gradients (up to 9:100) and could accommodate 48 passengers, with 42 more in a trailing car. ### New ownership and closure Seventy-two daily journeys each way brought the tramway success, and it transported nearly 700,000 passengers in 1901, compared to 140,000 for the funicular, which was clearly in a dire state financially (210,000 passengers in 1898). The figures were so catastrophic that on 25 November 1905 the CTB sacked the management of the railway, and liquidated the defunct Chemin Funiculaire d’intérêt local de Rouen-Eauplet au plateau de Bonsecours. Operations continued, and the CTR took over both tracks on 25 December 1909. Although the tramway was always well used (900,000 tickets sold in 1913), the clientele of the funicular continued to fall (30,000 tickets collected the same year), and some daily receipts were less than 1 franc. Lacking passengers, the funicular closed on 25 May 1915, and the tramway became the monopoly service for Bonsecours. This date should not be confused with that for the Rouen service, which continued until February 1953. ## Trianon tramway ### Left bank At the start of the 20th century the suburbs of the left bank were the quickest growing areas of Rouen, in particular the communes of Sotteville (a large railway town) and Grand-Quevilly, but these towns did not have good enough public transport. Although the CTR had constructed some lines, they did not well serve residents wishing for rapid transit between the suburbs and the city centre. Line 4 of the CTR, with its central terminus at Place Beauvoisine, ran only as far as the Trianon roundabout at the edge of the Jardin des Plantes. A southern extension was planned to the Bruyères roundabout, a meeting-point of several roads to the new districts, and to the racecourse where major horse racing events took place each Thursday. But it was always delayed. In 1903 a Sotteville man, M. Hulin, the owner and proprietor of the Château des Bruyères, grew tired of these delays and asked for the concession for a narrow gauge horse-drawn tramway, which would connect the Trianon roundabout to the racecourse via the Elbeuf road, being 2,000 m (99 chains) long. Two years passed in discussing the project's profitability (profit for both Hulin and M. Dagan, the engineer from the Corps of Bridges and Roads) and for tendering the construction of the line to a contractor other than the CTR. This time for reflection led to abandoning horse-drawn trams in favour of mechanical traction, and moving the terminus from the racecourse entrance to the vast cemetery that the authorities intended to build, close to a shooting range. The CTR did not oppose the line, which would not compete with their own, so it was made a Public Local Railway on 10 March 1905. ### Small train in town The line was put into service on 1 April 1906, well before the official opening date of 28 April. This short 2,200 m (110-chain) route, opened solely for passenger traffic, traced a rectangle between the Trianon roundabout and the racecourse, the narrow gauge rails being established beside the Rue d’Elbeuf between the trees lining the road and the fences separating adjacent land (much of which was owned by Hulin). Service was provided by two 24 hp (18 kW) diesel-electric locomotives, built by the Turgan workshops, each with room for 16 people, and the fuel depot was sited near to the racecourse. The service was particularly frequent: thirty journeys each way per day. The entire line took 10 minutes to traverse at a maximum speed of 25 km/h (16 mph). The first months' service did not meet Hulin's expectations; passenger numbers were much lower than expected, the coefficient of use was catastrophic: 0.39. In 1906 a law was passed instituting a weekly day of rest, so it was decided, from 12 January 1907, to extend the line 800 m (40 chains) to the Madrillet roundabout at the edge of the Rouvray Forest, which was popular for Sunday walks. This 3,000 m (150-chain) double-track extension was inaugurated on 27 August 1907. The same year, diesel-electric locomotives (whose "terrible noise" frightened the horses, to the chagrin of their owners) were replaced by electromotive traction. Two Orenstein & Koppel 0-4-0T steam locomotives headed two open carriages each taking 16 passengers. Their chimneys were fitted with spark arresters to prevent forest fires around Rouvray. ### Brief life The line was never profitable: the coefficient of use fell to 0.32 in 1907 and passenger numbers fell to 34,000 from the 60,000 previously. Except on Thursdays, horse racing day, and Sundays where the tramway took amorous walkers to the forest paths, the trams went with few passengers, often with none. What is more, the high number of return journeys reduced the possibility of making connections in Rouen: passengers on the small line may have had to wait a long time at the Trianon roundabout for a connection to the city centre. The situation so preoccupied the Compagnie du Tramway de Rouen-Trianon that in January 1908 it replaced Hulin, always the driving force, and asked the Conseil Général to authorise a reduction in service frequency. But it also proposed to use four-car trams instead of two-car trams on busy days. Although the departmental authorities accepted the extra cars, they would only allow the reduction of service with much red tape, as can be seen from this extract from the report of Soulier, the Conseiller général of Rouen: > Il est bien entendu que, du moment qu’il ne s’agit que d’un minimum, la Société restera toujours libre de mettre en marche le nombre de trains nécessaires pour transporter les voyageurs qui se présenteront, qu’elle satisfera à cette condition, son propre intérêt est garant, et, tout en donnant satisfaction plus complète au public, son matériel sera employé judicieusement, au lieu de rouler à vide pendant une partie de la journée au détriment de son entretien. Étant donné le peu de fréquentation de cette ligne les jours de semaine, sauf le jeudi (courses), on peut parfaitement admettre la réduction à 10 des voyages pour la partie allant du champ de courses àla forêt, mais, en ce qui concerne la partie du trajet de Trianon au champ de courses, il parait indispensable à l’ingénieur en chef (Lechalas) de maintenir le minimum de voyages à 30, sinon ce serait une sorte d’abandon de la ligne, car sur cette petite distance, il ne pourra s’établir un trafic appréciable qu’à condition de présenter des départs fréquents. It is well understood that, at the moment it is only a minimum, the Society is always free to put in place the number of trains necessary to transport passengers who present themselves, that if it will satisfy this requirement, its proper interest is guaranteed, and, in giving greater public satisfaction, its infrastructure will be wisely used, instead of it travelling empty for part of the day to the detriment of its business. Being given the lower frequency of service on weekdays and Saturdays, except Thursdays (racing), we can perfectly accept the reduction to ten trips to those going from the racecourse to the forest, but, concerning the part of the journey from Trianon to the racecourse, it is imperative that the Chief Engineer (Lechelas) keeps the minimum to 30, otherwise there will be a kind of abandonment of the line, because for this small distance, it will not be possible to get reasonable traffic with more frequent departures. The service modifications lowered operating expenses, but the coefficient of use went down dramatically: 0.33 for the first ten months of 1908. The decision to axe the line was made on 1 November 1908. Two strategic errors had been made: wanting a service independent of the CTR's network, and putting its terminus out of town. The railway was officially disbanded by a decree of 14 September 1911, the rails were lifted, the public highway restored; no trace of the tramway remains. ## Modern tramway In 1953 one of the largest electric tramways in France disappeared. But in the 1980s Rouen — and other large cities such as Nantes and Grenoble — decided that increasing traffic jams and the desire to diversify public transport needed a new mode of public transport. Discussions started in 1982 under the guidance of SIVOM (Syndicat intercommunal à vocations multiples, "Intercommune syndicate of several trades"), grouping together the communes of Greater Rouen (representing nearly 400,000 inhabitants). In 1986, CETE (Centre d’étude technique et de l’équipement, "Technical and construction study centre") put forward a report supporting construction of a modern tramway. A pre-project was launched in September 1987 and led to the Declaration of Public Utility on 22 April 1991. Construction work was undertaken by GEC-Alsthom and on 17 December 1994 the first line of the modern Rouen tramway was inaugurated. ## See also - Rouen tramway
4,283,435	Dusky shark	1,171,661,300	Species of shark	[ "Carcharhinus", "Fish described in 1818", "Fish of South Africa", "Fish of the Dominican Republic", "Fish of the Eastern United States", "Fish of the Mediterranean Sea", "Pantropical fish", "Vulnerable biota of Africa", "Vulnerable biota of Europe", "Vulnerable biota of South America", "Vulnerable fauna of Asia", "Vulnerable fauna of Oceania", "Vulnerable fish" ]	The dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, occurring in tropical and warm-temperate continental seas worldwide. A generalist apex predator, the dusky shark can be found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and adjacent pelagic waters, and has been recorded from a depth of 400 m (1,300 ft). Populations migrate seasonally towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter, traveling hundreds to thousands of kilometers. One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark reaches more than 4 m (13 ft) in length and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. It has a slender, streamlined body and can be identified by its short round snout, long sickle-shaped pectoral fins, ridge between the first and second dorsal fins, and faintly marked fins. Adult dusky sharks have a broad and varied diet, consisting mostly of bony fishes, sharks and rays, and cephalopods, but also occasionally crustaceans, sea stars, bryozoans, sea turtles, marine mammals, carrion, and garbage. This species is viviparous with a three-year reproductive cycle; females bear litters of 3–14 young after a gestation period of 22–24 months, after which there is a year of rest before they become pregnant again. This shark, tied with the Spiny dogfish as a result is the animal with the longest gestation period. Females are capable of storing sperm for long periods, as their encounters with suitable mates may be few and far between due to their nomadic lifestyle and low overall abundance. Dusky sharks are one of the slowest-growing and latest-maturing sharks, not reaching adulthood until around 20 years of age. Because of its slow reproductive rate, the dusky shark is very vulnerable to human-caused population depletion. This species is highly valued by commercial fisheries for its fins, used in shark fin soup, and for its meat, skin, and liver oil. It is also esteemed by recreational fishers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Endangered worldwide and Vulnerable off the eastern United States, where populations have dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. The dusky shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans due to its large size, but there are few attacks attributable to it. ## Taxonomy French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur published the first scientific description of the dusky shark in an 1818 issue of Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. He placed it in the genus Squalus and gave it the specific epithet obscurus (Latin for "dark" or "dim"), referring to its coloration. Subsequent authors have recognized this species as belonging to the genus Carcharhinus. Lesueur did not designate a type specimen, though he was presumably working from a shark caught in North American waters. Many early sources gave the scientific name of the dusky shark as Carcharias (later Carcharhinus) lamiella, which originated from an 1882 account by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert. Although Jordan and Gilbert referred to a set of jaws that came from a dusky shark, the type specimen they designated was later discovered to be a copper shark (C. brachyurus). Therefore, C. lamiella is not considered a synonym of C. obscurus but rather of C. brachyurus. Other common names for this species include bay shark, black whaler, brown common gray shark, brown dusky shark, brown shark, common whaler, dusky ground shark, dusky whaler, river whaler, shovelnose, and slender whaler shark. ## Phylogeny and evolution Teeth belonging to the dusky shark are fairly well represented in the fossil record, though assigning Carcharhinus teeth to species can be problematic. Dusky shark teeth dating to the Miocene (23-5.3 Ma) have been recovered from the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations in Carriacou, the Grenadines, the Moghra Formation in Egypt, Polk County, Florida, and possibly Cerro La Cruz in northern Venezuela. Teeth dating to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene (11.6-3.6 Ma) are abundant in the Yorktown Formation and the Pungo River, North Carolina, and from the Chesapeake Bay region; these teeth differ slightly from the modern dusky shark, and have often been misidentified as belonging to the oceanic whitetip shark (C. longimanus). Dusky shark teeth have also been recovered from the vicinity of two baleen whales in North Carolina, one preserved in Goose Creek Limestone dating to the Late Pliocene (c. 3.5 Ma), and the other in mud dating to the Pleistocene-Holocene (c. 12,000 years ago). In 1982, Jack Garrick published a phylogenetic analysis of Carcharhinus based on morphology, in which he placed the dusky shark and the Galapagos shark (C. galapagensis) at the center of the "obscurus group". The group consisted of large, triangular-toothed sharks with a ridge between the dorsal fins, and also included the bignose shark (C. altimus), the Caribbean reef shark (C. perezi), the sandbar shark (C. plumbeus), and the oceanic whitetip shark. This interpretation was largely upheld by Leonard Compagno in his 1988 phenetic study, and by Gavin Naylor in his 1992 allozyme sequence study. Naylor was able to further resolve the interrelationships of the "ridge-backed" branch of Carcharhinus, finding that the dusky shark, Galapagos shark, oceanic whitetip shark, and blue shark (Prionace glauca) comprise its most derived clade. ## Distribution and habitat The range of the dusky shark extends worldwide, albeit discontinuously, in tropical and warm-temperate waters. In the western Atlantic Ocean, it is found from Massachusetts and the Georges Bank to southern Brazil, including the Bahamas and Cuba. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it has been reported from the western and central Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and possibly elsewhere including Portugal, Spain, Morocco, and Madeira. In the Indian Ocean, it is found off South Africa, Mozambique, and Madagascar, with sporadic records in the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and perhaps the Red Sea. In the Pacific Ocean, it occurs off Japan, mainland China and Taiwan, Vietnam, Australia, and New Caledonia in the west, and from southern California to the Gulf of California, around Revillagigedo, and possibly off northern Chile in the east. Records of dusky sharks from the northeastern and eastern central Atlantic, and around tropical islands, may in fact be of Galapagos sharks. Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite evidence suggest that Indonesian and Australian sharks represent distinct populations. Residing off continental coastlines from the surf zone to the outer continental shelf and adjacent oceanic waters, the dusky shark occupies an intermediate habitat that overlaps with its more specialized relatives, such as the inshore sandbar shark, the pelagic silky shark (C. falciformis) and oceanic whitetip shark, the deepwater bignose shark, and the islandic Galapagos shark and silvertip shark (C. albimarginatus). One tracking study in the northern Gulf of Mexico found that it spends most of its time at depths of 10–80 m (33–262 ft), while making occasional forays below 200 m (660 ft); this species has been known to dive as deep as 400 m (1,300 ft). It prefers water temperatures of 19–28 °C (66–82 °F), and avoids areas of low salinity such as estuaries. The dusky shark is nomadic and strongly migratory, undertaking recorded movements of up to 3,800 km (2,400 mi); adults generally move longer distances than juveniles. Sharks along both coasts of North America shift northward with warmer summer temperatures, and retreat back towards the equator in winter. Off South Africa, young males and females over 0.9 m (3.0 ft) long disperse southward and northward respectively (with some overlap) from the nursery area off KwaZulu-Natal; they join the adults several years later by a yet-unidentified route. In addition, juveniles spend spring and summer in the surf zone and fall and winter in offshore waters, and as they approach 2.2 m (7.2 ft) in length begin to conduct a north-south migration between KwaZulu-Natal in the winter and the Western Cape in summer. Still-larger sharks, over 2.8 m (9.2 ft) long, migrate as far as southern Mozambique. Off Western Australia, adult and juvenile dusky sharks migrate towards the coast in summer and fall, though not to the inshore nurseries occupied by newborns. ## Description One of the largest members of its genus, the dusky shark commonly reaches a length of 3.2 m (10 ft) and a weight of 160–180 kg (350–400 lb); the maximum recorded length and weight are 4.2 m (14 ft) and 372 kg (820 lb) respectively. However, the maximum reported size of the species is 4.5 m (15 ft), while the maximum weight is reported to reach up to 500 kg (1,100 lb). Females grow larger than males. This shark has a slender, streamlined body with a broadly rounded snout no longer than the width of the mouth. The nostrils are preceded by barely developed flaps of skin. The medium-sized, circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). The mouth has very short, subtle furrows at the corners and contains 13-15 (typically 14) tooth rows on either side of both jaws. The upper teeth are distinctively broad, triangular, and slightly oblique with strong, coarse serrations, while the lower teeth are narrower and upright, with finer serrations. The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long. The large pectoral fins measure around one-fifth as long as the body, and have a falcate (sickle-like) shape tapering to a point. The first dorsal fin is of moderate size and somewhat falcate, with a pointed apex and a strongly concave rear margin; its origin lies over the pectoral fin free rear tips. The second dorsal fin is much smaller and is positioned about opposite the anal fin. A low dorsal ridge is present between the dorsal fins. The caudal fin is large and high, with a well-developed lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The dermal denticles are diamond-shaped and closely set, each bearing five horizontal ridges leading to teeth on the posterior margin. This species is bronzy to bluish gray above and white below, which extends onto the flanks as a faint lighter stripe. The fins, particularly the underside of the pectoral fins and the lower caudal fin lobe) darken towards the tips; this is more obvious in juveniles. Dusky sharks can be found at Redondo Beach, southern California to the Gulf of California, and to Ecuador. But sometimes rarely off southern California; common in tropics. Dusky sharks have a total length of at least 3.6 m (11.8 ft) or possibly to 4.2 m (13.8 ft). At birth, dusky sharks are about a length of 70–100 cm (27.6-39.3 in). In the surf zone, dusky sharks swim to a depth of 573 m (1,879 ft). Dusky sharks have a color of Gray or beige. ## Biology and ecology As an apex predator positioned at the highest level of the trophic web, the dusky shark is generally less abundant than other sharks that share its range. However, high concentrations of individuals, especially juveniles, can be found at particular locations. Adults are often found following ships far from land, such as in the Agulhas Current. A tracking study off the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina reported an average swimming speed of 0.8 km/h (0.50 mph). The dusky shark is one of the hosts of the sharksucker (Echeneis naucrates). Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Anthobothrium laciniatum, Dasyrhynchus pacificus, Platybothrium kirstenae, Floriceps saccatus, Tentacularia coryphaenae, and Triloculatum triloculatum, the monogeneans Dermophthirius carcharhini and Loimos salpinggoides, the leech Stibarobdella macrothela, the copepods Alebion sp., Pandarus cranchii, P. sinuatus, and P. smithii, the praniza larvae of gnathiid isopods, and the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). Full-grown dusky sharks have no significant natural predators. Major predators of young sharks include the ragged tooth shark (Carcharias taurus), the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), the bull shark (C. leucas), and the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). Off KwaZulu-Natal, the use of shark nets to protect beaches has reduced the populations of these large predators, leading to a dramatic increase in the number of juvenile dusky sharks (a phenomenon called "predator release"). In turn, the juvenile sharks have decimated populations of small bony fishes, with negative consequences for the biodiversity of the local ecosystem. ### Feeding The dusky shark is a generalist that takes a wide variety of prey from all levels of the water column, though it favors hunting near the bottom. A large individual can consume over a tenth of its body weight at a single sitting. The bite force exerted by a 2 m (6.6 ft) long dusky shark has been measured at 60 kg (130 lb) over the 2 mm<sup>2</sup> (0.0031 in<sup>2</sup>) area at the tip of a tooth. This is the highest figure thus far measured from any shark, though it also reflects the concentration of force at the tooth tip. Dense aggregations of young sharks, forming in response to feeding opportunities, have been documented in the Indian Ocean. The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses pelagic fishes, including herring and anchovies, tuna and mackerel, billfish, jacks, needlefish and flyingfish, threadfins, hairtails, lancetfish, and lanternfish; demersal fishes, including mullets, porgies, grunts, and flatheads, eels, lizardfish, cusk eels, gurnards, and flatfish; reef fishes, including barracudas, goatfish, spadefish, groupers, scorpionfish, and porcupinefish; cartilaginous fishes, including dogfish, sawsharks, angel sharks, catsharks, thresher sharks, smoothhounds, smaller requiem sharks, sawfish, guitarfish, skates, stingrays, and butterfly rays; and invertebrates, including gastropods, cephalopods, decapod crustaceans, barnacles, and sea stars. Very rarely, the largest dusky sharks may also consume sea turtles, marine mammals (mainly as carrion), and human refuse. In the northwestern Atlantic, around 60% of the dusky shark's diet consists of bony fishes, from over ten families with bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) being especially important. Cartilaginous fishes, mainly skates and their egg cases, are the second-most important dietary component, while the lady crab (Ovalipes ocellatus) is also a relatively significant food source. In South African and Australian waters, bony fishes are again the most important prey type. Newborn and juvenile sharks subsist mainly on small pelagic prey such as sardines and squid; older sharks over 2 m (6.6 ft) long broaden their diets to include larger bony and cartilaginous fishes. The run of the southern African pilchard (Sardinops sagax), occurring off the eastern coast of South Africa every winter, is attended by medium and large-sized dusky sharks. Pregnant and post-partum females do not join, possibly because the energy cost of gestation leaves them unable to pursue such swift prey. One South African study reported that 0.2% of the sharks examined had preyed upon bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). ### Life history Like other requiem sharks, the dusky shark is viviparous: the developing embryos are initially nourished by a yolk sac, which is converted into a placental connection to the mother once the yolk supply is exhausted. Mating occurs during spring in the northwestern Atlantic, while there appears to be no reproductive seasonality in other regions such as off South Africa. Females are capable of storing masses of sperm, possibly from multiple males, for months to years within their nidamental glands (an organ that secretes egg cases). This would be advantageous given the sharks' itinerant natures and low natural abundance, which would make encounters with suitable mates infrequent and unpredictable. With a gestation period estimated at up to 22–24 months and a one-year resting period between pregnancies, female dusky sharks bear at most one litter of young every three years. Litter size ranges from 3 to 16, with 6 to 12 being typical, and does not correlate with female size. Sharks in the western Atlantic tend to produce slightly smaller litters than those from the southeastern Atlantic (averaging 8 versus 10 pups per litter). Depending on region, birthing may occur throughout the year or over a span of several months: newborn sharks have been reported from late winter to summer in the northwestern Atlantic, in summer and fall off Western Australia, and throughout the year with a peak in fall off southern Africa. Females move into shallow inshore habitats such as lagoons to give birth, as such areas offer their pups rich food supplies and shelter from predation (including from their own species), and leave immediately afterward. These nursery areas are known along the coasts of KwaZulu-Natal, southwestern Australia, western Baja California, and the eastern United States from New Jersey to North Carolina. Newborn dusky sharks measure 0.7–1.0 m (2.3–3.3 ft) long; pup size increases with female size, and decreases with litter size. There is evidence that females can determine the size at which their pups are born, so as to improve their chances of survival across better or worse environmental conditions. Females also provision their young with energy reserves, stored in a liver that comprises one-fifth of the pup's weight, which sustains the newborn until it learns to hunt for itself. The dusky shark is one of the slowest-growing shark species, reaching sexual maturity only at a substantial size and age (see table). Various studies have found growth rates to be largely similar across geographical regions and between sexes. The annual growth rate is 8–11 cm (3.1–4.3 in) over the first five years of life. The maximum lifespan is believed to be 40–50 years or more. ## Human interactions ### Danger to humans The dusky shark is considered to be potentially dangerous to humans because of its large size, though little is known of how it behaves towards people underwater. As of 2009, the International Shark Attack File lists it as responsible for six attacks on people and boats, three of them unprovoked and one fatal. However, attacks attributed to this species off Bermuda and other islands were probably in reality caused by Galapagos sharks. ### Shark nets Shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia entangle adult and larger juvenile dusky sharks in some numbers. From 1978 to 1999, an average of 256 individuals were caught annually in nets off KwaZulu-Natal; species-specific data is not available for nets off Australia. ### In aquariums Young dusky sharks adapt well to display in public aquariums. ### Fishing The dusky shark is one of the most sought-after species for shark fin trade, as its fins are large and contain a high number of internal rays (ceratotrichia). In addition, the meat is sold fresh, frozen, dried and salted, or smoked, the skin is made into leather, and the liver oil is processed for vitamins. Dusky sharks are taken by targeted commercial fisheries operating off eastern North America, southwestern Australia, and eastern South Africa using multi-species longlines and gillnets. The southwestern Australian fishery began in the 1940s and expanded in the 1970s to yield 500–600 tons per year. The fishery utilizes selective demersal gillnets that take almost exclusively young sharks under three years old, with 18–28% of all newborns captured in their first year. Demographic models suggest that the fishery is sustainable, provided that the mortality rate of sharks under 2 m (6.6 ft) long is under 4%. In addition to commercial shark fisheries, dusky sharks are also caught as bycatch on longlines meant for tuna and swordfish (and usually kept for its valuable fins), and by recreational fishers. Large numbers of dusky sharks, mostly juveniles, are caught by sport fishers off South Africa and eastern Australia. This shark was once one of the most important species in the Florida trophy shark tournaments, before the population collapsed. ### Conservation The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Endangered worldwide. The American Fisheries Society has assessed North American dusky shark populations as Vulnerable. Its very low reproductive rate renders the dusky shark extremely susceptible to overfishing. Stocks off the eastern United States are severely overfished; a 2006 stock assessment survey by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) showed that its population had dropped to 15–20% of 1970s levels. In 1997, the dusky shark was identified as a Species of Concern by the NMFS, meaning that it warranted conservation concern but there was insufficient information for listing on the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Commercial and recreational retention of dusky sharks was prohibited in 1998, but this has been of limited effectiveness due to high bycatch mortality on multi-species gear. In addition, some 2,000 dusky sharks were caught by recreational fishers in 2003 despite the ban. In 2005, North Carolina implemented a time/area closure to reduce the impact of recreational fishing. To aid conservation efforts, molecular techniques using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been developed that can identify whether marketed shark parts (e.g. fins) are from prohibited species like the dusky shark, versus similar allowed species such as the sandbar shark. The New Zealand Department of Conservation has classified the dusky shark as "Migrant" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.
50,047,616	Espanto I	1,116,260,850	Mexican professional wrestler	[ "1930 births", "1968 deaths", "20th-century professional wrestlers", "Masked wrestlers", "Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champions", "Mexican National Tag Team Champions", "Mexican male professional wrestlers", "People from Torreón", "Professional wrestlers from Coahuila" ]	José Eusebio Vázquez Bernal (1930 – May 30, 1968), was a Mexican luchador, or professional wrestler from the mid-1950s until his death in 1968, best known under the ring name Espanto I (Spanish for "Terror I"), part of Los Espantos alongside his lifelong friend Fernando Cisneros Carrillo (Espanto II) and his younger brother Miguel Vázquez Bernal (Espanto III). As Los Espantos the three became one of the first "Identical teams" in Mexico. During his professional wrestling career Vázquez held the Mexican National Tag Team Championship once and the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship on three occasions. He lost his mask to El Santo in 1963 as a result of a long-running storyline feud between the two. In 2010 he was inducted into the Ciudad Juárez Lucha Libre Hall of Fame along with the other two Espantos. The team of Espanto I and Espanto II are considered among the best rudo (those that portray the bad guys) teams in the history of lucha libre. Vázquez, along with another wrestler, was killed during a bar fight in a Cantina in Monterrey, Nuevo León. Following Vázquez' death, both his brother and his best friend went into semi-retirement due to the loss. In the 1980s other wrestlers began using the Espanto name, such as his nephews who became Espanto IV and Espanto V and non-family members who were allowed to use the name such as Los Hijos del Espanto ("The Sons of Espanto"), Espanto Jr., Espantito and later on a second Espanto Jr. ## Early life José Eusebio Vázquez Bernal was born in 1933 (exact date is unknown) in the town of Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico. His younger brother Miguel was born in 1940. While in school Vázquez met and befriended Fernando Cisneros Carrillo. The friendship between the two was so strong that they considered each other brothers, and Cisneros' parents considered Vázquez as one of their own children. After leaving school they both went their separate ways, not seeing each other for two years, before they both ended up training at the same boxing gym. ## Professional wrestling career Records are unclear on exactly when Vázquez began to work as a luchador or professional wrestler, but it is known he started out in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua working for local lucha libre promoter Carlos "Gorila" Ramos under the name "El Torbellino Vázquez" ("Whirlwind Vázquez"). In the late 1950s Ramos decided to give Vázquez a new ring character, creating the enmascarado, or masked wrestler, character El Espanto ("the Terror" or "The Horror"). As El Espanto he would wear an all black and white ring gear, including a black mask with a broad, white cross on the front of the mask. A few months later Cisnero was given the character "Espanto II" (with Vázquez becoming "Espanto I") and thus the team of Los Hermano Espantos ("The Terror brothers") or Los Espantos was created. Ramos recommended Espanto I to the Mexico City promoters of Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ("Mexican Wrestling Enterprise"; EMLL) where he made his EMLL debut on December 16, 1959 in EMLL's Arena Coliseo. While Espanto I worked in Mexico City, Espanto II was gaining more experience locally before being called up to Mexico City as well. Los Hermanos Espanto made their debut as a team on January 24, 1961, winning a tag team tournament in their debut by defeating Tony López and Kiko Córcega in the finals. As a team they would remain undefeated for 34 weeks in a row on EMLL's regular Tuesday night show. Due to their success and fan reaction Los Espantos soon started working regularly on EMLL's Friday night Super Viernes show, EMLL's main show. During their run as a team they wrestled against Lou Thez, the visiting NWA World Heavyweight Champion, with Thez teaming up with Blue Demon on one occasion and Huracán Ramírez on another. In early 1962 Espanto I won his first ever Lucha de Apuestas, or bet match when he defeated Mr. Atlas, forcing him to unmask. The Lucha de Apuestas match is the most prestigious match type in lucha libre, especially when winning the mask of an opponent. On February 9, 1962 Espanto I defeated Cavernario Galindo in a Lucha de Apuestas, forcing his maskless opponent to have his hair shaved off as a result. While Galindo's career was waning at the time the victory was still considered a major accomplishment in Espanto I's young career. The following month Espanto I also unmasked Pantera Blanca ("The White Panther"). In November 1962 Espanto I and II were joined by Espanto III, Euseibo's younger brother Miguel, forming a regular trio. Outside of teaming with Espanto III, Espanto I and II also regularly teamed up with El Santo, often headlining shows across Mexico. Teaming with El Santo was part of a storyline where Espanto I and II would attack El Santo after a match, turning Santo to the tecnico side (those that portray the "good guys") in the process. On Jun 22, 1963, Espanto I, II and El Santo lost a match to Rito Romero, Rayo de Jalisco, and Henry Pilusso. Being disappointed with the loss Espanto II attacked El Santo, but ended up with his own mask torn up and his face covered in blood when El Santo fought back. At the first EMLL 30th Anniversary show Espanto II lost a Lucha de Apustas to Rubén Juárez and as a result was forced to unmask, being the first Espanto to lose his mask. Three weeks later, on September 27, 1963 at the second EMLL 30th Anniversary show, Epanto I defeated Rubén Juárez in a Lucha de Apuesta and forced Juárez to have his hair shaved off. The Apuesta victor was part of the build towards a mask versus mask match with El Santo. The two headlined a sold out show in Arena México where El Santo defeated Espanto I forcing him to unmask. After his unmasking he gave his name as "José Eusebio Vázquez Cisnero" just line Epsnato II had stated that his birth name was "Fernando Vázquez Cisnero", keeping the storyline relationship between the two intact. When Espanto III lost his mask he likewise stated that his last name was "Vázquez Cisnero". The Los Espantos trio got their biggest win ever when they defeated the "dream team" of Mexican tecnicos El Santo, Blue Demon and Mil Máscaras/ During that time period Los Espantos also formed a team with El Gladiador, often facing El Santo and various partners. One particularly heated match saw Los Espantos and El Gladiador fight their opponents, Ray Mendoza, René Guajardo, and Karloff Lagarde all the way back to the locker rooms in an era where such a thing was unheard of in Mexico. On September 14, 1963 Espanto I defeated Rubén Juárez to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship, one of the oldest championships in existence. In November 1963, he lost the championship to Ray Mendoza as part of a long-running rudo vs. rudo storyline between Los Espantos and Los Rebeldes (Mendoza, Guajardo and Lagarde). On October 30, 1964 Espanto I defeated American Roger Kirby in a Lucha de Apuestas, forcing Kirby to have his bleach blonde hair shaved off. In 1965 he became the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champion once more, defeating Alfonso Dantés. Later that year he would successfully defend the title against Mil Máscaras on the EMLL 32nd Anniversary Show, EMLL's biggest show of the year. on October 14, 1966 his second reign as the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champion comes to an end when he lost to El Santo. In 1966 Espanto I and II won the Mexican National Tag Team Championship from El Santo and Mil Máscaras, but would later lose the belts to El Santo and Mil Máscaras in a rematch. Espanto I became a three-time Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champion in March, 1967, holding it for three months before Mil Máscaras won the championship. ## Death and legacy On May 30, 1968, after a wrestling show in Monterrey, Nuevo León, Vázquez, and fellow wrestler Popeye Franco, were killed by a cantina owner during a fight. Records are unclear if Eusebio Vázquez had any children, but it is clear that the wrestler who later worked as Espanto Jr. and claimed to be the son of Eusebio Vázquez was not related at all. That Espanto Jr., Jesús Andrade Salas, was allowed to use the name by Espanto II. Later on other Espantos would follow in the footsteps of the character that Eusebio Vázquez created, including his nephews Espanto IV and V, Los Hijos del Espanto, Espantito, and a new Espanto Jr., son of the original Espanto. After the storyline with El Santo Los Espantos became one of the most reviled rudo trios in Lucha libre at the time. In 1999, the Mexican newspaper El Siglo de Torreón stated that the team of Espanto I and Espanto II was considered one of the best rudo teams in the history of lucha libre. The statement was echoed by SuperLuchas Magazine in 2010 when they wrote an obituary after Espanto II died. ## Championships and accomplishments - Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre \Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship (3 times) \Mexican National Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Espanto II - Chihuahua State wrestling \*Ciudad Juárez Lucha Libre Hall of Fame (2010) ## Luchas de Apuestas record ## See also - List of premature professional wrestling deaths
34,122,342	Henri L'Estrange	1,131,943,553	Australian funambulist and aeronautical balloonist	[ "1842 births", "19th-century circus performers", "Australian balloonists", "Australian circus performers", "People from Melbourne", "Tightrope walkers", "Year of death missing" ]	Henri L'Estrange, known as the Australian Blondin, was an Australian successful funambulist and accident-prone aeronautical balloonist. Modelling himself on the famous French wire-walker Charles Blondin, L'Estrange performed a number of tightrope walks in the 1870s, culminating in three walks across Sydney's Middle Harbour in 1877. He remains the only tightrope performer ever to have walked across a part of Sydney Harbour. L'Estrange was an early balloonist, and attempted a series of flights in the early 1880s – one being successful, one ending in Australia's first emergency parachute descent, and the last culminating in a massive fireball causing property damage, personal injury and a human stampede. He tried to return to his original career of tightrope walking but, with new forms of entertainment, humiliating falls and other Blondin imitators, he found success elusive. Public benefits were held in his honour to recoup financial losses and he dabbled in setting up amusement rides but ultimately he faded from public attention and was last recorded to be living in Fitzroy, Victoria in 1894. ## Early life Henri L'Estrange was born about 1842 in Fitzroy, a suburb of Melbourne. Little is known of his early years, family or private life. ## Early performances He first came to public attention in 1873 as a member of a Melbourne performance group, the Royal Comet Variety Troupe, a gymnastic, dancing and comedic vocal combination with Miss Lulu L'Estrange and Monsieur Julian. As part of this troupe, L'Estrange performed in Melbourne and Tasmania throughout 1873 and 1874, with Henri and Lulu performing together on the tightrope. In 1876, L'Estrange performed solo for the first time in Melbourne, and quickly gained a reputation as a fearless performer. Tightrope walking had grown in popularity in Australia through the 1860s, following reports reaching the Australian Colonies of the exploits of the great French walker, Charles Blondin, who crossed Niagara Falls in 1859. By the mid-1860s, Australian wire walkers (funambulists) were modelling themselves on Blondin, copying his techniques, with several even calling themselves "the Australian Blondin". The popularity of the name surged after the original Blondin visited Australia in 1874, performing his highwire act in Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne. By the mid-1880s, there were at least five "Blondins" performing regularly in Sydney and elsewhere. L'Estrange began using the moniker "the Australian Blondin" from early 1876. Arriving in Sydney from Melbourne, L'Estrange erected a large canvas enclosure in The Domain and began a regular series of performances on the tightrope, copying the location and stunts of the real Blondin who had performed there in August 1874. His opening night on 26 January 1877 attracted a reported crowd of between two and three thousand people. Newspaper reports commented that his performance was so like that of the original Blondin that people could be forgiven for thinking they had seen the world-renowned rope-walker. With his rope suspended 40 feet (12 metres) above the ground, L'Estrange walked backwards and forwards, walked in armour, walked covered in a sack, used and sat on a chair, cooked and rode a bicycle, all on the rope. His show also included a fireworks display for the public's entertainment. L'Estrange performed in the Domain from January through to April 1877, but not without incident. On 7 February 1877, as L'Estrange neared the end of his wire act, sparks from the fireworks going off around him fell into the nearby store of gunpowder and fireworks, igniting them. The store's shed was demolished, a surrounding fence knocked down, part of L'Estrange's performance tent caught fire, and two young boys were injured. ## Sydney Harbour crossing In late March 1877, advertisements began to appear in the Sydney newspapers for L'Estrange's proposed harbour crossing. The first public performance was set for Saturday 31 March, with L'Estrange having organised 21 steamers to convey spectators from Circular Quay to a special landing stage close to his performance area. L'Estrange advised those wishing to see his performance to travel on his steamers as they were the only ones with permission to land passengers. This, of course this did not stop other entrepreneurs and captains from carrying spectators of their own. Whilst the event was profitable L'Estrange considered that the majority of viewers were non-paying "dead-heads". Prior to the public performance, L'Estrange undertook the crossing for a select audience including members of the press. That crossing was a success, and was well reviewed in the papers, no doubt adding to the crowd's anticipation for the Saturday show. Bad weather postponed the performance, which did not go ahead until 14 April. At 1 o'clock on Saturday 14 April, the steamers began leaving Circular Quay, conveying 8,000 of an estimated 10,000-strong crowd to Middle Harbour – a large crowd considering the alternative attractions that day of Sydney Royal Easter Show (known then simply as "the Exhibition") and horse racing. The remainder were reported to be walking from St Leonards, with a toll being collected along the way. Spectators clambered up the sides of the bay for vantage points, while hundreds more stayed on board steamboats, yachts and in row boats below. The rope was strung across the entrance to Willoughby Bay, from Folly Point to the head of the bay, a reported length of 1,420 feet (430 m), 340 feet (100 m) above the waters below. The distance meant that two ropes were required, spliced together in the centre, to reach the other side, with 16 stays fixed to the shore and into the harbour to steady the structure. > Everything being ready, precisely at 4 o'clock L'Estrange come out of his tent on the eastern shore, dressed in a dark tunic and a red cap and turban. Without hesitation or delay he stepped onto the narrow rope, and, with his heavy balancing-pole, at once set out on his journey across the lofty pathway. As has been before stated, the rope is stretched across the harbour at a great altitude, the width apparently being three hundred yards. At the western end it is higher than at the eastern, and as the weight of the rope causes a dip in the centre, the western end is at a considerable incline. Starting off amidst the cheers of the spectators, L'Estrange walked fearlessly at the rate of eighty steps to a minute across the rope, until he reached a spliced part near the centre, some twenty feet in length, which he passed more deliberately. Then he stood on his right foot, with his left resting against his right leg. This feat being safely accomplished, he dropped onto his knee, and afterwards sat down and waived [sic] his handkerchief to the crowd of spectator. Next he lay on his back along the rope. Resuming the sitting posture, he took out a small telescope and for a moment or two surveyed the onlookers, who warmly applauded his performances. Raising the balancing pole, he lifted one foot onto the rope, then the other, and continued his walk. He took a few steps backward and then proceeded up the inclined part of the rope steadily to the western shore, at the slower speed of about sixty steps a minute, the rope swaying considerably as he went. The remaining part of the distance was safely traversed, the last few steps being walked more quickly: and the intrepid performer stepped on terra firma amidst the enthusiastic cheers of the spectators, the inspiring strains of the bands of music, and the shrill whistling of the steamers. The successful crossing was greeted with enthusiastic cheers, the tunes of the Young Australian Band, the Albion Brass Band and Cooper and Bailey's International Show Band, who had all come to entertain the crowds, and the shrilling of the steamers' whistles. L'Estrange soon reappeared in a small row boat to greet the crowds, although many had already rushed the steamers to leave, resulting in a few being jostled into the harbour. While the Illustrated Sydney News proclaimed it a truly wonderful feat, performed with the greatest coolness and consummate ability, not all of Sydney's press were so enthusiastic. The Sydney Mail questioned the worth of such a performance beyond the profits made, commenting that it was, "...a mystery to many minds why such large concourses of people should gather together to witness a spectacle which has so little intrinsic merit. There is nothing about it to charm the taste or delight the fancy." Despite the criticism, L'Estrange performed at least once more at Middle Harbour, although crowds were down to a few hundred, requiring only four steamers to transport them. The same night he was guest of honour at a testimonial dinner held at the Victoria Theatre where The Young Australian Band played "The Blondin March", a piece composed specially by their conductor Mr J. Devlin. He was presented with a large gold star, engraved with a scene of his latest triumph, the date of his public performance. Measuring 3 inches (76 mm) across, it was centred with a 11⁄2 carat diamond and suspended by a blue ribbon to a clasp featuring the Australian coat of arms in silver. An illuminated address and a bag of sovereigns, collected from his admirers, were also given. L'Estrange thereafter took his show on the road, going first to Brisbane in May 1877, and reportedly afterwards to Singapore, England and America. ## Ballooning In April 1878, L'Estrange reappeared on the Australian scene with a new performance – gas ballooning. The first balloon ascent in Australia had been made in Melbourne in 1853, with Sydney following five years later in December 1858. The idea that people could be lifted from the ground to fly and return safely fired the imagination of the public, and the novelty of balloon ascents continued to draw large crowds through the 1860s and 1870s. No doubt the very real chance of disaster and injury added to the crowd's keen interest, as mishaps were not uncommon. L'Estrange came to Sydney with his balloon in November 1878, accompanied by reports of successful flights already made in India and The Sydney Morning Herald offered a confident appraisal of L'Estrange's new venture: > L'Estrange's] balloon has been fitted with the newest applications, amongst others a parachute, which in the event of anything going wrong, would prevent the too rapid descent of the aerial voyager. Another novelty is the fixing of bags of sand round the mesh which covers the balloon, the principle of which is that by emptying these, and so lessening the weight, the balloon will ascend. The process is chiefly intended to be an easy method of avoiding buildings... He is perfectly confident that he will prove successful in travelling amongst the regions of the clouds, and, if so it will prove an agreeable variety after the many failures we have had. In a letter to the Sydney City Council, L'Estrange sought permission for the use of the Exhibition grounds in Prince Alfred Park, behind Central railway station for his first attempt. L'Estrange struggled to fill the balloon through the afternoon of 17 November 1878, with gas supplied by the Australian Gas Light Company. By 5pm, the crowd was getting restless and L'Estrange decided to attempt liftoff, despite the balloon not being fully inflated. To lighten the load he removed the car in which he was to sit and instead sat in a loop of rope. The balloon managed only to drag him across the park before clearing the fenceline and landing on a railway truck in the yards of Central railway station next to the park. L'Estrange blamed the failure on having been supplied with "dense" gas and a filling pipe that was too narrow and leaky. L'Estrange wrote to the Council again, this time asking for permission to use Belmore Park for a second attempt. Much like his first attempt, the second ended in failure. Once again the balloon took much of the day to fill, with the lift going ahead at 5 pm on the afternoon of 7 December 1878. The first attempt dragged him approximately 100 yards (91 m) through the crowd. Returning to the start point, L'Estrange tried again, shooting up into the air approximately 50 feet (15 m) and sailing away towards the south, before descending again and being dragged across the park. The crowd feared the balloon would crash but once more it lifted, up and over the roof of Carters' Barracks. L'Estrange, realising that the balloon was not going to lift higher, threw out the anchor, which caught in the spouting of a building and threw the balloon into the drying yard of the Benevolent Asylum, where it caught in the washing lines and wires and was practically destroyed. Still, L'Estrange's place in Sydney hearts had been established and a well-attended benefit was held at the Theatre Royal on 19 December 1878. L'Estrange survived an even more disastrous attempt in Melbourne less than six months later at the grounds of the Agricultural Society in a balloon named Aurora. Having been supplied with a much higher quality gas from the Metropolitan Gas Company he miscalculated the speed at which the balloon would ascend. Having floated much higher than originally anticipated the balloon greatly expanded and a weak seam in the calico fabric suddenly burst. L'Estrange had the presence of mind to deploy the silk parachute which slowed the rate of descent. His landing was softened by a tree and although severely shaken, L'Estrange was uninjured. The whole journey took nine minutes. The "catastrophe" was widely reported with the story appearing in local newspapers in Adelaide, Canberra, Sydney and Brisbane within the week. This was the first emergency descent by parachute in Australia, predating the Caterpillar Club by over 50 years. Despite these setbacks, L'Estrange persisted, returning to Sydney in August 1880 to prepare for another attempt. Success finally came with a flight on 25 September 1880 from Cook Park, Northwards over the Garden Palace and Sydney Harbour to Manly. ### Final balloon flight Buoyed by his achievement, L'Estrange set himself a second flight day in March 1881. With his reputation already well known in Sydney, and a successful flight on record, a crowd of over 10,000 turned up in the Outer Domain. As a result of high atmospheric pressure and heavy dew weighing down the balloon, inflation took longer than anticipated, and the crowd grew restless. The officer representing the company supplying the gas also refused to provide a new supply. L'Estrange was presented with what was described as a "Hobson's choice", "...either to abandon the attempt and risking being seriously maltreated by the mob, or proceed heavenwards without the car, accepting the attendant [risks] of such an aerial voyage." He chose the latter and the lift commenced at 9.30 pm with L'Estrange sitting in a loop of rope much like his attempt three years previously. At first all seemed well, as the balloon lifted above the heads of the crowd, hovering for a moment before first heading over Hyde Park. He described the rest of his voyage in a letter to a friend: > I then got into a westerly current that took me out to sea, on which I determined to come down to mother earth without delay, but picture to yourself my horror when I found the escape valve would not act. I tried with all the strength of the one hand I had to spare to move it, for with the other I had to hold myself in the loop of rope, but all to no purpose, it would not budge an inch. In sheer desperation I took the valve rope in both hands, and it opened with a bang ; but in the effort I had lost my seat in the loop, falling about six feet, and there I was dangling in mid air, clutching the valve rope, the gas rushing out of the balloon as though she had burst... Managing to right himself, he became faint from the escaping gas and lashed himself to the ropes to prevent a fall. Realising the attempt was now a danger to himself and the balloon, L'Estrange set out the grappling hooks to catch onto something and bring the balloon down. However the ropes had become tangled and the hooks were too short. L'Estrange's balloon descended rapidly over the rooftops of Woolloomooloo, slamming into a house near the corner of Palmer Street and Robinson Lane. L'Estrange managed to disentangle himself and fell first onto a chimney then a shed 25 feet (7.6 m) below. He scrambled down from the rooftops to a waiting mob, who whisked him away to Robinson's hotel on the William Street corner and would not let him leave. At the crash site, during an attempt to free the balloon, the escaping gas was ignited when the resident of the house opened a window to see what the commotion was and the gas came into contact with the open flame of the room's chandelier. The resulting fireball destroyed the balloon, burnt a number of bystanders and was bright enough to "...cast a brief but vivid illumination over the entire suburb". A panicked crush developed as groups tried to both flee from and rush towards the brief, but extremely bright, conflagration while those further away at the launch site assumed L'Estrange had been killed. Several people were injured in the crush or burned by the fire with one lady reportedly being blinded. Although a Masonic benefit was held in his honour to try to recoup some of his financial losses, the fiasco spelt the end of L'Estrange's aeronautical career. ## Return to tightrope walking In a change of direction in March 1882, L'Estrange applied to the Sydney City Council to establish a juvenile pleasure gardens at the Paddington Reservoir. The fun park was to have a variety of rides, a maze, merry-go-round and a donkey racecourse. L'Estrange proposed the park to be free entry with all monies being made via the sale of refreshments on site. While he was given permission, the park does not appear ever to have opened. Following the disastrous balloon attempt and the failed pleasure grounds, L'Estrange decided to return to what he knew best, tightrope walking. In April 1881 L'Estrange, given top billing as "the hero of Middle Harbour", performed at the Garden Palace on the high-rope as part of the Juvenile Fete, with other acrobats, contortionists and actors. With proof of the continuing popularity of the rope act, he decided to return to his greatest triumph; the spectacular crossing of the harbour in 1877 which had still not been repeated. On 23 December 1882, L'Estrange advised the public that he would cross the harbour once more, this time riding a bicycle across Banbury Bay, close to the site of his original success. As with his previous crossings, steamers took the crowds from Circular Quay, although this time only four were needed, while another 600–700 people made their own way to the site. The ride was scheduled for 3 pm on 23 December, but delays meant L'Estrange did not appear until 6 pm. Although the length of rope was over 182 metres, it was only just over nine metres above the water. The stay wires were held in boats on either side, with the crews rowing against each other to keep it steady. L'Estrange rode his bicycle towards the centre, where, with the rope swinging to and fro, he stopped briefly to steady himself but instead, realising he was losing his balance, he was forced to leap from the rope and fell into the water below. Although he was unhurt, it was another knock to his reputation. A repeat attempt was announced for the following weekend. Again steamers took a dwindling crowd to Banbury Bay where they found L'Estrange's rope had been mysteriously cut, and he cancelled the performance. The Daily Telegraph reported that many in the crowd, who had paid for tickets on the steamers, felt they had been scammed. ## Late career With his reputation in tatters after the balloon crash and the attempted second harbour crossing, L'Estrange slowly slipped out of the public eye. In December 1883 he was reported as performing again on the highwire at the Parramatta Industrial Juvenile exhibition. While his act attracted favourable publicity, "his efforts were not received with the amount of enthusiasm they certainly deserved". In April 1885 a benefit was held for L'Estrange, again at the Masonic Lodge, like the one held after his balloon misadventure. It was advertised that the benefit, under the patronage of the Mayor and Aldermen of Sydney, and with Bill Beach, world champion sculler in attendance, was prompted because L'Estrange had "lately met with a severe accident". The nature of the accident is unknown, but it is speculated to have been a fall from his tightrope, explaining the end of his performances. His apparent decline in popularity may have been as much a reflection of the public's changing taste for entertainment as it was a comment on his act. By the time L'Estrange returned to Sydney to attempt his second harbour crossing in 1882, the city was awash with Blondin imitators performing increasingly dangerous, and probably illegal, feats. At least five were performing in Sydney from 1880 under variations of the title from the "Young Blondin" (Alfred Row) to the "Blondin Brothers" (Alexander and Collins), the "Great Australian Blondin" (James Alexander), the "original Australian Blondin" (Collins), the "Great Australian Blondin" (Signor Vertelli), the "Female Australian Blondin" (Azella) and another "Australian Blondin" (Charles Jackson). In 1886 L'Estrange again applied to the Sydney City Council for permission to establish an amusement ride called "The Rocker" in Belmore Park. The Rocker consisted of a boat which, propelled by horsepower, gave the impression of being at sea. Permission was granted but like his juvenile pleasure grounds, there is no evidence that it was ever erected. After this, L'Estrange slipped from view in Sydney. In 1894 Edwin L'Estrange "who a few years ago acquired some celebrity as the Australian Blondin" appeared in court in Fitzroy, Victoria having been knocked down and run over by a horse and buggy being driven by a commercial traveller. The driver was fined and L'Estrange's injuries are not recorded. ## Other 'Australian Blondins' It appears L'Estrange was the first 'Australian Blondin', but several others used the name, such as Alfred Row as the Young Blondin, and James Alexander as the great Australian Blondin. ## In popular culture A children's book featuring L'Estrange's exploits entitled The Marvellous Funambulist of Middle Harbour and Other Sydney Firsts was published in 2015.
25,721	Red Dwarf	1,173,060,872	British comedy science fiction programme	[ "1980s British comic science fiction television series", "1980s British sitcoms", "1988 British television series debuts", "1990s British comic science fiction television series", "1990s British sitcoms", "2000s British comic science fiction television series", "2000s British sitcoms", "2010s British comic science fiction television series", "2010s British sitcoms", "2020s British comic science fiction television series", "2020s British sitcoms", "Androids in television", "BBC science fiction television shows", "BBC television sitcoms", "Black British sitcoms", "British science fiction television shows", "British television series revived after cancellation", "Dave (TV channel) original programming", "English-language television shows", "Fiction about asteroid mining", "Fiction set in the 7th millennium or beyond", "Red Dwarf", "Space adventure television series", "Space pirates", "Television series based on radio series", "Television series by BBC Studios", "Television series set in the future", "Television series set on fictional planets", "Television shows filmed at Pinewood Studios" ]	Red Dwarf is a British science fiction comedy franchise created by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor, which primarily consists of a television sitcom that aired on BBC Two between 1988 and 1999, and on Dave since 2009, gaining a cult following. The series follows low-ranking technician Dave Lister, who awakens after being in suspended animation for three million years to find that he is the last living human, and that he is alone on the mining spacecraft Red Dwarf—save for a hologram of his deceased bunkmate Arnold Rimmer and "Cat", a life form which evolved from Lister's pregnant cat. As of 2020, the cast includes Chris Barrie as Rimmer, Craig Charles as Lister, Danny John-Jules as Cat, Robert Llewellyn as the sanitation droid Kryten, and Norman Lovett as the ship's computer, Holly. To date, twelve series of the show have aired, (including one miniseries), in addition to a feature-length special The Promised Land. Four novels were published from 1989 to 1996. Two pilot episodes of an American version of the show were produced but never aired. The magazine The Red Dwarf Smegazine was published from 1992 to 1994. One of the series' highest accolades came in 1994 when an episode from the sixth series, "Gunmen of the Apocalypse", won an International Emmy Award in the Popular Arts category. In the same year, the series was also awarded "Best BBC Comedy Series" at the British Comedy Awards. The series attracted its highest ratings, of more than eight million viewers, during the eighth series in 1999. The revived series on Dave has consistently delivered some of the highest ratings for non-Public Service Broadcasting commissions in the UK. Series XI was voted "Best Returning TV Sitcom" and "Comedy of the Year" for 2016 by readers for the British Comedy Guide. In a 2019 ranking by Empire, Red Dwarf came 80th on a list of the 100 best TV shows of all time. ## Setting and plot The main setting of the series is the eponymous mining spaceship Red Dwarf. In the first episode, set sometime in the late 21st century, an on-board radiation leak kills everyone except lowest-ranking technician Dave Lister, who is in suspended animation at the time, as punishment for smuggling a cat aboard the ship. The cat, Frankenstein, who is revealed to be pregnant, is safe in the cargo hold. Following the accident, the ship's computer Holly keeps Lister in stasis until the radiation levels return to normal—a process that takes three million years. Lister therefore emerges as the last human being in the universe—but not alone on board the ship. His former bunkmate and immediate superior Arnold Judas Rimmer (a character plagued by failure) is resurrected by Holly as a hologram to keep Lister sane. They are joined by a creature known only as Cat, who was initially thought to be the last member of a race of humanoid felines that evolved in the ship's hold from Lister's pregnant cat during the three million years that Lister was in stasis. In season 1 episode 3 Waiting for God, it was revealed that the cat priest had also survived, and was living in the hold of the ship. The series revolves around Lister being the last human alive, after three million years of travel from Earth, with his companions. The crew encounter phenomena such as time distortions, faster-than-light travel, mutant diseases and strange lifeforms (all evolved from Earth, because the series has no aliens) that had developed in the intervening millions of years. Though it has a science fiction setting, much of the humour comes from the interactions of the characters, particularly the laid-back Lister and the stuck-up Rimmer. Despite the pastiche of science fiction used as a backdrop, Red Dwarf is primarily a character-driven comedy, with science fiction elements used as complementary plot devices. Especially in the early episodes, a recurring source of comedy was the Odd Couple-style relationship between the two central characters of the show, who have an intense dislike for each other yet are trapped together deep in space. In Series III, the computer Holly changes from male (Norman Lovett) to female (Hattie Hayridge), and the mechanoid Kryten (who had appeared in one episode in Series II) joins the crew and becomes a regular character. In Series VI, a story arc is introduced where Red Dwarf has been stolen, and the crew pursue it in the smaller Starbug craft, with the side effect that the character Holly disappears. Series VII is also set in Starbug. Early in series VII, Rimmer departs (due to actor Chris Barrie's commitments) and is replaced by Kristine Kochanski, Lister's long-term love interest, from an alternate universe. Kochanski becomes a regular character for Series VII and VIII. At the end of Series VII, we learn that Kryten's service nanobots, which had abandoned him years earlier, were behind the theft of the Red Dwarf at the end of series five. At the beginning of the eighth series, Kryten's nanobots reconstruct the Red Dwarf, which they had broken down into its constituent atoms. As a consequence, Series VIII features the entire original crew of Red Dwarf resurrected (except for the already-alive Lister and Kochanski), including a pre-accident Rimmer and the original male Holly. The series ends with a metal-eating virus loose on Red Dwarf. The entire crew evacuate save the main cast (Lister, Rimmer, Cat, Kryten, and Kochanski), whose fates are unresolved in a cliffhanger ending. Series IX onwards revert to the same four main characters of Series 3–6 (Lister, Rimmer, Cat and Kryten), on Red Dwarf and without Kochanski or Holly; Rimmer reappears as a hologram once again. While it was left unmentioned whether the Rimmer on board ship is the one who originally left, the revived version, or a third incarnation entirely (episodes have alluded to him remembering events from both previous incarnations' lives); with the release of The Promised Land, series-creator Doug Naylor confirmed in 2020 that the Rimmer from Back To Earth onwards is the original Rimmer, having returned from his time being Ace Rimmer. ## Characters and actors - Craig Charles as David "Dave" Lister: A third-class technician on the Red Dwarf, who was the lowest-ranking of the 169 original crew members, and alone survived the accident due to being in stasis as punishment for smuggling an unquarantined cat on board. A Scouser and self-described "bum" who has a good heart but is also very lazy, he has a long-standing desire to return to Earth and start a farm and/or diner on Fiji (which is under three feet of water following a volcanic eruption), but is left impossibly far away by the accident, which renders him the last known surviving member of the human race. He likes Indian food, especially chicken vindaloo, which is a recurring theme in the series. - Chris Barrie as Arnold Judas Rimmer: A second-class technician on the Red Dwarf who is Lister's bunkmate and direct superior. The second-lowest-ranking member of the original crew, he is responsible for the accident that killed the entire crew except for Lister; although Rimmer himself did not survive, Holly, considering him to be the person most likely to keep Lister sane, selects him to be the ship's one available hologram, recreating Rimmer's appearance and personality as he was before his death. Now the de facto leader of the Red Dwarf, he is despised by the rest of the crew due to his fussy, bureaucratic, neurotic, insecure, and cowardly personality, and has a particularly conflictual relationship with Lister. During Series VII, Rimmer leaves the dimension shared by his crewmates to become his swashbuckling dimensional counterpart, Ace Rimmer. However, pre-hologram Rimmer, along with the rest of the original crew, is resurrected by nanobots at the start of Series VIII; after coming face to face with Death at the end of the series, whom he kicks in the groin, he is once again a hologram from Series IX onwards, although the circumstances that led to this are never fully explained. - Danny John-Jules as the Cat: A humanoid creature with cat-like teeth who evolved from the offspring of Lister's smuggled pet cat Frankenstein. The Cat or simply "Cat" (who is never given an actual name) is self-centered and concerned with little other than sleeping, eating, and fawning over his appearance, and tends not to socialise with other members of the crew in early episodes. Over time, he grows closer to his crewmates and becomes a useful part of the crew. Unlike his human companions, he has a "cool" sounding pulse, six nipples, and colour-coordinated internal organs. - Norman Lovett (regular series I-II, VIII, The Promised Land; guest series VII, XII) and Hattie Hayridge (guest series II; regular series III-V) as Holly: The ship's computer who appears on screens as a floating head and originally has a functional IQ of 6000 but, as a result of remaining alone without any maintenance during the three million years Lister is in stasis, develops "computer senility". Although Holly is male during the first two series, they become female between series 2 and 3, taking the voice and appearance of Hilly, an alternative version of themselves encountered in the Series II finale and with whom they had fallen in love. Following an unexplained absence in Series VI, male Holly returns in the Series VII finale. Between Series VIII and IX, Lister's bath overflows and the water gets into Holly's circuitry, causing them to malfunction and go offline. In The Promised Land, the discovery of a backup drive allows the return of male Holly, originally with their memory and IQ rebooted, but eventually back to their usual dysfunctional self. - David Ross (guest series II) and Robert Llewellyn (regular series III-present) as Kryten 2X4B-523P: A sanitation android rescued by the crew from the crashed spaceship Nova 5 in the first episode of series 2, after having spent countless years continuing to serve the ship's crew without realising they had been long dead; bound by his "behavioural protocols", he is taught independent thinking by Lister and leaves the Red Dwarf on a space bike to enjoy his newfound freedom. Between series II and II, he is rescued by the crew after his space bike crashed on an asteroid and has become part of the Red Dwarf crew; however, the accident led to his face appearing permanently different. Categorised as a "series 4000 service mechanoid", he keeps on maintaining the Red Dwarf, while also showing himself very resourceful due to his proficiency with technology and encyclopedic knowledge of the universe; he maintains a strong friendship with Lister throughout the series. - Clare Grogan (recurring series I; guest series II, VI) and Chloë Annett (regular series VII-VIII; guest series IX) as Kristine Kochanski: A navigation officer in the original Red Dwarf crew whom Lister had a crush on (later retconned to be his ex-girlfriend) and whose memory he had cherished ever since. After appearing in several episodes following her death, once directly due to Lister time travelling and later as various individuals impersonating her, an alternate version of Kochanski from a universe in which she, not Lister, is the last living human, joins the series' main universe and the Red Dwarf crew in the series VII episode "Ouroboros". As part of the crew, she progressively gets closer to Lister, while struggling to overcome her past romantic relationship with her original universe's Lister, and has a conflictual relationship with Kryten, who is jealous of the interest Lister has for her. Between series VIII and IX, she is no longer part of the crew, and is believed by Lister to be dead; it is later revealed that she had actually fled the ship when it became clear Lister's complete lack of self-respect and indulgence on excesses was slowly killing him, which greatly depressed her; Kryten, the only one aware of her departure, pretended to have witnessed her death to avoid hurting Lister's feelings even more. After learning the truth, Lister hopes to reunite with her one day. In addition to Grogan and Annett, Suzanne Rhatigan and Anastasia Hille portray false versions of Kochanski in episodes of series 4 and series 5 respectively, while Holly Earl portrays a younger version of her in an episode of series 8. ## Production The first series aired on BBC2 in 1988. Eleven full series and one miniseries have so far been produced, and a feature length special was released in 2020. ### Concept and commission The concept for the show was originally developed from the sketch series Dave Hollins: Space Cadet on the BBC Radio 4 show Son of Cliché in the mid-1980s, written by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor. Their influences came from films and television programmes such as Star Trek (1966), Silent Running (1972), Alien (1979), Dark Star (1974) and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1981), but also had a large element of British-style comedy and satire thrown into the mix, ultimately moulded into the form of a sitcom. Having written the pilot script in 1983, the former Spitting Image writers pitched their unique concept to the BBC, but it was rejected on fears that a science fiction sitcom would not be popular. It was finally accepted by BBC North in 1986, a result of a spare budget being assigned for a second series of Happy Families that would never arise and producer Paul Jackson's insistence that Red Dwarf should be filmed instead. The show was lucky to be remounted after an electricians' strike partway through rehearsals in early 1987 shut the entire production down (the title sequence was filmed in January 1987). The filming was rescheduled for September, and the pilot episode finally made it onto television screens on 15 February 1988. Despite the commission of further series, the cast felt like "outsiders" at the BBC. Co-creator Doug Naylor attributed this to the show getting commissioned by BBC Manchester, but filming at Shepperton Studios near where the cast lived in London. When the show won an International Emmy Award in 1994, Naylor's attempts to have the cast invited to a party thrown by the BBC proved futile when they objected to Craig Charles' and Danny John-Jules' inclusion, claiming they were "fire risks". ### Casting Alan Rickman and Alfred Molina auditioned for roles in the series, with Molina being cast as Rimmer. However, after Molina had difficulties with the concept of the series, and of his role in particular, the role was recast and filled by Chris Barrie, a professional voice actor and impressionist who had previously worked with both the writers on Spitting Image and with the producers on Happy Families and Jasper Carrott productions. Craig Charles, a Liverpudlian "punk poet", was given the role of Dave Lister. He was approached by the production team for his opinion about the "Cat" character, as they were concerned it may be considered by people as racist. Charles described "Cat" as "pretty cool" and after reading the script he decided he wanted to audition for the part of Dave Lister. Laconic stand-up comedian Norman Lovett, who had originally tried out for the role of Rimmer, was kept in the show as Holly, the senile computer of the titular ship. A professional dancer and singer, Danny John-Jules, arriving half an hour late for his appointment, stood out as the Cat immediately. This was partly due to his "cool" exterior, dedicated research (reading Desmond Morris's book Catwatching), and his showing up in character, wearing his father's 1950s-style zoot suit. ### Writing, producing and directing Grant and Naylor wrote the first six series together (using the pseudonym Grant Naylor on the first two novels and later as the name of their production company, although never on the episodes themselves). Grant left in 1995, to pursue other projects, leaving Naylor to write series VII and VIII with a group of new writers, including Paul Alexander and actor Robert Llewellyn (who portrayed the character Kryten). For the most part, Ed Bye produced and directed the series. He left before series V due to a scheduling clash (he ended up directing a show starring his wife, Ruby Wax) so Juliet May took over as director. May parted ways with the show halfway through the series for personal and professional reasons and Grant and Naylor took over direction of the series, in addition to writing and producing. Series VI was directed by Andy de Emmony, and Ed Bye returned to direct series VII and VIII. Series I, II and III were made by Paul Jackson Productions, with subsequent series produced by the writers' own company Grant Naylor Productions for BBC North. All eight series were broadcast on BBC Two. At the beginning of series IV, production moved from BBC North's New Broadcasting House in Manchester to Shepperton. ### Theme song and music The opening theme tune, closing theme tune, and incidental music were written and performed by Howard Goodall, with the vocals on the closing theme tune by Jenna Russell. The first two series used a relatively sombre instrumental version of the closing theme for the opening titles; from series III onwards this switched to a more upbeat version, with Goodall singing on vocoder, the line "Red Dwarf" four times in the second half of the song. Goodall also wrote music for the show's various songs, including "Tongue Tied", with lyrics written by Grant and Naylor. Danny John-Jules (credited as 'The Cat') re-orchestrated and released "Tongue Tied" on 11 October 1993; it reached number 17 on the UK charts. Goodall himself sang "The Rimmer Song" heard during the series VII episode "Blue", to which Chris Barrie mimed. ### Remastered In 1998, on the tenth anniversary of the show's first airing (and between the broadcast of series VII and VIII), the first three series of Red Dwarf were remastered and released on VHS. The remastering included replacing model shots with computer graphics, cutting certain dialogue and scenes, re-filming Norman Lovett's Holly footage, creating a consistent set of opening titles, replacing music and creating ambient sound effects with a digital master. The remastered series were released in a 4-disc DVD box set "The Bodysnatcher Collection" in 2007. ### Hiatus Four years elapsed between series VI and VII, partly due to the dissolving of the Grant and Naylor partnership, but also due to cast and crew working on other projects. When the series eventually returned, it was filmised and no longer shot in front of a live audience, allowing for greater use of four-walled sets, location shooting, and single-camera techniques. When the show returned for its eighth series two years later, however, it had dropped use of the filmising process and returned to using a live audience. The show received a setback when the BBC rejected proposals for a series IX. Doug Naylor confirmed in 2007 that the BBC decided not to renew the series as they preferred to work on other projects. A short animated Christmas special was, however, made available to mobile phone subscribers the same year. Ultimately, however, fans had to wait a decade before the series finally returned to television. ### Revival #### Red Dwarf: Back to Earth In 2008, a three-episode production was commissioned by the digital channel Dave. Red Dwarf: Back to Earth was broadcast over the Easter weekend of 2009, along with a "making of" documentary. The episode was set nine years after the events of "Only the Good..." (with the cliffhanger ending of that episode left unresolved, a situation that would continue with series X). The storyline involves the characters arriving back on Earth, circa 2009, only to find that they are characters in a TV show called "Red Dwarf". Kochanski is supposedly dead and Holly is offline due to water damage caused by Lister leaving a tap running. Actress Sophie Winkleman played a character called Katerina, a resurrected hologram of a Red Dwarf science officer intent on replacing Rimmer. To achieve a more cinematic atmosphere, Back to Earth was not filmed in front of a studio audience. Some previous Red Dwarf episodes had been shot in that way ("Bodyswap" and all of the seventh series), but Back to Earth represented the first time that a laughter track was not added before broadcast. It was also the first episode of Red Dwarf to be filmed in high definition. The specials were televised over three nights, starting on Friday 10 April 2009. The broadcasts received record ratings for Dave; the first of the three episodes represented the UK's highest-ever viewing figures for a commissioned programme on a digital network. Back to Earth was released on DVD on 15 June 2009, and on Blu-ray on 31 August 2009. Back to Earth was subsequently described on the series' official website as "for all intents and purposes, the 'ninth series' of Red Dwarf". This placement was confirmed when Series X was commissioned and branded as the tenth series, although Back to Earth continues not to be referred to as "Series IX" on home media or digital releases. #### Red Dwarf X On 10 April 2011, Dave announced that it had commissioned a six-episode series X to be broadcast on Dave in late 2012. Filming dates for the new series Red Dwarf X were announced on 11 November 2011, along with confirmation that the series would be shot at Shepperton Studios in front of an audience. Principal filming began on 16 December 2011 and ended on 27 January 2012, and the cast and crew subsequently returned for six days filming pick-ups. Discounting guest stars, only the core cast of Charles, Barrie, Llewellyn and John-Jules returned for Series X, with Annett and Lovett absent, though the scripts include references to Kochanski and Holly. On 20 July 2012, a 55-second trailer for series X was released on Facebook, followed by a new "teaser" every Friday. The new series debuted on Thursday 4 October 2012. #### Red Dwarf XI and XII Following series X, which attracted high viewing figures, Dave, Doug Naylor and the cast showed strong interest in making another series. During the Dimension Jump fan convention in May 2013, Doug Naylor stated that discussions were ongoing with all involved parties and while arrangements had not been finalised, he hoped shooting could begin in February 2014. In October 2013, Robert Llewellyn posted on his blog, stating that "an eleventh series would happen" and that it would be "sometime in 2014". Llewellyn later removed the post from his blog and Doug Naylor issued a statement on Twitter, saying: "Getting tweets claiming Red Dwarf XI is commissioned. Not true. Not yet." However, in January 2014, Danny John-Jules stated that the eleventh series of Red Dwarf was in the process of being written. At the April 2014 Sci-Fi Scarborough Festival, during the Red Dwarf cast panel, Danny John-Jules stated that filming of the eleventh series would commence in October 2014, with an expected release of Autumn 2015 on Dave. On 2 May 2015, at the Dimension Jump XVIII convention, Naylor announced that an eleventh and a twelfth series had been commissioned. The two series would be shot back-to-back towards the end of 2015 for broadcast on Dave in 2016 and 2017, respectively, and would be co-produced by Baby Cow Productions, with company CEO, Henry Normal, executive producing the new episodes. Series XI and XII were filmed back-to-back at Pinewood Studios between November 2015 and March 2016. The eleventh series premiered on UKTV's video on demand service UKTV Play on 15 September 2016, a week ahead of its broadcast transmission on 22 September. On 8 September 2017, it was announced that Red Dwarf XII would begin broadcasting on Dave on 12 October 2017, and on 15 September 2017 it was further announced that each episode would preview a week earlier via the UKTV Play video on demand service, effectively meaning that series 12 would be starting on 5 October 2017. #### Red Dwarf: The Promised Land In late May 2019, in a radio interview, Robert Llewellyn stated that a thirteenth series was happening and in June of that year, Danny John-Jules stated that it was expected to be wrapped up by the end of 2019. However, in October 2019, UKTV announced that a 90-minute feature-length special would be produced instead, to be filmed from December 2019 to January 2020, with location filming scheduled for November. Three 60-minute documentaries were also announced to accompany it, intended to act as a retrospective of all previous 12 series. In January 2020, the first publicity photos of the special were released, with Ray Fearon revealed as the first confirmed guest actor portraying Rodon, the "leader of the feral cats". In February 2020, the day before the 32nd anniversary of when Red Dwarf first aired, a synopsis was given by the official Red Dwarf website: "The special will see the posse meet three cat clerics (Tom Bennett, Mandeep Dhillon, Lucy Pearman) who worship Lister as their God. Lister vows to help them as they're being hunted by Rodon, the ruthless feral cat leader (Ray Fearon) who has vowed to wipe out all cats who worship anyone but him." Al Roberts was also added to the cast in an undisclosed role and Norman Lovett officially announced to be returning as Holly following his one-off guest spot in Series XII. On 10 March 2020, in an exclusive with Radio Times, a teaser trailer was released. A rough release date of sometime in April was given and, a day later on 11 March 2020, the official Twitter account for Dave revealed the title of the television film: Red Dwarf: The Promised Land. ## Themes Red Dwarf was founded on the standard sitcom focus of a disparate and frequently dysfunctional group of individuals living together in a restricted setting. With the main characters routinely displaying their cowardice, incompetence and laziness, while exchanging insulting and sarcastic dialogue, the series provided a humorous antidote to the fearless and morally upright space explorers typically found in science-fiction series, with its main characters acting bravely only when there was no other possible alternative. The increasing science-fiction elements of the series were treated seriously by creators Rob Grant and Doug Naylor. Satire, parody and drama were alternately woven into the episodes, referencing other television series, films and books. These have included references to the likes of 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), Top Gun (1986), RoboCop (1987), Star Wars (1977), Citizen Kane (1942), The Wild One (1953), High Noon (1952), Rebel Without a Cause (1955), Casablanca (1942), Easy Rider (1969), The Terminator (1984), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Isaac Asimov's Robot series (1939–85) and the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. The writers based the whole theme of some episodes on the plots of feature films. The series III episode "Polymorph" references and parodies key moments from Alien (1979); from series IV, "Camille" echoes key scenes from Casablanca (1942), while "Meltdown" borrows the main plot from Westworld (1973). For series IX, "Back to Earth" was partially inspired by Blade Runner (1982). The series' themes are not limited to films or television, having also incorporated historical events and figures. Religion also plays a part in the series, as a significant factor in the ultimate fate of the Cat race, and the perception of Lister as their 'God', both in the episode "Waiting for God" (whose title makes a literary reference to the Samuel Beckett play Waiting for Godot), as well as the crew meeting a man whom they believe to be Jesus Christ in series X episode "Lemons". The series VII episode "Ouroboros" derives its name and theme from the ancient mythological snake of the same name. The third episode of series VI, "Gunmen of the Apocalypse", was based on the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. The series explores many science-fiction staples such as time-travel paradoxes (including the grandfather paradox), the question of determinism and free will (in several episodes), the pursuit of happiness in virtual reality and, crucially to the show's premise of Lister being the last human, the near-certainty of the human species' extinction sometime in the far future. Aliens do not feature in the series, as Grant and Naylor decided very early in the process that they did not want aliens involved. This is usually addressed with Rimmer's belief in extraterrestrial life being shot down, as with a vessel he believes to be an alien ship (which turns out to be a garbage pod). However, there are non-human life forms such as evolutions of Earth species (e.g. the cat race), robotic or holo-life forms created by humans, and a "genetically engineered life form" (GELF), an artificially created creature. Simulants and GELFs frequently serve as antagonists during the later series of the show. ## Hallmarks The series developed its own distinct vocabulary. Words and phrases such as hologrammatic [sic], dollarpound, bazookoids, Felis sapiens, Simulants, GELF, space weevil, and Zero Gee Football appear throughout the series, highlighting a development in language, political climate, technology, evolution and culture in the future. The creators also employed a vocabulary of fictional expletives to avoid using potentially offensive words in the show and to give nuance to futuristic colloquial language; in particular, "smeg" (and variants such as "smegging", "smegger", and "smeg-head") features prominently, alongside the terms "gimboid", "goit" and "Gwenlan". ## Episodes ## Ratings ### Red Dwarf I ### Red Dwarf VIII ### Back to Earth ### Red Dwarf X ### Red Dwarf XI ### Red Dwarf XII ### The Promised Land ## Reception and achievements ### Critical reception The changes made to the series' cast, setting, creative teams, and even production values from series to series have meant that opinions differ greatly between fans and critics as to the quality of each series. In the "Great Red Dwarf Debate," published in Volume 2, Issue 3 of the Red Dwarf Smegazine, science fiction writers Steve Lyons and Joe Nazarro argue about the pros and cons of the early series versus the later series. Lyons states that the show "once had was a unique balance of sci-fi comedy, which worked magnificently." Nazarro agrees that "the first two series are very original and very funny," but goes on to say that "it wasn't until series III that the show hit its stride." Discussions revolve around the quality of series VI, seen by one reviewer as just as good as the earlier series', but criticised by another reviewer as a descent into formulaic comedy with an unwelcome change of setting. The changes seen in series VII disappointed some; while much slicker and higher-budget in appearance, the shift away from outright sitcom and into something approaching comedy drama was seen by one reviewer as a move in the wrong direction. The attempt to shift back into traditional sitcom format for series VIII was greeted with a response that was similarly lukewarm. There was criticism aimed at the decision to resurrect the entire crew of Red Dwarf, as it was felt this detracted from the series' central premise of Lister being the last human being alive. There are other critics who feel that series VII and VIII are no weaker than the earlier series, however, and the topic is the subject of constant fervent debate among the show's fanbase. The return of the series on Dave has been met with a mostly positive reception. ### Achievements Although the pilot episode of the show gathered over four million viewers, viewing figures dipped in successive episodes and the first series had generally poor ratings. Through to series VI, ratings steadily increased and peaked at over six million viewers, achieved with the episode "Gunmen of the Apocalypse." When the series returned in 1999, it gained the highest audience figures yet—over eight million viewers tuned in for series VIII's opening episode "Back in the Red: Part I". The series has won numerous awards including the Royal Television Society Award for special effects, the British Science Fiction award for Best Dramatic Presentation, as well as an International Emmy Award for series VI episode "Gunmen of the Apocalypse", which tied with an Absolutely Fabulous episode, "Hospital," in the Popular Arts category. The show had also been nominated for the International Emmy Award in 1987, 1989 and 1992. Series VI won a British Comedy Award for 'Best BBC Comedy Series.' The video sales have won eight Gold Awards from the British Video Association, and the series still holds the record for being BBC Two's longest-running, highest-rated sitcom. In 2007, the series was voted 'Best Sci-Fi Show Of All Time' by the readers of Radio Times magazine. Editor Gill Hudson stated that this result surprised them as 'the series had not given any new episodes this century'. In January 2017, series XI was voted "Best Returning TV Sitcom" and "Comedy of the Year" for 2016 by readers for the British Comedy Guide. A year later, Red Dwarf was once again voted "Best Returning TV Sitcom" for series XII, retaining the title from British Comedy Guide. ## Spin-offs and merchandise The show's logo and characters have appeared on a wide range of merchandise. Red Dwarf has also been spun off in a variety of different media formats. For instance, the song "Tongue Tied," featured in the "Parallel Universe" episode of the show, was released in 1993 as a single and became a top 20 UK hit for Danny John-Jules (under the name 'The Cat'). Stage plays of the show have been produced by Blak Yak, a theatre group in Perth, Western Australia, who were given permission by Grant Naylor Productions to mount stage versions of certain episodes in 2002, 2004 and 2006. In October 2006, an Interactive Quiz DVD entitled Red Dwarf: Beat The Geek was released, hosted by Norman Lovett and Hattie Hayridge, both reprising their roles as Holly. In 2005, Grant Naylor Productions and Studio Hubris, in conjunction with Across the Pond Comics, collaborated to produce the spin-off webcomic Red Dwarf: Prelude to Nanarchy. ### Novels Working together under the name "Grant Naylor," the creators of the series collaboratively wrote two novels. The first, Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers, was published in November 1989, and it incorporates plot lines from several episodes of the show's first two series. The second novel, Better Than Life, followed in October 1990, and it is largely based on the second-series episode of the same name. Together, the two novels provide expanded backstory and development of the series' principal characters and themes. The authors began work on a sequel to Better than Life, called The Last Human, but Rob Grant was drawn away from Red Dwarf by an interest in other projects. Still owing Penguin Publishing two more Red Dwarf novels, Grant and Naylor decided to each write an alternative sequel to Better than Life. Two completely different sequels were made as a result, each presenting a possible version of the story's continuation. Last Human, by Doug Naylor, adds Kochanski to the crew and places more emphasis on the science-fiction and plot elements, while Rob Grant's novel Backwards, is more in keeping with the previous two novels, and borrows more extensively from established television stories. An omnibus edition of the first two novels was released in 1992, including edits to the original text and extra material such as the original pilot script of the TV series. All four novels have been released in audiobook format, the first two read by Chris Barrie, Last Human read by Craig Charles, and Backwards read by author Rob Grant. In December 2009, Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers was released in Germany with the title Roter Zwerg ("Red Dwarf" in German). #### List of Red Dwarf novels ### Home video releases The first eight series of Red Dwarf were released on VHS but not in the order of the series as broadcast. Series III (1989) was released on home video in 1991, followed by series II (1988) and series IV (1991) in 1992. Series I was released on VHS in 1993; at the time, that series had not been repeated on television since its original broadcast in 1988. Series V (1992) was released on video in 1994, followed by series VI (1993) in 1995, series VII (1997) in 1997, and series VIII (1999) in 1999. For the initial release of the VHS editions, episodes of Red Dwarf were separated and two volumes released for each series (except series VII and VIII, which were released on three separate tapes), labelled 'Byte One' and 'Byte Two' (plus 'Byte Three' for series VII and VIII, although in Australia, series VII and VIII were released in two volumes each, with four episodes per tape). These videos were named after the first episode of the three presented on the tape, as was typical with other BBC video releases at the time. However, on occasions the BBC decided to ignore the original running order and use the most popular episodes from the series to maximise sales of the videos: for series III (the first-ever release), "Bodyswap" and "Timeslides" were swapped round, so that the latter could receive top billing on the second VHS volume; for the second VHS volume of series I, "Confidence and Paranoia" was given top billing, even though the original broadcast order was retained; this was due to the leading episode being "Waiting for God" which shared its name with the title of another comedy series (set in a retirement home); and for series V, "Back to Reality" and "Quarantine" were given top billing on their respective video release, which completely re-organised the order of episodes from that in which they were originally broadcast. Future releases would increasingly observe authenticity with the 'original broadcast' context, although Byte Two of Red Dwarf VI was titled "Polymorph II: Emohawk" despite the lead-off episode's actual title of "Emowhawk: Polymorph II." Three episodes of series VII were also released as special "Xtended" [sic] versions with extra scenes (including an original, unbroadcast ending for the episode "Tikka To Ride") and no laugh track; the remastered versions of series I–III were also released individually and in a complete box-set. Finally, two outtake videos were released, both hosted by Robert Llewellyn in character as Kryten: Smeg Ups in 1994, and its sequel, Smeg Outs, in 1995. #### DVD releases The first eight series have been released on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4, each with a bonus disc of extra material. Each release from series III onwards also features an original documentary about the making of each respective series. Regions 2 and 4 have also seen the release of two Just the Shows, digipack box sets containing the episodes from series I–IV (Volume 1) and V–VIII (Volume 2) with static menus and no extras. Red Dwarf: The Bodysnatcher Collection, containing the 1998 remastered episodes, as well as new documentaries for series I and II, was released in 2007. This release showcased a storyboard construction of "Bodysnatcher", an unfinished script from 1987, which was finally completed in 2007 by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor who were working together for the first time since 1993. In December 2008 an anniversary DVD set entitled Red Dwarf: All the Shows was released, reworking the vanilla disc content of the two Just the Shows sets within A4 packaging resembling a photo album, which omitted information that no extras were included. This box set was re-released in a smaller slipcase-sized box, reverting to the Just the Shows title, in November 2009. The series is also available for download on iTunes. #### Blu-ray releases `Only in Japan` Only in the United Kingdom In 2016, BBC Worldwide began creating an 'up-resed' version of the first five series for release on Blu-ray, due to demand from Japan. When asked about the project in 2017, Naylor confirmed he had stopped it due to lackluster picture quality. By 2018, the project, now encompassing the entire original run, had been restarted, and a series 1–8 Blu-ray set release was confirmed in August. ### Magazine The Red Dwarf Magazine—the magazine part of the title changed to "Smegazine" from Issue 3— was launched in 1992 by Fleetway Editions. It ran for 23 issues, Volume 1 from Issues 1 through 14 and Volume 2 from Issues 1 - 9. It comprised a mix of news, reviews, interviews, comic strips, and competitions. The comic strips featured episode adaptations and original material, including further stories of popular characters like Mr. Flibble, the Polymorph, and Ace Rimmer. Notably, the comic strip stories' holographic characters, predominately Rimmer, were drawn in greyscale. This was at the request of Grant and Naylor, who had wanted to but, for financial reason, were unable to use the technique for the television series (Rimmer did appear in greyscale in "low power mode" in "The Promised Land"). Despite achieving circulation figures of over 40,000 per month, the magazine's publisher decided to close the title down to concentrate on their other publications. A farewell issue was published in January 1994, featuring remaining interviews, features, and comic strips that had been planned for the following issues. The Official Red Dwarf Fan Club produces a periodical magazine for members titled Back to Reality. The previous volume of this magazine, dating back to the 1990s, was known as Better Than Life. ### U.S. version Despite the original version having been broadcast on PBS, a pilot episode for an American version (known as Red Dwarf USA) was produced through Universal Studios with the intention of broadcasting on NBC in 1992. The show essentially followed the same story as the first episode of the original series, using American actors for most of the main roles: Craig Bierko as Lister, Chris Eigeman as Rimmer, and Hinton Battle as Cat. Exceptions to this were Llewellyn, who reprised his role as Kryten, and the British actress Jane Leeves, who played Holly. It was written by Linwood Boomer and directed by Jeffrey Melman, with Grant and Naylor on board as creators and executive producers. Llewellyn, Grant and Naylor travelled to America for the filming of the American pilot after production of the fifth series of the UK series. According to Llewellyn and Naylor, the cast were not satisfied with Linwood Boomer's script. Grant and Naylor rewrote the script, but although the cast preferred the re-write, the script as filmed was closer to Boomer's version. The pilot episode includes footage from the UK series in its title sequence, although it did not retain the logo or the theme music of the UK series. During filming of the pilot, the audience reaction was good and it was felt that the story had been well received. The studio executives were not entirely happy with the pilot, especially the casting, but decided to give the project another chance with Grant and Naylor in charge. The intention was to shoot a "promo video" for the show in a small studio described by the writers as "a garage". New cast members were hired for the roles of Cat (now depicted as female) and Rimmer, Terry Farrell and Anthony Fusco, respectively. This meant that, unlike the original British series, the cast were all Caucasian, which Charles referred to as "White Dwarf". Chris Barrie was asked to play Rimmer in the second pilot, but he declined. With a small budget and deadline, new scenes were quickly shot and mixed in with existing footage of the pilot and UK series V episodes, to give an idea of the basic plot and character dynamics, alongside proposed future episodes, remakes of episodes from the original show. Llewellyn did not participate in the re-shoot, though clips from the British version were used to show the character. Despite the re-shoots and re-casting, the option on the pilot was not picked up. The cast of both the British and American versions criticised the casting of Red Dwarf USA, particularly the part of Lister, who is portrayed in the British version as a likeable slob, but in the U.S. version as somewhat clean-cut. In the 2004 documentary Dwarfing USA, Danny John-Jules said the only actor who could have successfully portrayed an American Lister was John Belushi. In a 2009 interview on Kevin Pollak's Chat Show, Bierko said that it was a "huge mistake" for him to play Lister, and also said that a "John Belushi-type" would have been better suited to the role. The American pilot has been heavily bootlegged, but it has never been broadcast on TV in any country. Excerpts from the first pilot are included in Dwarfing USA, a featurette on the making of the pilots included on the DVD release of Red Dwarf's fifth series. Because of rights-clearance issues, no footage from the second pilot is included in the featurette. ### Red Dwarf: The Movie Since the beginning of the seventh series in 1997, Doug Naylor had been attempting to make a feature-length version of the show. A final draft of the script was written by Naylor, and flyers began circulating around certain websites. The flyer had been created by Winchester Films in order to market the film overseas. Plot details were included as part of a teaser. The movie was set in the distant future in which Homo sapienoids— a race of cyborgs— had taken over the solar system and were wiping out the human race. Spaceships that tried to escape Earth were hunted down "until only one remained... Red Dwarf". Naylor scouted Australia to get an idea of locations and finance costs. Pre-production began in 2004 and filming was planned for 2005. Costumes were made, including Kryten's, and A-list celebrity cameos, including Madonna, were rumoured. However, the team struggled to find sufficient funding. Naylor explained at a Red Dwarf Dimension Jump convention that the film had been rejected by the BBC and the British Film Council. In 2012, material from early drafts of the film was incorporated into the Series X finale "The Beginning". In 2018, Naylor suggested production of the movie was still under consideration, explaining, "The order will probably be another TV series, a stage show and possibly a movie, and I think the guys agree on that. The film is a long shot at this point just because it can take so long to get funding." ### Role-playing game Deep7 Press (formerly Deep7 LLC) released Red Dwarf – The Roleplaying Game in February 2003 (the printed copyright is 2002). Based on the series, the game allows its players to portray original characters within the Red Dwarf universe. Player characters can be human survivors, holograms, "evolved" house pets (cats, dogs, iguanas, rabbits, rats and mice), various types of mechanoid (Series 4000, Hudzen 10 and Waxdroids in the corebook, Series 3000 in the Extra Bits Book) or GELFs (Kinatawowi and Pleasure GELF in the corebook, "Vindaloovians" in the Extra Bits Book). A total of three products were released for the game: the core 176-page rulebook, the AI Screen (analogous to the Game Master's Screen used in other role-playing games, also featuring the "Extra Bits Book" booklet) and the Series Sourcebook. The Series Sourcebook contains plot summaries of each episode from series I to VIII as well as game rules for all major and minor characters from each series. The game has been praised for staying true to the comedic nature of the series, for its entertaining writing and for the detail to which the background material is explained. However, some reviewers found the game mechanics to be simplistic and uninspiring compared to other science-fiction role-playing games on the market. ### Video games In promotion of the upcoming release of series XI, a mobile game titled Red Dwarf XI - The Game was released to coincide with the release of Twentica on 22 September 2016. Developed by GameDigits, it was intended to release episodically with new releases being based on all the episodes of XI. However, it ceased development following the end of its adaptation of Officer Rimmer to instead focus on developing Red Dwarf XII - The Game, which dropped the episodic format and instead featured minigames such as running through the corridors of spaceships featured in XII, similar to Temple Run, and free-roaming space on board Starbug. Fan reception to the games were mixed and, by late 2019, both games were no longer available to download from Google Play; however, Red Dwarf XII - The Game can still be downloaded from Amazon App Store as well as Google Play when linked to via the URL. Red Dwarf was featured as a hidden area in the Lego video game, Lego Dimensions. The area was featured in the game's Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them expansion pack released on 18 November 2016, where the player was able to explore a small section of the titular ship including the sleeping quarters. References to the most recent series of the show were also included such as Snacky from Give & Take making a non-speaking appearance and the bio-printer from Officer Rimmer being an interactable object. ### Red Dwarf Night On 14 February 1998, the night before the tenth anniversary of the show's first episode broadcast, BBC Two devoted an evening of programmes to the series, under the banner of Red Dwarf Night. The evening consisted of a mixture of new and existing material, and it was introduced and linked by actor and fan Patrick Stewart. In addition, a series of special take-offs on BBC Two's idents, featuring the "2" logo falling in love with a skutter, were used. The night began with Can't Smeg, Won't Smeg, a spoof of the cookery programme Can't Cook, Won't Cook, presented by that show's host Ainsley Harriott who had himself appeared as a GELF in the series VI episode "Emohawk: Polymorph II". Taking place outside the continuity of the series, two teams (Kryten and Lister versus Rimmer and Cat, although Cat quickly departs to be replaced by alter ego Duane Dibbley) were challenged to make the best chicken vindaloo. After a compilation bloopers show, featuring out-takes, the next programme was Universe Challenge, a spoof of University Challenge. Hosted by original University Challenge presenter Bamber Gascoigne, the show had a team of knowledgeable Dwarf fans compete against a team consisting of Chris Barrie, Craig Charles, Robert Llewellyn, Chloë Annett and Danny John-Jules. This was followed by The Red Dwarf A–Z, a half-hour documentary that chose a different aspect of the show to focus on for each letter of the alphabet. Talking heads on the episode included Stephen Hawking, Terry Pratchett, original producer Paul Jackson, Mr Blobby, Patrick Stewart and a Dalek. Finally, the night ended with a showing of the episode "Gunmen of the Apocalypse". ### YouTube Geek Week In August 2013, YouTube held a campaign to promote user-generated content concerning science fiction, comics, gaming, and science. Robert Llewellyn in-character as Kryten hosted the event's daily videos, making references to Lister, Rimmer, and the Cat whilst presenting featured uploads. ### Stellar Rescue On 1 July 2019, an advert for the AA called "Stellar Rescue" featuring the core Red Dwarf crew premiered on ITV. The advert has Starbug break down on an inhospitable planet with Lister using the AA app to call a mechanic and successfully escape. On 2 March 2020, a second advert called "Stellar Rescue - Smart Breakdown" was uploaded to the AA official YouTube channel featuring Starbug stranded without power on an ice planet but with Lister again calling a mechanic and saving the day. An alternate 30-second one accompanied it, with this one serving as the broadcast version. ### Red Dwarf: The First Three Million Years In August 2020, a three-part documentary series entitled 'The First Three Million Years' was aired on Dave and narrated by Doctor Who actor David Tennant. The retrospective contained deleted scenes, behind-the-scenes footage and new interviews, as the cast and crew reflected upon 30 years of the show. A conversation between the four key cast members was filmed on the set of "The Promised Land", as the actors shared memories and anecdotes from their decades of working together ### Red Dwarf: Into The Gloop On 7 February 2021, a script entitled 'Into The Gloop' was read at the Official Red Dwarf Fan Club Holly Hop Convention by a cast of fans. Written by Rob Grant, directed by Ed Bye and produced by Paul Jackson, the one-off performance was broadcast live to Holly Hop attendees on Zoom. The mini-episode, a self-contained story, was set at the end of Series VI. The cast was Harmony Hewlett and Loïc Baucherel as Rimmer, Raph Clarkson as Lister, Nikola Skalova as the Cat, and Ellie Griffiths as Kryten. ## Dave Hollins: Space Cadet Red Dwarf was originally based on Dave Hollins: Space Cadet, a series of five sketches that aired in the BBC Radio 4 series Son of Cliché, produced by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor in 1984. The sketches recounted the adventures of Dave Hollins (voiced by Nick Wilton), a hapless space traveller who is marooned in space far from Earth. His only steady companion is the computer Hab (voiced by Chris Barrie). Grant and Naylor chose to use the Dave Hollins: Space Cadet sketches as a base for a television show after watching the 1974 film Dark Star. They changed some elements from the sketches: The 7-trillion-year figure was first changed to 7 billion years and then to 3 million and the characters of Arnold Rimmer and the Cat were created. The name Dave Hollins was changed to Dave Lister when a football player called Dave Hollins became well known, and Hab was replaced by Holly. One of the voice actors from Son of Cliché, Chris Barrie went on to portray Arnold Rimmer in the Red Dwarf TV series. Episodes of Dave Hollins can be found on the 2-disc Red Dwarf DVD sets starting with series V and ending with series VIII. ## See also - British sitcom - List of science fiction sitcoms
1,501,334	Third Battle of Winchester	1,173,256,535	Battle in the American Civil War	[ "1864 in Virginia", "Battles of the American Civil War in Virginia", "Battles of the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War", "Cavalry charges", "Conflicts in 1864", "Frederick County in the American Civil War", "September 1864 events", "Union victories of the American Civil War", "Valley campaigns of 1864", "Winchester, Virginia" ]	The Third Battle of Winchester, also known as the Battle of Opequon or Battle of Opequon Creek, was an American Civil War battle fought near Winchester, Virginia, on September 19, 1864. Union Army Major General Philip Sheridan defeated Confederate Army Lieutenant General Jubal Early in one of the largest, bloodiest, and most important battles in the Shenandoah Valley. Among the 5,000 Union casualties were one general killed and three wounded. The casualty rate for the Confederates was high: about 4,000 of 15,500. Two Confederate generals were killed and four were wounded. Participants in the battle included two future presidents of the United States, two future governors of Virginia, a former vice president of the United States, and a colonel whose grandson, George S. Patton became a famous general in World War II. After learning that a large Confederate force loaned to Early left the area, Sheridan attacked Confederate positions along Opequon Creek near Winchester, Virginia. Sheridan used one cavalry division and two infantry corps to attack from the east, and two divisions of cavalry to attack from the north. A third infantry corps, led by Brigadier General George Crook, was held in reserve. After difficult fighting where Early made good use of the region's terrain on the east side of Winchester, Crook attacked Early's left flank with his infantry. This, in combination with the success of Union cavalry north of town, drove the Confederates back toward Winchester. A final attack by Union infantry and cavalry from the north and east caused the Confederates to retreat south through the streets of Winchester. Sustaining significant casualties and substantially outnumbered, Early retreated south on the Valley Pike to a more defendable position at Fisher's Hill. Sheridan considered Fisher's Hill to be a continuation of the September 19 battle, and followed Early up the pike where he defeated Early again. Both battles are part of Sheridan's Shenandoah Valley campaign that occurred in 1864 from August through October. After Sheridan's successes at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, Early's Army of the Valley suffered more defeats and was eliminated from the war in the Battle of Waynesboro, Virginia, on March 2, 1865. ## Background and plan In August 1864, the American Civil War was in its fourth year, and the exploits of Confederate Lieutenant General Jubal Early caused considerable consternation among leaders of the federal government of the United States. Major General Philip Sheridan, commander of the new Middle Military Division, faced constant pressure to attack Early, but Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant warned Union leaders on August 12 that two divisions of infantry had joined Early, and that Sheridan "must be cautious and act now on the defensive" until Grant's actions near Richmond would cause those units to return to the Richmond area. The impending presidential election of 1864 made it necessary to avoid any military disaster that might hamper the re-election of President Abraham Lincoln. Sheridan kept his troops between Early's army and Washington, and fought several small battles—including the Battle of Berryville that ended September 4. After that battle, Early withdrew during the night to the west side of Opequon Creek between Berryville and Winchester, Virginia. Sheridan's troops kept their same positions for the next few weeks, with daily cavalry probes including the capture of the 8th South Carolina Infantry Regiment by a cavalry brigade led by Brigadier General John B. McIntosh. Sheridan's tentativeness caused Early to believe Sheridan was a timid commander. ### Sheridan's plan During September 1864, Sheridan sought information about Early's troop strength. His scouts discovered Thomas Laws, a slave with a permit to enter Winchester to sell produce, who agreed to carry messages. A schoolteacher named Rebecca Wright, who was living in Winchester, agreed to provide information on Early's troops. From a message written on September 16, Sheridan learned from Wright through Laws that a division of infantry and battalion of artillery, commanded by Major General Joseph B. Kershaw, had left the area to rejoin General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia near Richmond or Petersburg. Given the information, Sheridan planned to send his infantry to Newtown on the next day, which would prevent a retreat south by Early. His plan was delayed when Grant directed Sheridan to meet him at Charlestown, and upon returning he changed his plan to accommodate Early sending two divisions to Martinsburg, West Virginia. In Martinsburg, Early became aware of Grant's visit on the morning of September 18, and sent one division to Bunker Hill (slightly north of the halfway point between Winchester and Martinsburg) and the other division (with Early) further south to Stephenson's Depot on the north side of Winchester. Sheridan's final plan was to have cavalry divisions led by Brigadier General Wesley Merritt and Brigadier General William W. Averell attack from the north. From the east, a cavalry division led by Brigadier General James H. "Harry" Wilson would lead two infantry corps from Berryville eastward to attack Early's vastly-outnumbered force between Opequon Creek and Winchester. Crook's two divisions would be held in reserve until later, when they would occupy the Valley Pike on the south side of Winchester. ## Opposing forces ### Union army commanded by Philip Sheridan The Union force in the Third Battle of Winchester was the Army of the Shenandoah, which was recreated August 1, 1864, and commanded by Major General Philip Sheridan. At its creation, the army had three objectives. First, it was to drive Early's army away from the Potomac River region and lower (northern) Shenandoah Valley, and pursue it southward. Second, it would destroy the valley's capacity to provide Lee's Army of Northern Virginia with food and other goods. Third, it was to disrupt the Virginia Central Railroad. In mid-September, the Army of the Shenandoah had ten divisions plus artillery units, totaling to about 40,000 men. - VI Corps had three divisions and an artillery brigade, and was commanded by Major General Horatio Wright. His fighters were considered reliable veterans. Wright's artillery consisted of six four-gun batteries of Napoleons and 3-inch rifles, which totaled to half of the artillery assigned to Sheridan's infantry. - XIX Corps, consisting of two divisions, was commanded by Brigadier General William H. Emory. Each of his divisions had its own artillery, plus more artillery was held in reserve. The XIX Corps were considered behind the VI Corps in discipline and efficiency. - The Cavalry Corps, consisting of three divisions and a section of horse artillery, was commanded by Brigadier General Alfred Torbert. Fifteen regiments of the cavalry were completely armed with the carbine version of the Spencer repeating rifle, which held seven cartridges in its magazine. Three more regiments were partially armed with the same weapon, an advantage over single-shot firearms. - The Army of West Virginia functioned as an infantry corps in Sheridan's Army of the Shenandoah, and is sometimes incorrectly identified as the VIII Corps. It was commanded by Brigadier General George Crook, and had two divisions plus an artillery brigade. Crook was a professional soldier and Sheridan's roommate at West Point, and had a good grasp of military tactics. One of Crook's brigade commanders, Colonel Rutherford B. Hayes, later became President of the United States. A member of Crook's staff, Captain William McKinley, also became President two decades after Hayes. ### Confederate army commanded by Jubal Early The Confederate force was the Army of the Valley, which was created in June 1864 and commanded by Lieutenant General Jubal Early. This army was a detachment of the Army of Northern Virginia's Second Corps, and consisted of six divisions plus artillery. Its purpose was to protect the Shenandoah Valley, which was a major source of food for eastern Confederate armies. Another objective was to threaten the Union's capital of Washington, and cause it to devote resources to protect the capital and northern states—which would relieve some of the pressure on the Army of Northern Virginia near the Confederate capital of Richmond. The division commanded by Kershaw was loaned to Early, but returned to the Richmond-Petersburg area over 120 miles (190 km) away. Without Kershaw's Division of about 3,400 men, Early's army had 15,514 men as of September 10, 1864. The National Park Service uses a count of 15,200 for the battle. The army had a large infantry corps and a cavalry corps, and many of the regiments were from Virginia and North Carolina. - Breckinridge's Corps was commanded by Major General John C. Breckinridge, who had been vice president of the United States from 1857 to 1861 as part of the administration of President James Buchanan. His corps had four infantry divisions and an artillery unit. Among his brigade commanders was Colonel George S. Patton, whose grandson became a well-known general in World War II. - The Cavalry Corps was commanded by Major General Fitzhugh Lee, a future governor of Virginia who was a grandson of Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee (of American Revolution fame) and nephew of the Army of Northern Virginia commander Robert E. Lee. The cavalry had two divisions, and each had its own horse artillery. ## Union cavalry strikes first ### Wilson's 3rd Cavalry Division advances from east On September 19, 1864, Wilson's Division began moving west at 2:00 am from Berryville on the Berryville Pike with McIntosh's Brigade as the vanguard. The 1st Connecticut Cavalry Regiment departed hours earlier and secured Limestone Ridge, which overlooked the Spout Spring ford of Opequon Creek at the Berryville Pike. That point is about five miles (8.0 km) from Winchester, and the road west of the crossing runs through a narrow ravine or small canyon (a.k.a. Berryville Canyon) for several miles (over 3.2 km). Two cavalry regiments, the 2nd New York followed by the 5th New York, led the initial advance across Opequon Creek. They pursued the 37th Virginia Cavalry Battalion on the pike to the west end of Berryville Canyon, where the Virginians fled past pickets from the 23rd North Carolina Infantry Regiment. The North Carolinians fell back several hundred yards (about 275 m) beyond the west end of Berryville Canyon, and joined the rest of their brigade as their commander sent a courier to division commander Major General Stephen Dodson Ramseur. McIntosh attacked the high ground with his lead regiments armed with repeating rifles. Lieutenant Colonel William P. Brinton, commanding the 18th Pennsylvania Cavalry Regiment, led a charge that captured an important Confederate breastworks. The Confederates regrouped and recaptured the breastworks, shooting Brinton's horse and capturing Brinton, who escaped that evening. McIntosh personally led men from the 2nd Ohio Cavalry Regiment, some dismounted, and again captured the breastworks. Wilson reported that with the breastworks "securely in our possession, the infantry were enabled to form at leisure and to deliver battle with every prospect of success." The fighting reached a stalemate as Ramseur rallied his men and brought in reinforcements, while Wilson deployed his artillery. His other brigade, commanded by Brigadier General George H. Chapman, deployed to the north along a line that would eventually be occupied by the XIX Corps. Sheridan rode behind Wilson's Cavalry Division, leaving Wright to direct the movement of 24,000 infantry men from the VI and XIX Corps using the Berryville Pike from Berryville to Winchester. Wright's VI Corps, who arrived at the beginning of Berryville Canyon about 5:00 am, moved a baggage train and artillery into the narrow canyon before the fighters from Emory's XIX Corps could enter. A combination of ambulances returning from the front with McIntosh's wounded plus Wright's wagons moving toward the front caused a massive traffic jam. Emory's XIX Corps did not enter the canyon until 9:00 am. ### Merritt's 1st Cavalry Division advances from northeast Merritt's 1st Cavalry Division also began moving at 2:00 am on September 19. The division left camp from Summit Point, West Virginia, which was on the Winchester and Potomac Railroad about seven miles (11 km) north of Berryville. At the time, the railroad was out-of-service. Merritt and Cavalry Corps commander Torbert rode with Colonel Charles R. Lowell and his Reserve Brigade, which led the advance. The Second Brigade, led by Brigadier General Thomas Devin, covered the rear. The First Brigade, led by Brigadier General George Armstrong Custer, was about one mile (1.6 km) north and advanced independently. The brigades reached fords on Opequon Creek before daybreak, where they met their first serious opposition. On the other side of the creek guarding the fords were two brigades from Confederate Brigadier General Gabriel C. Wharton's Infantry Division (a.k.a. Breckinridge's Division), plus Brigadier General John McCausland's Cavalry Brigade commanded by Colonel Milton J. Ferguson. A third brigade was held in reserve at Stephenson's Depot. Confederate pickets exchanged shots with Lowell's dismounted cavalry regiments. The fighting was a stalemate until the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment charged across the creek and up its banks, which drove the Confederates to a breastworks one and a half miles (2.4 km) back. Further to Lowell's right (north), Custer's Brigade struggled to gain control of Locke's Ford. However, Lowell's 2nd U.S. Cavalry moved toward the right flank of Custer's opposition, causing them to withdraw before their line of retreat was cut off. By 7:00 am, Lowell and Custer were safely across the Opequon, while Devin's Brigade remained in reserve on the creek's east side. ### Averell's 2nd Cavalry Division advances from north Averell's 2nd Cavalry Division did not leave their camps until 5:00 am. His First Brigade, led by Colonel James M. Schoonmaker, departed from Martinsburg. Averell's Second Brigade, led by Colonel William H. Powell, departed two miles (3.2 km) east of Opequon Creek at Leetown, West Virginia. Averell rode with Powell, and they linked with Schoonmaker on the Martinsburg Pike slightly north of Darkesville after finding no opposition at the Burns Ford crossing of the creek. Averell and his brigade commanders were familiar with the area, having fought on the north side of Winchester in the Battle of Rutherford's Farm, and on the south side in the Second Battle of Kernstown. Near Darkesville around 8:30 am, Averell's scouts encountered pickets from the 23rd Virginia Cavalry Regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Charles T. O'Ferrall—a future U.S. congressman and governor of Virginia. The pickets soon fled south, choosing to not confront Averell's 2,500–man division. ## Morning: infantry gets ready and cavalry repositions ### Union and Confederate infantry positions before attack Union infantry positioning prior to the infantry attack had Wright's VI Corps on the left and Emory's XIX Corps on the right. The VI Corps was mostly in place by 9:00 am, and was about two miles (3.2 km) from Winchester. Brigadier General George W. Getty's 2nd Division was on the left with Abrams Creek (a.k.a. Abrahams Creek) on its left, while Brigadier General James B. Ricketts's 3rd Division was on the right with Ash Hollow on its right. Brigadier General David Allen Russell's 1st Division was held in reserve. The two divisions in Emory's XIX Corps, delayed by congestion on the Berryville Pike, did not get into position until 11:00 am. They were positioned north of the Berryville Pike between Ash Hollow and Red Bud Run. Brigadier General Cuvier Grover's 2nd Division was Sheridan's largest, and it had four brigades stacked on the front. Brigadier General William Dwight's 1st Division was held in reserve. Sheridan kept Crook's two divisions of the Army of West Virginia, labeled as the VIII Corps on some maps, in reserve at Opequon Creek. Once Ramseur and McIntosh began fighting, Lee sent his cavalry division, commanded by Brigadier General Williams Carter Wickham, to the north side of Red Bud Run where they faced south. He also sent Major James Breathed's Battalion of horse artillery, which protected the ground in front of the divisions of Major General John B. Gordon and Major General Robert E. Rodes. Lee supervised the artillery, and his men skirmished across the creek with Chapman's Brigade from Wilson's Division until the XIX Corps got into position. The delay in positioning Union infantry enabled Early to rush two Confederate infantry divisions from north of Winchester to positions adjacent to Ramseur, which prevented Sheridan from overwhelming Ramseur's single division. Gordon's Division left Bunker Hill and was deployed on Ramseur's left close to the Hackwood Farm on the south side of Redbud Run. Rodes' Division was deployed between Ramseur and Gordon. Ramseur's position was one mile (1.6 km) east of Winchester near a barn on a farm owned by Enos Dinkle. North of Winchester, Wharton's Division of infantry and two cavalry brigades faced north and east. Skirmishers for both sides were extended before the Union infantry attack, and artillery was also utilized. ### Union cavalry Around 8:00 am, part of the VI Corps arrived at the west end of the canyon and relieved Wilson's cavalry. Most of Wilson's Division moved south of the Berryville Pike to Senseny Road beyond Abrams Creek. Here they rested and replenished ammunition. Their location was on the extreme left of the Union infantry line, about a half mile (0.80 km) south of Getty's left flank. They were the closest Union force to Early's Valley Pike escape route south. A few skirmishers remained to the right until they were replaced with the XIX Corps. From the north, Averell's Cavalry Division moved south on the Martinsburg Pike until the division was slightly north of Bunker Hill, which is about 12 miles (19 km) north of Winchester. They encountered Brigadier General John D. Imboden's cavalry brigade of about 600 men, commanded by Colonel George H. Smith. At 10:00 am, Averell had Weir's Battery L commence firing and the Confederate brigade quickly fled south toward Stephenson's Depot. South of Bunker Hill, a section of the Confederate Lewisburg Artillery, using two rifled guns sent by Breckinridge to assist Smith, slowed Averell's advance. Averell responded with all six of his artillery pieces, driving the Confederates away. He continued moving south along the pike, getting closer to Stephenson's Depot and the rear of Wharton's Confederate Infantry Division. Merritt's Cavalry Division was held for hours at Wharton's second position, which was behind stone walls. Eventually, the Confederates moved south, and Merritt followed slowly. He attacked Wharton's front around 11:00 am near Brucetown, but did not press forward since it was better to hold the enemy infantry away from Winchester and keep them out of the Union infantry attack that would happen soon. ## Union infantry attacks from east The two Union infantry corps attacked almost simultaneously, Wright's VI Corps at 11:40 am and Emory's XIX Corps at 11:45 am. Both sides had already sent forward skirmishers, and Wright was supported by artillery. While the Union infantry began their attack, Wilson's cavalry also probed the area east of Senseny Road, but was too far away to support the VI Corps' left. For the first 30 minutes, Wright caused Ramseur to retreat on the Berryville Pike, and Emory had similar success with one of his brigades against Gordon. ### Wright's VI Corps attack: Getty and Ricketts Wright had two divisions and four batteries at the front, and one division in reserve. His force outnumbered the Confederate opposition, Ramseur's Infantry Division assisted by cavalry, by almost four to one. However, the uneven terrain, especially the ravines, made it difficult for Wright's men to see their enemy. Ricketts' 3rd Division, on the right, was guided by the Berryville Pike, which moved to the left and caused a gap between Ricketts and the XIX Corps on his left. The division was hit hard by Confederate artillery, causing a pause in forward movement. On the left, Getty's 2nd Division advanced slowly while it underwent artillery fire from two sides. A battery belonging to Lieutenant Colonel William Nelson's battalion was in front, while a section of Lomax's horse artillery delivered enfilading fire from the distant left (south). Ricketts resumed advancing, and the brigade commanded by Colonel J. Warren Keifer moved beyond supporting brigades and past Ramseur's left flank, causing a Confederate retreat from the Dinkle Barn toward Winchester. The time was 12:10 pm, and Ramseur was almost overwhelmed. ### Emory's XIX Corps attack Emory's XIX Corps used the brigades of Grover's 2nd Division to face Gordon's Division. The terrain in their front included a First Woods, Middle Field, and a Second Woods. The Middle Field was an open field about 600 yards across. Grover had initial success in pushing the enemy back. However, the success caused the front brigades to move forward too fast, and commanders had trouble restraining their enthusiastic men. On the left, Colonel Jacob Sharpe's Third Brigade had gaps on its left (VI Corps) and right. Before the gap could be filled, Gordon attacked with a brigade backed by artillery. Sharpe's replacement, Lieutenant Colonel James P. Richardson, was also wounded, as were all but one of the regimental commanders. On the right, Brigadier General Henry Birge's First Brigade pushed through the Middle Field and Second Woods, then chased Gordon's men beyond the Second Woods—leaving supporting Union brigades behind. Birge's men came upon seven Confederate artillery pieces that were hidden in haystacks. The Confederate gunners waited until retreating Confederate soldiers passed them, and then fired double loads of canister at close range into the surprised Union brigade. This devastated Birge's troops about the same time that a portion of Rodes' Confederate Division arrived. Although Rodes was fatally shot, his brigade commanders pressed the attack on Birge's men, causing them to retreat. Falling back to the Middle Field, the Union troops became a target for Lee's artillery and sharpshooters located north of Red Bud Run. Assistance from supporting units was ineffective. The division was done fighting, and Birge's Brigade had over 500 casualties. Only one other Union brigade had more than 350 casualties that day. Emory used Dwight's 1st Division to stop the retreats of all four of the 2nd Division brigades. Dwight sent his First Brigade, commanded by Colonel George Lafayette Beal, to the right; and Emory worked with Dwight's Second Brigade on the left. Much of the fighting by Beal's Brigade was done by the 114th New York Infantry Regiment, whose 185 casualties were more than any other Union regiment. On the left, the 8th Vermont and the 12th Connecticut were the two infantry regiments that did most of the fighting. The XIX Corps attack was stopped around 1:00 pm with heavy casualties for both sides, and a small victory for Gordon. The 1st Division of the XIX Corps then transitioned to the defense. ### Russell, Edwards, and Upton save the VI Corps Ricketts' Division moved beyond the Dinkle Barn, with Keifer's Brigade on the right advancing beyond his support on either flank. As Keifer attempted to capture Confederate batteries, a brigade from Rodes' Division attacked from the Union front and right. Keifer was routed, and his men retreated in wild disorder. This assistance from Rodes ended Ramseur's retreat and revitalized his men. Soon the remaining portion of Rickett's Division was retreating, and the retreat spread to Getty's Division. The Confederates regained control of Dinkle Barn and pressed forward at the gap between the two Union corps. Union Colonel Charles H. Tompkins directed artillery on both the north and south side of the Berryville Pike to assist both corps. Colonel Oliver Edwards's Third Brigade of Russell's 1st Division of the VI Corps used the 37th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, armed with Spencer repeating rifles, to stop the Confederate advance. At that time, Russell brought up more regiments from Edwards' Brigade and they were joined by two regiments from Ricketts' Division. As Russell ordered Edwards to attack, he was shot and then killed by a shell fragment. Edwards superintended movements until Brigadier General Emory Upton was able to take command. All three of Russell's brigades worked to stop the Confederate bulge in the line. Upton, in person, led his brigade in the capture of a portion of a regiment from North Carolina—including its colonel. The leadership of Russell, Edwards, and Upton re-established the Union infantry line and caused most of the 2,000 to 3,000 Union men who had fled to the rear to return to the front. Wright believed the restoration of the Union line was the "turning point in the conflict". It was after 1:00 pm, and Russell's 1st Division restored the infantry line in about 30 minutes of fighting. ## Early shifts his forces At 12:30 pm, Averell's Division was getting closer to Stephenson's Depot, and Merritt's brigades commanded by Lowell and Custer were two miles (3.2 km) east of the depot facing Wharton's (Breckinridge's) Division. Breckinridge was informed by a messenger from Early that he was needed in Winchester and should retreat toward the Valley Pike before Averell arrived behind him. Breckinridge dismounted the 22nd Virginia Cavalry regiment to Custer's front while his infantry covertly retreated through a woods. Arriving at Stephenson's Depot, Breckinridge found Averell pushing back Smith's Cavalry Brigade. Breckinridge deployed and drove Averell about one mile (1.6 km) north of the depot. Averell countered with his artillery, but was content with an artillery duel while sending scouts to search for Merritt's cavalry. During this time, Patton's Brigade withdrew from Charlestown Road and rejoined Breckinridge's Division. Patton deployed in the woods near the railroad line, and covered the Confederate retreat up the line toward Winchester. With Patton gone, only Smith's dismounted cavalry and a few cannons remained to cover Stephenson's Depot. A captain from Rodes Infantry Division noted in his diary that "after the withdrawal of Breckinridge's Division, the disasters began". Around 1:00 pm, Wilson's cavalry division probed Lomax's Confederate cavalry at Early's right flank south of Abrams Creek along the Senseny Road. Early responded by moving Wickham's Cavalry Brigade, commanded by Colonel Thomas T. Munford, from the north side of Red Bud Run to south of Abrams Creek. A two-gun battery commanded by Captain John Shoemaker, and a cavalry brigade commanded by Lieutenant Colonel William Thompson, were also shifted to Early's right. To strengthen his left, Early put Lee in charge of all cavalry north of Red Bud Run. He also ordered Breckinridge to detach Patton's Brigade to assist Lee, and Lee brought most of a cavalry brigade commanded by Colonel William Payne with a four-gun battery of horse artillery to the Martinsburg Pike. Lee moved his men to a pine forest on Rutherford's Farm near the pike. ## Torbert continues south At 1:30 pm, Torbert ordered Merritt's Division to advance. Devin's Brigade crossed the Opequon around 2:00 pm and proceeded on the road toward Stephenson's Depot. Further to the right, Custer's Brigade, which was deceived by Breckinridge and Wharton, moved cross-country toward Stephenson's Depot. Lowell's Brigade also moved cross-country, between Devin and Custer. Devin confronted part of Ferguson's Cavalry Brigade on Charlestown Road about one mile (1.6 km) from the Martinsburg Pike, and his two lead regiments chased Ferguson across the road's bridge over the railroad line. This blocked the withdrawal of Patton's Brigade from Stephenson's Depot, but Patton drove Devin off the road and continued south along the rail line. While Devin's Brigade was reorganizing, two of Smith's three regiments at the depot attacked and sent Devin into a short retreat. Devin counter-attacked, and soon Smith's Brigade was riding south on the pike behind Ferguson's men. South of Stephenson's Depot, Merritt's and Averell's divisions linked to form a large force of five brigades. They passed the Charlestown Road around 2:00 pm, but advanced slowly with their horses at a walk. At the same time, the Confederate cavalry brigades of Ferguson and Smith regrouped on the pike about one mile (1.6 km) south from their confrontation with Devin. Here, at a thick pine forest near the Rutherford Farm, they joined Lee with Payne's Cavalry Brigade and artillery. Lee also had the unexpected assistance of Vaughn's Cavalry and Mounted Infantry Brigade, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Onslow Bean, which returned over difficult terrain around Little North Mountain after destroying a B&O Railroad bridge over Back Creek. ## Crook joins the battle Crook's two infantry divisions began moving to the front around 1:00 pm. Crook's 6,000 men would be protecting the extreme right of the XIX Corps instead of his preference of advancing to the extreme left and occupying the south side of Winchester. Colonel Joseph Thoburn arrived at the front around 2:00 pm with the First and Third brigades of his 1st Division, while his Second Brigade remained with the supply wagons on the east side of Opequon Creek. Colonel Isaac H. Duval's 2nd Division followed. Crook moved his men to an open field behind (east of) the First Woods, and Dwight's 1st Division of the XIX Corps was fighting while the 2nd Division of the XIX Corps was in disarray. After surveying the situation and conferring with Dwight, Crook sent Thoburn's Division forward on the south side of Red Bud Run to where the First Woods meets the Middle Field, while Crook went with Duval's Division north toward Red Bud Run. Crook's orders were to protect the XIX Corps' right flank, but he decided his fresh troops could be aggressive instead of simply holding in a defensive position. At the beginning of the battle, he hoped to move his army around Early's right to the south side of Winchester and cut off Early's route of retreat. That option was now gone, but he believed he could move around Early's left (Gordon, north side of Winchester) and relieve the pressure on the XIX Corps. Crook and Duval's Division crossed Red Bud Run, bringing du Pont's artillery brigade. They moved west and came upon several companies from the 153rd New York Infantry Regiment of the XIX Corps, who had been sent by Dwight to the north side of the creek. This small battalion combined with sharpshooters from the 23rd Ohio Infantry Regiment to drive away Confederate sharpshooters from Wickham's Brigade that Lee had left behind, and also drove away the remaining guns from Lee's artillery. Crook was now unopposed on the north side of Red Bud Run, and Union troops in the Middle Field would not be subjected to enfilading fire from the north. Du Pont's 18 cannons were set up on the west side of the Huntsberry Farm, which put the Middle Field, Second Woods, and Hackwood House within their range. ## Lee attacks Torbert About 3:00 pm, Torbert had Averell and Merritt moving south toward Winchester in parade formation near the Martinsburg Pike, with Merritt on the left and Averell on the right. They rode through an open field toward a wooded area close to the Rutherford Farm. Waiting in the pine woods was Lee's outnumbered cavalry force, while Patton's infantry and artillery remained further south. Northwest of Lee, Bean's Cavalry Brigade waited in the woods on the Welltown Road. Lee attacked Devin's Brigade on Merritt's left and drove back the Union soldiers about three quarters of a mile (1.2 km) toward the Carter Farm. On Averell's right, Bean had similar initial success against Schoonmaker's Brigade. Devin and Custer struck back at Lee's cavalry using their sabers—a weapon many of the southerners did not have. On Averell's left, Powell sent a portion of the 2nd West Virginia Cavalry Regiment into the woods on his left, where they found Confederate cavalry facing the opposite direction toward Custer. Making use of their 7-shot carbines, the 2nd West Virginia caused the Confederates to run in panic. By that time, Bean was also retreating from Schoonmaker. Lee's men retreated south on the east side of the Martinsburg Pike to near the headwaters of Red Bud Run, but Merritt's men scattered them. Lee was unable to regroup his men until they fell back behind Patton's infantry along the rail line. ## Crook's army leads mid-afternoon attack ### Duval and Thoburn attack Crook and Duval's Division marched beyond the Second Woods (on north side of Red Bud Run), and faced south. At 3:00 pm they charged across the creek supported by du Pont's guns. The Confederates responded with the brigade of Colonel Edmund N. Atkinson and Lieutenant Colonel Carter M. Braxton's guns. Hayes' First Brigade went after Braxton only to discover that this end of Red Bud Run was swampy and difficult to cross. Hayes and the 23rd Ohio Infantry were able to get to the other side, but other regiments sought better places to ford the creek. Braxton moved his artillery before Hayes could get out of the mud, and the commander of Duval's Second Brigade, Colonel Daniel D. Johnson, was seriously wounded near the edge of the swamp. Adding to Duval's problems, Patton's Brigade left Lee's cavalry and deployed behind a stone wall to assist Atkinson. Thoburn's 1st Division heard the noise from Duval's charge and made a charge of their own from the First Woods westward along the south side of Red Bud Run. Near the center of the Middle Field, it received volleys from Gordon's Division and from Battle's Brigade of Rodes' Division. Battle's Brigade was now under command of Colonel Samuel B. Pickens, since Battle had assumed command of the division after Rodes' death. The portion of Atkinson's Brigade that had turned to face Duval received enfilading fire from Thoburn. Confronted on two sides, Atkinson's Brigade began falling back to the edge of the Second Woods. Gordon eventually moved his division out of the Second Woods to a stone wall closer to Winchester. Pickens was wounded and Colonel Charles M. Forsyth assumed command of his brigade. Battle ordered a fall back toward Winchester, which began a disorderly retreat. ### VI Corps advances When Thoburn started the 3:00 pm attack, Sheridan attempted to get more of his army to join in. Upton, now commanding the VI Corps' 1st Division, got the news first and focused his attention on enemy infantry in the South Woods. He used Company C of the 65th New York Infantry Regiment, the 37th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, and the 2nd Rhode Island Infantry Battalion—all armed with repeating rifles—to drive off two brigades from Rodes' Division. The other portion of Upton's Division was led by Edwards, who faced two Confederate brigades with artillery support on the far (west) end of the Dinkle Farm. The remaining portion of Wright's VI Corps was still reorganizing at 3:40 pm, as Ricketts' Division and Warner's Brigade from Getty's Division were in considerable disarray. Sheridan rode past the VI Corps infantrymen inspiring them to attack, and they began to advance on both sides of the Berryville Pike. By 4:30 pm, Edwards' men pushed Grimes' Brigade back to the Baker House. Ramseur's men could hear the fighting on their left, and could see stragglers from Gordon's and Rodes/Battle's Divisions retreating. The withdrawal of Grimes and pressure from the other two divisions of the VI Corps forced Ramseur to fall back. As Ramseur began another retreat, he lost a brigade commander when a cannon shell burst killed Brigadier General Archibald C. Godwin. Confederate artillery from Nelson in front and Lomax from the south became the biggest obstacle to the Union advance. ### Cavalry attacks from southeast and north Wilson's Division joined the afternoon general assault from the southeast. McIntosh's Brigade had been the vanguard for the whole day, but McIntosh was severely wounded while personally leading a dismounted charge close to the Senseny Road. The wound was severe enough that his leg was amputated below the knee. One historian wrote that "the elimination of McIntosh and his leadership severely hindered the usefulness of Wilson's division". Wilson's other brigade commander, Chapman, was disabled for several hours after his sword belt was struck by a bullet. Chapman's Brigade was temporarily commanded by Colonel William Wells, who pushed Confederate cavalry back beyond Abram's Creek around 4:00 pm, but was repelled by artillery. While Crook's 2nd Infantry Division was facing Patton, Devin's Cavalry Brigade attacked Patton's left using sabers. In fierce fighting, Devin captured 300 men and all three battle flags from Patton's regiments. Confederate artillery located further south fired into the mass of fighters—hitting friend and foe, but stopping Devin. With Patton driven back, Crook captured the Second Woods. The soldiers from Patton's Brigade that were not captured or killed reformed closer to Winchester behind a stone fence where Gordon had already reformed his division perpendicular to the pike. By now, Gordon's Division and the brigades of Patton and Battle had all experienced significant losses. Hundreds of men from these brigades did not rally at the stone fence, but instead retreated into Winchester. Patton was mortally wounded and captured in Winchester while trying to rally remnants of his brigade. After Crook gained control of the Second Woods, Averell's cavalry aggressively advanced west of the pike. Using a dismounted squadron from the 1st New York Cavalry Regiment with mounted troopers from Powell's and Schoonmaker's brigades, Averell captured a cannon and 80 men. Next came the capture (and then abandonment) by Schoonmaker of a small fort known as the Star Fort—an action that resulted in Schoonmaker being awarded the Medal of Honor. On Averell's left, Powell and Custer attacked the remnants of Payne's and Ferguson's cavalries near the Martinsburg Pike. The two Confederate units fled into Winchester, causing panic in the town. Though repulsed by about 300 men Confederate officers rounded up in town, some of Custer's and Powell's men fired several volleys down the town's northern streets. With Merritt getting closer to Winchester, Early sent Smith's and Colonel Augustus Forsberg's brigades from Breckinridge's Division to guard the pike. They deployed about 1,500 men behind a stone wall south of the regrouping remnants of Gordon's and Patton's forces, and were aided by batteries from Braxton's and Major William McLaughlin's battalions. The Confederate artillery forced Merritt back about 1,000 yards (914.4 m), where he regrouped behind a small ridge. Merritt's retreat exposed Averell's left flank, and Breckinridge's men changed their focus to Averell. Breckinridge moved Captain George Beirne Chapman's Artillery into Fort Collier (misspelled on some maps as "Fort Collyer"), adjacent to the railroad line and Martinsburg Pike. Soon Averell retreated and regrouped further west of the pike. The Union cavalry pause enabled various Confederate forces to regroup, and Lee assumed command of the forces around Fort Collier. Breckinridge and Wharton moved adjacent to Gordon's Division. Wickham's Cavalry Brigade, commanded by Munford, had been moved from the north side of Red Bud Run to the Senseny Road to assist Lomax on Early's right. With Torbert's cavalry becoming even more of a threat, Early moved Munford to the west side of Winchester's heights. Munford discovered that Fort Jackson (a.k.a. Fort Milroy) was occupied by a small force. Using a saber charge, Munford captured the fort and emplaced his two artillery pieces. From that high position, he could fire on Torbert's cavalry and Crook's infantry. ### Crook and Torbert continue forward Crook continued attacking Early's left. Gordon's Division and Patton's Brigade regrouped behind the right flank of the rest of Wharton's/Breckinridge's Division around 4:30 pm. The Confederate left flank was now behind a stone wall that ran perpendicular to the Martinsburg Pike and rail line. Braxton posted his artillery at intervals behind the wall. The Confederates had more artillery slightly north at Fort Collier, where Chapman's Battery had four guns, supported by Lee's force. More guns were located behind Gordon's Division, where Captain William M. Lowry's Wise Legion artillery was deployed. This artillery stopped Crook's advance, but Lowry and two of Braxton's guns used up their ammunition and had to withdraw. Both Upton and Crook tried to persuade two regiments from the XIX Corps to attack the corner of the Confederate position, but the regiments refused because Emory ordered the XIX Corps to not go beyond the Second Woods. Upton then sent Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie and the 2nd Connecticut Heavy Artillery Regiment past the XIX Corps regiments to a rail fence where they fired upon Gordon's right flank. They received unexpected assistance when Brigadier General James W. McMillan from Dwight's 1st Division of the XIX Corps arrived with the 160th New York Infantry Regiment, and deployed on Mackenzie's right flank. This caused Gordon's men to retreat, and Thoburn's men leapt the wall and attacked. Crook's entire army came forward, and they joined Upton's right—which also had the effect of sealing the XIX Corps out of the battle. Battle's (Rodes') Division then withdrew toward Winchester in disorder, and Upton pushed the rest of his division forward from the left. His obstacle was the Baker House, which was on high ground containing Grimes's Brigade. Upton shifted Colonel Joseph Hamblin's Brigade up a ridge, and Grimes fell back to the "L"-shaped Smithfield Redoubt on high ground near the Smithfield House. Lee's force and Chapman's artillery held back Union cavalry on both sides of the pike. At the same time Upton attacked Breckinridge's right flank, Torbert's cavalry attacked his left at Fort Collier near the Martinsburg Pike. Torbert used a battery from the 3rd U.S. Artillery, commanded by Lieutenant William C. Cuyler, to kill 34 horses and mortally wound Captain Chapman. Averell's Division turned the Confederate left flank against remnants of Bean's, Ferguson's, and Smith's cavalry brigades. Merritt sent Lowell's Reserve Brigade toward Fort Collier, and drove away Payne's Cavalry Brigade. Powell's Brigade flanked the fort from the west side of the pike, and Lowell captured the fort including two of Chapman's guns. Lee was seriously wounded in the leg during the engagement but escaped. The success of Upton's infantry and Torbert's cavalry inspired Crook's men to resume the attack, and the majority of Confederate troops were now running south through Winchester. Confederate artillery saved Early's army from destruction. At the Smithfield Redoubt, Nelson's battalion covered the approach of the Union infantry along Berryville Pike and Braxton's and McLaughlin battalions fired northward at Union cavalry. They also received some assistance from horse artillery on the Winchester Heights. ## Early's army makes final stand ### VI Corps presses from east Early had Ramseur south of the Smithfield Redoubt near the Berryville Pike and Mt. Hebron Cemetery. Remnants of the divisions of Battle (Rodes), Gordon, and Breckinridge were in the redoubt. Various artillery units under the command of Colonel Thomas H. Carter were placed strategically throughout the area. On the east side of the redoubt, Wright sent Getty and Ricketts to the right (north), but they were stymied by artillery. Upton rode to the stalled 37th Massachusetts, took the regimental flag, and led the regiment forward. Soon the entire division was moving. Although Upton was wounded in the leg by a shell fragment and Edwards took over active command, Upton refused to leave the battlefield. The divisions of Ricketts and Getty were also moving forward. Getty passed the Baker mansion, but the VI Corps stalled again. Tompkins brought up the VI Corps batteries, and they were assisted from the north by du Pont's battery and Torbert's horse artillery. The Union crossfire eventually wounded Carter and killed all the artillery horses in the Smithfield Redoubt. ### Merritt and Crook advance from north Sheridan, now on the northern front, continued inspiring his men to attack. Merritt put together a force of less than 1,000 men to attack the northern side of the Confederate redoubt on the east side of the Martinsburg Pike. The force was led by Custer's Brigade with portions of the other two brigades, and attacked around 5:00 pm with Custer's band playing. Observing the charge, Confederate brigade commander Forsberg was wounded twice, and successor Major William A. Yonce was mortally wounded minutes later. Breckinridge's men fired one volley, but could not reload before the Union cavalry was upon them with sabers. This charge, combined with the earlier assault on Fort Collier and Devin's attack of Patton's Brigade, eliminated Breckinridge's Infantry Division. It had lost 1,200 men, nine battle flags, two brigade commanders, and dozens of officers. Despite Duval being shot in the thigh and relinquishing command to Hayes, Crook's infantry charged the Confederate redoubt and climbed over the north wall as the Confederates fled. Crook's army was joined by the VI Corps, led by Edwards and the 37th Massachusetts followed by the entire 1st Division, which ran up the hill and over the east wall of the redoubt. Ricketts' 3rd Division soon joined them. The Confederates fled in disorder south through Winchester. Ramseur brought his division south along the town's edge near the Front Royal Pike, and his men could see the Union Army entering the town. Crook's 36th Ohio Infantry Regiment led Hayes' 2nd Division through Winchester and cleared out small groups of Confederate skirmishers. Ramseur's men served as the rearguard on the Valley Pike as Early's army fled south. ### Wilson too late With both of his brigade commanders wounded, Wilson's "performance deteriorated". He tried to go around Lomax to gain the Valley Pike by looping south, but Lomax moved Johnson's Cavalry to the intersection of Front Royal Pike and Millwood Pike by 6:00 pm, and kept Wilson away. Wilson missed his chance to intercept Early's retreating army, but he scattered Johnson's Cavalry Brigade and continued cross county toward Kernstown. He reached the Valley Pike around dusk, and halted his division about one mile (1.6 km) south of Winchester. Two cavalry regiments from McIntosh's Brigade, the 3rd New Jersey and the 2nd Ohio, pursued enemy infantry until 10:00 pm when the division camped for the night. ## Fighting ends Darkness caused the end of the fighting. The Confederate Army fled south up the Valley Pike, and many of the soldiers slept for a few hours in the fields between Kernstown and Newtown. The Union Army camped in the fields around Winchester, and roll calls were conducted around 10:00 pm. Many of the town's buildings became hospitals. Local families became hospital workers, and surgeons for both sides tended to the wounded. Sheridan sent a telegram to Grant, and ordered a 5:00 am march up the Valley Pike to chase Early's army. The Confederate Army continued south before sunrise. Early arrived at Fisher's Hill about dawn. The hill was known to southerners as their Gibraltar, and Early believed that its heights were impregnable. ### Casualties The text of Early's casualty report made three weeks after the battle lists 3,611 killed, wounded, and missing—but excludes cavalry. In a study that utilized regimental histories and correspondence in addition to official reports, one historian concluded that Early's Army of the Valley had 4,015 casualties. Some sources list lower figures, but have the flaws with cavalry. The Confederate infantry division with the highest killed and wounded was Rodes' Division, which had 686. The high number reflects that division's counterattack at the gap between the two Union infantry corps and its fight with Russell's Division of Union infantry. Deaths of Confederate infantry commanders included one division commander, Rodes, and two brigade commanders, Godwin and Patton. Another brigade commander, York, was seriously wounded and lost an arm. At the regimental level, 20 commanding officers were mortally wounded, wounded, or captured. Lee, commander of Early's cavalry, was seriously wounded. Sheridan's Army of the Shenandoah lists 5,018 casualties in the official report; including 697 killed, 3,983 wounded, and 338 captured or missing. The XIX Corps had 2,074 casualties, which includes 1,527 from Grover's 2nd Division. The high casualties for Grover reflect the Confederate counterattack by Gordon's Division. Keifer's Second Brigade of Ricketts' Division had the most casualties in the VI Corps. Among the army's leaders, the death of Russell and wounding of Upton were significant losses. ## Aftermath Beginning at 5:00 am on September 20, Sheridan's army moved 20 miles (32 km) south to the north side of Strasburg in a march that took all day. Two days later at Fisher's Hill, Crook flanked and turned Early's left in a sneak attack, and Early's army was again fleeing south. Sheridan wrote that the Battle of Fisher's Hill "was, in a measure, a part of the battle of the Opequon; that is to say, it was an incident of the pursuit resulting from that action." ### Performance and impact One historian wrote that the Third Battle of Winchester was "the first one of the war in which cavalry, artillery and infantry were all used concurrently and to the best possible advantage, each according to its own nature and traditions." Wilson agreed, writing that the battle was the first where "cavalry was properly handled in cooperation with the infantry". At the time, the battle was "the bloodiest battle of the Shenandoah Valley", and caused "more casualties than the entire 1862 Valley Campaign". Reflecting during and after the war, multiple soldiers on each side believed that this battle had the hardest fighting of the war. Early's defeat was the first for a Confederate general in the Shenandoah Valley. Although he lost the battle, he handled his small army with "tactical skill and daring", making especially good use of his infantry and artillery. Sheridan made mistakes by funneling too many troops through the Berryville Canyon and holding Crook's army too far away while it was in reserve. Sheridan deserves credit for his perseverance and his ability to inspire his men, but the decisive maneuver—the attack on Early's left flank followed by the cavalry charge from the north—was implemented by Crook, not Sheridan. Aside from his ability to inspire his troops, Sheridan's contribution was his handling and utilization of cavalry, which made the difference in the battle. Merritt's cavalry division alone captured 775 men, seven battle flags, and two pieces of artillery. Of the fifteen Medal of Honor winners in the battle, ten were members of the cavalry. Early wrote that his Confederate army "deserved the victory, and would have had it, but for the enemy's immense superiority in cavalry, which alone gave it to him". Following his victory at Winchester, Sheridan received congratulations from Lincoln, Grant, and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. Some historians consider the battle to be the most important in the Shenandoah Valley. Sheridan would have more success against Early, and Early's Army of the Valley was eliminated from the war on March 2, 1865, in the Battle of Waynesboro. Early escaped in that battle, but Custer's Division captured 1,700 men, 11 pieces of artillery, 17 battle flags, and Early's headquarters equipment. Sheridan's success in the months following the Third Battle of Winchester propelled him to status only eclipsed by Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman, and he would eventually become Commanding General of the United States Army. He was honored on U.S. Currency in the 1890s: ten-dollar treasury notes in 1890 and 1891, and five-dollar silver certificates in 1896. ### Preservation The Third Winchester Battlefield is part of the Shenandoah Valley Battlefields National Historic District. Major organizations involved with its preservation are the Shenandoah Valley Battlefields Foundation, the American Battlefield Trust, and the Virginia Outdoors Foundation. The battlefield is large, and includes the city plus land to the north and east. Much of the battlefield has been developed, and Interstate 81 and Virginia State Route 7 run through it. Portions of the battlefield east of Winchester are still farmland, and over 600 acres (240 ha) have been preserved. A new Visitor Center is located one mile (1.6 km) east of Interstate 81 on Redbud Road. The Winchester-Frederick County Convention and Visitors Bureau on Pleasant Valley Road also has information, including trail maps for the battlefield.
60,305	Hidden Treasures (EP)	1,168,543,695	null	[ "1995 EPs", "1995 compilation albums", "Capitol Records EPs", "Capitol Records compilation albums", "Heavy metal compilation albums", "Megadeth compilation albums" ]	Hidden Treasures is an EP by American thrash metal band Megadeth, released on July 18, 1995, via Capitol Records. The album features songs that originally appeared on film soundtracks and tribute albums. Four of the tracks were released as singles, and three have received Grammy Award nominations for Best Metal Performance. Despite having garnered mediocre or negative reviews, the material on the EP has been credited with helping expand the group's MTV audience in the early 1990s. ## Background and songs Hidden Treasures is a rarities compilation that features songs that Megadeth had recorded for a number of projects, but had not released on one of the band's studio albums. Most of these were contributions to film soundtracks. In 1989, Megadeth recorded a version of Alice Cooper's "No More Mr. Nice Guy" for the soundtrack to the Wes Craven-directed horror film Shocker. It marks drummer Nick Menza's recording debut with the band. The recording was released as a single and peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart in 1990. "Go to Hell" appeared on the Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey soundtrack in 1991. The song features the same prayer, "Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep", used in "Enter Sandman" by Metallica, and can be heard at the beginning of the track. The band contributed three songs to soundtracks in 1993. "Angry Again", recorded during the sessions for Countdown to Extinction, appeared on the soundtrack to Last Action Hero and received a nomination for "Best Metal Performance" at the 1993 Grammy Awards. The song has appeared on several of the band's compilations. "Breakpoint" appeared on the soundtrack for the Super Mario Bros. film. "99 Ways to Die" was recorded for the soundtrack to The Beavis and Butt-head Experience and released as a single and a music video. It was nominated in the "Best Metal Performance" category at the 1995 Grammy Awards. "Diadems" was released on the Demon Knight soundtrack in 1995. In addition to soundtrack contributions, the band submitted a cover of Black Sabbath's "Paranoid" for the tribute album Nativity in Black in 1994. It was nominated for "Best Metal Performance" at the 1996 Grammy Awards. "Problems" is a Sex Pistols cover and was previously unreleased. ## Release and reception While initially released in Europe as a bonus disc for a special edition of Youthanasia, Hidden Treasures was released as a stand-alone EP in Japan and the US on July 18, 1995. It debuted at number 90 on the Billboard 200 chart and sold 13,000 copies in its first week. By December 2005, Hidden Treasures sold 286,000 copies in the United States. It also appeared on album chart in the UK, but did not achieve notable success. The album has gone out of print in the US, but was reissued in 2007 for the Japanese and European markets. The EP has received generally mediocre reaction from critics. AllMusics Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the EP does not have many "first-rate songs" and that only "99 Ways to Die" made an impression. The Rolling Stone Album Guide was dismissive of the EP; the staff reviewer commented that the album is worth hearing only for "99 Ways to Die". Dean Golemis of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the album is "typical Megadeth" featuring "fast-forward riffing" and "snooty snarling" vocals. Carlos Ramirez from Noisecreep felt that the album contains many underrated songs that "also deserve their time in the spotlight" and highlighted the dueling guitar leads by Mustaine and Friedman featured in "Go to Hell". Despite the negative reviews, material featured on the EP has been credited with helping expand the group's MTV audience in the early 1990s. ## Track listing All credits adapted from the Hidden Treasures liner notes. ## Personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes. Megadeth - Dave Mustaine – guitars, lead vocals - David Ellefson – bass, backing vocals - Marty Friedman – guitars and backing vocals (tracks 2–8) - Nick Menza – drums Production' - Production: Desmond Child and Dave Mustaine (track 1); Max Norman and Mustaine (tracks 2–8) - Engineering: Max Norman (tracks 2–8) - Mixing: Max Norman (tracks 2–6); Norman and Mustaine (tracks 7–8) - Guitar/bass/amplifier technician: Michael Kaye (tracks 4–8) - Drum technician: Bruce Jacoby (tracks 4–8) ## Chart performance ## Certifications
2,622,099	1772 English cricket season	1,128,776,246	Cricket season review	[ "1772 in English cricket", "English cricket seasons in the 18th century" ]	In the 1772 English cricket season, it became normal practice to complete match scorecards and there are surviving examples from every subsequent season. Scorecards from 1772 have been found for three eleven-a-side matches in which the Hampshire county team played against an England team, and for one top-class single wicket match between Kent and Hampshire. The three Hampshire v England matches have been unofficially recognised by certain sources as first-class, although no such standard existed at the time. Prior to 1772, only four scorecards have survived, the last from a minor match in 1769. Hampshire won two and lost one of their matches against England. Kent won the single wicket match. Hampshire teams were organised by the Hambledon Club and played their home matches on Broadhalfpenny Down, near the village of Hambledon, Hampshire. John Small, the Hampshire batsman, scored the most runs in the three scored matches; no details of bowling or fielding have survived. While details are scarce, reports exist of four other eleven-a-side matches. Two involved a combined Hampshire and Sussex team playing against Kent and it has been suggested that Hambledon may have been a two counties club. There was a match between Surrey and Hampshire of which only the result is known. In the north of England, the Sheffield and Nottingham clubs met at an unknown venue in Sheffield. ## Scorecards The earliest known scorecards were created for two matches in 1744 but, before 1772, only two more have been found – one each from minor matches played in 1751 and 1769. Three scorecards exist from top-class matches played in 1772, when completion became normal practice, and there are surviving cards from every subsequent season. ### Hampshire v England, Broadhalfpenny Down, 24–25 June In the match at Broadhalfpenny Down on 24–25 June, Hampshire won by 53 runs for a stake of 500 guineas. Hampshire teams were organised by the Hambledon Club and one source for this match has called the team Hambledon while, in other accounts, the England team has been called "Kent, Middlesex and Surrey". Hampshire had two given men: William Yalden and John Edmeads, both of Surrey. Yalden was a noted wicket-keeper and Hampshire's regular keeper Tom Sueter was also playing, but it is not known which of them kept wicket in this match. On the England side, Gill of Buckinghamshire is known to have been a wicket-keeper. Hampshire batsman John Small's score of 78 is the highest recorded in the 1772 season and, as such, it established the record for the highest individual score definitely recorded in a senior or top-class match. According to contemporary newspaper reports, "bets of £500 were laid against John Minshull in favour of John Small". ### England v Hampshire, Guildford Bason, 23–24 July The match at Guildford Bason on 23–24 July was also won by Hampshire, this time by 62 runs and again for a stake of 500 guineas. Richard Simmons of Kent was the England wicket-keeper in this match and the next one. F. S. Ashley-Cooper calls the teams Hambledon and All England when referring to confusion about the extras: "In the course of the game, the Hambledon Club (sic) got 11 notches in byes and All-England (sic) 21, but they were not entered in the scoresheet". He gave the match scores as 144 and 118 to 117 and 73 with Hampshire winning by 72 runs; however, these totals have Hampshire scoring 12 byes and England scoring 22, which is the same as the scorecard (the margin excluding extras is correct). ### England v Hampshire, Bourne Park, 19–20 August The third match was played on 19–20 August at Bourne Paddock, Bishopsbourne, near Canterbury. England won by two wickets and the scorecard shows that Joseph Miller and John Boorman were the not out batsmen when the match ended, while Dick May did not bat. Yalden and Edmeads again played for Hampshire as given men. Hampshire's captain, all-rounder Richard Nyren, missed this match and was replaced by Thomas Ridge. Arthur Haygarth noted that the England team in this match was called Kent in another account, though he called it England; the team included nine Kent players with Lumpy Stevens and Thomas White from Surrey. ## Players Many scorecards in the 18th century lack details and so it is difficult to create any analysis of playing performances. The three scorecards in 1772 provide only the team totals and the runs scored by each batsman. There is no bowling or fielding data. John Small of Hampshire scored the most runs with 213. William Yalden scored 136 for Hampshire as a given man and Joseph Miller of England scored 98. A total of 28 players (12 for Hampshire; 16 for England) took part in the three matches. Hampshire's players were Edward Aburrow Jr, William Barber, Thomas Brett, John Edmeads, William Hogsflesh, George Leer, Richard Nyren, Thomas Ridge, John Small, Peter "Buck" Stewart, Tom Sueter and William Yalden. The England players were John Boorman, Childs, John Frame, James Fuggles, Gill, Dick May, Tom May, Joseph Miller, John Minshull, Page, William Palmer, Thomas Pattenden, Richard Simmons, Lumpy Stevens, Thomas White and John Wood. ## Single wicket A top-class five-a-side match was played under single wicket rules at the Artillery Ground on Tuesday, 2 June between teams representing Hampshire and Kent. It was a two innings match. Hampshire scored 11 and 46; Kent scored 35 and 23 for 4 wickets to win by one wicket. The Kent players were John Boorman, John Frame, Dick May, John Minshull and Joseph Miller. Minshull scored 26 and 11; Frame scored the winning run. The Hampshire players were John Small, Tom Sueter, George Leer, Thomas Brett and Richard Nyren. Nyren scored 29 out of 46 in the second innings. ## Other events Besides the scorecards of the three matches above, reports have survived of four more eleven-a-side matches in 1772. After their first known meeting in 1771, the Sheffield and Nottingham clubs played a match on Monday, 1 June at an unknown location in Sheffield. Nottingham conceded defeat after being dismissed for 14 and then seeing Sheffield score 70 with wickets still in hand. A pre-match announcement appeared in the (Nottingham) Daily Messenger on Tuesday, 25 May, and the paper followed up with a report on Friday, 12 June. In August, Kent played two matches against a combined Hampshire and Sussex team. The first, on 10–11 August, was at Broadhalfpenny Down and the combined team won by 50 runs. The stake was 500 guineas but, apart from the result, no details of the match are known. The second match, on 26–27 August, was played at Guildford Bason and Kent won by innings and 29 runs. In his notes about this match, G. B. Buckley says: "Hampshire & Sussex = Hambledon Club", adding weight to the theory that Hambledon was a two counties club. The bets placed seem to have been mainly around how many runs the Duke of Dorset would score compared with one Mr Ellis, a now unknown player. It is possible that this was a "gentlemen only" match and the same may be true of the match on 10 August. The report was in the General Evening Post on Saturday, 29 August. On Friday, 28 August, there was a Surrey v Hampshire match at Guildford Bason which Hampshire won by 45 runs. No details are known except the result. Two matches in June involved the Blackheath club against teams designated as counties but, as Buckley says, "the alleged Kent team cannot have been representative" and they are minor matches only. Another Kent match against a team called London and Middlesex apparently took place at the Artillery Ground on Tuesday, 11 August, the same day as the Hampshire and Sussex v Kent match above. It is believed that this was not a representative match, especially given the stakes on offer at Hambledon.
33,706,357	Will Middlebrooks	1,171,955,771	American baseball player	[ "1988 births", "Baseball players from Hunt County, Texas", "Biloxi Shuckers players", "Boston Red Sox players", "Colorado Springs Sky Sox players", "Greenville Drive players", "Living people", "Lowell Spinners players", "Major League Baseball third basemen", "Milwaukee Brewers players", "Pawtucket Red Sox players", "Portland Sea Dogs players", "Round Rock Express players", "Salem Red Sox players", "San Diego Padres players", "Scottsdale Scorpions players", "Sportspeople from Greenville, Texas", "Texas Rangers players", "Wisconsin Timber Rattlers players" ]	William Scott Middlebrooks (born September 9, 1988) is an American former professional baseball third baseman and is currently a color analyst for the Boston Red Sox broadcast team on NESN. He made his Major League Baseball (MLB) debut with the Boston Red Sox on May 2, 2012, and played with them through 2014. He also played in MLB for the San Diego Padres, Milwaukee Brewers and Texas Rangers. A fifth round draft pick in the 2007 MLB draft out of Liberty-Eylau High School in Texarkana, Texas, Middlebrooks signed with the Red Sox for \$925,000, bypassing his commitment to Texas A&M University. Middlebrooks was originally a shortstop, but the Red Sox converted him into a third baseman in the minor leagues. He represented the United States in the 2011 All-Star Futures Game. Following Middlebrooks' emergence as the Red Sox's starting third baseman in 2012, the organization traded former All-Star Kevin Youkilis. After struggles in the 2013 and 2014 seasons, the Red Sox traded Middlebrooks to the San Diego Padres before the 2015 season. He signed minor league contracts with the Brewers and Rangers before the 2016 and 2017 seasons, respectively. ## Amateur career Middlebrooks attended Liberty-Eylau High School in Texarkana, Texas. He played shortstop and pitched for the high school baseball team. As a pitcher, he could reach 90 miles per hour (140 km/h) with his fastball. Liberty-Eylau won the Class 3A state championship in 2006, Middlebrooks' junior season. In his senior season, Middlebrooks had a .555 batting average with 22 stolen bases and 48 runs batted in (RBIs) in 38 games, and a 13-0 win–loss record as a pitcher. He was named to the Class 3A All-State First Team and Class 3A Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association. In addition to baseball, Middlebrooks played American football and basketball in high school. A quarterback, placekicker and punter, he played on the school's football team, which also featured LaMichael James. He was named an All-State punter. Middlebrooks admits that he preferred football, until he realized during his junior year that he had the opportunity to be selected in the Major League Baseball draft. In November 2006, he committed to attend Texas A&M University on a full scholarship to play baseball and football for the Texas A&M Aggies. ## Professional career Middlebrooks was an athletic defensive player and hit for power and was also credited for his contact skills, although he was not considered the most patient hitter. His throwing arm was well regarded, and his baserunning was rated as average. ### Boston Red Sox #### Minor leagues Middlebrooks had been projected as a first round talent in the 2007 Major League Baseball draft. However, the belief that he would follow through with his scholarship to Texas A&M led Middlebrooks to fall in the draft. The Boston Red Sox drafted Middlebrooks in the fifth round of the draft, selecting him as a shortstop, rather than as a pitcher. He received a \$925,000 signing bonus to renege on his commitment to Texas A&M. Middlebrooks made his professional debut in 2008 with the Lowell Spinners of the Class A-Short Season New York–Penn League, where he batted .254 with one home run. He described himself as developmentally behind other players at his level because of the time he had devoted to football. Initially a shortstop, Middlebrooks made the transition to third base as he added muscle, increasing from 190 pounds (86 kg) at the time he was drafted to 210 pounds (95 kg). In 2009, Middlebrooks played for the Greenville Drive of the Class A South Atlantic League, where he batted .265 with seven home runs and 57 RBIs. He was promoted to the Salem Red Sox of the Class A-Advanced Carolina League in 2010 and responded by batting .276 with 12 home runs and 70 RBIs. Middlebrooks began the 2011 season playing for the Portland Sea Dogs of the Class AA Eastern League. He played in the Eastern League All-Star Game, hitting a double in the game. Middlebrooks also participated in the 2011 All-Star Futures Game, starting at third base and going 1-for-2. Through August 2011, Middlebrooks batted .306 with 18 home runs and 80 RBIs for Portland, at which point he was promoted to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the Class AAA International League. Joe McDonald of ESPN.com called Middlebrooks "Boston's likely [third baseman] of the future" upon his promotion from Portland to Pawtucket. He hit .161 in 16 games with Pawtucket to close out the 2011 season. After the 2011 season, the Red Sox assigned Middlebrooks to the Arizona Fall League, where he hit four home runs in 13 games and was named to the Rising Stars Game. In November 2011, Middlebrooks, Che-Hsuan Lin, and Drake Britton were added to the Red Sox 40-man roster to protect them from being selected in the Rule 5 draft. Heading into the 2012 season, Baseball America rated Middlebrooks as the Red Sox' best prospect and 51st best prospect overall. Starting the 2012 season with Pawtucket, Middlebrooks hit .333 with nine home runs and 27 RBIs in 24 games and 93 at-bats. Meanwhile, Red Sox starting third baseman Kevin Youkilis struggled, opening the 2012 season batting .219. As Youkilis struggled, Middlebrooks appeared to be ready for a promotion. #### 2012 season The Red Sox promoted Middlebrooks to the major leagues on May 2, 2012, when Youkilis was placed on the disabled list. He made his MLB debut that day, drawing a walk in his first plate appearance and recording two hits. On May 6, he hit a game-tying grand slam for his first major league home run in what was eventually a 17-inning loss to the Baltimore Orioles. In his first 41 games with the Red Sox, Middlebrooks batted .326 with nine home runs and 34 RBIs, the most RBIs to start a career for a member of the Red Sox since Walt Dropo recorded 37 RBIs in his first 41 career games dating back to 1949–50. Bobby Valentine, the manager of the Red Sox, initially alternated between Middlebrooks and Youkilis at third base. However, Middlebrooks' emergence led the Red Sox to trade Youkilis on June 23. Middlebrooks was named American League Player of the Week for the week ending June 24. Middlebrooks broke a bone in his right hand when he was hit by a pitch in a game against the Cleveland Indians on August 10, ending his rookie season with a .288 batting average, 15 home runs and 54 RBIs in 75 games played. #### 2013 season On April 7, 2013, Middlebrooks hit three home runs in a 13–0 Red Sox victory over the Toronto Blue Jays in Toronto. Two of his home runs were hit off pitcher R. A. Dickey. However, he lost playing time to José Iglesias after he strained his back in May. After he batted .192 on the season, the Red Sox optioned Middlebrooks to Pawtucket on June 25, 2013. The Red Sox opted not to promote Middlebrooks when they traded Iglesias on July 30, using Brandon Snyder and Brock Holt instead. After Middlebrooks made adjustments, the Red Sox recalled him from Pawtucket on August 10. In Game 3 of the 2013 World Series, Middlebrooks was ruled to have obstructed future teammate Allen Craig after diving for an errant throw at third base. The play awarded Craig the game winning run for the Cardinals. The Red Sox won the series over the Cardinals. #### 2014 season In 2014, Middlebrooks missed 19 games in April due to a strained calf. In May, he broke a finger, and again went on the disabled list. He had been struggling at the plate to begin the season hitting just .197 with two home runs in 21 games. As he rehabilitated his injury in the minor leagues, Middlebrooks began playing in the outfield, due to the Red Sox' signing of Stephen Drew. After the Red Sox traded Drew, they hoped that Middlebrooks would improve his performance with more regular playing time. Middlebrooks continued to miss time later in the season due to lingering effects of the hand injury. He finished the 2014 season with a .191 average in 215 at-bats. ### San Diego Padres During the 2014–15 offseason, the Red Sox signed free agent Pablo Sandoval, a third baseman. On December 19, 2014, the Red Sox traded Middlebrooks to the San Diego Padres for Ryan Hanigan, whom the Padres had acquired earlier the same day. Middlebrooks competed with Yangervis Solarte to be the Padres' starting third baseman in spring training. With Middlebrooks batting .212 on the season, the Padres optioned Middlebrooks to the El Paso Chihuahuas of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League (PCL) on July 22. On December 2, 2015, the Padres non-tendered Middlebrooks, making him a free agent. ### Milwaukee Brewers On December 15, 2015, Middlebrooks agreed to a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Milwaukee Brewers. The Brewers assigned him to the Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the PCL to start the 2016 season. Middlebrooks batted .282 with 10 home runs and 47 RBIs for Colorado Springs, before he was promoted to the major leagues on July 4. After batting .111 in ten games for Milwaukee, he went on the disabled list with a strained leg. The Brewers activated him from the disabled list and outrighted him off the 40-man roster on August 30. ### Texas Rangers Middlebrooks signed a minor league contract with the Texas Rangers on November 11, 2016. He began the 2017 season with the Round Rock Express of the PCL. He spent most of 2017 with the Express until he was called up by the Rangers in September. He became the first player in over 100 years to hit a pinch-hit triple in both games of a doubleheader on September 6, 2017, against the Atlanta Braves. ### Philadelphia Phillies On January 3, 2018, Middlebrooks signed a minor-league contract that included an invitation to spring training with the Philadelphia Phillies. On February 25, Middlebrooks broke his leg in a spring training game against the Orioles, and because of this injury, he did not appear in a game during the 2018 season. He elected free agency on November 2, 2018, and on January 10, 2019, he announced his retirement. ## Broadcasting career In 2019, Middlebrooks was hired as a baseball analyst for CBS Sports HQ. In March 2022, Middlebrooks joined NESN, where his wife Jenny worked from 2012 to 2014, as a studio analyst for Red Sox coverage. ## Personal life Middlebrooks grew up in Texarkana, Texas. His father, Tom, served as the head baseball coach and assistant football coach at Liberty-Eylau, and his younger sister, Lacey, played softball for the University of Tulsa. She was the head coach of both Liberty-Eylau and Texas High. Middlebrooks' mother, Julie, and youngest sister, Mary, are artists; Julie is an art teacher. He became friends with Ryan Mallett when they met in a football camp after Mallett moved to the Texarkana area in the seventh grade. Middlebrooks was engaged to Ann Lux, a former Dallas Cowboys cheerleader; however, they broke up in August 2012. They are from the same hometown and have known each other since age 12. Later in 2012, Middlebrooks began dating Jenny Dell, a field reporter who covered the Red Sox for the New England Sports Network. They became engaged in July 2014, and were married in February 2016. Middlebrooks and Dell had their first child, a daughter in October 2018. A second daughter, arrived in December 2019. Dell struggled to get pregnant and used fertility treatments.
44,444,361	The Boat Race 1947	1,102,769,761	null	[ "1947 in English sport", "1947 sports events in London", "March 1947 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 93rd Boat Race took place on 29 March 1947. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames in London. In a race umpired by former Oxford rower D. T. Raikes, Cambridge won by ten lengths in a time of 23 minutes 1 second, taking the overall record in the event to 49–43 in their favour. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1946 race by three lengths, with Cambridge leading overall with 48 victories to Oxford's 43 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). Oxford's coaches were R. E. Eason (who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1924 race), P. C. Mallam (four-time Blue between 1921 and 1924) and Guy Oliver Nickalls (who rowed three times for Oxford between 1921 and 1923). Cambridge were coached by John Houghton Gibbon (who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1899 and 1900 races), Hugh Mason (who represented Cambridge in the 1936 and 1937 races) and Peter Haig-Thomas (four-time Blue between 1902 and 1905). The umpire for the race was former Oxford rower D. T. Raikes who had represented the Dark Blues in the 1920, 1921 and 1922 races. Among the spectators were Geoffrey Fisher, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and American actress Paulette Goddard. It was the first year that souvenir programmes were sold, the proceeds of which would help to fund the two boat clubs. The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested that Oxford could win, claiming they had an "embarras de richesse" while Cambridge "started this year with a grievous shortage of material". In a practice row, the rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian stated that "Cambridge showed much better form" while Oxford "did rather more hard work", including practicing their start from a stakeboat. Oxford were reported as being favourites in the Dundee Courier, with the prediction that the win could be determined by who won the toss. That view was echoed in the Dundee Evening Telegraph, who also suggested that Oxford were favourites yet "abnormal flooding" would favour the crew who won the toss. ## Crews The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 5 lb (78.3 kg), 5.5 pounds (2.49 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Oxford saw four rowers with Boat Race experience return to the crew, including J. R. W. Gleave, R. M. A. Bourne, P. N. Brodie and stroke A. J. R. Purssell Cambridge's boat contained just one crew member who had taken part in the event before, in cox G. H. C. Fisher. The Cambridge University Boat Club president, M. A. Nicholson was declared unfit to row following a series of bouts of asthma. All participants in the race were registered as British. ## Race Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge. The race was started by umpire Raikes at 6:15 p.m, in "rain and dismal weather". Out-rating Oxford by two strokes per minute, the Light Blues took an immediate lead and by Craven Steps they were pulling away from their opponents. As both crews passed the Mile Post, Cambridge were almost clear by two lengths, and despite a spurt from the Dark Blues at the Harrods Furniture Depository, the Light Blues maintained their lead. Oxford trailed Cambridge by three and a half lengths as the Light Blues passed below Hammersmith Bridge and moved into Oxford's water, effectively ending the race as a contest. Cambridge continued to build their lead, ahead by six lengths at Chiswick Steps and eight by Barnes Bridge. They passed the finishing post ten lengths ahead in a time of 23 minutes 1 second, their first win since the 1939 race. It was the slowest winning time since the 1877 race and the winning margin was the largest since the 1928 race. The victory took the overall record in the event to 49–43 in Cambridge's favour. The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested the "Boat Race was as disappointing as the weather in which it was rowed".
17,944,919	Sleaford Navigation	1,171,109,139	Canal in Lincolnshire, England	[ "1794 establishments in England", "Canals in Lincolnshire", "Canals opened in 1794", "River navigations in the United Kingdom", "Transport in Lincolnshire" ]	The Sleaford Navigation was a 12.5-mile (20.1 km) canalisation of the River Slea in Lincolnshire, England, which opened in 1794. It ran from a junction with the River Witham, near Chapel Hill to the town of Sleaford through seven locks, most of which were adjacent to mills. Lack of finance meant that it stopped short of its intended terminus, but it gradually grew to be successful financially. The coming of the railways in 1857 led to a rapid decline, and it was officially abandoned by an act of Parliament in 1878, but remained open for a further three years. The lower part of it remained navigable until the 1940s, when it was blocked by a sluice. Interest in restoring the canal began in 1972, and navigation was restored to the first 8 miles (13 km) with the re-opening of Lower Kyme lock in 1986. The Sleaford Navigation Trust has been working towards restoring the whole waterway, and succeeded in purchasing the Sleaford end of the river bed in 2004. A short section at Sleaford was opened in 2010, following the installation of a lift bridge. Nearby, Navigation House, which served as the clerk's office, has been restored as a visitor centre about the canal, and the adjacent seed warehouse has been turned into The National Centre for Craft & Design. ## History The River Slea rises to the west of Sleaford, near Ancaster, and flows in an easterly direction, passing through Sleaford on its way to South Kyme, beyond which it is called the Kyme Eau, joining the River Witham at Chapel Hill. Kyme Eau had been navigable since at least the reign of Edward III, for in 1375 Gilbert d'Umframville was accused of illegally collecting tolls on boats carrying food products to the people of Kesteven. He had been doing so for 12 years, and he defended his case before the king, explaining that the river was navigable from Dog Dyke to Brent Fen, but that it suffered from silting and the banks were in a poor state of repair. Having agreed to carry out repairs, he was granted the right to levy tolls by letters patent. With influential local landowners such as Sir Jenison Gordon of Haverholme Priory and Sir Christopher Whitchcote of Aswarby wanting to improve communications to the area, a proposal to link Sleaford by canal to Grantham was considered in 1774, but was replaced by a scheme to provide a navigable link along the Slea and the Kyme Eau to the Witham in 1783. Following a public meeting in Sleaford on 16 January, a committee was formed to promote the scheme, and in order for it to be profitable, negotiations began with the Commissioners of the River Witham, to reduce the tolls on that river for traffic to and from the Slea. Although initially rebuffed, the committee persisted, and the Commissioners eventually agreed to terms. At the time, the River Slea was not navigable beyond Kyme, as the channel was inadequate, and there were fish weirs and water mills on its course. Three attempts were made to obtain an Act of Parliament to authorise improvements, but all were defeated. In 1791, William Jessop and John Hudson were commissioned to prepare a new survey and plans. Jessop was a canal engineer of some repute, with experience of several navigations, including the River Trent at Newark, while Hudson was less well known, but had experience of canal building in eastern England and Yorkshire. Their report was published on 25 November 1791, and estimated that the improvements would cost £9,979. The plans obtained the support of Sir Joseph Banks, a baronet who was a patron of the natural sciences, and had been the President of the Royal Society since 1778. The fourth attempt to obtain an act of Parliament was successful, probably due to his influence. The Act (32 Geo. 3. c. 106) was passed on 11 June 1792, creating The Company of Proprietors of the Sleaford Navigation, which was empowered to make and maintain a Navigation from Sleaford Castle Causeway, through the town of Sleaford, along the course of Sleaford Mill Stream and Kyme Eau, to the River Witham, at or near Chappel Hill. It had authority to raise £13,000 in capital for the project, with an additional £6,500 if necessary. Most of the money was raised within Lincolnshire, with half of the shares being bought by people living in Sleaford. Six proprietors were elected to serve on a committee, which expressed its thanks to Joseph Banks at its first meeting. By the end of 1793, £16,000 had been raised to fund construction. The Horncastle Canal was being constructed at the same time, and the two companies negotiated to find an engineer who would oversee both projects. They approached Henry Eastburn, but he did not accept, and so William Cawley from Mickle Trafford in Cheshire was appointed. Five locks were required to negotiate the mills, and there were additional locks at Lower Kyme and near Flax Dyke, in the parish of Ewerley. They were built as broad locks, 60 by 15 feet (18.3 by 4.6 m), and the total fall from Sleaford was 42 feet (13 m). Six contracts with a total value of £4,000, for the construction of locks and bridges, were awarded to John Dyson Sr., who worked with Peter Tyler and John Langwith. Defects were reported with the lock at Haverholme in 1794, and when the opening of the canal was announced, Dyson produced advertisements which stated that the canal would not open unless he was paid for the work he had carried out. The company responded that the only place to sort out such disagreements was in a law court, and the opening went ahead on 6 May 1794. The enabling act specified that the terminus would be at Castle Causeway, from where it would follow the southern mill stream to pass through the south bridge, and then along the Sleaford millstream through Old Sleaford and New Sleaford. Financial difficulties meant that it stopped short of its intended terminus, and instead the company built a wharf to the east of what is now Carre Street in Sleaford. ### Operation Trade on the navigation was adequate, but the company was hampered by the overrun in the cost of construction. Dividends were paid to shareholders in 1795, 1817, 1818 and 1824, but profits had improved by 1826, and regular dividends were then paid. Between 1836 and 1856, they ranged from five per cent to eight per cent. Rather than the proprietors collecting the tolls, they were let to toll collectors. In 1816, John Keyworth paid £1,010 for the privilege, while by 1839, Joshua Bower had to pay £1,590. This practice ceased in 1851, as receipts fell. While the navigation prospered, there were plans to extend it. The first plan was for an extension to the west to Wilsford, suggested on 1827. Six years later J. Rofe and his son revived the idea, first proposed in 1774, for a 16-mile (26 km) link from Sleaford to Grantham. In the same year, a Sleaford trader attempted to get the navigation extended to its authorised terminus at Castle Causeway, but the company stated that at the time of construction, only £700 had been left for the final 500 yards (460 m) to the causeway, and as that would not have been enough, they had provided a suitable wharf at the present terminus. While none of these extensions were pursued, plans for the installation of a weighing machine on the wharf in 1837 escalated, and resulted in a residence for the clerk of the canal and a weighing office being built. A crane was installed in 1841, but success was soon threatened by the coming of the railways. ### Decline A railway from Grantham to Sleaford opened in 1857. This was extended to Boston in 1859, and so offered direct competition to the navigation. The decline was rapid. Income fell from £981 in 1858 to £168 in 1868, and the share price dropped from £40 to £10 between 1860 and 1863. The company was trading at a loss by 1871, and although an Act of Abandonment was obtained on 17 June 1878, the navigation did not actually close until 14 May 1881, which was also the date of the final meeting of the proprietors. The Act required the company to fill in the three locks nearest to Sleaford, but there were special provisions for the remaining structures. The next three were on a stretch of river bordered by land belonging to Haverholme Priory, and were to be put into good order and handed over to Murray Finch Hatton, earl of Winchilsea & Nottingham, who owned the Priory. He could then maintain or abandon them, but was required to construct sluices if he chose to abandon them. The final lock was to be handed over to the commissioners of the River Witham, once it was in good order, and they could remove the gates and fill in the lock if they chose to do so. Although officially closed, both Finch Hatton and the Witham Commissioners chose to retain the locks, and the lower 6.5 miles (10.5 km) of the navigation from Ewerby Waithe Common to the River Witham remained navigable until the 1940s. Lower Kyme lock was then replaced by a sluice, which prevented navigation until a lock was reinstated in 1986. ## Restoration In 1972, Ronald Russell produced the book Lost Canals of England and Wales, in which he had compiled details of 78 canals then considered to be derelict. This acted as a catalyst for several restoration schemes, including one for the Sleaford Navigation. This plan initially centred on the canal head in Sleaford, and promoted by the Sleaford Civic Society. On 4 November 1977, the Sleaford Navigation Society was formed, with the wider aim of restoring navigation to the whole canal, and publishing research into other Lincolnshire navigations. The society managed to gain the support of the Anglian Water Authority for their plans in 1980, which resulted in the restoration of the Kyme Eau lock, re-opened in November 1986. With the raising of a low footbridge and the construction of a winding hole at South Kyme,\> the first 8 miles (13 km) of the waterway were returned to navigation. In 1991, work commenced on Cobblers lock, and was completed by 1994, although it has not been fitted with gates as the banks of the section above it need strengthening before the water levels can be raised. Funded by a Derelict Land Grant, the engineering consultants Binnies carried out a feasibility study in 1994, which concluded that full restoration was possible. A new administrative structure for the project was created in 1997, when the Sleaford Navigation Trust was formed, and the Navigation Society was disbanded. The Trust has continued to work on restoring the structures of the canal, campaigning successfully to prevent the Navigation Warehouse from being demolished in 1998. The local council organised funding for the restoration of the warehouse and the former offices of the canal company in 2002, and Lincolnshire County Council funded a further study which looked at how to provide an adequate water supply for a re-opened canal. The former seed warehouse now forms part of The Hub, housing the National Centre for Craft and Design, which is supported by the Arts Council and is one of the leading centres for the promotion and exhibition of international craft and design in the UK. In 2004, the Navigation Trust was able to buy the bed of the river between Carre Street in Sleaford and Bone Mill, which included the lock and its island at Cogglesford Mill. Lower Kyme lock was refurbished in the winter of 2008. The upper gate is a vertical guillotine gate, and the mechanism required 350 turns of a handle to raise the gate, and another 350 to lower it again. New lock gates were fitted, and a new geared mechanism requiring fewer turns made the lock easier to operate. Around 0.6 miles (0.97 km) of the waterway from Sleaford to Cogglesford Mill lock were reopened, following the construction of a lifting bridge in the town centre. This was installed in late December 2008, although the hydraulic operating gear was not fitted until January 2010. Work was also carried out to construct a new slipway on Eastgate Green, to allow trailed boats to be launched onto the town section. This involved careful planning to avoid damage to 27 mature trees, and the widening of 92 feet (28 m) of the bank to create a mooring point. Funding was provided by Lincolnshire County Council, the Inland Waterways Association, and Waste Recycling Environmental Ltd (WREN), which administers the Landfill Communities Fund. An official opening of the new bridge and facilities took place on 3 July 2010, when three boats were launched from the slipway. Members from canoe clubs at Boston and Sleaford attended. ## Course The upper terminus of the canal was at Navigation Yard, near Sleaford town centre. Navigation House, the former residence of the clerk, is now a Grade II listed building, and has been refurbished. It houses an interpretation centre where visitors can learn of the history of the canal. The River Slea between Navigation Yard and Bone Mill lock is owned by the Canal Trust. A short distance below the terminus, a new steel lift bridge crosses the canal, after which a stream leaves the east bank. This is the old course of the river, which rejoins the canal below Cobblers lock. The first lock is 0.6 miles (0.97 km) from Sleaford, and allowed boats to pass Coggesford Mill, an 18th-century watermill which has been restored, and is still used to grind flour. It is managed by North Kesteven District Council. The railway line from Lincoln to Spalding crosses next, after which Dyers Mill or Bone Mill lock is reached, 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from Sleaford and overshadowed by the A17 Sleaford bypass bridge. Corn Mill lock is situated 2.4 miles (3.9 km) from Sleaford, and the buildings of Holdingham Mill are Grade II listed. They include a small hexagonal toll house, which was used by the lock keeper. Next is Paper Mill lock, after which the canal follows a more easterly direction, to reach Haverholme lock after 3.5 miles (5.6 km). Nearby was Haverholme Priory, founded by Gilbertine priors in 1139. The Grade II listed ruins are of a much later date, being part of a Tudor style country house built in 1835 by H. E. Kendall. The bridge over the canal, built in 1893, is also Grade II listed. At 4.7 miles (7.6 km), Cobblers lock is reached, which has been the limit of navigation since 1986. Just beyond it, there is a pumping station on the south bank and the canal makes a right-angle bend, to skirt Ewerby Waithe Common, after which there is another right angle bend by Ferry Farm, where Ferry Bridge now carries Ferry Lane over the canal. After a short distance, there is a bend called Heckington Tunnel, where a section of the Car Dyke, a Roman waterway which ran for 85 miles (137 km), heads off in a southerly direction, with the Midfodder Drain running parallel to it. Somewhere here, the name of the river changes from the Slea to the Kyme Eau. The village of South Kyme follows, with its four-storey fortified tower, built in the 14th century for Sir Gilbert d'Umframville. It is 77 feet (23 m) high, and was surrounded by a moat. Two road bridges and a footbridge cross the navigation in the village. Damford Grounds, a low-lying area of fenland, lies to the north of the village, and Damford Drain, the main drainage ditch, is pumped into the river by a pumping station on the west bank. After passing Terry Booth Farm on the east bank, the 18th century buildings of which are Grade II listed, and a farm with the same name on the west bank, Lower Kyme lock is reached, 10.6 miles (17.1 km) from Sleaford. The Twenty Foot Drain and its pumping station join the river as it makes another sharp turn to the east, to reach a set of flood doors and Chapel Hill bridge, beyond which is the River Witham, flowing south-east to Boston. ## Points of interest ## Water quality The Environment Agency measure the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail. The water quality of the Sleaford Navigation and the upper River Slea was as follows in 2019. Reasons for the water quality being less than good include physical modification to the channel, which prevents free movement of fish and other organisms along its length, discharge from sewage treatment works, and surface and groundwater abstraction, which affects the flow. Like many rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and mercury compounds, none of which had previously been included in the assessment. ## See also - Canals of the United Kingdom - History of the British canal system
5,448,596	Ireland King of Arms	1,124,095,100	Title of the officer of arms to two positions in medieval England	[ "Lordship of Ireland", "Offices of arms" ]	Ireland King of Arms was the title of an officer of arms to the King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1392 until the accession of Henry VII as King of England in 1485. A king of arms is the highest of the three levels of officers of arms, and usually enjoys heraldic jurisdiction over a geographical area. Despite the name Ireland King of Arms did not appear to exercise heraldic authority in Ireland, and indeed the connection with Ireland seems rather tenuous. The office may have been created preparatory to a subsequently aborted military expedition to Ireland. The last holder of the office, Walter Bellinger, did exercise the heraldic prerogative of a king of arms to grant armorial bearings, however two of his grants were annulled or regranted by other kings of arms as they felt he encroached on their provinces. In 1552, 70 years after the last Ireland King of Arms, the office of Ulster King of Arms was created. The holders of this office exercised control over the heraldic affairs of Ireland until the death of its last incumbent, Major Sir Neville Wilkinson, in 1941. Thereafter, heraldic affairs within what later became (in April 1949) the Republic of Ireland were transferred to the Government of Ireland while the jurisdiction of Norroy King of Arms expanded to include Northern Ireland when the present office of Norroy and Ulster King of Arms was established in the College of Arms. ## Origins of the office In 1392, King Richard II of England created the first in a succession of Ireland kings of arms. It is unknown why such an office was called into being. Froissart notes the creation of Chandos le Roy d'Ireland, but does not give any clues as to the reasoning. It does, however, fit into the general English policy in Ireland at the time. Richard II sought to re-establish English control in those areas where the native Irish had reasserted their independence. The appointment can be seen as a necessary part of the preparations for the appointment of the Duke of Gloucester as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1392. Richard intended Gloucester to lead a major military campaign, and such a campaign would have necessitated the involvement of heralds to marshal arms and provide advice and evidence in case of heraldic disputes. Richard and Gloucester's campaign of 1392 never happened, but Richard did leave for Ireland in 1394 with a large army, accompanied by John Othelake, who had succeeded Chandos as Ireland King of Arms in 1393. No details are given of Othelake's career as Ireland King of Arms, although he certainly had a connection with Ireland as an officer of arms to the Earl of March in 1381. The historical evidence does not even make clear how long Othelake served in the position. It is clear that Othelake was no longer enjoying the office by 1420. By this time, John Kitley had been appointed to the post, though the exact date of his appointment is unknown. He was appointed by King Henry V of England on the insistence of the Earl of Ormonde. There is no evidence to suggest that Kitley had any connection to Ireland, or even that he visited it, but his connection to Earl of Ormonde is interesting. Kitley was succeeded by Thomas Collyer, who had previously served as Clarenceux King of Arms and Lancaster Herald of Arms in Ordinary. Nothing is known of his career as Ireland, and he was succeeded by Thomas Ashwell. ## Walter Bellinger Walter Bellinger enjoyed the office of Ireland King of Arms from at least 1468. This is proven by the fact that on 3 June 1469, King Edward IV granted Bellinger a pension of £20 per annum for his service as Ireland. The same writ states that he had been appointed on 9 June the year before. Bellinger was a native of Dieppe, and had served as a herald for fifty-five years by 1477. He accompanied his King to France and acted as his ambassador to the French court in the discussions preceding the Treaty of Picquigny. The French King gave him the value of 100 silver marks for his services in that affair. Bellinger held the office of Ireland King of Arms until the reign of Henry VII of England. After Bellinger, no one was appointed to fill the office. ## Impact and legacy Bellinger is the only Ireland King of Arms known to have made any grants of arms. However two of his four known grants were annulled and or regranted, because their recipients were within the heraldic jurisdiction of other kings of arms. There is no evidence to suggest that any Ireland Kings of Arms ever attempted to exercise control over the heraldic practice of Ireland. In 1552, Bartholomew Butler was created Ulster King of Arms. Edward VI wrote in his journal of the occasion "There was a king of arms made for Ireland, whose name was Ulster, and whose province was Ireland, and he was...the first herald of Ireland." Ulster King of Arms was thus a new creation, rather than a revival of Ireland King of Arms, and unlike the latter had heraldic jurisdiction over Ireland. While heraldic control in the Republic of Ireland was transferred to the Government of Ireland, the heraldic functions for Northern Ireland transferred to London within the province of the present Norroy and Ulster King of Arms. ## See also - Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland
14,277,773	New York State Route 20N	1,059,672,547	Former state highway in central New York in the United States	[ "Former state highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Madison County, New York", "Transportation in Onondaga County, New York", "U.S. Route 20" ]	New York State Route 20N (NY 20N) was a state highway in central New York in the United States. It was an alternate route of U.S. Route 20 (US 20) that stretched for 30.5 miles (49.1 km) between Marcellus and Cazenovia. The road began at its parent route, US 20, and NY 174 in Marcellus and ended at US 20, NY 20SY, and NY 92 in Cazenovia. All of NY 20N was concurrent with at least one other route, namely NY 174 in Marcellus, NY 175 from Marcellus to Onondaga Hill, NY 173 from Onondaga Hill to Manlius, and NY 92 and NY 20SY between Manlius and Cazenovia. NY 20N was assigned in May 1937 and removed in 1961 along with NY 20SY. ## Route description NY 20N began at an intersection with US 20 and NY 174 in the town of Marcellus. The route headed north, overlapping NY 174 through the town of Marcellus into the village of Marcellus. At the time, the two routes entered the village on South Street and followed it north to Main Street. NY 20N and NY 174 turned east, following Main for a half-block to North Street. Here, NY 20N and NY 174 split, with NY 174 heading to the west and NY 20N proceeding east along NY 175, which began at this junction at the time of NY 20N's removal. NY 20N and NY 175 continued east to Onondaga, where NY 173 joined the two routes and created a three-route overlap for 100 yards (91 m). At the east end of the overlap, NY 20N continued east along NY 173 into the southernmost section of Syracuse. Here, the two routes intersected NY 80 and US 11 and passed under Interstate 81 before exiting the city limits. Now in the town of De Witt, NY 20N and NY 173 met the northern terminus of NY 91 in the hamlet of Jamesville. The overlap between NY 20N and NY 173 ended 5 miles (8.0 km) to the east in the village of Manlius, where NY 92 and NY 20SY joined both routes just west of where NY 173 split from NY 20N and continued to the east. Outside of Manlius, NY 20N, NY 20SY and NY 92 headed southeast for 7 miles (11 km) to Cazenovia, where all three routes ended at US 20 adjacent to Cazenovia Lake and west of the village. ## History The portion of NY 20N from the intersection of NY 174 and NY 175 in the village of Marcellus to the junction of NY 92 and NY 173 in Manlius was part of the Seneca Turnpike. The turnpike was created in the 1800s and at the time was the longest in the state. The establishment of an alternate route to U.S. Route 20, which bypassed Syracuse to the south, began in 1933. Local restaurants, hotels and gas stations, along with the Syracuse Chamber of Commerce all demanded a route bearing the "20" number on it. This new route would be designated NY 20N, to be established in 1938. The route extended from the town of Marcellus to the village of Cazenovia and overlapped NY 174, NY 175, NY 173, and NY 92 upon assignment. All four of the routes that NY 20N originally overlapped were assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. A second, more northerly alternate route of US 20 in the Syracuse area was assigned in 1951 and designated as NY 20SY. From Manlius to Cazenovia, NY 20SY overlapped NY 20N and NY 92. Both NY 20N and NY 20SY were removed in 1961. ## Major intersections ## See also
30,638,275	St Ffinan's Church, Llanffinan	1,081,711,653	null	[ "19th-century Church in Wales church buildings", "Church in Wales church buildings", "Churches completed in 1841", "Grade II listed churches in Anglesey", "Llanddyfnan" ]	St Ffinan's Church, Llanffinan is a small 19th-century parish church built in the Romanesque revival style, in Anglesey, north Wales. There has been a church in this area, even if not on this precise location, since at least 1254, and 19th-century writers state that St Ffinan established the first church here in the 7th century. The church was rebuilt in 1841, reusing a 12th-century font and 18th-century memorials, as well as the cross at the eastern end of the roof. The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales, one of eight in a combined parish, and services are held weekly. It is a Grade II listed building, a national designation given to "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them", in particular because it is considered to be "a good essay in a simple Romanesque revival style". The church is at the end of a gravel track in the countryside of central Anglesey, about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) from Llangefni, the county town. It is also on a footpath to Plas Penmynydd, once home to Owen Tudor, founder of the Tudor dynasty. ## History and location St Ffinan's Church is in the countryside in the centre of Anglesey, north Wales, near the village of Talwrn, and about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) away from Llangefni, the county town of Anglesey. The parish church is at the end of a gravelled track, off a country lane between the lower part of Talwrn and the hamlet of Ceint to the south. It can also be accessed by public footpath from Plas Penmynydd, once home to Owen Tudor, grandfather of King Henry VII and founder of the Tudor dynasty. The parish takes its name from the church: the Welsh word llan originally meant "enclosure" and then "church", with "-ffinan" denoting the saint. The date of construction of the first church in this area is uncertain, although a church was recorded here in 1254 during the Norwich Taxation of churches. The 19th-century writers and antiquarians Angharad Llwyd and Samuel Lewis said that St Ffinan, to whom the church is dedicated, established the first church here towards the beginning of the 7th century, possibly around 620. Llwyd described the old church in 1833 as "a small neat edifice". The current building was designed by the architect John Welch and erected in 1841, with the first service held on 6 July of that year. Welch also designed the church of St Nidan, Llanidan, in the south of Anglesey, which was built between 1839 and 1843. St Ffinan's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales. It is one of eight churches in a combined parish called Bro Cadwaladr. It is within the deanery of Synod Ynys Mon, the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor. As of 2016, the vicar is Emlyn Williams, assisted by an associate priest, E. R. Roberts. Williams was appointed in 2007; before that, the position had been vacant for 20 years despite many attempts by the Church in Wales to fill it. Services are held at St Ffinan's on the first to fourth Sundays of every month, either Cymun Bendigaid (Welsh: Holy Communion) or Foreol Weddi (Morning Prayer); on the fifth Sunday of the month, a service of Holy Communion is held at one of the churches in the parish. There are no midweek services. John Jones, who was Dean of Bangor Cathedral from 1689 to 1727, was also rector of St Ffinan's during that time, as it was one of the benefices attached to the deanery. Jones is commememorated by a stone tablet on the wall of St Mary's Church, Pentraeth, also in Anglesey. The antiquarian Nicholas Owen was perpetual curate here from 1790 until his death in 1811; he is buried at St Tyfrydog's Church, Llandyfrydog, Anglesey. ## Architecture and fittings The church is small and rectangular, built from stone with a slate roof; there is a bellcote at the west end of the roof. There is no internal structural division between the nave and the chancel. The style is Romanesque revival. There is a round-headed window in each of the three bays of the church, and a three-part window in the chancel. The doorway at the west end has small windows on either side, and a window above; a stone slab between the upper window and the doorway has "1841" upon it. Stained glass has been inserted into the windows in memory of parishioners. A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a number of items that had been preserved from the old church. The circular font, made of gritstone, dates from the 12th-century; it has a "very crude interlacing strap ornament", and has been fitted upon a more modern base. There are two memorials from the 18th century, one dated 1705 to "Iohn Lloyd of Hirdre Faig" and one dated 1764 to "Hugh, son of Richard Hugh of Ty-hen". The churchyard contains one Commonwealth war grave from the First World War, of Private Evan Oswald Thomas, a Royal Welsh Fusiliers soldier from Talwrn. ## Assessment St Ffinan's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing, designating "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them". It was given this status on 30 January 1968 and has been listed because it is considered to be "a good essay in a simple Romanesque revival style". Cadw (the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists) describes it as "a small rural church". Samuel Lewis said that the new church was "a plain structure in the old English style, with strong buttresses, which have a good effect, being so well suited to the exposed situation of the building." Writing in 1846, the priest and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that the church, "a modern erection of the Pseudo-Norman style", stood in "a highly picturesque situation." He said that the cross at the east end of the roof came from the old church. A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region describes the 1841 rebuilding work as "rectangular and harsh". A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that it is "a good example of the small rural church", set in a "well-maintained churchyard". It also notes that its style "is quite different to most Anglesey churches".
1,431,476	Nilsson Sings Newman	1,171,814,025	null	[ "1970 albums", "Albums with cover art by Dean Torrence", "Collaborative albums", "Harry Nilsson albums", "RCA Victor albums", "Randy Newman albums", "Tribute albums" ]	Nilsson Sings Newman is the fifth studio album by American singer-songwriter Harry Nilsson, released in February 1970 on RCA Victor. It features songs written by Randy Newman. Recorded over six weeks in late 1969, the album showcases Nilsson's voice multi-tracked in layers of tone and harmony. Its arrangements are otherwise sparse, with most of the instrumentation provided by Newman on piano. The record was not a great commercial success, but won a 1970 "Record of the Year" award from Stereo Review magazine. The LP record cover art was illustrated by Dean Torrence. ## Background In 1968, Ricky Nelson released his concept album Perspective, a move to expand his musical horizons. The album included songs by Newman, Nilsson and others woven together to tell the story of the interactions of a famous family; author Kevin Courrier writes that this album may have been part of the inspiration for Nilsson Sings Newman. In August 1969, Nilsson released his fourth album Harry. It ended with one of Newman's songs: "Simon Smith and the Amazing Dancing Bear". Years later, Nilsson told Paul Zollo that he was in awe of Newman writing so many songs, ones he thought were better than his own. ## Recording On August 20, 1969, Nilsson and Newman began to record what would become Nilsson Sings Newman. After basic tracks were laid down, Nilsson spent six weeks overdubbing his voice to create layers and harmonies, line by line. As many as 118 overdubs were laid down for a single song. Nilsson occasionally broke the fourth wall in his performance. His voice in the control room is heard on several songs, instructing the recording engineer to add more echo or remove a voice. On the album's final song "So Long Dad", amid a multi-Nilsson chorus of voices, Nilsson softly asks for "more first voice." Louder, he counters himself by saying "actually I need more current voice. Forget the one that's saying 'more first voice.'" Besides piano, other instruments were sometimes used in the studio, including bass drum, tambourine and various electronic keyboards. On the song "Cowboy", Nilsson used electronic harpsichord to bring in a different concluding theme, quoting John Barry's theme from the film Midnight Cowboy, an inside joke that referenced Fred Neil's "Everybody's Talkin'" from the same film, a major success for Nilsson earlier that year. A number of alternate takes and songs were recorded but left off the 1970 album. Two such songs were "Snow" and "Linda". Newman wrote one song specifically for the album: "Caroline", a straightforward love song. According to Nilsson, Newman was "tired of the album when we were finished making it. ... For him it was just doing piano and voice ... over and over." He explained that "once I got the take down, I knew what I was going to do with it later. He didn't." Newman said of his experience that he "was honored that a writer with Harry's talent would choose to do an album of someone else's songs. ... he was such a great singer, a virtuoso singer, really, and he could do so many things as a vocalist that I couldn't do—like hold a note." ## Release In February 1970, Nilsson Sings Newman was released by RCA Records. The cover art was drawn by Dean Torrence; his sepia tone scene depicted Nilsson driving an old American car through the countryside with Newman in the back seat. Sales of the album were underwhelming. Courrier speculates that this was possibly because of the "idiosyncratic quality" of its ballads and the paucity of reviews. Newman said in an interview how he personally went to assess the sales of the album at a record store in Los Angeles. He asked a clerk (who did not recognize him) "do you have any Nilsson albums?" The clerk guided Newman through each one, describing its sales and whether he recommended it; he came to Nilsson Sings Newman and said, "this is the one that nearly finished him off." Writing for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau awarded the album a B+ and wrote: "For those benighted who still believe the original can't sing, here's a sweeter version, including appropriately lovely versions of two rare urban celebrations—'Vine Street' ... and 'Dayton, Ohio 1903.' Not so dynamic musically, though—just Nilsson singing, and Newman behind on piano." The audio equipment and record review magazine Stereo Review named Nilsson Sings Newman their album of the year. The weekly magazine Cue in New York praised the artistry saying that "Nilsson was dealing with material as powerful as his own, but was free to concentrate entirely on his gifts as a performer." Cue said that the album was free of the "overwhelmingly complex" personal expressions that came earlier from "Nilsson singing Nilsson, and Newman singing Newman". ## Legacy Here Comes Inspiration, a 1974 album by Paul Williams, begins with a 54-second track called "Nilsson Sings Newman". In 1993, Newman prepared to record an entire album of Nilsson songs, a returning of the favor 25 years later. Newman had never before recorded a Nilsson song. After Nilsson's death in January 1994, the intended homage became a memorial, titled For The Love of Harry: Everybody Sings Nilsson. To leave room for participation by other artists, Newman sang only one song, "Remember (Christmas)", a sad and dreamy tune which opened the album. Newman said, "I just hope Harry knew how great he was. He was always putting himself down, making fun of himself." Nilsson Sings Newman was re-released as a CD in 1995. In 2000, the 30th anniversary release was padded with five additional tracks. One was "Snow", unreleased in 1970 for lack of room on the LP, and four were alternate versions of songs that were on the original album. In 2000, Ben Wener of the Orange County Register wrote that "Newman's sly, dramatically structured impressionistic pop was ideally suited for Nilsson's theatrical tone ... It's not so much that Nilsson's takes are better than Newman's ... just refreshingly different—less wicked and vicious, more melancholy." Artists who have expressed a fondness for the album include Rufus Wainwright, Joanna Newsom, Ron Sexsmith, Jellyfish, Adrian Belew, and Shane Tutmarc. AllMusic wrote of Nilsson Sings Newman as "a subtle, graceful masterpiece where the pleasure is in the grace notes, small gestures, and in-jokes," and that once a listener has acquired a taste for Newman's idiosyncratic songs, "is as sweet as honey." The 2021 Weezer album OK Human was heavily influenced by Nilsson Sings Newman ## Track listing ## Personnel - Harry Nilsson – vocals, additional instruments - Randy Newman – piano, electronic keyboards The credits give "special thanks to George Tipton and Lenny Waronker".
19,081,854	Battles of the Kinarot Valley	1,172,390,027	Part of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War	[ "Battles and operations of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War", "May 1948 events in Asia" ]	The Battles of the Kinarot Valley (Hebrew: הַמַּעֲרָכָה בְּבִקְעַת כִּנָּרוֹת, HaMa'arakha BeBik'at Kinarot), is a collective name for a series of military engagements between the Haganah and the Syrian army during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, fought between 15–22 May 1948 in the Kinarot Valley. It includes two main sites: the Battle of Degania–Samakh (Tzemah), and battles near Masada–Sha'ar HaGolan. The engagements were part of the battles of the Jordan Valley, which also saw fighting against Transjordan in the area of Gesher. The battles took place approximately 24 hours after the Israeli declaration of independence, when Syria shelled Ein Gev on the night of 15–16 May. This was the first military engagement between Israel and Syria. On 18 May, Syria attacked the Israeli forward position in Samakh (Tzemah), and on 20 May attacked Degania Alef and occupied Masada and Sha'ar HaGolan. The attack on Degania Alef was a failure, after which the Syrian forces attempted to capture Degania Bet. After reaching a stalemate, they retreated to their initial position in Tel al-Qasr, where they remained until the end of the war. The campaign was perceived as a decisive Israeli victory, causing reorganizations in the Syrian high command and the birth of heroic tales in Israel. However, Syria made a small territorial gain and certain actions were criticized within Israel, such as the retreat from Masada and Sha'ar HaGolan. ## Background The first stage of the 1948 War started following the ratification of UN Resolution 181 on 29 November 1947, which granted Israel the mandate to declare independence. This was declared on 14 May 1948 and the next night, the armies of a number of Arab states invaded Israel and attacked Israeli positions. The Arab states surrounding the Mandate of Palestine started to prepare themselves a few weeks before 15 May. According to the Arab plan, the Syrian army was to attack the new state from southern Lebanon and capture Safed. As such, the Syrians massed their forces in that area; however, after they found out that Lebanon did not wish to actively participate in combat, their plans changed to an attack from the southern Golan Heights on Samakh (Tzemah) and later Tiberias. The Syrian force assembled in Qatana on 1 May. It moved on 12 May to Beirut and to Sidon on 13 May, after which it headed to Bint Jbeil. After the sudden plan change, the force moved to Nabatieh, and proceeded around the Finger of the Galilee to Banias and Quneitra, from which the eventual attack was staged. The Syrian Army was meant to consist of two brigade-sized units, but there was no time to prepare them, thus only the 1st Brigade was in a state of readiness by 15 May. It had about 2,000 soldiers in two infantry battalions, one armored battalion, and 4–6 artillery batteries. ## Prelude According to plan, the Syrians attacked from the southern Golan Heights, just south of the Sea of Galilee through al-Hama and the Yarmouk River, hitting a densely populated Jewish area of settlement. This came as a surprise to the Haganah, which expected an attack from south Lebanon and Mishmar HaYarden. The Jewish villages on the original confrontation line were Ein Gev, Masada, Sha'ar HaGolan and Degania Alef and Beit. On Friday, 14 May, the Syrian 1st Infantry Brigade, commanded by Colonel Abdullah Wahab el-Hakim, was in Southern Lebanon, positioned to attack Malkia. That day Hakim was ordered to return to Syria, move south across the Golan and enter Palestine south of the Sea of Galilee through Samakh (Tzemah). He began to advance at 9:00 AM on Saturday and had only two of his battalions, where the soldiers were already exhausted. At the onset of the invasion, the Syrian force consisted of a reinforced infantry brigade, supplemented by at least one armored battalion (including Renault R35 tanks) and a field artillery battalion. The troops moved to Kafr Harib and were spotted by Haganah reconnaissance, but because the attack was not expected, the Israeli troops did not attack the invaders. At night between 15 and 16 May, the bulk of the Syrian forces set up camp in Tel al-Qasr in the southwestern Golan. One company with armored reinforcements split up to the south to proceed to the Jewish water station on the Yarmouk riverbank. The Haganah forces in the area consisted of several units from the Barak (2nd) Battalion of the Golani Brigade, as well as the indigenous villagers, including a reduced Guard Corps (HIM) company at the Samakh (Tzemah) police station. This force was headed by the battalion commander's deputy, who was killed in action in the battle. On 13 May, the battalion commander declared a state of emergency in the area from 15 May until further notice. He authorized his men to seize all necessary arms from the settlements and urged them to dig in and build fortifications as fast as possible, and to mobilize all the necessary work force to do so. ## Battles On Saturday night, 15 May, the observation posts reported many vehicles with full lights moving along the Golan ridge east of the Sea of Galilee. The opening shots were fired by Syrian artillery on kibbutz Ein Gev at approximately 01:00 on 16 May. At dawn, Syrian aircraft attacked the Kinarot valley villages. The following day, a Syrian company which split from the main force attacked the water station with heavy weaponry, where every civilian worker was killed except one. An Israeli reserve unit was called in from Tiberias. It arrived after twenty minutes and took positions around the town. At that point, Samakh (Tzemah) was defended by three platoons from the Barak battalion and reinforcements from neighboring villages. They entrenched in the actual village, which had been abandoned by the residents in April 1948, with British escort. Positions in the village included the police station in the west, the cemetery in the north, the Manshiya neighborhood in the south, and the railway station. The Syrians set up their positions in an abandoned British military base just east of the village and in an animal quarantine station to the southeast. Two Israeli sappers were sent to mine the area of the quarantine station, but did not know that it was already under Syrian control. Their vehicle was blown up, but they managed to escape alive. On the same day, the Syrian company that attacked the water station from Tel ad-Dweir proceeded towards Sha'ar HaGolan and Masada. Its advance was halted by the village residents as well as a platoon of reinforcements armed with 20 mm cannons. The company retreated to its position and commenced artillery fire on the two kibbutzim. This development gave the Israeli forces time to organize their defenses at Samakh (Tzemah). During the course of 16 May, Israeli gunboats harassed the Syrian positions on the southeastern Sea of Galilee shore, trenches were dug, and roadblocks were set up. Meanwhile, Syrian aircraft made bombing runs on Masada, Sha'ar HaGolan, Degania Bet and Afikim. The attack on Samakh (Tzemah) resumed before dawn on 17 May—the Syrians attacked the village's northern positions, but their armor stayed behind. The infantry thus could not advance into the concentrated Israeli fire from the village itself, despite severe ammunition shortages on the Israeli side. Meanwhile, the defenders of Tiberias believed their town would be targeted next, and built barricades and fortifications. Ben-Gurion told the cabinet that "The situation is very grave. There aren't enough rifles. There are no heavy weapons". Aharon Israeli, a platoon leader, commented that there was also a severe lack of experienced field commanders—he himself was hastily promoted on 15 May, despite not having sufficient knowledge or experience. Also on 16 May, the Syrian President, Shukri al-Quwatli, visited the front with his Prime Minister, Jamil Mardam, and his Defense Minister, Taha al-Hashimi. He told his forces "to destroy the Zionists". At night, a Syrian force attempted to surround the Israelis by crossing the Jordan River to the north of the Sea of Galilee, but encountered a minefield in which a senior Syrian officer was wounded. This was spotted and reported by the Israelis at Tabgha, and the additional reprieve allowed the Kinarot Valley villages to evacuate the children, elderly and sick, as well as conduct maneuvers which feigned massive reinforcements in the Poria-Alumot region. In the panic of surprise, many men also tried to flee the frontal villages, but blockposts were set up near Afula and Yavne'el by the Military Police Service's northern command, under Yosef Pressman, who personally stopped buses and allowed only the women and children to proceed to safety. ### Samakh (Tzemah) At about 04:30 on 18 May, the Syrian 1st Brigade, now commanded by Brigadier General Husni al-Za'im and consisting of about 30 vehicles, including tanks, advanced west towards Samakh (Tzemah) in two columns—one across the coast, and another flanking from the south. A contingent was allocated further south, in order to secure the safety of the main force by flanking Sha'ar HaGolan and Masada from the west. It entered a stalemate with a new Israeli position northwest of the two villages. The coastal column shelled the Israeli positions and inflicted enormous damage; the Israelis were either dug in within shallow trenches made for infantry warfare with no head cover, or in Samakh's clay houses that were vulnerable to heavy weapons. The Israelis were eventually forced to abandon their posts and concentrate in the police station, where they brought the wounded. The deputy commander of the Golani Brigade, Tzvika Levkov, also arrived at the station, and called reinforcements from Sha'ar HaGolan and Tiberias, which did not manage to arrive on time. A soldier who participated in the battle reported that only 20 uninjured troops were left to defend the police station as the second Syrian column reached Samakh (Tzemah). The only heavy weapon the defenders possessed was ineffective against Syrian armor. Fearing their forces would be completely cut off, an order was given by the Haganah to retreat and leave the wounded, Tzvika Levkov among them. The retreat was disorganized and heavy Israeli casualties were recorded as Samakh's police station fell. Reinforcements from the Deganias, commanded by Moshe Cohen, arrived but were immediately hit by the Syrians and did not significantly affect the battle. Aharon Israeli, a platoon commander in these reinforcements, wrote that it was clear as soon as they arrived that the battle was over. Cohen would not hear of a retreat initially, but when the force saw Levkov fall into a trench, they hastily withdrew. On the same day, Syrian aircraft bombed the Israeli village Kinneret and the regional school Beit Yerah, on the southwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee. By evening, Samakh (Tzemah) had fallen and a new Israeli defensive line was set up in the Deganias, facing the Syrian counterparts. At night, a Palmach company from Yiftach's 3rd Battalion attempted to recapture Samakh's police station. They stealthily reached the school next to the station, but the assault on the actual fort was warded off. On the morning of 19 May, a message was sent from Sha'ar HaGolan and Masada that they were preparing for an evacuation, although when the order was given to stay put, the villages had already been abandoned, mostly to Afikim. In the morning, when the villagers carried out an order to return to their positions, local Arabs were already present at the location. The Syrian troops then captured the villages without a fight, and proceeded to loot and destroy them. Aharon Israeli wrote that an order was given not to disclose the flight of Masada and Sha'ar HaGolan's residents, but this became clear as fire and smoke rose from the villages, and hurt the morale of the Israelis making defensive preparations in the Deganias. The counterattack on the police station failed but delayed the Syrian attack on the Deganias by twenty-four hours. In the evening of 19 May, a delegation from the Deganias arrived in Tel Aviv to ask for reinforcements and heavy weapons. One of its members later wrote that David Ben-Gurion told them he could not spare them anything, as "The whole country is a front line". He also wrote that Yigael Yadin, the Chief Operations Officer of the Haganah, told him that there was no alternative to letting the Arabs approach to within twenty to thirty meters of the gates of Degania and fight their tanks in close combat. Yadin prepared reinforcements, and gave an order: "No point should be abandoned. [You] must fight at each site". He and Ben-Gurion argued over where to send the Yishuv's only battery of four pre-World War I 65 mm mountain guns (nicknamed "Napoleonchikim"), which had no proper sights. Ben-Gurion wanted to send them to Jerusalem, but Yadin insisted that they be sent to the Kinarot valley, and Ben-Gurion eventually agreed. On the night of 18–19 May, a platoon departed from Ein Gev by sea to Samra and raided the Syrian contingent in Tel al-Qasr. The raid failed, but may have delayed the Syrian attack on Degania, thus giving its defenders twenty-four hours to prepare. A second raid, by a Yiftach company, crossed the Jordan and struck the Syrian camp at the Customs House, near the main Daughters of Jacob Bridge (Bnot Yaakov Bridge). After a short battle, the Syrian defenders (one or two companies) fled. The Palmachniks destroyed the camp and several vehicles, including two armored cars, without losses. ### Degania Alef After the fall of Tzemah, the Haganah command realized the importance of the campaign in the region, and made a clear separation between the Kinarot Valley, and the Battle of Gesher fought against Transjordan and Iraq to the south. On 18 May, Moshe Dayan, who had been born in Degania, was given command of all forces in the area, after having been charged with creating a commando battalion in the 8th Brigade just a day before. A company of reinforcements from the Gadna program was allocated, along with 3 PIATs. Other reinforcements came in the form of a company from the Yiftach Brigade and another company of paramilitaries from villages in the Lower Galilee and the Jezreel Valley. The Israelis called the reinforcements assuming this was the main Syrian thrust. The Syrians were not intending to carry out any further operation south of the Sea of Galilee and planned to make their main effort further north, near the Bnot Ya'akov bridge. On 19 May, the Iraqis were about to drive west through Nablus toward Tulkarm, and asked the Syrians to make a diversion in the Degania area to protect their right flank. The Syrians complied, their main objective being to seize the bridge across the river north of Degania Alef, thus blocking any Israeli attack from Tiberias against the Iraqi line of communications. Heavy Syrian shelling of Degania Alef started at about 04:00 on 20 May from the Samakh police station, by means of 75 mm cannons, and 60 and 81 mm mortars. The barrage lasted about half an hour. At 04:30 on 20 May, the Syrian army began its advance on the Deganias and the bridge over the Jordan River north of Degania Alef. Unlike the attack on Samakh (Tzemah), this action saw the participation of nearly all of the Syrian forces stationed at Tel al-Qasr, including infantry, armor and artillery. The Israeli defenders numbered about 70 persons (67 according to Aharon Israeli's head count), most of them not regular fighters, with some Haganah and Palmach members. Their orders were to fight to the death. They had support from three 20 mm guns at Beit Yerah, deployed along the road from Samakh to Degania Alef. They also had a Davidka mortar, which exploded during the battle, and a PIAT with fifteen projectiles. At night, a Syrian expeditionary force attempted to infiltrate Degania Bet, but was caught and warded off, which caused the main Syrian force to attack Degania Alef first. At 06:00, the Syrians started a frontal armored attack, consisting of 5 tanks, a number of armored vehicles and an infantry company. The Syrians pierced the Israeli defense, but their infantry was at some distance behind the tanks. The Israelis knocked out four Syrian tanks and four armored cars with 20 mm cannons, PIATs and Molotov cocktails. Meanwhile, other defenders kept small arms fire on the Syrian infantry, who stopped in citrus groves a few hundred meters from the settlements. The surviving Syrian tanks withdrew back to the Golan. At 07:45, the Syrians halted their assault and dug in, still holding most of the territory between Degania Alef's fence and Samakh's police fort. They left behind a number of lightly damaged or otherwise inoperable tanks that the Israelis managed to repair. ### Degania Bet Despite the Syrian superiority in numbers and equipment, the destruction of a multitude of armored vehicles and the infantry's failure to infiltrate Degania Alef was the likely cause for the retreat of the main Syrian force to Samakh (Tzemah). A less-organized and sparsely numbered armored and infantry force forked off to attack Degania Bet. Eight tanks, supported by mortar fire, moved within 400 yards of the settlement defense, where they stopped to provide fire support for an infantry attack. The Syrians made two failed attempts to breach the Israeli small arms fire defense and gave up the attempt. Against this force, the Israelis had about 80 people and one PIAT. The defenses in Degania Bet were disorganized and there were not enough trenches. They also had no communication link to the command, so Moshe Dayan sent one of his company commanders to assess the situation. While the battle was taking place, the 65 mm artillery, four Napoleonchik canons, reached the front in the middle of the day and were placed on the Poria–Alumot ridge. It was the first Israeli artillery to be used in the war. At 13:20, they began to fire at the Syrians, and after about 40 rounds the latter began to retreat. The Israelis also fired into Samakh, where the Syrian officers, who had until then believed that the Israelis had nothing that could hit their headquarters, took shelter. One projectile hit the Syrian ammunition depot in the village, and others ignited fires in the dry fields. While the soldiers who operated the cannons (still lacking sights) were not proficient in handling them, an acceptable level of accuracy was achieved after practice shots into the Sea of Galilee. In all, the artillery fire took the Syrian army by complete surprise, and the latter decided to regroup and retreat to Tel al-Qasr, also recalling the company at Sha'ar HaGolan and Masada. A total of 500 shells were fired by the Israeli artillery. Syrian officers may have shot some of their fleeing soldiers. There were two other reasons for the Syrian withdrawal. The 3rd Battalion from the Palmach's Yiftach Brigade had been sent by boat during the previous night across the sea to Ein Gev, planning to assault and capture Kafr Harib. It was noticed and shelled by the Syrians, but one of the companies managed to climb up the Golan. It carried out a smaller raid at dawn, bombing water carriers and threatening the Syrian 1st Brigade's line of communications. The second reason was that they were running out of ammunition: Husni al-Za'im had been promised replenishment, and attacked Degania short of ammunition. Za'im ordered a withdrawal when his troops ran out of ammunition. The replenishment was instead sent to the 2nd Brigade further north. The Israelis were not aware of this, and attributed the Syrian withdrawal to surprise at the Israeli artillery fire. ## Aftermath and effects On 21 May, Haganah troops returned to Samakh (Tzemah) and set up fortifications, The damaged tanks and armored cars were gathered and taken to the rear. The settlers returned that night to identify the bodies of their comrades in the fields and buried them in a common grave in Degania. At dawn on 21 May, the Golani staff reported that the enemy was repelled but that they were expecting another attack. The full report read: > Our forces repelled yesterday a heavy attack of tanks, armored vehicles and infantry that lasted about 8 hours. The attack was repelled by the brave stand of our men, who used Molotov cocktails and their hands against the tanks. 3" mortars and heavy machinery took their toll on the enemy. Field cannons caused a panicked retreat of the enemy, who yesterday left Tzemah. This morning our forces entered Tzemah and took a large amount of booty of French ammunition and light artillery ammunition. We have captured 2 tanks and an armored vehicle of the enemy. The enemy is amassing large reinforcements. We are expecting a renewal of the attack. On 22 May, villagers returned to Masada and Sha'ar HaGolan, which had been largely destroyed. Expecting another attack, reinforcements from the Carmeli Brigade took up positions in the two villages. Many of the participants of the battles were sent to Tiberias to rest and recuperate, and the units that lost soldiers were reorganized. In the wake of the fall of Gush Etzion, news of Degania's successful stand (as well as that of Kfar Darom) provided a morale boost for other Israeli villages. The battle also influenced British opinion on the balance of power in the war. The success of the Napoleonchik field cannons prompted the Israeli high command to re-use two of them in attempts to capture Latrun. The flight from Masada and Sha'ar HaGolan, on the other hand, stirred controversy in the young state, fueled by news of the Kfar Etzion massacre just days before, and the Palmach issued a newsletter accusing them of abandoning national assets, among other things. These accusations were subsequently repeated in media and in a play by Yigal Mossensohn, and a campaign was started by the villagers to clear their name. The battles of the Kinarot Valley were the first and last of the major ground engagements between Israel and Syria to the south of the Sea of Galilee, although minor patrol skirmishes continued until the first ceasefire. The campaign, combined with the Battle of Gesher, was possibly the only coordinated attack between two or more Arab countries in the northern front. At the end, the Syrians held Tel al-Qasr, which was part of the British Mandate of Palestine and the Jewish state according to the UN partition of 1947. Despite the above, the offensive was considered a decisive Syrian defeat by both sides. The Syrian defense minister Ahmad al-Sharabati and Chief of Staff Abdullah Atfeh blamed each other, the latter resigning and the former being dismissed by the prime minister as a result of the battle. As reasons for their defeat, they gave their low level of preparedness and the strength of the Israeli defenses, as well as their lack of coordination with the Iraqis (according to one Syrian historian, the Iraqis were supposed to assist them in the Deganias). After the battle, British observers became convinced that the Arabs were not going to win the war, and compared the battle to the Luftwaffe's failure in the Battle of Britain in 1940, which showed that Germany was not going to win the air war. The observers said that "A greater edge than the [Syrians] enjoyed at Degania they won't have again". ### First tank kill controversy The first Syrian tank damaged near Degania Alef's gates, which has been preserved on the location, was the subject of a historiographic dispute when Baruch "Burke" Bar-Lev, a retired IDF colonel and one of Degania's native defenders at the time, claimed that he was the one who stopped the tank with a Molotov cocktail. However, his account was rebutted by an IDF Ordnance Corps probe, which in 1991 determined that a PIAT shot had killed the tank's crew. Shlomo Anschel, a Haifa resident who also participated in the battle, told Haaretz in 2007 that the tank was hit by PIAT fire from a Golani soldier, and that the Molotov cocktail could not possibly have hit the crew.
6,989,116	Leopard catshark	1,157,665,977	Species of shark	[ "Fish described in 1838", "Poroderma" ]	The leopard catshark (Poroderma pantherinum) is a species of catshark, and part of the family Scyliorhinidae, endemic to the coastal waters of South Africa. Abundant in inshore waters under 20 m (66 ft) deep, this bottom-dweller favors rocky reefs, kelp beds, and sandy flats. Growing to a length of 84 cm (33 in), the leopard catshark has a stout body with two dorsal fins placed well back, and a short head and tail. It is extremely variable in color and pattern, with individuals ranging from almost white to black and covered by diverse patterns of black spots, blotches, rosettes, and/or lines. The color pattern changes with age and some forms seem to be location-specific, suggesting the presence of multiple distinct, local populations. In the past, some of the more distinct color forms have been described as different species. Mainly nocturnal in habits, after dusk the leopard catshark hunts for small, benthic bony fishes and invertebrates in shallow water. In daytime, it generally rests inside caves and crevices, sometimes in groups. This species has been documented ambushing spawning chokka squid (Loligo vulgaris reynaudi) within their spawning grounds. Reproduction is oviparous and proceeds year-round. Females produce rectangular, light-colored egg capsules two at a time, attaching them to structures on the sea floor. Small and harmless, the leopard catshark adapts well to captivity and is often exhibited in public aquariums. It is caught by commercial and recreational fishers as bycatch, and often killed as a pest. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed this species as least concern; its numbers do not seem to be declining, but heavy human activity occurs within its native waters. The possibly fragmented nature of its distribution also merits caution for each local population. ## Taxonomy Because of its highly variable color pattern, the leopard catshark has historically been known under a multitude of names. In an 1837 issue of Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, Scottish physician and zoologist Andrew Smith listed without descriptions the new genus Poroderma, containing the species P. africanum (the pyjama shark), P. pantherinum, P. submaculatum, and P. variegatum. German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle assigned these sharks to the genus Scyllium, and in their 1838–1841 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen furnished descriptions for S. pantherinum and S. variegatum, and listed two more names without description, S. leopardinum and S. maeandrinum. In 1934, American zoologist Henry Weed Fowler described P. marleyi, characterized by large black spots. Subsequent authors have recognized these names as based on pattern variants of the leopard catshark; resolving the identity of P. marleyi proved especially problematic and it was not confirmed to be a synonym of this species until 2003. The valid scientific name of the leopard catshark is considered to be Poroderma pantherinum, attributed to Müller and Henle as they were responsible for the description. The specific epithet pantherinum refers to the panther-like patterning of the type specimen, a 65 cm (26 in) long female collected off the Cape of Good Hope. Other common names for this shark include barbeled catshark and blackspotted catshark. ## Distribution and habitat The leopard catshark inhabits the temperate and subtropical inshore waters off South Africa, from Saldanha Bay in the west to the mouth of the Tugela River in the east. There are old and almost certainly erroneous records from Mauritius and Madagascar. Given the color pattern diversity within the species, its range is likely fragmented into a number of small local populations along the South African coast. Bottom-dwelling in nature, the leopard catshark is most commonly encountered from the intertidal zone to a depth of 20 m (66 ft), though it has been reported from as deep as 256 m (840 ft) on the uppermost portion of the continental slope. This species favors rocky reefs, kelp forests, and sandy flats off beaches. ## Description The leopard catshark is the smaller and slimmer of the two Poroderma species. The head and snout are short and slightly flattened, with a somewhat pointed snout tip. Each nostril is split into tiny incurrent and excurrent openings by a three-lobed flap of skin in front, of which the central lobe forms a slender barbel that reaches past the mouth. The horizontally oval eyes are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids) and placed rather high on the head, with a thick ridge running under each. The mouth is wide and arched, with short furrows at the corners extending onto both jaws; the upper teeth are exposed when the mouth is closed. There are 18–30 and 13–26 tooth rows on either side of the upper and lower jaws respectively. The teeth have a narrow central cusp with a pair of small lateral cusplets; those of adult males are slightly more curved than those of females. The body is rather laterally compressed and tapers towards the tail, with two dorsal fins set far back. The first dorsal fin originates over the rear of the pelvic fins and is much larger than the second, which originates over the midpoint of the anal fin base. The bases of the pectoral and pelvic fins are about equal; the pectoral fins are large and broad while the pelvic fins are much lower. Adult males have stubby claspers with the inner margins of the pelvic fins partially fused over them to form an "apron". The caudal fin is short and broad, with an indistinct lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The very thick skin is covered by well-calcified dermal denticles. Each denticle has an arrowhead-shaped crown with three posterior points, mounted on a short stalk. The background color of the leopard catshark ranges from off-white to glossy jet black above and white to almost black below, sometimes with an abrupt transition between the two. Overlaid is a striking pattern of black markings variously combining small to large spots, blotches, complete to incomplete rosettes, and/or short to long lines, that may extend almost to the midline of the belly. There are four named forms: 'typical', with leopard-like rosettes and broken lines, 'marleyi', with large round spots, 'salt and pepper', with densely packed dots, and 'melanistic', with an almost completely black upper surface and irregular stripes and/or spots; many sharks are intermediate between these forms. Color pattern is affected by development: all hatchling sharks have large black spots, that with age tend to break up into rosettes and smaller spots, that may eventually merge into lines. The 'marleyi' form appears to be a type of paedomorphosis, in which in the hatchling pattern is carried into adulthood. Color pattern is also related to geographic location, with the 'marleyi' and 'salt and pepper' forms apparently restricted to the waters off the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. The leopard catshark reaches a maximum known length of 84 cm (33 in) and a maximum known weight of 3.2 kg (7.1 lb); males grow slightly larger than females. ## Biology and ecology The slow-swimming leopard catshark generally spends the day resting inside caves or crevices, either alone or in groups. At night, it moves towards the shore to actively forage for small bony fishes, cephalopods, crustaceans, and polychaete worms. In False Bay, fishes are the most important prey type, followed by cephalopods and then the Cape rock lobster (Jasus lalandii). This shark has been observed attacking octopus and cuttlefish by seizing and tearing off tentacles with a twisting motion. Like its close relative the pyjama shark, it will temporarily abandon its nocturnal habits to take advantage of the daytime mass spawnings of the chokka squid (Loligo vulgaris reynaudi), which occur unpredictably year-round with a peak from October to December. The sharks lie motionless amongst the squids' egg masses with their heads hidden, and make sudden lunges at female squid that have descended to the sea floor to attach their eggs. The leopard catshark is oviparous and apparently reproduces throughout the year. Females produce two eggs at a time, one within each oviduct. Each egg is protected by a rectangular capsule 7 cm (2.8 in) long and 3 cm (1.2 in) across, which is light brown to olive in color and thinner-walled than those of the pyjama shark. The corners of the capsule bear long tendrils that enable the female to secure them to underwater structures. In the aquarium, the eggs hatch in approximately five and a half months. The hatchling shark measures 11 cm (4.3 in) long; males and females begin to mature sexually at 47–67 cm (19–26 in) and 43–64 cm (17–25 in) long respectively, corresponding to an age of around 10 years. One source reports the maximum lifespan as at least 15 years, while another source gives at least 19 years. Predators of the leopard catshark include larger sharks and marine mammals; it is one of the cartilaginous fish most often consumed by the broadnose sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus). When threatened, it curls into a ring with its tail covering its head, a behavior also performed by the shysharks (Haploblepharus). Its eggs are also heavily preyed upon, by animals such as the whelks Burnupena papyracea and B. lagenaria, which can pierce the outer covering to extract the yolk. This species is known to be parasitized by the praniza larvae of the isopod Gnathia pantherina, which infest the nostrils, mouth, and gills. ## Human interactions Quite common within its range, the leopard catshark is harmless to humans. It is a popular subject of public aquariums because of its small size, attractive appearance, and hardiness. The aquarium trade supports a minor fishery that targets the two Poroderma species. This shark is regularly caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fishers, and almost invariably discarded despite being edible. Nevertheless, fishing mortality is likely to be high as many fishers using line gear make a point to kill hooked sharks, seeing them as pests that "steal" bait. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) presently assesses the leopard catshark as least concern, though notes that its inshore habitat is heavily fished and otherwise impacted by human activity. The possible distribution of this shark across many small, distinct populations also warrants additional investigation and monitoring.
1,207	Amino acid	1,171,752,348	Organic compounds containing amine and carboxylic groups	[ "Amino acids", "Nitrogen cycle", "Zwitterions" ]	Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although over 500 amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the α-amino acids, from which proteins are composed. Only 22 α-amino acids appear in the genetic code of all life. Amino acids can be classified according to the locations of the core structural functional groups, as alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-) or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity, ionization, and side chain group type (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In the form of proteins, amino acid residues form the second-largest component (water being the largest) of human muscles and other tissues. Beyond their role as residues in proteins, amino acids participate in a number of processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis. It is thought that they played a key role in enabling life on Earth and its emergence. Amino acids are formally named by the IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature in terms of the fictitious "neutral" structure shown in the illustration. For example, the systematic name of alanine is 2-aminopropanoic acid, based on the formula CH<sub>3</sub>−CH(NH<sub>2</sub>)−COOH. The Commission justified this approach as follows: > The systematic names and formulas given refer to hypothetical forms in which amino groups are unprotonated and carboxyl groups are undissociated. This convention is useful to avoid various nomenclatural problems but should not be taken to imply that these structures represent an appreciable fraction of the amino-acid molecules. ## History The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 1800s. In 1806, French chemists Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound from asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine, the first amino acid to be discovered. Cystine was discovered in 1810, although its monomer, cysteine, remained undiscovered until 1884. Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820. The last of the 20 common amino acids to be discovered was threonine in 1935 by William Cumming Rose, who also determined the essential amino acids and established the minimum daily requirements of all amino acids for optimal growth. The unity of the chemical category was recognized by Wurtz in 1865, but he gave no particular name to it. The first use of the term "amino acid" in the English language dates from 1898, while the German term, Aminosäure, was used earlier. Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis. In 1902, Emil Fischer and Franz Hofmeister independently proposed that proteins are formed from many amino acids, whereby bonds are formed between the amino group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of another, resulting in a linear structure that Fischer termed "peptide". ## General structure In the structure shown at the top of the page, R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the carboxyl group is called the α–carbon. Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the α-carbon are referred to as α-amino acids. These include proline and hydroxyproline, which are secondary amines. In the past they were often called imino acids, a misnomer because they do not contain an imine grouping HN=C. ### Isomerism The common natural forms of amino acids have a zwitterionic structure, with −NH+3 (−NH+2− in the case of proline) and −CO−2 functional groups attached to the same C atom, and are thus α-amino acids. With the exception of achiral glycine, natural amino acids have the L configuration, and are the only ones found in proteins during translation in the ribosome. The L and D convention for amino acid configuration refers not to the optical activity of the amino acid itself but rather to the optical activity of the isomer of glyceraldehyde from which that amino acid can, in theory, be synthesized (D-glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory; L-glyceraldehyde is levorotatory). An alternative convention is to use the (S) and (R) designators to specify the absolute configuration. Almost all of the amino acids in proteins are (S) at the α carbon, with cysteine being (R) and glycine non-chiral. Cysteine has its side chain in the same geometric location as the other amino acids, but the R/S terminology is reversed because sulfur has higher atomic number compared to the carboxyl oxygen which gives the side chain a higher priority by the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog sequence rules, whereas the atoms in most other side chains give them lower priority compared to the carboxyl group. Rarely, D-amino acid residues are found in proteins, and are converted from the -amino acid as a post-translational modification. ### Side chains Amino acids are designated as α- when the amino nitrogen atom is attached to the α-carbon, the carbon atom adjacent to the carboxylate group. There are several ways to classify amino acids; however, they are often grouped by the polarity of their side chains, as depicted in the graphic at the head of this section. #### Charged side chains Five amino acids possess a charge at neutral pH. Often these side chains appear at the surfaces on proteins to enable their solubility in water, and side chains with opposite charges form important electrostatic contacts called salt bridges that maintain structures within a single protein or between interfacing proteins. Many proteins bind metal into their structures specifically, and these interactions are commonly mediated by charged side chains such as aspartate, glutamate and histidine. The two negatively charged amino acids at neutral pH are aspartate (Asp, D) and glutamate (Glu, E). The anionic carboxylate groups behave as Brønsted bases in most circumstances. Enzymes in very low pH environments, like the aspartic protease pepsin in mammalian stomachs, may have catalytic aspartate or glutamate residues that act as Brønsted acids. There are three amino acids with side chains that are cations at neutral pH: arginine (Arg, R), lysine (Lys, K) and histidine (His, H). Arginine has a charged guanidino group and lysine a charged alkyl amino group, and are fully protonated at pH 7. Histidine's imidazole group has a pK<sub>a</sub> of 6.0, and is only around 10 % protonated at neutral pH. Because histidine is easily found in its basic and conjugate acid forms it often participates in catalytic proton transfers in enzyme reactions. #### Polar uncharged side chains The polar, uncharged amino acids serine (Ser, S), threonine (Thr, T), asparagine (Asn, N) and glutamine (Gln, Q) readily form hydrogen bonds with water and other amino acids. They do not ionize in normal conditions, though a prominent exception being the catalytic serine in serine proteases. This is an example of severe perturbation, and is not characteristic of serine residues in general. Threonine has two chiral centers, not only the L (2S) chiral center at the α-carbon shared by all amino acids apart from achiral glycine, but also (3R) at the β-carbon. The full stereochemical specification is (2S,3R)-L-threonine. #### Hydrophobic side chains Nonpolar amino acid interactions are the primary driving force behind the processes that fold proteins into their functional three dimensional structures. None of these amino acids' side chains ionize easily, and therefore do not have pK<sub>a</sub>s, with the exception of tyrosine (Tyr, Y). The hydroxyl of tyrosine can deprotonate at high pH forming the negatively charged phenolate. Because of this one could place tyrosine into the polar, uncharged amino acid category, but its very low solubility in water matches the characteristics of hydrophobic amino acids well. #### Special case side chains Several side chains are not described well by the charged, polar and hydrophobic categories. Glycine (Gly, G) could be considered a polar amino acid since its small size means that its solubility is largely determined by the amino and carboxylate groups. However, the lack of any side chain provides glycine with a unique flexibility among amino acids with large ramifications to protein folding. Cysteine (Cys, C) can also form hydrogen bonds readily, which would place it in the polar amino acid category, though it can often be found in protein structures forming covalent bonds with other cysteines called disulphide bonds. These bonds influence the folding and stability of proteins, and are essential in the formation of antibodies. Proline (Pro, P) has an alkyl side chain and could be considered hydrophobic, but because the side chain joins back onto the alpha amino group it becomes particularly inflexible when incorporated into proteins. Similar to glycine this influences protein structure in a way unique among amino acids. Selenocysteine (Sec, U) is a rare amino acid not directly encoded by DNA, but is incorporated into proteins via the ribosome. Selenocysteine has a lower redox potential compared to the similar cysteine, and participates in several unique enzymatic reactions. Pyrrolysine (Pyl, O) is another amino acid not encoded in DNA, but synthesized into protein by ribosomes. It is found in archaeal species where it participates in the catalytic activity of several methyltransferases. #### β- and γ-amino acids Amino acids with the structure NH+3−CXY−CXY−CO−2, such as β-alanine, a component of carnosine and a few other peptides, are β-amino acids. Ones with the structure NH+3−CXY−CXY−CXY−CO−2 are γ-amino acids, and so on, where X and Y are two substituents (one of which is normally H). ### Zwitterions In aqueous solution at pH close to neutrality, amino acids exist as zwitterions, i.e. as dipolar ions with both NH+3 and CO−2 in charged states, so the overall structure is NH+3−CHR−CO−2. At physiological pH the so-called "neutral forms" −NH<sub>2</sub>−CHR−CO<sub>2</sub>H are not present to any measurable degree. Although the two charges in the zwitterion structure add up to zero it is misleading to call a species with a net charge of zero "uncharged". In strongly acidic conditions (pH below 3), the carboxylate group becomes protonated and the structure becomes an ammonio carboxylic acid, NH+3−CHR−CO<sub>2</sub>H. This is relevant for enzymes like pepsin that are active in acidic environments such as the mammalian stomach and lysosomes, but does not significantly apply to intracellular enzymes. In highly basic conditions (pH greater than 10, not normally seen in physiological conditions), the ammonio group is deprotonated to give NH<sub>2</sub>−CHR−CO−2. Although various definitions of acids and bases are used in chemistry, the only one that is useful for chemistry in aqueous solution is that of Brønsted: an acid is a species that can donate a proton to another species, and a base is one that can accept a proton. This criterion is used to label the groups in the above illustration. The carboxylate side chains of aspartate and glutamate residues are the principal Brønsted bases in proteins. Likewise, lysine, tyrosine and cysteine will typically act as a Brønsted acid. Histidine under these conditions can act both as a Brønsted acid and a base. ### Isoelectric point For amino acids with uncharged side-chains the zwitterion predominates at pH values between the two pK<sub>a</sub> values, but coexists in equilibrium with small amounts of net negative and net positive ions. At the midpoint between the two pK<sub>a</sub> values, the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions balance, so that average net charge of all forms present is zero. This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI, so pI = 1/2(pK<sub>a1</sub> + pK<sub>a2</sub>). For amino acids with charged side chains, the pK<sub>a</sub> of the side chain is involved. Thus for aspartate or glutamate with negative side chains, the terminal amino group is essentially entirely in the charged form −NH+3, but this positive charge needs to be balanced by the state with just one C-terminal carboxylate group is negatively charged. This occurs halfway between the two carboxylate pK<sub>a</sub> values: pI = 1/2(pK<sub>a1</sub> + pK<sub>a(R)</sub>), where pK<sub>a(R)</sub> is the side chain pK<sub>a</sub>. Similar considerations apply to other amino acids with ionizable side-chains, including not only glutamate (similar to aspartate), but also cysteine, histidine, lysine, tyrosine and arginine with positive side chains. Amino acids have zero mobility in electrophoresis at their isoelectric point, although this behaviour is more usually exploited for peptides and proteins than single amino acids. Zwitterions have minimum solubility at their isoelectric point, and some amino acids (in particular, with nonpolar side chains) can be isolated by precipitation from water by adjusting the pH to the required isoelectric point. ## Physicochemical properties The 20 canonical amino acids can be classified according to their properties. Important factors are charge, hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, size, and functional groups. These properties influence protein structure and protein–protein interactions. The water-soluble proteins tend to have their hydrophobic residues (Leu, Ile, Val, Phe, and Trp) buried in the middle of the protein, whereas hydrophilic side chains are exposed to the aqueous solvent. (In biochemistry, a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid.) The integral membrane proteins tend to have outer rings of exposed hydrophobic amino acids that anchor them in the lipid bilayer. Some peripheral membrane proteins have a patch of hydrophobic amino acids on their surface that sticks to the membrane. In a similar fashion, proteins that have to bind to positively charged molecules have surfaces rich in negatively charged amino acids such as glutamate and aspartate, while proteins binding to negatively charged molecules have surfaces rich in positively charged amino acids like lysine and arginine. For example, lysine and arginine are present in large amounts in the low-complexity regions of nucleic-acid binding proteins. There are various hydrophobicity scales of amino acid residues. Some amino acids have special properties. Cysteine can form covalent disulfide bonds to other cysteine residues. Proline forms a cycle to the polypeptide backbone, and glycine is more flexible than other amino acids. Glycine and proline are strongly present within low complexity regions of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic proteins, whereas the opposite is the case with cysteine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, methionine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, which are highly reactive, or complex, or hydrophobic. Many proteins undergo a range of posttranslational modifications, whereby additional chemical groups are attached to the amino acid residue side chains sometimes producing lipoproteins (that are hydrophobic), or glycoproteins (that are hydrophilic) allowing the protein to attach temporarily to a membrane. For example, a signaling protein can attach and then detach from a cell membrane, because it contains cysteine residues that can have the fatty acid palmitic acid added to them and subsequently removed. ### Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties Although one-letter symbols are included in the table, IUPAC–IUBMB recommend that "Use of the one-letter symbols should be restricted to the comparison of long sequences". Two additional amino acids are in some species coded for by codons that are usually interpreted as stop codons: In addition to the specific amino acid codes, placeholders are used in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein cannot conclusively determine the identity of a residue. They are also used to summarise conserved protein sequence motifs. The use of single letters to indicate sets of similar residues is similar to the use of abbreviation codes for degenerate bases. Unk is sometimes used instead of Xaa, but is less standard. Ter or \* (from termination) is used in notation for mutations in proteins when a stop codon occurs. It correspond to no amino acid at all. In addition, many nonstandard amino acids have a specific code. For example, several peptide drugs, such as Bortezomib and MG132, are artificially synthesized and retain their protecting groups, which have specific codes. Bortezomib is Pyz–Phe–boroLeu, and MG132 is Z–Leu–Leu–Leu–al. To aid in the analysis of protein structure, photo-reactive amino acid analogs are available. These include photoleucine (pLeu) and photomethionine (pMet). ## Occurrence and functions in biochemistry Amino acids which have the amine group attached to the (alpha-) carbon atom next to the carboxyl group have primary importance in living organisms since they participate in protein synthesis. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or α-amino acids (generic formula H<sub>2</sub>NCHRCOOH in most cases, where R is an organic substituent known as a "side chain"); often the term "amino acid" is used to refer specifically to these. They include the 22 proteinogenic ("protein-building") amino acids, which combine into peptide chains ("polypeptides") to form the building blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers ("left-handed" enantiomers), although a few D-amino acids ("right-handed") occur in bacterial envelopes, as a neuromodulator (D-serine), and in some antibiotics. Many proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids have biological functions. For example, in the human brain, glutamate (standard glutamic acid) and gamma-aminobutyric acid ("GABA", nonstandard gamma-amino acid) are, respectively, the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Hydroxyproline, a major component of the connective tissue collagen, is synthesised from proline. Glycine is a biosynthetic precursor to porphyrins used in red blood cells. Carnitine is used in lipid transport. Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called "essential" for humans because they cannot be produced from other compounds by the human body and so must be taken in as food. Others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also vary from species to species. Because of their biological significance, amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements, fertilizers, feed, and food technology. Industrial uses include the production of drugs, biodegradable plastics, and chiral catalysts. ### Proteinogenic amino acids Amino acids are the precursors to proteins. They join by condensation reactions to form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins. These chains are linear and unbranched, with each amino acid residue within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids. In Nature, the process of making proteins encoded by DNA/RNA genetic material is called translation and involves the step-by-step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome. The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template, which is an RNA copy of one of the organism's genes. Twenty-two amino acids are naturally incorporated into polypeptides and are called proteinogenic or natural amino acids. Of these, 20 are encoded by the universal genetic code. The remaining 2, selenocysteine and pyrrolysine, are incorporated into proteins by unique synthetic mechanisms. Selenocysteine is incorporated when the mRNA being translated includes a SECIS element, which causes the UGA codon to encode selenocysteine instead of a stop codon. Pyrrolysine is used by some methanogenic archaea in enzymes that they use to produce methane. It is coded for with the codon UAG, which is normally a stop codon in other organisms. This UAG codon is followed by a PYLIS downstream sequence. Several independent evolutionary studies have suggested that Gly, Ala, Asp, Val, Ser, Pro, Glu, Leu, Thr may belong to a group of amino acids that constituted the early genetic code, whereas Cys, Met, Tyr, Trp, His, Phe may belong to a group of amino acids that constituted later additions of the genetic code. ### Standard vs nonstandard amino acids The 20 amino acids that are encoded directly by the codons of the universal genetic code are called standard or canonical amino acids. A modified form of methionine (N-formylmethionine) is often incorporated in place of methionine as the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Other amino acids are called nonstandard or non-canonical. Most of the nonstandard amino acids are also non-proteinogenic (i.e. they cannot be incorporated into proteins during translation), but two of them are proteinogenic, as they can be incorporated translationally into proteins by exploiting information not encoded in the universal genetic code. The two nonstandard proteinogenic amino acids are selenocysteine (present in many non-eukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes, but not coded directly by DNA) and pyrrolysine (found only in some archaea and at least one bacterium). The incorporation of these nonstandard amino acids is rare. For example, 25 human proteins include selenocysteine in their primary structure, and the structurally characterized enzymes (selenoenzymes) employ selenocysteine as the catalytic moiety in their active sites. Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons. For example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element. N-formylmethionine (which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts) is generally considered as a form of methionine rather than as a separate proteinogenic amino acid. Codon–tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to "expand" the genetic code and form novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids. ### Non-proteinogenic amino acids Aside from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, many non-proteinogenic amino acids are known. Those either are not found in proteins (for example carnitine, GABA, levothyroxine) or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery (for example, hydroxyproline and selenomethionine). Non-proteinogenic amino acids that are found in proteins are formed by post-translational modification, which is modification after translation during protein synthesis. These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein. For example, the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations, and collagen contains hydroxyproline, generated by hydroxylation of proline. Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A, through modification of a lysine residue. Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein, e.g., the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane. Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins. Examples include 2-aminoisobutyric acid and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Non-proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids – for example, ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below). A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B<sub>5</sub>), a component of coenzyme A. ### In human nutrition When taken up into the human body from the diet, the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins, other biomolecules, or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle. The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle. Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis. Of the 20 standard amino acids, nine (His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp and Val) are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food. In addition, cysteine, tyrosine, and arginine are considered semiessential amino acids, and taurine a semiessential aminosulfonic acid in children. The metabolic pathways that synthesize these monomers are not fully developed. The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual, so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids. Dietary exposure to the nonstandard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS. ### Non-protein functions In humans, non-protein amino acids also have important roles as metabolic intermediates, such as in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules, for example: - Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin. - Tyrosine (and its precursor phenylalanine) are precursors of the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine and various trace amines. - Phenylalanine is a precursor of phenethylamine and tyrosine in humans. In plants, it is a precursor of various phenylpropanoids, which are important in plant metabolism. - Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins such as heme. - Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide. - Ornithine and S-adenosylmethionine are precursors of polyamines. - Aspartate, glycine, and glutamine are precursors of nucleotides. However, not all of the functions of other abundant nonstandard amino acids are known. Some nonstandard amino acids are used as defenses against herbivores in plants. For example, canavanine is an analogue of arginine that is found in many legumes, and in particularly large amounts in Canavalia gladiata (sword bean). This amino acid protects the plants from predators such as insects and can cause illness in people if some types of legumes are eaten without processing. The non-protein amino acid mimosine is found in other species of legume, in particular Leucaena leucocephala. This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants. ## Uses in industry ### Fertilizer The chelating ability of amino acids is sometimes used in fertilizers to facilitate the delivery of minerals to plants in order to correct mineral deficiencies, such as iron chlorosis. These fertilizers are also used to prevent deficiencies from occurring and to improve the overall health of the plants. ### Animal feed Amino acids are sometimes added to animal feed because some of the components of these feeds, such as soybeans, have low levels of some of the essential amino acids, especially of lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan. Likewise amino acids are used to chelate metal cations in order to improve the absorption of minerals from feed supplements. ### Food The food industry is a major consumer of amino acids, especially glutamic acid, which is used as a flavor enhancer, and aspartame (aspartylphenylalanine 1-methyl ester), which is used as an artificial sweetener. Amino acids are sometimes added to food by manufacturers to alleviate symptoms of mineral deficiencies, such as anemia, by improving mineral absorption and reducing negative side effects from inorganic mineral supplementation. ### Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics Similarly, some amino acids derivatives are used in pharmaceutical industry. They include 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) used for experimental treatment of depression, L-DOPA (L-dihydroxyphenylalanine) for Parkinson's treatment, and eflornithine drug that inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and used in the treatment of sleeping sickness. Amino acids are used in the synthesis of some cosmetics. ### Expanded genetic code Since 2001, 40 non-natural amino acids have been added into protein by creating a unique codon (recoding) and a corresponding transfer-RNA:aminoacyl – tRNA-synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins. ### Nullomers Nullomers are codons that in theory code for an amino acid, however, in nature there is a selective bias against using this codon in favor of another, for example bacteria prefer to use CGA instead of AGA to code for arginine. This creates some sequences that do not appear in the genome. This characteristic can be taken advantage of and used to create new selective cancer-fighting drugs and to prevent cross-contamination of DNA samples from crime-scene investigations. ### Chemical building blocks Amino acids are important as low-cost feedstocks. These compounds are used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically pure building blocks. Amino acids have been investigated as precursors chiral catalysts, such as for asymmetric hydrogenation reactions, although no commercial applications exist. ### Biodegradable plastics Amino acids have been considered as components of biodegradable polymers, which have applications as environmentally friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants. An interesting example of such materials is polyaspartate, a water-soluble biodegradable polymer that may have applications in disposable diapers and agriculture. Due to its solubility and ability to chelate metal ions, polyaspartate is also being used as a biodegradable antiscaling agent and a corrosion inhibitor. In addition, the aromatic amino acid tyrosine has been considered as a possible replacement for phenols such as bisphenol A in the manufacture of polycarbonates. ## Synthesis ### Chemical synthesis The commercial production of amino acids usually relies on mutant bacteria that overproduce individual amino acids using glucose as a carbon source. Some amino acids are produced by enzymatic conversions of synthetic intermediates. 2-Aminothiazoline-4-carboxylic acid is an intermediate in one industrial synthesis of L-cysteine for example. Aspartic acid is produced by the addition of ammonia to fumarate using a lyase. ### Biosynthesis In plants, nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate, formed from alpha-ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion. For other amino acids, plants use transaminases to move the amino group from glutamate to another alpha-keto acid. For example, aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Other organisms use transaminases for amino acid synthesis, too. Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S-adenosylmethionine, while hydroxyproline is made by a post translational modification of proline. Microorganisms and plants synthesize many uncommon amino acids. For example, some microbes make 2-aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine, which is a sulfide-bridged derivative of alanine. Both of these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin. However, in plants, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid that is an intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene. ### Primordial synthesis The formation of amino acids and peptides are assumed to precede and perhaps induce the emergence of life on earth. Amino acids can form from simple precursors under various conditions. Surface-based chemical metabolism of amino acids and very small compounds may have led to the build-up of amino acids, coenzymes and phosphate-based small carbon molecules. Amino acids and similar building blocks could have been elaborated into proto-peptides, with peptides being considered key players in the origin of life. In the famous Urey-Miller experiment, the passage of an electric arc through a mixture of methane, hydrogen, and ammonia produces a large number of amino acids. Since then, scientists have discovered a range of ways and components by which the potentially prebiotic formation and chemical evolution of peptides may have occurred, such as condensing agents, the design of self-replicating peptides and a number of non-enzymatic mechanisms by which amino acids could have emerged and elaborated into peptides. Several hypotheses invoke the Strecker synthesis whereby hydrogen cyanide, simple aldehydes, ammonia, and water produce amino acids. According to a review, amino acids, and even peptides, "turn up fairly regularly in the various experimental broths that have been allowed to be cooked from simple chemicals. This is because nucleotides are far more difficult to synthesize chemically than amino acids." For a chronological order, it suggests that there must have been a 'protein world' or at least a 'polypeptide world', possibly later followed by the 'RNA world' and the 'DNA world'. Codon–amino acids mappings may be the biological information system at the primordial origin of life on Earth. While amino acids and consequently simple peptides must have formed under different experimentally probed geochemical scenarios, the transition from an abiotic world to the first life forms is to a large extent still unresolved. ## Reactions Amino acids undergo the reactions expected of the constituent functional groups. ### Peptide bond formation As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds, one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage. This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins. This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. In cells, this reaction does not occur directly; instead, the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond. As a result of this mechanism, all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N-terminus and moving toward their C-terminus. However, not all peptide bonds are formed in this way. In a few cases, peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes. For example, the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress. This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids. In the first step, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase condenses cysteine and glutamate through a peptide bond formed between the side chain carboxyl of the glutamate (the gamma carbon of this side chain) and the amino group of the cysteine. This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione. In chemistry, peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions. One of the most-used in solid-phase peptide synthesis uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units. These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain, which is attached to a solid resin support. Libraries of peptides are used in drug discovery through high-throughput screening. The combination of functional groups allow amino acids to be effective polydentate ligands for metal–amino acid chelates. The multiple side chains of amino acids can also undergo chemical reactions. ### Catabolism Degradation of an amino acid often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate. This process involves transaminases, often the same as those used in amination during synthesis. In many vertebrates, the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea. However, amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead. For example, serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia. After removal of one or more amino groups, the remainder of the molecule can sometimes be used to synthesize new amino acids, or it can be used for energy by entering glycolysis or the citric acid cycle, as detailed in image at right. ### Complexation Amino acids are bidentate ligands, forming transition metal amino acid complexes. ## Chemical analysis The total nitrogen content of organic matter is mainly formed by the amino groups in proteins. The Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) is a measure of nitrogen widely used in the analysis of (waste) water, soil, food, feed and organic matter in general. As the name suggests, the Kjeldahl method is applied. More sensitive methods are available. ## See also - Amino acid dating - Beta-peptide - Degron - Erepsin - Homochirality - Hyperaminoacidemia - Leucines - Miller–Urey experiment - Nucleic acid sequence - RNA codon table
27,854,467	Kevin Hayes (ice hockey)	1,173,539,027	American ice hockey player	[ "1992 births", "AHCA Division I men's ice hockey All-Americans", "American expatriate ice hockey players in Canada", "American men's ice hockey centers", "Boston College Eagles men's ice hockey players", "Chicago Blackhawks draft picks", "Ice hockey people from Boston", "Living people", "National Hockey League first-round draft picks", "New York Rangers players", "Noble and Greenough School alumni", "Philadelphia Flyers players", "Winnipeg Jets players" ]	Kevin Patrick Hayes (born May 8, 1992) is an American professional ice hockey player for the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League (NHL). Growing up in the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston, Hayes played hockey for the Noble and Greenough School before being drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks in the first round, 24th overall, of the 2010 NHL Entry Draft. Hayes chose to defer his professional career and followed his older brother Jimmy, playing four seasons with the Boston College Eagles. In his senior year, Hayes was selected for the All-Hockey East First Team and AHCA East First-Team All-American as a result of his play. Following his tenure at Boston College, Hayes signed his first professional contract with the New York Rangers in 2014 instead of the Blackhawks. He played five seasons in New York before being traded to the Winnipeg Jets in exchange for Brendan Lemieux and two picks in the 2019 draft. After finishing the 2018–19 NHL season with the Jets, the Flyers acquired Hayes on a seven-year, \$50 million contract in 2019. In the first year of his new contract, Hayes was the recipient of the teams' Gene Hart Memorial Award as the player who displays the most "heart". ## Playing career ### Amateur Hayes got his start playing in the Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament, representing South Shore in 2004 and 2005. He has said of the experience, "I thought it was just another fun tournament—you go to Canada with your family and play a lot of hockey, and go play in the snow and stuff." Hayes' South Shore teammates included future NHL players Noel Acciari, Chris Wagner, and Charlie Coyle. He played high school hockey at Noble and Greenough School in Dedham, Massachusetts, scoring 67 points in 28 games in the 2009–10 season, and was selected to participate in the 2010 U.S. National Junior Evaluation Camp. The Chicago Blackhawks chose Hayes in the first round, 24th overall, in the 2010 NHL Entry Draft, but he chose to attend Boston College, which had recruited Jimmy a few years before. After scoring one goal and two assists in an exhibition game against the University of Toronto, Hayes recorded his first NCAA career point on October 15, 2010, in a 6–2 win over the Denver Pioneers. He sat out the second half of the 2010–11 season because of a posterior cruciate ligament injury, and finished with 14 points in 31 games. Hayes returned to the Eagles for a modest but successful 2011–12 season. He had an assist against the Air Force Falcons in the Northeast Regional semifinals of the 2012 NCAA Tournament, and scored a goal against the Minnesota Golden Gophers in the national semifinals. Boston College won the NCAA tournament, and Hayes finished the season with 28 points. Despite recording six goals and 19 assists, Hayes had a beleaguered 2012–13 season. After recording 24 points with the Eagles, he received a suspension for a violation of team rules. Eagles head coach Jerry York said the duration of the suspension would depend on how Hayes responded. Then, in a February 26, 2013 match against UMass Lowell River Hawks, Hayes sustained an injury to a leg and lost consciousness in the locker room. He was rushed to the hospital, where he was diagnosed with compartment syndrome. He underwent four emergency surgeries on his left quadriceps femoris muscle and was hospitalized for 22 days. Hayes was told that his condition had been two hours from amputation had he not been treated, and there was doubt whether he would be able to return to hockey. When he was allowed to return to play, Hayes' experience with compartment syndrome changed his outlook on hockey. He told the Boston Herald, "I think I always knew how important the game was to me, but I think I had to somewhat grow up a bit and take my body serious, take my school serious, take my strength and conditioning serious, and just a mixture of those three kind of allowed me to be the player I am today." Hayes returned his senior year on the Eagles' top line with Bill Arnold and Johnny Gaudreau, scoring 65 points (27 goals and 38 assists) in the 2013–14 NCAA season, and ending the season with 1.62 points per game, the second-highest in the country. Hayes was named the MVP of the 2014 Beanpot tournament and selected for the AHCA East First-Team All-American. ### Professional #### New York Rangers Hayes and the Blackhawks could not agree on a contract by the August 15 NHL deadline for college graduates, and Hayes became an unrestricted free agent in 2014. Less than a week later, the New York Rangers signed him to an entry-level contract with a base salary of \$925,000 per season at the NHL level. The Blackhawks, meanwhile, received a second-round compensatory pick in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft, which eventually was used to select Graham Knott. Blackhawks' assistant general manager Norm Maciver called it "disappointing" Hayes chose not to sign with them saying the situation inspired the organization to become more aggressive about signing future draft picks like Michael Paliotta. After signing his contract, Hayes attended the Rangers' 2014 training camp prior to the 2014–15 season. He made his NHL debut with the Rangers on October 12, 2014, in a home game against the Toronto Maple Leafs, playing alongside Carl Hagelin and J. T. Miller. He finished his debut with 14:17 of ice time in 19 shifts and a plus-minus of negative two. A few games later, while centering a line with Rick Nash and former Boston College teammate, Chris Kreider, Hayes scored his first career NHL goal against the San Jose Sharks. He finished the regular season ranking fifth among all league rookies in both points and assists as the Rangers qualified for the 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs. In the playoffs, Hayes tied for third among all rookies in points and tied for second with five assists. His first postseason goal was an overtime game winner in game four to beat the Pittsburgh Penguins and give them a 3–1 lead in the best-of-seven Eastern Conference first-round series. As the Rangers advanced through the playoffs, he scored the game-tying goal in an eventual overtime win over the Washington Capitals in the second round, and recorded an assist on Dominic Moore's late third period winner in game one of the Eastern Conference Final against the Tampa Bay Lightning. While attending the Rangers' training camp before the 2015–16 season, head coach Alain Vigneault said he had decided to give Hayes a chance on the first line with Kreider and Derek Stepan. His scoring declined during the season, and after a goalless 16 games, he was a health scratch for the first time that season. Speaking of his decision, Vigneault said: "I think Kevin has had an extra-long leash, especially considering (Derek Stepan) was out for quite some time, but there’s just nothing going on." Hayes returned to the lineup in January after sitting out two games. Despite finishing the season recording only 14 goals and 22 assists for 36 points, the Rangers signed him to a two-year, \$5.2 million contract extension. Before the 2016–17 season, Hayes reunited with a childhood friend, Jimmy Vesey, who had signed with the Rangers as a collegiate free agent. Due to their off-ice chemistry, Vigneault tried using them on a line together to start the season, but Hayes was eventually moved to the third line with Michael Grabner and Miller. On October 30, 2016, their line combined for nine points in an eventual 6–1 win over the Tampa Bay Lightning. Hayes began strong with 13 goals and 22 assists in 47 games before suffering a lower body injury during a game against the Detroit Red Wings in January. At the conclusion of the first year of his new contract, Hayes improved his offensive abilities, scoring 17 goals and 32 assists for 49 points. In 12 appearances at the 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs, Hayes recorded 0 goals and 3 assists, and the Rangers were eliminated in game six of the second round against the Ottawa Senators. The following season, Hayes missed six consecutive games due to another lower body injury, in this case leg contusions. Upon his return on January 25, 2018, he recorded an assist in the team's 6–5 win over the San Jose Sharks. On July 31, 2018, as a restricted free agent, Hayes re-signed a one-year contract with the Rangers. In the 2018–19 season, his fifth with the Rangers, Hayes increased his offensive output, contributing 42 points in 51 games. Despite his strong record, after missing nine games with an upper-body injury, he acknowledged his tenure with the team might be ending. A few days after making this statement, he was traded at the NHL trade deadline to the Winnipeg Jets in exchange for a first-round pick in the 2019 NHL Entry Draft, Brendan Lemieux and a conditional fourth-round pick in the 2022 NHL Entry Draft. Hayes learned about the trade after Jets winger Blake Wheeler texted him "Welcome to the team." #### Winnipeg Jets Upon being acquired by the Winnipeg Jets, Hayes was placed on a line with Mark Scheifele and Wheeler. On March 1, he scored his first goal with the team, and recorded two assists in a 5–3 win over the visiting Nashville Predators. He was subsequently named the game's third star. Later that month, while playing on a line with Kyle Connor, Hayes helped the Jets qualify for the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs. In the post-season, he played on the fourth line with Mathieu Perreault and Jack Roslovic during their First round matchup against the St. Louis Blues. During game three, he recorded his first goal of the series and included three shots on goal and a hit to beat the Blues 6–3. #### Philadelphia Flyers Hayes' negotiating rights were traded to the Philadelphia Flyers on June 3, 2019, for a fifth-round draft pick in the 2019 Entry Draft. Later, on June 19, the Flyers signed Hayes to a seven-year, \$50 million contract with an annual average of \$7.14 million. The trade to Philadelphia meant a reunion for Hayes and Vigneault, who was hired as the Flyers head coach after being fired from the Rangers in 2018. After a strong training camp performance on a line with James van Riemsdyk and Oskar Lindblom, Hayes made his debut in a preseason loss against the New York Islanders. He, Sean Couturier and Jakub Voráček were named alternate captains for the Flyers' 2019–20 season. Hayes scored his first goal with the team on a power play against the New Jersey Devils on October 9, 2019. Hayes played in all 69 regular season games, recording 23 goals and 18 assists by the time the NHL suspended the 2019–20 NHL season because of the COVID-19 pandemic. He recorded four short-handed goals and five game-winning goals, his career-best season in both. On July 6, 2020, Hayes was named the winner of the Gene Hart Memorial Award for the 2019–20 season, awarded to the player who displays the most "heart". When the NHL returned to play, Hayes was one of the 31 players invited to Toronto for the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, playing on a line with Scott Laughton and Travis Konecny. He recorded six assists in as many games against the Montreal Canadiens in the first round of the playoffs and scored one goal in game six to advance to the second round. The Flyers fell to the Islanders in the second round of the Eastern Conference playoffs; Hayes finished the playoffs with four goals and nine assists. Hayes was again named an alternate captain for the Flyers in the 2020–21 season, rotating the position with Voráček on away games, with Ivan Provorov serving as home alternate, and Couturier returning as permanent alternate. After a strong offensive start to the season, Hayes' performance began to slow, and he was disappointed in his won "average year", telling reporters, "I want to help the team every single night and I feel like I haven't done that as much this year." Hayes finished the season with 12 goals and 19 assists in 55 games of the pandemic-shortened season, and was second on the team with 127 shots. Shortly after the conclusion of the season, Hayes underwent surgery for a sports hernia, with an expected five-week recovery period. He admitted, after the surgery, that he had begun feeling abdominal pain partway through the season, and that it was "tough to get going in games" after suffering the injury. The 2021–22 season proved difficult for Hayes, as he had to deal with a blood infection and the aftermath of multiple surgeries. As well, his brother Jimmy passed away in August 2021 due to a drug overdose. Despite these tribulations, Hayes was able to play 48 games, recording 10 goals and 21 assists. He was named a finalist for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, awarded to the player who "best exemplifies the qualities of perseverance, sportsmanship and dedication to hockey." #### St. Louis Blues On June 27, 2023, the Flyers traded Hayes at 50% retention to the St. Louis Blues in exchange for a sixth-round selection in the 2024 NHL Entry Draft. ## Playing style Hayes is best known for his short-handed abilities, both in managing the penalty kill and in scoring short-handed goals. Flyers general manager Chuck Fletcher emphasized Hayes' 200-foot game when signing him to the organization. Hayes is also known for his close relationship with head coach Alain Vigneault, with whom he worked on the Rangers and Flyers. Hayes credits Vigneault with his development as a professional hockey player, saying, "I think I entered the league as an offensive guy and A.V. kind of turned me into a 200-foot player and an NHL guy. At the time, I don't know if I was super excited about it—fast-forward six years and I couldn't be more happy with where my game is at." ## International play Hayes and his brother Jimmy were both selected to represent the United States national team at the 2014 IIHF World Championship in Minsk, Belarus. Upon being selected for Team USA with no NHL experience, Kevin said, "I want to prove to everyone that I can play the same way and do what I did all season [with the Eagles]." He skated in eight games in the tournament, where he recorded one goal and one assist. Hayes was selected to represent the United States again at the 2017 IIHF World Championship where he played on a line with collegiate teammate and friend Johnny Gaudreau. He scored his first two goals of the tournament in a 5–3 win over Germany after trailing three times. The United States team ultimately failed to medal during the tournament after losing in their quarterfinal match against Finland. ## Personal life Hayes was born in the Boston neighborhood of Dorchester on May 8, 1992, the youngest of five children. His older brother was former National Hockey League (NHL) player Jimmy Hayes. Hayes' cousins include New Jersey Devils general manager and former NHL player Tom Fitzgerald, and former NHL player Keith Tkachuk. Furthermore, Fitzgerald's sons Ryan and Casey) were teammates with Hayes at Boston College and are both NHL prospects, and Tkachuk's sons Matthew and Brady are also on NHL rosters. He is a fan of the New England Patriots and the St. Louis Blues where Tkachuk played during Hayes' childhood. His closest friend in the NHL is former Boston College teammate Johnny Gaudreau. Hayes is an advocate for Hockey Fights Cancer, as both of his parents are survivors. His mother Shelagh was diagnosed with colorectal cancer when Hayes was in middle school, and his father, Kevin Sr., was diagnosed with throat cancer during Hayes' sophomore year at Boston College. Yards Brewing Company in Philadelphia released the "Big Hayes-y 13" beer in 2020, named after the Flyers' center. The beer is a New England IPA, a reference to Hayes' Boston upbringing. ## Career statistics ### Regular season and playoffs ### International ## Awards and honors
35,756,149	Amylostereum	1,063,310,349	Genus of fungi	[ "Parasitic fungi", "Russulales", "Russulales genera" ]	Amylostereum is the single genus in the fungal family Amylostereaceae. The genus currently comprises four saprotrophic and parasitic species, which live off living or dead wood. The Amylostereaceae cause white rot in the wood by disintegrating the tissue component lignin. They produce crust-like, partially wavy fruit bodies on the surface of infested trees, which are similar to those produced by Stereum species. There are four described species in the Amylostereaceae: A. chailletii (the type), A. areolatum, A. ferreum and A. laevigatum. The species were initially considered part of Stereum until mycologist Jacques Boidin found atypical microscopic differences between them. Forty years after his extensive researches from 1958, Boidin reclassified Amylostereum into its own family. Three Amylostereum species are symbionts of wood wasps in the genera Sirex, Urocerus, and Xoanon, which infest conifers. The female wood wasps deposit their eggs together with fungal spores and mucus in trees, and the fungus is eaten by the wasp's larva as food. The fungus propagates vegetatively through the formation of asexual spores in newly emerged females that are stored in special structures adapted for the transport of symbiotic fungi. The A. areolatum–Sirex woodwasp (S. noctilio) symbiont complex has been studied extensively because of its potential to cause substantial economic losses in the forestry industry, particularly in non-native regions. ## Taxonomy and history of research Amylostereaceae species were for a long time classified in the genus Stereum, based primary on the layered structure of the fruit body and the similar physiological activity. Mycologist Jacques Boidin separated Amylosterum from Stereum in 1958, justifying this decision by explaining that microscopic differences such as amyloid spores and encrusted cystidia were sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as a new genus. Although the type species of the genus (today called A. chailletii) was initially named Trichocarpus ambiguus, the name Trichocarpus had already been used for a genus in the flowering plant family Malvaceae. Boidin thus chose the genus name Amylostereum, referring to the amyloid spores. Based on DNA analysis, Boidin in 1998 moved Amylostereum into a new, monotypic family, the Amylostereaceae, which he attributed to the Hericiales order. Later studies, however, supported the initial classification in the Russulales. ### Classification The classification of the Amylostereaceae is not completely resolved. The next closest relatives might be – depending on the research – either Echinodontium tinctorium and most other species of the genus Echinodontium, or Artomyces pyxidatus. Most of the previous DNA analysis results suggest a narrow relation to Echinodontium, but several results of studies partially contradict this conclusion. Only the classification to the Russulales is regarded as correct. Some authors have suggested that Amylostereum should be placed in the family Echinodontiaceae. The similarities between A. chailletii and A. areolatum have caused some confusion regarding their placement in the genus. As only the size of their fruit bodies differ from each other in appearance, researcher German Josef Krieglsteiner assumed that both are the same species in different age stages. Experiments with pure cultures of the fungi, however, showed that the mycelia of A. chailletii, A. laevigatum and A. ferreum were partially compatible to each other, but the mycelium of A. areolatum was incompatible to other species. Boidin believes that the common ancestor of all Amylostereum fungi used yellowwoods as a host. This genus of conifers was native in Europe until the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 million to 2.6 million years ago), but became extinct there, so the Amylostereum fungi specialized on other conifers and differentiated into several species. Only A. ferreum specialized on yellowwoods in South America. Compatibility tests as well as molecular analysis indicated that A. areolatum separated very early from other Amylostereum fungi. The other three species separated later from each other and are thus partially compatible to each other. A. ferreum and A. laevigatum produced in 59% of all cases a common mycelium, A. ferreum and A. chailletii only in 44%. There is an undescribed species in Amylostereum; according to DNA analysis, it stands between A. laevigatum and A. ferreum. This is remarkable, as these fungi originated from Mycetangae (storing organs of Platypodinae) of a North American wood wasp, while A. laevigatum has never been seen as symbiont of wood wasps, neither in North American nor in Europe. The fungus possibly represents a separated species or a subtaxon of A. laevigatum. As A. areolatum and A. chailletii mainly reproduce asexually through the symbiosis of wood wasps, the genetic variability within these species is relatively low. ## Description ### Macroscopic The Amylostereaceae produce crust-like, dry and leathery-corky fruit bodies on the bark of infested trees. The fruit bodies are 0.5–1.5 mm (0.02–0.06 in) thick, irregularly shaped and are able to cover a large surface on the bark or otherwise can appear as small spots. They lie directly on the bark. The ochrous, grey or brownish fruit body (hymenium) has a smooth to warty surface texture and is turned outwards. It is bordered by a highly bent and wavy (effuso-reflex) edge on all species except A. laevigatum, which has a churlish surface (a tomentum) and is usually dirty-brown coloured. In some species, the tomentum stands clearly above and forms a kind of roof above the fruit body; if it completely surrounds this roof, there might appear cuplike shapes. ### Microscopic The Amylostereaceae possess a dimitic trama, meaning that there are in its mycelia two kinds of hyphae. The first type is brownish skeletal hyphae, which provide stability to the fruit body. These hyphae run parallel to the bark and often have hairpin-like turns, so that the loops form thick-walled, cystidium-like structures, the so-called pseudocystidia. The second type is generative hyphae. They are translucent (hyaline) and serve to promote the growth of the fungus. Genuine cystidia arise in the hymenium and the layer directly below, the subhymenium. Both pseudocystidia and cystidia are encrusted, meaning that they feature crystal-like structures on the top. With the exception of A. laevigatum, all species have a thin separating layer, the cortex, between the hymenium and the tomentum. A cortex is also present on many Stereum fungi (on a broader front) and serves to bend up the fruit body. As this cortex is missing on A. laevigatum, its fruit body lies flat on the bark. The basidia are 15–25 × 3.5–5.5 μm and have a slim, club-like shape. Each basidium features four sterigmata, each of which bear one spore. The spores' shape is slimly ellipsoidal or cylindrical. Their surface is smooth and their walls are thin. Although they are colourless and hyaline, the spores are amyloid, meaning they will turn bluish or purple when stained with Melzer's reagent. This characteristic differs from other very similar species, and this gave the genus its name. ## Distribution The range of the Amylostereaceae originally comprised only Holarctic regions, including North America and Eurasia, and the Neotropics, with Central and South America. The introduction of A. areolatum and its symbionts, the Sirex woodwasps, saw the spread of the genus to all continents except Antarctica. Amylostereum chailletiiz is common in the temperate regions of North America and Eurasia. A. laevigatum can be also found in temperate Eurasia, but it is unclear how broadly this species is distributed in North America. A. areolatum is originally native in North Africa and Eurasia; it was however distributed through the 20th century in Australia, New Zealand, Southern Africa as well as in South and North America. Only A. ferreum is originally native in the tropics and is common in Brazil and the Caribbean. ## Ecology Amylostereaceae usually infest only dead or cut down conifer wood. Three species – A. areolatum, A. laevigatum and A. chailletii – may also establish a symbiosis with wood wasps (Siricidae), which beside freshly logged trees also infest living trees and infect them with fungi. Symbioses have been recorded with several species: Sirex noctilio, S. juvencus, S. nitobei, S. cyaneus, S. edwarsii, S. nitidus, and, in Japan, Urocerus antennatus and Xoanon matsumurae. Wasps of the genera Sirex and Urocerus store oidia (the hypha of fungi split up to spores) in special abdominal organs. The wood wasps infect trees by splashing a phytotoxic secretion below the bark and at the same time injecting fungal spores into the hole. The secretion weakens the tree and temporarily diminishes its immune system, whereby the fungus can spread along the xylem. The infection with Amylostereaceae fulfill two functions for the wasps: it provides the larvae food, because the white rot softens the wood; at the same time, the mycelia of the fungi serves as food for the larvae. After the larvae pupate, it absorbs the mycelia of the Amylostereaceae into its body to oviposit together with its eggs. The fungus benefits from the symbiosis as it spreads faster and more effectively than through airborne spores and furthermore does not need to develop fruit bodies. A. ferreum is the only Amylosterum species that has not been associated with any woodwasps. ### Host spectrum The host spectrum of the Amylostereaceae comprises several, partially very different genera of Coniferae. A. chailletii usually infests Pinaceae such as firs (Abies) and spruces (Picea), but also cedars (Cedrus) and Douglas firs (Pseudotsuga). A. areolatum has a similar host spectrum, which uses mainly firs, Japanese cedars (Cryptomeria), larches (Larix), spruces, pines (Pinus) and Douglas firs as hosts. While spruces dominate as hosts in the native habitat, this species is more common in pines on other locations. The host spectrum of A. laevigatum comprises Cupressaceae such as junipers (Juniperus) or cypresses (Cupressus) and the English yew (Taxus baccata). A. ferreum is, however, only common on neotropic yellowwoods (Podocarpus). ### Symptoms of infestation The Amylostereaceae are white rot pathogens. They disintegrate the lignin of the host wood, whereby the infested wood parts become less stable and take a fibrous structure. The wood bleaches as fungal enzymes break down and remove the brown-pigmented lignin. The distribution in wood takes place mainly along the transport channels in the xylem. If the wood is crosscut, the red rot is vertically positioned, on which bleached, infested areas contrast with intact wood. Symptoms of infestion by the symbiotic partner—wood wasps—include circular exit holes in the crust and acute stress through dryness, common in hanging, falling or tanning needles. ## Ecological and economical importance In their native habitat, all Amylostereum species have a minor importance as forest pests. The infestation through wood wasps does not assume greater dimensions and is, compared with other pests, almost insignificant. The infection rates are even lower during sexual reproduction via fruit bodies, as the wasps do not play a part in the process. Furthermore, the Amylostereum fungi are alone often incapable of infesting healthy trees. They thus mostly act as saprobiontics. Pine monocultures in Australia, New Zealand, Africa and South America were shown to be susceptible to the Sirex woodwasp (Sirex noctilio), which was introduced there and which is associated with A. areolatum. The wasp's phytotoxic secretion, its larvae and the fungus combine very effectively with each other and contribute to forest decline rates of up to 80%. This is mainly owing to the poor water and nutrient supply of the trees, which can poorly reconcile the drought stress caused by infestation. S. noctilio was detected in North America in the 2000s (decade); in Canada alone, the total economic loss to the forestry industry caused by the Sirex–Amylostereum symbiosis could be as high as \$254 million per year for the next 20 years. As a countermeasure, cultures of the nematode Deladenus siricidicola have been used as biological control to protect trees since the 1980s. This parasite feeds on the mycelia of A. areolatum and is therefore a food competitor of wood wasp larvae. Where S. noctilio larvae are present, the parasite infects and sterilizes the eggs of female wasps, causing them to be infertile. These infertile females lay infected eggs into new trees and thus spread the nematode. This control method has proven to be relatively successful to combat the Sirex–Amylostereum complex. In the Southern Hemisphere, where the technique has been widely employed, reductions of parasitism levels of 70%–100% have been achieved.
59,656,092	Im Frieden dein, o Herre mein	1,088,765,784	German Christian communion hymn	[ "1530 works", "16th-century hymns in German", "1898 songs", "Lutheran hymns" ]	"Im Frieden dein, o Herre mein" (In Your peace, o my Lord) is a three-stanza German Christian communion hymn. In 1527 the early Reformer Johann Englisch (Johannes Anglicus) wrote two stanzas as a rhyming close paraphase of the Nunc dimittis, or Canticle of Simeon. The hymn is sung to a melody by Wolfgang Dachstein, written before 1530. Friedrich Spitta revised the lyrics in 1898 and added a third stanza. His revision transformed Englisch's prayer of an individual with a focus on a peaceful death to a communal one more about peaceful life in unity. This version is part of the German Protestant hymnal, Evangelisches Gesangbuch, as EG 222. An ecumenical song, it is also part of the current Catholic hymnal, Gotteslob, as GL 216. It appears in several other hymnals. ## History The development of the hymn spans four stages within the history of Christianity. Its initial inspiration draws from the account of Jesus being presented at the temple 40 days after his birth, in a ritual of purification depicted in the Gospel of Luke. On that occasion, Simeon praised the light that appeared by the baby. Centuries later, Simeon's canticle became a regular part of the Liturgy of the Hours as the Nunc dimittis, especially connected to the feast of the purification. Thirdly, during the Reformation, the Nunc dimittis was used as a prayer of thanks after communion, as documented in a Nördlingen liturgy of 1522 and a Strasbourg liturgy of 1524, the latter specifically calling for its use "after the meal" or communion ("nach dem Mahle"). The rhyming paraphrase created by Johann Englisch, or Johannes Anglicus [de], first appearing in 1527 on a now-lost leaflet, became a regular part of Strasbourg hymnals from 1530 on. His version retains the theme of the Nunc dimittis, with its ideas of rest in peace after having seen the light of a saviour who came for all people and especially Israel. The hymn is sung to a melody attributed to Wolfgang Dachstein, written before 1530. It is one of three hymns described as Der Lobgesang Simeonis (Simeon's song of praise) appearing in an 1848 collection of Schatz des evangelischen Kirchengesangs im ersten Jahrhundert der Reformation ("Treasure of Protestant church singing in the first century of the reformation"). The first two are the Biblical canticle in Martin Luther's translation, and Luther's paraphrase "Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin", followed by "Im Frieden dein". A footnote marks the three songs as also suitable for funerals. Finally, in 1898, Friedrich Spitta, a Protestant theologian, revised the song and added a third stanza, which is now usually placed between the older stanzas. He shifted the meaning from an individual prayer for a good death to a communal prayer for a meaningful life. The focus is on communion as a way for believers to see the light of Christ and thereby live in peace and unity. With additional minor changes, this version of the hymn is part of the German Protestant hymnal, Evangelisches Gesangbuch, as EG 222. An ecumenical song, it is also part of the current Catholic hymnal, Gotteslob, as GL 216, in the section "Gesänge – Woche – Gesänge zur Kommunion / Dank nach der Kommunion" (Songs – Week – Communion – Thanks after Communion). It appears in several other hymnals. ## Text The text of the hymn is as follows, on the left as in Tucher's 1848 publication which shows Englisch's two stanzas, on the right the text from the current German hymnals: Englisch's lyrics are a close paraphrase of the Nunc dimittis, about being able to go in peace after having seen the light of the Saviour ("Heiland"). Simeon said so after actually seeing the baby Jesus, 40 days after his birth, and for him departing in peace could mean readiness to die. Englisch begins in the first person, addressing God as his Lord ("Herre mein"), who prays to be allowed to rest in God's peace ("Im Frieden dein ... wollst mich nun ruhen lassen"). Spitta transfers the thought to a more general meaning, of travelling one's roads after having seen the light, adding that His mercy is unmeasurable ("ohne Maßen"). The second stanza in Englisch's version is a paraphrase of the second part of Simeon's canticle, mentioning the dear guest ("werthen Gast"), alluding to Jesus, for all people including the heathen, and for the greatness of Israel. Spitta changes the focus, identifying the singer with the guest (instead of referring to Jesus), invited to a rich meal of mercy ("das reiche Mahl der Gnaden"). The meal offers the bread of life ("Lebensbrot"), which joins the invited believers to God and among each other, a reason to praise, filled with sense and courage ("Sinn und Mut"). The heathen and Israel are not mentioned in his version. The final stanza is a prayer for love and faithfulness in God connecting "us all" ("uns all"), so that hand and mouth will show the friendliness of the Lord, until after this time all may find a seat at his table. The lyrics follow a pattern of two rhyming short lines followed by a longer line, repeated three times in a stanza, with the three longer lines all rhyming: aabccbddb. ## Melodies From 1530, the hymn was associated with a melody attributed to Wolfgang Dachstein. The tune has an element often found in Strasbourg melodies, a rhythm of long-short-short-long, here used for the short lines. The first two long lines begin with a long note, followed by a sequence of equally short notes, ending on two long notes. The first line begins with the lowest note and rises a fourth, step by step. The other short lines have similar patterns, such as the equal lines which begin the second and third section, moving a fourth downward. The last section begins an octave higher than the second ends, a feature often found in contemporary Strasbourg melodies, especially by Matthäus Greiter, sometimes accentuating a bar form's abgesang. The last line, beginning like the first line, is the only one which has a melisma. In Dachstein's composition, it stresses the last word by dotted notes, rising to an octave above the first note. The stressed word in the first stanza is "gesehen" (seen) and in the second "Volke" (people, meaning Israel). Shortly before the end of the melisma, a ligature typical for German melodies of the 16th century moves around ("umspielt") the second to last note, then released to the key note. While it is usually difficult to find a relation between words and music in strophic texts, it can be assumed that peace is expressed by the calm movement, up and down in symmetry. The last rising line might even be experienced as an expression of a vision of God ("Gottesschau"), although it seems unlikely that the composer had that in mind. The long and complex last line is difficult for congregational singing, and later versions therefore often abbreviate the melisma, in various ways. An 1899 hymnal for Alsace-Lorraine has a version with only the ligature before the end, the version in today's hymnals. However, the first publication of Spitta's text came with Dachstein's melody. ## Musical settings Samuel Mareschall composed a four-part choral setting in 1606, published by Carus-Verlag. Herbert Beuerle composed a setting for three parts in 1953. In 1980, Aldo Clementi wrote a motet for eight voices. Bernhard Blitsch composed a motet for four parts in 2013. Gaël Liardon published an organ work in 2014.
976,945	Japanese battleship Kongō	1,173,702,764	Kongō-class Japanese warship	[ "1912 ships", "Kongō-class battlecruisers", "Maritime incidents in 1924", "Maritime incidents in November 1944", "Naval magazine explosions", "Second Sino-Japanese War naval ships of Japan", "Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness", "Ships sunk by American submarines", "Shipwrecks in the Taiwan Strait", "Vickers", "World War II battleships of Japan", "World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean", "World War II shipwrecks in the South China Sea" ]	Kongō (金剛, named for Mount Kongō) was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II. She was the first battlecruiser of the Kongō class, among the most heavily armed ships in any navy when built. Her designer was the British naval engineer George Thurston, and she was laid down in 1911 at Barrow-in-Furness in Britain by Vickers Shipbuilding Company. Kongō was the last Japanese capital ship constructed outside Japan. She was formally commissioned in 1913, and patrolled off the Chinese coast during World War I. Kongō underwent two major reconstructions. Beginning in 1929, the Imperial Japanese Navy rebuilt her as a battleship, strengthening her armor and improving her speed and power capabilities. In 1935, her superstructure was completely rebuilt, her speed was increased, and she was equipped with launch catapults for floatplanes. Now fast enough to accompany Japan's growing carrier fleet, Kongō was reclassified as a fast battleship. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Kongō operated off the coast of mainland China before being redeployed to the Third Battleship Division in 1941. In 1942, she sailed as part of the Southern Force in preparation for the Battle of Singapore. Kongō fought in many major naval actions of the Pacific War during World War II. She covered the Japanese Army's amphibious landings in British Malaya (part of present-day Malaysia) and the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) in 1942, before engaging American forces at the Battle of Midway and during the Guadalcanal Campaign. Throughout 1943, Kongō primarily remained at Truk Lagoon in the Caroline Islands, Kure Naval Base (near Hiroshima), Sasebo Naval Base (near Nagasaki), and Lingga Roads, and deployed several times in response to American aircraft carrier air raids on Japanese island bases scattered across the Pacific. Kongō participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944 (22–23 October), engaging and sinking American vessels in the latter. Kongō was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine USS Sealion while transiting the Formosa Strait on 21 November 1944. She was the only Japanese battleship sunk by submarine in the Second World War. ## Design and construction Kongō was the first of the Imperial Japanese Navy's Kongō-class battlecruisers, which were almost as large, costly and well-armed as battleships, but which traded off armored protection for higher speeds. These were designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston and were ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908. These four battlecruisers of the Kongō class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the battlecruisers of the other major naval powers at the time, and they have been called the battlecruiser versions of the British (formerly Turkish) battleship HMS Erin. Their heavy armament of 14-inch naval guns and their armor protection (which took up about 23.3% of their approximately 30,000-ton displacements in 1913) were greatly superior to those of any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time. The keel of Kongō was laid down at Barrow-in-Furness by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering on 17 January 1911. Under Japan's contract with Vickers, the first vessel of the class was constructed in the United Kingdom, with the remainder built in Japan. Kongō was launched on 18 May 1912, and then transferred to the dockyards of Portsmouth, England, where her fitting-out began in mid-1912. All parts used in her construction were manufactured in the U.K. Kongō was completed on 16 April 1913. ### Siemens-Vickers Scandal In January 1914, a telegram leaked from Siemens' Tokyo office to Reuters along with further reporting by The New York Times and The Asahi Shimbun led to an investigation by Japanese authorities which revealed a pattern of bribery and kickbacks by German and English armaments corporations. Siemens had been paying senior Japanese officials a secret 15% kickback, until Vickers had outbid them by offering 25%. Vickers had paid 210,000 yen to Admiral Fuji of the Imperial Japanese Navy procurement in 1911 and 1912, and 40,000 yen to Vice Admiral Matsumoto Kazu, related to obtaining the contract for building Kongō. Kazu was court-martialed in May 1914, fined 400,000 yen and sentenced to 3 years in prison. As a result of the Siemens-Vickers Scandal revolving around the contracts of building Kongō, the government of Prime Minister Yamamoto Gonnohyōe resigned March 23, 1914. Senior executives of the Mitsui corporation, Japanese partners of Vickers, also resigned. ### Armament Originally, Kongō's main battery was designed to consist of ten 12-inch (305 mm) main guns. However, her builders, Vickers, convinced the Japanese to go with a larger weapon after Kongō was laid down. Because of this, Kongō's main armament as built consisted of eight Vickers 14 inch (356 mm)/45 naval gun heavy-caliber main naval guns in four twin turrets (two forward and two aft), making her the most powerfully armed capital ship when she was commissioned. The turrets were noted by the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence to be "similar to the British 15-inch turrets", with improvements made in flash-tightness. Each of her main guns could fire high explosive or armor-piercing shells 38,770 yards (19.14 nmi; 35.45 km) at a rate of about two shells per minute. In keeping with the Japanese doctrine of deploying more powerful vessels before their opponents, Kongō and her sister ships were the first vessels in the world equipped with 14-inch (356 mm) guns. Her main guns carried ammunition for 90 shots, and they had an approximate barrel lifetime of 250 to 280 shots. In 1941, separate dyes were introduced for the armor-piercing shells of the four Kongō-class battleships to assist with targeting, with Kongō's armor-piercing shells using red dye. The secondary battery of Kongō originally consisted of sixteen 6-inch (152 mm) 50 calibre guns in single casemates located amidships ("50 calibre" means that the lengths of the guns were 50 times their bore, or 300 inches), eight 3-inch (76 mm) guns, and eight submerged 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. Her six-inch naval guns could fire five to six rounds per minute, with a barrel lifetime of about 500 rounds. The 6-inch/50 calibre gun was capable of firing both antiaircraft and antiship shells, though the positioning of these guns on Kongō made antiaircraft firing mostly impractical. During her second reconstruction, the older three-inch guns were removed and then replaced with eight 5-inch (127 mm) 40 calibre dual purpose guns. These guns could fire from eight to 14 rounds per minute, with a barrel lifetime of about 800 to 1,500 rounds. Of Kongō's guns, the 5-inch guns had the widest variety of shell types: antiaircraft, antiship, and illumination shells. Kongō was also armed with many 1-inch (25 mm) antiaircraft machine guns. By October 1944, Kongō's secondary armament was reconfigured to eight 6-inch (152 mm) guns, eight 5-inch (127 mm) guns, and 122 Type 96 antiaircraft rapid-fire cannons. ### Armor Being a battlecruiser, Kongō's armor was fairly thin. She was equipped with a 6- to 8-inch (152–203 mm) main belt. Kongō deck armor consisted of armor plating ranging from 1-inch (25 mm), 1.5-inches (38 mm), to 2.75-inches (7 cm), depending on the area. She was equipped with nine-inch (229 mm) barbette armor protecting the ammunition to her main guns, as well as turret armor consisting of 10-inch (254 mm) turret faces, and 9-inch (229 mm) plating over the sides and rear. ## Service history ### 1913–1929: Battlecruiser On 16 August 1913, Kongō was completed and commissioned into the Imperial Japanese Navy (I.J.N.). Twelve days later, she departed from Portsmouth headed for Japan. She was docked at Singapore from 20 to 27 October, before arriving at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 5 November, where she was placed in First Reserve. In January 1914, she docked at Kure Naval Base for armament checks. On 3 August 1914, the German Empire declared war on France and then invaded via Belgium, sparking the beginning of World War I in the West. Twelve days later, Japan issued a warning to Kaiser Wilhelm II of the German Empire, ordering him to withdraw the German troops from their base at Qingdao, China. When the German Empire did not respond, Japan declared war on Germany on 23 August, occupying the former German possessions in the Caroline Islands, Palau Islands, Marshall Islands, and Marianas Islands. Kongō was quickly deployed towards the Central Pacific to patrol the sea lines of communication of the German Empire. Kongō returned to the port of Yokosuka, Japan, on 12 September, and one month later, she was assigned to the First Battleship Division. In October, Kongō and her new sister ship Hiei sortied off the Chinese coast in support of Japanese army units during the Siege of Tsingtao. Then Kongō returned to Sasebo Naval Base for upgrades to her searchlights. On 3 October 1915, Kongō and Hiei participated in the sinking of the old Imperator Nikolai I as a practice target. She was a Russian pre-dreadnought that had been captured in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War that had next served as an I.J.N. warship. With the defeat of the German East Asia Squadron by the Royal Navy at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, there was little or no need for I.J.N. operations in the Pacific Ocean. Kongō spent the rest of World War I either based at Sasebo or on patrol off the coast of China. In December 1918, following the end of the hostilities of World War I, Kongō was placed in "Second Reserve". In April 1919, she was fitted with a new seawater flooding system for her ammunition magazines. With the conclusion of World War I, and the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty on 6 February 1922, the size of the I.J.N. was significantly limited, with a ratio of 5:5:3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Japanese Empire, since the latter was responsible for only one ocean, rather than the two of the other countries, and fewer warships for France and Italy. This Treaty also banned the signatories from building any new capital ships until 1931, with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35,000 long tons (36,000 t) in displacement. Provided that new additions did not exceed 3,000 tons of displacement, the existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved anti-torpedo bulges and armored main decks. By the time that the Washington Naval Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan, only three classes of World War I type capital ships remained active: the Ise-class battleships, the Kongō-class battlecruisers, and the Fusō-class battleships. In April 1923, Kongō gave transportation to Crown Prince Hirohito during his official visit to the Japanese possession of Taiwan. On 14 June 1924, she collided with Submarine No. 62 during maneuvers. In November 1924, Kongō docked at Yokosuka, where modifications were made to her main armament, increasing the elevation of her main guns and improving her fire-control systems. In 1927, Kongō underwent major modifications to her superstructure, rebuilding it into the pagoda mast style to accommodate the growing number of fire-control systems for her main guns. In May 1928, her steering equipment was upgraded, before she was placed in reserve in preparation for major modifications and reconstruction in 1929–31. ### 1929–1935: Reconstruction into battleship Prohibited by the Washington Treaty from constructing new capital ships until 1931, Japan resorted to upgrading their World War I era battleships and battlecruisers. Beginning in September 1929, Kongō underwent extensive modernization and modification in drydock at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Over the next two years, Kongō's horizontal armor near her ammunition magazines was strengthened, and the machinery spaces within the hull were given increased torpedo protection. Anti-torpedo bulges were added along the waterline, as permitted by the Washington Treaty. She was refitted to accommodate three Type 90 Model 0 floatplanes, though no aircraft catapults were fitted. To increase her speed and power, all 36 of her Yarrow boilers were removed, and then replaced with 16 newer boilers, and Brown-Curtis direct-drive turbines were installed. Kongō's forward funnel was removed, and her second funnel was enlarged and lengthened. The modifications to her hull increased her armor weight from 6,502 to 10,313 long tons, directly violating the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. In March 1931, Kongō—now capable of a speed of 29 knots (54 km/h)—was reclassified as a battleship. On 22 April 1930, Japan signed the London Naval Treaty, placing further restrictions on the signatories' naval forces. Several of her older battleships were scrapped, and no new capital ships were built as replacements. After minor fitting-out work, Kongō's reconstruction begun in September 1929 and was declared complete on 31 March 1931. On 1 December 1931, two months after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, Kongō was assigned to the First Battleship Division and also designated the flagship of the Combined Fleet. Additional rangefinders and searchlights were fitted to her superstructure in January 1932, and Captain Nobutake Kondō assumed command of the vessel in December. In 1933, aircraft catapults were fitted between the two rear turrets. On 25 February 1933, following a report by the Lytton Commission, the League of Nations agreed that Japan's invasion of China had violated Chinese sovereignty. Refusing to accept the judgement of this organization, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations on the same day. Japan also immediately withdrew from the Washington Naval Treaty and the London Naval Treaty, thus removing all restrictions on the numbers and sizes of her capital warships. In November 1934, Kongō was placed in Second Reserve in preparation for further modifications. On 10 January 1935, Kongō was toured by the Nazi German naval attaché to Japan, Captain Paul Wenneker, as part of a gunnery demonstration. ### 1935–1941: Fast battleship On 1 June 1935, Kongō was dry-docked at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in preparation for upgrades that would enable her to escort Japan's growing fleet of aircraft carriers. Her stern was lengthened by 26 feet (7.9 m) to improve her fineness ratio and her 16 older boilers were removed and then replaced with 11 oil-fired Kampon Boilers and newer geared turbines. In addition, her bridge was completely reconstructed according to Japan's pagoda mast style of forward superstructure, and catapults were added to support three Nakajima E8N or Kawanishi E7K reconnaissance and spotter floatplanes. Kongō's armor was also extensively upgraded. Her main belt was strengthened to a uniform thickness of eight inches (up from varying thicknesses of six to eight inches), and also diagonal bulkheads of depths ranging from 5 to 8 inches (127 to 203 mm) were added to reinforce the main armored belt. The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches (254 mm), while 4 inches (102 mm) were added to portions of the deck armor. Kongō's ammunition magazine protection was also strengthened to 4.0 inches (10 cm). This reconstruction was finished on 8 January 1937. Capable of greater than 30 knots (56 km/h), despite the significant increase in her hull displacement, Kongō was now reclassified as a fast battleship. Despite this reclassification, however, Kongō could still very much be considered a battlecruiser in nature. In February 1937, Kongō was assigned to the Sasebo Naval District, and in December she was placed under the command of Takeo Kurita in the Third Battleship Division. In April 1938, two float planes from Kongō bombed the Chinese city of Fuzhou during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Throughout 1938 and 1939, Kongō steamed off the Chinese coast in support of Japanese Army operations during the war. In November 1939, Captain Raizo Tanaka assumed command of Kongō. From November 1940 to April 1941, additional armor was added to Kongō's armament barbettes and ammunition tubes, while ventilation and firefighting equipment was also improved. In August 1941, she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa alongside her fully modified sister warships Hiei, Kirishima and the Haruna. ### 1942: Pacific War service Kongō and Haruna departed from the Hashirajima fleet anchorage on 29 November 1941 to begin the War in the Pacific as part of the Southern (Malay) Force's Main Body, under the overall command of Vice-Admiral Nobutake Kondō. On 4 December 1941, the Main Body arrived off the coast of southern Thailand and northern Malaya in preparation for the invasion of Thailand and the Malayan Peninsula four days later. When Britain's "Force Z"—consisting of the battleship Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser Repulse—was quickly defeated by Japan's land-based aircraft from southern Vietnam, Kongō's battlegroup withdrew from Malayan waters. This battlegroup subsequently sortied from Indochina for three days in mid-December to protect a reinforcement convoy traveling to Malaya, and again on 18 December to cover the Japanese Army's landing at Lingayen Gulf, Luzon, in the Philippines. The Main Body departed Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina on 23 December bound for Taiwan, arriving two days later. In January 1942, Kongō and the heavy cruisers Takao and Atago provided distant cover for air attacks on Ambon Island. On 21 February, Kongō was joined by Haruna, four fast aircraft carriers, five heavy cruisers and numerous support ships in preparation for "Operation J", Japan's invasion of the Dutch East Indies. On 25 February, the Third Battleship Division provided cover for air attacks on the Island of Java. Kongō bombarded Christmas Island off the western coast of Australia on 7 March 1942, and then she returned to Staring-baai for 15 days of standby alert. In April 1942, Kongō joined five fleet carriers in attacks on Colombo and Trincomalee on Ceylon. Following the destruction of the British heavy cruisers HMS Dorsetshire and HMS Cornwall on 5 April 1942, this naval task force moved southwest to locate the remainder of the British Eastern Fleet, then under the command of Admiral James Somerville. On 9 April, one of Haruna's reconnaissance seaplanes spotted the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes south of Trincomalee. On the same day, Japanese air attacks sank the carrier, and Kongō was attacked but missed by nine British medium bombers. Having crippled the offensive capability of Britain's Eastern Fleet, the Third Battleship Division returned to Japan. Kongō reached Sasebo on 22 April. From 23 April to 2 May, Kongō was drydocked for reconfiguration of her antiaircraft armament. On 27 May 1942, Kongō sortied with Hiei and the heavy cruisers Atago, Chōkai, Myōkō, and Haguro as part of Admiral Nobutake Kondō's invasion force during the Battle of Midway. Following the disastrous loss of four of the Combined Fleet's fast carriers on 4 June 1942, Kondō's force withdrew to Japan. On 14 July she was assigned as the flagship of the restructured Third Battleship Division. In August, Kongō was drydocked at Kure to receive surface-detection radar and additional range finders. In September, Kongō embarked with Hiei, Haruna, Kirishima, three carriers, and numerous smaller warships in response to the U.S. Marine Corps's amphibious landing on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. On 20 September, this task force was ordered to return to the Truk Naval Base in the Central Pacific north of the equator. In the aftermath of the Battle of Cape Esperance, the Japanese Army opted to reinforce its troops on Guadalcanal. To protect their transport convoy from enemy air attack, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto sent Haruna and Kongō, escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers, to bombard the American air base at Henderson Field. Because of their high speeds, these two battleships could bombard the airfield and then withdraw before being subjected to air attack from either land-based warplanes or American aircraft carriers. On the night of 13–14 October, these two battleships shelled the area of Henderson Field from a distance of about 16,000 yards (15,000 m), firing 973 14-inch high-explosive shells. In the most successful Japanese battleship action of the war, the bombardment heavily damaged both runways, destroyed almost all of the U.S. Marines' aviation fuel, destroyed or damaged 48 of the Marines' 90 warplanes, and killed 41 Marines. A large Japanese troop and supply convoy reached Guadalcanal on the next day. During the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 26 October 1942, Kongō was attacked by four Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers, but she received no hits. In mid-November, this battleship and other warships provided distant cover for the unsuccessful mission by the I.J.N. to bombard Henderson Field again and to deliver more Army reinforcements to Guadalcanal. On 15 November 1942, following the Japanese defeat and the sinking of Hiei and Kirishima during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, the Third Battleship Division returned to Truk, where it remained for the rest of 1942. ### 1943: Movement between bases Throughout 1943, Kongō engaged no enemy targets. In late January 1943, she participated in "Operation Ke" as part of a diversionary and distant covering force to support I.J.N. destroyers that were evacuating Army troops from Guadalcanal. From 15 February through 20 February 1943, the Third Battleship Division was transferred from Truk to the Kure Naval Base. On 27 February, Kongō was drydocked to receive upgrades to her antiaircraft armament, with the additions of two triple 25 mm gun mounts and the removal of two of her 6-inch turrets, while additional concrete protection was added near her steering gear. On 17 May 1943, in response to the U.S. Army's invasion of Attu Island, Kongō sortied alongside the battleship Musashi, the Third Battleship Division, two fleet carriers, two cruisers, and nine destroyers. Three days later, the American submarine USS Sawfish spotted this naval task force, but she was unable to attack it. On 22 May 1943, the task force arrived in Yokosuka, where it was joined by an additional three fleet carriers and two light cruisers. This force was disbanded when Attu fell to the U.S. Army before the necessary preparations for a counterattack had been finished. On 17 October 1943, Kongō again left Truk as part of a larger task force consisting of five battleships, three fleet carriers, eight heavy cruisers, three light cruisers, and numerous destroyers. These sortied in response to U.S. Navy air raids on Wake Island. No contact between the two forces was made, and the Japanese task force returned to Truk on 26 October 1943. She soon left Truk for home waters, and on 16 December 1943, Kongō arrived at Sasebo for refits and training in the Inland Sea. ### 1944: Combat and loss In January 1944, Kongō was dry-docked for a reconfiguration of her anti-aircraft suite. Four 6-inch guns and a pair of twin 25 mm mounts were removed and replaced with six twin 5-inch guns and four triple 25 mm mounts. The Third Battleship Division departed from Kure on 8 March 1944. Arriving at Lingga on 14 March 1944, the division remained for training until 11 May 1944. On 11 May 1944, Kongō and Admiral Ozawa's Mobile Fleet departed from Lingga bound for Tawitawi, where they were joined by Vice-Admiral Takeo Kurita's "Force C". On 13 June, Ozawa's Mobile Fleet departed from Tawitawi bound for the Mariana Islands. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Kongō escorted Japanese fast carriers, and remained undamaged in counterattacks from US carrier aircraft on 20 June. When she returned to Japan, 13 triple and 40 single 25-mm mounts were added to her anti-aircraft armament, for a total of over 100 mounts. In August, two more 6-inch guns were removed and another eighteen single mounts installed. ### Battle of Leyte Gulf Main Article: Battle of Leyte Gulf In October 1944, Kongō departed from Lingga in preparation for "Operation Sho-1", Japan's counterattack during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval engagement in history. On 24 October, Kongō was undamaged by several near misses from American carrier aircraft in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea. On 25 October, during the Battle off Samar, Kongō—as part of Admiral Kurita's Centre Force—engaged the US 7th Fleet's "Taffy 3", a battlegroup of escort carriers and destroyers. She targeted various destroyers, but to no avail in the beginning parts of the battle, before scoring a hit with her main battery to the bridge of the destroyer USS Hoel. It's worth noting that for the longest time, it was believed that Kongō scored three hits with her 14-inch (356 mm) guns on the destroyer USS Johnston shortly after the valiant destroyer crippled the heavy cruiser Kumano, severe damage that cut Johnston's speed to 17 knots and took out all but two of her 5-inch guns, and according to the state of her wreck, split her in two and sank her a couple of hours later while under fire from a Japanese destroyer line. On the contrary, Japanese records display that Kongō was blinded by a rain squall and unable to engage enemy ships at the time Johnston was hit, but fellow battleship Yamato claimed numerous hits with both her main and secondary battery on a US "cruiser" at the exact moment Johnston was hit by what is now commonly accepted as three 18.1-inch (46 cm) shells from Yamato, as well as three hits from Yamato's 6.1-inch (155 mm) secondary guns. Kongō in all reality failed to score a single hit on Johnston and played no role in her crippling and sinking. Kongō then targeted the escort carrier Gambier Bay, claiming a hit with her main battery. However, said hit was also claimed by the aforementioned battleship Yamato, which is widely agreed upon to have scored the hit due to having the shorter range and the correct firing angle, and indeed, Yamato would be awarded credit for the hit by Japanese admiralty. She then scored numerous hits on Hoel and the destroyer Heermann, heavily contributing to the former's sinking. At 09:12, she sank the destroyer escort Samuel B. Roberts. After a fierce defensive action by the American ships, which sank three Japanese heavy cruisers, Admiral Kurita elected to withdraw, ending the battle. While retreating, Kongō suffered damage from five near misses from attacking aircraft. The fleet arrived at Brunei on 28 October. ### Sinking On 16 November, following a US air raid on Brunei, Kongō, along with Yamato, Nagato and the rest of the First Fleet, departed from Brunei bound for Kure in preparation for a major reorganization of the fleet and battle repairs. On 20 November, they entered the Formosa Strait. Shortly after midnight on 21 November, the submarine USS Sealion made radar contact with the fleet at 44,000 yards (40,000 m). Maneuvering into position at 02:45, Sealion fired six bow torpedoes at Kongō followed by three stern torpedoes at Nagato fifteen minutes later. One minute after the first salvo was launched, two of the torpedoes were seen to hit Kongō on the port side, while a third sank the destroyer Urakaze with all hands. The torpedoes flooded two of Kongō's boiler rooms, but she was still able to make 16 kn (30 km/h; 18 mph). By 05:00, she had slowed to 11 kn (20 km/h; 13 mph) and was given permission to break off from the fleet and head to the port of Keelung in Formosa along with the destroyers Hamakaze and Isokaze as escort. Within fifteen minutes of detaching from the main force, Kongō was listing 45 degrees and flooding uncontrollably. At 5:18 the ship lost all power and the order was given to abandon ship. At 5:24, while the evacuation was under way, the forward 14-inch magazine exploded, and the broken ship sank quickly, with the loss of over 1,200 of her crew, including the commander of the Third Battleship Division and her captain. Kongō is believed to have sunk in 350 feet (110 m) of water approximately 55 nautical miles (102 km; 63 mi) northwest of Keelung. She was one of only three British-built battleships sunk by submarine attack during World War II. The other two were the British Revenge-class battleship HMS Royal Oak and the Queen Elizabeth-class battleship HMS Barham. ## See also - List by death toll of ships sunk by submarines
5,270,278	Male Unbonding	1,170,596,036	null	[ "1990 American television episodes", "Seinfeld (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes written by Jerry Seinfeld", "Television episodes written by Larry David" ]	"Male Unbonding" is the fourth episode of the first season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and aired on June 14, 1990. Despite airing fourth, it was the second episode produced. In it, Jerry Seinfeld tries to avoid meeting an old childhood friend, Joel Horneck (Kevin Dunn). Jerry's neighbor, Kramer, conceptualizes "a pizza place where you make your own pie". The episode was written by Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld, and was the first filmed episode directed by Tom Cherones. This was the first episode produced with Elaine Benes (Julia Louis-Dreyfus) as a character. It also was the first episode to use Jonathan Wolff's title music. This is the only Seinfeld episode whose title does not begin with the definite article "The". ## Plot George tells Jerry that he was out with a girlfriend. They went to see a play, during which he put his hand in his pocket to get some money and out came some dental floss stuck to his hand. George worries that his girlfriend is going to leave him because of it. Jerry has problems with a childhood friend, Joel Horneck, who persists in keeping in touch with him. He does not like Horneck, who does not pay attention to anything that Jerry says. Jerry says that he feels uncomfortable "breaking up with" Horneck, so George suggests that he should pretend that Horneck is a woman and break up normally. Jerry therefore attempts to break up with Horneck at Monk's Café, but Horneck bursts into tears. Deeply uncomfortable, Jerry assures Horneck he didn't mean it, and agrees to take him to see the New York Knicks, although he was supposed to take George. As George tells Jerry that his girlfriend no longer wants to see him, Jerry tells George that he gave away his ticket to Horneck. Although Jerry offers George his own ticket, George does not go to the game with Horneck because he does not know Horneck. Jerry decides to give Horneck both tickets, claiming that he cannot make the game because he is tutoring his nephew. Later, the night of the Knicks game, Jerry is in his apartment talking to his ex-girlfriend Elaine. She jokingly tries to add to Jerry's list of excuses with which he avoids Horneck. He later discovers that Horneck took Kramer to the game and that Horneck is in the building. When Horneck meets Jerry and Elaine, Horneck invites them out to another Knicks game. They come up with more unusual excuses in an attempt to avoid going out. However, Horneck then gets out a newspaper and tries to organize a time when they can all meet, weeks in advance. Jerry realizes that no matter what excuses he comes up with, he cannot avoid Horneck. Kramer, working under the name "Kramerica Industries", conceptualizes building "a pizza place where you make your own pizza pie". Jerry and George try to persuade Kramer to forget the idea, but Kramer is determined to go on with it. Kramer's pizza parlor idea reappears in later episodes such as "The Puffy Shirt" in season 5, and "The Couch" in season 6. ## Production This is the first episode that was made after the original pilot, "The Seinfeld Chronicles". The title of the series was shortened to Seinfeld to avoid confusion with another sitcom called The Marshall Chronicles. This is the only episode that does not have "the" in the title. A decision was made to name all the episodes in this way so that the writers would not waste time trying to think of funny titles and instead make the content of the episode funny. However, this decision was made after the script for "Male Unbonding" was completed. Jerry Seinfeld tried to have the title of the episode changed to "The Male Unbonding" some time later, but was unsuccessful. This is the first episode written which stars the character of Elaine. The first version of the script does not include Elaine, despite the fact that one of the conditions given when Seinfeld was given a series was that a female character was included. Originally, the character's name was Eileen. Louis-Dreyfus claims that she was unhappy with only being given one scene in the first episode in which she appeared, but said that she performed well in the episode. Similarly, other early versions of the script refer to the character of Kramer as "Breckman". Kevin Dunn, who plays Joel in the episode, auditioned for the role of George Costanza in the original pilot. The episode also stars Anita Wise, who plays a waitress. Wise appeared again in another episode from the first season of Seinfeld titled "The Robbery". Frank Piazza, a customer at the bank appears in the season 2 episode "The Stranded". This episode features different title music from the pilot; this music, composed by Jonathan Wolff, is used throughout the rest of the series. The standup interstitials for this episode were recorded twice. Originally, the set for the interstitials was brightly lit and was designed to look like that of a church basement, but then it was remade to look like a nightclub and the material was performed again. The scene that was set in the bank was originally set in a dry cleaner's. However, this was moved and some of the material was moved to a later episode called "The Stock Tip". The episode had an alternative ending, in which Joel borrows a k.d. lang tape from Jerry. Jerry then finally manages to "break up" with Joel. Joel leaves, but then comes back again to tell Jerry that he will bring back the tape. Jerry then refers to Joel as Jason from the Friday the 13th films. "Male Unbonding" was filmed on February 13, 1990. ## Reception When first broadcast on June 14, 1990, the episode attracted a Nielsen rating of 13.6/24, meaning that 13.6% of American households watched the episode, and that 24% of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it. Several reviews at the time compared Seinfeld to It's Garry Shandling's Show, in which Garry Shandling, like Seinfeld, plays a fictionalized version of himself. Jonathan Boudreaux writes that of the four season one episodes produced after the pilot, "'Male Unbonding' is the strongest. This episode centers on the classic Seinfeld theme of the gang complaining about an outsider's self-centeredness while conveniently ignoring their own selfish, antisocial behavior. The characters slowly begin to fall into place as George takes great strides toward being the neurotic moron we love, and Kramer becomes more spastic and idiosyncratic." Colin Jacobson for DVD Movie Guide was also positive, saying, "'Unbonding' marks a demonstrable improvement over the pilot. No one will mistake the episode for one of the series' greats, but at least the characters start to resemble the ones we'd come to know later. In addition, it tosses out just enough humor to make it enjoyable." David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B+, saying, "It's a pretty funny episode – my main criticism is just that at this point, Kramer isn't integrated at all into the stories, rather he just comes by and dispenses weird dialog for a couple minutes."
23,180,963	German invasion of Belgium (1940)	1,159,932,560	World War II military campaign	[ "1940 in Belgium", "Battle of Belgium", "Battles and operations of World War II involving Belgium", "Battles and operations of World War II involving the Netherlands", "Battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of World War II involving France", "Belgium–Germany military relations", "Conflicts in 1940", "Invasions by Germany", "Invasions of Belgium", "World War II operations and battles of the Western European Theatre" ]	The invasion of Belgium or Belgian campaign (10–28 May 1940), often referred to within Belgium as the 18 Days' Campaign (French: Campagne des 18 jours, Dutch: Achttiendaagse Veldtocht), formed part of the larger Battle of France, an offensive campaign by Germany during the Second World War. It took place over 18 days in May 1940 and ended with the German occupation of Belgium following the surrender of the Belgian Army. On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium under the operational plan Fall Gelb (Case Yellow). The Allied armies attempted to halt the German Army in Belgium, believing it to be the main German thrust. After the French had fully committed the best of the Allied armies to Belgium between 10 and 12 May, the Germans enacted the second phase of their operation, a break-through, or sickle cut, through the Ardennes, and advanced toward the English Channel. The German Army (Heer) reached the Channel after five days, encircling the Allied armies. The Germans gradually reduced the pocket of Allied forces, forcing them back to the sea. The Belgian Army surrendered on 28 May 1940, ending the battle. The Battle of Belgium included the first tank battle of the war, the Battle of Hannut. It was the largest tank battle in history at the time but was later surpassed by the battles of the North African Campaign and the Eastern Front. The battle also included the Battle of Fort Eben-Emael, the first strategic airborne operation using paratroopers ever attempted. The German official history stated that in the 18 days of bitter fighting, the Belgian Army were tough opponents, and spoke of the "extraordinary bravery" of its soldiers. The Belgian collapse forced the Allied withdrawal from continental Europe. The British Royal Navy subsequently evacuated Belgian ports during Operation Dynamo, allowing the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), along with many Belgian and French soldiers, to escape capture and continue military operations. France reached its own armistice with Germany in June 1940. Belgium was occupied by the Germans until the autumn of 1944, when it was liberated by the Western Allies. ## Pre-battle plans ### Belgium's strained alliances The Belgian strategy for a defence against German aggression faced political as well as military problems. In terms of military strategy, the Belgians were unwilling to stake everything on a linear defence of the Belgian–German border, in an extension of the Maginot Line. Such a move would leave the Belgians vulnerable to a German assault in their rear, through an attack on the Netherlands. Such a strategy would also rely on the French to move quickly into Belgium and support the garrison there. Belgium was wary of continuing its alliance with France. Marshal Philippe Pétain had suggested a French strike at Germany's Ruhr area using Belgium as a spring-board in October 1930 and again in January 1933. Belgium feared it would be drawn into a war regardless, and sought to avoid that eventuality. The Belgians also feared being drawn into a war as a result of the French–Soviet pact of May 1935. The Franco-Belgian agreement stipulated Belgium was to mobilise if the Germans did, but what was not clear was whether Belgium would have to mobilise in the event of a German invasion of Poland. The Belgians much preferred an alliance with the United Kingdom. The British had entered the First World War in response to the German violation of Belgian neutrality. The Belgian Channel ports had offered the German Imperial Navy valuable bases, and such an attack would offer the German Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe bases to engage in strategic offensive operations against the United Kingdom in the coming conflict. However, the British government paid little attention to the concerns of the Belgians. The lack of this commitment ensured the Belgian withdrawal from the Western Alliance, the day before the remilitarisation of the Rhineland. The lack of opposition to the remilitarisation served to convince the Belgians that France and Britain were unwilling to fight for their own strategic interests, let alone Belgium's. The Belgian General Staff was determined to fight for its own interests, alone if necessary. ### Belgian place in Allied strategy The French government was infuriated at King Leopold III's open declaration of neutrality in October 1936. The French Army saw its strategic assumptions undermined; it could no longer expect cooperation from the Belgians in defending Belgium's eastern borders, which would allow it to stop a German attack well forward of the French border. The French were dependent on cooperation from the Belgians. Such a situation deprived the French of any prepared defences in Belgium to forestall an attack, a situation which the French had wanted to avoid as it meant engaging the German Panzer Divisions in a mobile battle. The French considered invading Belgium immediately in response to a German attack on the country. The Belgians, recognising the danger posed by the Germans, secretly made their own defence policies, troop movement information, communications, fixed defence dispositions, intelligence and air reconnaissance arrangements available to the French military attaché in Brussels. The Allied plan to aid Belgium was the Dyle Plan; the cream of the Allied forces, including French armoured divisions, would advance to the Dyle river in response to a German invasion. The choice of an established Allied line lay in either reinforcing the Belgians in the east of the country, at the Meuse–Albert Canal line, and holding the Scheldt Estuary, thus linking the French defences in the south with the Belgian forces protecting Ghent and Antwerp, seemed to be the soundest defensive strategy. The weakness of the plan was that it abandoned most of eastern Belgium to the Germans. Militarily it would put the Allied rear at right angles to the French frontier defences; while for the British, with their communications located at the Channel ports, would be parallel to their front. Despite the risk of committing forces to central Belgium and an advance to the Scheldt or Dyle lines, which would be vulnerable to an outflanking move, Maurice Gamelin, the French commander, approved the plan and it remained the Allied strategy at the outbreak of war. The British, with no army in the field and behind in rearmament, were in no position to challenge French strategy, which had assumed the prominent role of the Western Alliance. Having little ability to oppose the French, the British strategy for military action came in the form of strategic bombing of the Ruhr industry. ### Belgian military strategy On the official Belgian withdrawal from the Western Alliance, the Belgians refused to engage in any official staff meetings with French or British military staff for fear of compromising their neutrality. The Belgians did not regard a German invasion as inevitable and were determined that if an invasion did take place it would be effectively resisted by new fortifications such as Eben Emael. The Belgians had taken measures to reconstruct their defences along their border with Germany upon Adolf Hitler's rise to power in January 1933. The Belgian government had watched with increasing alarm the German withdrawal from the League of Nations, its repudiation of the Treaty of Versailles and its violation of the Locarno Treaties. The government modernised fortifications at Namur and Liège, and established new lines of defence along the Maastricht–'s-Hertogenbosch canal, joining the Meuse, the Scheldt and the Albert Canal. Protection of the eastern frontier, based mainly on destroying a number of roads, was entrusted to new formations (frontier cyclist units and the newly formed Chasseurs Ardennais). By 1935, the Belgian defences were completed. Even so, it was felt that the defences were no longer adequate. A significant mobile reserve was needed to guard the rear areas, and as a result it was considered that the protection against a sudden assault by German forces was not sufficient. Significant manpower reserves would also be needed, but the public rejected a bill to require longer military service and training was rejected on the basis that it would increase Belgium's military commitments, perhaps in conflicts far from home. King Leopold III made a speech on 14 October 1936 before the Council of Ministers to persuade the people and their government that Belgium's defences needed strengthening. He outlined three main military points for Belgium's increased rearmament: > a\) German rearmament and the complete re-militarisation of Italy and Russia had caused most other states, even pacifists like Switzerland and the Netherlands, to take exceptional precautions. > b) Vast changes in military methods, particularly in aviation and mechanization, meant that initial operations could now be of alarming force, speed and magnitude. > c) The lightning reoccupation of the Rhineland came with bases for the start of a possible German invasion moving close to the Belgian frontier. On 24 April 1937, the French and British publicly declared that Belgium's security was paramount to the Western Allies and that they would defend their borders against aggression of any sort, whether directed solely at Belgium, or to obtain bases to wage war against "other states". The British and French released Belgium from her Locarno obligations to render mutual assistance in the event of German aggression toward Poland, while the British and French maintained their military obligations to Belgium. Militarily, the Belgians considered the Wehrmacht stronger than the Allies, and that engaging in overtures to the Allies would make Belgium a battleground without adequate allies. The Belgians and French remained confused about what was expected of whom if or when hostilities commenced. The Belgians were determined to hold the border fortifications along the Albert Canal and the Meuse, without withdrawing, until the French Army arrived to support them. Gamelin was not keen on pushing his Dyle plan that far. He was concerned that the Belgians would be driven out of their defences and would retreat to Antwerp, as in 1914. In fact, the Belgian divisions protecting the border were to withdraw and retreat southward to link up with French forces. This information was not given to Gamelin. As far as the Belgians were concerned, the Dyle Plan had advantages. Instead of the limited Allied advance to the Scheldt, or meeting the Germans on the Franco-Belgian border, the move to the Dyle river would reduce the Allied front in central Belgium by 70 kilometres (43 mi), freeing more forces for use as a strategic reserve. Belgium felt this would save more Belgian territory, in particular the eastern industrial regions. It also had the advantage of absorbing Dutch and Belgian Army formations (including some 20 Belgian divisions). Gamelin justified the Dyle Plan after the defeat using these arguments. On 10 January 1940, in an episode known as the Mechelen Incident, German Army Major Hellmuth Reinberger crash-landed in a Messerschmitt Bf 108 near Mechelen-aan-de-Maas. Reinberger was carrying the first plans for the German invasion of western Europe which, as Gamelin had expected, entailed a repeat of the 1914 Schlieffen Plan and a German thrust through Belgium (which was expanded by the Wehrmacht to include the Netherlands) and into France. The Belgians suspected a ruse, but the plans were taken seriously. Belgian intelligence and the military attaché in Cologne correctly suggested the Germans would not commence the invasion with this plan. It suggested that the Germans would try an attack through the Belgian Ardennes and advance to Calais to encircle the Allied armies in Belgium. The Belgians correctly predicted that the Germans would attempt a Kesselschlacht (literally "Cauldron battle", meaning encirclement), to destroy its enemies. The Belgians had predicted the exact German plan as offered by Erich von Manstein. The Belgian High Command warned the French and British of their concerns. They feared that the Dyle plan would put not just the Belgian strategic position in danger, but also the entire left wing of the Allied front. King Leopold and General Raoul Van Overstraeten, the King's aide de camp, warned Gamelin and the French Army Command of their concerns on 8 March and 14 April. They were ignored. ### Belgian plans for defensive operations The Belgian plan, in the event of German aggression [italics in original] provided for: > $a$ A delaying position along the Albert Canal from Antwerp to Liège and the Meuse from Liège to Namur, which was to be held long enough to allow French and British troops to occupy the line Antwerp–Namur–Givet. It was anticipated that the forces of the guarantor Powers would be in action on the third day of an invasion. > (b) Withdrawal to the Antwerp–Namur position. > (c) The Belgian Army was to hold the sector–excluding Leuven, but including Antwerp–as part of the main Allied defensive position. In an agreement with the British and French Armies, the French 7th Army under the command of Henri Giraud was to advance into Belgium, past the Scheldt Estuary in Zeeland if possible, to Breda, in the Netherlands. The British Army's British Expeditionary Force or BEF, commanded by General John Vereker, Lord Gort, was to occupy the central position in the Brussels–Ghent gap supporting the Belgian Army, holding the main defensive positions, some 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Brussels. The main defensive position ringing Antwerp would be protected by the Belgians, barely 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the city. The French 7th Army was to reach the Zeeland or Breda, just inside the Dutch border. The French would then be in a position to protect the left flank of the Belgian Army forces protecting Antwerp and threaten the German northern flank. Further east, delaying positions were constructed in the immediate tactical zones along the Albert Canal, which joined with the defences of the Meuse west of Maastricht. The line deviated southward, and continued to Liège. The Maastricht–Liège gap was heavily protected. Fort Eben-Emael guarded the city's northern flank, the tank country lying in the strategic depths of the Belgian forces occupying the city and the axis of advance into the west of the country. Further lines of defence ran south-west, covering the Liège–Namur axis. The Belgian Army also had the added benefit of the French 1st Army, advancing toward Gembloux and Hannut, on the southern flank of the BEF covering the Sambre sector. This covered the gap in the Belgian defences between the main Belgian positions on the Dyle line and Namur to the south. Further south still, the French 9th Army advanced to the Givet–Dinant axis on the Meuse river. The French 2nd Army was responsible for the last 100 kilometres (62 mi) of front, covering Sedan, the lower Meuse, the Belgian–Luxembourg border and the northern flank of the Maginot line. ### German operational plans The German plan of attack required that Army Group B would advance and draw the Allied First Army Group into central Belgium, while Army Group A conducted the surprise assault through the Ardennes. Belgium was to act as a secondary front. Army Group B was given only limited numbers of armoured and mobile units, while the vast majority of the Army Group comprised infantry divisions. After the English Channel was reached, all Panzer division units and most motorised infantry were removed from Army Group B and given to Army Group A, to strengthen the German lines of communication and to prevent an Allied breakout. This plan would still fail if sufficient ground could not be quickly taken in Belgium to squeeze the allies against two fronts. Preventing this from happening were the defences of Fort Eben-Emael and the Albert Canal. The three bridges over the canal were the key to allowing Army Group B to move at high speed. The bridges at Veldwezelt, Vroenhoven and Kanne in Belgium, and Maastricht on the Dutch border were the targets. Failure to capture the bridges would leave Walter von Reichenau's German 6th Army, the southernmost army of Group B, trapped in the Maastricht-Albert Canal enclave and subject to the fire of Eben-Emael. The fort had to be captured or destroyed. Adolf Hitler summoned Lieutenant-General Kurt Student of the 7. Flieger-Division (7th Air Division) to discuss the assault. It was first suggested that a conventional parachute drop be made by airborne forces to seize and destroy the forts' guns before the land units approached. Such a suggestion was rejected as the Junkers Ju 52 transports were too slow and were likely to be vulnerable to Dutch and Belgian anti-aircraft guns. Other factors for its refusal were the weather conditions, which might blow the paratroopers away from the fort and disperse them too widely. A seven-second drop from a Ju 52 at minimum operational height led to a dispersion over 300 metres alone. Hitler had noticed one potential flaw in the defences. The roofs were flat and unprotected; he demanded to know if a glider, such as the DFS 230, could land on them. Student replied that it could be done, but only by 12 aircraft and in daylight; this would deliver 80–90 paratroopers onto the target. Hitler then revealed the tactical weapon that would make this strategic operation work, introducing the Hohlladungwaffe (hollow-charge) – a 50 kilograms (110 lb) explosive weapon which would destroy the Belgian gun emplacements. This tactical unit spearheaded the first strategic airborne operation in history. ## Forces involved ### Belgian forces The Belgian Army could muster 22 divisions, which contained 1,338 artillery pieces but just 10 AMC 35 tanks. However, the Belgian combat vehicles included 200 T-13 tank destroyers. These had an excellent 47 mm antitank gun and a coaxial FN30 machine gun in a turret. The Belgians also possessed 42 T-15s. They were officially described as armoured cars but were actually fully tracked tanks with a 13.2 mm turret machine gun. The standard Belgian anti-tank gun was the 47 mm FRC, towed either by trucks or by fully tracked armoured Utilitie B-tractors. One report states that a round from a 47 mm gun went straight through a Sd kfz 231 and penetrated the armour of the Panzer IV behind it. These Belgian guns were better than the 25 mm and 37 mm guns of respectively the French and the Germans. The Belgians began mobilisation on 25 August 1939 and by May 1940 mounted a field army of 18 infantry divisions, two divisions of partly motorised Chasseurs Ardennais and two motorised cavalry divisions, a force totaling some 600,000 men. Belgian reserves may have been able to field 900,000 men. The army lacked armour and anti-aircraft guns. After the completion of the Belgian Army's mobilisation, it could muster five Regular Corps and two reserve Army Corps consisting of 12 regular infantry divisions, two divisions of Chasseurs Ardennais, six reserve infantry divisions, one brigade of Cyclist Frontier Guards, one Cavalry Corps of two divisions, and one brigade of motorised cavalry. The Army contained two anti-aircraft artillery and four artillery regiments, and an unknown number of fortress, engineer, and signals force personnel. The Belgian Naval Corps (Corps de Marine) was resurrected in 1939. Most of the Belgian merchant fleet, some 100 ships, evaded capture by the Germans. Under the terms of a Belgian–Royal Navy agreement, these ships and their 3,350 crewmen were placed under British control for the duration of hostilities. The General Headquarters of the Belgian Admiralty was at Ostend under the command of Major Henry Decarpentrie. The First Naval Division was based at Ostend, while the Second and Third divisions were based at Zeebrugge and Antwerp. The Aéronautique Militaire Belge (Belgian Air Force - AéMI) had barely begun to modernise their aircraft technology. The AéMI had ordered Brewster Buffalo, Fiat CR.42, and Hawker Hurricane fighters, Koolhoven F.K.56 trainers, Fairey Battle and Caproni Ca.312 light bombers, and Caproni Ca.335 fighter-reconnaissance aircraft, but only the Fiats, Hurricanes, and Battles had been delivered. The shortage of modern types meant single-seat versions of the Fairey Fox light bomber were being used as fighters. The AéMI possessed 250 combat aircraft. At least 90 were fighters, 12 were bombers and 12 were reconnaissance aircraft. Only 50 were of reasonably modern standard. When liaison and transport aircraft from all services are included, the total strength was 377; however only 118 of these were serviceable on 10 May 1940. Of this number around 78 were fighters and 40 were bombers. The AéMI was commanded by Paul Hiernaux, who had received his pilot's license just before the outbreak of World War I, and had risen to the position of Commander-in-Chief in 1938. Hiernaux organised the service into three Régiments d'Aéronautique (air regiments): the 1er with 60 aircraft, the 2ème with 53 aircraft, and the 3ème with 79 aircraft. ### French forces The Belgians were afforded substantial support by the French Army. The French 1st Army included General René Prioux's Cavalry Corps. The Corps was given the 2nd Light Mechanized Division (2<sup>e</sup> Division Légère Mécanique, or 2<sup>e</sup> DLM) and the 3rd Light Mechanized Division (3<sup>e</sup> DLM), which were allocated to defend the Gembloux gap. The armoured forces consisted of 176 of the formidable SOMUA S35s and 239 Hotchkiss H35 light tanks. Both of these types, in armour and firepower, were superior to most German types. The 3<sup>e</sup> DLM contained 90 S35s and some 140 H35s alone. The French 7th Army was assigned to protect the northernmost part of the Allied front. It contained the 1st Light Mechanized Division (1<sup>re</sup> DLM), the 25th Motorised Infantry Division (25<sup>e</sup> Division d'Infanterie Motorisée, or 25<sup>e</sup> DIM) and the 9th Motorised Infantry Division (9<sup>e</sup> DIM). This force would advance to Breda in the Netherlands. The third French army to see action on Belgian soil was the 9th. It was weaker than both the 7th and the 1st Armies. The 9th Army was allocated infantry divisions, with the exception of the 5th Motorised Infantry Division (5<sup>e</sup> DIM). Its mission was to protect the southern flank of the Allied armies, south of the Sambre river and just north of Sedan. Further south, in France, was the French 2nd Army, protecting the Franco-Belgian border between Sedan and Montmédy. The two weakest French armies were thus protecting the area of the main German thrust. ### British forces The British contributed the weakest force to Belgium. The BEF, under the command of General Lord Gort VC, consisted of just 152,000 men in two corps of two divisions each. The British had hoped to field two armies of two Corps each, but this scale of mobilisation never took place. The I Corps was commanded by Lt-Gen. John Dill, later Lt-Gen. Michael Barker, who was in turn replaced by Major-General Harold Alexander. Lt-Gen. Alan Brooke commanded II Corps. Later the III Corps under Lt-Gen. Ronald Adam was added to the British order of battle. A further 9,392 Royal Air Force (RAF) personnel of the RAF Advanced Air Striking Force under the command of Air Vice-Marshal Patrick Playfair was to support operations in Belgium. By May 1940 the BEF had grown to 394,165 men, of whom more than 150,000 were part of the logistical rear area organisations and had little military training. On 10 May 1940, the BEF comprised just 10 divisions (not all at full strength), 1,280 artillery pieces and 310 tanks. ### German forces Army Group B was commanded by Fedor von Bock. It was allocated 26 infantry and three Panzer divisions for the invasion of the Netherlands and Belgium. Of the three Panzer Divisions, the 3rd and 4th were to operate in Belgium under the command of the 6th Army's XVI Corps. The 9th Panzer Division was attached to the 18th Army which, after the Battle of the Netherlands, would support the push into Belgium alongside the 18th Army and cover its northern flank. Armoured strength in Army Group B amounted to 808 tanks, of which 282 were Panzer Is, 288 were Panzer IIs, 123 were Panzer IIIs and 66 were Panzer IVs; 49 command tanks were also operational. The 3rd Panzer Division's armoured regiments consisted of 117 Panzer Is, 128 Panzer IIs, 42 Panzer IIIs, 26 Panzer IVs and 27 command tanks. The 4th Panzer Division had 136 Panzer Is, 105 Panzer IIs, 40 Panzer IIIs, 24 Panzer IVs and 10 command tanks. The 9th Panzer, scheduled initially for operations in the Netherlands, was the weakest division with only 30 Panzer Is, 54 Panzer IIs, 123, 66 Panzer IIIs and 49 Panzer IVs. The elements drawn from the 7th Air Division and the 22nd Airlanding Division, that were to take part in the attack on Fort Eben-Emael, were named Sturmabteilung Koch (Assault Detachment Koch); named after the commanding officer of the group, Hauptmann Walter Koch. The force was assembled in November 1939. It was primarily composed of parachutists from the 1st Parachute Regiment and engineers from the 7th Air Division, as well as a small group of Luftwaffe pilots. The Luftwaffe allocated 1,815 combat, 487 transport aircraft and 50 gliders for the assault on the Low Countries. The initial air strikes over Belgian air space were to be conducted by IV. Fliegerkorps under General der Flieger Generaloberst Alfred Keller. Keller's force consisted of Lehrgeschwader 1 (Stab. I., II., III., IV.), Kampfgeschwader 30 (Stab. I., II., III.) and Kampfgeschwader 27 (III.). On 10 May Keller had 363 aircraft (224 serviceable) augmented by Generalmajor Wolfram von Richthofen's VIII. Fliegerkorps with 550 (420 serviceable) aircraft. They in turn were supported by Oberst Kurt-Bertram von Döring's Jagdfliegerführer 2, with 462 fighters (313 serviceable). Keller's IV. Fliegerkorps headquarters would operate from Düsseldorf, LG 1. Kampfgeschwader 30 which was based at Oldenburg and its III. Gruppe were based at Marx. Support for Döring and Von Richthofen came from present-day North Rhine-Westphalia and bases in Grevenbroich, Mönchengladbach, Dortmund and Essen. ## Battle ### Luftwaffe operations: 10 May During the evening of 9 May, the Belgian military attaché in Berlin intimated that the Germans intended to attack the following day. Offensive movements of enemy forces were detected on the border. At 00:10 on 10 May 1940 at General Headquarters, an unspecified squadron in Brussels gave the alarm. A full state of alert was instigated at 01:30 am. Belgian forces took up their deployment positions. The Allied armies had enacted their Dyle plan on the morning of 10 May, and were approaching the Belgian rear. The Luftwaffe was to spearhead the aerial battle in the low countries. Its first task was to eliminate the Belgian air contingent. Despite an overwhelming numerical superiority — 1,375 aircraft, 957 of which were serviceable — the air campaign in Belgium had limited success overall on the first day. At roughly 04:00, the first air raids were conducted against airfields and communication centres. It still had a tremendous impact on the AéMI, which had only 179 aircraft on 10 May. Much of the success achieved was down to Wolfram von Richthofen's subordinates, particularly Kampfgeschwader 77 and its commander Oberst Johann-Volkmar Fisser [de], whose attachment to VIII. Fliegerkorps was noted by Generalmajor Wilhelm Speidel [de]. He commented it "...was the result of the well-known tendency of the commanding general to conduct his own private war". Fisser's KG 77 destroyed the AéMI main bases, with help from KG 54. Fighters from Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27) eliminated two Belgian squadrons at Neerhespen [nl], and during the afternoon, I./St.G 2 destroyed nine of the 15 Fiat CR.42 fighters at Brustem [nl]. At Schaffen-Diest, three Hawker Hurricanes of Escadrille 2/I/2 were destroyed and another six damaged when a wave of He 111s caught them as they were about to take off. A further two were lost in destroyed hangars. At Nivelles airfield, 13 CR42s were destroyed. The only other success was KG 27s destruction of eight aircraft at Belsele. In aerial combat the battles were also one-sided. Two He 111s, two Do 17s and three Messerschmitt Bf 109s were shot down by Gloster Gladiators and Hurricanes. In return, eight Belgian Gladiators, five Fairey Foxes and one CR42 were shot down by JG 1, 21 and 27. No. 18 Squadron RAF sent two Bristol Blenheims on operations over the Belgian front, but lost both to Bf 109s. By the end of 10 May, the official German figures indicate claims for 30 Belgian aircraft destroyed on the ground, and 14 (plus the two RAF bombers) in the air for 10 losses. The victory claims are likely an undercount. A total of 83 Belgian machines–mostly trainers and "squadron hacks", were destroyed. The AéMI flew only 146 sorties in the first six days. Between 16 May and 28 May, the AéMI flew just 77 operations. It spent most of its time retreating and fuel withdrawing in the face of Luftwaffe attacks. ### 10–11 May: Border battles The German planners had recognised the need to eliminate Fort Eben-Emael if their army was to break into the interior of Belgium. It decided to deploy airborne forces (Fallschirmjäger) to land inside the fortress perimeter using gliders. Using special explosives and flamethrowers to disable the defences, the Fallschirmjäger entered the fortress. In the ensuing battle, German infantry overcame the defenders of the I Belgian Corps' 7th Infantry Division in 24 hours. The main Belgian defence line had been breached and German infantry of the 18th Army rapidly passed through it. Moreover, German soldiers established bridgeheads across the Albert Canal before the British were able to reach it some 48 hours later. The Chasseurs Ardennais further south, on the orders of their commander, withdrew behind the Meuse, destroying some bridges in their wake. German airborne forces were assisted by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas of III./''Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 (StG 2) and I./Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 (StG 77) helped suppress the defences. Henschel Hs 123s of II.(S)./Lehrgeschwader 2 (LG 2) which assisted in the capture of the bridges at Vroenhoven and Veldwezelt in the immediate area. Further successful German airborne offensive operations were carried out in Luxembourg, seizing five crossings and communication routes into central Belgium. The offensive, carried out by 125 volunteers of the 34th Infantry Division under the command of Wenner Hedderich, achieved their missions by flying to their objectives using Fieseler Fi 156 Störche. The cost was the loss of five aircraft and 30 dead. With the fort breached, the Belgian 4th and 7th Infantry Divisions were confronted by the prospect of fighting an enemy on relatively sound terrain (for armour operations). The 7th Division, with its 2nd and 18th Grenadier Regiments and 2nd Carabineers, struggled to hold their positions and contain the German infantry on the west bank. The Belgian tactical units engaged in several counterattacks. At one point, at Briedgen, they succeeded in retaking the bridge and blowing it up. At the other points, Vroenhoven and Veldwezelt, the Germans had had time to establish strong bridgeheads and repulsed the attacks. A little known third airborne operation, Operation Niwi, was also conducted on 10 May in southern Belgium. The objectives of this operation was to land two companies of the 3rd battalion Grossdeutschland Infantry Regiment by Fi 156 aircraft at Nives and Witry in the south of the country, in order to clear a path for the 1st and 2nd Panzer divisions which were advancing through the Belgian–Luxembourg Ardennes. The original plan called for the use of Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft, but the short landing capability of the Fi 156 (27 metres) saw 200 of these aircraft used in the assault. The operational mission was to: > 1\. Cut signal communications and message links on the Neufchâteau–Bastogne and Neufchâteau–Martelange roads. [Neufchâteau being the largest southernmost city in Belgium] > 2. Prevent the approach of reserves from the Neufchâteau area > 3. Facilitate the capture of pillboxes and the advance by exerting pressure against the line of pillboxes along the border from the rear. The German infantry were engaged by several Belgian patrols equipped with T-15 armoured cars. Several Belgian counterattacks were repulsed, among them an attack by the 1st Light Chasseurs Ardennais Division. Unsupported, the Germans faced a counterattack later in the evening by elements of the French 5th Cavalry Division, dispatched by General Charles Huntziger from the French 2nd Army, which had a significant tank strength. The Germans were forced to retreat. The French, however, failed to pursue the fleeing German units, stopping at a dummy barrier. By the next morning, the 2nd Panzer Division had reached the area, and the mission had largely been accomplished. From the German perspective, the operation hindered rather than helped Heinz Guderian's Panzer Corps. The regiment had blocked the roads and, against the odds, prevented French reinforcements reaching the Belgian–Franco-Luxembourg border, but it also destroyed Belgian telephone communications. This inadvertently prevented the Belgian field command recalling the units along the border. The 1st Belgian Light Infantry did not receive the signal to retreat and engaged in a severe fire-fight with the German armour, slowing down their advance. The failure of the Franco–Belgian forces to hold the Ardennes gap was fatal. The Belgians had withdrawn laterally upon the initial invasion and had demolished and blocked routes of advance, which held up the French 2nd Army units moving north toward Namur and Huy. Devoid of any centre of resistance, the German assault engineers had cleared the obstacles unchallenged. The delay that the Belgian Ardennes Light Infantry, considered to be an elite formation, could have inflicted upon the advancing German armour was proved by the fight for Bodange, where the 1st Panzer Division was held up for a total of eight hours. This battle was a result of a breakdown in communications and ran contrary to the operational intentions of the Belgian Army. Meanwhile, in the central Belgian sector, having failed to restore their front by means of ground attack, the Belgians attempted to bomb the bridges and positions that the Germans had captured intact and were holding on 11 May. Belgian Fairey Battles of 5/III/3 escorted by six Gloster Gladiators attacked the Albert Canal bridges. Bf 109s from I./Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG 1) and I./JG 27 intercepted and JG 1 shot down four Gladiators and both units destroyed six Battles and heavily damaged the remaining three. Eight CR.42s were evacuated from Brustem to Grimbergen near Brussels but seven Gladiators and the last remaining Hurricanes from 2/I/2 Escadrille were destroyed at Beauvechain Air Base and Le Culot by He 111s and I./JG 27 respectively. The RAF contributed to the effort to attack the bridges. The British dispatched Bristol Blenheims from 110 and 21 Squadron—the first squadron lost two, one to I./JG 27. 21 Squadron suffered damage to most of the bombers because of intense ground-fire. The French Armée de l'air dispatched LeO 451s from GBI/12 and GBII/12 escorted by 18 Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 of GCIII/3 and GCII/6. The operation failed and one bomber was lost while four M.S.406s fell to I.JG 1. The French claimed five. Meanwhile, 114 Squadron lost six Blenheims destroyed when Dornier Do 17s of Kampfgeschwader 2 bombed their airfield at Vraux. Another Battle of No. 150 Squadron RAF was lost in another raid. The German counter-air operations were spearheaded by Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG 26) under the command of Hans-Hugo Witt, which was responsible for 82 of the German claims in aerial combat between 11 and 13 May. Despite the apparent success of the German fighter units, the air battle was not one-sided. On the morning of 11 May ten Ju 87s of StG 2 were shot down attacking Belgian forces in the Namur–Dinant gap, despite the presence of two Jagdgeschwader—27 and 51. Nevertheless, the Germans reported a weakening in Allied air resistance in northern Belgium by 13 May. During the night of 11 May, the British 3rd Infantry Division under the command of General Bernard Law Montgomery, reached its position on the Dyle river at Leuven. As it did so the Belgian 10th Infantry Division, occupying the position, mistook them for German parachutists and fired on them. The Belgians refused to yield but Montgomery claimed to have got his way by placing himself under the command of the Belgian forces, knowing that when the Germans came within artillery range the Belgians would withdraw. Alan Brooke, commander of the British II Corps sought to put the matter of cooperation right with King Leopold. The King discussed the matter with Brooke, who felt a compromise could be reached. Van Overstraeten, the King's military aide, stepped in and said that the 10th Belgian Infantry Division could not be moved. Instead, the British should move further south and remain completely clear of Brussels. Brooke told the King that the 10th Belgian Division was on the wrong side of the Gamelin line and was exposed. Leopold deferred to his advisor and chief of staff. Brooke found Overstaeten to be ignorant of the situation and the dispositions of the BEF. Given that the left flank of the BEF rested on its Belgian ally, the British were now unsure about Belgian military capabilities. The Allies had more serious grounds for complaint about the Belgian anti-tank defences along the Dyle line, that covered the Namur–Perwez gap which was not protected by any natural obstacles. Only a few days before the attack, General Headquarters had discovered the Belgians had sited their anti-tank defences (de Cointet defences) several miles east of the Dyle between Namur–Perwez. After holding onto the Albert Canal's west bank for nearly 36 hours, the 4th and 7th Belgian infantry divisions withdrew. The capture of Eben-Emael allowed the Germans to force through the Panzers of the 6th Army. The situation for the Belgian divisions was either to withdraw or be encircled. The Germans had advanced beyond Tongeren and were now in a position to sweep south to Namur, which would threaten to envelop the entire Albert Canal and Liège positions. Under the circumstances, both divisions withdrew. On the evening of 11 May, the Belgian Command withdrew its forces behind the Namur–Antwerp line. The following day, the French 1st Army arrived at Gembloux, between Wavre and Namur, to cover the "Gembloux gap". It was a flat area, devoid of prepared or entrenched positions. The French 7th Army, on the northern flank of the Belgian line, protected the Bruges–Ghent–Ostend axis and, covering the Channel ports, had advanced into Belgium and into the Netherlands with speed. It reached Breda in the Netherlands, on 11 May. But German parachute forces had seized the Moerdijk bridge on the Hollands Diep river, south of Rotterdam, making it impossible for the French to link up with the Dutch Army. The Dutch Army withdrew north to Rotterdam and Amsterdam. The French 7th Army turned east and met the 9th Panzer Division about 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Breda at Tilburg. The battle resulted in the French retiring, in the face of Luftwaffe air assaults, to Antwerp. It would later help in the defence of the city. The Luftwaffe had given priority to attacking the French 7th Army's spearhead into the Netherlands as it threatened the Moerdijk bridgehead. Kampfgeschwader 40 and 54 supported by Ju 87s from VIII. Fliegerkorps helped drive them back. Fears of Allied reinforcements reaching Antwerp forced the Luftwaffe to cover the Scheldt estuary. KG 30 bombed and sank two Dutch gunboats and three Dutch destroyers, as well as badly damaging two Royal Navy destroyers. But overall the bombing had a limited effect. ### 12–14 May: Battles of the central Belgian plain During the night of 11/12 May, the Belgians were fully engaged in withdrawing to the Dyle line, covered by a network of demolitions and rearguards astride Tongeren. During the morning of 12 May, King Leopold III, General van Overstraeten, Édouard Daladier, General Alphonse Georges (commander of the First Allied army Group, comprising the BEF, French 1st, 2nd, 7th and 9th Armies), General Gaston Billotte (coordinator of the Allied Armies) and General Henry Royds Pownall, Gort's chief of staff, met for a military conference near Mons. It was agreed the Belgian Army would man the Antwerp–Leuven line, while its allies took up the responsibility of defending the extreme north and south of the country. The Belgian III Corps, and its 1st Chasseurs Ardennais, 2nd Infantry and 3rd Infantry Divisions had withdrawn from the Liège fortifications to avoid being encircled. One regiment, the Liège Fortress Regiment, stayed behind to disrupt German communications. Further to the south, the Namur fortress, manned by VI Corps' 5th Infantry Division and the 2nd Chasseurs Ardennais with the 12th French Infantry Division, fought delaying actions and participated in a lot of demolition work while guarding the position. As far as the Belgians were concerned, it had accomplished the only independent mission assigned to it: to hold the Liège–Albert Canal line long enough for the Allied units to reach friendly forces occupying the Namur–Antwerp–Givet line. For the remainder of the campaign, the Belgians would execute their operations in accordance with the overall Allied plan. Belgian soldiers fought rearguard actions while other Belgian units already on the Dyle line worked tirelessly to organise better defensive positions in the Leuven–Antwerp gap. The 2nd Regiment of Guides and the 2nd Carabineers Cyclists of the 2nd Belgian Cavalry Division covered the retreat of the 4th and 7th Belgian divisions and were particularly distinguished at the Battle of Tirlemont and the Battle of Halen. In support of Belgian forces in the area, the RAF and French flew air defence operations in the Tirlemont and Louvain area. The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force committed 3, 504, 79, 57, 59, 85, 87, 605, and 242 squadrons to battle. A series of air battles were fought with JG 1, 2, 26, 27 and 3. Messerschmitt Bf 110s from Zerstörergeschwader 26 (ZG 26), and bomber units LG 1, 2 and KG 27 were also involved. Over Belgium and France, the day was disastrous for the British: 27 Hurricanes were shot down. In light of the withdrawal to the main defensive line, which was now being supported by the British and French Armies, King Leopold issued the following proclamation to improve morale after the defeats at the Albert Canal: > Soldiers > The Belgian Army, brutally assailed by an unparalleled surprise attack, grappling with forces that are better equipped and have the advantage of a formidable air force, has for three days carried out difficult operations, the success of which is of the utmost importance to the general conduct of the battle and to the result of war. > These operations require from all of us – officers and men – exceptional efforts, sustained day and night, despite a moral tension tested to its limits by the sight of the devastation wrought by a pitiless invader. However severe the trial may be, you will come through it gallantly. > Our position improves with every hour; our ranks are closing up. In the critical days that are ahead of us, you will summon up all your energies, you will make every sacrifice, to stem the invasion. > Just as they did in 1914 on the Yser, so now the French and British troops are counting on you: the safety and honour of the country are in your hands. > Leopold. To the Allies, the Belgian failure to hold onto its eastern frontiers (they were thought to be capable of holding out for two weeks), was a disappointment. The Allied Chiefs of Staff had sought to avoid an encounter mobile battle without any strong fixed defences to fall back on and hoped Belgian resistance would last long enough for a defensive line to be established. Nevertheless, a brief lull fell on the Dyle front on 11 May which enabled the Allied armies to get into position by the time the first major assault was launched the following day. Allied cavalry had moved into position and infantry and artillery were reaching the front more slowly, by rail. Although unaware of it, the First Allied army Group and the Belgian Army outnumbered and outgunned Walther von Reichenau's German 6th Army. On the morning of 12 May, in response to Belgian pressure and necessity, the Royal Air Force and the Armée de l'Air undertook several air attacks on the German-held Maastricht and Meuse bridges to prevent German forces flowing into Belgium. 74 sorties had been flown by the Allies since 10 May. On 12 May, eleven out of eighteen French Breguet 693 bombers were shot down. The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force, which included the largest Allied bomber force, was reduced to 72 aircraft out of 135 by 12 May. For the next 24 hours, missions were postponed as the German anti-aircraft and fighter defences were too strong. The results of the bombing is difficult to determine. The German XIX Corps war diary's situation summary at 20:00 on 14 May noted: > The completion of the military bridge at Donchery had not yet been carried out owing to heavy flanking artillery fire and long bombing attacks on the bridging point ... Throughout the day all three divisions have had to endure constant air attack — especially at the crossing and bridging points. Our fighter cover is inadequate. Requests [for increased fighter protection] are still unsuccessful. The Luftwaffe's operations includes a note of "vigorous enemy fighter activity through which our close reconnaissance in particular is severely impeded". Nevertheless, inadequate protection was given to cover RAF bombers against the strength of German opposition over the target area. In all, out of 109 Fairey Battles and Bristol Blenheims which had attacked enemy columns and communications in the Sedan area, 45 had been lost. On 15 May, daylight bombing was significantly reduced. Of 23 aircraft employed, four failed to return. Equally, owing to the Allied fighter presence, the German XIX Corps War Diary states, "Corps no longer has at its disposal its own long-range reconnaissance ... [Reconnaissance squadrons] are no longer in a position to carry out vigorous, extensive reconnaissance, as, owing to casualties, more than half of their aircraft are not now available." The most serious combat to evolve on 12 May 1940 was the beginning of the Battle of Hannut (12–14 May). While the German Army Group A advanced through the Belgian Ardennes, Army Group B's 6th Army launched an offensive operation toward the Gembloux gap. Gembloux occupied a position in the Belgian plain; it was an unfortified, untrenched space in the main Belgian defensive line. The Gap stretched from the southern end of the Dyle line, from Wavre in the north, to Namur in the south, 20 kilometres (12 mi) to 30 kilometres (19 mi). After attacking out of the Maastricht bulge and defeating the Belgian defences at Liege, which compelled the Belgian I Corps to retreat, the German 6th Army's XVI Panzer-Motorized Corps, under the command of General Erich Hoepner and containing the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions, launched an offensive in the area where the French mistakenly expected the main German thrust. The Gembloux gap was defended by the French 1st Army, with six elite divisions including the 2nd (2e Division Légère Mécanique, or 2<sup>e</sup> DLM) and 3rd Light Mechanized Divisions. The Prioux Cavalry Corps, under the command of Rene-Jacques-Adolphe Prioux, was to advance 30 kilometres (19 mi) beyond the line (east) to provide a screen for the move. The French 1st and 2nd Armoured Divisions were to be moved behind the French 1st Army to defend its main lines in depth. The Prioux Cavalry Corps was equal to a German Panzer Corps and was to occupy a screening line on the Tirlemont–Hannut–Huy axis. The operational plan called for the Corps to delay the German advance on Gembloux and Hannut until the main elements of the French 1st Army had reached Gembloux and dug in. Hoepner's Panzer Corps and Prioux' Cavalry clashed head-on near Hannut, Belgium, on 12 May. Contrary to popular belief, the Germans did not outnumber the French. Frequently, figures of 623 German and 415 French tanks are given. The German 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions numbered 280 and 343 respectively. The 2<sup>e</sup> DLM and 3<sup>e</sup> DLM numbered 176 Somuas and 239 Hotchkiss H35s. Added to this force were the considerable number of Renault AMR-ZT-63s in the Cavalry Corps. The R35 was equal or superior to the Panzer I and Panzer IIs in armament terms. This applies all the more to the 90 Panhard 178 armoured cars of the French Army. Its 25mm main gun could penetrate the armour of the Panzer IV. In terms of tanks that were capable of engaging and surviving a tank-vs-tank action, the Germans possessed just 73 Panzer IIIs and 52 Panzer IVs. The French had 176 SOMUA and 239 Hotchkisses. German tank units also contained 486 Panzer I and IIs, which were of dubious combat value given their losses in the Polish Campaign. The German forces were able to communicate by radio during the battle and they could shift the point of the main effort unexpectedly. The Germans also practiced combined arms tactics, while the French tactical deployment was a rigid and linear leftover from the First World War. French tanks did not possess radios and often the commanders had to dismount to issue orders. Despite the disadvantages experienced by the Germans in armour, they were able to gain the upper hand in the morning battle on 12 May, encircling several French battalions. The combat power of the French 2<sup>e</sup> DLM managed to defeat the German defences guarding the pockets and freeing the trapped units. Contrary to German reports, the French were victorious on that first day, preventing a Wehrmacht break-through to Gembloux or seizing Hannut. The result of the first day's battle was: > The effect on the German light tanks was catastrophic. Virtually every French weapon from 25mm upward penetrated the 7-13mm of the Panzer I. Although the Panzer II fared somewhat better, especially those that had been up-armoured since the Polish Campaign, their losses were high. Such was the sheer frustration of the crews of these light Panzers in [the] face of heavier armoured French machines that some resorted to desperate expedients. One account speaks of a German Panzer commander attempting to climb on a Hotchkiss H-35 with a hammer, presumably to smash the machine's periscopes, but falling off and being crushed by the tank's tracks. Certainly by day's end, Prioux had reason to claim that his tanks had come off best. The battlefield around Hannut was littered with knocked-out tanks–the bulk of which were German Panzers–with by far and away the bulk of them being Panzer Is and IIs. The following day, 13 May, the French were undone by their poor tactical deployment. They strung their armour out in a thin line between Hannut and Huy, leaving no defence in depth, which was the point of sending the French armour to the Gembloux gap in the first place. This left Hoepner with a chance to mass against one of the French Light Divisions (the 3<sup>e</sup> DLM) and achieve a breakthrough in that sector. Moreover, with no reserves behind the front, the French denied themselves the chance of a counterattack. The victory saw the Panzer Corps out-manoeuvre the 2<sup>e</sup> DLM on its left flank. The Belgian III Corps, retreating from Liege, offered to support the French front held by the 3<sup>e</sup> DLM. This offer was rejected. On 12 and 13 May, 2<sup>e</sup> DLM lost no AFVs, but the 3<sup>e</sup> DLM lost 30 SOMUAs and 75 Hotchkisses. The French had disabled 160 German tanks. But as the poor linear deployment had allowed the Germans the chance of breaking through in one spot, the entire battlefield had to be abandoned, the Germans repaired nearly three-quarters of their tanks; 49 were destroyed and 111 were repaired. They had 60 men killed and another 80 wounded. In terms of battlefield casualties, the Hannut battle had resulted in the French knocking-out 160 German tanks, losing 105 themselves. Prioux had achieved his tactical mission and withdrew. Hoepner now pursued the retreating French. Being impatient, he did not wait for his infantry divisions to catch up. Instead, he hoped to continue pushing the French back and not give them time to construct a coherent defence line. German formations pursued the enemy to Gembloux. The Panzer Corps ran into retreating French columns and inflicted heavy losses on them. The pursuit created severe problems for the French artillery. The combat was so closely fought that the danger of friendly fire incidents were very real. Nevertheless, the French, setting up new anti-tank screens and Hoepner, lacking infantry support, caused the Germans to attack positions head-on. During the following Battle of Gembloux the two Panzer Divisions reported heavy losses during 14 May and were forced to slow their pursuit. The German attempts to capture Gembloux were repulsed. Although suffering numerous tactical reverses, operationally the Germans diverted the Allied First Army Group from the lower Ardennes area. In the process his forces, along with the Luftwaffe depleted Prioux' Cavalry Corps. When news of the German breakthrough at Sedan reached Prioux, he withdrew from Gembloux. With the Gembloux gap breached, the German Panzer Corps, the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions, were no longer required by Army Group B and were handed over to Army Group A. Army Group B would continue its own offensive to force the collapse of the Meuse front. The Army Group was in a position to advance westward to Mons, outflank the BEF and Belgian Army protecting the Dyle–Brussels sector, or turn south to outflank the French 9th Army. German losses had been heavy at Hannut and Gembloux. The 4th Panzer Division was down to 137 tanks on 16 May, including just four Panzer IVs. The 3rd Panzer Division was down by 20–25 percent of its operational force; for the 4th Panzer Division 45–50 percent of its tanks were not combat ready. Damaged tanks were quickly repaired, but its strength was initially greatly weakened. The French 1st Army had also taken a battering and despite winning several tactical defensive victories it was forced to retreat on 15 May owing to developments elsewhere, leaving its tanks on the battlefield, while the Germans were free to recover theirs. ### 15–21 May: Counterattacks and retreat to the coast On the morning of 15 May, German Army Group A broke the defences at Sedan and was now free to drive for the English Channel. The Allies considered a wholesale withdrawal from the Belgian trap. The withdrawal would reflect three stages: the night of 16/17 May to the River Senne, the night of 17/18 May to the river Dendre and the night of 18/19 May to the river Scheldt. The Belgians were reluctant to abandon Brussels and Leuven, especially as the Dyle line had withstood German pressure well. The Belgian Army, the BEF and the French 1st Army, in a domino effect, was ordered/forced to retire on 16 May to avoid their southern flanks from being turned by the German armoured forces advancing through the French Ardennes and the German 6th Army advancing through Gembloux. The Belgian Army was holding the German Fourteenth Army on the KW-line, along with the French 7th and British armies. Had it not been for the collapse of the French 2nd Army at Sedan, the Belgians were confident that they could have checked the German advance. The situation called for the French and British to abandon the Antwerp–Namur line and strong positions in favour of improvised positions behind the Scheldt, without facing any real resistance. In the South, General Deffontaine of the Belgian VII Corps retreated from the Namur and Liège regions, the Liège fortress region put up stiff resistance to the German 6th Army. In the North, the 7th Army was diverted to Antwerp after the surrender of the Dutch on 15 May, but was then diverted to support the French 1st Army. In the centre, the Belgian Army and the BEF suffered little German pressure. On 15 May, the only sector to really be tested was around Leuven, which was held by the British 3rd Division. The BEF was not pursued vigorously to the Scheldt. After the withdrawal of the French Army from the northern sector, the Belgians were left to guard the fortified city of Antwerp. Four infantry divisions (including the 13th and 17th Reserve Infantry Divisions) engaged the German Eighteenth Army's 208th, 225th and 526th Infantry Divisions. The Belgians successfully defended the northern part of the city, delaying the German infantry forces while starting to withdraw from Antwerp on 16 May. The city fell on 18/19 May after considerable Belgian resistance. On 18 May the Belgians received word that Namur's Fort Marchovelette had fallen; Suarlee fell on 19 May; St. Heribert and Malonne on 21 May; Dave, Maizeret and Andoy on 23 May. Between 16 and 17 May, the British and French withdrew behind the Willebroek Canal, as the volume of Allied forces in Belgium fell and moved toward the German armoured thrust from the Ardennes. The Belgian I Corps and V Corps also retreated to what the Belgians called the Ghent bridgehead, behind the Dendre and Scheldt. The Belgian Artillery Corps and its infantry support defeated attacks by the Eighteenth Army's infantry and in a communiqué from London, the British recognized the "Belgian Army has contributed largely toward the success of the defensive battle now being fought. Nevertheless, the now-outnumbered Belgians abandoned Brussels and the Government fled to Ostend. The city was occupied by the German Army on 17 May. The very next morning, Hoepner, the German XVI Corps commander, was ordered to release the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions to Army Group A. This left the 9th Panzer Division attached to the Eighteenth Army as the only armoured unit on the Belgian front. By 19 May, the Germans were hours away from reaching the French Channel coast. Gort had discovered the French had neither plan nor reserves and little hope for stopping the German thrust to the channel. He was concerned that the French 1st Army on its southern flank had been reduced to a disorganized mass of "fag-ends", fearing that German armour might appear on their right flank at Arras or Péronne, striking for the channel ports at Calais or Boulogne or north west into the British flank. Their position in Belgium massively compromised, the BEF considered abandoning Belgium and retreating to Ostend, Bruges or Dunkirk, the latter lying some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) inside the French border. The proposals of a British strategic withdrawal from the continent was rejected by the War Cabinet and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS). They dispatched General Ironside to inform Gort of their decision and to order him to conduct an offensive to the south-west "through all opposition" to reach the "main French forces" in the south [the strongest French forces were actually in the north]. The Belgian Army was asked to conform to the plan, or should they choose, the British Royal Navy would evacuate what units they could. The British cabinet decided that even if the "Somme offensive" was carried out successfully, some units may still need to be evacuated, and ordered Admiral Ramsay to assemble a large number of vessels. This was the beginning of Operation Dynamo. Ironside arrived at British General Headquarters at 06:00 am on 20 May, the same day that continental communications between France and Belgium was cut. When Ironside made his proposals known to Gort, Gort replied such an attack was impossible. Seven of his nine divisions were engaged on the Scheldt and even if it was possible to withdraw them, it would create a gap between the Belgians and British which the enemy could exploit and encircle the former. The BEF had been marching and fighting for nine days and was now running short of ammunition. The main effort had to be made by the French to the south. The Belgian position on any offensive move was made clear by Leopold III. As far as he was concerned, the Belgian Army could not conduct offensive operations as it lacked tanks and aircraft; it existed solely for defence. The King also made clear that in the rapidly shrinking area of Belgium still free, there was only enough food for two weeks. Leopold did not expect the BEF to jeopardize its own position in order to keep contact with the Belgian Army, but he warned the British that if it persisted with the southern offensive the Belgians would be overstretched and their army would collapse. King Leopold suggested the best recourse was to establish a beach-head covering Dunkirk and the Belgian channel ports. The will of the CIGS won out. Gort committed just two infantry battalions and the only armoured battalion in the BEF to the attack, which despite some initial tactical success, failed to break the German defensive line at the Battle of Arras on 21 May. In the aftermath of this failure, the Belgians were asked to fall back to the Yser river and protect the Allied left flank and rear areas. The King's aide, General Overstraten said that such a move could not be made and would lead to the Belgian Army disintegrating. Another plan for further offensives was suggested. The French requested the Belgians withdraw to the Leie and the British to the French frontier between Maulde and Halluin, the Belgians were then to extend their front to free further parts of the BEF for the attack. The French 1st Army would relieve two more divisions on the right flank. Leopold was reluctant to undertake such a move because it would abandon all but a small portion of Belgium. The Belgian Army was exhausted and it was an enormous technical task that would take too long to complete. At this time, the Belgians and the British concluded that the French were beaten and the Allied Armies in the pocket on the Belgian–Franco border would be destroyed if action was not taken. The British, having lost confidence in their Allies, decided to look to the survival of the BEF. ### 22–28 May: Last defensive battles The Belgian battle-front on the morning of 22 May extended some 90 kilometres (56 mi) from north to south, beginning with the Cavalry Corps, which checked its advance at Terneuzen. V, II, VI, VII and IV Corps (all Belgian) were drawn up side by side. Two further signal Corps were guarding the coast. These formations were then largely holding the eastern front as the BEF and French forces withdrew to the west to protect Dunkirk, which was vulnerable to German assault on 22 May. The eastern front remained intact, but the Belgians now occupied their last fortified position at Leie. The Belgian I Corps, with only two incomplete divisions, had been heavily engaged in the fighting and their line was wearing thin. On that day, Winston Churchill visited the front and pressed for the French and British Armies to break out from the north-east. He assumed that the Belgian Cavalry Corps could support the offensives' right flank. Churchill dispatched the following message to Gort: > 1\. That the Belgian Army should withdraw to the line of the Yser and stand there, the sluices being opened. > 2. That the British Army and French 1st Army should attack south-west toward Bapaume and Cambrai at the earliest moment, certainly tomorrow, with about eight divisions, and with the Belgian Cavalry Corps on the right of the British. Such an order ignored the fact that the Belgian Army could not withdraw to the Yser, and there was little chance of any Belgian Cavalry joining in the attack. The plan for the Belgian withdrawal was sound; the Yser river covered Dunkirk to the east and south, while the La Bassée Canal covered it from the west. The ring of the Yser also dramatically shorted the Belgian Army's area of operations. Such a move would have abandoned Passchendaele and Ypres and would have certainly meant the capture of Ostend while further reducing the amount of Belgian territory still free by a few square miles. On 23 May, the French tried to conduct a series of offensives against the German defensive line on the Ardennes–Calais axis but failed to make any meaningful gains. Meanwhile, on the Belgian front, the Belgians, under pressure, retreated further, and the Germans captured Terneuzen and Ghent that day. The Belgians also had trouble moving the oil, food and ammunition that they had left. The Luftwaffe had air superiority and made everyday life hazardous in logistical terms. Air support could only be called in by "wireless" and the RAF was operating from bases in southern England which made communication more difficult. The French denied the use of the Dunkirk, Bourbourg and Gravelines bases to the Belgians, which had initially been placed at its disposal. The Belgians were forced to use the only harbours left to them, at Nieuwpoort and Ostend. Churchill and Maxime Weygand, who had taken over command from Gamelin, were still determined to break the German line and extricate their forces to the south. When they communicated their intentions to King Leopold and van Overstraten on 24 May, the latter was stunned. A dangerous gap was starting to open between the British and Belgians between Ypres and Menen, which threatened what remained of the Belgian front. The Belgians could not cover it; such a move would have overstretched them. Without consulting the French or asking permission from his government, Gort immediately and decisively ordered the British 5th and 50th Infantry Divisions to plug the gap and abandon any offensive operations further south. On the afternoon of 24 May, von Bock had thrown four divisions, of Reichenau's 6th Army, against the Belgian IV Corps position at the Kortrijk area of the Leie during the Battle of the Lys (1940). The Germans managed, against fierce resistance, to cross the river at night and force a one-mile penetration along a 13-mile front between Wervik and Kortrijk. The Germans, with superior numbers and in command of the air, had won the bridgehead. Nevertheless, the Belgians had inflicted many casualties and several tactical defeats on the Germans. The 1st, 3rd, 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions, acting as reinforcements, had counterattacked several times and managed to capture 200 German prisoners. Belgian artillery and infantry were then heavily attacked by the Luftwaffe, which forced their defeat. The Belgians blamed the French and British for not providing air cover. The German bridgehead dangerously exposed the eastern flank of the southward stretched BEF's 4th Infantry Division. Montgomery dispatched several units of the 3rd Infantry Division (including the heavy infantry of the 1st and 7th Middlesex battalions and the 99th Battery, 20th Anti-Tank Regiment), as an improvised defence. A critical point of the "Weygand Plan" and the British government and French Army's argument for a thrust south, was the withdrawal of forces to see the offensive through which had left the Belgian Army over-extended and was instrumental in its collapse. It was forced to cover the areas held by the BEF in order to enable the latter to engage in the offensive. Such a collapse could have resulted in the loss of the Channel ports behind the Allied front, leading to a complete strategic encirclement. The BEF could have done more to counterattack von Bock's left flank to relieve the Belgians as von Bock attacked across the fortified British position at Kortrijk. The Belgian High Command made at least five appeals for the British to attack the vulnerable left flank of the German divisions between the Scheldt and the Leie to avert disaster. Admiral Sir Roger Keyes transmitted the following message to GHQ: > Van Overstraten is desperately keen for strong British counterattack. Either north or south of Leie could help restore the situation. Belgians expect to be attacked on the Ghent front tomorrow. Germans already have a bridgehead over canal west of Eecloo. There can be no question of the Belgian withdrawal to Yser. One battalion on march NE of Ypres was practically wiped out today in attack by sixty aircraft. Withdrawal over open roads without adequate fighter support very costly. Whole of their supplies are east of Yser. They strongly represent attempt should be made to restore the situation on Leie by British counter-attack for which opportunity may last another few hours only. No such attack came. The Germans brought fresh reserves to cover the gap (Menen–Ypres). This nearly cut the Belgians off from the British. The 2nd, 6th and 10th Cavalry Divisions frustrated German attempts to exploit the gap in depth but the situation was still critical. On 26 May, Operation Dynamo officially commenced, in which large French and British contingents were to be evacuated to the United Kingdom. By that time, the Royal Navy had already withdrawn 28,000 British non-fighting troops. Boulogne had fallen and Calais was about to, leaving Dunkirk, Ostend and Zeebrugge as the only viable ports which could be used for evacuation. The advance of the 14th German Army would not leave Ostend available for much longer. To the west, the German Army Group A had reached Dunkirk and were 4 miles (6.4 km) from its centre on the morning of 27 May, bringing the port within artillery range. The situation on 27 May had changed considerably from just 24 hours earlier. The Belgian Army had been forced from the Leie line on 26 May, and Nevele, Vynckt, Tielt and Izegem had fallen on the western and central part of the Leie front. In the east, the Germans had reached the outskirts of Bruges, and captured Ursel. In the west, the Menen–Ypres line had broken at Kortrijk and the Belgians were now using railway trucks to help form anti-tank defences on a line from Ypres–Passchendaele–Roulers. Further to the west the BEF had been forced back, north of Lille just over the French border and was now in danger of allowing a gap to develop between themselves and the Belgian southern flank on the Ypres–Lille axis. The danger in allowing a German advance to Dunkirk would mean the loss of the port which was now too great. The British withdrew to the port on 26 May. In doing so, they left the French 1st Army's north-eastern flank near Lille exposed. As the British moved out, the Germans moved in, encircling the bulk of the French Army. Both Gort and his Chief of Staff, General Henry Pownall, accepted that their withdrawal would mean the destruction of the French 1st Army, and they would be blamed for it. The fighting of 26–27 May had brought the Belgian Army to the brink of collapse. The Belgians still held the Ypres–Roulers line to the west, and the Bruges–Thelt line to the east. However, on 27 May, the central front collapsed in the Izegem–Thelt sector. There was now nothing to prevent a German thrust to the east to take Ostend and Bruges, or west to take the ports at Nieuwpoort or La Panne, deep in the Allied rear. The Belgians had practically exhausted all available means of resistance. The disintegration of the Belgian Army and its front caused many erroneous accusations by the British. In fact, on numerous occasions, the Belgians had held on after British withdrawals. One example was the taking over of the Scheldt line, where they relieved the British 44th Infantry Division, allowing it to retire through their ranks. Despite this, Gort and to a greater extent Pownall, showed anger at the Belgian King's decision to surrender on 28 May, considering it to undercut the war effort. . When it was inquired if any Belgians were to be evacuated, Pownall was reported to have replied, "We don't care a bugger what happens to the Belgians". ### Belgian surrender The Belgian Army was stretched from Cadzand south to Menen on the river Leie, and west, from Menin, to Bruges without any sort of reserves. With the exception of a few RAF sorties, the air was exclusively under the control of the Luftwaffe, and the Belgians reported attacks against all targets considered an objective, with resulting casualties. No natural obstacles remained between the Belgians and the German Army; retreat was not feasible. The Luftwaffe had destroyed most of the rail networks to Dunkirk, just three roads were left: Bruges–Torhout–Diksmuide, Bruges–Gistel–Nieupoort and Bruges–Ostend–Nieuwpoort. Using such axes of retreat was impossible without losses owing to German air supremacy (as opposed to air superiority). Water supplies were damaged and cut off, gas and electricity supplies were also cut. Canals were drained and used as supply dumps for whatever ammunition and food-stuffs were left. The total remaining area covered just 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>, and compacted military and civilians alike, of which the latter numbered some 3 million people. Under these circumstances Leopold deemed further resistance useless. On the evening of 27 May, he requested an armistice. Churchill sent a message to Keyes the same day, and made clear what he thought of the request: > Belgian Embassy here assumes from King's decision to remain that he regards the war as lost and contemplates [a] separate peace. It is in order to dissociate itself from this that the constitutional Belgian Government has reassembled on foreign soil. Even if present Belgian Army has to lay down its arms, there are 200,000 Belgians of military age in France, and greater resources than Belgium had in 1914 which to fight back. By present decision the King is dividing the Nation and delivering it into Hitler's protection. Please convey these considerations to the King, and impress upon him the disastrous consequences to the Allies and to Belgium of his present choice. The Royal Navy evacuated General Headquarters at Middelkerke and Sint-Andries, east of Bruges, during the night. Leopold III, and his mother Queen Mother Elisabeth, stayed in Belgium to endure five years of self-imposed captivity. In response to the advice of his government to set up a government-in-exile Leopold said, "I have decided to stay. The cause of the Allies is lost." The Belgian surrender came into effect at 04:00 on 28 May. Recriminations abounded with the British and French claiming the Belgians had betrayed the alliance. In Paris, the French Premier Paul Reynaud denounced Leopold's surrender, and the Belgian Premier Hubert Pierlot informed the people that Leopold had taken action against the unanimous advice of the government. As a result, the king was no longer in a position to govern and the Belgian government in exile that was located in Paris (later moved to London following the fall of France) would continue the struggle. The chief complaint was that the Belgians had not given any prior warning that their situation was so serious as to capitulate. Such claims were largely unjust. The Allies had known, and admitted it privately on 25 May through contact with the Belgians, that the latter were on the verge of collapse. Churchill's and the British response was officially restrained. This was due to the strong-willed defence of the Belgian defensive campaign presented to the cabinet by Sir Roger Keyes at 11:30 am 28 May. The French and Belgian ministers had referred to Leopold's actions as treacherous, but they were unaware of the true events: Leopold had not signed an agreement with Hitler in order to form a collaborative government, but an unconditional surrender as Commander-in-Chief of the Belgian Armed Forces. ## Casualties The casualty reports include total losses at this point in the campaign. The figures for the Battle of Belgium, 10–28 May 1940, cannot be known with any certainty. ### Belgian Belgian casualties stood at: - Killed in action: 6,093 and 2,000 Belgian prisoners died in captivity - Missing: more than 500 - Captured: 200,000 - Wounded: 15,850 - Aircraft: 112 destroyed ### French Numbers for the Battle of Belgium are unknown, but the French suffered the following losses throughout the entire western campaign, 10 May – 22 June: - Killed in action: 90,000 - Wounded: 200,000 - Prisoners of War: 1,900,000. - Total French losses in aircraft numbered 264 from 12 to 25 May, and 50 for 26 May to 1 June. ### British Numbers for the Battle of Belgium are unknown, but the British suffered the following losses throughout the entire campaign, 10 May – 22 June: - 68,111 killed in action, wounded or captured. - 64,000 vehicles destroyed or abandoned - 2,472 guns destroyed or abandoned - RAF losses throughout the entire campaign (10 May – 22 June) amounted to 931 aircraft and 1,526 casualties. Casualties to 28 May are unknown. Total British losses in the air numbered 344 between 12 and 25 May, and 138 between 26 May and 1 June. ### German The consolidated report of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht regarding the operations in the west from 10 May to 4 June (German: Zusammenfassender Bericht des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht über die Operationen im Westen vom 10. Mai bis 4. Juni) reports: - Killed in action: 10,232 officers and soldiers - Missing: 8,463 officers and soldiers - Wounded: 42,523 officers and soldiers - Losses of the Luftwaffe'' from 10 May to 3 June: 432 aircraft - Losses of the Kriegsmarine: none ## See also - German invasion of Luxembourg - Mechelen incident - List of Belgian military equipment of World War II - List of French military equipment of World War II - List of British military equipment of World War II - List of German military equipment of World War II
37,583,392	Władysław Sikorski's death controversy	1,169,906,127	Conspiracy theories	[ "1943 in Gibraltar", "Aviation accidents and incidents in Gibraltar", "British Empire in World War II", "Conspiracy theories in Europe", "Controversies in Poland", "Death conspiracy theories", "Deaths in Gibraltar", "Military history of Gibraltar", "Poland in World War II", "Unsolved deaths in the United Kingdom" ]	Władysław Sikorski's death controversy revolves around the death of the commander-in-chief of the Polish Army and Prime Minister of the Polish government in exile, General Władysław Sikorski, in the 1943 B-24 crash in Gibraltar. Sikorski's Liberator II crashed off Gibraltar almost immediately after takeoff, with the plane's pilot being the only survivor. The catastrophe, while officially classified as an accident, has led to several conspiracy theories that persist to this day, and often propose that the crash was an assassination, which has variously been blamed on the Soviets, the British, and the Nazis. The incident is still described by some historians as mysterious and was investigated by the Polish Institute of National Remembrance. They concluded that the injuries sustained were consistent with a plane crash and that there was not enough evidence to support or reject the theory that the plane was deliberately sabotaged. ## Air crash In late May 1943, Sikorski went to inspect Polish forces stationed in the Middle East. He was inspecting the forces and raising morale of the Polish troops there. He was also occupied with political matters; around that time, a conflict was growing between him and general Władysław Anders. The main reason for this was that Sikorski was still open to some normalization of Polish-Soviet relations, to which Anders vehemently objected. On 4 July 1943, while returning from the Middle East, Sikorski perished, together with his daughter Zofia, his Chief of Staff, Tadeusz Klimecki, and seven others, when his aircraft, a Consolidated Liberator II, serial number AL523, crashed into the sea 16 seconds after takeoff from Gibraltar Airport at 23:07 hours. ### Passengers and crew The only survivor of the accident was the pilot Flight Lieutenant Eduard Prchal, one of six crew on the aircraft. The 11 passengers killed were: - General Władysław Sikorski – commander-in-chief of the Polish Army and Prime Minister of the Polish government in exile - Major General Tadeusz Klimecki – Polish Army Chief of General Staff - Brigadier John Percival Whiteley OBE – Conservative Party Member of Parliament for Buckingham - Colonel Victor Cazalet MC – British liaison officer to the Polish forces - Colonel Andrzej Marecki – Polish Army Chief of Operations - Jan Gralewski – an Armia Krajowa courier - Lieutenant Józef Ponikiewski [pl], Polish Navy who was Sikorski's adjutant - Warrant Telegraphist Harry Pinder, Royal Navy – Chief of the Royal Navy signals station in Alexandria - Adam Kułakowski [pl] – Sikorski's adjutant - Zofia Leśniowska – Sikorski's daughter and secretary - Walter Heathcote Lock – Ministry of Transport representative in the Persian Gulf. ## Official investigations A British Court of Inquiry convened on 7 July that year investigated the crash of Sikorski's Liberator II serial AL 523, but was unable to determine the cause, finding only that it was an accident and "due to jamming of elevator controls", noting that "it has not been possible to determine how the jamming occurred but it has been established that there was no sabotage." The Polish government refused to endorse the report, due to the contradiction about the cause not being determined but sabotage being ruled out, and pursued its own investigation, which suggested that the cause of the accident cannot be easily determined. The political context of the event, coupled with a variety of circumstances, immediately gave rise to much speculation that Sikorski's death had been no accident, and may have been the direct result of a German, Soviet, British, or even Polish conspiracy. In 2008, the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) began an official inquiry into the incident. Sikorski was exhumed and his remains were examined by Polish scientists, who in 2009 concluded that he died due to injuries consistent with an air crash and that there was no evidence that Sikorski was murdered, ruling out theories that he was shot or strangled before the incident; however, they did not rule out the possibility of sabotage. One of the IPN historians, Maciej Korkuć, has stated that "many facts suggest an assassination", although another, Andrzej Chwalba, notes that there is insufficient evidence to support this claim. He also complains that some British and Spanish documents still remain classified, hindering the investigation. The British documents concerning the accident will not be declassified until 2050; until that date, they will remain top secret. The Polish investigation ended in 2013 with the conclusion that deliberate tampering to the aircraft could be neither confirmed nor ruled out. ## Conspiracy theories The earliest suggestions of a conspiracy was popularized by Nazi propaganda which suggested that Sikorski's death was the result of a British–Soviet conspiracy. Some modern sources still note that the accident is not fully explained; for example, Jerzy Jan Lerski, in his Historical Dictionary of Poland (1996) entry on the "Gibraltar, Catastrophe of", notes that "there are several theories explaining the event, but the mystery was never fully solved." For example, there has been uncertainty since the day of the crash about who boarded the plane and about the exact cargo manifest—all leading to uncertainty as to the identity of the bodies recovered from the crash site; some bodies, including that of Sikorski's daughter, Zofia, were never recovered. Since several bodies were never found and the bodies of several members of Sikorski's entourage were never positively identified, some conspiracy theorists such as journalist and amateur historian Dariusz Baliszewski postulate that some might have been murdered on the ground while others might have been abducted to the Soviet Union. Baliszewski and Tadeusz Kisielewski are among those who point out the opportunity the Soviets had at Gibraltar. At about the same time that Sikorski's plane was left unguarded at the Gibraltar airfield, a Soviet plane was parked nearby; it carried Soviet ambassador Ivan Maisky, giving the Soviets an officially confirmed presence at the site of the accident. The head of the British Secret Intelligence Service's counterintelligence for the Iberian Peninsula from 1941 to 1944 was Kim Philby, the Soviet double agent who would defect in 1963 and later claim to have been a double agent since the 1940s. Before 1941, Philby had served as an instructor with the Special Operations Executive, an organization specializing in sabotage and diversion behind enemy lines. Among the rumoured kidnap victims, a prominent role is given to Sikorski's daughter, Zofia Leśniowska, who was reported in 1945 to have been spotted in a Soviet Gulag by a member of the elite Polish commandos (Cichociemni), Tadeusz Kobyliński [pl]. Kobyliński attempted in 1945 or 1946 to gather Armia Krajowa personnel for a mission to rescue Leśniowska. Another controversy surrounds the sole survivor of the flight, a Czech officer, Eduard Prchal. Prchal, like many pilots who did not wish to tempt fate, was known for never wearing his Mae West life jacket—but on this occasion, when rescued from the sea, he was wearing one. During the inquiry, he denied this, and later blamed the inconsistency on post-crash shock affecting his actions and memory—essentially, on amnesia. Later, he explained that he must have instinctively put the vest on when he realised the plane was in trouble. Polish aviation expert Jerzy Maryniak created a simulation of the crash, in which he concluded that the plane must have been under control up until the very moment of the crash. Kisielewski argues that the plane was likely under the control of the second pilot, who died in the crash. Other conspiracy theories point to the British, the German Abwehr intelligence agency or the Poles themselves, some of whom (especially under the command of Anders) had shown animosity toward Sikorski for, at least from their point of view, his policy of "colluding" with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, which reached new heights by the Germans' April 1943 discovery of mass graves filled with thousands of Polish prisoners of war murdered by the Soviets at Katyn Forest in 1940. In 1967, David Irving published a book dedicated to the crash, in which he suggested British complicity in the incident. Irving's book highlighted what he believed were two other suspicious occasions where assassination attempts may have been made on Silorski during aerial flight, including a crash-landing in Montreal in 1942, where sabotage was a suspected cause. Irving's method and selective use of sources have been the subject of significant criticism. In his book Disasters in the Air, former KLM pilot and one-time IFALPA president Jan Bartelski, of Polish origin, suggests that the crash of the Liberator that carried Sikorski was caused by a half-empty mail bag jammed between the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator, thus "freezing" the controls and preventing Prchal from gaining altitude after takeoff. The mail bag was in the cargo compartment and was blown out of the aircraft through the side hatch (which in normally configured Liberators would have served to protect the machine gun position) by a strong airflow rushing through the nose gear door. ## In popular culture The crash of Sikorski's Liberator is portrayed in the 1958 film The Silent Enemy, in which the team of Royal Navy divers charged with retrieving Sikorski's briefcase from the wrecked aircraft is led by Lionel "Buster" Crabb, himself later to disappear in 1956 in mysterious circumstances while diving in the vicinity of a visiting Soviet warship. In 1968, the play Soldaten. Nekrolog auf Genf (Soldiers, An obituary for Geneva) by German writer Rolf Hochhuth debuted in London. The play partially drew on the work of David Irving and contained the sensational allegation that British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had been in on the plot. In Hochhuth's play, Sikorski and other passengers were murdered by axe-wielding British commandos. Hochhuth, unaware that the plane's pilot Eduard Prchal was still alive, accused him of participating in the plot. Prchal won a libel case that seriously affected the London theatre which staged the play. Hochhuth never paid the £50,000 imposed on him by the court and subsequently avoided returning to the UK. In 2011, he revealed his source for Churchill's involvement as Jane Ledig-Rowohlt, the British wife of his publisher Heinrich Maria Ledig-Rowohlt (née Jane Scatcherd). According to Hochhuth's biographer Birgit Lahann, these rumours relayed by Jane Ledig-Rowohlt had been the sole source for the allegations in the play. In 2009, a Polish film, Generał. Zamach na Gibraltarze was filmed; the film focused on a plot to assassinate Sikorski. ## See also - 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash, airplane disaster that led to the death of Polish president Lech Kaczyński and other Polish dignitaries, which resulted in several conspiracy theories being spread - Death and state funeral of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, another leader who died in a plane crash where investigations by two different states came to different conclusions, and where there are multiple actors theorized to have been responsible - List of unsolved deaths
62,631,130	Joseph A. Canning	1,163,976,072	American Jesuit missionary and educator	[ "1882 births", "1951 deaths", "19th-century American Jesuits", "20th-century American Jesuits", "20th-century American academics", "American Roman Catholic missionaries", "Clergy from New York City", "Jesuit missionaries", "Presidents of Loyola University Maryland", "Roman Catholic missionaries in Jamaica", "St. Andrew-on-Hudson alumni", "St. Stanislaus Novitiate (Frederick, Maryland) alumni", "Woodstock College alumni", "Xavier High School (New York City) alumni" ]	Joseph A. Canning SJ (October 31, 1882 – March 23, 1951) was an American Catholic priest and Jesuit. Hailing from New York City, he studied at St. Francis Xavier High School, before entering the Society of Jesus in 1898. He continued his studies at St. Andrew-on-Hudson and Woodstock College. He was ordained a priest in 1915, and spent the next eight years as a missionary in Jamaica. He returned to the United States in 1925, and was an administrator and teacher at Jesuit schools in Washington, D.C., New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. In 1934, he became the president of Loyola College in Maryland. Upon the end of his term four years later, he returned to St. Peter's High School, and he died in Jersey City in 1951. ## Early life Joseph A. Canning was born on October 31, 1882, in New York City. He studied at St. Francis Xavier High School in New York, before entering the Society of Jesus on August 14, 1898. He proceeded to the novitiate in Frederick, Maryland, where spent his novice and scholastic years there, with the exception of one year spent at St. Andrew-on-Hudson in Poughkeepsie, New York. He then was sent to Woodstock College in Maryland to study philosophy for three years. Canning next taught for four years at St. Francis Xavier High School, and then for a year at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts. He then returned to Woodstock for four more years of theology. There, he was ordained by Cardinal James Gibbons as a subdeacon, deacon, and priest on June 26, 27, and 28, 1915 respectively. He celebrated his first Mass the following day. He then spent a final year at St. Andrew-on-Hudson, studying ascetical theology. He attained to the rank of gradus in the Society of Jesus on February 2, 1918. ### Missionary In 1920, following the completion of his studies, Canning was sent to Jamaica as a missionary. For eight years, he taught at St. George College in Kingston. He also ministered at Holy Trinity Cathedral and at the military station at Port Royal. ## Academia Upon his return to the United States in 1925, Canning taught at Gonzaga College High School in Washington, D.C. He then served as prefect of studies at St. Peter's High School in Jersey City, New Jersey, before returning to Gonzaga for three years. Canning became an administrator at St. Isaac Jogues Novitiate in Wernersville, Pennsylvania for two-and-a-half years, before transferring to St. Francis Xavier High School in February 1934. On September 2, 1934, Canning became president of Loyola College in Maryland, succeeding Henri J. Wiesel. His term as president came to an end in 1938, and he was succeeded by Edward B. Bunn. Following the end of his presidency, he returned to St. Peter's High School in Jersey City, where he became spiritual director for the Jesuit community there. He also served as a parish priest at St. Peter's Catholic Church. Canning died in Jersey City on March 23, 1951. His funeral was held on March 26, and was attended by Thomas J. Murry, the president of Loyola College, on behalf of the school.
52,857,364	Xenoblade Chronicles 2	1,173,176,137	2017 video game	[ "2017 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "Dissociative identity disorder in video games", "Japanese role-playing video games", "Monolith Soft games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Nintendo Switch-only games", "Nintendo games", "Open-world video games", "Single-player video games", "Video game sequels", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by ACE+", "Video games scored by Yasunori Mitsuda", "Xenoblade Chronicles" ]	Xenoblade Chronicles 2 is a 2017 action role-playing game developed by Monolith Soft and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Switch. It is the third installment in the Xenoblade Chronicles series and the seventh main entry in the Xeno series, and was released on December 1. Plans for the game began shortly before the launch of Xenoblade Chronicles X in 2014. Key developers from previous games returned, including franchise creator Tetsuya Takahashi and directors Koh Kojima and Genki Yokota. The team wanted to develop a story-driven game in the style of the original Xenoblade Chronicles. The game was announced in 2017 and was released worldwide the same year. As with Xenoblade Chronicles, the game was localized by Nintendo of Europe. Xenoblade Chronicles 2 has gameplay that is similar to previous entries, but with an added summoning mechanic. It features a different setting and characters than the first Xenoblade Chronicles and marks the series' return to being story-driven, unlike the previous installment Xenoblade Chronicles X, which was focused on gameplay and open world exploration. Xenoblade Chronicles 2 takes place in Alrest, a world covered in a sea of clouds where humans live atop and inside large living creatures known as Titans. Some people known as Drivers can summon powerful beings known as Blades from crystals. After he is hired for a salvaging mission, a young salvager named Rex meets a legendary Blade named Pyra, indirectly becoming her Driver, and promises to take her to a fabled paradise called Elysium. Throughout their journey, Rex and his party are pursued by Torna, an organization who seeks Pyra's power for their own means. The game received generally positive reviews, being praised for its story, characters, themes, combat, music, environments, and scale but criticized for its gacha system, maps, tutorials, and technical issues. As of December 2020, it has sold over 2 million copies worldwide, making it the best-selling title in the Xeno series and Monolith Soft's most commercially successful game. Downloadable content was released throughout 2018, and a story-focused expansion was released in September of that year. This side story, Torna – The Golden Country, is set 500 years before the main game and features new gameplay mechanics. A sequel, Xenoblade Chronicles 3, was released in July 2022. ## Gameplay Xenoblade Chronicles 2 is an action role-playing game, and similar to previous games, the player controls a main character out of a party of three. The game is open world and has a day-and-night time cycle that affects in-game events, including quests, enemy strength, and item availability. Unlike the two previous titles, which consisted of a cohesive open world, the game takes place on several different Titans which the player travels between using fast travel. Unlike previous entries, characters in the party also control additional beings known as Blades and can have three Blades active at a time, which determines their class. The game's Blades and skills are based on eight elements: Fire, Water, Wind, Ice, Electric, Earth, Light and Dark. There are a total of 40 unique Rare Blades to collect throughout the base game, with 11 being obtainable through downloadable content and New Game Plus. Most of the game's Blades are optional and not obtainable through the main story; among them are KOS-MOS and T-ELOS from the Xeno sub-series Xenosaga. The game's Challenge Mode, added through downloadable content, features Shulk and Fiora from Xenoblade Chronicles and Elma from Xenoblade Chronicles X as obtainable Blades. ### Battle system Xenoblade Chronicles 2 has an action-based battle system, where the player controls the current lead character in real-time and party members will "auto-attack" when enemies enter their attack radius. Each character has skills called "Arts" that can deal damage or inflict status effects. Both party members and enemies have a finite amount of health points, which is depleted by attacks. Combat is won when all enemies lose their HP, but is lost if the player character loses all their HP and is unable to be revived. Health can be restored through using healing Arts in battle and regenerates automatically outside of battle. Winning battles earns the player experience points, which strengthens characters as they level up. They also earn Skill Points, which are used to upgrade their stats and skills, and Weapon Points, which are used to power up their Arts. Losing a battle respawns the party at the most recently visited Landmark. Using Arts repeatedly allows use of special moves called Blade Specials, which when used in order creates a Blade Combo that does large amounts of damage and seals one of the enemy's abilities. A Driver Combo requires the party to inflict four status conditions on an enemy in a specific order: Break, Topple, Launch, and Smash. Finishing a Driver Combo does massive damage and causes the enemy to drop items. Performing a Driver Combo and a Blade Combo simultaneously creates a Fusion Combo, which greatly increases damage dealt and the Blade Combo's effects. A "Party Gauge" fills up as party members attack. When full, the player can perform a Chain Attack, where characters perform attacks in succession. The Chain Attack can be made more effective by destroying elemental Orbs created by previously used Blade Specials, which deals additional damage and gives one additional Chain Attack round. The three-tiered gauge gradually depletes outside of battle, and one tier is used to revive incapacitated characters. An "aggro ring" around a character denotes they have gained aggro from enemies by attacking, leading to a strategic aspect of luring and diverting attention of enemies. The player directly controls one of the Drivers in the party, who wields one of their Blades' Blade Weapons to auto-attack and perform Arts. Pressing an Art's button as an auto-attack connects allows them to "cancel" the ending animation of the auto-attack and use the Art immediately. After a cooldown, the Driver can Blade Switch to change their active Blade. Each Blade gives their Driver a different set of Arts, which is determined by the Blade's weapon type and the specific Driver. ## Plot ### Setting and characters The game is set in the fictional land of Alrest, a sea topped with clouds called the Cloud Sea, which is inhabited by massive creatures called Titans on which humanity lives. Legends claim that humanity once lived atop the World Tree, a massive tree at Alrest's center, in a paradise called Elysium with their creator, the Architect. However, they were exiled for unknown reasons and given the Titans to live on. Blades are powerful beings summoned from Core Crystals who channel power into their weapons through a force called Ether. Their masters are called Drivers; when a Driver dies, their Blade reverts to a Core Crystal and loses their memory. After some time, another Driver can awaken them if the crystal is intact. Due to the close spiritual bond between Driver and Blade, the personality of the former influences that of the latter. Two nations, Mor Ardain and Uraya are on the brink of war throughout the story. The main character is Rex (Japanese: Hiro Shimono; English: Al Weaver), who is the Driver of the Aegis, a powerful and legendary Blade. The Aegis has two personalities, Pyra and Mythra (Japanese: Shino Shimoji; English: Skye Bennett), who share the same conscience but have different abilities. As an orphan, Rex grew up in Fonsett Village on the Leftherian Archipelago, a place with several Titans that are close together and connected by bridges and other structures. Rex became very accustomed to the Cloud Sea and became a salvager to salvage parts found beneath it. He is very close with Azurda, a Titan whom he calls "Gramps" and lived a portion of his life upon. A group of Drivers called Torna set out to destroy the Aegis, leading Rex and the party to flee and find a way to the World Tree. Other important characters include Malos, another Aegis and the main antagonist; Jin, a Blade from Torna who aids Malos; Nia, a rebel from Torna, and her Blade Dromarch; Tora, a Nopon specializing in artificial Blades, and his Blade Poppi; Mòrag, a feared Driver from Mor Ardain, and her blade Brighid; and Zeke, the prince of the hermit country of Tantal, and his Blade Pandoria. The downloadable content Torna – The Golden Country adds a new story, set 500 years before the game's events. It focuses on Lora and her Blade Jin, as well as their allies, in their battle against Malos in Torna, a country that is inaccessible in the main game. ### Story Rex, an orphaned salvager who collects treasure from below the Cloud Sea for money, is hired by Argentum Trade Guild Chairman Bana to aid the Drivers Jin, Malos, and Nia, part of a group named Torna, in the salvage of an ancient ship. In the ship, they find Pyra, a legendary Blade known as the Aegis. When Rex reaches out to touch Pyra's sword, Jin fatally stabs him. Rex awakens on a field with Pyra, who reveals they are in a memory of her old home Elysium. She asks him to bring her to Elysium and in exchange gives him half of her Core Crystal to revive him. With help from his Titan companion Azurda and Nia, who has defected from Torna, Rex escapes to the Titan Gormott, but Azurda is wounded and reverts to his larval stage. Soon after, they arrive in Gormott's capital Torigoth and are joined by the Nopon Driver Tora and his artificial Blade Poppi. The group try to get to Elysium, but are stopped by the artifice Ophion and swallowed by the Titan Uraya. After the group battles the mercenary Driver Vandham while escaping Uraya's stomach, he joins the party and Rex begins to look to him as a mentor. The group later learns that Jin and Malos are the leaders of Torna, a terrorist group named after a Titan destroyed in the Aegis War 494 years ago. Led by Jin, an embittered veteran Blade of the Aegis War, and Malos, later revealed as the other Aegis, they seek to destroy humanity by unleashing the artifice Aion on Elysium. During a battle with Malos and fellow Torna member Akhos, Vandham is killed and Pyra unveils her true form Mythra. They have shared memory and consider themselves sisters, switching back and forth as needed. The group's search for a way past Ophion leads them to join forces with Mòrag, special inquisitor of Mor Ardain and elder sister of the Ardainian Emperor, Niall, and Zeke, prince of Tantal. In Tantal, the group battles Jin, who forces Pyra to surrender. While Azurda leads the group to the third Aegis sword to save Pyra, Malos siphons Pyra's power to regain his full strength. After the group finds the third sword, phantoms of Pyra's former Driver nearly kill Rex, but he is deemed worthy of the third sword. The group confronts Jin and Malos at the Cliffs of Morytha, during which Rex unlocks Pyra and Mythra's true form Pneuma. Rex, now matched with Jin's power, forces Malos to summon Ophion, who knocks the group into Morytha, the devastated land beneath Cloud Sea. In Morytha, the group is forced to work with a weakened Jin. Malos' Driver, Amalthus, attacks by controlling various Titans. The group severs his connection to the Titans, only for him to kill all Torna members except Malos and Jin, with Jin defeating Amalthus as he dies. The group arrives in Elysium, which is revealed to be a long-dead wasteland, and meet the Architect, a scientist named Klaus who explains that he had discovered a device that sends objects into different dimensions, the use of which split his body in two and destroyed the old world. Sensing that his other half is about to die, which will result in his own death, Klaus sends the group to stop Malos, who was corrupted by Amalthus's malice and has obtained Aion. After Malos's defeat and death, Klaus dies, but not before granting Rex and the party a "final gift". Klaus's death causes Elysium to begin crumbling. Pneuma helps the group escape, but sacrifices herself to detonate the World Tree, preventing its debris from destroying Alrest. The group barely survives when Azurda, thanks to Pneuma, returns to his adult form and flies everyone down to Alrest. On returning to Alrest, the Cloud Sea fades to reveal a rejuvenated world, the Titans merging to form a new landmass. Afterwards, Pyra and Mythra are revived in separate bodies and reunite with Rex. ## Development The game was developed for the Nintendo Switch by Monolith Soft and is the third entry in their Xenoblade Chronicles series, following the original Xenoblade Chronicles and Xenoblade Chronicles X. Plans for the game began in July 2014, during the latter half of development of Xenoblade Chronicles X. While the original Xenoblade Chronicles followed the typical structure of a general story-driven JRPG, Xenoblade Chronicles X received far less emphasis on story, and was organized in more of a mission-based structure, focused primarily on exploring the game's massive open world. The development team were unhappy upon hearing the fanbase complain about the changes, and started work on another story-driven title. Because the gameplay was more of a continuation of the first game, they decided to title it Xenoblade Chronicles 2. Xenoblade Chronicles 2 took shorter to develop than previous games, although development was difficult in the beginning due to a lack of finalization of the Switch's technical specifications. The architecture of Xenoblade Chronicles X was used for Xenoblade Chronicles 2 to speed up development. Another motivating factor was the agreement made by the team with Nintendo specifically to deliver the game early on in the Nintendo Switch's lifecycle. One of Monolith Soft's objectives for the game was to give the characters a wider range of facial expressions compared to past Xenoblade titles. The lead character designer was Masatsugu Saito, who was designing characters for a video game for the first time. The developers chose him to give the protagonists a more expressive anime-like art style than prior Xenoblade entries, which featured a more realistic type of modeling that they found a bit too stiff. Square Enix artist Tetsuya Nomura was responsible for the characters within the Torna organization. Takahashi had wanted to work with Nomura, but as he was busy with other games at Square Enix, he hesitantly approached the company with the hopes of letting him work as a guest artist. To Takahashi's surprise, they accepted the negotiation. Other guest artists also contributed, such as Xeno series veterans Kunihiko Tanaka and Soraya Saga, who designed some of the game's Blades, weapon-like life forms. Tanaka designed a Blade version of KOS-MOS, one of the protagonists of the Xenosaga trilogy. The game's story was conceived by Takahashi, with assistance from screenwriters Yuichiro Takeda and Kazuho Hyodo. Takeda, who also worked as a writer on the last two Xenoblade games, stated that the writing techniques and workflow for Xenoblade Chronicles 2 was similar to that of a movie. While it is a sequel to Xenoblade Chronicles, it features a new world and cast of characters. ### Music The game's original score was written by Yasunori Mitsuda, Kenji Hiramatsu, and Manami Kiyota and the duo of ACE (Tomori Kudo and Hiroyo Yamanaka). Mitsuda, who was also in charge of the audio budget, musician booking, schedule management, and sheet music proofreading, was first invited to the project by Takahashi in December 2014. Throughout the following year, Mitsuda and Takahashi held numerous meetings discussing the overall direction of the music, eventually inviting musical group ACE and Kenji Hiramatsu, who had also worked on the first Xenoblade Chronicles. At the meetings, each composer's contribution to the soundtrack was decided, with ACE primarily handling the field music, and Hiramatsu handling the battle music. According to Mitsuda, it was done in a way that would satisfy the fans, as they did not want to "ruin the image" that was set by the first Xenoblade Chronicles. With contributions from over 300 total musicians and 20,000 sheets worth of music, Mitsuda considered it the largest project he had ever worked on, with files and data from Pro Tools, his music production software, surpassing one terabyte in size. Overall, there were approximately 120 tracks recorded for the game, with around 25 of them being from Mitsuda. The soundtrack features performances from the Slovakian Bratislava Symphony Choir, as well as the Irish chamber choir Anúna. Mitsuda, who had always wanted to work with Anúna after becoming a fan in the 1990s, claimed that their performances for the game made him cry. Two tracks, including the ending theme written by Mitsuda, were sung by Jennifer Bird of the English acoustic duo Tomorrow Bird. Before recording, Mitsuda and Bird corresponded so that she could properly convey the characters' emotions through her singing. While recording, Bird was able to improvise melodic elements of her singing, something that did not usually happen with Mitsuda's arrangements. ## Release The game was announced in January 2017 as part of Nintendo's detailed reveal of the Nintendo Switch, with a gameplay trailer being released on the same day. Similar to the original Xenoblade, the title was announced as Xenoblade 2 in Japan, but had Chronicles added to its name in English-speaking regions. The game was also a part of Nintendo's presentation at E3 2017, where it was reconfirmed for release by the end of 2017. Like the original Xenoblade Chronicles, Nintendo's European division took up the reins for the English localization, who regularly communicated with Nintendo's Japanese and American divisions about decisions that could prove controversial, something that was previously an issue with Xenoblade Chronicles X. Unlike the first two games, the localization process took place during development rather than after and was ready in time for a simultaneous worldwide launch on December 1, 2017. Days before the game's launch, a promotional music video featuring a vocal track from the game by Mitsuda, "Shadow of the Lowlands", was uploaded onto Nintendo's official YouTube accounts. The video features a performance by Anúna, and was filmed and directed by Michael McGlynn, leader of the group. An official soundtrack, consisting of over a hundred tracks, was released in both physical and digital formats on May 23, 2018. Additional content was added through an expansion pass which released through 2018. Added content includes new items, quests, recruitable Blades, and a challenge battle mode. New story-based content, Xenoblade Chronicles 2: Torna – The Golden Country, was released digitally as part of the expansion pass on September 14, 2018, and as a standalone retail release a week later. A costume based on Rex was added to The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild a few weeks ahead of the game's launch. Characters from Xenoblade Chronicles 2 were considered for a position as a playable fighter in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate's initial roster, but they were ultimately passed over due to poor timing, as according to director Masahiro Sakurai the game was announced to the public far too late in the development of Ultimate. Pyra and Mythra were eventually added to the roster as a 2-in-1 fighter via downloadable content in March 2021, along with a new stage and several music tracks. While Rex was considered, Sakurai deemed it unfeasible to control both of them at the same time, likening the situation to that of the Ice Climbers, so he was reduced to supportive roles in Pyra and Mythra's moveset. ## Reception ### Pre-launch Some critics called the initial reveal of the game "unexpected", with Jeremy Parish of USGamer favorably comparing it to Chrono Cross. At the Gamescom event in August 2017, the game received positive early hands-on impressions from gaming sites, being praised for its streamlined combat system and environments. ### Post-launch Upon release, Xenoblade Chronicles 2 received "generally favorable reviews" according to review aggregator website Metacritic, which gave it an overall score of 83% on 93 reviews. The game's story, characters, complex combat system, soundtrack, amount of content, and the beauty and size of the environments were largely praised. John Rairdin of Nintendo World Report considered the game "one of the finest JRPGs of the generation and perhaps of all time" and was highly praising the music, "diverse world", "fresh and engaging combat", and "thrilling storyline". He also expressed doubt that there would be a better JRPG for the Switch. Game Revolution's Jason Faulkner called the game "a joy to review", stating that it was "full of wonder, exploration, and character". Hiroshi Noguchi writing for IGN Japan gave a very positive review, stating that it "offers a timeless tale of adventure and an incredibly deep battle system." Alex Fuller for RPGamer was enthusiastically supportive of the game, saying "2017 has been one of the greatest years in RPG history; Xenoblade Chronicles 2 caps that off in mesmerising fashion by being one of the finest titles of the year". Nadia Oxford of USgamer stated that Xenoblade Chronicles 2 "captures nearly everything that made the first game great, borrows the best elements from Chronicles X, and then improves on much of it. Though Blades change up how you fight in Chronicles 2, the game spills over with the traits that make the first Chronicles game a stand-out experience. More story, more enemies to scrap with, more landscapes to tread across. Chronicles 2 is a dialogue-heavy game, but there are many points where Monolith Soft lets its environments narrate the seriousness of Alrest's plight." She highly praised the game's story, stating "The narrative explores patriotism, war, environmental decline, refugees, and examines the little people who get caught in the crush when big powers scrap with one another. There are also a number of moral and philosophical questions raised about Blades [...] Are Blades humanity's partners, or their slaves?" GamesTM called the game the "apex of open-world design", and the exploration made up for any minor issues. Leif Johnson of IGN praised the game and called it a "standout RPG that manages to keep its story, combat, and exploration interesting over the course of at least 70 hours of adventure through an impressively varied and rich world", though conceded a few frustrations with the game, including a confusing minimap that sometimes led to the reviewer getting lost. Shubhankar Parijat of GamingBolt called it ""A must-play for all Nintendo Switch owners"" and "one of the best JRPGs of this generation" and calling its world "vast and beautiful", its story "complex and layered", and its combat "intricate and addictive", while also noting that the game was occasionally held back by "obtuse design choices" and "a simple lack of polish". However, the game did have its criticisms. Jason Schreier of Kotaku, who had also disliked the original Xenoblade Chronicles, gave a largely negative review, calling the game "dull, dreary, overly complicated, and unconcerned with wasting the player's time". He heavily criticized the writing, technical issues, pacing, as well as the gameplay, which he considered overly extensive and complicated as well as the "clunky" menus. He was also critical of the story, calling it "an unsubtle script that stomps all over even the most interesting story scenes". However, he praised the "spectacular" music and "beautifully realized" environments. Noguchi of IGN Japan criticized some of the game's mechanics not being well explained and the amount of bugs found in the game at launch, but was looking forward to the early patch of the game to fix many of these issues. Jed Pressgrove, however, writing for Slant Magazine was highly critical of the large amount of tutorials found in the game, stating "It's very difficult, if not impossible, to feel like you’re in a different world, much less experiencing a story, when such elements call attention to the contrived nature of the whole shebang." Pressgrove did approve of the game's "rousing soundtrack", however. Washington Post's Harold Goldberg found the "intricate, unfriendly gameplay" inaccessible, saying "A wondrous game lies in there somewhere.. it's too often too difficult to swim through", and that he wouldn't play the game again after completing it. Xenoblade Chronicles 2 won awards for excellence at both the 2019 Japan Game Awards and the 2018 Famitsu Awards. The game was also nominated for "Best RPG" at IGN's Best of 2017 Awards, and a nomination for game engineering at the National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewer Awards in 2018. ### Sales The game sold nearly 98,000 copies in its first week in Japan, and 168,000 after a month. In the United Kingdom, the game positioned itself at number 19 overall in its first week, which made it debut 9 places higher over Xenoblade Chronicles X. In the United States, it charted at number 16 for the month of December. Within a month, the game had sold over a million copies worldwide. By April 2018, Xenoblade Chronicles 2 had become the best selling game in the Xeno franchise, and the best-selling game of Monolith Soft altogether. In September 2018, Takahashi stated: "Xenoblade Chronicles 2 exceeded my expectations. We really saw more people pick the game up and experience it in the North American and European territories than we thought would do so... the sales of the Torna DLC are exceeding our expectations as well." In an interview with 4Gamer, Takahashi revealed that Xenoblade Chronicles 2 had sold 1.73 million units worldwide as of March 2019. The 2023 CESA Games White Papers revealed that Xenoblade Chronicles 2 had sold 2.70 million units worldwide, as of December 31, 2022.
3,069,037	Dammit	1,173,636,214	null	[ "1997 singles", "1997 songs", "Blink-182 songs", "Songs containing the I–V-vi-IV progression", "Songs written by Mark Hoppus", "Songs written by Tom DeLonge" ]	"Dammit" (sometimes subtitled "Growing Up") is a song by American rock band Blink-182, released on September 23, 1997, as the second single from the group's second studio album, Dude Ranch (1997). Written by bassist Mark Hoppus, the song concerns maturity and growing older. It was written about a fictional breakup and the difficulty of seeing a former partner with another. The song became the band's first hit single, reaching number 11 on Billboard's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart, and receiving heavy airplay on several key US stations. The song's music video was shot by directors Darren Doane and Ken Daurio, previous collaborators with the group, and depicts the trio attending a "sneak preview" at a cinema where Hoppus attempts to win his ex-girlfriend back. "Dammit" was later featured on the band's Greatest Hits (with a drumroll added), and it has been covered by a number of artists. ## Background Blink-182 bassist Mark Hoppus wrote the song in a short span of time concerning a fictional breakup with a girlfriend. Hoppus described a scenario, detailed in the lyrics, where former lovers meet in public and one is with someone new, "It really hurts when you aren't the person feeling the love, but you have to act like it's cool to save face." He felt the song's creation, which was spontaneous, worked to its favor: "If you work on a song for weeks and weeks, you're forcing it." The signature guitar line for "Dammit" was created on an acoustic guitar that was missing two strings. Guitarist Tom DeLonge considered the song a breakthrough in the band's songwriting. The song was recorded between December 1996 and January 1997 at Big Fish Studios in Encinitas, California. The song was written just outside Hoppus' vocal range, requiring him to strain to sing it (the song has a noticeably rougher and scratchier vocal track than the rest of the album). Already suffering from vocal problems due to lack of vocal warm-ups and constant smoking, Hoppus ended up straining his vocal cords significantly, forcing the band to cancel the final week of recording the album in December 1996. "I actually like my voice a lot on 'Dammit'. It sounds really raw and cool," said Hoppus in 2001. "But it's not a technique I would recommend for getting a good vocal sound. You know, smoking, yelling, all that." As a result of this incident, the chorus has always been sung by Tom DeLonge in live performances. From 2015 to 2022, guitarist/vocalist Matt Skiba would take the lead on the chorus. "Dammit" is set in the time signature of common time, with a fast tempo of 215 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of C major with Hoppus's vocals spanning the tonal nodes of C<sub>4</sub> to G<sub>4</sub>. The song follows a common chord progression sequence of I–V–vi–IV. ## Commercial performance "Dammit" received heavy radio airplay at many key radio stations, and became the band's first hit single. MCA Records' retail plan for the single involved releasing it after the band's stint on the 1997 Vans Warped Tour in order to secure a story to help promote it to radio. The label first began to promote "Dammit" in August 1997 and several stations in Southern California were quick to begin playing the song, finding it to be a good match alongside Green Day and The Offspring radio hits. Stations such as KOME in San Jose were among the first to play the song. The song was released in September, and broke through to rock radio when it was added to the playlist of Los Angeles-based KROQ. Mainstream rock radio received "Dammit" in November, and MTV picked up the "Dammit" video, where it began receiving heavy rotation in December. This led to feature stories in magazines such as Billboard and Rolling Stone. The song peaked at number 11 on Billboard's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart, spending 28 weeks on the chart. It also spent nine weeks on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, peaking at number 26. Lastly, it charted on the airplay chart of the all-genre Billboard Hot 100, staying for nine weeks and hitting number 61. Billboard Airplay Monitor Report (BDS) figures reported that the record had received over 1,000 spins on KROQ, placing it as the second-most played track of 1998. It ranked third in terms of total airplay on Seattle's KNDD and New York's WXRK, attaining 900 plays on both respective stations. "Dammit" was among the top three most-played songs on San Francisco's KITS, Boston's WBCN, Detroit's CIMX and Sacramento's KWOD for the year. KEDJ of Phoenix played "Dammit" over 1,400 times over the course of the year. The song was called a modern rock "radio staple" by the Los Angeles Times. The song's success was largely responsible for pushing Dude Ranch to receive a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America for selling 500,000 copies. The song spent six weeks on RPM's Alternative 30 in Canada between April and May 1998, peaking at number 15. In addition, to its success in North America, the song peaked at number 34 on the ARIA Top 100 Singles Chart in Australia, where it spent sixteen weeks on the chart between December 1997 and April 1998. The song's success stunned the group. Guitarist Tom DeLonge, who noted that many of the band's songs were based on real events, found it unusual that a song that was not directly autobiographical wound up connecting best with the wide audience. Later, he recalled, "[When 'Dammit' took off], we were freaking. We couldn't believe what was happening to us." Meanwhile, Hoppus, as a result of the single's success, began introducing himself to people as "that guy that wrote, 'duh nuh nuh nuh nuh duh nuh nuh nuh nuh, he fucked her.'" ## Reception Scott Heisel of Alternative Press called "Dammit" the "perfect punk song, everyone knows it, and it's probably being covered in someone's basement right now." In a contemporary review, MTV News' Chris Nelson wrote, ""Dammit"'s staccato rhythm and melancholy pop-spirit call to mind Chicago punks Screeching Weasel as much as they do the emotional fretting of the Descendents." Consequence of Sound, in a 2015 top 10 of Blink-182's best songs, ranked "Dammit" at number one, commenting, "The best songwriters don't capture what you're going through individually in your life – they capture the things that are common to all humanity, and there's something about "Dammit"'s chorus, something about its opening C, D, E riff that sounds universal." Complex in 2012 examined the song through the lens of its inclusion in Can't Hardly Wait (1998), calling it, "one of the most iconic songs of the 90s – those three, unmistakable guitar chords, the two voices trading in verse (one sneering punk, the other, a throaty few octaves lower), and a soaring punk chorus." At Billboard, it is described as a "jump-around pop punk song". Stereogum and Kerrang both named "Dammit" as Blink-182's best song. ## In popular culture The song was featured in the 1998 teen film Can't Hardly Wait, during a scene in which the police break up a house party. The song was also featured in the television series Dawson's Creek in episode 8 of Season 1. The song was also included in the music video game Guitar Hero World Tour, along with an in-game representation of Travis Barker, who becomes available to play upon completing the song in the drum career. "Dammit" has been covered by a number of artists, including All Time Low, Cloud Control, Lisa Prank, FIDLAR, Good Charlotte, Of Mice & Men and Pierce the Veil, Best Coast and Skatune Network. Rapper Lil Peep often included a karaoke crowd-singalong cover of Dammit during live shows in 2017. ## Music video The music video for "Dammit" stars Hoppus attempting to take his ex-girlfriend away from her new lover at a cinema. Band manager Rick DeVoe has a cameo appearance in the clip as a snack bar attendant. The music video for "Dammit" was directed by Darren Doane and Ken Daurio, who also directed the band's first clip for "M+M's" in 1995. Doane allowed the musicians to improvise during the shoot. Hoppus and guitarist Tom DeLonge were so taken with the way DeVoe portrayed his character they requested Doane work his character into more screen time. Near the end of the bridge, during intercut performance footage of the group, DeLonge mouths to Hoppus a visible "I love you." A poster for the film Farinelli (1994) is visible behind the concession counter. In 2011, Hoppus auctioned off band memorabilia to help donate to victims of the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, one of which was his orange sweater he wore in the "Dammit" video. ## Track listings US CD (1997) 1. "Dammit" (Tom Lord-Alge remix; radio edit) – 2:46 2. "Dammit" (Tom Lord-Alge remix) – 2:46 Australian CD (1997) 1. "Dammit" (Tom Lord-Alge remix; radio edit) – 2:46 2. "Dammit" (Tom Lord-Alge remix) – 2:46 3. "Zulu" – 2:07 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Dude Ranch. Locations - Recorded at Big Fish Studios, Encinitas, California. - Mixed at Track Record Studios, North Hollywood, California. Blink-182 - Mark Hoppus – bass guitar, vocals - Tom DeLonge – guitars - Scott Raynor – drums Production - Mark Trombino – production, recording, mixing - Brian Gardner – mastering - Tom Lord-Alge – remix ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications
25,194,892	2009 Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill	1,165,530,578	Leadership spill for the Liberal Party of Australia, held on 1 December 2009	[ "2009 elections in Australia", "2009 political party leadership elections", "December 2009 events in Australia", "Liberal Party of Australia leadership spills" ]	A leadership spill for the Liberal Party of Australia was held on 1 December 2009. The incumbent leader Malcolm Turnbull was defeated by Tony Abbott on the second ballot; Joe Hockey also stood as a candidate. Abbott thus replaced Turnbull as Leader of the Opposition, and would lead the party to the 2010 federal election. The spill was the culmination of a dispute within the Liberal Party over its response to the Rudd government's proposed emissions trading scheme (ETS). Turnbull supported the introduction of an ETS and sought to negotiate amendments to government's proposed legislation. Abbott came to represent many Liberal MPs who were climate change deniers or otherwise opposed the ETS. After Turnbull survived a spill motion (a motion to declare the leadership vacant) against his leadership in late November 2009, Abbott declared his candidacy and a subsequent spill was moved on 1 December. Hockey—a moderate who had been a supporter of Turnbull's position on the ETS—also stood. While Hockey had been expected to win, he was knocked out in the first round of voting. Abbott subsequently defeated Turnbull in the second round, 42–41. Julie Bishop, who voted for Turnbull, was re-elected unopposed as the party's deputy leader. ## Background Malcolm Turnbull was elected to the House of Representatives in the 2004 federal election. In January 2007 he was appointed Minister for the Environment and Water Resources by Prime Minister John Howard. After the Australian Labor Party defeated the Howard government in the 2007 election, Turnbull, Brendan Nelson and Tony Abbott announced they would each contest the Liberal Party leadership. Nelson defeated Turnbull in a ballot after Abbott withdrew his candidacy. Turnbull became the Shadow Treasurer on Nelson's frontbench. Nelson's leadership of the Liberal Party was beset by poor opinion poll numbers. There was speculation that Turnbull would challenge Nelson for the leadership in late 2008; however, Nelson caught Turnbull by surprise by calling a snap spill of the party's leadership positions while Turnbull was returning from an overseas holiday. The spill was moved on 16 September 2008. Turnbull defeated Nelson by four votes, becoming the leader of the Liberal Party and of the Opposition Coalition between the Liberals and the National Party. Nelson later resigned from the House of Representatives. ## Climate change policy dispute Turnbull was regarded as a "believer" in global warming. As Environment Minister, he had overseen the introduction of an emissions trading scheme (ETS) as a policy of the Liberal Party shortly before the Howard government's defeat. However, many of Turnbull's fellow MPs in the Coalition were climate change deniers. Tensions within the Coalition on climate change policy had contributed to the downfall of Nelson's leadership. As leader of the Liberal Party, Turnbull supported the introduction of an ETS. In June 2009, he indicated in principle support for an ETS proposed by the Rudd government despite the opposition of his Coalition partner, the National Party. Turnbull subsequently outlined the Coalition's position that it would oppose the ETS introduced to Parliament by the government, but would be open to negotiating an amended version. Turnbull's willingness to negotiate with the government was met with opposition from some Coalition MPs. By September 2009, The Australian was reporting that only 12 of the 59 Liberal backbenchers supported negotiations. On 18 October 2009, Turnbull fronted a meeting of Coalition MPs with a proposal to negotiate amendments to the government's ETS. This meeting supported his proposal, in what was seen as a test of Turnbull's leadership. However, there was speculation that a number of Coalition Senators would defy Turnbull and cross the floor of the Senate to vote against any ETS legislation. The ETS opponents argued that it would be premature for Parliament to pass ETS legislation before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change. The divisions within the Coalition were laid bare in an episode of Four Corners, aired by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation on 9 November 2009. The program featured the Coalition's leader in the Senate, Nick Minchin, suggesting that man-made climate change was a conspiracy of the political left and disputing Turnbull's authority to strike a deal with the government on the ETS. Later in the month, Minchin spoke against the ETS in the Senate. Abbott—who had publicly supported the ETS—was now arguing that the Coalition should abandon the policy. Turnbull attacked Abbott's change of mind, stating: "Tony has expressed a number of views, each of which is at odds with the view he expressed before". On 23 November 2009, the Coalition's climate change spokesman Ian Macfarlane agreed to a deal with the government to amend the ETS legislation. The amendments provided industry with substantial compensation and exemptions from the ETS. Turnbull took the deal to Liberal MPs for formal approval, but a majority of backbenchers opposed it. Turnbull nonetheless claimed he had the Coalition's support, by counting as supporters the 20 members of the Coalition Shadow Cabinet who he argued should be presumed to support the deal. This claim was met with rancour by his opponents in the Coalition. Anger at Turnbull's response to the 23 November 2009 meeting triggered a spill motion against his leadership three days later. The motion was moved by Kevin Andrews, a former Minister in the Howard government, but was defeated by a vote of 48 to 35. Andrews was not seen as a genuine prospect for the leadership, so the close vote on the spill motion was considered a blow to Turnbull. While Abbott supported Turnbull at the time of Andrews' spill, he subsequently resigned from the frontbench. Several others joined Abbott in resigning, including Nick Minchin, Eric Abetz, Sophie Mirabella and Tony Smith. ## Abbott and Hockey challenges Abbott announced on 27 November—one day after Turnbull survived Kevin Andrews' spill motion—that he would challenge Turnbull for the leadership. Abbott committed to withdrawing his candidacy if Joe Hockey was to challenge. Abbott confirmed his opposition to the ETS legislation, questioning why Australia would legislate for a potentially detrimental economic measure before other countries had committed to do the same. A Newspoll released on 30 November placed Hockey at 33%, Turnbull at 30% and Abbott at 19%, when voters were asked who would be the "best person to lead" the Liberal Party. Speculation flourished that Hockey would challenge Turnbull, and Hockey consulted senior party dignitaries such as Howard and Costello about whether he should run. Hockey faced a dilemma. A moderate in the Liberal Party, Hockey had been a consistent supporter of the ETS. Running against Turnbull would mean taking the leadership with the support of the party's right wing and climate change deniers. Turnbull seized on the dilemma, claiming Hockey had given Turnbull his "complete support" and was still a firm supporter of the ETS legislation. Hockey attempted to resolve his dilemma by declaring that as leader he would allow a conscience vote on the ETS legislation. Abbott rejected Hockey's declaration, and reneged on his earlier indication that he would withdraw his candidacy for Hockey. Abbott stated: "It now seems pretty clear we could change the leader to Joe and these offensive bills could still go through the Parliament". On Hockey's candidacy, Turnbull claimed that Hockey had pledged his opposition to the spill motion. However, it was expected that if the spill motion succeeded, Hockey would stand for the leadership against Turnbull and Abbott. Hockey was generally expected to win the ballot and become leader. To the end, Turnbull refused to stand aside as leader, insisting he would defeat the spill motion. Hockey later alleged that Turnbull had promised he would not stand against Hockey if the spill motion was successful. Turnbull denied that he had given, and therefore broken, any such undertaking. ## Results On 1 December 2009, Liberal MPs convened to consider the spill motion to vacate the leadership. The motion passed 48–34, following which Turnbull, Hockey and Abbott contested a ballot. Hockey was seen as the favourite to win the ballot, but was knocked out in the first round of voting, receiving 23 votes to Turnbull's 26 and Abbott's 35. A second round of voting ensued, in which Abbott defeated Turnbull by one vote (42–41). Fran Bailey, a supporter of Turnbull, was absent for the vote, and there was one vote of "no", which was recorded as informal. Julie Bishop remained the deputy leader of the party, without being challenged for the position. Abbott thus became the third consecutive leader, after Nelson and Turnbull, for whom Bishop would serve as deputy. After the ballots, Bishop declared that she had voted for Turnbull, although Turnbull doubted her loyalty and Bishop resorted to proving it by retrieving her ballot papers. ### Ballots ## Aftermath Abbott said he was "humbled and daunted" by his unexpected election, while Hockey expressed surprise at his defeat. Upon his election, Abbott acknowledged his propensity for making controversial public statements—which with his Catholicism and background as a trainee priest earned him the moniker of "the Mad Monk"—and apologised for all his "errors of the past". A week after the ballot, Abbott named his Shadow Cabinet. Hockey remained in the key position of Shadow Treasurer. Three Howard government veterans—Kevin Andrews, Philip Ruddock and Bronwyn Bishop—were recalled from the backbench, and outspoken National Party MP and climate change denier Barnaby Joyce was appointed to the shadow Finance portfolio. Turnbull voluntarily moved to the backbench. Under Abbott's leadership, the Liberal Party voted against the ETS legislation in the Senate on 3 December 2009. Two Liberal Senators—Judith Troeth and Sue Boyce—crossed the floor to support the legislation. In February 2010, Abbott outlined his alternative climate change policy, which would directly fund or subsidise emission reduction measures rather than cap emissions from industry. Speaking in the House of Representatives in February 2010, Turnbull attacked Abbott's climate change policy and praised the government's ETS legislation. He argued that Abbott's subsidy-based policy would be a "recipe for fiscal recklessness". Turnbull later announced he would leave Parliament at the end of his term, before changing his mind within weeks. He claimed that his change of mind was the result of his anger at the government's decision to delay its ETS legislation until 2013. He denied being interested in regaining the leadership of the Liberal Party, saying "I don't think there is any likelihood of that I assure you". Turnbull subsequently gave qualified support to Abbott's climate change policy, arguing that while it was inferior to an ETS in principle, it was preferable to the government's approach of delaying action until 2013. While it was the third leadership spill motion in three years, the Liberal Party did not attempt another spill motion for six years after, until the February 2015 leadership spill motion which was defeated 61 votes to 39. In September 2015, Malcolm Turnbull called for another spill, directly challenging Tony Abbott in a rematch between the two, and winning the vote 54–44 to return to the position of leader of the Liberal Party, and as a result, displaced Abbott as Prime Minister of Australia. For Hockey it is viewed that his failure to come up with a firm position on the ETS had blown what turned out to be his only chance to become Liberal leader in 2009. When Prime Minister Tony Abbott's leadership came under question in 2014 and 2015, Hockey now Treasurer was not speculated as a potential successor to Abbott. ## See also - 2007 Liberal Party of Australia leadership election - 2008 Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill - 2010 Australian Labor Party leadership spill - February 2015 Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill motion - September 2015 Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill
7,365,848	Rockstar Lincoln	1,165,003,493	British video game developer	[ "1992 establishments in England", "1995 mergers and acquisitions", "1998 mergers and acquisitions", "British companies established in 1992", "British subsidiaries of foreign companies", "Companies based in Lincoln, England", "Rockstar Games subsidiaries", "Take-Two Interactive divisions and subsidiaries", "Video game companies established in 1992", "Video game companies of the United Kingdom", "Video game development companies" ]	Rockstar Lincoln Limited (formerly Spidersoft Limited and Tarantula Studios) is a British video game developer based in Lincoln. It is the quality assurance and localisation studio of Rockstar Games. Steve Marsden and David Cooke founded the company as Spidersoft in May 1992. Initially, it primarily developed Game Boy and Game Gear ports of various titles, including pinball video games for publisher 21st Century Entertainment, which acquired Spidersoft in 1995. After 21st Century Entertainment shut down in March 1998, Take-Two Interactive acquired Spidersoft in June that year and renamed it Tarantula Studios. The studio continued working on Game Boy and Game Boy Color games, such as Grand Theft Auto (1999). In 2002, the development portion of Tarantula Studios was shut down and the quality assurance portion was integrated into Take-Two's Rockstar Games label as Rockstar Lincoln. ## History ### Early years and pinball games (1992–1998) Rockstar Lincoln was founded as Spidersoft by Steve Marsden and David Cooke. They had previously worked together in the computer chip manufacturing department of GEC-Marconi from 1982 until 1984, when they turned to game development. They created the ZX Spectrum game Technician Ted, which was published by Andrew Hewson's company Hewson Consultants in 1984. The duo ported the game Speedball 2: Brutal Deluxe to the Game Boy while working with Mirrorsoft in 1991 and created a coin-op conversion of Time Scanner, a pinball video game, for Activision. Hewson shut down Hewson Consultants and co-founded 21st Century Entertainment in 1991. Following a meeting between him and Marsden, Marsden and Cooke established Spidersoft on 5 May 1992. The founders intended to name the company after an insect but found "Bugsoft" inappropriate. As arachnids "spooked them most", they settled on "Spidersoft". Marsden initially intended to keep tropical fish at the office but found that this would have required regularly cleaning their tanks. Instead, and in line with its name, the studio adopted tarantulas, starting with a Goliath birdeater and peaking at fifteen specimens. The studio primarily developed ports or adaptations of other games, including pinball games developed by Digital Illusions and published by 21st Century Entertainment. These include Pinball Dreams, which Spidersoft worked on for six to seven months. The studio also developed a sequel, Pinball Dreams 2, in five months. Outside of pinball projects, Hewson set up the studio with Sony Imagesoft to develop Cliffhanger, a tie-in for the 1993 film of the same name. Poker Face Paul's Blackjack and Solitaire were each completed in twenty-five days. 21st Century Entertainment contracted Spidersoft to port the successful game Pinball Fantasies to a range of platforms, including the Atari Jaguar and Game Boy. Following these ports' 1995 releases, 21st Century Entertainment sought to ensure a steady supply of pinball games without having to rely on third-party contractors, aiming at topping the pinball game niche market. To Hewson, Spidersoft appeared willing to continue developing pinball games, whereas Digital Illusions was looking to drop out of developing games in the genre. Consequently, 21st Century Entertainment acquired a controlling stake in Spidersoft. As the publisher increasingly focused on pinball games, Hewson lost his passion for the business, which he felt became "formulaic". In 1997, he was offered to join a start-up founded by old contacts of his, so he agreed with his co-investors to part ways and wind down the company. 21st Century Entertainment was defunct by March 1998. ### Acquisition and handheld games (1998–2000) On 1 June 1998, Take-Two Interactive announced its acquisition Spidersoft, renaming it Tarantula Studios. As part of the deal, the studio shifted its focus to game development for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color, starting with Montezuma's Return!, In-Fisherman Bass Hunter, and an unannounced project for the former platform, as well as Three Lions and Space Station Silicon Valley for the latter. Marsden remained with Tarantula Studios as studio director. In October 1999, the studio employed twenty-four development staff and was in the process of hiring fifteen people for quality assurance. It also held five tarantulas at this time, residing in Marsden's office. Tarantula Studios developed multiple games concurrently, each with a team of two programmers and two artists. Later games by Tarantula Studios include Rats! (1998) and Jim Henson's Muppets (1999), as well as Evel Knievel (1999), Grand Theft Auto (1999), Grand Theft Auto 2 (2000), Austin Powers: Welcome to My Underground Lair! (2000), and Austin Powers: Oh, Behave! (2000) published by Take-Two's Rockstar Games label. Evel Knievel became the lowest-scored Game Boy Color game on IGN at 2.0/10, with the site's writers describing it as "ruthlessly hard and impossible to play". ### Transition to quality assurance (2001–present) By 2001, the development and quality assurance departments of Tarantula Studios had been separated, of which the former was shut down in 2002. The remainder was integrated into Rockstar Games as Rockstar Lincoln in the same year. As part of Rockstar Games, the studio provides quality assurance and localisations—including French, German, Italian, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish—for internal projects, such as Manhunt, Max Payne 2, and the Grand Theft Auto series. In January 2011, Mark Lloyd, Rockstar Lincoln's long-time studio head who had been with the company since 1999, announced his resignation. His departure coincided with that of Mark Washbrook, the founder and studio head of Rockstar London. Rockstar Games stated that neither departure would affect the studios' active projects. Tim Bates succeeded Lloyd as general manager. Lloyd went on to found a video game consultancy service, Titanium Consultancy, which he later voluntarily wound down. Alongside Washbrook, he joined Activision's mobile-focused Activision Leeds studio in May 2012. Rockstar Lincoln won the "Active Workplace" award in the Lincolnshire Sports Awards in 2015 and 2016, and was nominated again in 2017. The studio offered its employees subsidised gym memberships, and a "Sports & Social" team organised sporting and leisure activities. Leading up to the release of Red Dead Redemption 2 in October 2018, it was reported that Rockstar Lincoln staff had, of all other Rockstar Games studios, suffered the worst crunch. Former and active employees reported that testers were paid low wages, had to work long hours, and were subjected to strict security regulations. One employee stated that mandatory overtime for working on Red Dead Redemption 2 started in August 2017, prior to Rockstar Games entering "official crunch mode" that October. Testers at Rockstar Lincoln were asked to work on evenings and weekends. They would initially work three nights per week, and later five. Of those working overtime, localisers and lead testers were paid annual salaries and thus were not compensated for working additional hours. In contrast, regular testers were paid by the hour and, depending on how long they worked, earned more than their leads. In response to overtime reports, the studio's management announced in a meeting held on 19 October 2018 that overtime at the studio would immediately become optional. All testers at the studio were to be converted to full-time employees by 1 August 2019. Security measures were lowered to allow mobile phones at the workplace, and a flexitime system was introduced. ## Games developed ### As Spidersoft ### As Tarantula Studios ### Cancelled - In-Fisherman Bass Hunter
23,913,127	Eurovision Song Contest 2013	1,173,173,229	International song competition	[ "2010s in Malmö", "2013 in Swedish music", "2013 song contests", "Eurovision Song Contest 2013", "Eurovision Song Contest by year", "Events at Malmö Arena", "Events in Malmö", "May 2013 events in Europe", "Music competitions in Sweden" ]	The Eurovision Song Contest 2013 was the 58th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Malmö, Sweden, following the country's victory at the with the song "Euphoria" by Loreen. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Sveriges Television (SVT), the contest was held at the Malmö Arena, and consisted of two semi-finals on 14 and 16 May, and a final on 18 May 2013. The three live shows were presented by Swedish comedian and television presenter Petra Mede, being the first time only one host had presented the show since the contest. Former Swedish entrant Eric Saade acted as the green room host in the final. Thirty-nine countries participated in the contest, with returning after its one-year absence. , , and all ceased their participation for various reasons. Slovakia and Turkey have yet to return to the contest since. The winner was with the song "Only Teardrops", performed by Emmelie de Forest and written by Lise Cabble, Julia Fabrin Jakobsen and Thomas Stengaard. The song had the highest average score in both the televote and jury vote. Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Norway and Russia rounded out the top five. This year marked the reintroduction of the "Parade of Nations", a concept which was first used in the contest from to (with the exception of ) before making a one-off return in . The concept had also been used, on-and-off, in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest since . It sees all countries performing in the final presenting themselves with their national flags before the contest begins. This year, the contestants entered the main stage by walking across a bridge over the audience. This idea has subsequently continued in every edition of the contest onwards. The EBU reported that 170 million viewers watched the semi-finals and final of the 2013 edition. ## Location On 8 July 2012, the Swedish broadcaster Sveriges Television (SVT) announced that the Malmö Arena in Malmö would be the host venue for the 2013 contest. This was the fifth time after , , and that the competition was held in Sweden, and the second time that it was held in Malmö, after 1992. SVT had expressed the desire to host the contest at a slightly smaller venue than previous years, as well as smaller environment which is easier to dedicate and decorate for other celebrations and festivities of the event within the host city. These were factors in the choice of the Malmö Arena as the host venue, and Malmö as Sweden's third-largest city by population after Stockholm and Gothenburg, the two other initial location-bidders. The city's proximity to the borders with Denmark and Norway also spilled over into some of the producers' actions. Denmark was eventually allocated to compete in one semi-final and Norway in the other, taking into consideration the number of Danish and Norwegian fans who were likely to travel for the contest, with the arena being relatively small and thus not suitable for accommodating both countries' fans in one semi-final. The Øresund Bridge was also used as the main artistic medium for the theme of the contest, as an expression of binding cultures. ### Bidding phase On the night of the final for the , the chief executive of SVT, Eva Hamilton, stated to the Swedish media that various venues in Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö were being considered for hosting the 2013 contest. One alternative put forward in the Expressen was to hold the competition at three venues – the semi-finals in Gothenburg and Malmö, and the final in Stockholm. This proposal was dismissed as unfeasible by SVT, which declared that the contest would be hosted in only one city. On 20 June 2012, it was announced that Gothenburg had withdrawn from the bidding process due to the city being the host of the Göteborg Horse Show in late April 2013. There were also concerns about the availability of hotel rooms due to a variety of other events taking place in the same time frame as the Eurovision Song Contest. On 9 July, the executive producer for the 2013 contest, Martin Österdahl, told the Swedish press "that he felt uncomfortable with the decisions and choices made by the countries that had previously hosted the contest", stating that he and SVT wanted the 2013 contest to be "smaller, closer and personal". SVT also claimed that the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) also disclosed that the EBU had asked potential future host broadcasters that "there were demands about reducing the scale of the event, given the increased costs of recent editions". The following candidate cities had provisionally reserved venues and hotel rooms, as part of their bids to host the 2013 contest. On 8 July 2012, the Malmö Arena was confirmed as the host venue for the contest. Malmö Arena is Sweden's fourth-largest indoor arena, after Friends Arena, Tele2 Arena and Globe Arena, all located in Stockholm. Key `Host venue` ## Participating countries The EBU announced on 21 December 2012 that 39 countries would compete in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013. , which was last represented in , confirmed that it would be returning to the contest following a one-year break. and both decided not to enter the 2013 contest due to financial difficulties, while and did not participate for different reasons. ### Returning artists Valentina Monetta represented for the second year in a row. She would also return for the 2014 and 2017 contests. Elitsa Todorova and Stoyan Yankoulov returned, having previously represented Bulgaria in 2007. Nevena Božović represented Serbia as part of Moje 3 and became the first contestant to compete in the Eurovision Song Contest after competing in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest, where she came third in 2007. She later represented Serbia in . Bledar Sejko, who represented Albania, was the on-stage guitarist for the Albanian entry in 2011. Gor Sujyan, who represented Armenia, was a backing vocalist for the Armenian entry in 2010. Aliona Moon, who represented Moldova, was a backing vocalist for the Moldovan entry in 2012. In addition, Pasha Parfeny, the Moldovan representative of 2012, was the composer of the Moldovan entry and accompanied her on stage on the piano. Estonian backing vocalists Lauri Pihlap and Kaido Põldma were part of the group 2XL, which won the contest in 2001 together with Dave Benton and Tanel Padar. ### Other countries #### Active EBU members Active EBU member broadcasters in , , the , , , , , and confirmed non-participation prior to the announcement of the participants list by the EBU. broadcaster TRT did the same, citing dissatisfaction with the 2009 introduction of a mixed jury/televote voting system and the status of the "Big Five" rule. #### Non-EBU member `broadcaster 1 FL TV had been trying to join the EBU since 2010. Director Peter Kölbel had said that due to a lack of financial subsidies from the government, EBU membership participation to participate in the contest would be impossible to obtain until 2013 at the earliest; however, it was later announced that the country would not take part in 2013.` ## Format The combination of televoting and jury voting results underwent changes that were detailed in the official rules for the 2013 contest. Each member of a respective nation's jury was required to rank every song, except that of their own country. The voting results from each member of a particular nation's jury were combined to produce an overall ranking from first to last place. Likewise, the televoting results were also interpreted as a full ranking, taking into account the full televoting result rather than just the top ten. The combination of the jury's full ranking and the televote's full ranking produced an overall ranking of all competing entries. The song which scored the highest overall rank received 12 points, while the tenth-best ranked song received 1-point. It was announced in the official Media Handbook that an official app would also be available for voters to vote via during the contest. Official sponsors of the broadcast were the main Swedish-Finnish telecommunication company TeliaSonera, and the German cosmetics company Schwarzkopf. The competition sponsors were the makeup company IsaDora cosmetics, the supermarket ICA and Tetra Pak. The Stockholm based singer and actress Sarah Dawn Finer also appeared in both semi-finals and the final in sketches as the comic character Lynda Woodruff. "Lynda" presented the votes for Sweden at the previous contest in Baku. Finer also appeared in the final as herself, performing the ABBA song "The Winner Takes It All" before the results were announced. The ex-Swedish football captain Zlatan Ibrahimović was revealed on 28 April to be part of the opening segment of the Eurovision final, in a pre-recorded message welcoming viewers to Malmö, his home city. The 2011 Swedish entrant Eric Saade was the host of the green room during the final. ### Semi-final allocation draw The draw that determined the semi-final allocation was held on 17 January 2013 at the Malmö City Hall. A draw at the EBU headquarters determined that, due to their geographical proximity with Malmö, Denmark would perform in the first semi-final, while Norway would perform in the second semi-final. This provided a maximum availability of tickets for visitors from both countries. The EBU also allocated Israel to the second semi-final after a request from the delegation in order to avoid complications with a national holiday coinciding with the date of the first semi-final. The remaining participating countries, excluding the automatic finalists (France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom), were split into five pots, based on voting patterns from the previous nine years. From these pots, 15 (in addition to Denmark) were allocated to compete in the first semi-final on 14 May 2013 and 15 (in addition to Norway and Israel) were allocated to compete in the second semi-final on 16 May 2013. The pots were calculated by the televoting partner Digame and were as follows: ### Running order Unlike previous years, the running order was not decided by the drawing of lots, but instead by the producers, with the aim of making the shows more exciting and ensuring that all contestants had a chance to stand out, preventing entries that are too similar cancelling each other out. The decision elicited mixed reactions from both fans of the contest and participating broadcasters. The running order for the semi-finals was released on 28 March 2013. The running order for the final was determined on 17 May 2013. An additional allocation draw occurred for the final with each finalist nation drawing to perform either in the first or second half of the final. The allocation draw for qualifying countries from the semi-finals occurred during the semi-final winners' press conferences following each semi-final, while the allocation draw for the Big Five countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) occurred during their first individual press conferences on 15 May 2013. As the host country, the running order position for Sweden in the final was exclusively determined by a draw during the heads of delegation meeting on 18 March 2013. Sweden was drawn to perform 16th in the final. ### Graphic design As aforesaid, SVT wanted to make a good use of Malmö Arena's space to highlight the performances and increase the audience's visibility compared to previous years. SVT created a main stage and a smaller stage with higher-lower shifted floors, connected by a trail closely surrounded by a standing crowd from both sides of it and around the small stage. The main stage mobility was expressed as a main artistic medium at the opening act of the second semi-final and with highlighting Moldova's performance towards its finish, as a movable part beneath the singer's dress making her look gradually taller. The small stage mobility highlighted United Kingdom's performance towards its finish, lifted above the close-standing audience. On 17 January 2013, at the semi-final allocation draw, the EBU revealed the graphic design, created by the Gothenburg-based branding agency Happy F&B for the 2013 contest, featuring a butterfly and the slogan "We Are One". The butterfly featured an array of colours and textures, while also representing the butterfly effect idea. Meanwhile, the slogan "We Are One" highlighted equality and unity of all the participating countries alongside the cultural diversity and influence of each participant. SVT confirmed on 19 February 2013 that the postcard films, used to introduce each song in the contest, would feature each artist in their respective country, to give the viewer a personal insight of each competing participant. This broke with recent tradition of the postcards often containing short segments of life within either the host city or country of the contest. The postcards were produced by Camp David, the on-air graphics by Broken Doll, and the animation of the butterflies by visual effects studio Swiss International. In addition to the graphic design, there was a theme music for the contest, titled "Wolverine" and composed by Adam Kafe, which was used in the intros and in-between commercial breaks. ### National host broadcaster On 11 July 2012, show producer Christer Björkman advised the public not to buy tickets for the 2013 contest that are currently in circulation and instead to wait for tickets to be released through official channels. Björkman said that official tickets had not yet been released, as necessary decisions over the stage and seating plans had not yet been made. Björkman also gave reassurance that accommodation would be available, as while the organisers had booked a large quantity of hotel rooms, some may be made available to the general public. On 21 November 2012, SVT officially announced the launch of ticket sales. On 17 October 2012, executive producer Martin Österdahl told Swedish newspaper Dagens Nyheter that SVT plans for the 2013 contest to have only one presenter for the entire event, unlike in previous years when there were up to three presenters per show. The last time only one presenter hosted the entire contest was in , when the solo host was Mary Kennedy. Petra Mede was announced as the host of the 2013 contest on 28 January 2013. ## Contest overview ### Semi-final 1 , and the voted in this semi-final. ### Semi-final 2 , and voted in this semi-final. ### Final For the first time since the contest, which was, coincidentally, held in Sweden as well, no country of the former participated in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest. #### Spokespersons The order in which each country announced their votes was determined in a draw following the jury results from final dress rehearsal. Similar to the 2012 contest an algorithm was used to generate as much suspense as possible. The spokespersons are shown alongside each country. 1. – John Kennedy O'Connor 2. – Yohio 3. – Andri Xhahu 4. – Cornald Maas 5. – Kati Bellowitsch 6. – Scott Mills 7. – Ofer Nachshon [he] 8. – Maja Nikolić [sr] 9. – Matias 10. – Éva Novodomszky 11. – Sonia Argint 12. – Olivia Furtună 13. – Tamilla Shirinova [az] 14. – Tooji 15. – André 16. – Federica Gentile [it] 17. – Kristiina Wheeler 18. – Inés Paz 19. – Darya Domracheva 20. – Anmary 21. – Joanna Dragneva [bg] 22. – Barbara Louys [fr] 23. – Alsou 24. – Emma Hickey 25. – Rolf Roosalu 26. – Lena 27. – María Sigrún Hilmarsdóttir 28. – Marine Vignes [fr] 29. – Adriana Magania 30. – Nicky Byrne 31. – Sofie Lassen-Kahlke [da] 32. – Ivana Sebek 33. – Andrea F 34. – Liza Tsiklauri 35. – Dimitar Atanasovski 36. – Loukas Hamatsos 37. – Uršula Tolj 38. – Mélanie Freymond [fr] 39. – Ignas Krupavičius ## Detailed voting results The EBU published the split results of the semi-finals and final on 29 May 2013. Unlike in previous years, a full points breakdown of the jury and public voting was not revealed. Instead, an average ranking was provided for each country based on the votes of the juries and televote in isolation. ### Semi-final 1 #### 12 points Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the first semi-final: ### Semi-final 2 #### 12 points Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the second semi-final: ### Final #### 12 points Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the final: \| N. \| Contestant \| Nation(s) giving 12 points \| \|-----\|------------\|----------------------------\| \| 10 \| \| , , , , , , , , , \| \| 8 \| ' \| , , , , , , , \| \| 5 \| \| , , , , \| \| 3 \| \| , , \| \| \| , , \| \| \| 2 \| \| , \| \| \| , \| \| \| 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| ## Broadcasts Most countries sent commentators to Malmö or commentated from their own country, in order to add insight to the participants and, if necessary, the provision of voting information. It was reported by the EBU that the 2013 contest was viewed by a worldwide television audience of 170 million viewers. ## Incidents ### Azerbaijan's vote rigging Prior to the finals, the Lithuanian media outlet 15min released an undercover video suggesting that representatives from Azerbaijan were trying to bribe Lithuanians for votes in the televoting. The video detailed the plan, which involved recruiting groups of 10 people each, and supplying them with SIM cards so they could vote multiple times during the voting window. It was also suggested that similar activity was taking place in a total of 15 countries including Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine, Croatia and Switzerland. In response to the allegations, Executive Supervisor Jon Ola Sand reaffirmed the contest's commitment to a "fair and transparent result". He stated that while Eurovision organisers were looking into the case, they "[emphasised] that the intention of these individuals have not yet been clarified, and nor has a link been established between the individuals in the video and the Azeri delegation, the Azeri act or the Azeri EBU member Ictimai TV." He added that, since 1998, when he was first involved with the contest, "every year there are rumors about irregularities in the voting". The EBU later confirmed an attempt of cheating in the contest, which was unsuccessful according to EBU as the EBU's system prevent fraud. According to the EBU, there is no evidence that any broadcaster has been involved in cheating. The rules were changed the next year to ensure that all broadcasters would be responsible for preventing fraud to their advantage or face a three-year suspension if fraud is revealed. However, in May 2015, a member of the contest's Reference Group confirmed that Azerbaijan had cheated, and that it was organized and very expensive. When Azerbaijan officially awarded no points to Dina Garipova of Russia, despite Garipova having reportedly come second in the country's phone poll, the Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev ordered an inquiry. The Russian Foreign Affairs Minister Sergei Lavrov claimed that the result had been falsified, and stated that "this outrageous action will not remain without a response". He promised a co-ordinated response with his Azerbaijani counterpart Elmar Mammadyarov. Simultaneously, the Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko claimed that his own country having received no points from Russia showed that the result must have been falsified. ### Plagiarism allegations Cascada's entry for Germany, "Glorious", was the subject of investigation by NDR following allegations that it was too similar to the 2012 winner, "Euphoria" by Loreen. NDR spokeswoman Iris Bents played down the allegations, stating that "Every year there are attempts to create scandals around the Eurovision Song Contest and the participants." Following an independent audit, "Glorious" was found not to have plagiarized "Euphoria". Allegations of plagiarism against the winning Danish entry "Only Teardrops" surfaced after Eric van Tijn, a notable Dutch music producer, mentioned the opening flute solo's similarity to "I Surrender", a 2002 song by the Dutch band K-Otic. However, Van Tijn also stated that the flute solo was the only similarity between the two songs, thus calling it "a storm in a teacup". ### Finland's same-sex kiss The performance of the Finnish entry, "Marry Me", caused controversy in certain more socially conservative countries broadcasting the contest. The act featured Krista Siegfrids and one of her female backing singers kissing each other at the end, widely labelled in media as Eurovision's first "lesbian kiss". Siegfrids stated to the media that the act was done to encourage Finland to legalise same-sex marriage. It was reported that Turkish and Greek media reacted negatively to Siegfrids' act. According to Gay Star News, the Turkish broadcaster TRT, which had previously decided not to participate itself, initially indicated that it would still broadcast the contest, but made a late decision not to do so. ### Eric Saade's green room incident Green room host Eric Saade referred to Petra Mede as a "MILF" on air during the break between the first and second halves of the voting, saying "Back to you, Petra. \#MILF". When the broadcaster for the United Kingdom, BBC aired this, the sound was lost. It remains unknown whether this was just an accident, or if the BBC did it purposely. While the statement was supposedly scripted and SVT were aware of Saade's plan, some on social media were confused and offended by the comment. ## Other awards In addition to the main winner's trophy, the Marcel Bezençon Awards and the Barbara Dex Award were contested during the 2013 Eurovision Song Contest. The OGAE, "General Organisation of Eurovision Fans" voting poll also took place before the contest. ### Marcel Bezençon Awards The Marcel Bezençon Awards, organised since 2002 by Sweden's then-Head of Delegation and 1992 representative Christer Björkman, and 1984 winner Richard Herrey, honours songs in the contest's final. The awards are divided into three categories: Artistic Award, Composers Award, and Press Award. ### OGAE OGAE, an organisation of over forty Eurovision Song Contest fan clubs across Europe and beyond, conducts an annual voting poll first held in 2002 as the Marcel Bezençon Fan Award. After all votes were cast, the top-ranked entry in the 2013 poll was also the winner of the contest, "Only Teardrops" performed by Emmelie de Forest; the top five results are shown below. ### Barbara Dex Award The Barbara Dex Award is a humorous fan award given to the worst dressed artist each year. Named after Belgium's representative who came last in the 1993 contest, wearing her self-designed dress, the award was handed by the fansite House of Eurovision from 1997 to 2016 and is being carried out by the fansite songfestival.be since 2017. ## Official album Eurovision Song Contest: Malmö 2013''''' was a compilation album put together by the European Broadcasting Union, and released by CMC International and Universal Music Group on 29 April 2013. The album featured all 39 songs that entered in the 2013 contest including the semi-finalists that failed to qualify into the grand final. The digital version featured a bonus track, "We Write the Story", composed by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson of ABBA, and DJ and music producer Avicii. ### Charts ## See also - ABU TV Song Festival 2013 - Eurovision Young Dancers 2013 - Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2013 - Türkvizyon Song Contest 2013
25,171,429	Inflow (meteorology)	1,117,632,186	Meteorological term for flow of a fluid into a large collection of itself	[ "Meteorological phenomena", "Severe weather and convection", "Synoptic meteorology and weather" ]	Inflow is the flow of a fluid into a large collection of that fluid. Within meteorology, inflow normally refers to the influx of warmth and moisture from air within the Earth's atmosphere into storm systems. Extratropical cyclones are fed by inflow focused along their cold front and warm fronts. Tropical cyclones require a large inflow of warmth and moisture from warm oceans in order to develop significantly, mainly within the lowest 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) of the atmosphere. Once the flow of warm and moist air is cut off from thunderstorms and their associated tornadoes, normally by the thunderstorm's own rain-cooled outflow boundary, the storms begin to dissipate. Rear inflow jets behind squall lines act to erode the broad rain shield behind the squall line, and accelerate its forward motion. ## Thunderstorms The inflow into a thunderstorm, or complex of thunderstorms, is the circulation of warm and humid air ahead of a trigger convergence zone such as a cold front. This airmass is uplifted by the trigger and form convective clouds. Later, cool air carried to the ground by thunderstorm downdraft, cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, destroying its updraft and causing its dissipation. Tornadoes, which form within stronger thunderstorms, grow until they reach their mature stage. This is when the rear flank downdraft of the thunderstorm, fed by rain-cooled air, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado. Inflow can originate from mid-levels of the atmosphere too. When thunderstorms are able to organize into squall lines, a feature known as a rear inflow jet develops to the south of the mid-level circulation associated with its northern bookend vortex. This leads to an erosion of rain within the broad rain shield behind the squall line, and may lead to acceleration of the squall line itself. ## Tropical cyclones While an initial warm core system, such as an organized thunderstorm complex, is necessary for the formation of a tropical cyclone, a large flux of energy is needed to lower atmospheric pressure more than a few millibars (0.10 inch of mercury). Inflow of warmth and moisture from the underlying ocean surface is critical for tropical cyclone strengthening. A significant amount of the inflow in the cyclone is in the lowest 1 kilometre (3,300 ft) of the atmosphere. ## Extratropical cyclones Polar front theory is attributed to Jacob Bjerknes, and was derived from a coastal network of observation sites in Norway during World War I. This theory proposed that the main inflow into a cyclone was concentrated along two lines of convergence, one ahead (or east) of the low and another trailing equatorward (south in the Northern Hemisphere and north in the Southern Hemisphere) and behind (or west) of the low. The convergence line ahead of the low became known as either the steering line or the warm front. The trailing convergence zone was referred to as the squall line or cold front. Areas of clouds and rainfall appeared to be focused along these convergence zones. A conveyor belt, also referred to as the warm conveyor belt, is a term describing the flow of a stream of warm moist air originating within the warm sector (or generally equatorward) of an extratropical cyclone in advance of the cold front which slopes up above and poleward (north in the Northern Hemisphere and south in the Southern Hemisphere) of the surface warm front. The concept of the conveyor belt originated in 1969. The left edge of the conveyor belt is sharp due to higher density air moving in from the west forcing a sharp slope to the cold front. An area of stratiform precipitation develops poleward of the warm front along the conveyor belt. Active precipitation poleward of the warm front implies potential for greater development of the cyclone. A portion of this conveyor belt turns to the right (left in the Southern Hemisphere), aligning with the upper level westerly flow. However, the western portion of this belt wraps around the northwest (southwest in the Southern Hemisphere) side of the cyclone, which can contain moderate to heavy precipitation. If the air mass is cold enough, the precipitation falls in the form of heavy snow. Theory from the 1980s talked about the presence of a cold conveyor belt originating north of the warm front and flowing along a clockwise path (in the northern hemisphere) into the main belt of the westerlies aloft, but there has been conflicting evidence as to whether or not this phenomenon actually exists. ## See also - Outflow (meteorology)
15,997,132	2001 Gator Bowl	1,171,358,889	null	[ "2000–01 NCAA football bowl games", "2001 in sports in Florida", "21st century in Jacksonville, Florida", "Clemson Tigers football bowl games", "Gator Bowl", "January 2001 sports events in the United States", "Virginia Tech Hokies football bowl games" ]	The 2001 Gator Bowl was a post-season American college football bowl game between the Clemson Tigers and the Virginia Tech Hokies at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville, Florida on January 1, 2001. The game was the final contest of the 2000 NCAA Division I-A football season for both teams, and ended in a 41–20 victory for Virginia Tech. Virginia Tech entered the game headed by star quarterback Michael Vick, who led the Hokies to a 10–1 regular-season record despite being injured for a part of the season. Clemson entered the game with a regular-season record of 9–2 under the command of head coach Tommy Bowden, who was in the second year of his tenure. The contest featured two high-scoring offenses that emphasized different aspects of the game. These aspects were exemplified in the game, which saw Clemson pass for more yards than Virginia Tech, while the Hokies ran for more yards than the Tigers. Virginia Tech jumped out to an early lead and maintained it throughout the game. Vick had a 23-yard touchdown run on the game's opening drive, then helped the Hokies expand their lead to 14–0 by the end of the first quarter. The Tigers narrowed Tech's lead to 14–10 in the second quarter, but the Hokies scored another touchdown before halftime and went into the second half with a 21–10 lead. Injuries knocked Clemson's two leading running backs out of the game, and starting Clemson quarterback Woodrow Dantzler was removed from the game after he proved ineffective against the Virginia Tech defense. Despite these changes, the Tigers were unable to reduce Virginia Tech's lead, which stood at 34–13 at the end of the third quarter. A late Clemson touchdown moved the Tigers within two touchdowns, but Virginia Tech answered with a touchdown of its own, making the final score 41–20. In recognition of his performance in leading his team to a victory, Vick was named the game's most valuable player. It was his final collegiate game, and four months after the Gator Bowl, he was selected with the first overall selection in the 2001 NFL Draft. A handful of other players who participated in the Gator Bowl also were selected in the draft. ## Team selection For the 2000–01 college football season, the Gator Bowl had the right to select the No. 2 bowl-eligible team from both the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) and the Big East Conference. The bowl game's administrators also had a contract to include Notre Dame if that school met certain entry requirements. The conference champions of the ACC and Big East were guaranteed a spot in a Bowl Championship Series game, and there also was the possibility of an at-large BCS selection for any team in each conference if it finished high enough in the BCS Poll but did not win the conference championship. ### Clemson The Clemson Tigers entered the 2000–2001 college football season after a 6–6 season in 1999 under first-year head coach Tommy Bowden. Fans and college football analysts predicted Bowden would continue Clemson's resurgence from a 3–8 season during the year before Bowden was hired. Some pointed to Bowden's undefeated season in the second year after assuming the head coaching job at Tulane University as a sign of what to expect from Clemson. Most analysts, however, anticipated a more moderate improvement over the previous year. In the annual preseason poll of media who covered Atlantic Coast Conference football, Clemson tied for second with Georgia Tech. Both teams were far behind perennial favorite Florida State, however. Nationally, Clemson debuted at No. 17 in the preseason AP Poll and No. 20 in the preseason coaches' poll. The Tigers opened their season against Division I-AA opponent The Citadel, whom they beat handily, 38–0. That victory was followed by two blowout wins: 62–9 against Missouri and 55–7 against ACC opponent Wake Forest. Those three games were typical of Clemson's first eight, which the Tigers won in succession. After the win against Wake Forest, Clemson beat Virginia, Duke, North Carolina State, Maryland, and North Carolina. In the final win of that streak, starting quarterback Woodrow Dantzler was replaced by backup Willie Simmons in the second quarter due to an injury to Dantzler. With an 8–0 record and a No. 5 national ranking, Clemson hosted Georgia Tech. In the game, the Yellow Jackets posted a school-record offensive effort in an upset victory over the Tigers. Clemson took a 28–24 lead with 1:52 remaining in the game, but the Yellow Jackets drove 80 yards in 11 plays before ending with a one-handed catch for a touchdown, giving Clemson its first loss of the season. The defeat eliminated the Tigers from national championship contention, but they still had a chance to win the conference championship if they defeated Florida State the following week. The Florida State Seminoles are coached by Bobby Bowden, father of Tommy Bowden. Their 2000 matchup marked only the second time that a father and son had faced each other as opposing head football coaches. The only other meeting had been the previous year, when Tommy lost by three points to his father. In the 2000 meeting, No. 4 Florida State dominated No. 10 Clemson from the start of the game. In an effort to impress BCS voters, Florida State ran up the score and the game ended with the Seminoles on top, 54–7. The Seminoles' win gave them the ACC football championship and dropped Clemson to a No. 16 ranking. With its spot as the No. 2 ACC team assured, Clemson accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl on November 14, prior to its annual in-state rivalry game against South Carolina. In that game, South Carolina took a one-point lead with 59 seconds remaining, but Clemson drove the length of the field and kicked a field goal as time expired, giving the Tigers a 16–14 win to end the regular season. ### Virginia Tech During the 1999–2000 college football season, Virginia Tech went undefeated during the regular season but lost to Florida State in the 2000 BCS National Championship Game. In the offseason following the championship-game loss, Tech fans and pundits anticipated a possible repeat of the Hokies' undefeated regular season and national championship run. In the annual preseason poll of media members covering Big East Conference football, Virginia Tech was picked to finish second; Tech received nine first-place votes to Miami's 15. In the preseason Associated Press college football poll, Virginia Tech was 11th. When games for the 2001 college football season were scheduled, Virginia Tech was picked to host the annual Black Coaches & Administrators Classic, the opening game of the national Division I-A season. Georgia Tech was picked as the opponent, but on the day of the game, severe lightning storms hit the Blacksburg, Virginia area. ESPN commentator Lee Corso's rental car was struck by lightning, and the game was postponed due to severe weather. It was never rescheduled and eventually was canceled. After the BCA Classic was canceled, Virginia Tech opened the regular season with a 52–23 blowout win over Akron. This was followed by a 45–28 win over East Carolina and a 49–0 shutout of Rutgers. The three wins typified the early part of Virginia Tech's schedule, which also featured wins against Boston College, Temple, West Virginia, Syracuse, and Pittsburgh. By virtue of winning its first eight games of the season, Tech rose to a No. 2 national ranking prior to facing No. 3 Miami on November 4. Virginia Tech star quarterback Michael Vick suffered a severely sprained ankle in the game against Pittsburgh, and strong-performing wide receiver André Davis was temporarily crippled by bursitis in his left foot. Despite these injuries, commentators predicted a high-scoring game that was sometimes referred to as "the Big East's game of the year". It was predicted that the winner likely would be a shoo-in for that year's national championship game. With Vick injured, backup quarterback Dave Meyer started the game for the Hokies, who fell behind 14–0 in the first quarter. In desperation, Vick tried to play despite his injury, but he participated in only 19 plays before leaving the game for good. Miami quarterback Ken Dorsey threw three long touchdown passes, and Miami won the game, 41–21. The loss knocked Tech out of contention for the national championship and the conference championship, since Miami was a fellow member of the Big East. The Hokies also fell to No. 8 in the AP Poll during the week after the game. In that week, they rebounded by beating the University of Central Florida, 44–21. Ranked No. 6 after the win, Tech defeated in-state rival Virginia, 42–21, in the annual battle for the Commonwealth Cup. Though the loss to Miami knocked the Hokies out of contention for the Big East championship and its accompanying automatic BCS bid, there was the possibility that Tech could receive an at-large BCS game bid if it scored high enough in the final BCS poll and the administrators of a BCS game wanted to invite the Hokies. Tech was considered a long shot due to the availability of Oregon State and Notre Dame, two teams with large followings that would attract greater television revenue and ticket sales. Gator Bowl officials made plans based on different possibilities. If Virginia Tech was selected for a BCS bowl but Notre Dame was not, the Fighting Irish would play in the Gator Bowl. If both were selected, Big East No. 3 Pittsburgh would be given the nod for the Gator Bowl. On December 3, the BCS selections were announced: The Fiesta Bowl selected No. 5 Oregon State and No. 10 Notre Dame instead of No. 6 Virginia Tech. This left the Hokies available for the Gator Bowl, which picked them on the next day. ## Pregame buildup In the weeks before the Gator Bowl, media and fan attention focused on Virginia Tech's possible disappointment at not being selected for a BCS game, the coaching situations at the two schools, and the issue of whether or not Tech quarterback Michael Vick would return for another year of collegiate football. After the Virginia Tech-Clemson matchup was announced for the Gator Bowl, spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win by 6.5 points. The betting line remained there throughout the month of December and until the game began. There were almost no off-field incidents involving players from either team: The only notable event involved two backup players from Clemson who were indicted for money counterfeiting and were suspended for the Gator Bowl. In exchange for appearing in the game, the teams were guaranteed to split a payout of \$3,313,610. ### Virginia Tech disappointment Immediately after the Fiesta Bowl bypassed Virginia Tech in favor of lower-ranked Notre Dame, protests from Tech fans and opponents of the BCS system erupted. Some said the selection was "unfair", that Virginia Tech was "hosed", or that the pick of Notre Dame was a "snub" of the Hokies. In an interview immediately after the selection, Vick said the Gator Bowl bid provided motivation to win the Gator Bowl. "We're going to go out there and make a statement, play a great game and show the nation", he said. Clemson, on the other hand, was enthusiastic about the Gator Bowl bid. A win in the game would have given the Tigers their first 10-win season since 1990, and the Gator Bowl appearance marked a continued improvement over its showing the previous year. Clemson players viewed the game as a reward for a successful season, while Virginia Tech players perceived it from a more workmanlike point of view. Due to revenue-sharing agreements among Big East schools, Virginia Tech's selection by the Gator Bowl resulted in a payment of \$1.7 million less than if it had been selected by a BCS bowl game. Instead of receiving about \$3.5 million from the revenue agreement and bowl payout, Tech received about \$1.8 million. ### Coaching changes Both Clemson and Virginia Tech endured questions about their coaching staffs in the weeks and months prior to the Gator Bowl. Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer was interviewed by North Carolina prior to the end of the regular season, and he debated whether or not to accept that school's head football coaching job. On November 27, one week before Tech's selection by the Gator Bowl, Beamer announced that he would not be departing for North Carolina or any other school. Beamer also was considered for the vacant head-coaching position with the NFL's Washington Redskins, but he also declined that position. Other Virginia Tech football coaches were targeted by teams to fill vacant head-coaching positions. Virginia Tech offensive coordinator Rickey Bustle was interviewed for a job at Toledo, but he declined the position. Virginia Tech defensive coordinator Bud Foster was interviewed for the head-coaching job at Virginia, but he likewise declined the job. Tech's situation was not reflected at Clemson, where offensive coordinator Rich Rodriguez announced that he was leaving the team for the head football coach job at West Virginia University, where he competed as a player in the 1980s. Rodriguez did not participate in Clemson's practices prior to the Gator Bowl, and he did not coach during the game. Replacing Rodriguez as temporary offensive coordinator was Brad Scott. Joining him in the press box during the Gator Bowl was Mike O'Cain, who was hired as Clemson's new quarterbacks coach. In an effort to prevent further defections, Clemson awarded head coach Tommy Bowden a seven-year contract extension worth \$1.1 million annually plus incentives. ### Michael Vick debate Throughout the regular season, a constant question hanging over the Virginia Tech Hokies football team was whether or not star quarterback Michael Vick would return for another year at the school. The National Football League requires that players be at least three years out of high school before they are eligible for the NFL Draft. Vick, who had not played during his freshman year at the school, would be three years out of high school in the spring following the Gator Bowl. Vick attempted to defuse the discussion when he announced on December 15 that he would be returning for his fourth year with the team. But in late December, Vick wavered on that decision when it became clear that if he left the team, he would be selected as the No. 1 overall pick in the draft. Heading into the Gator Bowl, his decision was still up in the air. ### Clemson offense During the regular season, Clemson was No. 10 in rushing yards, averaging 236.4 per game. Its passing offense was somewhat weaker, ranked No. 63 and averaging 210.1 yards per game. In total, however, Clemson's offense ranked No. 10 when the two amounts were added together. In scoring offense, the Tigers averaged 36.0 points per game, good enough for No. 14 in the country in that category. Clemson's offense was led by quarterback Woodrow Dantzler, who finished the regular season having completed 58 percent of his passes for 1,691 yards, 10 touchdowns, and six interceptions. He also ran the ball extremely successfully, gaining 947 yards and 13 touchdowns on the ground. In the running game, Dantzler had the second-most yards on the team. No. 1 was running back Travis Zachery, who ran 201 times for 1,012 yards and 13 touchdowns. Zachery also was one of Dantzler's favorite passing targets. He caught 27 passes for 288 yards and four touchdowns during the regular season. Wide receivers Rod Gardner and Jackie Robinson were the No. 1 and No. 3 recipients, respectively, of Dantzler's passes. Gardner caught 51 passes for 956 yards and six touchdowns. Robinson, unrelated to the baseball player of the same name, caught 24 passes for 276 yards and three touchdowns. ### Virginia Tech offense Virginia Tech's offense was No. 5 nationally in rushing yards, averaging 270.5 per game. Their passing offense was abysmal, however. The Hokies were ranked No. 100 in that category after averaging 155.9 yards per game during the regular season. Combined, Tech was ranked No. 20 in total offense. In scoring offense, they found success comparable to their rushing game. After averaging 40.3 points per game, they were ranked No. 5. Virginia Tech's offense was led by quarterback Michael Vick, who carried the ball 104 times for 617 yards and eight touchdowns despite an ankle injury that limited his mobility in the final six games of the regular season. Tech also had two successful running backs: Lee Suggs and Andre Kendrick. Suggs had 222 carries for 1,207 yards and 27 touchdowns during the regular season, while Kendrick had 102 rushes for 547 yards and three touchdowns. Suggs was the No. 1 rusher in the Big East in terms of touchdowns and rushing yards. In recognition of his accomplishments, he was given the Dudley Award, which recognizes the top college football player in Virginia. One of Vick's favorite targets in the limited Tech passing attack was wide receiver André Davis, who caught 24 passes for 318 yards and two touchdowns. Davis was limited by the fact that he played in only nine of Tech's 11 games, but he still finished as the Hokies' No. 2 receiver in terms of yardage. Tech's No. 1 receiver was Emmett Johnson, who caught 34 passes for 574 yards and three touchdowns. ### Clemson defense Clemson's defense was strongest against the rush. During the regular season, the Tigers allowed an average of 101.8 yards per game on the ground, good enough for No. 18 nationally. Their passing defense was not nearly as successful. On average, the Tigers allowed 238.6 yards per game through the air, making their pass defense the 97th best in division I-A football during the regular season. With both categories combined, the defense was ranked No. 37. In terms of points allowed, rather than yardage, the Tigers were ranked No. 23 after giving up an average of 19.3 yards per game. Linebacker Chad Carson was the team's defensive leader. He had 146 tackles (the most on the team), two pass breakups, and one forced fumble during the regular season. Fellow linebacker Keith Adams was No. 2 on the team in tackles with 138, including five sacks. He also had one interception, three forced fumbles, and three pass breakups. In pass defense, the Tigers' highest achiever was cornerback Alex Ardley, who led the team in interceptions with five. He also had seven pass breakups. One notable absence from the Tigers' defense during the Gator Bowl was defensive end Nick Eason, who led the team in sacks but suffered a torn Achilles tendon during a mid-December practice. Backup defensive end Marcus Lewis also missed the game due to injury. He tore an anterior cruciate ligament in a pregame practice. ### Virginia Tech defense Virginia Tech's defense likewise was more successful against opponents' rushing offense than their passing attack. Tech permitted an average of 99.3 yards per game on the ground (16th), but allowed 224.4 yards per game through the air (79th). In total, Tech was ranked the No. 27 defense in the country—slightly better than Clemson. In scoring defense, the Hokies allowed 22.6 points per game on average, good enough for No. 45. In this category, they were worse than the Tigers. Linebacker Ben Taylor was the Hokies' defensive leader. He was No. 1 on the team in tackles with 103. That figure included 1.5 sacks. He also had two interceptions, five pass breakups, and one forced fumble. Four year starting linebacker Jake Houseright was the team's No. 2 tackler. He had 75, including five tackles for loss. He also had five pass breakups and recovered one fumble. Free safety Willie Pile, who was in his first year as a starter on the defense, was Tech's leading performer in pass coverage. He had six interceptions—the most on the team—broke up 10 passes, forced one fumble, and recovered one fumble. ## Game summary The 2001 Gator Bowl kicked off on January 1, 2001, at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville, Florida. At kickoff, the weather was partly cloudy at 45 °F (7 °C) degrees, with 41 percent humidity and a 6 miles per hour (10 km/h) wind from the northwest. Virginia Tech won the traditional pregame coin toss to determine first possession and elected to kick off to Clemson to begin the game. ### First quarter Clemson fielded the opening kickoff at the two-yard line and returned it to their 25-yard line, where the Tigers' offense performed the game's first offensive play, a one-yard scramble by Dantzler. A subsequent running play and an incomplete pass caused Clemson to go three-and-out before punting. Clemson punter Jamie Somaini mishandled the ball, however, and Virginia Tech's defense tackled him at the Tigers' 23-yard line. On Tech's first play after the turnover, quarterback Michael Vick completed a 23-yard pass to Jared Ferguson for a touchdown. The extra point kick by Carter Warley was successful, and Virginia Tech had a 7–0 lead with 13:23 remaining in the first quarter. Virginia Tech's post-touchdown kickoff was downed at the Clemson 26-yard line, where the Tigers began their second offensive possession. It began no better than the first, as Dantzler was tackled for a three-yard loss by defensive tackle Lamar Cobb. A rush for no gain and a short pass forced Clemson to again punt before gaining a first down. Somaini's second punt was kicked cleanly, and the Hokies returned the punt to their 42-yard line. Two rushes and a pass to the 50-yard line were not enough for a first down, and Tech punted to the Clemson 17-yard line. The Tigers' third possession didn't produce anything more than their first two possessions did. A running play was stopped for no gain, Dantzler was sacked for a loss of three yards by David Pugh, and a scramble by Dantzler gained only four yards. Clemson's punt was downed at the Tech 41-yard line, and the Hokies had another chance on offense. On the first play of the drive, Vick scrambled for a nine-yard gain. On the next play, Tech gained a first down on a run by backup running back Andre Kendrick to the Clemson 46-yard line. After an incomplete pass, Vick completed a six-yard toss to Kendrick. A five-yard offsides penalty gave Tech a first down at the Clemson 35-yard line, then Vick completed a six-yard throw to wide receiver Emmett Johnson. This was followed by Vick scrambling for a first down at the Clemson 19-yard line. A reverse run by Johnson picked up five yards, then a run up the middle gained a first down at the Clemson nine-yard line. Two rushes by Kendrick failed to reach the five-yard line, then Vick ran six yards for Tech's second touchdown of the game. The extra point was good, and Tech extended its lead to 14–0 with 1:08 remaining in the quarter. Virginia Tech's kickoff was returned to the Clemson 26-yard line, and the drive began with an incomplete pass from Dantzler. After that, the Tigers gained their first down of the game with a pass from Dantzler to wide receiver Rod Gardner at the 38-yard line. A run by Dantzler gained three yards, then Zachery gained five more with a run to the left side. Zachery's run ran the final seconds off the clock in the first quarter, which ended with Virginia Tech leading, 14–0. ### Second quarter The second quarter began with Clemson in possession of the ball and facing third and two at its 46-yard line. The Tigers gained a first down with the first play of the quarter, a four-yard rush by Zachery. From midfield, Dantzler threw an incomplete pass then ran for no gain. On third down, Dantzler completed a long pass to Justin Watts, who gained a first down at the Tech 23-yard line. On the next play, Dantzler completed a pass to Zachery, who ran into the end zone for Clemson's first points of the game. During the play, Zachery broke his foot and was kept out of the rest of the game. The extra point was good, and the Tigers narrowed Tech's lead to 14–7 with 13:34 remaining in the first half. Clemson's post-touchdown kickoff was bobbled by kick returner Andre Kendrick at the Tech one-yard line, but Kendrick broke free of the Clemson defense for a 34-yard return to the 35-yard line. Tech's first play after the return was an 11-yard run by Lee Suggs up the right side of the field. After the first down, Suggs ran straight ahead for a short gain, then Vick scrambled to the Clemson 37-yard line and another first down. Suggs then gained 18 yards on a run to the left side of the field. At the Clemson 19-yard line, Suggs was stopped for a loss of one yard, then Vick was sacked for a loss of five yards. The third-down play was an incomplete pass, and Carter Warley entered the game to attempt a 42-yard field goal. The kick bounced off the field goal crossbar but did not cross it, thus denying the Hokies three points. With 10:33 remaining in the half, Tech still had a 14–7 lead. Following the missed field goal, Clemson's offense started at its 25-yard line. On the first play of the drive, Dantzler completed a pass to wide receiver Rod Gardner, who ran for 25 yards and a first down at the 50-yard line. A nine-yard shovel pass play was followed by a run up the middle for a first down at the Tech 37-yard line. Dantzler completed an eight-yard pass, then a running play was stopped short of the first-down marker. On third down, Dantzler faked a quarterback sneak in order to attempt a long pass downfield. Dantzler was unable to pass, however, and was sacked for a four-yard loss. Rather than attempt a field goal or punt the ball, Clemson coach Tommy Bowden had his team attempt to gain a first down. Dantzler scrambled forward, but didn't gain the five yards needed. The Tigers thus turned the ball over on downs at the Tech 28-yard line. Tech began its drive with an incomplete pass, which was followed by a short run. On third down, Vick prepared to throw the ball, but he was hit by Clemson defender Keith Adams and fumbled the ball. Fellow Clemson defender Terry Jolly recovered the loose football and returned it to the Tech 14-yard line before he was tackled. Following the turnover, Dantzler was stopped on a short run then threw two incomplete passes. Rather than again attempt to convert a fourth down, Bowden sent in kicker Aaron Hunt to attempt a 28-yard field goal. The kick soared through the uprights, and Clemson narrowed Virginia Tech's lead to 14–10 with 5:45 remaining in the quarter. Kendrick returned Clemson's post-score kickoff to the Tech 23-yard line. A two-yard run by Suggs was followed by a pass to Davis at the Tech 39-yard line for a first down. Two running plays set up third down and two, then Vick completed a 50-yard pass to Kendrick, who picked up a first down at the Clemson four-yard line. From there, it took Suggs two rushes to pass the goal line for Virginia Tech's third touchdown of the game. The extra point was good, and Tech extended its lead to 21–10 with 2:26 before halftime. Tech's post-touchdown kickoff bounced to the Clemson two-yard line before it was returned to the Clemson 12-yard line. An incomplete pass on first down was followed by a first-down pass to Gardner at the 22-yard line. Dantzler then completed a pass to Watts at the 34-yard line for another first down. After an incomplete pass, Dantzler scrambled for a first down at the Clemson 47-yard line, where he completed a 17-yard pass to Robinson as time ticked below one minute remaining. From the Tech 36-yard line, Dantzler completed a pass to Gardner at the Tech 29-yard line. After a time out with 33 seconds remaining, Dantzler threw an incomplete pass. This was followed by another incomplete pass, and Clemson converted the first down with a pass to the Tech 24-yard line. An incomplete pass on first down was followed by another on second down. Following the play, there was only eight seconds left on the clock, and coach Bowden ordered Hunt into the game to attempt a 41-yard field goal. The kick was short and to the right, and Clemson turned the ball over with two seconds remaining. Vick took a knee to run the final seconds off the clock, and Virginia Tech entered halftime with a 21–10 lead. ### Third quarter Because Clemson received the ball to begin the game, Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half. Kendrick received the kickoff at the Tech goal line and returned it to the 20-yard line, where the Hokies started the first possession of the second half. On the first play, Virginia Tech committed a 10-yard holding penalty. Suggs gained five yards with a run up the middle, then Vick completed a pass to tight end Browning Wynn at the 28-yard line. On third down, the Hokies were stopped short of the first down marker and punted for only the second time in the game. During the kick, Clemson committed a 15-yard roughing the kicker penalty. The penalty allowed the Hokies to retain the football and gave them a first down at their 44-yard line. On the first play after the penalty, Vick completed a 55-yard pass to Davis at the Clemson one-yard line. After the pass, Suggs ran straight ahead for his second touchdown of the game. The extra point was missed by Warley, but Tech still extended its lead to 27–10 with 12:19 remaining in the quarter. Virginia Tech's kickoff was recovered and Clemson's kick returner ran out of bounds at the Tigers' 12-yard line. Dantzler scrambled for two yards, but Virginia Tech linebacker Jake Houseright was injured during the play and left the game. After a delay while the injured Houseright was helped off the field, Dantzler scrambled for six yards. Bernard Rambert gained a first down with a two-yard run, then he gained five yards on a run up the middle. Dantzler followed the gain with a 13-yard run of his own and a first down at the Clemson 40-yard line. Rambert caught a five-yard pass from Dantzler, then he ran for one yard up the left side of the field. During the play, Rambert was injured and had to be helped off the field. He was replaced by third-string freshman running back Keith Kelly. Dantzler threw an incomplete pass on third down, then Somaini punted the ball to Virginia Tech. The kick bounced off the chest of the Virginia Tech kick returner, and the loose ball was scooped up by Robert Carswell of Clemson. Following the turnover, Clemson's offense had a first down at the Tech 20-yard line with 8:44 remaining in the quarter. Kelly gained one yard on first down, then Dantzler picked up 11 yards and a first down on a run up the middle of the field. An incomplete pass was followed by a run for no gain and another incomplete pass. Facing fourth and goal at the eight-yard line, Bowden sent in his field-goal kicker. After the Tigers called a time out, Hunt completed a 27-yard field goal attempt and cut Virginia Tech's lead to 27–13 with 7:19 remaining in the quarter. Clemson's post-score kickoff was fielded at the five-yard line by Kendrick and returned to the Tech 25-yard line. The first play of the drive was an option run with Vick and Kendrick, who broke free of the Clemson defense for a 45-yard run and a first down at the Clemson 29-yard line. Two short rushes were followed by a pass to fullback Cullen Hawkins at the 10-yard line for a first down. Clemson committed a five-yard offsides penalty, then Ferguson ran straight ahead for a touchdown. The extra point kick was good, and Tech took a 34–13 lead with 5:14 left in the quarter. The post-touchdown kickoff was returned to the Clemson 30-yard line, where it was fumbled. The loose football jetted forward and was recovered by a Clemson player at the 34-yard line, where the Tigers' offense began another drive. The first play of the possession was a nine-yard pass from Dantzler to Kelly, and it was followed by a shovel pass to Kelly, who gained a first down at the Tech 47-yard line. From there, Kantzler ran straight ahead for 27 yards and a first down at the Tech 20-yard line. After two incomplete passes, Clemson completed a five-yard false-start penalty. A one-yard run by Dantzler was followed by an unsuccessful fourth-down conversion attempt. Dantzler attempted a pass downfield, but the ball was intercepted by Ronyell Whitaker, who returned the ball to the Tech 32-yard line. In possession of the ball and a large lead, Virginia Tech proceeded to start running out the clock by executing running plays, which do not halt the game clock at their conclusion as do incomplete passing plays. Suggs gained nine yards on a run up the middle, then Ferguson was tackled for a loss after an incomplete pass by Vick. Tech punted, and the ball was downed at the 26-yard line. Following the punt, Clemson put backup quarterback Willie Simmons into the game. On his first play, Simmons was sacked by Jim Davis for a five-yard loss. The second play was a repeat of the first, as Davis again sacked Simmons, this time for an 11-yard loss. On third down, Simmons threw an incomplete pass, and Clemson punted after going three and out. The kick bounced out of bounds at the Clemson 44-yard line, and Virginia Tech's offense returned to the field. On the first play, Vick attempted a pass into the end zone. The throw was intercepted by Clemson defender Robert Carswell, who downed the ball in the end zone for a touchback. The interception was the final play of the third quarter, which ended with Virginia Tech in the lead, 34–13. ### Fourth quarter The fourth quarter began with Clemson in possession of the ball and starting a drive at its 20-yard line following a touchback. On the first play of the drive, Simmons threw an interception to Virginia Tech defender Willie Pile at the 50-yard line. Following the turnover, the Hokies continued running out the clock with rushing plays up the middle of the field. A short gain by Suggs was followed by a five-yard offsides penalty against Clemson, which advanced the Hokies to the Clemson 45-yard line. Ferguson then gained a first down on a run to the 32-yard line. On first down, Vick was slightly injured after attempting to pitch the ball forward. He left the game and was replaced by backup quarterback Dave Meyer. Tech advanced the ball on short runs, setting up fourth down and seven. Tech coach Frank Beamer called a time out, allowing Vick to re-enter the game. The fourth-down play was an incomplete pass, and Tech turned the ball over on downs with 11:49 remaining in the game. Following the turnover, Clemson received the ball at its 28-yard line. Simmons ran the ball straight ahead for an eight-yard gain, gained one yard on a run, then Kelly ran for a first down at the 40-yard line. On first down, Simmons completed an 18-yard pass to Gardner at the Tech 42-yard line. Simmons then completed a six-yard pass before throwing a shovel pass to Kelly for a first down at the Tech 32-yard line. An incomplete pass was followed by six-yard toss and a pass to Watts at the 12-yard line. Simmons ran out of bounds for a two-yard loss, then completed a touchdown pass to Gardner. The extra point kick was good, and Clemson closed Virginia Tech's lead to 34–20 with 7:19 remaining. With limited time remaining, Clemson attempted an onside kick in an effort to retain possession and have a chance to make up some of the scoring deficit. The kick was recovered by Virginia Tech, however, and the Vick-led Tech offense returned to the field at the Clemson 44-yard line. Suggs was stopped for no gain on a run up the middle, Vick threw an incomplete pass, then he completed a 14-yard pass to Wynn for a first down at the Clemson 30-yard line. After the first down, Ferguson gained a few yards on a run up the middle, then Suggs advanced the ball to just short of the first-down marker. On third down, Suggs gained the first down with a run up the middle. Following the first down, Clemson defender Alex Ardley was called for a personal foul and ejected from the game. The penalty gave Virginia Tech a first down at the Clemson 10-yard line. From there, Clemson was called for a five-yard offsides penalty. On the first play after the consecutive penalties, Vick pitched the ball to Suggs, who ran into the end zone untouched. The extra point kick was good, and Virginia Tech extended its lead to 41–20 with 3:41 remaining in the game. Virginia Tech's post-touchdown kickoff was returned to the 23-yard line, and Clemson went three and out after Simmons threw three incomplete passes. The Tigers' punt was returned to the Tech 30-yard line, and the Hokies began another possession. Vick was again replaced by Meyer at the quarterback position, and running back Dwayne Ward ran up the middle of the field for a short gain. Third-string running back Keith Burnell gained more yardage with a run up the middle, then Ward picked up a first down with a run up the left side of the field. During the play, Tech committed a 10-yard penalty, but the resulting yardage was still enough for a first down. Tech proceeded to run out the remaining seconds on the clock, and the Virginia Tech Hokies earned a 41–20 victory. ## Statistical summary In recognition of his success in leading the Hokies to a bowl game win, Virginia Tech quarterback Michael Vick was named the most valuable player of the winning team. Vick finished the game having completed 10 of 18 passes for 205 yards, one touchdown, and one interception. Vick also ran the ball nine times for a gain of 21 yards and a touchdown. He was sacked twice, resulting in a loss of two yards. On the opposite side of the ball, Clemson wide receiver Rod Gardner was named the MVP of the losing team. He caught seven passes for 94 yards and a touchdown during the game. Virginia Tech outgained Clemson on the ground by a nearly 3:1 margin. Tech running back Lee Suggs carried the ball 20 times for 73 yards and three touchdowns. At the time, Suggs' three touchdowns were a Virginia Tech bowl game record and tied the Gator Bowl record for most touchdowns by a player. Fellow running backs Andre Kendrick and Jarrett Ferguson gained 52 yards and 26 yards, respectively. Suggs' scores and the two by Ferguson also marked the first time the Hokies had two players with two or more touchdowns in a bowl game. On the other side of the ball, Clemson's 44 pass attempts and 21 pass completions were the most allowed by Virginia Tech in any bowl game to that point. The Tigers outgained Virginia Tech through the air by almost 40 yards, and Clemson's two quarterbacks performed consistently throughout the game. Dantzler completed 15 of 32 passes for one touchdown and 180 yards, while Simmons completed six of 12 passes for 63 yards, one touchdown, and two interceptions. On the ground, Dantzler led all rushers with 18 carries for 81 yards. Clemson's No. 2 rusher was Zachery, who had five carries for 15 yards. Defensively, Virginia Tech intercepted two Clemson passes and sacked Clemson quarterbacks six times for a loss of 28 yards. The Tech defense held Clemson without a first down and to -2 yards of total offense until less than two minutes were left in the first quarter. Clemson's defense sacked Vick twice for a total loss of two yards. ## Postgame effects Clemson's loss lowered it to a final record of 9–3, while Virginia Tech's win brought it to a final record of 11–1. Clemson remained relatively stationary in the polls. The Tigers remained at No. 16 in the Associated Press poll and dropped from No. 13 to No. 14 in the Coaches' Poll. Despite the Hokies' win, they did not advance in either the Associated Press or Coaches' polls. Tech ended the year ranked No. 6 in both polls and No. 5 in the BCS. The victory was the first in three bowl trips for the Hokies. The loss was Clemson's fifth straight in a bowl game and fourth in eight trips to the Gator Bowl at that point. ### Michael Vick Immediately after the conclusion of the Gator Bowl, Vick was asked by an NBC broadcaster if he intended to return to Virginia Tech for another year of collegiate football. He responded that he would discuss matters with his family and Tech head coach Frank Beamer before making a decision. That announcement sparked a fresh round of speculation from sports pundits and fans wondering if Vick would choose to return to school or enter the 2001 NFL Draft. Virginia Tech, through its football coaching staff, began an intensive lobbying campaign in an effort to convince Vick to stay. On January 11, 2001, Vick held a press conference to announce that he would be forgoing his final two years of collegiate eligibility to enter the NFL Draft. Immediately after the announcement, he was predicted to be the No. 1 pick in the draft, a hypothesis realized on April 21, when he was selected by the Atlanta Falcons, who had traded draft picks in order to have the right to select Vick. ### 2001 NFL Draft Vick was not the only player for whom the 2001 Gator Bowl was the final collegiate contest. Virginia Tech had two other players selected in the draft, and Clemson had three. From the Hokies, defensive back Cory Bird was selected with the 91st pick and center Matt Lehr was taken with the 137th selection. Clemson's first NFL draft selection was wide receiver Rod Gardner, who was taken 15th. Also picked was defensive back Robert Carswell (244th).
57,091,271	Three-gap theorem	1,136,273,454	On distances between points on a circle	[ "Articles containing proofs", "Diophantine approximation", "Mathematics of music", "Theorems in number theory" ]	In mathematics, the three-gap theorem, three-distance theorem, or Steinhaus conjecture states that if one places n points on a circle, at angles of θ, 2θ, 3θ, ... from the starting point, then there will be at most three distinct distances between pairs of points in adjacent positions around the circle. When there are three distances, the largest of the three always equals the sum of the other two. Unless θ is a rational multiple of π, there will also be at least two distinct distances. This result was conjectured by Hugo Steinhaus, and proved in the 1950s by Vera T. Sós, János Surányi [hu], and Stanisław Świerczkowski; more proofs were added by others later. Applications of the three-gap theorem include the study of plant growth and musical tuning systems, and the theory of light reflection within a mirrored square. ## Statement The three-gap theorem can be stated geometrically in terms of points on a circle. In this form, it states that if one places $n$ points on a circle, at angles of $\theta, 2\theta, \dots, n\theta$ from the starting point, then there will be at most three distinct distances between pairs of points in adjacent positions around the circle. An equivalent and more algebraic form involves the fractional parts of multiples of a real number. It states that, for any positive real number $\alpha$ and integer $n$, the fractional parts of the numbers $\alpha, 2\alpha, \dots, n\alpha$ divide the unit interval into subintervals with at most three different lengths. The two problems are equivalent under a linear correspondence between the unit interval and the circumference of the circle, and a correspondence between the real number $\alpha$ and the angle $\theta=2\pi\alpha$. ## Applications ### Plant growth In the study of phyllotaxis, the arrangements of leaves on plant stems, it has been observed that each successive leaf on the stems of many plants is turned from the previous leaf by the golden angle, approximately 137.5°. It has been suggested that this angle maximizes the sun-collecting power of the plant's leaves. If one looks end-on at a plant stem that has grown in this way, there will be at most three distinct angles between two leaves that are consecutive in the cyclic order given by this end-on view. For example, in the figure, the largest of these three angles occurs three times, between the leaves numbered 3 and 6, between leaves 4 and 7, and between leaves 5 and 8. The second-largest angle occurs five times, between leaves 6 and 1, 9 and 4, 7 and 2, 10 and 5, and 8 and 3. And the smallest angle occurs only twice, between leaves 1 and 9 and between leaves 2 and 10. The phenomenon of having three types of distinct gaps depends only on fact that the growth pattern uses a constant rotation angle, and not on the relation of this angle to the golden ratio; the same phenomenon would happen for any other rotation angle, and not just for the golden angle. However, other properties of this growth pattern do depend on the golden ratio. For instance, the fact that golden ratio is a badly approximable number implies that points spaced at this angle along the Fermat spiral (as they are in some models of plant growth) form a Delone set; intuitively, this means that they are uniformly spaced. ### Music theory In music theory, a musical interval describes the ratio in frequency between two musical tones. Intervals are commonly considered consonant or harmonious when they are the ratio of two small integers; for instance, the octave corresponds to the ratio 2:1, while the perfect fifth corresponds to the ratio 3:2. Two tones are commonly considered to be equivalent when they differ by a whole number of octaves; this equivalence can be represented geometrically by the chromatic circle, the points of which represent classes of equivalent tones. Mathematically, this circle can be described as the unit circle in the complex plane, and the point on this circle that represents a given tone can be obtained by the mapping the frequency $\nu$ to the complex number $\exp(2\pi i\log_2\nu)$. An interval with ratio $\rho$ corresponds to the angle $2\pi\log_2\rho$ between points on this circle, meaning that two musical tones differ by the given interval when their two points on the circle differ by this angle. For instance, this formula gives $2\pi$ (a whole circle) as the angle corresponding to an octave. Because 3/2 is not a rational power of two, the angle on the chromatic circle that represents a perfect fifth is not a rational multiple of $2\pi$, and similarly other common musical intervals other than the octave do not correspond to rational angles. A tuning system is a collection of tones used to compose and play music. For instance, the equal temperament commonly used for the piano is a tuning system, consisting of 12 tones equally spaced around the chromatic circle. Some other tuning systems do not space their tones equally, but instead generate them by some number of consecutive multiples of a given interval. An example is the Pythagorean tuning, which is constructed in this way from twelve tones, generated as the consecutive multiples of a perfect fifth in the circle of fifths. The irrational angle formed on the chromatic circle by a perfect fifth is close to 7/12 of a circle, and therefore the twelve tones of the Pythagorean tuning are close to, but not the same as, the twelve tones of equal temperament, which could be generated in the same way using an angle of exactly 7/12 of a circle. Instead of being spaced at angles of exactly 1/12 of a circle, as the tones of equal temperament would be, the tones of the Pythagorean tuning are separated by intervals of two different angles, close to but not exactly 1/12 of a circle, representing two different types of semitones. If the Pythagorean tuning system were extended by one more perfect fifth, to a set of 13 tones, then the sequence of intervals between its tones would include a third, much shorter interval, the Pythagorean comma. In this context, the three-gap theorem can be used to describe any tuning system that is generated in this way by consecutive multiples of a single interval. Some of these tuning systems (like equal temperament) may have only one interval separating the closest pairs of tones, and some (like the Pythagorean tuning) may have only two different intervals separating the tones, but the three-gap theorem implies that there are always at most three different intervals separating the tones. ### Mirrored reflection A Sturmian word is infinite sequences of two symbols (for instance, "H" and "V") describing the sequence of horizontal and vertical reflections of a light ray within a mirrored square, starting along a line of irrational slope. Equivalently, the same sequence describes the sequence of horizontal and vertical lines of the integer grid that are crossed by the starting line. One property that all such sequences have is that, for any positive integer n, the sequence has exactly n + 1 distinct consecutive subsequences of length n. Each subsequence occurs infinitely often with a certain frequency, and the three-gap theorem implies that these n + 1 subsequences occur with at most three distinct frequencies. If there are three frequencies, then the largest frequency must equal the sum of the other two. One proof of this result involves partitioning the y-intercepts of the starting lines (modulo 1) into n + 1 subintervals within which the initial n elements of the sequence are the same, and applying the three-gap theorem to this partition. ## History and proof The three-gap theorem was conjectured by Hugo Steinhaus, and its first proofs were found in the late 1950s by Vera T. Sós, János Surányi [hu], and Stanisław Świerczkowski. Later researchers published additional proofs, generalizing this result to higher dimensions, and connecting it to topics including continued fractions, symmetries and geodesics of Riemannian manifolds, ergodic theory, and the space of planar lattices. formalizes a proof using the Coq interactive theorem prover. The following simple proof is due to Frank Liang. Let θ be the rotation angle generating a set of points as some number of consecutive multiples of θ on a circle. Define a gap to be an arc A of the circle that extends between two adjacent points of the given set, and define a gap to be rigid if its endpoints occur later in the sequence of multiples of θ than any other gap of the same length. From this definition, it follows that every gap has the same length as a rigid gap. If A is a rigid gap, then A + θ is not a gap, because it has the same length and would be one step later. The only ways for this to happen are for one of the endpoints of A to be the last point in the sequence of multiples of θ (so that the corresponding endpoint of A + θ is missing) or for one of the given points to land within A + θ, preventing it from being a gap. A point can only land within A + θ if it is the first point in the sequence of multiples of θ, because otherwise its predecessor in the sequence would land within A, contradicting the assumption that A is a gap. So there can be at most three rigid gaps, the two on either side of the last point and the one in which the predecessor of the first point (if it were part of the sequence) would land. Because there are at most three rigid gaps, there are at most three lengths of gaps. ## Related results Liang's proof additionally shows that, when there are exactly three gap lengths, the longest gap length is the sum of the other two. For, in this case, the rotated copy A + θ that has the first point in it is partitioned by that point into two smaller gaps, which must be the other two gaps. Liang also proves a more general result, the "$3d$ distance theorem", according to which the union of $d$ different arithmetic progressions on a circle has at most $3d$ different gap lengths. In the three-gap theorem, there is a constant bound on the ratios between the three gaps, if and only if θ/2π is a badly approximable number. A closely related but earlier theorem, also called the three-gap theorem, is that if A is any arc of the circle, then the integer sequence of multiples of θ that land in A has at most three lengths of gaps between sequence values. Again, if there are three gap lengths then one is the sum of the other two. ## See also - Equidistribution theorem - Lonely runner conjecture
53,004,118	1916 Gulf Coast hurricane	1,170,501,824	Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 1916	[ "1910s Atlantic hurricane seasons", "1916 in Alabama", "1916 in Mississippi", "1916 meteorology", "1916 natural disasters in the United States", "Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Alabama", "Hurricanes in Florida", "Hurricanes in Georgia (U.S. state)", "Hurricanes in Mississippi" ]	The 1916 Gulf Coast hurricane was a destructive tropical cyclone that struck the central Gulf Coast of the United States in early July 1916. It generated the highest storm surge on record in Mobile, Alabama, wrought widespread havoc on shipping, and dropped torrential rainfall exceeding 2 ft (0.6 m). The second tropical cyclone, first hurricane, and first major hurricane – Category 3 or stronger on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale – of the highly active 1916 Atlantic hurricane season, the system originated in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on June 28 and moved generally toward the north-northwest. Crossing the Yucatán Channel on July 3 as a strengthening hurricane and brushing Cuba with gusty winds, the cyclone reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) prior to making landfall near Pascagoula, Mississippi, at 20:00 UTC on July 5. Over land, the hurricane rapidly weakened to a tropical storm, but then retained much of its remaining strength as it meandered across interior Mississippi and Alabama for several days, its northward progress impeded by a sprawling high-pressure area to the north. The system weakened into a tropical depression on July 9 and dissipated late the next day over southern Tennessee. The United States Weather Bureau first took notice of the developing storm on July 2, issuing tropical cyclone watches and warnings for much of the central Gulf Coast on July 4 and 5. Upon moving ashore, the cyclone produced sustained Category 3 winds over coastal Mississippi and Alabama, with the worst damage mainly confined to east of the storm's center. In Mobile, an 11.6 ft (3.5 m) storm surge destroyed wharves and severely flooded the business district, while high winds unroofed or otherwise damaged many buildings. Boats of all sizes in Mobile Bay were sunk or blown ashore, and despite efforts to prepare warehouses for the tidal flooding, \$500,000 in merchandise was lost. Farther east, Pensacola, Florida, endured several days of gale-force winds after the initial passage of the storm's core; though wind damage to homes, businesses, and trees was extensive, the worst damage resulted from storm tides along the immediate coast. Throughout the region, the hurricane severed telephone and telegraph communications. Numerous ships were lost in the Gulf of Mexico, some with their entire crews. As the storm slowly proceeded inland, days of downpours caused rivers to rise precipitously from Mississippi to Georgia, overflowing their banks for several miles in each direction; the Chattahoochee River exceeded flood stage by 23.7 ft (7.2 m). In Alabama alone, 350,000 acres (140,000 ha) of farmland was submerged, leading to millions of dollars in crop damage. Railroads were flooded, washed out, or blocked by debris, and many sawmills and other industrial facilities were disrupted. In addition, the hurricane's outer bands spawned multiple tornadoes that each caused severe but localized damage to residential areas. Steady rainfall in western North Carolina primed the French Broad River watershed for a catastrophic flooding event when another hurricane from the Atlantic coast moved over the same area just days later. The resulting disaster, the worst in Asheville, North Carolina's history, killed 80 people. Including property damage, shipping losses, and crop failures, the hurricane cost the Gulf Coast about \$12.5 million, and at least 34 people died in the region. ## Meteorological history The second tropical cyclone of the 1916 season formed as a tropical depression in the southwestern Caribbean Sea around 12:00 UTC on June 28. The depression drifted northwestward, and on June 30 it passed just east of Cabo Gracias a Dios. The system swept across the Swan Islands beginning on the morning of July 1, punctuating two days of unsettled weather there. Operationally, this was the first confirmation of the storm's existence. Around 00:00 UTC on July 2, the depression intensified into a tropical storm while centered just west of the Swan Islands. On the afternoon of July 3, USCGC Itasca encountered easterly gale-force winds while located 25 mi (40 km) south of Cape San Antonio, Cuba; late that night, USS Monterey also endured gales generally from the east while situated roughly 90 mi (140 km) northwest of the cape. As a result, it was determined that the system, after intensifying into a hurricane at 18:00 UTC on July 3, passed west of the ships through the Yucatán Channel and into the Gulf of Mexico. No further radio reports were received from ships near the hurricane, apparently because of effective shipping advisories. Upon entering the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane began to strengthen more quickly and accelerated toward the north-northwest. As the storm approached the central Gulf Coast of the United States, it possessed maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (195 km/h), making it a Category 3 major hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. This is officially listed as its peak intensity, but because observations of the storm over the open Gulf of Mexico were sparse, it may have previously been stronger. At 20:00 UTC on July 5, the hurricane made landfall near Pascagoula, Mississippi, while at its strongest known intensity. At the time, this represented the earliest recorded U.S. major hurricane landfall in any season. While the eye passed overhead, Pascagoula experienced a 20-minute lull in the storm's force. At landfall, the radius of maximum wind was likely 17 to 23 mi (27 to 37 km) and minimum central barometric pressure was estimated at 950 hPa (28.05 inHg), the latter of which was used to derive the storm's peak winds. Moving inland, the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm by the morning of July 6, and it rapidly slowed as its northward progress was suppressed by a large high-pressure area over the Great Lakes. For several days the storm meandered across Mississippi and Alabama, and it continued to produce tropical storm-force winds through July 8. It finally deteriorated into a tropical depression around 00:00 UTC on July 9, while centered over central Alabama. The depression persisted for nearly two more days before losing its characteristics as a tropical cyclone over southern Tennessee, late on July 10. By the next morning, the disturbance had become indistinct. Recent reanalysis efforts have produced multiple changes to the hurricane's track in the Atlantic hurricane database, including an earlier formation and a slower initial intensification rate. ## Preparations Notice of the burgeoning hurricane was first telegraphed to United States Weather Bureau offices on July 2, and advisories were disseminated to the public over the following days. Late on July 4, the Weather Bureau hoisted storm warnings along the coast from Louisiana to the Florida Panhandle, and the stretch between New Orleans, Louisiana, and Mobile, Alabama, was upgraded to a hurricane warning early the next day. In Mobile, the advance notice of the storm was credited with saving lives and \$100,000 in wares. Railroads along the Gulf Coast suspended operations as the storm approached, and many small craft sought shelter in ports. In New Orleans, women and children working in factories and department stores were sent home early on July 5 to avoid being caught in the worst conditions. ## Impact As the storm passed west of Cuba, its effects extended as far east as Havana, where winds reached 56 mph (90 km/h). Across the Florida Straits, Key West, Florida, recorded 36 mph (58 km/h) winds. The strongest sustained winds measured in association with the storm were 107 mph (172 km/h) in Mobile, Alabama, corresponding to a one-minute average of 87 mph (140 km/h) adjusted for modern recording techniques. Although not directly recorded, sustained winds of Category 3 intensity probably affected coastal Mississippi and Alabama, with Category 2 winds affecting Florida. Throughout the affected region, telephone and telegraph infrastructure was blown down, crippling communications. The storm continued to drop flooding rains as it drifted around the Deep South for five days, resulting in significant damage to agricultural sectors of southeastern Mississippi, southern to central Alabama, and southwestern Georgia. As waterways were at seasonably low levels prior to the tropical cyclone, the prolonged downpours caused some rivers to rise by more than 50 ft (15 m). Vast fields of cotton and corn were submerged, and in areas where the cotton crop survived intact, the abundant moisture was expected to result in an outbreak of harmful boll weevils. Numerous lumber companies suffered damage or interruptions to business resulting from the storm. Along the Gulf Coast of the United States, the hurricane wrought more than \$1.5 million in losses to shipping, including approximately \$800,000 to vessels based in Pensacola, Florida, and \$750,000 in Mobile. Numerous ships fell victim to the hurricane, some being lost with all crew members and passengers. Several ships went down off Ship Island, including the three-masted schooner Mary G. Dantzler, which sank with her crew of around 12. The ship, owned by a Gulfport, Mississippi, lumber company, was loaded with phosphate rock when the hurricane struck. The Bay St. Louis-based Champion, crewed by four, the Norwegian schooner Ancenis, worth \$150,000, and an unidentified ship were also lost near Ship Island; only the crew of the Ancenis was rescued. The four-masted barquentine John W. Myers was blown aground on Ship Island and severely damaged. "Probably a score" of small vessels were wrecked or heavily damaged, including the schooner Emma Harvey, which dragged anchor across the Chandeleur Islands and drifted eastward at the height of the storm. She was found floating upside-down off Pensacola on August 12, with no trace of her captain and five crewmen. After being towed into port and salvaged, the schooner survived for decades more until it was likely destroyed during Hurricane Frederic in 1979. The Beulah D. was dismasted and heavily damaged, but her crew survived, and the vessel was towed into port along with the wrecked Lagoda on July 14. Another small schooner, the Cambria, was blown out to sea from Deer Island and overturned, eventually being recovered near the Dog Keys. Her sole occupant was reportedly saved. The total death toll from the hurricane is unknown, with estimates ranging from as low as 34 to "into the hundreds". ### Louisiana and Mississippi Burrwood, Louisiana, near the southern end of the Mississippi River Delta, endured gale-force winds and tides 2.2 ft (67 cm) above normal. Winds and rain were both light in New Orleans. The storm's winds damaged roughly half of the buildings in Pascagoula, Mississippi, where multiple industrial facilities were destroyed. Similarly extensive damage occurred just to the north in Moss Point. The storm's effects diminished to the west of Pascagoula, though significant property damage was still reported in Biloxi and Gulfport; one person was killed by the storm in the former city, and a handful of homes along that stretch of coast were destroyed. Property damage in Mississippi coastal towns was estimated at around \$130,000, and generally proved less severe than initially feared. By one estimation, potentially \$3 million worth of standing timber in southeastern Mississippi was destroyed, though sources in Hattiesburg suggested the damage to timber locally was less severe than initially feared. In particular, it was reported that most of the trees toppled by the storm were weak and of little value. Regardless, many sawmills lost their stock or were otherwise damaged, with fires breaking out in several plants. Lumber processing companies in Laurel alone sustained around \$200,000 in damage, and in that town, "not more than a dozen" out of 2,400 houses in Laurel escaped the storm unscathed. Greater than 5 in (130 mm) of rain fell over most of eastern Mississippi, peaking at 21.53 in (547 mm) in Leakesville. The entire length of the Pascagoula River in Mississippi overflowed to an average of 3 mi (4.8 km) from each bank. ### Alabama As the first telegraph line out of Mobile was not restored to service until late on July 7, initial damage reports were scarce. The winds unroofed or destroyed numerous buildings in the city, and the storm there was accompanied by torrential precipitation arriving in two main batches; the first from the morning of July 5 to the early afternoon of July 6 dropped 8.56 in (217 mm) of rain, while an additional 4.99 in (127 mm) fell on July 7 as the storm lingered in the region. The rainfall intensity peaked in the early afternoon on July 7, when 2.17 in (55 mm) of precipitation fell in just 25 minutes. The heavy rainfall triggered some street flooding where rivers were obstructed by debris, and with many homes partially or fully unroofed, interior water damage was common. Precipitation totals exceeded 20 in (510 mm) just east of the storm's center in parts of southern Alabama. The Mobile waterfront was subjected to a storm surge of 11.6 ft (3.5 m), which still stands as the second-highest in the state's history, just short of the record set in Gulf Shores by the 1906 Mississippi hurricane, and the highest ever recorded at Mobile. The tides severely flooded Mobile's business district up to four blocks inland, and it took until the late afternoon of July 6 for floodwaters to recede. Some streets were submerged to a depth of up to 10 ft (3.0 m), and many residents fled to the Battle House Hotel on relatively higher ground. Ultimately, waters still reached the hotel, flooding its lobby to a depth of just over 1 ft (30 cm). In advance of the storm, most wholesale merchants stacked their goods above the high water mark of the 1906 hurricane, but this proved inadequate; tides locally ran nearly 2 ft (60 cm) higher than in 1906, ruining merchandise closest to the ground at a cost of around \$500,000. Many miles of railroads were covered by floodwaters and debris, and the tidal action ravaged wharves. At a Mobile and Ohio Railroad cargo storage shed, approximately 11,000 bales of cotton were washed away. Shipping interests in Mobile Bay suffered extensively, with numerous vessels, including small boats, large yachts, schooners, and steamships, being sunk or driven aground. Fifteen barges in the bay were destroyed and a similar number of sailing ships sank or sustained substantial damage. In one case, a floating dry dock carrying a tugboat was deposited on the municipal docks. Damage to ships was generally worsened by their owners' complacency stemming from the widespread belief that it was too early in the season for severe hurricanes. In the southern part of the bay, several vessels foundered—among them the schooners Emma Lord and J. C. Smith and the barge Harry T. Morse—resulting in the deaths of about a dozen people. Overall damage in Mobile was estimated at \$2–3 million, and four drowning deaths were reported in and around the city. To the south, the storm produced severe property damage in Fort Morgan. Days of downpours in the state flooded approximately 350,000 acres (140,000 ha) of land; the most prolific freshwater flooding followed the Cahaba and Alabama rivers through Perry, Dallas, Wilcox, and Monroe counties, where collectively 250,000 acres (100,000 ha) of farmlands was inundated and \$2.5 million worth of crops were destroyed, contributing to an estimated statewide total of \$5 million in lost crops. In the same area, at least 2,000 families were forced to evacuate their homes. Residents along the Coosa River faced destitution and fears of famine, resulting in a rush to slaughter cattle for food. For 170 mi (270 km) of its course, the Tombigbee River flooded 1.25 mi (2.01 km) of land on both sides. Multiple people drowned in floodwaters in Birmingham and Tuscaloosa, and in some communities, residents clung to treetops to escape raging floodwaters. In Birmingham, the flooding closed manufacturing plants. Railways and train trestles were washed out or blocked by landslides, with one railroad in particular, the Southern Railway, having service interrupted on a total 140 mi (230 km) of track, mostly south and west of Birmingham. In addition to the flooding, strong winds persisted over land; around Montgomery, numerous houses were destroyed by strong winds and many individuals were injured. Nearby, more than 100 convicts became stranded on a prison farm after it was flooded by the Tallapoosa River. While moving inland on July 6, the hurricane spawned at least four damaging tornadoes in Alabama, including one in Dallas County that leveled five small houses, injuring eight people, and toppled hundreds of trees on a plantation west of Selma. Two tornadoes in Lowndesboro and Clanton destroyed some buildings and each caused two injuries, and one in western Tallapoosa County destroyed a church and a barn. ### Florida In Florida, Tampa was first to feel the storm in the form of a "slight blow". Later, gusts were measured as high as 110 mph (180 km/h) in Pensacola, and average hourly winds reached 83.5 mph (134.4 km/h) for a six-hour period on July 5. At their strongest, the winds overturned automobiles and made standing impossible. As the storm slowly progressed inland, southwesterly gale-force winds continued through July 8. In addition to the exceptionally long duration, the winds were abnormally steady, not dominated by gusts as in most tropical cyclones. Numerous homes were unroofed, smokestacks toppled, and sheds torn apart, while damage to trees and other vegetation was extensive, leaving some roads impassable with debris. However, as most weaker buildings had already been demolished by the 1906 hurricane, structural damage was relatively light. Wind-inflicted property damage was estimated at \$150,000. A relatively modest 6.57 in (167 mm) of rain fell in Pensacola, but Bonifay to the northeast recorded the storm-maximum amount of 24.5 in (620 mm), making the hurricane the wettest on record in northwestern Florida and one of the rainiest in the state as a whole. Along the coast, a 5 ft (1.5 m) storm surge and accompanying high waves did \$850,000 in damage to shipping, wharves, and coastal structures at Pensacola. The city lost electricity when the Pensacola Electric Company's engine room was flooded by the rising tide. In Pensacola Harbor, two schooners carrying 70 Gulf Coast Military Academy cadets on their annual cruise were beached and severely damaged, but no passengers were harmed. At a seaplane base, seven canvass seaplane hangars collapsed in the storm, and four seaplanes were battered. No storm-related deaths occurred reported in Pensacola, though four lives were lost elsewhere in the state. ### Elsewhere As rainfall decreased over Alabama on July 9 and 10, precipitation overspread the southern Appalachian Mountains, primarily in Georgia and South Carolina. At Alaga, Alabama, the Chattahoochee River (which constitutes the southern portion of the Georgia–Alabama border) rose from 3.3 ft (1.0 m) on July 5 to 43.7 ft (13.3 m) – 23.7 ft (7.2 m) above flood stage – on July 9 in response to 22.79 in (579 mm) of rainfall at that location. Other major rivers in Georgia exceeded flood stage, but generally to a lesser extent than the Chattahoochee. Nonetheless, the widespread loss of crops and livestock was reported. In Georgia, Decatur County bore the brunt of the flooding, with the entire tobacco crop there ruined and many bridges washed out. In neighboring Miller County, a dam at the Babcock Lumber Company plant failed, flooding the community of Babcock. The flooding inflicted at least \$1 million in damage in southwestern Georgia. North of Cairo, a tornado cut a swath of damage 450 ft (140 m) wide on the night of July 5–6, killing a farmer and injuring his wife and son. Their home was blown 150 ft (45 m) afield and then its debris strewn across a wide area. Later on July 6, another tornado in the same area destroyed two more houses. In Early County, a tornado demolished two small houses and uprooted multiple trees just south of Blakely. Heavy rainfall extended into southern Tennessee, amounting to nearly 12 in (300 mm) in Chattanooga from July 5–13. Flooding on the Tennessee River left 400 people homeless in Dayton. A general 3 to 6 in (75 to 150 mm) of rain fell over the French Broad River watershed of western North Carolina, causing the river to rise 4 ft (1.2 m) above flood stage at Asheville on July 11. The resulting damage to crops, homes, and industrial plants was severe, costing an estimated \$500,000, and although water levels quickly receded, saturated soil and swollen waterways set the stage for a catastrophic flooding event when a second hurricane moved inland from the Atlantic Coast and dropped exceptionally heavy rain over the same area on July 15 and 16. The French Broad River crested at an estimated 23.1 ft (7.0 m), 19.1 ft (5.8 m) above flood stage, contributing to the worst flood in western North Carolina's history; some 80 people died in the catastrophe and total damage reached \$21 million. ## See also - List of Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes - List of Florida hurricanes (1900–49) - List of wettest tropical cyclones in the United States - Hurricane Ethel (1960) – A Category 3 hurricane that rapidly weakened before landfall as it impacted similar areas - Hurricane Camille (1969) – A destructive and deadly Category 5 hurricane that devastated similar areas - Hurricane Dennis (2005) – A rare early-season Category 4 hurricane that caused widespread damage in similar areas
38,294,964	Woodland House	1,172,087,601	House in Holland Park, London	[ "1877 establishments in England", "Artists' studios in London", "Grade II* listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea", "Grade II* listed houses in London", "Houses completed in 1877", "Houses in Holland Park", "Queen Anne Revival architecture in the United Kingdom", "Richard Norman Shaw buildings" ]	Woodland House is a large detached house at 31 Melbury Road in the Holland Park district of Kensington and Chelsea, West London, England. Built from 1875 to 1877 in the Queen Anne style by the architect Richard Norman Shaw, it is a Grade II\* listed building. Commissioned by the painter Luke Fildes, Woodland House is next to William Burges's Grade I listed Tower House. Originally 11 Melbury Road, the house was renumbered as 31 Melbury Road in 1967. It was the second of two houses in Melbury Road designed by Shaw, the first, 8 Melbury Road, was designed for another painter Marcus Stone. Fildes and Stone were artistic rivals and each naturally regarded their own Shaw-designed house as superior. Of the construction of Woodland House Fildes wrote in November 1876 that "The house is getting on famously and looks stunning ... It is a long way the most superior house of the whole lot; I consider it knocks Stone's to fits, though of course he wouldn't have that by what I hear he says of his, but my opinion is the universal one." Fildes moved into the house in October 1877 and it remained his home until his death there in February 1927. In 1959, the London County Council commemorated Fildes at Woodland House with a blue plaque. Woodlands House was later the home of the film director Michael Winner. His father purchased the lease for the property after the Second World War and, buying the outstanding lease from his father in 1972, Winner lived at the house until his own death at the house in 2013. It was subsequently purchased by the singer Robbie Williams. ## Location The development of Melbury Road in the grounds of Little Holland House created an art colony in Holland Park, the inhabitants of which became known as the Holland Park Circle. Shaw congratulated Fildes on acquiring "such a delicious site" in May 1875. The site was recommended to Fildes by Val Prinsep, it is at the bend of Melbury Road, with vistas to the south and west, adjoining Holland Lane (now Ilchester Place) on the east. The garden spans .75 acres (0.30 ha) and contains tropical and native trees. The gardens of Woodland House and the adjoining Tower House both contain trees from the former Little Holland House. ## Design Woodland House was designed by architect Richard Norman Shaw. Shaw was well acquainted with members of the art establishment, being friends with Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Morris and Philip Webb. The choice by Fildes and Stone of Richard Norman Shaw as the architect of their houses was an important symbol of their ambition to become academicians, members of the Royal Academy of Arts, and of the art establishment themselves. The imposing houses and studios that Shaw designed would impress potential patrons. All of the "studio-houses" of the Holland Park Circle were built with red bricks, a colour that stood in contrast to the white stucco that had been traditionally used in the surrounding area. Shaw had prepared preliminary designs of Woodland House by August 1875, and building began early in 1876, with construction being undertaken by W. H. Lascelles. The initial cost of building the house was £4,500. Fildes and his family moved into the house in the Autumn of 1877. Fildes house was larger than Marcus Stone's, and costlier to build. Shortly after Fildes had commissioned Shaw to design his house, Fildes' grandmother, Mary, had died, leaving him her property. Facing south, Fildes large artists studio was at the rear of the house and was lit by a skylight and six tall windows grouped in pairs of two. This arrangement was found not to provide the necessary light and the middle pair of windows was redesigned as a single, large, four-light, window. The studio was initially 43 feet (13 m) and 24 feet (7.3 m). A winter studio was added in 1880, followed by a glass studio in 1885, situated above a nursery. When King Edward VII came to sit for a state portrait he described the studio as "one of the finest rooms in London". In 1893 The Strand Magazine described Fildes' house as "that of the artist – everything has its own artistic place and corner; nothing fails to harmonise, nothing comes short of gaining the effect wanted". The interior was noted by the Strand Magazine to contain predominantly Sheraton style furniture with "Venetian and Flemish black-framed mirrors, Hispano-Moresque pottery, Venetian brass and copper-ware ... blue-and-white Nankin and Delft (porcelain)". Fildes' children's bedrooms were hung with wallpapers designed by Morris & Co. and Walter Crane. Under Fildes' the hallway was encrusted with crimson and gold, and after passing through crimson curtains a visitor ascended stairs lined with brass plates, paintings from the Italian Renaissance and tapestries. Michael Winner's father bought the house on a long lease after the Second World War. He divided the property into three flats, erecting walls and installing false ceilings in the process. Winner restored the original layout of the house even sourcing contemporary bricks from demolished buildings. A folly was also reinstated on the roof as well as the original wrought iron gates. Under Winner the house had 47 rooms and some 2,000 lightbulbs. Amenities included a Jacuzzi, swimming pool, steam room, and cinema. Winner hired the services of interior designer Tessa Kennedy to help him renovate the house, originally wishing Woodland House to look like the "home of a country vicar", but by the finish of the work Winner described it as "completely over the top" and said it resembled the "house of a lottery winner". ## Michael Winner After Fildes death, the house was occupied in turn by the retired soldier Brigadier General Charles Forbes Blane, the manufacturer Edward Barford and the merchant banker, Walther Augustus Brandt. Film director Michael Winner's parents acquired Woodland House after the Second World War, when his father paid £2,000 for a 17-year lease on the house. When his parents emigrated to France in 1972 Winner purchased Woodland House from them to avoid a punitive gift tax. At the time of Winner's purchase of the house from his parents, Woodland House was divided into three flats, two of them subject to rent-control, with 17 years remaining on the leasehold. Winner subsequently negotiated a new leasehold in 1972 for £150,000, extending the lease to the 2040s. Winner was an art collector, and a connoisseur of British illustration. His art collection included works by Jan Micker, William James, Edmund Dulac, E. H. Shepard, Arthur Rackham, Kay Nielsen and Beatrix Potter. It also included almost 200 signed colour-washed illustrations by Donald McGill. In 2008 he announced his intention to bequeath the house as a museum, but discussions with Kensington and Chelsea council stalled after they were unable to meet the £15 million cost of purchasing the freehold of the property, which expires in 2046. The freehold is owned by the Ilchester Estate. Informal discussions had taken place with the curator of the Leighton House Museum, situated in the adjacent street and also owned by the council. Winner had wished to greet future visitors to Woodland House as a talking waxwork statue, uttering a variation on his catch phrase, "Calm down, dear, I'm only a dummy". Woodland House was informally for sale for four months before Winner publicly announced it was for sale for £60 million in August 2011. The value of Woodland House had previously been estimated by Winner as £35 million in 2006 and later at £100 million in 2008. Winner died at Woodland House in January 2013. He was survived by his wife, Geraldine. ## Robbie Williams Woodland House is currently owned by the singer Robbie Williams. Since purchasing the house for £17.5 million, Williams has undertaken significant renovations, some of which have led to planning conflicts with his neighbour at The Tower House, the Led Zeppelin guitarist, Jimmy Page.
35,483,590	Clinton Street Theater	1,160,345,051	Theater in Portland, Oregon	[ "1910s architecture in the United States", "1915 establishments in Oregon", "Cinemas and movie theaters in Oregon", "Hosford-Abernethy, Portland, Oregon", "Theatres completed in 1915", "Theatres in Portland, Oregon" ]	The Clinton Street Theater is a theater located in southeast Portland, Oregon. It is believed to be the second oldest operating movie house in the city and one of the oldest continually operating cinemas in the United States. The theater was designed by Charles A. Duke in 1913, built in 1914, and opened as The Clinton in 1915. It became known as the 26th Avenue Theatre in 1945 and the Encore in 1969, before reverting to a resemblance of its original name in 1976. The Clinton often screens grindhouse, cult and experimental films, and has become known for hosting regular screenings of The Rocky Horror Picture Show (since 1978, marking one of the film's longest-running showings) and Repo! The Genetic Opera. The venue also hosts the annual Filmed by Bike festival, the Faux Film Festival and the Portland Queer Documentary Film Festival. ## History A photograph of the building that was to house the theater appeared in The Morning Oregonian newspaper in 1913. Known as the Kleist Building after its owner, Edward Kleist, it had a pressed brick front and walls with hollow tiles. The second floor was intended for residential rooms and apartments, and the ground floor was designed for business storerooms and a movie theater. According to a February 1915 newspaper advertisement, The Exploits of Elaine, the first in a continuing series of Craig Kennedy detective stories, was to show at The Clinton on March 1. The 300-seat theater was designed by Charles A. Duke in 1913 and opened in 1915 as The Clinton. Its main entrance faced 26th Avenue until 1922. The venue became known as the 26th Avenue Theatre in 1945 and the Encore in 1969, before reverting to a variation of its original name on May 30, 1975. At that time, a five-person collective bought the theater. The collective consisted of Jim Blashfield, Joe Uris, Lenny Diener, David Lifton and others. The group also published the Clinton St. Quarterly, with poetry by Walt Curtis and cartoons by John Callahan. The movie house had been showing X-rated films, which the collective replaced with a wide variety of movies including foreign films, The Rocky Horror Picture Show, and older films like The African Queen. In September 1999, Elizabeth Rozier and Dennis Nyback took over operation of the theater. Nyback had previously shown films at the Clinton beginning in 1997. He was told about the availability of the theater when he was showing films in June 1999. During his time operating the theater with Rozier, Clinton showed a mix of new films, revival films, and creations by Nyback using his archive. His shows included: "Defining the 1970's Through Classic Commercials", "Bad Bugs Bunny", "Strange and Surreal Industrial Films", "F&#k Mickey Mouse", "Scopitone A Go Go", "Jazz on Film", "The Dark Side of Dr. Seuss", "Forty Years of Classic Commercials", and "The Genius of Bob Clampett". Seth and Nicola Sonstein purchased the business from Elizabeth Rozier in September 2003. The couple "fell in love with both the city and the theater" after visiting in July 2002 as coordinators of San Francisco's Sick Puppy short film festival. The Sonsteins added heating and air conditioning, both firsts for the theater, and refurbished the bathrooms, lobby and walls, among other upgrades. Screening independent films and supporting local filmmakers remain the couple's primary goals. In March 2012 the business, including fixtures and projection and concession equipment, but not the building itself, were listed for sale. In April 2012 ownership of the business transferred from the Sonsteins to Roger and Lani Jo Leigh. After the sale, Seth Sonstein said in a press release: "For the last eight-and-a-half years I have had the opportunity to run the coolest movie theater, in the coolest neighborhood, in the coolest city in America. My eternal gratitude goes out to the citizens of Portland. I can never say thank you enough times for all of the support you have given to the Clinton." Events to mark the change included an open house "meet-and-greet", which included screenings of two documentary films by Lani Jo, and an evening of rare trailers and video clips from the Prelinger Archives. Lani Jo confirmed the theater will continue to offer screenings of The Rocky Horror Picture Show and focus on documentary and independent films. In April 2022, ownership was transferred from the Leighs to a collective of six co-owners, who plan to continue the weekly screening of Rocky Horror. ## Events Clinton Street Theater offers: "a mixture of grindhouse, music films, political documentaries and experimental films". The theater has become known for its weekly screenings of Rocky Horror and Repo! The Genetic Opera, and for its annual Filmed by Bike festival, which began in 2003 and features: "bike-themed independent short movies from around the world." Rocky Horror screenings began in 1978, marking one of the longest-running showings of the film. The theater also hosts the Faux Film Festival, offering cult and independent film showings, and the Portland Queer Documentary Film Festival. To celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Portland Trail Blazers, in 2009 the theater screened the 1978 rare and out of circulation documentary Fast Break about the team's 1976–77 championship season. In 2010 the Clinton hosted the Three-Minute Picture Show, which featured screenings of three-minute films by first-time filmmakers. The venue has also hosted benefit events, such as "Can't Stop the Serenity" (presented by PDX Browncoats), which included showings of the film Serenity among other features to benefit Equality Now and the Oregon Food Bank. Other hosted events have included the Portland Underground Film Festival, comedy shows, commemorations for holidays such as Martin Luther King Jr. Day, and lectures on film making. Many celebrities have appeared at the theater to promote films, including Crispin Glover in 2008, and Bill Plympton and Tom Shadyac in 2011. Chuck Palahniuk, Tom Potter and Gus Van Sant have also appeared at the theater. ## See also - History of film - Midnight movie - Neptune Theatre (Seattle), also known for screening The Rocky Horror Picture Show - The Rocky Horror Picture Show cult following
290,504	Beneath a Steel Sky	1,172,925,329	Cyberpunk science-fiction point-and-click adventure from 1994	[ "1994 video games", "Adventure games", "Amiga CD32 games", "Amiga games", "Commercial video games with freely available source code", "Cyberpunk video games", "DOS games", "Dystopian video games", "Freeware games", "Games commercially released with DOSBox", "IOS games", "MacOS games", "Point-and-click adventure games", "Propaganda in fiction", "Revolution Software games", "Science fiction video games", "ScummVM-supported games", "Single-player video games", "Video games about virtual reality", "Video games adapted into comics", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games set in Australia", "Virgin Interactive games", "Virtual Theatre engine games", "Windows games" ]	Beneath a Steel Sky is a 1994 point-and-click adventure game developed by British developer Revolution Software and published by Virgin Interactive Entertainment for MS-DOS and Amiga home computers. It was made available as freeware – and with the source code released – for PC platforms in 2003. Set in a dystopian cyberpunk future, the player assumes the role of Robert Foster, who was stranded in a wasteland known as "the Gap" as a child and adopted by a group of local Aboriginals, gradually adjusting to his life in the wilderness. After many years, armed security officers arrive, killing the locals and taking Robert back to Union City. He escapes and soon uncovers the corruption which lies at the heart of society. Originally titled Underworld, the game was a collaboration between game director Charles Cecil and comic book artist Dave Gibbons, and cost £40,000 to make. Cecil was a fan of Gibbons's work and approached with the idea of a video game. The game has a serious tone but features humour-filled dialogue, which came as a result of Cecil's and writer Dave Cummins's goal to find a middle ground between the earnestness of Sierra's and the slapstick comedy of LucasArts's adventure games. It was built using Revolution's Virtual Theatre engine, first used in Revolution's previous and debut release, 1992's Lure of the Temptress. It received positive reviews at the time of its release and is retrospectively viewed as a cult classic and Revolution's greatest game besides Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars. A remastered edition was released for iOS in 2009 as Beneath a Steel Sky Remastered, which also received a positive reception from the gaming press. A sequel was greenlit during the Broken Sword: The Serpent's Curse 2012 Kickstarter campaign, and was announced in March 2019. Entitled Beyond a Steel Sky, it was released on Apple Arcade in June 2020, on Steam in July 2020, and on GOG.com in March 2021. ## Gameplay Beneath a Steel Sky is a 2D adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player uses a point-and-click interface to interact with the environment and to guide protagonist Robert Foster through the game's world. To solve puzzles and progress in the game, the player collects items that may be combined with one another, used on the environment, or given to non-player characters (NPCs). The protagonist converses with NPCs via dialogue trees to learn about the game's puzzles and plot. Clues and other information are obtained by clicking on items in the inventory and on objects in the environment. Unlike in most adventure games at the time, the protagonist's death is possible, after which the player starts from the last save point. In the remastered iOS version, the point-and-click interface is replaced with a touch user interface, a hint system is added, and hotspots are highlighted. ## Synopsis ### Background Beneath a Steel Sky is set at an unknown point in a dystopian future, when the Earth has been significantly damaged by pollution, nuclear fallout, or both. In Australia, the six states and two territories who have been consumed by their respective capital cities are described as "city states". Union City is the second largest of the six remaining city states after the acquisition of Asio-City. Within this socio-political milieu, the national intelligence agency ASIO wield a great deal of power. After the "Euro–American War", all participants agreed upon a set of ideals described as the "neo democratic principles" which remove all labour representation and social benefits. Ironically, those that subscribe to these principles are called "Unions", contrasting the real world definition of what a trade union pushes for. Those that oppose the Unions' ideals are called "Corporations". All of the City States in Australia are either Corporations or Unions. The larger political context of the game involves a conflict between Union City and the Hobart Corporation, whereby they are each trying to achieve market dominance by the use of sabotage. During the game, characters in Union City remark that Hobart Corporation is winning the "economic war" by flooding the market with "cheap, gimmicky garbage", although it is never clarified whether this is mere propaganda. ### Plot The immediate backstory is introduced via a comic book that tells the story of a young boy called Robert who is the sole survivor of a helicopter crash in "the Gap" (the name applied to the Outback at the time of the game). Too young to fend for himself, Robert is adopted by a group of locals, who teach him the skills he needs to survive in this harsh new environment; they name him Robert Foster, partly due to him being fostered by them, but also because of the discovery of an empty can of Foster's Lager found near the crash site. Over the years, Foster learns engineering and technology and builds a talking, sentient robot called Joey. Joey's personality is stored on a small circuit board, which can easily be inserted and removed from many types of robot. This allows him to change bodies as the situation requires, provided his circuit board is not damaged. His commentaries on the current "shell" he is in are a running gag throughout the game. As the game starts, Foster is kidnapped and his tribe annihilated by security soldiers sent from Union City by its all-powerful computer, LINC (Logical Inter-Neural Connection). The abductors refuse to give Foster any explanation as to what is happening. Shortly upon arriving in the city, the helicopter malfunctions and crashes in the city's upper level. Foster survives and flees, making his way into a recycling plant, carrying Joey's circuit board with him. Foster places Joey's circuit board into a robotic vacuum cleaner (something about which Joey is none too happy). He then attempts to escape the plant, but is cornered by a security officer who had also survived the accident. The officer, Reich, addresses Foster as "Overmann". Just as Reich is about to kill Foster, a nearby security camera shoots a laser, disarming him. Reich tells the camera, which he reveals is controlled by LINC, that Foster must be stopped. In answer the camera shoots him again, killing him. Foster takes the officer's access card and sunglasses before he continues his escape. As he makes his way further down the city, Foster eventually arrives in the abandoned subway tunnels. There he discovers that LINC has grown exponentially, to the point where he is now half-machine, half-organic entity. However, in order to function, LINC needs a human host to share its brain. The current host is Foster's biological father, who is old and has become severely worn out from his symbiosis with LINC. It is revealed that LINC sent for Foster because, with the death of its current host inevitable, it needed a replacement, and only a blood relative would do. Foster ultimately defeats LINC by plugging Joey (who, at this point, could be optionally given the new name "Ken" by Foster) into the mainframe. Joey/Ken is able to take control of the system, and set about turning Union City into a utopia. ## Development While working at Activision, Revolution co-founder and CEO Charles Cecil got the idea of working with Dave Gibbons, artist and co-creator of comic book Watchmen, as Cecil was a fan of the comic book himself. He approached Gibbons, but shortly thereafter, the old Activision broke down. However, they maintained a friendship, and Cecil later contacted Gibbons to ask him to work on Revolution's second game. Seeing his son play video games, Gibbons became interested and realized that his skills in drawing, writing and conceptualizing could be useful in a gaming environment. Joining the team just before the release of Lure of the Temptress, Gibbons was sent a rudimentary outline of what could happen in the hypothesised game, and wrote a longer story with new characters and scenarios, to which Revolution then further added. Originally the game was named Underworld, a title proposed by Gibbons, but it was renamed due to the release of Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss. The production values became much higher for Beneath a Steel Sky than for Lure of the Temptress, resulting in a game six times larger, and by the end of 1993, the team working on the game had grown to eleven. The game was created in sections, which allowed the team to ensure that each part was "perfected" before moving on. Its 2-year development cost £40,000, a large amount of money for the company at the time. ### Creative and technical design The designers' goal was to create a visual bridge between comic and video game graphics. Gibbons drew the backgrounds in pencil, starting with roughs, which were sent to Revolution to see if they were technically feasible. Once agreed upon, Gibbons would then make the final sketch. The pencil sketches were then colored, mainly by Les Pace. The backgrounds were scanned on a Macintosh as 24-bit, 1000x1000 pixel images with 16 million colors, and then transformed to 8-bit, 320x200 pixel images with 256 colors for the PC version. The backgrounds were designed so that the sprites would appear clear on the screen and would not mix with the backgrounds. Gibbons created the sprites using Deluxe Paint on an Amiga. Steve Ince, who joined the team in February 1993, created a number of sprite animations, also painting some backgrounds based on Gibbons's sketches. Gibbons also designed the characters, although he found it challenging to get a character's personality and expression in a face that was only around seven pixels wide and nine pixels high with a limited palette. He would have liked to design a character in a similar manner to Prince of Persia or Flashback, but Revolution wanted something more detailed, so the result became a compromise. All character sprites are smoothly animated with around 20 positions each. According to Gibbons, about 75% of the backgrounds and characters he designed were used in the game. Dave Cummins wrote the dialogue for the game. The tone of Revolution's early games was born from a tension between Cummins and Cecil. Cummins wanted to be more flippant with dialogue, while Cecil wanted to be more serious. Their goal was to find the middle ground between Sierra's "ridiculously earnest" stories and the slapstick comedy of LucasArts games. For the voice acting, which is only included in the CD-ROM version, Revolution used actors from the Royal Shakespeare Company. Only two days were spent recording over five thousands lines of dialogue. Not pleased with the results, however, Revolution decided on a lengthy re-recording, and realized that voice actors should be used, rather than stage actors. As a result of this, the speech does not always match the on-screen text, with English terms being Americanized. Cummins was also responsible for the score of the game, writing a specific tune for each of the main locations. Beneath a Steel Sky became the second game to use Revolution's Virtual Theatre engine, after Lure of the Temptress. According to Cecil, the original version of the engine seemed less applicable in Beneath a Steel Sky, as the ability to issue commands conflicted with the gameplay they intended to create. Lure of the Temptress had one story that was moved forward by a key event, whereas Beneath a Steel Sky had multiple threads. In one way this presented them with "exciting gameplay opportunities, but in others it cordoned off more ambitious ideas in terms of multilinearity." As a consequence, some of the engine's features were scaled back. Tony Warriner and David Sykes, both Revolution co-founders and programmers, had to update the engine, which was part of the new deal with Virgin Interactive. As an example of change in the updated engine, Virtual Theatre 2.0, Warriner explained that in Lure of the Temptress, the system controlled everything, for instance specific routines to a door. So if there was a door on-screen, the door-routine was called up to handle it. The consequence was that every door looked the same and acted the same, so if a door was somewhat different from the last one, it caused a problem. This was changed in the new system, as it was object oriented and no distinction was made between a proper object like a door or key. ### Release Beneath a Steel Sky was presented at the European Computer Trade Show in the London Business Design Centre in April 1993 and at the Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago in June 1993. According to French magazine Génération 4, the game was supposed to be released by the end of October 1993. Various playable demos of the game were made; one was added to the first issue of PC Gamer, and Amiga demos were added as cover disks to several Amiga magazines. Beneath a Steel Sky was published in March 1994 by Virgin Interactive on floppy disks and CD-ROM. It came on 15 floppy disks, as opposed to Lure of The Temptress, which came on four. Because of the Amiga restrictions, a few animations had to be left out, as not all Amiga owners had a hard drive. Each conversion of the images to the Amiga resulted in a loss of detail. According to Revolution in-house artist Adam Tween, it took a couple of days to "touch up" the screens. A comic book created by Gibbons, which was translated into the introduction sequence of the game, came as part of the game package. Beneath a Steel Sky was translated from English into French and Portuguese. This was the first game not developed in Portugal to be released with a Portuguese translation. ### Freeware release and Remastered edition In August 2003, the game was released as freeware, with its assembly language source code by Revolution Software, although the license under which the source code is released does not qualify as a free software license. The source code availability made it possible for the ScummVM project to support the game, which allows the game to be played on Windows, OS X, Linux, Windows CE and other compatible operating systems and platforms. In November 2011, James Woodcock released an enhanced soundtrack of the game for ScummVM. The game is also available as a zero-cost download on digital distribution services, including Desura and GOG.com. In July 2009, Revolution announced that a remastered edition of Beneath a Steel Sky would be released on iOS later that year. The remastered edition features new animated movies by Gibbons, a context-sensitive help system and improved audio quality. The game was released on the App Store on October 7, 2009. The animated movies in the iOS remastered version make use of the original stills and use a sliding paper-like style to animate them. The source code was released under GNU GPL-2.0-or-later. ## Critical reception and commercial performance Beneath a Steel Sky was critically acclaimed. In 1995, PC Gamer awarded it the "Best Dialogue" award, and it won the "Best Adventure" award at the Golden Joystick Awards. It was also a commercial success, reaching the number one place on the British Gallup charts. Eurogamer's Simon Parkin later summarized that it "sold extremely well", with lifetime sales between 300,000 and 400,000 units by July 2009. Parkin noted that the majority of its sales derived from European countries. CU Amiga's Tony Dillon proclaimed Beneath a Steel Sky as "one of the greatest adventures ever." Amiga Format's Rob Mead said that the game is an "Utterly brilliant", "massive, intense and atmospheric adventure which will keep you on tenterhooks right until its final startling conclusion." PC Gamer US's Steve Poole called it "slick, funny," "absorbing" and "one of the most playable adventures of all time" "that will appeal to a wide variety of gamers". Amiga Power's Cam Winstanley said that it is "an example of what an adventure game should be like – funny, enthralling and convincing." Adventure Gamers' Claire Wood called it an "enjoyable", "engaging adventure classic, thoroughly enjoyable playing experience" and "a 1984 for the computer game generation." Winstanley thought that the main highpoint of the game was the story, with an ending "that's actually quite a surprise." Wood praised the "intelligent, thought provoking storyline" that "becomes more and more compelling, punctuated by unexpected plot twists and macabre discoveries." Dillon praised the game's "stunning" graphics. Mead said the comic book-like artwork projected a great "atmosphere". Winstanley felt that the game looked "superb". Wood said the graphics "have aged reasonably well". Many of the critics praised the game's "adult humour", showcased through numerous one-liners and double entendres. Dillon praised the charm of the various characters and their personalities built through conversations. Wood also praised the Revolution's "trademark" "light-hearted humour". Both Dillon and Wood, as well as Winstanley, highlighted Joey's witty remarks. Poole called the writing "some of the funniest dialog ever" and the characters "warped" and "interesting". Reviewers praised the game's puzzles for being logical but still challenging. Poole found the puzzles to be "tricky" and "engaging", but stated "the difficulty of the puzzles in the final third of the game is disproportionately high" and that he disliked some of the "race the clock" puzzles. On the other hand, Winstanley felt that the "real time" puzzles "add pace". Wood's only gripe with the puzzles were the "odd and disorienting" LINC-space sequences. Dillon wrote that the controls were so "simple that Revolution can finally lay claim to having created the ultimate in intuitive control methods." Poole labeled them "a masterwork of simplicity". Winstanley also praised the "simple" interface, while Wood said that the "unobtrusive interface" is one of the factors that make the game a "highly immersive experience". ### Remastered version The remastered 2009 iOS version was also very well received. It holds an aggregate score of 85% on GameRankings based on 7 reviews, and 82 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 5 reviews. It was nominated for Best Port/Enhanced Re-release at the Adventure Gamers' 2009 Aggie Awards in 2010. The game sold around 20,000 units in its first month of release, while Cecil anticipated sales of around 70,000 copies during its first year on sale, and roughly 100,000 in its lifetime. The remastered release is available with Spanish, French, Swedish, Portuguese, German, Italian, and English subtitles. Slide To Play's Keith Andrew said that "Beneath a Steel Sky somehow feels bigger and bolder than its rivals, raising the bar and highlighting what others have so far failed to achieve. Perfectly suited to its new home, this remastering of a classic game serves up point-and-click play nearly unmatched on the App Store." Andrew noted that the point-and-click interface "merg[es] seamlessly with touchscreen controls" and that the hint system is "a feature that might antagonize some of Steel Sky's hardened fan-base, but one perfectly pitched at the iPhone generation." IGN's Eduardo Vasconcellos stated that the game "is a reminder of how good the old point-and-clickers really were. The updated elements only add to the experience – especially the cutscenes. If you're looking for an intriguing story, solid gameplay and some nostalgic charm, Beneath a Steel Sky is for you." Vasconcellos complimented the "intuitive and responsive" touch controls and said that the "visuals are an attractive update of the original release", and gave the game an "Editor's Choice" award. Pocket Gamer's Tracy Erickson said that the game "remains as entertaining as it did 15 years ago, galvanising the adventure gaming resurgence on iPhone." Erickson felt that the touch controls are "only functional and not fantastic," but that "measures have been taken to address [problems of the original point-and click interface] to a respectable degree," and that the "minimally enhanced presentation raises alarm." However, he concluded that even though "More could have been done to brush the dust off this ageing title," "it's still a standout game." He gave it a "Silver Award". ## Legacy Although retrospectively Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars is generally looked upon as Revolution's magnum opus, Beneath a Steel Sky still holds the status of a cult classic and has been featured on numerous "all-time top" lists: Amiga Power ranked Beneath a Steel Sky 42nd on their Amiga Power All-Time Top One Hundred in 1994. Adventure Gamers ranked the game 17th on their list of Top 20 Adventure Games of All-Time in 2004, and 19th on the Top 100 All-Time Adventures in 2011. In 2006, Adventure Classic Gaming put the game in 9th place on their list of the Top 10 retro graphic adventure games of all time from PC to consoles. Retro Gamer placed it in third on its list of Top 20 Adventure Games of All-Time ... not by LucasArts in 2010. It was included in Edge editor Tony Mott's 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die, a book published in 2010. In 2011, PC Gamer ranked it ninth on its list of 20 free PC games you must play. In the same year, Now Gamer listed it as one of the Greatest Point-And-Click Games (Not By LucasArts). In 2014, TechRadar placed it 40th on its list of the Top 50 best free games you should play today. Pocket Gamer included it on its list of Top 10 adventure games that should be revived on DS in 2009. Beneath a Steel Sky: Remastered has been placed on numerous top lists as well, including Edge's Top 50 iPhone Games at 26th in 2009, as well as Pocket Gamer's Top 10 point-and-click adventure games on iPhone and iPad and Mashable's 10 Classic PC Games That Found New Life on the iPhone, both in 2010. Beneath a Steel Sky is often referenced in Revolution's Broken Sword games, including 1997's Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror, in 2009's Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars – Director's Cut and 2013/2014's Broken Sword 5: The Serpent's Curse, in the form of an easter egg. ### Sequel In 2004, Cecil commented "Beneath a Steel Sky 2 is a project Revolution has been considering for a while, and has started to move forward on, but we are unable to comment beyond this." In an interview with Eurogamer in 2006, Cecil spoke of his admiration for the work done by ScummVM and the resulting interest in a sequel. He also stated that if he were to make the game he "would dearly love to work with Dave Gibbons again." In a February 20, 2009 interview with IGN UK about the Wii and DS versions of Broken Sword: The Director's Cut, Cecil and Gibbons re-iterated their interest in a sequel to Beneath a Steel Sky. On September 25, 2012, Revolution announced that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 would be greenlit if their Broken Sword 5: The Serpent's Curse Kickstarter reached \$1 million. Despite Broken Sword: The Serpent's Curse failing to meet the \$1 million 'stretch goal', Revolution announced that the success of its crowdfunding campaign had inspired them to greenlight Beneath a Steel Sky 2. However, Revolution later clarified that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 will not necessarily be the studio's first project following Broken Sword 5 and that they would "think" about what their next game will be after finishing the Broken Sword game. In February 2014 it was reported that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 had never entered production, despite previous reports to the contrary. The reason cited was that the Broken Sword franchise took up the sole focus of the company. On March 25, 2019, Revolution announced that Beyond a Steel Sky would be released on Apple Arcade (iOS, macOS, tvOS) later in 2019. The game was released on Apple Arcade on June 26, 2020, on Steam on July 16, 2020, and on GOG.com on March 19, 2021.
2,642,153	Federalist No. 5	1,170,941,905	Federalist Paper by John Jay	[ "1787 essays", "1787 in American law", "1787 in the United States", "Federalist Papers by John Jay" ]	Federalist No. 5, titled "The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence", is a political essay by John Jay, the fifth of The Federalist Papers. It was first published in The Independent Journal on November 10, 1787, under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all The Federalist Papers were published. It is the last of four essays by Jay advocating political union as a means of protection from foreign nations. Federalist No. 5 addresses the idea of states forming regional confederacies and how it would affect foreign relations. Jay argued that these confederacies would be cautious or envious regarding one another while maintaining stronger relations with foreign nations. He theorized that the Northern United States would grow stronger than the Southern United States, causing conflict between the regions. He contrasted this scenario with political union, arguing that union would prevent conflict by combining the states' strength and aligning their national interests. Jay's ideas in Federalist No. 5 were reflected at several points in American history, including the American Civil War that saw the Northern and Southern United States in direct military conflict. ## Summary Jay opens his argument by quoting Queen Anne's letter to the Parliament of Scotland in favor of British unification. He compares the kingdoms of Great Britain to hypothetical confederacies of American states, arguing that such confederacies would come into conflict with one another. He suggests that one region would become stronger than the others—considering the Northern United States to be the most likely—and that other regions would respond with envy and seek to hinder its growth. Jay contends that conflict between American confederacies would prevent them from rivaling other nations, and he argues that defense pacts between the confederacies would be unlikely. He compares this scenario to the kingdoms of Great Britain and the kingdoms of Spain prior to unification, in which they operated as independent nations with separate national interests. He then argues that these separate interests would lead to different foreign policies and to alliances with different European nations. Finally, he warns that such alliances would allow foreign nations to gain influence, likening it to conquests of the Roman Empire carried out through pretended alliances. ## Background and publication Like all of the Federalist Papers, Federalist No. 5 was published under the pseudonym Publius in New York newspapers with the intention of explaining the provisions of the Constitution of the United States and persuading New York to ratify it. It was first published in The Independent Journal on November 10, 1787, followed by The Daily Advertiser on November 12 and The New-York Packet on November 13. Federalist No. 5 was the last of four essays by Jay supporting political union to protect the United States from other nations. It continued directly from the ideas of Federalist No. 4, arguing that the states would be unable maintain their own security without political union. ## Analysis In Federalist No. 5, Jay warned against the formation of regional confederacies instead of a national union. He argued that under such a system, the states would work against one another and fall under the influence of foreign countries. Jay insisted that union was necessary because a national government would be stronger than any individual confederacy, as all states would cooperate toward the same interests, and the national government would have access to greater resources and military strength than any confederacy would individually. American politics of the time were defined by sectionalism, particularly between the Northern and Southern regions of the United States. The two regions held different interests, as the North maintained a mercantilist economy while the South was an agrarian society. Jay considered this distinction a likely cause for conflict between the states, supposing that their economic interests would put them in opposition to one another. He also believed that these separate interests would incentivize the confederacies to seek different European allies, further putting them in conflict with one another. Jay contended that once this foreign influence was established, it would be difficult to reverse. Jay's arguments in Federalist No. 5 contrast with those he made in Federalist No. 2, in which he proposed that the American people are naturally unified under common interests and ideals. Federalist No. 5 maintained that these factors alone were not sufficient, and that the preservation of an American nationality was contingent on a central government to maintain union between the states. Federalist No. 5 was one of several instances in which envy and jealousy are described as threats to the American people. Political theorist Jon Elster described Federalist No. 5 as having the "most striking" example of this phenomenon. Jay speculated that one of the confederacies would likely become more powerful over time, further increasing diplomatic tension between them and provoking action to hinder one another. In Jay's view, this likelihood preempted any hope that regional confederacies would work as allies for an extended time. He feared that confederacies bordering one another would grow distrustful and exist in constant fear of war. Like many of The Federalist Papers, Federalist No. 5 described historical events that relate to its arguments. Jay likened confederacies between the states to the division of England, Scotland, and Wales in Great Britain and to the Iberian kingdoms that combined to form Spain. To make this comparison, he quoted a letter written by Queen Anne in support of British unification that closely resembled the style and argumentation of The Federalist Papers. Jay believed that the unification of Britain was closely analogous to a potential union of the United States. In both cases, he saw it logical that countries with similar interests and geographic qualities should be combined under a single nation. Likewise, he believed that a system of confederacies would be reminiscent of the conflict-ridden nature of the British kingdoms prior to unification. ## Aftermath Jay did not write another essay for The Federalist Papers until Federalist No. 64, which was his final entry in the series. The argument that American unity requires a national government was revisited in Federalist No. 11 and No. 22. Jay's fear of border disputes was realized when the United States came into conflict with Upper Canada during the War of 1812 and with Mexico during the Mexican–American War. The sectionalism described by Jay between the Northern and Southern United States was a predominant factor in American politics over the following generations. It nearly caused military conflict during the nullification crisis, when South Carolina threatened to nullify the 1828 Tariff of Abominations, which it saw as serving Northern interests. Hostility between the North and South eventually culminated in the American Civil War in 1861. By the 21st century, economic globalization and modern warfare have altered the circumstances under which Jay and Queen Anne advocated unification for economic and military protection.
920,556	Bow Back Rivers	1,172,013,255	Waterways in east London	[ "Geography of the London Borough of Newham", "River Lea", "Rivers of London", "Thames drainage basin" ]	Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers is a complex of waterways between Bow and Stratford in east London, England, which connect the River Lea to the River Thames. Starting in the twelfth century, works were carried out to drain Stratford Marshes and several of the waterways were constructed to power watermills. Bow Creek provided the final outfall to the Thames, and the other channels were called Abbey Creek, Channelsea River, City Mill River, Prescott Channel, Pudding Mill River, Saint Thomas Creek, Three Mills Back River, Three Mills Wall River and Waterworks River. The rivers have been subject to change over centuries, with Alfred the Great diverting the river in 896 to create a second channel, and Queen Matilda bridging both channels around 1110 by paying for the construction of Bow Bridge. Because the river system was tidal as far as Hackney Wick, several of the mills were tide mills, including those at Abbey Mills and those at Three Mills, one of which survives. Construction of the New River in the seventeenth century to supply drinking water to London, with subsequent extraction by waterworks companies, led to a lowering of water levels, and the river was gradually canalised to maintain navigation. Significant changes occurred with the creation of the Lee Navigation in 1767, which resulted in the construction of the Hackney Cut and the Limehouse Cut, allowing barges to bypass most of the back rivers. A major reconstruction of the rivers took place in the 1930s, authorised by the River Lee (Flood Relief) Act, but by the 1960s, commercial usage of the waterways had largely ceased. Deteriorating infrastructure led to the rivers dwindling to little more than tidal creeks, and they were categorised in 1968 as having no economic or long-term future. However, British Waterways decided that their full restoration was an important aim in 2002, and the construction of the main stadium for the 2012 Summer Olympics on an island formed by the rivers provided funding to construct a new lock and sluices which stabilised water levels throughout the Olympic site. It was hoped that significant amounts of materials for the construction of the Olympic facilities would be delivered by barge, but this did not happen. Improvements to the channels which form a central feature of the Olympic Park included the largest aquatic planting scheme ever carried out in Britain. ## Name It is unclear when the individually named rivers became known collectively as Bow Back Rivers. Charles Tween, writing on behalf of the Lee Conservancy, referred to them as both the Stratford Back Rivers and the Stratford Back Streams in 1905. The section to the west of the more recent City Mills Lock was labelled Bow Back River on a map of 1895, but had previously been part of Pudding Mill River. Powell, writing in 1973, still referred to them as the Stratford Back Rivers. The 1939 edition of "Inland Waterways of Great Britain", an early attempt to provide a guide for the leisure use of canals, noted that the River Lee had "several subsidiary canalised waterways", and listed Bow Creek, Old River Lee, City Mills River and Waterworks River, but did not describe them collectively. Boyes and Russell writing in 1977 referred to them as the Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers, and by the sixth edition of "Inland Waterways of Great Britain", published in 1985, they were referred to as Bow Back Rivers. The river which supplies the Bow Back Rivers has been known as the River Lee or River Lea, but modern usage tends to use "Lea" when referring to the natural river, and "Lee" when referring to the navigation, so that the Lee Navigation is a canalisation of the River Lea. The name Bow may derive from either an arched bridge over the River Lea in the 12th century or a bend in the road east of Bow Road station. ## History The Bow Back Rivers cross an area originally known as Stratford Marsh, an area of common Lammas land, where inhabitants had common rights to graze horses and cattle between Lammas Day (1 August) and Lady Day (25 March), but which was used for growing hay for the rest of the year. The Marsh was between Stratford-Langthorne and Stratford-at-Bow. Little remains from pre-history, but the names suggest that the two settlements lay at either end of a stone causeway across the marsh. Remains of a stone causeway have been found, but no traces of an associated road. The ford at Old Ford is of pre-Roman origin, part of a route from London to Essex which crossed Bethnal Green. In the Roman era, a new road was built from London to the ford, which carried the principal road to Colchester. There may also have been a ford further south at Bow, and a further causeway existed between Homerton and Leyton, known as Wanstead Slip. These crossings passed across a true marsh, either side of the River Lea. This wide, fast flowing river was then tidal as far as Hackney Wick, and navigable as far as Hertfordshire. Dates for the earliest use of the rivers by boats are unknown, although a late Bronze Age dugout canoe and parts of a Saxon barge have been found in the marshes at Walthamstow. The first alteration to the natural river may have been made by Alfred the Great, who cut another channel to strand a force of Danes in 896, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. This lowered the tide head to Old Ford, and prevented large boats sailing the river until the 15th century. During the reign of King Henry I, in 1100, his wife Queen Matilda (or Maud), directed that the road should be routed further south, and paid for two bridges, one to cross the Lee and the other to cross the Channelsea River, from her own funds. She also paid for the road to be built between them, and the location of the bridge became known as Stratford-atte-Boghe, later Stratford-le-Bow, and finally dropped Stratford to become Bow or Bow Bridge. John Leland, writing in the 1500s, gives a more fanciful account, in which the queen falling into the water prompted the action. The addition of le-Bow probably had less to do with the shape of the bridge than the fact that arch was derived from arcus, meaning bow. This was the style of French bridges rather than the Anglo Saxon straight construction, and its design gave it its name. In 1135, Stratford Langthorne Abbey was founded. The Abbey continued the process of draining Stratford marsh begun in the Middle Ages and creating artificial channels to drive water and tide mills. A small river port developed at Stratford, mentioned in the 15th century, to serve the needs of Stratford Abbey and the mills at Stratford, and there is similar evidence in later centuries. The Abbey took on responsibility to maintain the marsh walls around Bow Creek, to keep the tidal waters out. The river was being used for the transport of goods and passengers by 1571, when an Act of Parliament empowered the Lord Mayor of London to make improvements to the river to ensure that supplies of grain continued to reach the capital. These works included a new cut near the Thames, probably the section of river between Bow Tidal Gates and Old Ford, on which no tolls were to be charged, and a pound lock was constructed at Waltham Abbey, only the second to be built in England. Between Bow Bridge and Channelsea Bridge there were three others, said in 1303 to have been built to fill the gaps caused by the cutting of mill streams through Maud's causeway, although there is evidence that the mills pre-dated the causeway. However, the mill owners took responsibility for the bridges, which crossed the mill streams for St Thomas's, Spileman's and Saynes mills. The last two were owned by the City of London, and the bridges were called Pegshole and St Michael's Bridges. An administrative mistake around 1814 resulted in the City of London taking responsibility for St Thomas's Bridge, but the miller did not complain as Pegshole bridge was smaller and therefore less costly to maintain. The names were eventually swapped, and all three were replaced by Groves Bridge in 1933, which crossed the widened Three Mills Wall River, the two branches of the Waterworks River having been combined into Three Mills Wall River, while Three Mills Wall Back River was filled in. Crossing the Back Rivers by a series of low-level bridges is the Northern Outfall Sewer which leads to the Abbey Mills Pumping Station, both of which were designed by Joseph Bazalgette in the 1860s. Today, the route of the embankment that encloses the sewer from Bow to Beckton is followed by a public footpath, The Greenway. ### Public water supply Water was extracted from the rivers to provide a public water supply. The opening of the New River in 1633, a 40-mile (64 km) channel built to bring water to London from Amwell springs, and soon afterwards from the River Lea near Ware, had a detrimental effect on both navigation and milling by reducing water levels. Around 1745, the West Ham Waterworks Company built a waterworks at Saynes Mill in Stratford, the river on which it was located later being known as Waterworks River. The East London Waterworks Company was set up in 1807, and built works at Old Ford, where they extracted water from the river. The supply to the works was moved further upstream in 1829, and in 1830 they built a canal, running parallel to the Hackney Cut, so that water could be obtained from Lea Bridge. Much of the work was carried out by the contractor William Hoof, who had gained a reputation as a specialist tunnelling contractor, after working on Strood Tunnel for the Thames and Medway Canal and Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal. He worked on the waterworks project from 1829 until 1834. Where there had been a reservoir to the south of the Middlesex Filter Beds weir in 1850, maps from 1870 show the site occupied by a waterworks, and the canal which supplied the Old Ford works running beside the Hackney Cut. Another large reservoir, triangular in shape, was located between the old river and the Hackney Cut at Old Ford, with two connections to the old river. The water supply canal passed under the old river to feed two compensation reservoirs to the north of the Great Eastern Railway tracks. A covered reservoir was situated on the west bank of the old river. The Waterworks River underwent considerable change over the years. In 1850, it left the channel of the Old River Lee much further to the north, to the south-west of Temple Mills railway depot. It was called Lead Mills Stream at this point. Near Temple Mills bridge, now on the A12 road, Channelsea River split off. The two channels ran parallel to the Old River Lee, before Channelsea River turned to the south-east. There was another small connection between the Old River Lee and the Waterworks River called Bully Fence, where the northern Channelsea River is shown on modern maps. By 1870, it was called Waterworks River as far north as Temple Mills depot, and by 1896, its present connection to the old river near to Carpenters Road had been established. Twenty years later, the northern Waterworks River rejoined the Lee at Bully Fence, and the section between there and Carpenters Road had been filled in. At some point, the connection at Bully Fence became the main source for the Channelsea River, although the 1953/66 map still shows it connected to the remnants of the system to the north, for drainage. Administrative boundaries still follow the northern course of the Waterworks River. ### Navigation Although the River Lee was navigable up to Hertford, this had been achieved by the use of flash locks, where a single gate created a channel through a weir. These caused conflict between the bargemen and the millers, since operation of the lock lowered the water level above it, hindering the operation of the mill. In 1765, the engineer John Smeaton was asked to survey the river, with a view to improving it "for the good of the public". His report of September 1766 highlighted the need to replace the flash locks with the more modern pound locks or pen sluices, each with two sets of gates. Significantly for the Bow Back Rivers, he suggested a new cut from Lea Bridge to Old Ford, and another from Bow Tidal Gates to a basin at Limehouse. The first became known as the Hackney Cut, and the second as the Limehouse Cut. An Act of Parliament was obtained on 29 June 1767, and work began. The Limehouse Cut would give direct access to the River Thames, avoiding the tidal Bow Creek. It was expected to open in July 1770, but some of the brickwork collapsed, and had to be repaired before the cut opened on 17 September 1770. It closed again briefly in December, when a bridge collapsed into it, and it was soon decided that it was too narrow, and so was widened to allow barges to pass each other along its complete length. This work was finished on 1 September 1777. The contract for the Hackney Cut was given to Jeremiah Ilsley on 18 January 1768, and a bricklayer called Henry Holland was asked to build two locks on the cut on 23 April 1768. A millwright from Bromley called Mr Cooper was given the job of building Bromley Lock (close to Bow tidal gates). Work progressed quickly, and the cut was opened for traffic on 7 August 1769. The Act of 1767 had specified points on the river at which tolls could be collected, but had made no mention of tolls for use of Bow Creek, Bow Back Rivers, or the section of the navigation between Bow tidal gates and Old Ford, and these had remained toll-free. An Act of Parliament obtained on 14 August 1850 allowed the trustees to build a pound lock at Bow tidal gates. To prevent opposition from the bargees, the Act had formalised the freedom from tolls on the Bow River section. Once the lock was built, however, the trustees charged a toll for using it. This was unpopular, but there was still the option of using the tidal gates at certain states of the tide, which did not incur a toll. A clause to authorise the lock toll was deleted by Parliament from a subsequent Act of 1868, and it was still the case in 1977 that a charge was made for using the lock but not for using the gates. By 1821, Stratford was served by a number of wharves, some located on the Lea and others on the Channelsea River or other branches. In addition to wharves for general goods, some specifically handled timber, chalk, stone, coal, or wheat. Several of the factories and mills had private wharves. By this date, a dock had been built near Bow Bridge to the south of the High Street. It was about 80 by 50 yards (73 by 46 m), and was connected to the river by its own channel. It was initially called Stratford Dock, later becoming Meggs Dock and was probably constructed by the Middlesex and Essex Turnpike Trust. Half of it had been filled in by 1896, and the rest by 1920. In the 1860s, the income from the navigation had dropped, as a result of attempts to compete against the railways, but economies were made, and capital works continued. The lock at Lea Bridge was removed, and replaced by Old Ford Lock further to the south, which was built to take 100-ton barges, rather than the 40-ton barges specified by an Act of 1805. Although the original Lee trustees, and after 1868 the Conservators of the River Lee, were officially responsible for the Bow Back Rivers, there was little incentive to maintain them, since they did not generate any revenue. Nor could they be closed, since they allowed surplus water from the upper river to reach the Thames, without causing flooding. ### Regeneration The rivers were run down by the 1920s and, with high unemployment in the area, West Ham Corporation and the Lee Conservancy Board applied for a government unemployment relief grant, with which to fund major improvements. In addition to work on the channels, Bow Tidal Lock was duplicated, Marshgate Lock was rebuilt further east as City Mill Lock, and a second new lock at Carpenters Road was constructed. It used up-and-over radial gates operated by winches, rather than the traditional mitre gates used at City Mill Lock. The gates were quadrant-shaped, and were raised out of the river to allow boats to enter or leave the lock. An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1930 to authorise the work, called the River Lee (Flood Relief) Act, and work began the following year. The project was completed in 1935. Before the work, there had been a floodgate on the Waterworks River above its junction with the Three Mills Wall River, and a large pool, the City Mill Pool, connecting to the City Mills River and Saint Thomas Creek. Marshgate Lock was situated to the west of the junction between the Pudding Mill River and Saint Thomas Creek. It was originally built in 1864, by adding a second set of gates to Hunters Gates, a floodgate which had been built around 1847. The reconstructed lock was built on the site of the City Mill Pool, and had two sets of gates at its eastern end, to prevent high tidal levels in Waterworks River flooding the waterways to the west. It was labelled Marshgate Lane Lock on the 1948 map, but was called Ward Lock, after a local councillor, and is now known as City Mills Lock. The course of the Saint Thomas Creek was then straightened, and the original Marshgate Lock was bypassed. Pudding Mill River became a dead end when the lower section was filled in, as was most of the Three Mills Back River, and the floodgate on Waterworks River was also removed. Reconstruction of the channels included widening City Mill River to 50 feet (15 m), while Three Mills Wall River and Waterworks River were made twice that width. Prior to the work, the arrangement had been to regulate the navigation with the Pond Lane Flood Gates and Marshgate Lane tidal lock. The new lock at Carpenter's Road gave access to the Waterworks River, providing barge access to Temple Mills. At high tides, the low headroom of the Northern Outfall Sewer aqueduct prevented access to the southern reaches of the system, and to allow access City Mill Lock was constructed near Blaker Road. In 2005, the lock was partially restored as part of the planning gain required from the developers of the adjacent Bellamy Homes housing scheme. The 1930s improvements included the construction of the Prescott Channel, designed to allow flood water to bypass the Three Mills tide mills. The channel included sluices to regulate water levels above it, but these became redundant once the tide mills ceased to operate, and eventually seized up. They were removed soon after parts of the Channelsea River were culverted. By the 1960s, only the Saint Thomas Creek, the City Mills River and the Channelsea River were still being used for commercial traffic. A section of the Channelsea River between Stratford High Street and Lett Road was culverted between 1957 and 1958. As traffic ceased, the lock structures deteriorated, and by 2006, City Mills Lock and Carpenters Road Lock were officially disused. The Transport Act 1968 had classified most waterways into commercial, cruising and remainder waterways. Remainder waterways were those for which the government of the time could see no economic future, and which would only therefore be subject to maintenance to prevent them becoming unsafe. The Bow Back Rivers fell into this category, and remained neglected until their full restoration was enshrined in a British Waterways policy document in 2002. ## Olympics The Olympic Stadium for the London 2012 Summer Olympics is constructed on former industrial land between the Lea Navigation to the west and the City Mill River to the east. The land was formerly bisected by the remains of the Pudding Mill River, but this was filled in to provide a site which was large enough. As part of the construction phase for the event, Three Mills Lock was constructed on the Prescott Channel. This consists of a barge lock, suitable for 350-tonne (344.5-long-ton; 385.8-short-ton) barges, and an adjacent sluice, which enables the water levels above the structure to be regulated, rather than navigation being subject to the tides. The lock was built to allow construction materials to be delivered to the site and spoil to be removed, and the final cost was £23 million, which included a sluice on the Three Mills Wall River. Work began in March 2007, and the project lasted for just over two years. Despite hopes that it would transport 1.75 million tonnes while the stadium was being built, very little commercial traffic used the new lock. With water levels above the structure remaining fairly constant, £400,000 was spent on refurbishing City Mills Lock. Although some work had been carried out in 2006, including the fitting of new metal gates, it was not operational, and had not been used for around 40 years. The second phase of restoration included fitting the equipment to automate its operation. The first public use of the lock occurred on 31 July 2010. British Waterways hoped to restore the Carpenters Road Lock soon afterwards, but the project was postponed until after the completion of the Olympic games, as temporary 'Land Bridges' were erected over the site of the lock to enable pedestrians to reach the stadium, some of which will be removed after the event. Following the Olympic games, it is hoped the waterways will continue to be used by both commercial and leisure craft. The Olympic Delivery Authority took the decision to culvert more of the Channelsea River, where it crossed the northern part of the site. It remains a designated main river, and so they had to liaise with the Environment Agency on matters of flood-risk management, and a site was identified which would provide compensation for the loss of habitat caused by the culverting. Much of the old River Lea was inaccessible to the public prior to the project, but is a central feature of the northern parklands that have been created. Two 'wetland bowls' were designed, which have been planted with water-loving plants such as reeds, rushes, sedges and iris. They also provide spawning grounds and refuges during flood conditions for fish, as well as providing storage capacity for flood water. It was the largest aquatic planting scheme ever carried out in Britain when it was completed, and most of the 350,000 plants were grown in Norfolk from seeds and cuttings removed from the site. At the southern end of the site, the Waterworks River was reconstructed. Improvements in the 1930s created channels with vertical concrete sides, and little thought for habitat. The channel was made 26 feet (8 m) wider, with sloping banks and ramps down to the water's edge, and was improved visually and ecologically by the planting of aquatic marginal plants. Following the Olympics, there was extremely limited access to the waterways through the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, and reconstruction of Carpenters Road Lock was delayed. However, the £1.8 million project to rebuild it and fit new radial gates was almost completed by May 2017, when the new gates were craned into position. The Heritage Lottery Fund provided £680,000 towards the cost of the project, with other grants coming from the London Legacy Development Corporation and the Inland Waterways Association. As well as acting as a lock, the radial gates allow water to be distributed around the Bow Back Rivers for flood prevention purposes. The gates were due to be tested during the summer months, with a formal opening scheduled for the East London Waterways Festival in August. Public access to the waterways around the Olympic Stadium was also due to begin in June or July. ## Locks The locks on the Bow Back Rivers are not built to a single standard, and sizes vary. ## Points of interest ## See also - Rivers of the United Kingdom
1,135,870	Castle Clinton	1,173,622,183	U.S. National Monument in Manhattan, New York	[ "1811 establishments in New York (state)", "Forts in Manhattan", "Forts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)", "History museums in New York City", "IUCN protected area errors", "John McComb Jr. buildings", "Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "Military installations established in 1808", "Monuments and memorials in Manhattan", "Museums in Manhattan", "National Park Service National Monuments in New York City", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "The Battery (Manhattan)" ]	Castle Clinton (also known as Fort Clinton and Castle Garden) is a restored circular sandstone fort within Battery Park at the southern end of Manhattan in New York City. Built from 1808 to 1811, it was the first American immigration station, predating Ellis Island. More than 7.5 million people arrived in the United States at Fort Clinton between 1855 and 1890. Over its active life, it has also functioned as a beer garden, exhibition hall, theater, and public aquarium. The structure is a New York City designated landmark and a United States national monument, and it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Fort Clinton was originally known as the West Battery or the Southwest Battery, occupying an artificial island off the shore of Lower Manhattan. Designed by John McComb Jr., with Jonathan Williams as consulting engineer, the fort was garrisoned in 1812 but was never used for warfare. In 1824, the New York City government converted Fort Clinton into a 6,000-seat entertainment venue known as Castle Garden, which operated until 1855. Castle Garden then served as an immigrant processing depot for 35 years. When the processing facilities were moved to Ellis Island in 1892, Castle Garden was converted into the first home of the New York Aquarium, which opened in 1896 and continued operating until 1941. The fort was expanded and renovated several times during this period. In the 1940s, New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses proposed demolishing Fort Clinton as part of the construction of the nearby Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel. This led to a prolonged debate over the fort's preservation, as well as the creation of the Castle Clinton National Monument in 1946. The National Park Service took over the fort in 1950. After several unsuccessful attempts to restore the fort, Castle Clinton reopened in 1975 following an extensive renovation. Since 1986, it has served as a visitor center and a departure point for ferries to the Statue of Liberty National Monument. ## Original use Castle Clinton stands slightly west of where Fort Amsterdam was built in 1626, when New York City was known by the Dutch name New Amsterdam. Fort Amsterdam was demolished by 1790 after the American Revolutionary War. Proposals for a new fort were made after two separate war scares involving Britain and France in the 1790s, but neither plan was ultimately carried out. By 1805, there were growing tensions between Britain and the U.S., marking the run-up to the War of 1812. Late that year, Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Williams of the United States Army Engineers began planning a series of fortifications in New York Harbor. Williams was part of a group of three commissioners who, in 1807, submitted a report that recommended the construction of such fortifications. Fort Clinton, originally known as West Battery and sometimes as Southwest Battery, was built on an artificial island, created just off shore when the fort was built. Construction began in 1808, and the fort was completed in 1811, although modifications continued through the 1820s. Designed by John McComb Jr. with Jonathan Williams as consulting engineer, West Battery was roughly circular with a radius of approximately 92 feet (28 m). About one-eighth of the circle had a straight wall instead of a curved wall. The walls were made of red sandstone quarried in New Jersey. The fort had 28 thirty-two-pounder cannons. A wooden bridge led from the fort to the rest of Manhattan. West Battery was intended to complement the three-tiered Castle Williams, the East Battery, on Governors Island. The fort was completed in late 1811, and it was garrisoned in 1812. However, the fort was never used for warfare, and British and American forces signed a peace treaty in February 1815. By then, West Battery was renamed Fort Clinton in honor of New York City Mayor DeWitt Clinton (who eventually became Governor of New York). The castle itself was converted to administrative headquarters for the Army. Simultaneously, at the end of the war, there was a public movement to build a park in the Battery area. A 1816 proposal to construct two small office buildings at Fort Clinton was canceled due to public opposition, and the castle lay dormant for three years. The Common Council of New York proposed in May 1820 that the United States government transfer ownership of the castle to the city government, but the United States Congress declined to pass legislation to that effect. By 1820, Fort Clinton was being used as a paymaster's quarters and storage area. The United States Army stopped using the fort in 1821, and it was ceded to the city by an act of Congress in March 1822. By then, the bridge leading to Fort Clinton was frequently used by fishermen who were catching fish from the bridge, which was connected to the shore at the foot of Broadway. ## Entertainment venue The fort was leased to the New York City government as an entertainment venue in June 1824; the city originally paid \$1,400 a year for five years. The city government subleased the fort to Francis Fitch, Arthur Roorbach, and J. Rathbone. Fort Clinton became Castle Garden, which served as a beer garden, exhibition hall, and theater. The venue contained 50 boxes, each with a table and eight seats. Atop Castle Garden was a circular promenade with a canopy above it. Castle Garden was surrounded by a gravel promenade and shrubbery atop a seawall. The New-York Daily Tribune wrote that the fort "afterward became associated with scenes of peace and popular amusement". One critic described Castle Garden in 1828 as "a favored place of public resort". The fort reopened as Castle Garden on July 3, 1824. One of the fort's first events was in September 1824, when 6,000 people attended an event honoring General Lafayette. Over the years, the fort hosted other political figures such as U.S. presidents Andrew Jackson, John Tyler, and James K. Polk, as well as Hungarian governor-president Lajos Kossuth. Inventor Samuel Morse hosted a demonstration of a telegraph machine at Castle Garden in 1835. Around 1845, Castle Garden was converted into a theater when a roof was built above the fort's interior. The structure contained 6,000 seats. Officials were planning to expand the nearby Battery Park by 1848, adding landfill around Castle Garden to bring the park to 24 acres (9.7 ha). In 1850, Swedish soprano Jenny Lind gave her first performances in the United States with two concerts at Castle Gardens; tickets for these concerts cost up to \$225 (). A year later, Castle Garden started selling concert tickets at "popular prices" of up to 50 cents (). In the early 1850s, European dancing star Lola Montez performed her "tarantula dance", and Louis-Antoine Jullien gave dozens of successful concerts mixing classical and light music. The Max Maretzek Italian Opera Company staged the New York premieres of two operas at Castle Garden: Gaetano Donizetti's Marino Faliero on June 17, 1851, and Giuseppe Verdi's Luisa Miller on July 20, 1854. The fort was leased to Theodore J. Allen for five years on May 1, 1854. Under the terms of the lease, Allen could expand the island around Castle Garden, but he could not infill the channel between Castle Garden and Battery Park. ## Immigrant landing and registration depot Castle Garden served as the first immigration depot in the U.S. from 1855 to 1890. Most of the fort, except for the section along the shoreline, was surrounded by a 1,000-foot-long (300 m) wooden fence. The fence, measuring 12 or 13 feet (3.7 or 4.0 m) high, was intended to keep out unauthorized immigrants. At the center of the fort was the waiting area, known as the rotunda. The immigrant registration depot included a quadrangle of desks arranged around this waiting area, as well as restrooms flanking the main entrance. The waiting area also had wooden benches. Although there are no precise figures for the capacity of the waiting area, various sources give a capacity of between 2,000 and 4,000. An enclosed balcony was installed around the waiting area circa 1869. The residential outbuildings around the fort became offices. Before being processed at Castle Garden, immigrants underwent medical inspections at the Marine Hospital on Staten Island, where ill immigrants were quarantined. Those who passed their medical inspection boarded a steamship, which traveled to a dock along the northern side of Castle Garden; the dock faced away from Battery Park, preventing immigrants from entering Manhattan before they had been processed. Immigrants were inspected a second time before entering the fort. Inside the depot, a New York state emigration clerk registered each immigrant and directed them to another desk, where a second clerk advised each immigrant about their destination. Each of the immigrants then received a bottle of bathwater and returned to the dock, where their baggage was collected. The New York Central Railroad and the New York and Erie Railroad sold train tickets at Castle Garden as well. Many of Castle Garden's original immigrant passenger records were stored at Ellis Island, where they were destroyed in a fire in 1897. Sources cite 7.5 million or 8 million immigrants as having been processed at Castle Garden. These account for the vast majority of the nearly 10 million immigrants who passed through the Port of New York between 1847 and 1890. The majority of immigrants processed at Castle Garden were from European countries, namely Denmark, England, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Scotland, and Sweden. The facility's name was pronounced Kesselgarten by German immigrants and by Yiddish-speaking Eastern European Jews. The word kesselgarten became a generic term for any situation that was noisy, confusing or chaotic, or where a "babel" of languages was spoken (a reference to the multitude of languages heard spoken by the immigrants from many countries at the site). In 2005, The New York Times estimated that one-sixth of all Americans were descended from an immigrant who had passed through Castle Garden. ### Conversion and operation #### 1850s and 1860s The New York state government's Board of Emigration Commissioners had been established in 1847 to operate medical facilities and a registration center for immigrants. Although the board had acquired the Marine Hospital on Staten Island soon after its establishment, their efforts to open a registration center were unsuccessful for several years. Prior to the establishment of the registration center, unethical ticket-booking agents for transport lines frequently approached newly arrived immigrants, only to abscond with the immigrants' savings. The board took over Allen's lease of Castle Garden in May 1855 and made some modifications, leasing the fort for \$8,000 annually (). Several local residents attempted to prevent the fort from being converted into an immigrant registration depot, claiming that the state government's lease was illegal and that the newly arrived immigrants would spread disease. A judge for the state's Superior Court ruled in June 1855 that work on the immigrant-processing depot could proceed. The Emigrant Landing Depot opened within the fort on August 1, 1855, and the depot began processing immigrants two days later. The identity of the first migrant processed at the fort is unknown. Of the first five ships to arrive at Castle Garden, English laborer Richard Richards was the first person on the manifest of the largest ship. Although the New York state government endorsed Castle Garden's conversion to an immigrant-processing depot, the New York City government opposed the move and accused the Emigration Commissioners of violating the terms of their lease. Many complaints about Castle Garden came from "runners" representing booking agents and boarding house operators, who could not intercept unwitting immigrants because of Castle Garden's strict policies. The New York state government's initial four-year lease of Castle Garden expired in 1859, and state officials renewed their lease annually for the next ten years. By then, state and city officials could not agree on who owned the depot. The city, state, and federal governments continued to fight over the depot's ownership through the 1870s. Although Castle Garden staff often mistreated immigrants, historian George J. Svejda wrote that the depot "was still the best place for immigrants upon their landing on America's shores". In 1864, to convince immigrants to enlist in the United States Armed Forces during the American Civil War, the County Bounty Committee erected a recruitment center next to Castle Garden. Two years later, the Board of Emigration Commissioners constructed a one-story labor exchange building, a waiting room, and an information office, and they made repairs to Castle Garden. The fort's exterior remained largely unchanged over the years, but the interior and many of the fort's wooden outbuildings were frequently renovated. Battery Park was expanded circa 1869 using landfill, at which point the island containing Castle Garden was incorporated into the rest of Manhattan Island. The rotunda was extensively restored at this time, and a wooden balcony was installed. By then, The New York Times wrote that the surrounding Battery Park was "a haven for the 'runners' who approached innocent Irish and German newcomers, offering them nonexistent lodgings for their money". #### 1870s and 1880s By the early 1870s, Castle Garden's information bureau employed staff members who could speak over a dozen languages. The New York state government encouraged immigrants to use other ports of entry to reduce overcrowding, so it issued a head tax on every immigrant who passed through Castle Garden. This measure was largely ineffective, as The New York Times wrote in 1874: "Castle Garden is so well known in Europe that few emigrants can be induced to sail to any other destination." By then, the immigration depot was in poor condition, with rotting floors and "tottering" offices and benches. The Board of Emigration Commissioners lost a significant source of income in 1875, when the Supreme Court of the United States invalidated a New York state law that required steamship companies to pay a head tax or put up a bond for each immigrant. Afterward, the commissioners sought funding from the state legislature. Due to budgetary shortfalls, the Emigration Commissioners disbanded the labor bureau in 1875, although the German and Irish Emigrant Societies took over the labor bureau's operation. Congress passed the Page Act of 1875, the first restrictive federal immigration law in the United States, during this time. The structure was severely damaged in a fire on July 30, 1876. Castle Garden's exterior remained intact, as did the outbuildings to the north of the fort, but the interior was completely destroyed. In the aftermath of the fire, several city officials proposed shuttering the Castle Garden immigration center and restoring the fort as a venue for "public enjoyment". Nonetheless, the New York state government awarded a contract for Castle Garden's reconstruction in September 1876, and it reopened on November 27, 1876. As part of the \$30,000 project (), officials installed windows in the embrasures along the facade, and they added two doorways. After the nearby Barge Office was completed in 1879, immigrants disembarked at the Barge Office, where officers examined immigrants' baggage. The baggage-collection duties soon returned to Castle Garden, and the Barge Office became a storage area. New York state officials unsuccessfully attempted to reinstate a head tax at Castle Garden in 1881. The following year, Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1882, which imposed a head tax on non-U.S. citizens who passed through American ports, as well as restricted certain classes of people from immigrating to America. Under the 1882 act, the Emigration Commissioners earned 50 cents for each immigrant who passed through Castle Garden. Later that year, the Emigration Commissioners began collecting rent from the various companies and agents with offices at Castle Garden, and it started collecting taxes from boardinghouse operators. The Immigration Act of 1882 also prompted a jurisdictional dispute between the city, state, and federal governments. For example, in 1885, the state government refused to allocate \$10,000 for repairs to the depot's ferry dock because the city technically owned Castle Garden. The state government finally provided money for repairs in 1887. ### Closure By the late 1880s, Castle Garden had become overcrowded and unhygienic, and there were numerous reports that Castle Garden officials were mistreating immigrants. Robert Chesebrough, a businessman who owned several structures around Battery Park, had also advocated for the closure of the Castle Garden processing depot. The Chicago Daily Tribune wrote that the structure was "a dilapidated rotunda surrounded by equally ramshackle structures for the housing of the strangers on these shores". The Emigration Commissioners had dismissed many of Castle Garden's employees in September 1889 because of declining income, further compounding the facility's issues. Federal and state officials also had difficulty sharing jurisdiction of Castle Garden; state officials reportedly did not enforce federal laws, as it was not part of their duties. The federal government notified New York state officials in February 1890 that it would take over immigrant-processing duties at Castle Garden within sixty days. Federal officials planned to construct a new immigrant-processing center at another location, ultimately selecting a site on Ellis Island. Castle Garden closed on April 18, 1890, The immigrant-processing center was temporarily relocated to the Barge Office. The state's Commissioners of Emigration had forbidden the federal government to continue to use Castle Garden until the Ellis Island immigrant depot was completed. The new registration office on Ellis Island was completed in 1892. In its last year of operation, Castle Garden processed 450,394 travelers, 364,086 of whom were immigrants. When the immigrant-registration depot closed, city officials contemplated converting Castle Garden into an "amusement resort." The New York state government formally transferred Castle Garden to the city government on December 31, 1890. By the next year, city officials had removed the wooden fence around Castle Garden, and they were planning to demolish the various outbuildings around the fort. The New York Naval Reserve's First Battalion considered relocating to Castle Garden at that time, and it subsequently used Castle Garden as a drill hall during the early 1890s. ## Aquarium Castle Garden was the site of the New York City Aquarium from 1896 to 1941. The structure was extensively altered and roofed over to a height of several stories, though the original masonry fort remained. When the fort was converted into an aquarium, the adjacent section of Battery Park was extended into the Hudson River. The interior of Castle Garden contained two circular colonnades, which supported a roof with skylights. Above the center of the fort was a green-and-yellow dome, with a verse of Scripture (Habakkuk 1:15) inscribed into the dome's base. The aquarium could accommodate 10,000 fish and other species. At the center of the ground story was a large circular pool surrounded by six smaller elliptical pools. Fish and other marine species were loaded into the aquarium through a doorway at one end of the fort. The perimeter of the aquarium was originally surrounded by about 100 tanks of varying sizes, placed on two levels. The tanks were up to 6 feet (1.8 m) deep, with 1-inch-thick (2.5 cm) plate-glass panes and white-tiled surfaces. By 1907, there were seven large tanks at the center of the ground story, 94 large tanks and 26 smaller tanks on the walls, and 30 reserve tanks. The tanks were supplied by fresh water from the New York City water supply system and salt water from the Hudson River. Salt water passed through two bronze filters, while fresh water passed through two copper filters; the four filters could collectively process over 200,000 U.S. gallons (760,000 L) per day. ### Conversion and opening The New York City government had proposed converting Castle Garden into an aquarium in 1891. The following February, the New York State Legislature passed a bill allowing the city government to create an aquarium within Castle Garden. Julius F. Munckwitz Jr. drew up preliminary plans for an aquarium, which he presented to New York City's board of park commissioners in mid-1892. The state government voted to allocate \$150,000 for the construction of an aquarium within Castle Garden. The aquarium's architect of record, H. T. Woodman, reported in April 1894 that several of the tanks were ready for use. During the renovation process, the architect alleged that the tiles in the tanks had not been installed properly, which led to a protracted dispute. The city government allocated another \$25,000 for the aquarium's completion at the end of 1894 (). The aquarium was supposed to have been completed by mid-1894, but it did not open for another two years. By mid-1895, the aquarium was delayed by what the New-York Tribune characterized as "gross stupidity". For instance, the skylights on the roof acted as a greenhouse that raised the temperature of the water in the tanks, and the saltwater fish in the aquarium were dying off because of the low salinity of the Hudson River. The Tribune estimated that these mistakes had increased the project's cost by \$35,000 (). Local media reported in September 1896 that the aquarium was largely completed. At the time, the tanks contained 45 species, some of which had been in the aquarium for two years. Ultimately, it cost \$175,000 to renovate Castle Garden into an aquarium (). The aquarium opened on December 10, 1896, following a soft opening the previous day. The aquarium attracted thousands of visitors on its opening day, and it averaged over 10,000 visitors per day during its first several months. Visitors were not charged admission, which may have contributed to the aquarium's popularity. The aquarium had two million guests within a year, and it had 5.5 million total guests by May 1900. ### 1900s to 1930s In March 1902, New York state legislators proposed transferring operation of the New York Aquarium to the New York Zoological Society. City officials had suggested the idea to remove political interference from the aquarium's operation. The New York City Board of Estimate authorized mayor Seth Low to lease the aquarium to the Zoological Society in July 1902, and the Zoological Society took over on October 31, 1902, with Charles Haskins Townsend as the aquarium's director. Townsend soon made several modifications to Castle Garden's facilities. He covered the tanks' tiled surfaces with rocks, as well as reconfiguring each of the tanks' pipes to reduce energy usage. The Zoological Society added a classroom next to the fort, and it installed a 100,000-U.S.-gallon (380,000 L) tank underneath the fort to store saltwater. The organization also repainted the interior for the first time in Castle Garden's history. These modifications cost over \$30,000 (). The fort's design continued to pose issues; for example, aquarium officials discovered in 1905 that the roof skylights were causing some of the fish to become blind. The Zoological Society installed new pipes at Castle Garden in 1908. Meanwhile, by the early 20th century, city officials were planning to rebuild Battery Park, and they considered replacing Castle Garden with a skyscraper. By January 1911, officials instead planned to expand Castle Garden, adding semicircular wings to the west and east for over \$1 million. Each wing was to contain three tiers of tanks and classroom space. The Zoological Society asked the Board of Estimate to allocate \$1.75 million to the renovation, but the board still had not funded the renovation of Castle Garden by 1916. Townsend said the aquarium's mechanical facilities needed major upgrades; according to Townsend, the mechanical equipment under the fort was flooded at high tide, and power was provided by coal bunkers, which had to be manually replenished every four days. In addition, the fort had never been properly renovated for the aquarium's use, and the second story's wooden frame was flammable. Townsend said the annexes would not only provide additional exhibition space but also allow the mechanical facilities to be upgraded. In 1921, Townsend announced that the Zoological Society would spend \$75,000 () to construct an electric plant in the basement, replacing a steam plant on the south side of the fort, and then install two tanks in the space formerly occupied by the steam plant. This work was funded by a bequest from Mrs. Russell Sage. The same year, a bust of Jenny Lind was dedicated and installed at the center of the fort. The Board of Estimate voted in December 1921 to provide \$105,000 for the construction of an additional story atop the fort. By early 1923, the Zoological Society was carrying out the renovations at a cost of \$86,000 (). In June 1923, the board voted to give \$76,500 for the construction of an additional story above the fort. The Zoological Society planned to add deeper tanks on the second floor, expanding exhibition space by 20 percent. By then, the aquarium had two million annual visitors. The expansion was largely completed by early 1924. Townsend announced in 1926 that Castle Garden would undergo further modifications at a cost of \$225,000 (). The plans included constructing a third story for workrooms and laboratory space, installing tanks behind the fort, adding a new mechanical plant in the basement, and covering the facade with a gray cement finish. Several local residents expressed opposition to these modifications and created the Battery Park Association to advocate against the plans. By the late 1920s, there were plans to reconstruct Battery Park into a formal vista. As part of this plan, an amphitheater would have been constructed in the southern end of Battery Park, complementing Castle Garden at the northern end. The Castle Garden Aquarium remained popular in the 1930s, with two million visitors per year. Two laboratories were built on the structure's third story in 1940, and a new metal dome was installed above the fort the same year. By then, the aquarium's acting director Charles M. Breder Jr. wished to develop a new building nearby, as he believed the aquarium had outgrown Castle Garden. ## Demolition attempts and preservation ### Initial plans In February 1941, Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority Commissioner Robert Moses announced that he would demolish Castle Garden when the park was rebuilt during the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel's construction. He justified the demolition by saying that the fort had poor lighting and ventilation and that it required extensive repairs. In response, the New-York Historical Society proposed restoring the fort and turning it into a maritime museum. George McAneny, a former mayor and the chairman of the Regional Plan Association's board, proposed restoring Castle Garden; he continued to advocate the fort's preservation for nine years. Moses opposed efforts to preserve Castle Garden, saying that the old fort "never fired a shot". The city government closed the New York Aquarium and moved some fish and turtles to other aquariums in late 1941; other fish were released into the Atlantic Ocean. A new aquarium was ultimately built on Coney Island in 1957. Moses presented plans for a reconstruction of Battery Park to the Board of Estimate in March 1942, in which the fort was to be replaced by a landscaped promenade. The board voted in favor of removing the fort from Battery Park that June. City officials quickly placed the fort for sale, allowing potential buyers to preserve the fort by relocating it, but the officials rejected the sole bid from a Brooklyn junkyard operator who offered \$1,120 (). The Fine Arts Federation of New York held an architectural design competition in August 1942, soliciting plans for a renovation of Castle Garden. Despite ongoing disputes over the fort's fate, workers began removing metal from Castle Garden on September 25, while the rest of the building remained in place for the time being. The fort's original door, attached to the wall using 768 iron bolts, was also removed. An engineer hired by Moses to conduct a structural survey of Fort Clinton reported a "pronounced vertical crack" on the fort's walls. Preservationists asked a New York state judge to grant an injunction to prevent demolition, but a judge declined the request in April 1943. Preservationists again petitioned the Board of Estimate to preserve the building, but the board voted in October 1945 to demolish the fort. ### Preservation as national monument Albert S. Bard, Walter D. Binger, and other civic reformers continued to advocate in favor of preserving the fort. In July 1946, U.S. representative Sol Bloom introduced a bill to designate Castle Garden as a U.S. national monument. Both the House and the Senate approved the legislation, and president Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law on August 12, 1946, enabling the United States Department of the Interior to determine whether to take over the fort. At the time, the city government still owned the property, and the fort could not become a national monument unless the federal government took ownership. Engineers estimated that it would cost between \$40,000 and \$100,000 to preserve the fort while the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel was being constructed. The city government would only retain the fort if the federal government agreed to pay for its restoration, though Moses did suggest constructing a monument on the site. After the United States Congress declined to allocate funding for Fort Clinton's renovation, the Board of Estimate voted yet again to demolish the fort in July 1947. Some demolition work did take place, but the structure was not totally demolished due to a lack of funding. After Interior undersecretary Oscar L. Chapman indicated in August 1947 that Congress would allocate money to the project in 1948, the board voted to delay further action for one year. In the meantime, the city allocated \$50,000 () to shore up the fort's southeastern corner while the tunnel was being built. In March 1948, a New York State Assembly committee refused to vote on a bill that would have allowed the federal government to take over Fort Clinton. Two months later, the Board of Estimate voted to demolish the castle for the sixth time. The American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society continued to advocate for the fort's preservation, asking the New York Supreme Court to restrict the city from demolishing Fort Clinton in July 1948. The state Supreme Court issued an injunction that December, requiring the New York City Art Commission to approve any proposal to demolish the fort, but the Supreme Court's Appellate Division struck down this injunction in March 1949. By early 1949, U.S. president Harry S. Truman had also expressed support for preserving Fort Clinton. The Assembly voted in March 1949 to cede the fort to the federal government, and the New York State Senate passed an identical bill. New York governor Thomas E. Dewey signed the bill the next month, allowing the city to transfer the fort to the federal government. Separately, the New York City Council voted to allow the New York state government to take over Fort Clinton if the federal government did not want to take over ownership. The U.S. House voted in October to allocate \$165,750 for the fort's restoration (), allowing the National Park Service (NPS) to start restoring the fort after the federal government gained ownership. The city's mayor William O'Dwyer supported the fort's preservation, but, due to legal technicalities, the city government did not transfer ownership of the fort for several months. On July 18, 1950, the city deeded the land and castle to the federal government. ## Federal government ownership The modern-day Castle Clinton is a one-story structure with a radius of 92 feet (28 m). The roof above the fort's interior has largely been removed, and there is a nearly circular, open-air parade ground at the center of the fort. It is surrounded by a wall measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) thick. The stucco on the facade was removed under the National Park Service's ownership, and the brownstone-and-ashlar exterior walls were restored to their original condition. Underneath the walls is a rough stone foundation. The circumference of the fort contains a portico with wooden columns surrounding a canopy. There is also a gravel courtyard, brick powder magazines, and two subterranean water tanks covered by wooden trapdoors. The SeaGlass Carousel is just southeast of the modern-day fort. Since 1986, the fort's interior has housed an information kiosk and ticket booths for the Statue of Liberty National Monument, which comprises the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island; the fort continues to sell tickets for the Statue of Liberty National Monument as of 2023. Statue Cruises, which operates the only ferry line to Liberty Island and Ellis Island, sells ferry tickets inside the fort. Admission to Castle Clinton itself is free, and the National Park Service gives guided tours when the monument is open to the public. The fort also contains a small history exhibit and occasionally hosts concerts. The nonprofit Battery Conservancy is also housed within Castle Clinton. According to the NPS, Castle Clinton typically has over three million visitors a year, making it one of the busiest national monuments in the United States. ### Restoration The Castle Clinton National Monument was formally dedicated on October 24, 1950. Battery Park reopened to the public two years later, although Castle Clinton had not yet been restored at the time. The NPS announced in early 1952 that it would begin restoring the fort's exterior; the project was expected to cost \$117,000 () and take two years. As part of this project, the NPS reconstructed the fort's original door. Following the partial demolition of Fort Clinton in the 1940s, only the exterior wall remained intact. The interior of the fort was so dilapidated that, according to The New York Times, "not even grass grew in the desolate, cratered parade ground". In 1954, the New York City Council passed a resolution asking Congress to establish a committee to provide suggestions for restoring Castle Clinton, the Federal Hall National Memorial, and the Statue of Liberty National Monument. The next year, the federal government created the New York City National Shrines Advisory Board. The board first convened in February 1956, and the federal government allocated \$498,500 that July for a renovation of Castle Clinton (). In February 1957, the board recommended allocating \$3 million for the restoration of the three sites. The United States Department of the Interior subsequently postponed the repair project to 1966. This led architect Frederick G. Frost Jr. to propose in 1958 that the fort be renovated for use as a maritime museum and a restaurant. In 1962, New York City parks commissioner Newbold Morris proposed relocating 18 columns from the soon-to-be-demolished Pennsylvania Station to a promenade outside Castle Clinton. This never happened, and the columns were instead dumped in a landfill in New Jersey. Castle Clinton was one of the earliest buildings that the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered protecting as a New York City landmark. The LPC designated the fort as a city landmark in November 1965, seven months after the commission's founding. Subsequently, Castle Clinton was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966, the day the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 went into effect. A restoration of Castle Clinton commenced in August 1968. The work included restoring the exterior and interior walls; adding a shingle roof; removing a moat and other facilities related to the fort's use as an aquarium; and repairing officers' quarters, parade ground, and ammunition storage areas. This renovation was supposed to last one year. The federal government postponed funding for further restoration because of the Vietnam War. The NPS commenced a wider-ranging restoration project c. 1972, which cost about \$750,000 (). As part of this project, the officers' quarters were restored, and an exhibit was placed inside a former powder magazine. Preservationists were advocating for Castle Clinton to be used as a performing-arts center by late 1972. The following June, the fort hosted its first concert since the 1850s, a performance commemorating Jenny Lind. Castle Clinton reopened on May 25, 1975, with a performance of Beethoven's 9th by the American Symphony Orchestra. City and federal officials rededicated the monument the next month. ### Use as national monument #### 1970s to 1990s When it reopened, Castle Clinton hosted concerts for the public during summer weekends, and it also hosted exhibits and guided tours. The fort contained dioramas depicting Manhattan at various points in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1979, the NPS and the Manhattan Cultural Council commissioned four sculptures, which were installed within Castle Clinton's central courtyard. Following a series of thefts and break-ins at Castle Clinton in the early 1980s, the NPS stationed several armed guards outside the fort. In the decade after it was rededicated, the fort was open nine months a year, operating five days per week. NPS officials estimated that the fort had no more than 100,000 annual visitors. The NPS closed Castle Clinton for renovations in December 1985. It announced plans to install two ticket booths and a waiting area for ferries to the Statue of Liberty National Monument. The NPS planned to spend \$1.5 million to replace two structures, add exhibitions, restore the roof and parade ground, and reconstruct a doorway that had been sealed in 1974. The fort was to operate every day of the week, year-round, though the NPS subsequently decided to close all national monuments in Manhattan on Sundays. The NPS expected that the fort would attract up to five million visitors a year. A ferry pier was also installed behind Castle Clinton. The fort reopened the weekend of July 4, 1986, as a visitor center and ticket office for the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Castle Clinton also began selling ferry tickets to Ellis Island in 1990, when that island's main building was converted into a museum. By 1996, the Conservancy for Historic Battery Park was raising \$350,000 () for a seasonal tensile structure, to be placed above the fort between April and October of each year. The conservancy wished to raise another \$25 million to \$30 million and convert Castle Clinton into an educational and cultural center. This was part of a \$5.5 million renovation of the adjacent waterfront promenade within Battery Park, which was completed in November 2001, although the tensile structure was not installed. The Battery Park Conservancy had selected Thomas Phifer in 2001 to redesign Castle Clinton as a performing-arts center, but the redesign was stalled for several years. #### 2000s to present The National Guard occupied Castle Clinton for six weeks after the September 11 attacks in 2001. Castle Clinton reopened to the public on October 22, 2001, though the ferries to the Statue of Liberty National Monument were not operating at the time. That December, the NPS erected a tent with seven body scanners at Castle Clinton, where visitors to the Statue of Liberty National Monument underwent a security screening. The facility could not handle large crowds, often resulting in waits of more than one hour. The NPS considered relocating the security-screening facilities to the nearby City Pier A in 2003 but decided against it. Although the security tent in front of Castle Clinton had been intended as a temporary measure, it remained in place for more than a decade. The security screening facilities were relocated to Ellis Island in 2013. During excavations for the nearby South Ferry station in late 2005, builders found the remains of a stone wall dating from the late 17th or 18th centuries. Workers subsequently found another wall under the site, and the NPS exhibited part of one of the walls inside Castle Clinton. As of 2023, Castle Clinton remains a visitor center and ticket office for the Statue of Liberty National Monument. ## See also - List of national monuments of the United States - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street
8,919,382	Veerapandiya Kattabomman (film)	1,167,558,931	1959 film by B. R. Panthulu	[ "1950s Tamil-language films", "1950s action drama films", "1950s biographical drama films", "1950s historical drama films", "1950s war drama films", "1959 films", "Action films based on actual events", "Biographical films about royalty", "Drama films based on actual events", "Epic films based on actual events", "Films directed by B. R. Panthulu", "Films scored by G. Ramanathan", "Films set in the 1790s", "Films set in the British Raj", "Films shot in Rajasthan", "Historical epic films", "History of India on film", "Indian action drama films", "Indian biographical drama films", "Indian films based on plays", "Indian historical drama films", "Indian war drama films" ]	Veerapandiya Kattabomman () is a 1959 Indian Tamil-language historical war film produced and directed by B. R. Panthulu. The film stars Sivaji Ganesan, Gemini Ganesan, Padmini, S. Varalakshmi, and Ragini, with V. K. Ramasamy and Javar Seetharaman in supporting roles. Its soundtrack and score were composed by G. Ramanathan. The film is loosely based on the story of Veerapandiya Kattabomman, the 18th-century South Indian chieftain who rebelled against the East India Company. It was an adaptation of the play of the same name by Sakthi T. K. Krishnasamy which featured Sivaji Ganesan as the title character, and premiered in August 1957. Principal photography began in October the same year, and took place mainly in Jaipur and Madras (now Chennai) until late 1958. This was the first full-length Tamil film released in Technicolor. Veerapandiya Kattabomman premiered in London on 10 May 1959, and was released in Tamil Nadu six days later. It was critically acclaimed; Sivaji Ganesan's performance as Kattabomman received widespread praise, although some film scholars considered elements in the film, particularly the portrayal of the title character, to be historically inaccurate. It was a commercial success, running for over 25 weeks in theatres and becoming a silver jubilee film. Veerapandiya Kattabomman was the first in Tamil cinema to receive international awards for Best Film, Best Actor, and Best Music Director at the 1960 Afro-Asian Film Festival in Cairo, and received a Certificate of Merit as part of the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil. Veerapandiya Kattabomman was re-released in 1984, and a digitally-restored version was released on 21 August 2015; both were commercially successful. ## Plot Veerapandiya Kattabomman, the chieftain of Panchalankurichi, is a brave warrior. On receiving news of a robbery in his territory, he and his retinue set out incognito to capture the robbers. When captured, the robbers confess that they had been hired by the British to create unrest in Kattabomman's domain; the British had enticed the neighbouring chieftain, Ettappan, to help them annexe Panchalankurichi. Vellaiyammal, who lives in Chayalkudi, a village near Panchalankurichi, vows to marry the man who tames her pet bull. She brings her bull to Panchalankurichi for participating in a jallikattu game sponsored by Kattabomman. All those who attempt to tame the bull fail until Vellaiyathevan, Kattabomman's commander-in-chief, subdues the bull and wins Vellaiyammal's love. Kattabomman later learns of their love, and encourages them to marry. The king receives a message from W. C. Jackson, the tax collector for Tirunelveli, which demands a meeting with him at Ramanathapuram to discuss payment. Captain Davison, Kattabomman's British friend, advises him to see Jackson. Jackson, learning that Kattabomman has come with his troops, demands to meet him alone. At the meeting, Jackson insults him and orders him arrested. Surrounded by British troops, Kattabomman fights and escapes; however, his minister Thanapathi Sivasubramaniam Pillai is captured. Some time later, Pillai is released and brings news that Jackson has been sent back to England at Davison's recommendation. A British messenger sent to Kattabomman's court by Colonel S. R. Lushington, Tirunelveli's new revenue collector reports that Pillai and his men have looted their granaries and killed their men at Srivaikuntam. Pillai justifies his act, saying that he instructed his men to do it because of the famine in their kingdom. Ashamed of Pillai's action, Kattabomman accuses him of theft and murder. Pillai apologises and offers himself as a prisoner to the British, but Kattabomman refuses to hand him over; instead, he offers money to compensate for the looted rice. Lushington refuses the compensation and, with Major Bannerman's and Ettappan's help, incites the neighbouring rulers to attack Kattabomman. Bannerman is placed in charge of the British troops; he and Ettappan plan to attack Panchalankurichi when the people are attending a festival in Tiruchendur. Kattabomman's spy Sundaralingam informs the king, who prepares for war. On the day of the battle, Vellaiyammal begs Vellaiyathevan not to go because she had a nightmare full of evil omens the previous night. Ignoring her entreaties, Vellaiyathevan sets out and is killed in the ensuing battle. When she learns of her husband's death, Vellaiyammal avenges him by killing the man who killed him. She finds Vellaiyathevan's body and, overcome by grief, falls dead across it. Bannerman's troops attack Panchalankurichi with heavy artillery, and Kattabomman's army suffers. The king, wounded in the neck, is saved by his brother Oomaithurai. Sensing that the fort cannot survive another cannon barrage, Kattabomman and Oomaithurai flee to the adjoining kingdom of Kovilpatti. Pillai, disguising himself as Kattabomman, decoys the British soldiers who are on the king's trail. From Kovilpatti, Kattabomman and Oomaithurai flee to Pudukkottai. Thondaimaan, the king of Pudukkottai, is ordered by the British to capture Kattabomman and Oomaithurai. Fearing the British, Thondaimaan captures them and hands them over. While Oomaithurai is jailed, Kattabomman is tried by the British and hanged. ## Cast Note: Listing as per the film's opening credits. - Sivaji Ganesan as Kattabomman - Gemini Ganesan as Vellaiyadhevan - Padmini as Vellaiyammal - S. Varalakshmi as Jakkammal - Ragini as Sundaravadivu - V. K. Ramasamy as Ettappa Nayagar - Javar Seetharaman as Bannerman - O. A. K. Thevar as Oomaithurai - M. R. Santhanam as Dhanapathi Subramania Pillai - V. R. Rajagopal as Kariyappan - A. Karunanidhi as Sundaralingam - Pakkirisami as Ponnan - Chinaiah as Adappakkaran - Stunt Somu as Gopal Iyer - K. V. Seenivasan as Dubash Ramalinga Mudaliar - Anandan as Duraisingam - Natarajan as Colonel Maxwell - S. A. Kannan as Captain Davison - Parthiban as W. C. Jackson - Krishnasami as Alan - Kannan as Governor - Muthulakshmi as Kamakshi - Tambaram Lalitha as Valli - Baby Kanchana as Baby Meena ## Production ### Origin Since childhood, Sivaji Ganesan dreamt of playing the resistance fighter Veerapandiya Kattabomman; he had left home at age seven to fulfill his dream. Several years later, while Ganesan and writer Sakthi T. K. Krishnasamy were travelling through Kayatharu, where Kattabomman was hanged, Ganesan expressed a desire to produce a play based on Kattabomman's life; his first exposure to acting was when he saw Kambalaththaar Kooththu, a street play about Kattabomman's life. Krishnasamy immediately agreed, and began to write a script. Krishnasamy completed writing the script within a month. Krishnasamy's play, Veerapandiya Kattabomman, premiered in Salem in late August 1957 and was performed by Ganesan's troupe, Sivaji Nataka Mandram. He had invested nearly ₹50,000 for sets and costumes. When he saw the play, director B. R. Panthulu decided to adapt it as a feature film. Panthulu produced the film version (also entitled Veerapandiya Kattabomman) with his company, Padmini Pictures. G. Dharmarajan, the play's set designer, was also assigned the same crew position for the film. W. R. Subbarao was signed as cinematographer, and R. Devarajan as editor. The screenplay was credited to a "history research team", headed by M. P. Sivagnanam and consisting of Krishnasamy, Panthulu, Sivaji Ganesan, P. A. Kumar and Singamuthu. Before Ganesan and Panthulu, there were two unsuccessful attempts to make a film on Kattabomman: in July 1948, Selvam Pictures announced its intention to produce Kattabommu (the rebel's real name), which would star P. U. Chinnappa. The other attempt was made by producer S. S. Vasan of Gemini Studios; a promotional poster for the project, entitled Kattabomman, was released on 5 November 1953. A notice from Gemini, inviting anyone with useful information about Kattabomman and his exploits to send it to the studio's storyboard department, was published three days later in the magazine Ananda Vikatan. According to a 1957 article by Singapore-based Indian Movie News, when Ganesan heard about Vasan's attempt to make a film about Kattabomman, he asked him to abandon the project; Vasan agreed, and lent Ganesan important research material on Kattabomman. Film historian Randor Guy contradicted this in his 1997 book, Starlight, Starbright: The Early Tamil Cinema, saying that writers like Kothamangalam Subbu and Veppathur Kittoo were hired by Vasan to research Kattabomman's life, and Vasan believed that Ganesan, who had become popular after Parasakthi (1952), was the only eligible choice to portray Kattabomman. Guy noted that Ganesan hesitated to work with Vasan, since he was earlier rejected for a role in Chandralekha (1948), leading to Vasan dropping the project. Despite this, Ganesan later appeared in Vasan's later ventures, Irumbu Thirai (1960) and Motor Sundaram Pillai (1966). ### Casting and filming Ganesan originally offered the role of Vellaiyathevan to S. S. Rajendran, who declined due to his commitment to Sivagangai Seemai. He later asked actress Savitri to ask her husband, Gemini Ganesan, to play the role. Gemini was initially reluctant to accept the part, feeling it was "improper" to replace Rajendran. After Rajendran wrote to Panthulu that he had no objection to Gemini playing Vellaiyathevan, however, the actor agreed. S. Varalakshmi, in addition to playing Kattabomman's wife, Jakkamma, also was a playback singer. Kattabomman's daughter in the film, Meena (Baby Kanchana), was a fictional character created by Krishnasamy. Meena was based on Krishnasamy's daughter, Mynavathi, who died when she was five years old. Krishnasamy initially refused to include the scene of Meena's death since it reminded him of his daughter, but finally did reluctantly. Veerapandiya Kattabomman was launched at Annai Illam, Sivaji Ganesan's home. Principal photography began in October 1957 with a puja. During filming at Bharani Studios, Madras (now Chennai) in 1958, Adoor Gopalakrishnan (who watched the shoot one afternoon) remembered the actors rushing outside after every take because of the intense heat on set: "The speed of the film was so low those days that one needed many, many lights for correct exposure." Filming also took place prominently in Jaipur. With the aid of Janakaraja (who was in charge of the cavalry division), the production unit hired junior artistes to play cavalry soldiers in the battle scenes. This was where the final filming schedule took place, and principal photography ended in the same year, around late November to early December. Veerapandiya Kattabomman was the first full-length Tamil film released in Technicolor; it was shot in Gevacolor and then converted into Technicolor in London. Panthulu adopted the American director Cecil B. DeMille's practise of introducing the film on-camera. The film's final length was 18,086 feet (5,513 m). ## Music The soundtrack album was composed by G. Ramanathan, with lyrics by Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam. Its songs range from "folksy to light to classical". The soundtrack was a career breakthrough for struggling playback singer P. B. Sreenivas, who was recruited by Ramanathan to sing the duet "Inbam Pongum Vennila", with P. Susheela. Some of the songs are set in Carnatic ragas; "Pogaathe Pogaathe" is set in Mukhari, "Manam Kanintharul" in Kurinji, and "Singara Kanne" in Brindavanasaranga. Stage actor K. B. Chellamuthu was the songs' violinist. A remix of "Inbam Pongum Vennila" was recorded by Hiphop Tamizha for the 2015 film, Aambala. ## Release and reception Veerapandiya Kattabomman premiered in London on 10 May 1959, and was released in Tamil Nadu six days later. It was previously scheduled for April. The film received positive reviews when it was released. Ananda Vikatan, in its 24 May 1959 review, praised Sivaji Ganesan's performance and said that the film would make Tamils proud. Kanthan of Kalki lauded Panthulu's direction and the cast performances. Distributed by Sivaji Films in Madras, the film was a commercial success, running for over 25 weeks in theatres, becoming a silver jubilee film. ## Accolades At the Afro-Asian Film Festival held from 29 February to 11 March 1960 at Cairo, Ganesan won the Best Actor award; this made him the first Indian actor to receive an international award. When Ganesan returned to Madras, South Indian Actors Guild president M. G. Ramachandran organised a large welcome reception for him. Ganesan wrote in his autobiography that at the festival, "I was called on stage and I went up a diminutive, five-foot nothing, looking boyish with my build, whereas they had expected me to be a colossus, on seeing [Veerapandiya] Kattabomman, at least seven or eight feet tall! Irrespective of this they gave me a standing ovation for five minutes." ## Historical inaccuracies Veerapandiya Kattabomman's historical inaccuracies have been criticised. Guy reported in 2015 that a Tamil weekly said, "[...] a new face called Kattabomman acted brilliantly as Sivaji Ganesan!" According to poet Kannadasan, Kattabomman was not a freedom fighter but a thief; the Maruthu Pandiyars were the real freedom fighters, and he wrote a script about them which was adapted into Sivagangai Seemai. Kannadasan's assertion was supported by writer Tamilvanan, who criticised Kattabomman's glorification. In the 1990s, when politician Vaiko asked Ganesan if he or the writer had researched Kattabomman, with respect to his walking style, Ganesan admitted that they did not, saying, "In my mind, that's how I imagined the character. That was the walk of the hero." In Starlight, Starbright: The Early Tamil Cinema Guy noted that according to East India Company records, Kattabomman was of Telugu ancestry and a strong, silent man (without the film's dash and daring). According to Guy, Ganesan portrayed Kattabomman as a "larger-than-life-character, haranguing audiences in a high-flown Tamil replete with literary flourishes"; the real Kattabomman was not fluent in Tamil. Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen in Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema says, "A love interest has been added as well", implying that the character of Vellaiyammal (Padmini) was fictional. Film historian S. Krishnaswamy, writing for The Hindu in 2001, noted that the film was "historically far from accurate" and "more like a costume drama or a mythological". In the 2010 book, Cinemas of South India: Culture, Resistance, Ideology, Elavarthi Sathya Prakash says about Kattabomman's Telugu identity: "While National historiography tries to elevate him, some versions of Tamil history seem to downgrade him". S. Theodore Baskaran said the following year, "Tamil films have scant regard for history. Almost always, they confuse between history and folklore ... Kattabomman was not even a king. His arsenal had just about three to four guns." University of Madras department head Ramu Manivannan told The Times of India in 2014, "The popular images of [historical] characters have been constructed from oral descriptions and accounts. In some cases, the popular image overtakes the historical one as in the case of Sivaji Ganesan's portrayal of Kattabomman on the screen." ## Legacy Veerapandiya Kattabomman achieved cult status in Tamil cinema. It was a landmark film in Ganesan's career, and Tamil people identified Kattabomman with him. N. Sathiya Moorthy wrote for Rediff.com in 2001, "[Ganesan's] portrayal of Lord Shiva in [Thiruvilaiyadal] and of freedom-fighters Veerapandia Kattabomman and Kappalottia Thamizhan V O Chidambaram have become symbolic of the very characters in the average Tamil mind across the world." The film was a trendsetter in Tamil cinema, and a benchmark of dialogue delivery. Its success encouraged many in Tamil cinema to make films based on freedom fighters and historical figures, notably Kappalottiya Thamizhan (1961) and Bharathi (2000). The film's jallikattu scene attained popularity. The term "Ettappan" later entered Tamil vernacular as a slang word meaning a traitor, because of the scene where Kattabomman accuses the character of treachery. In 1970, eleven years after Veerapandiya Kattabomman's release, Ganesan erected a statue of Kattabomman in Kayatharu (where the rebel was hanged). During a February 2009 visit to Sri Lanka, Bharatiya Janata Party leader L. K. Advani said: "I have seen the Tamil movie of [Veerapandiya Kattabomman], acted by [Sivaji] Ganesan, many times. It is fresh in my memory." A postal cover, designed by film historian and actor Mohan Raman, was released on 16 May 2009 by the Sivaji–Prabhu Charities trust and the Indo-Russian Cultural and Friendship Society to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the film's release. Politician Venkaiah Naidu said in 2016 that he became a fan of Sivaji Ganesan after watching his performance in the film. A. V. Ashok wrote for The Hindu, "It is no exaggeration to say that Sivaji's heroic outpouring as Veerapandiya Kattabomman is an integral part of the Tamil cultural psyche." According to the actor Sivakumar, "You can't reproduce movies like Parasakthi, Pasamalar, Devadas, Veerapandiya Kattabomman or Ratha Kanneer [...] By remaking such films, you are lowering yourself, while it enhances the original artists’ image." An elephant presented by Ganesan to the Punnainallur Mariamman Temple in 1960 was named "Vellaiyammal" (after Padmini's character), and was later donated to the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur in 1980. According to Sri Lankan Canadian journalist D. B. S. Jeyaraj, Veerapandiya Kattabomman was the first Tamil film that had a great impact on him; the film's success "was the powerful delivery of fiery dialogue by the film hero Kattabomman played by Sivaji." Ganesan's line "Vari, vatti, kisthi ... Yaarai ketkirai vari ... Etharkku ketkirai vari. Vaanam polikirathu, bhumi vilaigirathu, unakken katta vendum vari ... " (roughly translated "Tribute, tax, loan, interest. The rains pour from the sky, the land blossoms, why should I offer you money?"), from a scene with W. C. Jackson (C. R. Parthiban), was ranked eighth on Outlook's 20 October 2008 list of 13 Cheesiest, Chalkiest Lines in Indian Cinema. In April 2012, Rediff.com included the film on its A to Z of Tamil Cinema list. In a January 2015 interview with The Times of India, playwright Y. G. Mahendran said: "Most character artists today lack variety [...] Show me one actor in India currently who can do a Kattabomman, a VOC, a Vietnam Veedu, a Galatta Kalyanam and a Thiruvilayadal." Actor Rana Daggubati, in an interview with Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu, said that Ganesan's performances as Kattabomman and Karna (in the 1964 film Karnan) influenced his role in Baahubali (2015). The scene between Ganesan and Parthiban was featured in the 2016 film, Jackson Durai, which was named after Parthiban's character. M. Sasikumar's Balle Vellaiyathevaa, also released that year, was named after a line spoken by Ganesan's character. ## Re-releases The film was re-released in 1984 during M. G. Ramachandran's tenure as Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Granted tax exemption by the state government, it was again commercially successful and ran for 30 weeks in theatres. In 2012, after the commercial success of Karnan's digital re-release, Raj Television Network announced that they would re-release Veerapandiya Kattabomman in 3D in early 2013; however, that did not happen. In March 2015, Raj Television Network announced that they would release a digital 5.1 surround sound version of the film in collaboration with Sai Ganesh Films the following month; it was released on 21 August of that year. Murali B. V., coordinator of Sai Ganesh Films (which helped restore and digitise the film's original prints), told The New Indian Express that it took nine months to clean and restore the original 35 mm film (with monaural sound) for digitisation. A reviewer for The Times of India criticised the digitised version, noting that the colour "seemed to have been leached [from] the frames" and the sound system was "a bit contemporary." Despite its technical issues, however, "the film still retains its dramatic force". Likewise, film critic Baradwaj Rangan wrote, "The picture quality – the colours, mainly – is a bit inconsistent. But this may be due to problems with the negative, and it doesn't affect the three-hour film at all – save for the war portions where we wait for the inevitable, it all just zips by." The digitised version earned ₹553,000 in its opening weekend from 39 shows in Chennai, and was a commercial success.
696,498	Cliff Wilson	1,153,094,677	Welsh professional snooker player	[ "1934 births", "1994 deaths", "Sportspeople from Tredegar", "Welsh snooker players", "World champions in snooker" ]	Clifford Wilson (10 May 1934 – 21 May 1994) was a Welsh professional snooker player who reached the highest ranking of 16, in 1988-89. He was the 1978 World Amateur Champion and won the 1991 World Seniors Championship. He was a successful junior player, known for his fast attacking snooker and ability, and won the British Under-19 Championship in 1951 and 1952. In the early 1950s both Wilson and future six-times World Professional Champion Ray Reardon lived in Tredegar, where they played a succession of money matches that attracted large enthusiastic crowds. A combination of factors, including Reardon leaving Tredegar, led to Wilson virtually giving up the game from 1957 to 1972, but after being asked to take up a vacant place in a works team, he returned to playing and later became the 1978 World Amateur Champion, achieving his victory with an 11–5 win in the final against Joe Johnson. In 1979 Wilson turned professional, aged 45, and, still playing with an attacking style, reached several ranking tournament quarter-finals during his career. At the inaugural World Seniors Championship in 1991 he beat Eddie Charlton 5–4 in the final to take the title. He won the Welsh Amateur Championship in 1956, 1977 and 1979, and was runner-up in the Welsh Professional Championship in 1981 and 1984. He suffered from a number of health conditions, including poor eyesight, during his career, but continued to play professionally until his death in 1994 at the age of 60. ## Amateur years Wilson was born on 10 May 1934 and grew up in Tredegar, the same town as his friend and snooker rival Ray Reardon. He learnt to play snooker in a steelworks club-room. Even as a teenager, Wilson was nearly sightless in his left eye. In 1950, aged 16, Wilson was the reigning Welsh boys snooker champion and working as a storekeeper when he reached the final of the British under-19 Championship, where he lost 2–3 to Rex Williams. In the same competition the following year, Wilson (now a steelworker) won the title, defeating Gary Owen 3–2 in the final. In 1952 he beat Owen on his way to reaching the semi-final of the English Amateur Championship, where, using a cue that had been repaired overnight and reduced in length by an inch, he lost to Charles Downey. Having been called up into the Royal Air Force for his national service, Wilson was granted special leave to participate in the 1952 under-19 Championship. In the final he faced Owen again, this time winning 4–2. A match report of Wilson's 3–1 semi-final win against Donald Scott in the Western Mail said that he played "spectacular snooker ... he had breaks of 20, 25, 30 and 41 all at tremendous speed." In 1954, Wilson was the youngest competitor in the English Amateur Championship and lost 9–11 to Geoff Thompson in the final. He won the Welsh Amateur Championship in 1956. Snooker historian Clive Everton wrote of Wilson's early career that he was "a phenomenal potter: quick, instinctive fearless." He played Reardon in a succession of money matches in Tredegar. In The Story of Billiards and Snooker, Everton described Wilson as being an "even more remarkable talent" than Reardon, who would go on to win the World Snooker Championship six times between 1969 and 1978. Everton went on to describe their contests, when each would attract hundreds of supporting spectators, as "modern snooker's nearest equivalent to a bare knuckle prize fight." Everton then suggests that when Reardon moved away, "the edge went from Wilson's game." Wilson's father, who had supported his son's snooker career, died at around the time that Reardon moved away, and Wilson also started having problems with his eyesight. Apart from this, snooker's popularity was on the wane during the 1950s and it was extremely difficult to join the small, closed professional circuit. Wilson gave up snooker almost completely, and continued working at the steelworks at Llanwern. From 1957 to 1972 he was retired from snooker apart from participating in a few games in 1960, which included the televised "Snooker Foursomes" in which he partnered John Price. In 1972 he started playing again when a friend asked him to take a vacant place in a works team in the Newport League. Within two years of starting to play again, he was selected for the Wales team for the 1973–74 Home International series, losing 1–2 against D. Lenehan of Ireland and beating W. McKerron of Scotland 2–1. He was selected again in 1976–77 for the match against Ireland, beating J. Clusker 2–1. In 1977–78 Wales won the series, although Wilson lost two of his three matches, including a 1–2 defeat by 1972 and 1974 World Amateur Champion Ray Edmonds. In the 1978 series Wilson won three of his four matches, including a 3–0 win over the captain of the England team Mike Hallett. In 1977, he won his second Welsh amateur championship, following his earlier win in 1956, beating Dai Thomas 8–1 in the final. As Welsh Champion, Wilson qualified for the 1978 World Amateur Championship in Malta. He was the only player in the three groups of the round-robin stage to win all of their matches, and then beat Maltese player Joe Grech 5–4 in the quarter-finals. Wilson built a 4–0 lead in front of a 4,000 strong audience that, according to Everton, started to deliberately distract him, as Grech levelled at 4–4 and led 37–0 in the deciding frame. Wilson eventually won the frame, and remained in the pressroom with Everton, guarded by police, until the audience left. He beat Kirk Stevens 8–2 in the semi-final and then Joe Johnson 11–5 in the final to take the title. Following his world amateur championship win, Wilson was invited to participate in the 1979 Masters. He would have been the first amateur to play in the Masters, but withdrew due to a threatened boycott by professional players. He lost 5–8 in the southern area final of the English Amateur Championship to Jimmy White after leading 4–2. 1979 also saw him win the Welsh Amateur Championship for the third time, defeating Geoff Thomas 8–5 in the final; and take the National Pairs championship title with Steve Newbury. ## Professional career Wilson turned professional in 1979 at the age of 45, and won his first match, 9–7 against John Pulman in the 1979 UK Championship, before losing 4–9 to Terry Griffiths in the following round. In his debut World Snooker Championship in 1980, he beat Frank Jonik 9–7 in qualifying and lost 6–10 to Doug Mountjoy in the first round. In the 1980–81 season, he reached the final of the 1981 Welsh Professional Championship, losing 6–9 to Reardon. He beat Roy Andrewartha and Eddie Sinclair, both 9–4, in qualifying for the 1981 World Snooker Championship and then was beaten 6–10 by David Taylor in the first round. In 1981–82 he again lost in the first round of the world championship, 5–10 to Eddie Charlton. Wilson was the runner-up at the Pontins Spring Open in consecutive years, losing 3–7 to Willie Thorne in 1980 and 2–7 to John Hargreaves in 1981. With wins over Johnson, Mountjoy and White, Wilson reached his first ranking tournament quarter-final at the 1982 International Open, losing 4–5 to the eventual champion Tony Knowles. He next reached a ranking quarter final at the 1985 Grand Prix, with further losing quarter-final appearances at the 1986 International Open, 1987 classic, and 1989 International Open. He broke into the top sixteen of the world rankings for one season, 1988/89, ranked 16th. This ranking entitled him to a place at the 1989 Masters, where he came back from 0-2 down to level at 2–2 against reigning World Champion and defending Masters Champion Steve Davis before Davis went on to win 5–2. He later went on to win the first World Seniors Championship in 1991, beating Charlton 5–4 in the final after earlier victories over Mountjoy and Griffiths. Charlton had led 4-2 and needed only to pot the and for the match, but Wilson took three frames in a row to win his first professional title at the age of 57 and collect £16,000, his highest prize winnings. He recorded wins over a number of prominent players as a professional. In January 1992 he beat Ken Doherty 5–2 in the 1992 Welsh Open before losing 1–5 to Darren Morgan. Later that year he played a young Ronnie O'Sullivan in the 1992 UK Championship, winning 9–8. Both Doherty and O'Sullivan won the respective tournaments the following year. The highest break of his career was 136 at the 1989 Grand Prix. His popular exhibition matches were advertised with the phrase "You've never seen anything like it!" He was known as a fast, attacking, player and has been described as an "outstanding potter" both by Everton and by snooker writer Ian Morrison. In 1953, a Sports Argus match report described Wilson as having "lived up to his reputation as the finest potter in the country, one ball being hardly in the pocket before the next one was following it in." Wilson's obituary in The Times noted that in the 1950s he was seen as a "phenomenal talent" and played an attacking game that was unlike the defensive approach generally prevalent at the time, and Eurosport's Desmond Kane included him in a 2020 list of the ten "greatest long potters". Jack Karnehm in 1981 wrote that Wilson was "probably the hardest hitter of a ball on earth. His high-speed accurate potting has to be seen to be believed" and added "it is said that the last time he played a safety shot was in 1959 and that was by mistake." ## Personal life He was married to Valerie Wilson, and had four sons, including twins. Towards the end of his life, Wilson suffered from a number of problems with his back, knee and heart, eventually developing an "inoperable disease of the liver and pancreas" that led to his death. Although he continued to play professionally, recording a century break in the 1994 International Open in January 1994, he died in May of that year, aged 60. ## Performance and rankings timeline ## Career finals ### Non-ranking finals: 3 (1 title) ### Pro-am finals: 3 (1 title) ### Amateur finals: 8 (6 titles)
70,155	Toronto Maple Leafs	1,173,212,758	National Hockey League team in Ontario	[ "1917 establishments in Ontario", "Atlantic Division (NHL)", "Events in Toronto", "Ice hockey clubs established in 1917", "Ice hockey teams in Toronto", "Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment", "National Hockey League in Ontario", "National Hockey League teams", "National Hockey League teams based in Canada", "Toronto Maple Leafs" ]	The Toronto Maple Leafs (officially the Toronto Maple Leaf Hockey Club and often referred to as the Leafs) are a professional ice hockey team based in Toronto. They compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference. The club is owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment, a company that owns several professional sports teams in the city. The Maple Leafs' broadcasting rights are split between BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. For their first 14 seasons, the club played their home games at the Mutual Street Arena, before moving to Maple Leaf Gardens in 1931. The Maple Leafs moved to their present home, Scotiabank Arena (originally named Air Canada Centre), in February 1999. The club was founded in 1917, operating simply as Toronto and known then as the Toronto Arenas. Under new ownership, the club was renamed the Toronto St. Patricks in 1919. In 1927, the club was purchased by Conn Smythe and renamed the Maple Leafs. A member of the "Original Six", the club was one of six NHL teams to have endured the period of League retrenchment during the Great Depression. The club has won 13 Stanley Cup championships, second only to the 24 championships of the Montreal Canadiens. The Maple Leafs history includes two recognized dynasties, from 1947 to 1951; and from 1962 to 1967. Winning their last championship in the 1966–67 season, the Maple Leafs' 56-season drought between championships is the longest drought in league history, surpassing the previous record held by the New York Rangers, going into the 2023–24 season. The Maple Leafs have developed rivalries with four NHL franchises: the Boston Bruins, Detroit Red Wings, the Montreal Canadiens, and the Ottawa Senators. However, they have a minor geographic rivalry with a fifth NHL franchise: the Buffalo Sabres. The Maple Leafs have retired the use of 13 numbers in honour of 19 players, including the first in professional sports. In addition, several individuals who hold an association with the club have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams: the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League and the Newfoundland Growlers of the ECHL. ## Team history ### Early years (1917–1927) The National Hockey League was formed in 1917 in Montreal by teams formerly belonging to the National Hockey Association (NHA) that had a dispute with Eddie Livingstone, owner of the Toronto Blueshirts. The owners of the other four clubs—the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Quebec Bulldogs and the Ottawa Senators—wanted to replace Livingstone, but discovered that the NHA constitution did not allow them to simply vote him out of the league. Instead, they opted to create a new league, the NHL, and did not invite Livingstone to join them. They also remained voting members of the NHA, and thus had enough votes to suspend the other league's operations, effectively leaving Livingstone's league with one team. The NHL had decided that it would operate a four-team circuit, made up of the Canadiens, Montreal Maroons, Ottawa, and one more club in either Quebec City or Toronto. Toronto's inclusion in the NHL's inaugural season was formally announced on November 26, 1917, with concerns over the Bulldogs' financial stability surfacing. The League granted temporary franchise rights to the Arena Company, owners of the Arena Gardens. The NHL granted the Arena responsibility of the Toronto franchise for only the inaugural season, with specific instructions to resolve the dispute with Livingstone or transfer ownership of the Toronto franchise back to the League at the end of the season. The franchise did not have an official name but was informally called "the Blueshirts" or "the Torontos" by the fans and press. Although the inaugural roster was made up of players leased from the NHA's Toronto Blueshirts, including Harry Cameron and Reg Noble, the Maple Leafs do not claim the Blueshirts' history as their own. During the inaugural season, the club performed the first trade in NHL history, sending Sammy Hebert to the Senators, in return for cash. Under manager Charlie Querrie, and head coach Dick Carroll, the team won the Stanley Cup in the inaugural 1917–18 season. For the next season, rather than return the Blueshirts' players to Livingstone as originally promised, on October 19, 1918, the Arena Company formed the Toronto Arena Hockey Club, which was readily granted full membership in the NHL. The Arena Company also decided that year that only NHL teams were allowed to play at the Arena Gardens—a move which effectively killed the NHA. Livingstone sued to get his players back. Mounting legal bills from the dispute forced the Arenas to sell some of their stars, resulting in a horrendous five-win season in 1918–19. With the company facing increasing financial difficulties, and the Arenas officially eliminated from the playoffs, the NHL agreed to let the team forfeit their last two games. Operations halted on February 20, 1919, with the NHL ending its season and starting the playoffs. The Arenas' .278 winning percentage that season remains the worst in franchise history. However, the 1919 Stanley Cup Finals ended without a winner due to the worldwide flu epidemic. The legal dispute forced the Arena Company into bankruptcy, and it was forced to sell the team. On December 9, 1919, Querrie brokered the team's purchase by the owners of the St. Patricks Hockey Club, allowing him to maintain an ownership stake in the team. The new owners renamed the team the Toronto St. Patricks (or St. Pats for short), which they used until 1927. Changing the colours of the team from blue to green, the club won their second Stanley Cup championship in 1922. Babe Dye scored four times in the 5–1 Stanley Cup-clinching victory against the Vancouver Millionaires. In 1924, Jack Bickell invested C\$25,000 in the St. Pats as a favour to his friend Querrie, who needed to financially reorganize his hockey team. ### Conn Smythe era (1927–1961) After several financially difficult seasons, the St. Patricks' ownership group seriously considered selling the team to C. C. Pyle for C\$200,000 (). Pyle sought to move the team to Philadelphia. However, Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together a group of his own and made a \$160,000 () offer. With the support of Bickell, a St. Pats shareholder, Smythe persuaded Querrie to accept their bid, arguing that civic pride was more important than money. After taking control on February 14, 1927, Smythe immediately renamed the team the Maple Leafs, after the national symbol of Canada. He attributed his choice of a maple leaf for the logo to his experiences as a Canadian Army officer and prisoner of war during World War I. Viewing the maple leaf as a "badge of courage", and a reminder of home, Smythe decided to give the same name to his hockey team, in honour of the many Canadian soldiers who wore it. However, the team was not the first to use the name. A Toronto minor-league baseball team had used the name "Toronto Maple Leafs" since 1895. Initial reports were that the team's colours were to be red and white, but the Leafs wore white sweaters with a green maple leaf for their first game on February 17, 1927. On September 27, 1927, it was announced that the Leafs had changed their colour scheme to blue and white. Although Smythe later stated he chose blue because it represents the Canadian skies and white to represent snow, these colours were also used on the trucks for his gravel and sand business. The colour blue was also a colour historically associated with the City of Toronto. The use of blue by top-level Toronto-based sports clubs began with the Argonaut Rowing Club in the 19th century, later adopted by their football team, the Toronto Argonauts, in 1873. #### Opening of Maple Leaf Gardens (1930s) By 1930 Smythe saw the need to construct a new arena, viewing the Arena Gardens as a facility lacking modern amenities and seating. Finding an adequate number of financiers, he purchased land from the Eaton family, and construction of the arena was completed in five months. The Maple Leafs debuted at their new arena, Maple Leaf Gardens, with a 2–1 loss to the Chicago Black Hawks on November 12, 1931. The opening ceremonies for Maple Leaf Gardens included a performance from the 48th Highlanders of Canada Pipe and Drums. The military band has continued to perform in every subsequent season home opening game, as well as other ceremonies conducted by the hockey club. The debut also featured Foster Hewitt in his newly constructed press box above the ice surface, where he began his famous Hockey Night in Canada radio broadcasts that eventually came to be a Saturday-night tradition. The press box was often called "the gondola", a name that emerged during the Gardens' inaugural season when a General Motors advertising executive remarked how it resembled the gondola of an airship. By the 1931–32 NHL season, the Maple Leafs were led by the "Kid Line" consisting of Busher Jackson, Joe Primeau and Charlie Conacher and coached by Dick Irvin. The team captured their third Stanley Cup that season, vanquishing the Chicago Black Hawks in the first round, the Montreal Maroons in the semifinals, and the New York Rangers in the finals. Smythe took particular pleasure in defeating the Rangers that year. He had been tapped as the Rangers' first general manager and coach for their inaugural season (1926–27) but had been fired in a dispute with Madison Square Garden management before the season had begun. Maple Leafs star forward Ace Bailey was nearly killed in 1933 when Boston Bruins defenceman Eddie Shore checked him from behind at full speed into the boards. Leafs defenceman Red Horner knocked Shore out with a punch, but Bailey, writhing on the ice, had his career ended. The Leafs held the Ace Bailey Benefit Game, the NHL's first All-Star Game, to collect medical funds to help Bailey. His jersey was retired later the same night. The Leafs reached the finals five times in the next seven years but bowed out to the now-disbanded Maroons in 1935, the Detroit Red Wings in 1936, Chicago in 1938, Boston in 1939 and the Rangers in 1940. After the end of the 1939–40 season, Smythe allowed Irvin to leave the team as head coach, replacing him with former Leafs captain Hap Day. #### The first dynasty (1940s) In the 1942 Stanley Cup Finals, the Maple Leafs were down three games to none in the best-of-seven series against Detroit. Fourth-line forward Don Metz then galvanized the team, to score a hat-trick in game four and the game-winner in game five. Goalie Turk Broda shut out the Wings in game six, and Sweeney Schriner scored two goals in the third period to win the seventh game 3–1, completing the reverse-sweep. The Leafs remain the only team to have successfully performed a reverse-sweep in the Stanley Cup finals. Captain Syl Apps won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy that season, not taking one penalty, and finished his ten-season career with an average of 5 minutes, 36 seconds in penalties a season. Smythe, who reenlisted in the Canadian Army at the outbreak of World War II, was given leave from military duty to view the final game of the 1942 finals. He arrived at the game in full military regalia. Earlier, at the outbreak of war, Smythe arranged for many of his Maple Leafs players and staff to take army training with the Toronto Scottish Regiment. Most notably, the Leafs announced a large portion of their roster had enlisted, including Apps, and Broda, who did not play on the team for several seasons due to their obligations with the Canadian Forces. During this period, the Leafs turned to lesser-known players such as rookie goaltender Frank McCool and defenceman Babe Pratt. The Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in the 1945 Finals. They won the first three games, with goaltender McCool recording consecutive shutouts. However, in a reversal of the 1942 finals, the Red Wings won the next three games. The Leafs were able to win the series, winning the seventh game by the score of 2–1 to prevent a complete reversal of the series played three years ago. After the end of the war, players who had enlisted were beginning to return to their teams. With Apps and Broda regaining their form, the Maple Leafs beat the first-place Canadiens in the 1947 finals. To bolster their centre depth, the Leafs acquired Cy Thomas and Max Bentley in the following off-season. With these key additions, the Leafs were able to win a second consecutive Stanley Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in the 1948 finals. With their victory in 1948, the Leafs moved ahead of Montreal as the team having won the most Stanley Cups in League history. Apps announced his retirement following the 1948 finals, with Ted Kennedy replacing him as the team's captain. Under a new captaincy, the Leafs managed to make it to the 1949 finals, facing the Red Wings, who had finished the season with the best overall record. However, the Leafs went on to win their third consecutive Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in four games. This brought the total of Detroit's playoff game losses against the Leafs to eleven. The Red Wings were able to end this losing streak in the following post-season, eliminating Toronto in the 1950 NHL playoffs. #### The Barilko Curse (1950s) The Maple Leafs and Canadiens met again in the 1951 finals, with five consecutive overtime games played in the series. Defenceman Bill Barilko managed to score the series-winning goal in overtime, leaving his defensive position (despite coach Joe Primeau's instructions not to) to pick up an errant pass and score. Barilko helped the club secure its fourth Stanley Cup in five years. His glory was short-lived, as he disappeared in a plane crash near Timmins, Ontario, four months later. The crash site was not found until a helicopter pilot discovered the plane's wreckage plane about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of Cochrane, Ontario 11 years later. The Leafs did not win another Cup during the 1950s, with rumours swirling that the team was "cursed", and would not win a cup until Barilko's body was found. The "curse" came to an end after the Leafs' 1962 Stanley Cup victory, which came six weeks before the discovery of the wreckage of Barilko's plane. Their 1951 victory was followed by lacklustre performances in the following seasons. The team finished third in the 1951–52 season and was eventually swept by the Red Wings in the semi-finals. With the conclusion of the 1952–53 regular season, the Leafs failed to make it to the postseason for the first time since the 1945–46 playoffs. The Leafs' poor performance may be attributed partly to a decline in their sponsored junior system (including the Toronto St. Michael's Majors and the Toronto Marlboros). The junior system was managed by Frank J. Selke until his departure to the Canadiens in 1946. In his absence, the quality of players it produced declined. Many who were called up to the Leafs in the early 1950s were found to be seriously lacking in ability. It was only later in the decade that the Leafs' feeder clubs produced prospects that helped them become competitive again. After a two-year drought from the playoffs, the Maple Leafs clinched a berth after the 1958–59 season. Under Punch Imlach, their new general manager and coach, the Leafs made it to the 1959 Finals, losing to the Canadiens in five games. Building on a successful playoff run, the Leafs followed up with a second-place finish in the 1959–60 regular season. Although they advanced to their second straight Cup Finals, the Leafs were again defeated by the Canadiens in four games. ### New owners and a new dynasty (1961–1971) Beginning in the 1960s, the Leafs became a stronger team, with Johnny Bower as the goaltender, and Bob Baun, Carl Brewer, Tim Horton and Allan Stanley serving as the Maple Leafs' defencemen. To bolster their forward group during the 1960 off-season, Imlach traded Marc Reaume to the Red Wings for Red Kelly. Originally a defenceman, Kelly was asked to make the transition to the role of centre, where he remained for the rest of his career. Kelly helped reinforce a forward group made up of Frank Mahovlich, and team captain George Armstrong. The beginning of the 1960–61 season also saw the debut of rookies Bob Nevin, and Dave Keon. Keon previously played for the St. Michael's Majors (the Maple Leafs junior affiliate), but had impressed Imlach during the Leafs' training camp, and joined the team for the season. Despite these new additions, the Leafs' 1961 playoff run ended in the semifinals against the Red Wings, with Armstrong, Bower, Kelly and others, suffering from injuries. In November 1961, Smythe sold nearly all of his shares in the club's parent company, Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL), to a partnership composed of his son Stafford Smythe, and his partners, newspaper baron John Bassett and Toronto Marlboros President Harold Ballard. The sale price was \$2.3 million (), a handsome return on Smythe's original investment 34 years earlier. Initially, Conn Smythe claimed that he knew nothing about his son's partners and was furious with the arrangement (though it is highly unlikely he could have believed Stafford could have financed the purchase on his own). However, he did not stop the deal because of it. Conn Smythe was given a retiring salary of \$15,000 per year for life, an office, a secretary, a car with a driver, and seats to home games. Smythe sold his remaining shares in the company, and resigned from the board of directors in March 1966, after a Muhammad Ali boxing match was scheduled for the Gardens. Smythe found Ali's refusal to serve in the United States Army offensive, noting that the Gardens was "no place for those who want to evade conscription in their own country". He had also said that because the Gardens' owners agreed to host the fight they had "put cash ahead of class". Under the new ownership, Toronto won another three straight Stanley Cups. The team won the 1962 Stanley Cup Finals beating the defending champion Chicago Black Hawks on a goal from Dick Duff in Game 6. During the 1962–63 season, the Leafs finished first in the league for the first time since the 1947–48 season. In the following playoffs, the team won their second Stanley Cup of the decade. The 1963–64 season saw certain members of the team traded. With Imlach seeking to reinvigorate the slumping Leafs, he made a mid-season trade that sent Duff, and Nevin to the Rangers for Andy Bathgate and Don McKenney. The Leafs managed to make the post-season as well as the Cup finals. In game six of the 1964 Cup finals, Baun suffered a fractured ankle and required a stretcher to be taken off the ice. He returned to play with his ankle frozen, and eventually scored the game-winning goal in overtime against the Red Wings. The Leafs won their third consecutive Stanley Cup in a 4–0 game 7 victory; Bathgate scored two goals. The two seasons after the Maple Leafs' Stanley Cup victories, the team saw several player departures, including Bathgate, and Brewer, as well as several new additions, including Marcel Pronovost, and Terry Sawchuk. During the 1966–67 season, the team had lost 10 games in a row, sending Imlach to the hospital with a stress-related illness. However, from the time King Clancy took over as the head coach, to Imlach's return, the club was on a 10-game undefeated streak, building momentum before the playoffs. The Leafs made their last Cup finals in 1967. Playing against Montreal, the heavy favourite for the year, the Leafs managed to win, with Bob Pulford scoring the double-overtime winner in game three; Jim Pappin scored the series winner in Game 6. Keon was named the playoff's most valuable player and was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy. From 1968 to 1970, the Maple Leafs made it to the playoffs only once. They lost several players to the 1967 expansion drafts, and the team was racked with dissension because of Imlach's authoritative manner, and his attempts to prevent the players from joining the newly formed Players' Association. Imlach's management of the team was also brought into question due to some of his decisions. It was apparent that he was too loyal to aging players who had been with him since 1958. In the 1967–68 season, Mahovlich was traded to Detroit in a deal that saw the Leafs acquire Paul Henderson and Norm Ullman. The Leafs managed to return to the playoffs after the 1968–69 season, only to be swept by the Bruins. Immediately after, Stafford Smythe confronted Imlach and fired him. This act was not without controversy, with some older players, including Horton, declaring that, "if this team doesn't want Imlach, I guess it doesn't want me". The Maple Leafs completed the 1969–70 season out of the playoffs. With their low finish, the Leafs were able to draft Darryl Sittler at the 1970 NHL Amateur Draft. The Leafs returned to the playoffs after the 1970–71 season with the addition of Sittler, as well as Bernie Parent and Jacques Plante, who were both acquired through trades during the season. They were eliminated in the first round against the Rangers. ### The Ballard years (1971–1990) A series of events in 1971 made Harold Ballard the primary owner of the Maple Leafs. After a series of disputes between Bassett, Ballard and Stafford Smythe, Bassett sold his stake in the company to them. Shortly afterwards, Smythe died in October 1971. Under the terms of Stafford's will, of which Ballard was an executor, each partner was allowed to buy the other's shares upon their death. Stafford's brother and son tried to keep the shares in the family, but in February 1972 Ballard bought all of Stafford's shares for \$7.5 million, valuing the company at \$22 million (). Six months later, Ballard was convicted of charges including fraud, and theft of money and goods, and spent a year at Milhaven Penitentiary. By the end of 1971, the World Hockey Association (WHA) began operations as a direct competitor to the NHL. Believing the WHA would not be able to compete against the NHL, Ballard's attitude caused the Maple Leafs to lose key players, including Parent to the upstart league. Undermanned and demoralized, the Leafs finished with the fourth-worst record for the 1972–73 season. They got the fourth overall pick in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft, and drafted Lanny McDonald. General Manager Jim Gregory also acquired the 10th overall pick from the Philadelphia Flyers, and the 15th overall pick from the Bruins, using them to acquire Bob Neely and Ian Turnbull. In addition to these first-round picks, the Leafs also acquired Borje Salming during the 1973 off-season. Despite acquiring Tiger Williams in the 1974 draft, and Roger Neilson as head coach in the 1977–78 season, the Maple Leafs found themselves eliminated in the playoffs by stronger Flyers or Canadiens teams from 1975 to 1979. Although Neilson was a popular coach with fans and his players, he found himself at odds with Ballard, who fired him late in the 1977–78 season. Nielson was later reinstated after appeals from the players and the public. He continued as Leafs' head coach until after the 1979 playoffs, when he was fired again, alongside Gregory. Gregory was replaced by Imlach as general manager. In the first year of his second stint as general manager, Imlach became embroiled in a dispute with Leafs' captain Darryl Sittler over his attempt to take part in the Showdown series for Hockey Night in Canada. In a move to undermine Sittler's influence on the team, Imlach traded McDonald, who was Sittler's friend. By the end of the 1979–80 season, Imlach had traded away nearly half of the roster he had at the beginning of his tenure as general manager. With the situation between Ballard and Sittler worsening, Sittler asked to be traded. Forcing the Leafs' hand, the club's new general manager, Gerry McNamara, traded Sittler to the Flyers on January 20, 1982. Rick Vaive was named the team's captain shortly after Sittler's departure. The Maple Leafs' management continued in disarray throughout most of the decade, with an inexperienced McNamara named as Imlach's replacement in September 1981. He was followed by Gord Stellick on April 28, 1988, who was replaced by Floyd Smith on August 15, 1989. Coaching was similarly shuffled often after Nielson's departure. Imlach's first choice for coach was his former player Smith, although he did not finish the 1979–80 season after being hospitalized by a car accident on March 14, 1980. Joe Crozier was named the new head coach until January 10, 1981, when he was succeeded by Mike Nykoluk. Nykoluk was head coach until April 2, 1984. Dan Maloney returned as head coach from 1984 to 1986, with John Brophy named head coach from 1986 to 1988. Both coaches had little success during their tenure. Doug Carpenter was named the new head coach to begin the 1989–90 season when the Leafs posted their first season above .500 in the decade. The team did not have much success during the decade, missing the playoffs entirely in 1982, 1984 and 1985. On at least two occasions, they made the playoffs with the worst winning percentages on record for a playoff team. However, in those days, the top four teams in each division made the playoffs, regardless of record. Since the Norris only had five teams in total, this meant only the last-place team in the division missed the postseason. In 1985–86, for instance, they finished with a .356 winning percentage, the fourth worst in the league. However, due to playing in a Norris Division where no team cracked the 90-point mark, the Leafs still made the playoffs. In 1987–88, they entered the final day of the season with the worst record in the league, but were only one point behind the Minnesota North Stars and thus were still in playoff contention. Detroit was the only team in the division with a winning record. However, the Leafs upset the Red Wings in their final game while the North Stars lost to the Flames hours later to hand the Leafs the final spot from the Norris. The low finishes allowed the team to draft Wendel Clark first overall at the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. Clark managed to lead the Leafs to the playoffs from 1986 to 1988, as well as the 1990 playoffs. Ballard died on April 11, 1990. ### Resurgence (1990–2004) Don Crump, Don Giffin, and Steve Stavro were named executors of Ballard's estate. Stavro succeeded Ballard as chairman of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and governor of the Maple Leafs. Cliff Fletcher was hired by Giffin to be the new general manager, although this was opposed by Stavro, who told Fletcher that he wanted to appoint his own general manager. Notwithstanding Stavro's initial reluctance with Fletcher's appointment, the Leafs' new ownership would soon earn a reputation for steering clear of exerting undue interference in hockey operations, in stark contrast to Ballard. Fletcher soon set about building a competitive club, hiring Pat Burns as the new coach, and making a series of trades and free-agent acquisitions, such as acquiring Doug Gilmour and Dave Andreychuk, which turned the Leafs into a contender. Assisted by stellar goaltending from minor league call-up Felix Potvin, the team posted a then-franchise-record 99 points. Toronto dispatched the Detroit Red Wings in seven games in the first round, then defeated the St. Louis Blues in another seven games in the Division Finals. Hoping to meet long-time rival Montreal (who was playing in the Wales Conference finals against the New York Islanders) in the Cup finals, the Leafs faced the Los Angeles Kings in the Campbell Conference finals. They led the series 3–2 but dropped game six in Los Angeles. The game was not without controversy, as Wayne Gretzky clipped Gilmour in the face with his stick, but referee Kerry Fraser did not call a penalty, and Gretzky scored the winning goal moments later. The Leafs eventually lost in game seven 5–4. The Leafs had another strong season in 1993–94, starting the season on a 10-game winning streak, and finishing it with 98 points. The team made it to the conference finals again, only to be eliminated by the Vancouver Canucks in five games. At the 1994 NHL Entry Draft, the Leafs packaged Wendel Clark in a multi-player trade with the Quebec Nordiques that landed them Mats Sundin. Missing two consecutive playoffs in 1997 and 1998, the Leafs relieved Fletcher as general manager. #### New home and a new millennium (1998–2004) On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors, a National Basketball Association franchise, and the arena the Raptors were building, from Allan Slaight and Scotiabank. With the acquisition, MLGL was renamed Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), acting as the parent company of the two teams. Larry Tanenbaum was a driving force in the acquisition, having bought a 12.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL) in 1996. Curtis Joseph was acquired as the team's starting goalie, while Pat Quinn was hired as the head coach before the 1998–99 season. Realigning the NHL's conferences in 1998, the Leafs were moved from the Western to the Eastern Conference. On February 13, 1999, the Leafs played their final game at the Gardens before moving to their new home at the then-Air Canada Centre. In the 1999 playoffs, the team advanced to the Conference Finals but lost in five games to the Buffalo Sabres. In the 1999–2000 season, the Leafs hosted the 50th NHL All-Star Game. By the end of the season, they recorded their first 100-point season and won their first division title in 37 years. In both the 2000 and 2001 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Ottawa Senators in the first round and lost to the New Jersey Devils in the second round. In the 2002 playoffs, the Leafs dispatched the Islanders and the Senators in seven games each during the first two rounds, only to lose to the Cinderella-story Carolina Hurricanes in six games in the Conference Finals. The 2001–02 season was particularly impressive in that injuries sidelined many of the Leafs' better players, but the efforts of depth players, including Alyn McCauley, Gary Roberts and Darcy Tucker, led them to the Conference Finals. As Joseph opted to become a free agent during the 2002 off-season, the Leafs signed Ed Belfour as the new starting goaltender. Belfour played well during the 2002–03 season and was a finalist for the Vezina Trophy. The Leafs lost to Philadelphia in seven games during the first round of the 2003 playoffs. In 2003, an ownership change occurred in MLSE. Stavro sold his controlling interest in MLSE to the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan (OTPP) and resigned his position as chairman in favour of Tanenbaum. Quinn remained as head coach but was replaced as general manager by John Ferguson Jr. Before the 2003–04 season, the team held their training camp in Sweden and played in the NHL Challenge against teams from Sweden and Finland. The Leafs went on to enjoy a very successful regular season, leading the NHL at the time of the All-Star Game (with Quinn named head coach of the East's All-Star Team). They finished the season with a then-franchise-record 103 points. They finished with the fourth-best record in the League, and their highest overall finish in 41 years, achieving a .628 win percentage, their best in 43 years, and third-best in franchise history. In the 2004 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Senators in the first round of the post-season for the fourth time in five years, with Belfour posting three shutouts in seven games, but lost to the Flyers in six games during the second round. ### After the lockout (2005–2014) Following the 2004–05 NHL lockout, the Maple Leafs experienced their longest playoff drought in the team's history. They struggled in the 2005–06 season; despite a late-season surge (9–1–2 in their final 12 games), led by goaltender Jean-Sebastien Aubin, Toronto was out of playoff contention for the first time since 1998. This marked the first time the team had missed the postseason under Quinn, who was later relieved as head coach. Quinn's dismissal was controversial since many of the young players who were key contributors to the Leafs' late-season run had been drafted by him before Ferguson's arrival, while Ferguson's signings (Jason Allison, Belfour, Alexander Khavanov, and Eric Lindros) had suffered season-ending injuries. Paul Maurice, who had previously coached the inaugural season of the Maple Leafs' Toronto Marlies farm team, was named as Quinn's replacement. On June 30, 2006, the Leafs bought out fan-favourite Tie Domi's contract. The team also decided against picking up the option year on goaltender Ed Belfour's contract; he became a free agent. However, despite the coaching change, as well as a shuffle in the roster, the team did not make the playoffs in 2006–07. During the 2007–08 season, John Ferguson, Jr. was fired in January 2008 and replaced by former Leafs' general manager Cliff Fletcher on an interim basis. The team retained Toronto-based sports lawyer Gord Kirke to begin a search for a new team president and general manager, and negotiate a contract. The Leafs did not qualify for the post-season, marking the first time since 1928 the team had failed to make the playoffs for three consecutive seasons. It was also Sundin's last year with the Leafs, as his contract was due to expire at the end of the season. However, he refused Leafs management's request to waive his no-trade clause for the team to rebuild by acquiring prospects and/or draft picks. On May 7, 2008, after the 2007–08 season, the Leafs fired Maurice, as well as assistant coach Randy Ladouceur, naming Ron Wilson as the new head coach, and Tim Hunter and Rob Zettler as assistant coaches. On November 29, 2008, the Maple Leafs hired Brian Burke as their 13th non-interim, and the first American, general manager in team history. The acquisition ended the second Cliff Fletcher era and settled persistent rumours that Burke was coming to Toronto. On June 26, 2009, Burke made his first appearance as the Leafs GM at the 2009 NHL Entry Draft, selecting London Knights forward Nazem Kadri with the seventh overall pick. On September 18, 2009, Burke traded Toronto's first- and second-round 2010, as well as its 2011 first-round picks, to the Boston Bruins in exchange for forward Phil Kessel. On January 31, 2010, the Leafs made another high-profile trade, this time with the Calgary Flames in a seven-player deal that brought defenceman Dion Phaneuf to Toronto. On June 14, during the off-season, the Leafs named Phaneuf captain after two seasons without one following Sundin's departure. On February 18, 2011, the team traded long-time Maple Leafs defenceman Tomas Kaberle to the Bruins in exchange for prospect Joe Colborne, Boston's first-round pick in 2011, and a conditional second-round draft choice. On March 2, 2012, Burke fired Wilson and named Randy Carlyle the new head coach. However, the termination proved to be controversial as Wilson had received a contract extension just two months before being let go. Changes at the ownership level also occurred in August 2012, when the OTPP completed the sale of their shares in MLSE to BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. On January 9, 2013, Burke was fired as general manager, and replaced by Dave Nonis. In their first full season under the leadership of Carlyle, Toronto managed to secure a playoff berth in the 2012–13 season (which was shortened again due to another lock-out) for the first time in eight years. However, the Leafs lost in seven games to eventual 2013 Stanley Cup finalist Boston in the first round. Despite the season's success, it was not repeated during the 2013–14 season, as the Leafs failed to make the playoffs. ### Brendan Shanahan era (2014–present) Shortly after the end of the 2013–14 regular season, Brendan Shanahan was named as the president and an alternate governor of the Maple Leafs. On January 6, 2015, the Leafs fired Randy Carlyle as head coach, and assistant coach Peter Horachek took over on an interim basis immediately. While the Leafs had a winning record before Carlyle's firing, the team eventually collapsed. On February 6, 2015, the Leafs set a new franchise record of 11 consecutive games without a win. At the beginning of February, Shanahan gained the approval of MLSE's board of directors to begin a "scorched earth" rebuild of the club. Both Dave Nonis and Horachek were relieved of their duties on April 12, just one day after the season concluded. In addition, the Leafs also fired several assistant coaches, including Steve Spott, and Rick St. Croix; as well as individuals from the Leafs' player scouting department. On May 20, 2015, Mike Babcock was named as the new head coach, and on July 23, Lou Lamoriello was named the 16th general manager in team history. On July 1, 2015, the Leafs packaged Kessel in a multi-player deal to the Pittsburgh Penguins in return for three skaters, including Kasperi Kapanen, a conditional first-round pick, and a third-round pick. Toronto also retained \$1.2 million of Kessel's salary for the remaining seven seasons of his contract. During the following season, on February 9, 2016, the Leafs packaged Phaneuf in another multi-player deal, acquiring four players, as well as a 2017 second-round pick from the Ottawa Senators. The team finished last in the NHL for the first time since the 1984–85 season. They subsequently won the draft lottery and used the first overall pick to draft Auston Matthews. In their second season under Babcock, Toronto secured the final Eastern Conference wildcard spot for the 2017 playoffs. On April 23, 2017, the Maple Leafs were eliminated from the playoffs by the top-seeded Washington Capitals four games to two in the best-of-seven series. Toronto finished the 2017–18 season with 105 points by beating Montreal 4–2 in their final game of the regular season, a franchise-record, beating the previous record of 103 points set in 2004. They faced the Boston Bruins in the First Round and lost in seven games. Following the playoffs, Lamoriello was not renewed as general manager. Kyle Dubas was subsequently named the team's 17th general manager in May 2018. During the 2018 off-season, the Maple Leafs signed John Tavares to a seven-year, \$77 million contract. On April 1, the Maple Leafs clinched a division berth for the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs. The Maple Leafs were eliminated in the First Round of the 2019 playoffs on April 23, after losing to the Bruins in a seven-game series. On October 2, 2019, Tavares was named as the team's 25th team captain prior to the Leafs' 2019–20 season opening game. After a 9–10–4 start to the 2019–20 season, the club relieved Babcock as head coach on November 20, with Sheldon Keefe named as his replacement. The Maple Leafs were eliminated in the 2020 Stanley Cup Qualifiers on August 9, after losing a five-game series against the Columbus Blue Jackets. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and travel restrictions at the Canada–United States border, the Leafs were temporarily moved to the North Division for the 2020–21 season alongside the NHL's other Canadian teams. During that season, teams only played games against teams in their new divisions in a limited 56-game season. On May 8, 2021, the Leafs clinched the North Division title, giving the Leafs guaranteed home advantage in the first two rounds of the 2021 Stanley Cup playoffs. Matthews also led the league in goals with 41 in 52 games played, becoming the first Maple Leaf to capture the Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy. However, the Leafs lost in the First Round to their archrivals, the Montreal Canadiens, with the Leafs surrendering a 3–1 series lead in the process. Despite the ending to the previous season, the Leafs were poised to make another run, with much of the core roster intact. Aided by the arrival of defenceman Mark Giordano and center Colin Blackwell from the Seattle Kraken on March 21, the team cruised throughout the regular season. The Leafs broke their franchise record for points in a season, with 106, and wins in a season, with 50, during a 4–2 victory over the New York Islanders on April 17. Despite the achievement, they were unable to match the Florida Panthers' record, who led the Atlantic Division and the Eastern Conference. The Leafs made the playoffs, but lost in the First Round to the Tampa Bay Lightning in seven games. During the 2022–23 NHL season, the Leafs again fared well in the regular season, achieving an excellent 50-21-11 record and 111 points, one point less than the record achieved the season prior. However, the record-setting Boston Bruins led the division, finishing with 135 points, and leaving the Leafs in second place in the Atlantic. In the First Round of the playoffs, the Leafs faced Lightning again, and emerged victorious after six games. This marked the first time since the 2004 playoffs that the Leafs had advanced to the second round of playoffs. ## Team culture ### Fan base The price of a Maple Leafs home game ticket is the highest amongst any team in the NHL. Scotiabank Arena holds 18,900 seats for Leafs games, with 15,500 reserved for season ticket holders. Because of the demand for season tickets, their sale is limited to the 10,000 people on the waiting list. As of March 2016, Leafs' season tickets saw a renewal rate of 99.5 percent, a rate that would require more than 250 years to clear the existing waiting list. In a 2014 survey by ESPN The Magazine, the Leafs were ranked last out of the 122 professional teams in the Big Four leagues. Teams were graded by stadium experience, ownership, player quality, ticket affordability, championships won and "bang for the buck"; in particular, the Leafs came last in ticket affordability. Leafs fans have been noted for their loyalty to the team despite their performance. In a study conducted by sports retailer Fanatics in March 2017, the Leafs and the Minnesota Wild were the only two NHL teams to average arena sellouts despite a below league average winning percentage. Conversely, fans of other teams harbour an equally passionate dislike of the team. In November 2002, the Leafs were named by Sports Illustrated hockey writer Michael Farber as the "Most Hated Team in Hockey". Despite their loyalty, there have been several instances where the fanbase voiced their displeasure with the club. During the 2011–12 season, fans attending the games chanted for the dismissal of head coach Ron Wilson, and later general manager Brian Burke. Wilson was let go shortly after the fans' outburst, even though he had been given a contract extension months earlier. Burke alluded to the chants noting "it would be cruel and unusual punishment to let Ron coach another game in the Air Canada Centre". In the 2014–15 season, fans threw Leafs jerseys onto the ice to show their disapproval of the team's poor performances in the past few decades. Similarly, during the later portion of the 2015–16 season, which overlaps with the start of Major League Baseball's regular season of play, fans were heard sarcastically chanting "Let's go Blue Jays!" and clapping alongside the chant as a sign of their farcical shift in priority from an under-performing team to the more successful playoff-bound 2016 Toronto Blue Jays season. Leafs fans also vandalized Mike Babcock's Wikipedia article amid the poor records of the first few months into the 2019–20 season; his article was temporarily semi-protected to minimize further vandalism. In addition to the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), many fans live throughout Ontario, including the Ottawa Valley, the Niagara Region, and Southwestern Ontario. As a result, Leafs' away games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa, KeyBank Center in Buffalo, and Little Caesars Arena in Detroit host a more neutral attendance. This is due in part to the Leafs fans in those areas, and those cities' proximity to the GTA. The Leafs are also a popular team in Atlantic Canada. In November 2016, a survey was conducted that found 20 percent of respondents from Atlantic Canada viewed the Leafs as their favourite team, second only to the Montreal Canadiens at 26 percent. The Leafs were found to be the most favoured team in Prince Edward Island, with 24 percent of respondents favouring the Leafs; and the second favourite team in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador (19 and 24 percent respectively, both trailing respondents who favoured the Canadiens by one percent). ### Rivalries During the 25 years of the Original Six era (1942–67), teams played each other 14 times during the regular season, and with only four teams continuing into the playoffs, rivalries were intense. The Maple Leafs established several rivalries with other teams that played in this era, including the Boston Bruins, Detroit Red Wings, and the Montreal Canadiens. In addition to the aforementioned teams, the Maple Leafs have also developed a rivalry with the Ottawa Senators, as well as a minor geographic rivalry with the Buffalo Sabres called the Battle of the QEW after the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW), the freeway that links Buffalo with Toronto along the western edge of Lake Ontario. #### Boston Bruins Both teams are Original Six teams, with their first game played in Boston's inaugural season on December 3, 1924. In the match-up, the St. Patricks earned a 5–3 victory against the Bruins at Mutual Street Arena. The Maple Leafs played their first Stanley Cup playoff series against the Bruins in 1933, winning the series 3–2. From 1933 to 2019, the two teams played in 16 postseason series against one another, including one Stanley Cup Finals. The rivalry has since been renewed from the 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs which saw the Bruins rally from a 4–1 third-period deficit to defeat the Maple Leafs in overtime, 5–4, and advance to the second round. In the 2018 and 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Bruins would again defeat the Maple Leafs in seven games in both of those years. #### Detroit Red Wings The Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs are both Original Six teams, playing their first game together in 1927. From 1929 to 1993, the teams met each other in the 16 playoff series, as well as seven Stanley Cup Finals. Meeting one another a combined 23 times in the postseason, they have played each other in more playoff series than any other two teams in NHL history except of the Bruins and Canadiens who have played a total of 34 playoff series. Overlapping fanbases, particularly in markets such as Windsor, Ontario, and the surrounding Essex County, have added to the rivalry. The rivalry between the Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs was at its height during the Original Six era. The Leafs and Red Wings met in the playoffs six times during the 1940s, including four Stanley Cup finals. The Leafs beat the Red Wings in five of their six meetings. In the 1950s, the Leafs and Red Wings met one another in six Stanley Cup semifinals; the Red Wings beat the Leafs in five of their six meetings. From 1961 to 1967, the two teams met one another in three playoff series, including two Stanley Cup finals. Within those 25 years, the Leafs and Red Wings played a total of 15 playoff series including six Cup Finals; the Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in all six Cup Finals. The teams have only met three times in the playoffs since the Original Six era, with their last meeting in 1993. After the Leafs moved to the Eastern Conference in 1998, they faced each other less often, and the rivalry began to stagnate. The rivalry became intradivisional once again in 2013 when Detroit was moved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference as part of a realignment. #### Montreal Canadiens The rivalry between the Montreal Canadiens and the Maple Leafs is the oldest in the NHL, featuring two clubs that were active since the inaugural NHL season in 1917. In the early 20th century, the rivalry was an embodiment of a larger culture war between English Canada and French Canada. The Canadiens have won 24 Stanley Cups, while the Maple Leafs have won 13, ranking them first and second for most Cup wins, respectively. The height of the rivalry was during the 1960s when the Canadiens and Leafs combined to win all but one Cup. The two clubs had 15 playoff meetings. However, the rivalry has waned with the two having not met in the postseason from 1979 to 2021. It also suffered when Montreal and Toronto were placed in opposite conferences in , with the Leafs in the Clarence Campbell/Western Conference and the Canadiens in the Prince of Wales/Eastern Conference. The rivalry became intradivisional once again in when the Leafs were moved into the Eastern Conference's Northeast Division. The rivalry's cultural imprint may be seen in literature and art. The rivalry from the perspective of the Canadiens fan is captured in the popular Canadian short story The Hockey Sweater by Roch Carrier. Originally published in French as "Une abominable feuille d'érable sur la glace" ("An abominable maple leaf on the ice"), it referred to the Maple Leafs sweater a mother forced her son to wear. The son is presumably based on Carrier himself when he was young. This rivalry is also evident in Toronto's College subway station, which displays murals depicting the two teams, one on each platform (the Leafs mural being on the southbound platform), given that when the murals were installed in 1984, the station was the closest to the Leafs' then-home of Maple Leaf Gardens. #### Ottawa Senators The modern Ottawa Senators entered the NHL in 1992, but the rivalry between the two teams did not begin to emerge until the late 1990s. From 1992 to 1998, Ottawa and Toronto played in different conferences (Prince of Wales / Eastern and Clarence Campbell / Western respectively), which meant they rarely played each other. However, before the 1998–99 season, the conferences and divisions were realigned, with Toronto moved to the Eastern Conference's Northeast Division with Ottawa. From 2000 to 2004, the teams played four post-season series; the Leafs won all four playoff series. Due in part to the number of Leafs fans living in the Ottawa Valley, and in part to Ottawa's relative proximity to Toronto, Leafs–Senators games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa hold a more neutral audience. ## Team operations ### Branding #### Logo and uniform The team is represented through several images and symbols, including the maple leaf logo found on the club's uniform. The Maple Leafs' jersey has a long history and is one of the best-selling NHL jerseys among fans. The club's uniforms have been altered several times. The club's first uniforms were blue and featured the letter T. The first major alteration came in 1919 when the club was renamed the St. Patricks. The uniforms were green with "Toronto St. Pats" on the logo, lettered in green either on a white "pill" shape or stripes. When the club was renamed the Maple Leafs in the 1927–28 season, the logo was changed, and the team reverted to blue uniforms. The logo was a 48-point maple leaf with the words lettered in white. The home jersey was blue with alternating thin-thick stripes on the arms, legs and shoulders. The road uniform was white with three stripes on the chest and back, waist and legs. For 1933–34, the alternating thin-thick stripes were replaced with stripes of equal thickness. This remained the basic design for the next 40 years. In 1937, veins were added to the leaf and "Toronto" curved downwards at the ends instead of upwards. In 1942, the 35-point leaf was introduced. In 1946, the logo added trimming to the leaf with a white or blue border, while "C" for captain and "A" for alternate captain first appeared on the sweaters. In 1947, the "Toronto Maple Leafs" lettering was in red for a short time. In 1958, a six-eyelet lace and tie were added to the neck and a blue shoulder yoke was added. In 1961, player numbers were added to the sleeves. The fourth major change came in the 1966–67 season when the logo was changed to an 11-point leaf, similar to the leaf on the then-new flag of Canada to commemorate the Canadian Centennial. The simpler leaf logo featured the Futura Display typeface, replacing the previous block letters. The stripes on the sleeves and waistline were also changed, adding a wider stripe in between the two thinner stripes (similar to the stripe patterns on the socks and the early Leafs sweaters). Before the 1970–71 season, the Leafs adopted a new 11-point leaf logo, with a Kabel bold-font "Toronto" going straight across, running parallel to the other words. Other changes to the sweater included the replacement of the arm strips with an elongated yoke that extended to the ends of the sleeves, a solid single stripe on the waist replacing the three waistline stripes, two stripes on the stockings, and a smaller, textless Leaf crest on the shoulders. In 1973, the jersey's neck was a lace tie-down design, before the V-neck returned in 1976. In 1977, the NHL rules were changed to require names on the backs of the uniforms, but Harold Ballard resisted the change. Under Ballard's direction, the team briefly "complied" with the rule by placing blue letters on the blue road jersey for a game on February 26, 1978. With the NHL threatening hefty fines for failing to comply with the spirit of the rule (namely, having the names be legible for the fans and broadcasters in attendance), Ballard reached a compromise with the league, allowing the Leafs to finish the 1977–78 season with contrasting white letters on the road sweaters, and coming into full compliance with the new rule in the 1978–79 season by adding names in blue to the white home sweaters. With the NHL's 75th anniversary season (1991–92 season), the Leafs wore "Original Six" style uniforms similar to the designs used in the 1940s. Because of the fan reaction to the previous season's classic uniforms, the first changes to the Maple Leafs uniform in over 20 years were made. The revised uniforms for 1992–93 featured two stripes on the sleeves and waistline like the classic uniform, but with the 1970 11-point leaf with Kabel text on the front. A vintage-style veined leaf crest was placed on the shoulders. The uniforms would undergo a few modifications over the years. In 1997, Nike acquired the rights to manufacture Maple Leafs uniforms. Construction changes to the uniform included a wishbone collar and pothole mesh underarms, while the player name and number font were changed to Kabel to match the logo. CCM returned to manufacturing the Leafs uniforms in 1999 when Nike withdrew from the hockey jersey market, and kept most of the changes, although in 2000 the Kabel numbers were replaced with block numbers outlined in silver, and a silver-outlined interlocked TML monogram replaced the vintage leaf on the shoulders. Also during this time, the Leafs began wearing a white 1960s-style throwback third jersey featuring the outlined 35-point leaf, blue shoulders, and lace-up collar. With Reebok taking over the NHL jersey contract following the 2004–05 lock-out, changes were expected when the Edge uniform system was set to debut in 2007. As part of the Edge overhaul, the TML monograms were removed from the shoulders, and the silver outlines on the numbers were replaced with blue or white outlines (e.g. the blue home jersey featured white numbers with blue and white outlines, rather than blue and silver), and the waistline stripes were removed. In 2010, the two waistline stripes were restored, the vintage leaf returned to the shoulders, and the player names and numbers were changed again, reverting to a simpler single-colour block font. Finally, lace-up collars were brought back to the primary uniforms. The Leafs also brought back the 1967–1970 blue uniform, replacing the white 1960s jersey as their third uniform. For the 2014 NHL Winter Classic, the Leafs wore a sweater inspired by their earlier uniforms in the 1930s. On February 2, 2016, the team unveiled a new logo for the 2016–17 season in honour of its centennial, dropping the use of the Kabel-style font lettering used from 1970; it returns the logo to a form inspired by the earlier designs, with 31 points to allude to the 1931 opening of Maple Leaf Gardens, and 17 veins a reference to its establishment in 1917. 13 of the veins are positioned along the top part in honour of its 13 Stanley Cup victories. The logo was subsequently accompanied by a new uniform design that was unveiled during the 2016 NHL Entry Draft on June 24, 2016. In addition to the new logo, the new uniforms feature a custom block typeface for the player names and numbers. Two stripes remain on the sleeves, with a single stripe at the waistline. The updated design carried over to the Adidas Adizero uniforms adopted by the NHL in 2017. The Maple Leafs have worn historical throwback uniforms for select games, with the club wearing Toronto Arenas or St. Pats-inspired throwback designs. Additionally, the Leafs have also used contemporary "historically inspired" uniforms as an alternate uniform. For the Centennial Classic, each Leafs player wore a blue sweater with bold white stripes across the chest and arms; the white stripe being a tribute to the St. Pats, while a stylized-"T" used by the Arenas featured on their hockey pants. For the 2020–21 season, the Maple Leafs wore "reverse retro" alternate uniforms, which included silver stripes inspired by the uniforms used from 1970 to 1972, while using the club's logo used from 1967 to 1970. Then for the 2022 Heritage Classic, the Maple Leafs donned a modified version of the team's Arenas throwbacks, with blue-on-blue lettering on the "Arenas" wordmark as a nod to the infamous 1978 uniforms. A second "reverse retro" alternate uniform, featuring the blue version of the white road uniforms they wore in 1962, was released. This design added a white shoulder yoke which was absent on the original blue uniform. Other alternate uniforms worn by the team include a white uniform with two blue stripes across the chest and arms, paired this uniform with white pants worn for the 2018 NHL Stadium Series. The uniforms were largely coloured white as a tribute to the Royal Canadian Navy and also included bolder blue outlines to create uniforms more pronounced for outdoor settings. During the 2021–22 season, the Leafs named TikTok, a video-sharing website, as their helmet entitlement partner. Then in the 2022–23 season, the Maple Leafs announced a uniform sponsorship with the Dairy Farmers of Ontario, utilizing the organization's "Milk" insignia. On March 22, 2022, the Maple Leafs unveiled a new alternate uniform, but for the first time in team history, black served as a base colour with the traditional blue serving as a trim colour. The "Next Gen" uniform features the team crest with a blue and black tie-dye background, along with a subtle black/blue skyline motif serving as sleeve stripes. It also comes with a reversible crest, featuring Canadian singer Justin Bieber's modified drew house insignia inside a yellow Maple Leafs logo and yellow stripes. The black/blue front is normally worn as a game uniform. #### Mascot The Maple Leafs' mascot is Carlton the Bear, an anthropomorphic polar bear whose name and number (#60) comes from the location of Maple Leaf Gardens at 60 Carlton Street, where the Leafs played throughout much of their history. Carlton made his first public appearance on July 29, 1995. He later made his regular season appearance on October 10, 1995. ### Broadcasting As a result of both Bell Canada and Rogers Communications having an ownership stake in MLSE, Maple Leafs broadcasts are split between the two media companies; with regional TV broadcasts split between Rogers' Sportsnet Ontario and Bell's TSN4. Colour commentary for Bell's television broadcasts is performed by Mike Johnson, while play-by-play is provided by Gord Miller. Colour commentary for Rogers' television broadcasts is performed by Craig Simpson, while play-by-play is provided by Chris Cuthbert; both also serve as the lead broadcast team of Hockey Night in Canada and Sportsnet's national TV broadcasts. From 2001 to 2022, MLSE also operated a specialty channel, the Leafs Nation Network. Like the Maple Leafs television broadcasts, radio broadcasts are split evenly between Rogers' CJCL (Sportsnet 590, The Fan) and Bell's CHUM (TSN Radio 1050). Both Bell and Rogers' radio broadcasts have their colour commentary provided by Jim Ralph, with play-by-play provided by Joe Bowen. Radio broadcasts of games played by the club were started in 1923. The first Leafs hockey game that was televised occurred on November 10, 1952; the broadcast also being the first English-language television broadcast of an NHL game in Canada. Foster Hewitt was the Leafs' first play-by-play broadcaster, providing radio play-by-play from 1927 to 1978. In addition, he provided play-by-play for television from 1952 to 1958, and colour commentary from 1958 to 1961. Originally aired over CFCA, Hewitt's broadcast was picked up by the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (the CRBC) in 1933, moving to CBC Radio (the CRBC's successor) three years later. ### Home arenas and practice facilities The team's first home was the Arena Gardens, later known as the Mutual Street Arena. From 1912 until 1931, the Arena was ice hockey's premier site in Toronto. The Arena Gardens was the third arena in Canada to feature a mechanically frozen, or artificial, ice surface, and for 11 years was the only such facility in Eastern Canada. The Arena was demolished in 1989, with most of the site converted to residential developments. In 2011, parts of the site were made into a city park, known as Arena Gardens. Within a six months in 1931, Conn Smythe built Maple Leaf Gardens on the northwest corner of Carlton Street and Church Street, for C\$1.5 million (C\$ million in 2023). The arena soon acquired nicknames including the "Carlton Street Cashbox", and the "Maple Leaf Mint", since the team's games were constantly sold out. The Maple Leafs won 11 Stanley Cups while playing at the Gardens. The first annual NHL All-Star Game was also held at Maple Leaf Gardens in 1947. The Gardens opened on November 12, 1931, with the Maple Leafs losing 2–1 to the Chicago Blackhawks. On February 13, 1999, the Maple Leafs played their last game at the Gardens, also suffering a 6–2 loss to the Blackhawks. The building is presently used as a multi-purpose facility, with a Loblaws grocery store occupying retail space on the lower floors, Joe Fresh and LCBO occupying another floor, and an athletics arena for Ryerson University (now Toronto Metropolitan University) occupying the topmost level. The Maple Leafs presently use two facilities in the City of Toronto. The club moved from the Gardens on February 20, 1999, to their current home arena, Air Canada Centre, later renamed Scotiabank Arena, a multi-purpose indoor entertainment arena on Bay Street in the South Core neighbourhood of Downtown Toronto. The arena is owned by the Maple Leafs' parent company MLSE and is shared with the NBA's Toronto Raptors (another MLSE subsidiary), as well as the National Lacrosse League's Toronto Rock. In addition to the main arena, the Maple Leafs also operate a practice facility at the Ford Performance Centre. The facility was opened in 2009 and operated by the Lakeshore Lions Club until September 2011, when the City of Toronto took over ownership of the facility after the Lions Club faced financial difficulties. The facility now operates as a City of Toronto-controlled corporation. The facility was known as the Mastercard Centre for Hockey Excellence until 2019 when it was renamed the Ford Performance Centre. The facility has three NHL rinks and one Olympic-sized rink. On January 1, 2017, the Maple Leafs played the Detroit Red Wings in a home game at BMO Field, an outdoor multipurpose stadium at Exhibition Place, home to Leafs owner MLSE's other teams: the Toronto FC and the Toronto Argonauts. Known as the NHL Centennial Classic, the outdoor game served as a celebration for both the centennial season of the franchise and the NHL. ### Minor league affiliates The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams, the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League and the Newfoundland Growlers of the ECHL. The Marlies play from Coca-Cola Coliseum in Toronto, while the Growlers play from the Mary Brown's Centre in St. John's, Newfoundland. The Maple Leafs' parent company has owned the Marlies franchise since 1978. The Growlers became affiliated with the Maple Leafs and the Marlies before the 2018–19 season. Unlike the Marlies, the Growlers are not owned by the Leafs' parent company but are instead owned by Deacon Sports and Entertainment. The first AHL affiliate owned by the Maple Leafs was the Rochester Americans, a team the Leafs initially co-owned with the Montreal Canadiens from 1956 to 1959, before MLGL bought out the Canadiens' share in the team. MLGL held sole ownership of the team until it was sold to an investor group in 1966. However, it continued to serve as their minor league affiliate until 1969. The Leafs did not have an AHL affiliate from 1969 to 1978 and relied on placing their drafted players with other team's affiliates. However, after several poor draft picks and having insufficient control over their prospect's development, MLGL opted to reestablish their own farm system; co-founding the Marlies franchise in 1978, and operating the Cincinnati Tigers of the Central Hockey League from 1981 to 1982. The Marlies were initially established as the New Brunswick Hawks, and were later relocated to St. Catherines, Newmarket, and St. John's, before finally moving to Toronto in 2005. The Marlies was named after the Toronto Marlboros, a junior hockey team named after the Duke of Marlborough. Founded in 1903, the Marlboros were sponsored by the Leafs from 1927 to 1989. The Marlboros constituted one of two junior hockey teams the Leafs formerly sponsored, the other being the Toronto St. Michael's Majors. The sponsored junior system served as the Leafs primary farm system for young replacement players from the 1940s to 1950s. Formal NHL sponsorship of junior teams ceased in 1966, making all qualifying prospects not already on NHL-sponsored lists eligible for the draft. ### Ownership The Maple Leafs is one of six professional sports teams owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE). In 2018, Forbes estimated the value of the club at US\$1.45 billion, making the Maple Leafs the second most valuable franchise in the NHL, after the New York Rangers. However, MLSE has refuted past valuations made by Forbes. Initially, ownership of the club was held by the Arena Gardens of Toronto, Limited; an ownership group fronted by Henry Pellatt, that owned and managed Arena Gardens. The club was named a permanent franchise in the League following its inaugural season, with team manager Charles Querrie, and the Arena Gardens treasurer Hubert Vearncombe as its owners. The Arena Company owned the club until 1919 when litigations from Eddie Livingstone forced the company to declare bankruptcy. Querrie brokered the sale of the Arena Garden's share to the owners of the amateur St. Patricks Hockey Club. Maintaining his shares in the club, Querrie fronted the new ownership group until 1927, when the club was put up for sale. Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together an ownership group and purchased the franchise for \$160,000. In 1929, Smythe decided, amid the Great Depression, that the Maple Leafs needed a new arena. To finance it, Smythe launched Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL), a publicly traded management company to own both the Maple Leafs and the new arena, which was named Maple Leaf Gardens. Smythe traded his stake in the Leafs for shares in MLGL and sold shares in the holding company to the public to help fund construction for the arena. Although Smythe was the face of MLGL from its founding, he did not gain the controlling interest in the company until 1947. Smythe remained MLGL's principal owner until 1961 when he sold 90 percent of his shares to an ownership group consisting of Harold Ballard, John Bassett and Stafford Smythe. Ballard became majority owner in February 1972 shortly following the death of Stafford Smythe. Ballard was the principal owner of MLGL until he died in 1990. The company remained a publicly traded company until 1998, when an ownership group fronted by Steve Stavro privatized the company by acquiring more than the 90 percent of stock necessary to force objecting shareholders out. While initially primarily a hockey company, with ownership stakes in several junior hockey clubs including the Toronto Marlboros of the Ontario Hockey Association, the company later branched out to own the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League from the late 1970s to late 1980s (though the company would later sell off the Tiger-Cats). On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association, who were constructing the then-Air Canada Centre. After MLGL acquired the Raptors, the company changed its name to MLSE. The company's portfolio has since expanded to include the Toronto FC of Major League Soccer, the Toronto Marlies of the AHL, the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League, and a 37.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Square. The present ownership structure emerged in 2012 after the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan (the company's former principal owner) announced the sale of its 75 percent stake in MLSE to a consortium made up of telecommunications rivals Bell Canada and Rogers Communications, in a deal valued at \$1.32 billion. As part of the sale, two numbered companies were created to jointly hold stock. This ownership structure ensures that, at the shareholder level, Rogers and Bell vote their overall 75 percent interest in the company together and thus decisions on the management of the company must be made by consensus between the two. A portion of Bell's share in MLSE is owned by its pension fund, to make Bell's share in MLSE under 30 percent. This was done so that Bell could retain its existing 18 percent interest in the Montreal Canadiens; as NHL's conflict of interest rules prevent any shareholder that owns more than 30 percent of a team from holding an ownership position in another. The remaining 25 percent is owned by Larry Tanenbaum, who is also the chairman of MLSE. ## Season-by-season record This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Maple Leafs. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Toronto Maple Leafs seasons Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against ## Players and personnel ### Current roster ### Team captains In all, 25 individuals have served as captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Ken Randall served as the team's first captain for two years beginning with the inaugural 1917–18 NHL season. John Ross Roach was the first goaltender to be named captain in the NHL, and the only goaltender to serve as the Leafs' captain. He was one of only six goalies in NHL history to have been officially recognized as the team captain. George Armstrong served as captain from 1958 through 1969 and was the longest-serving captain in the team's history. In 1997, Mats Sundin became the first non-Canadian to captain the Maple Leafs. His tenure as captain holds the distinction as the longest captaincy for a non-North American-born player in NHL history. The last player named to the position was John Tavares on October 2, 2019. Three captains of the Maple Leafs have held the position at multiple points in their careers. Syl Apps' first tenure as the captain began from 1940 to 1943, before he stepped down and left the club to enlist in the Canadian Army. Bob Davidson served as the Maple Leafs captain until Apps' return from the Army in 1945 and resumed his captaincy until 1948. Ted Kennedy's first tenure as captain was from 1948 to 1955. He announced his retirement from the sport at the end of the 1954–55 season, with Sid Smith succeeding him as captain. Although Kennedy missed the entire 1955–56 season, he came out of retirement to play the second half of the 1956–57 season. During that half-season, Kennedy served his second tenure as the Maple Leafs' captain. Darryl Sittler was the third player to have been named the team's captain twice. As a result of a dispute between Sittler and the Maple Leafs' general manager Punch Imlach, Sittler relinquished the captaincy on December 29, 1979. The dispute was resolved in the following off-season after a heart attack hospitalized Imlach. Sittler arranged talks with Ballard to resolve the issue, eventually resuming his captaincy on September 24, 1980. No replacement captain was named during the interim period. ### Head coaches The Maple Leafs have had 40 head coaches (including four interim coaches). The franchise's first head coach was Dick Carroll, who coached the team for two seasons. Several coaches have served as the Leafs head coach on multiple occasions. King Clancy was named the head coach on three occasions while Charles Querrie and Punch Imlach served the position on two occasions. Sheldon Keefe is the current head coach. He was named coach on November 20, 2019. Punch Imlach coached the most regular-season games of any Leafs' head coach with 770 games, and has the most all-time points with the Maple Leafs, with 865. He is followed by Pat Quinn, who coached 574 games, with 678 points all-time with the Maple Leafs. Both Mike Rodden and Dick Duff, have the fewest points with the Maple Leafs, with 0. Both were interim coaches who coached only two games each in 1927 and 1980 respectively, losing both games. Sheldon Keefe earned the most points of any Leafs head coach in a single season, with 115 points during the 2021–22 season. Five Maple Leafs' coaches have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as players, while four others were inducted as builders. Pat Burns is the only Leafs' head coach to win a Jack Adams Award with the team. ### Draft picks In the 1963 NHL Amateur Draft, the NHL's inaugural draft, the Maple Leafs selected Walt McKechnie, a centre from the London Nationals with their first pick, sixth overall. Two Maple Leafs captains were obtained through the draft, Darryl Sittler in the 1970 draft; as well as Wendel Clark in the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. The Maple Leafs have drafted two players with a first overall draft pick; Clark in the 1985 draft, and Auston Matthews in the 2016 draft. Rodion Amirov was the most recent player selected by the Maple Leafs in the first round, with the 15th overall pick at the 2020 draft. ## Team and league honours The Maple Leafs have won 13 Stanley Cups in its history. Toronto's first two Stanley Cups, in 1918 and 1922, took place when the Stanley Cup tournament operated as an interleague competition. Toronto's subsequent 11 Stanley Cups were awarded after 1926 when the Cup was established as the championship trophy of the NHL. The Maple Leafs won their last Stanley Cup in 1967; with the team's 53-season Stanley Cup drought being the longest active drought in the NHL. The Maple Leafs were also awarded the Prince of Wales Trophy twice, following the 1946–47 season, and the 1962–63 season. The Prince of Wales Trophy was awarded to the club when it was used as NHL's regular-season championship trophy. ### Retired numbers The Maple Leafs have retired the numbers of 19 players; as some players used the same number, only 13 numbers have been retired. Between October 17, 1992, and October 15, 2016, the Maple Leafs took a unique approach to retired numbers. Whereas players who suffered a career-ending injury had their numbers retired, "great" players had their number "honoured". Honoured numbers remained in general circulation for players, however, during Brian Burke's tenure as the Maple Leafs' general manager, the use of honoured numbers required his approval. During this period, only two players met the criteria for retirement, the first being number 6, worn by Ace Bailey and retired on February 14, 1934; and Bill Barilko's number 5, retired on October 17, 1992. The retirement of Bailey's number was the first of its kind in professional sports. It was briefly taken out of retirement after Bailey asked that Ron Ellis be allowed to wear his number. Bailey's number returned to retirement after Ellis's final game on January 14, 1981. The first players to have their numbers honoured were Syl Apps and Ted Kennedy, on October 3, 1993. Mats Sundin was the last player to have his number honoured on February 11, 2012. On October 15, 2016, before the home opening game of the team's centenary season, the Maple Leafs announced they had changed their philosophy on retiring numbers, and that the numbers of those 16 honoured players would now be retired, in addition to the retirement of Dave Keon's number. As well as honouring and retiring the numbers, the club also commissioned statues of former Maple Leafs. The group of statues, known as Legends Row, is a 9.2 metres (30 ft) granite hockey bench with statues of former club players. Unveiled in September 2014, it is located outside Gate 5 of Scotiabank Arena, at Maple Leaf Square. As of October 2017, statues have been made of 14 players with retired numbers. In addition to the 13 numbers retired by the Maple Leafs, the number 99 is also retired from use in the organization. At the 2000 NHL All-Star Game hosted in Toronto, the NHL announced the league-wide retirement of Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retiring it from use throughout all its member teams, including the Maple Leafs. ### Hall of Famers The Toronto Maple Leafs acknowledge an affiliation with 75 inductees of the Hockey Hall of Fame. The 75 inductees include 62 former players as well as 13 builders of the sport. The Maple Leafs have the greatest number of players inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame of any NHL team. The 13 individuals recognized as builders of the sport include former Maple Leafs broadcasters, executives, head coaches, and other personnel relating to the club's operations. Inducted in 2017, Dave Andreychuk was the latest Maple Leafs player to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. In addition to players and builders, five broadcasters for the Maple Leafs were also awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the Hockey Hall of Fame. In 1984, Foster Hewitt, a radio broadcaster, was awarded the Hall of Fame's inaugural Foster Hewitt Memorial Award, an award named after Hewitt. Hewitt was already inducted as a builder into the Hall of Fame before the award's inception. Other Maple Leafs broadcasters that received the award include Wes McKnight in 1986, Bob Cole in 2007, Bill Hewitt in 2007 and Joe Bowen in 2018. ### Franchise career leaders These are the top franchise leaders in regular season points, goals, assists, points per game, games played, and goaltending wins as of the end of the 2022–23 season. - – current Maple Leafs player ## See also - List of Toronto Maple Leafs players - List of Toronto Maple Leafs general managers - Toronto Maple Leafs in popular culture
50,222,892	Dayana Yastremska	1,172,307,416	Ukrainian tennis player	[ "2000 births", "21st-century Ukrainian women", "Doping cases in tennis", "Living people", "Olympic tennis players for Ukraine", "Sportspeople from Odesa", "Tennis players at the 2020 Summer Olympics", "Ukrainian female tennis players", "Ukrainian refugees", "Ukrainian sportspeople in doping cases" ]	Dayana Oleksandrivna Yastremska (Ukrainian: Даяна Олександрівна Ястремська; born 15 May 2000) is a Ukrainian professional tennis player. She has a career-high ranking of world No. 21 by the Women's Tennis Association (WTA). Yastremska has won three WTA Tour titles in five final appearances. A junior Grand Slam tournament runner-up in both singles and doubles, Yastremska had a quick breakthrough onto the WTA Tour. She made her debut in the top 100 and won two titles when she was 18 years old, including her first at the Hong Kong Open in 2018. She had a successful 2019 that helped her rise from No. 58 at the start of the year up to No. 22 by the end of the season. Yastremska was suspended provisionally from competition at the start of 2021 after testing positive for mesterolone. On 22 June 2021, the International Tennis Federation ruled that Yastremska was not responsible for the positive result, and that she is eligible to return to competition immediately. She made her return to the tour at the Hamburg Open. Yastremska is one of the most aggressive players on the WTA Tour and has led the tour in highest percentage of shots that end in a winner, an unforced error, or an opponent's forced error. ## Early life and background Dayana Yastremska was born on 15 May 2000 to Marina and Alexander Yastremsky in Odesa, the third-largest city in Ukraine. She has a sister Ivanna who is six years younger. Her father had been a volleyball player and also has served on the Odesa City Council. When Yastremska was five years old, her grandfather Ivan introduced her to tennis. After trying other sports such as gymnastics and swimming, she chose to focus on tennis, saying at the age of twelve, "I chose tennis because it is very hard and beautiful. I love work and I want to write my new history in tennis." She entered her first tournament when she was seven and finished in third place, despite the event being open to children who were several years older. Yastremska credits her parents for her success at tennis, saying, "When I was younger I had to sacrifice a lot of things but now I’m not regretting it... I have to say a big thank you to my parents because if they didn’t push me in the right moment then I don’t think I’d have the life I have right now." ## Junior career Yastremska had early success as a junior, finishing runner-up at the 12-and-under Junior Orange Bowl in 2012. She made her debut on the ITF Junior Circuit in March 2014 at the age of 13. Towards the end of the year, she won her first title at a Grade 4 event in November. With this success, she moved up to playing higher-level tournaments more regularly. Yastremska reached a Grade 1 semifinal in July in Austria and won a Grade 2 title in August in Hungary. She made her debut at the highest-level Grade A tournaments in October, reaching the quarterfinals at the Osaka Mayor's Cup in Japan. She fared better in doubles, finishing runner-up to two Japanese players. Yastremska made her junior major debut at the 2016 Australian Open, where she made the singles quarterfinals. In doubles, she made it to the final, losing to Anna Kalinskaya and Tereza Mihalíková alongside compatriot Anastasia Zarycká. Yastremska only played Grade A tournaments the rest of the year. At the Copa Gerdau, she lost in the singles semifinals to Amanda Anisimova. In the doubles event, she partnered with Panna Udvardy to win the only Grade A title of her career, defeating the American team of Caty McNally and Natasha Subhash. After a third round appearance in singles at the 2016 French Open, Yastremska concluded her junior career at Wimbledon. At her last event, she made her only junior Grand Slam singles final. After upsetting top seed Olesya Pervushina in the semifinals, she finished runner-up to Anastasia Potapova. This helped her reach a career-high junior ranking of No. 6 in the world. ## Professional career ### 2015–17: Five ITF titles, first WTA Tour match win Yastremska began playing low-level events on the ITF Women's Circuit in 2015. Her best result of the year was a semifinal loss to Markéta Vondroušová at a \$10k event in Sharm El Sheikh. She won her first ITF title in March 2016 at the \$25k event in Campinas, Brazil, where she came through qualifying and defeated No. 157 Alizé Lim in the final. A month and a half later, she made her WTA main draw debut at the İstanbul Cup at the age of 15. As a wildcard, she lost her opening-round match to Nao Hibino. A year later, Yastremska was awarded another wildcard into the same tournament and defeated Andrea Petkovic for her first career WTA match win. She made it to the quarterfinals, where she lost to Jana Čepelová despite having two chances to serve for the match. Yastremska qualified for her only other WTA main draw of the year at the Nottingham Open, losing in the first round. In September, Yastremska won an \$60K title at the Ladies Open Dunakeszi. With this title, she rose from No. 272 to No. 202 in the world. Later that month, she defeated top seed and world No. 46, Donna Vekic, in the semifinals of the \$100k Neva Cup, before losing to Belinda Bencic in the final. This runner-up finish brought her into the top 200 for the first time at No. 174. Yastremska also had a strong season in doubles, winning three ITF titles, including the \$80k Prague Open with Anastasia Potapova. ### 2018: Maiden WTA title and top 100 debut at 18 Yastremska had a slow start into the 2018 season. She lost in the second round of qualifying at the Australian Open. After injuring her ankle at the Mexican Open in February, she did not enter any tournaments in March. With a ranking well outside of the top 100, she needed to enter qualifying at her first seven tournaments of the year, reaching three main draws. At the last of these events, Yastremska produced her best result, finishing runner-up to Rebecca Peterson at the \$100k Open de Cagnes-sur-Mer. This result took her into the top 150 for the first time. She also reached the final at the \$100k Ilkley Trophy, losing to Tereza Smitková in a third-set tiebreak. She did not enter the French Open and lost in the qualifying competition at Wimbledon. During the second week of Wimbledon, Yastremska won the separate \$60k Internazionale Antico Tiro a Volo in Rome. She defeated Potapova in the final in 45 minutes, only losing one game. With this title, she made her debut in the top 100 at the age of 18. In the second half of the season, Yastremska had more success at the WTA level. She qualified for the Premier-level Connecticut Open where she upset No. 36, Danielle Collins, for her only main-draw match win. The following week, she made her Grand Slam main-draw debut and was upset in her opening-round match by qualifier Karolína Muchová. Yastremska made her breakthrough on the tour in her last two tournaments of the year. In October, she won her maiden WTA Tour title at the Hong Kong Open without dropping a set. She defeated three top 100 Chinese players in the event, including No. 40 Zhang Shuai and No. 24 Wang Qiang in the semifinals and final, respectively. The following week, she returned to Europe and reached another semifinal at the Luxembourg Open. She recorded her first career top-20 victory against No. 13, Garbiñe Muguruza, before losing to Belinda Bencic in a third-set tiebreak. With these two results, she rose from No. 110 at the start of the month to No. 58 by the end of the year. ### 2019: Two WTA titles, top 25 Yastremska continued to rise in the WTA rankings throughout the season, her first full year on the WTA Tour. After a quarterfinal appearance at the Hobart International, she won her first two Grand Slam main draw matches at the Australian Open before losing to Serena Williams in the third round. At her next tournament, she won her second WTA title at the Hua Hin Championships in Thailand. She upset top seed Muguruza again in the quarterfinal, and then defeated Ajla Tomljanović in the final in a third-set tiebreak. This title brought Yastremska to No. 34 in the world. Following this title, however, she began to struggle and only tallied one match win in her next six tournaments in part due to playing through an ankle injury. In late May, Yastremska recovered to win another title at the Internationaux de Strasbourg. She upset No. 11, Aryna Sabalenka, in the semifinals and then defeated No. 24, Caroline Garcia, in another third-set tiebreak in a nearly three-hour match for the title. While she lost her opening-round match at the French Open to Carla Suárez Navarro, she reached the fourth round at Wimbledon, her best Grand Slam result to date. She upset No. 28 Sofia Kenin before losing to Zhang Shuai. In the second half of the season, Yastremska produced another good performance at a major at the US Open, losing in the third round to compatriot and world No. 5, Elina Svitolina. She then achieved her best Premier 5 result of the year, a quarterfinal at the Wuhan Open. During the event, Yastremska upset world No. 2, Karolína Plíšková, before losing to No. 7, Petra Kvitová. Her win over Plíšková was her first career top-10 victory. Yastremska followed up this performance with her best doubles result of the year. She partnered with Jeļena Ostapenko at the Premier Mandatory China Open and won four matches to reach the final. They upset top seeds Hsieh Su-wei and Barbora Strýcová in their second match before finishing runner-up to Kenin and Bethanie Mattek-Sands. At the end of season, Yastremska unexpectedly qualified for the WTA Elite Trophy, the second-tier year-end championships, after several higher-ranked players withdrew from consideration. She was placed in a group with No. 20, Donna Vekić, and No. 10, Kiki Bertens. After both her and Bertens defeated Vekić in their opening matches, Yastremska lost to Bertens and did not advance out of her group. She finished the season at a career-high of No. 22 in the world. ### 2020: First Premier final Yastremska had a strong start into the 2020 season. She reached the final at the Premier-level Adelaide International. During the event, she defeated three top-20 players, including No. 12 Aryna Sabalenka, before finishing runner-up to world No. 1, Ashleigh Barty, who won the title in her home country. At the Australian Open, she beat Kaja Juvan in the first round, before falling to Caroline Wozniacki in the second, the Dane's final tournament victory before her retirement. Ukraine played their Fed Cup Group I tournament in Estonia, where Yastremska was victorious in all three of her singles matches. She then lost in the first round in Dubai to Veronika Kudermetova, before falling to Garbiñe Muguruza in the third round in Doha. This was her last match before international tennis was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. International tennis resumed in Palermo in August, where Yastremska lost to Camila Giorgi in the singles quarterfinals. Moving to New York, she lost to Naomi Osaka in the third round of the relocated Cincinnati Premier-5 tournament before falling to Madison Brengle in the second round of the US Open. Returning to Europe, she lost to Simona Halep in the third round of the Italian Open and, in a big upset, to Daria Gavrilova in the first round of the French Open. First-round losses in Ostrava and Linz completed a disappointing end to the season, one in which her only success in doubles was a win in the Fed Cup tie against Estonia. She lost in the first round of all six tournaments she played. ### 2021: Provisional suspension for doping On 7 January 2021, the ITF announced that, in November 2020, Yastremska had tested positive for a metabolite of mesterolone, an anabolic steroid medication which is prohibited by WADA. The ITF announced that, as a result of testing positive for this banned substance, Yastremska shall be provisionally suspended, "pending determination of the charge against her at a full hearing". That same day, Yastremska released a statement on Twitter, in which she denied the charges against her, asserting that she "[has] never used any performance-enhancing drugs or any prohibited substances", and that she believes the positive result to be as a result of scientific contamination. She further stated that she and her team are "resolutely determined to do everything to clear [her] name". After travelling to Melbourne, she applied for her suspension by the ITF to be lifted; this request was denied by an independent tribunal on 23 January. Her appeal against a doping ban was fast-tracked in order for her case to be resolved before the Australian Open, which began on 8 February 2021. The CAS said it will make a decision by 3 February 2021. On that date, the CAS announced that it had dismissed her appeal, and that the provisional suspension enforced by the ITF on 7 January would be upheld until the ITF reached a final decision. After the CAS released their statement, Yastremska acknowledged the provisional suspension, but said that she couldn't "express [her] disappointment about not being able to take part in the first Slam of the year" due to her suspension. She also stated that she is "confident" that she and her team will "prove [her] innocence". She vowed to "clear my name". The CAS announced on 27 April 2021 that a second application filed by Yastremska to lift her suspension had been denied, and, on 7 May 2021, they announced that an appeal filed by Yastremska against the decision to not lift her provisional suspension had been dismissed, and that she would be ineligible for competition, "pending the final resolution of her case". On 22 June 2021, the ITF ruled that Yastremska "bore no fault or negligence" for the positive test result, and announced that her provisional suspension would be lifted with immediate effect. She would serve no period of ineligibility, and would be able to resume competition immediately. Due to the late decision by the ITF, Yastremska was ineligible to compete at Wimbledon; as such, Yastremska returned to the tour at Hamburg. Playing as the top seed, she defeated Magdalena Fręch and Sara Errani, before being defeated by the qualifier and eventual champion Elena-Gabriela Ruse. Her next tournament was at the Tokyo Olympics, where she suffered two first-round defeats: to Leylah Fernandez in the singles event, and, partnering Elina Svitolina, to Alizé Cornet and Fiona Ferro of France in the doubles competition. Her U.S. and Canadian tournaments saw little success with first-round losses at the Silicon Valley Classic, Canadian Open, and US Open and second-round losses at the San Diego Open, Chicago Fall Tennis Classic, and Indian Wells Open to eventual champion Paula Badosa. She retired in the first round at Portorož against eventual champion Jasmine Paolini. After losing in the first round at the Kremlin Cup, she reached the quarterfinals at the Courmayeur Ladies Open in a rematch against Paolini and lost in straight sets. Yastremska concluded her season with another rematch and loss against Paolini at the Upper Austria Ladies Linz. She finished year ranked inside the top 100 at 97. ### 2022: WTA 250 final and back to top 100 This year marked Yastremska's first season opener in Australia since 2020. She was eliminated in the first round of qualifying at the Melbourne Summer Set 1 and in the first round of the main draw at the Adelaide International 2. Her Australian trip concluded with a retirement against Madison Brengle in the opening round at the Australian Open. Her ranking dropped to 150 at the conclusion of the Australian Open. Yastremska entered the main draw of the Dubai Championships as a qualifier, after winning three qualifying matches with the last a rematch against her Australian Open opponent Madison Brengle. There she reached the quarterfinals where she was defeated by Markéta Vondroušová. Shortly after the conclusion of this tournament marked the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Yastremska was living with her family in Odesa, Ukraine at the time of the invasion and was able to seek refuge in France along with her 15 year old sister Ivanna Yastremska. The two received a wildcard entry for the Lyon Open where Yastremska was able to reach her first final since 2020. However, she was defeated by Zhang Shuai, in three sets. She accepted a wildcard entry into the Indian Wells Open and was defeated by former world No. 4, Caroline Garcia, in the first round. Her "Sunshine Double" (Miami and Indian Wells Opens) concluded with a retirement in the first round of qualifying in the Miami Open. After reaching the quarterfinals of the Copa Colsanitas, she reentered the top 100 in the singles rankings. She played as Ukraine's top seed in the Billie Jean King Cup qualifiers, in a tie against the United States. She defeated Jessica Pegula after having lost to Alison Riske in her first match of the qualifying tournament. Her clay-court season continued after the Copa Colsanitas by qualifying for the Madrid Open. She was defeated in the second round by Marie Bouzková. ## National representation Yastremska made her debut for Ukraine Fed Cup team at the 2019 Fed Cup. The team was playing a tie against the host country Poland in a third-place play-off for Europe/Africa Zone Group I. Although Yastremska won the second singles rubber against Iga Świątek, Ukraine lost the tie after failing to win either the first singles rubber or the decisive doubles rubber, the latter of which ended in a third-set tiebreak. ## Playing style Her former coach Sascha Bajin described Yastremska in the following terms: "She’s a great mover and she has incredible power. Her ground strokes are very powerful." Yastremska is an aggressive baseline player, whose attacking style allows her to hit a large number of winners - she hit 33 winners in her first two finals, and 49 winners when she won her third title. Her highly aggressive playing style also lends itself to a high unforced error count, with Yastremska hitting 21, 53, and 50 unforced errors in her three final matches. As of the 2019 Australian Open, Yastremska was ranked as the most aggressive player on the WTA Tour, having led the tour with 28.6 per cent of her shots ending in a winner, an unforced error, or an opponent's forced error; this statistic is known as the Aggression Score. Yastremska's groundstrokes are hit with relentless power, depth, and speed, with her forehand being her best shot, due to the extreme amount of racquet head speed she creates. She is capable of winning a high percentage of points when she hits an inside-in forehand in particular, and she can hit winners from any position of the court with her forehand. Despite this, Yastremska also possesses an incredibly powerful backhand, which is typically hit flat, allowing her to hit sharply angled winners. She can also strategically apply slice to her backhand, allowing her to break up the pace of rallies and construct points intelligently. Her average first serve speed is about 100 miles per hour (160 km/h), although her first serve speed can scale 116 mph (187 km/h), allowing her to serve numerous aces in any match. Although she ranked in the top 20 on the WTA Tour in aces in 2019, she also ranked in the top 10 in double faults, as she tends to take risks on her second serve. ## Coaches Yastremska's parents have both been a part of her coaching team, with her mother continuing to serve as her mental coach. When Yastremska was a junior, she had a variety of different coaches. She worked with former top 100 player Viktoriya Kutuzova and Kutuzova's father Valery. She later worked with another former top 100 player in Jean-René Lisnard and then former world No. 2 Magnus Norman. As a professional in 2017, she has trained in Istanbul with Gavin Hopper, a former coach of Monica Seles. Yastremska later began training at the Justine Henin Academy, with Henin becoming her consultant in 2018. She worked with one of the academy's coaches, Oliver Jeunehomme, until September 2019. In the offseason, she hired Sascha Bajin as her new coach. In September 2020 they split after Yastremska had a disappointing performance in the 2020 US Open. She is currently coached by Dorian Descloix. ## Endorsements Yastremska has endorsed Yonex for clothing, apparel, and rackets since 2019. She previously endorsed Nike. ## Personal life At the 2019 Australian Open, Yastremska's mother suffered an eye injury after a champagne bottle that she was holding exploded unexpectedly. She had immediate surgery to save her eye, which was coordinated in part by Elina Svitolina's agent Stefan Gurov and financially covered by tournament director Craig Tiley. Yastremska dedicated her title at the Hua Hin Championships the following month to her mother as a result of this incident. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Yastremska began a music career. She released her first single, Thousands of Me, in May, and a dance song, "Favourite Track", in August. On 9 July 2020, in the wake of the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, Minnesota, world-wide protests, and increased visibility of the Black Lives Matter movement, Yastremska posted four images of herself to her Twitter and Instagram accounts of her sporting half-white, half-black makeup, with the caption "Equality". Yastremska was widely criticised on social media, with many pointing out that her sporting blackface was antithetical to the message she was attempting to convey. Yastremska deleted the posts, and apologised "to those that [she had] offended", claiming that she had been "misunderstood", and denied that she was wearing blackface. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Yastremska fled to France for safety, alongside her younger sister, Ivanna, on 26 February, being forced to leave her parents behind in her hometown of Odesa. ### Accusations of gamesmanship Yastremska has been accused of gamesmanship by commentators and fellow players, and for allegedly exaggerating and faking injuries to exploit the medical time-out system. One such player was former world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki, following their second-round match at the 2020 Australian Open, where Yastremska took multiple medical time-outs throughout the match. Wozniacki stated in a post-match press conference that she "didn't think there was anything wrong" with Yastremska, and that "it's a trick she's done before, and [Wozniacki] knew it was coming", designed to "break [Wozniacki's] rhythm". She was widely criticised for doing so in the final at Hua Hin, as, trailing 5–2 in the third set against Ajla Tomljanović, she took three medical time-outs for a non-specific injury, rallying to win the third set, 7–6. Yastremska has denied the allegations that she fakes injuries to exploit the medical time-out system, claiming that she only takes medical time-outs when she feels she needs them. ## Career statistics ### Singles performance timeline
24,515,871	Siege of Tunis (Mercenary War)	1,166,153,036	Siege in 238 BC - part of the Mercenary War	[ "230s BC conflicts", "238 BC", "Battles of the Mercenary War", "History of Tunis", "Sieges" ]	During the siege of Tunis in October 238 BC a rebel army under Mathos was besieged by a Carthaginian force under Hamilcar Barca and Hannibal. The Carthaginian army, which had served on Sicily during the First Punic War, mutinied in late 241 BC in the wake of Carthage's defeat, starting the Mercenary War. After three years of increasingly bitter war, the Carthaginians defeated the rebel field army at the Battle of the Saw, capturing its leaders. The Carthaginians then moved to besiege the rebels' strongest remaining stronghold at Tunis. The Carthaginian commander, Hamilcar, split his forces to blockade the rebels from both north and south. At the northern camp, commanded by his subordinate Hannibal, he had the ten captured rebel leaders tortured to death and their bodies crucified before returning to his own base to the south of Tunis. Mathos organised a night attack against Hannibal's camp, which took the ill-disciplined Carthaginian defenders by surprise. It scattered their army, and Hannibal and 30 Carthaginian notables were captured. They were tortured, mutilated and crucified while still living. Hamilcar withdrew to the north with the remaining half of his army. Despite having broken the siege, Mathos abandoned Tunis and withdrew south. Hamilcar and fellow general Hanno followed the rebels and in late 238 BC wiped them out at the Battle of Leptis Parva. ## Background The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC, and lasted for 23 years, from 264 to 241 BC. After immense materiel and human losses on both sides, the Carthaginians were defeated, and agreed the Treaty of Lutatius. While the war with Rome was being played out, the Carthaginian general Hanno led a series of campaigns that greatly increased the area of Africa controlled by Carthage. Hanno was rigorous in squeezing taxes out of the newly conquered territory in order to pay for both the war with Rome and his own campaigns. Across the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, half of all agricultural output was taken as war tax, and the tribute previously due from towns and cities was doubled. These exactions were harshly enforced, causing extreme hardship in many areas. ### Mutiny After the conclusion of the war in Sicily the Carthaginian army of 20,000 men there was evacuated in detachments to Carthage. Rather than promptly paying the several years' back pay they were owed and hurrying them home, the Carthaginian authorities decided to wait until all of the troops had arrived and then attempt to negotiate a settlement at a lower rate. Freed of their long period of military discipline and with nothing to do, the men grumbled among themselves and refused all attempts by the Carthaginians to pay them less than the full amount due. Eventually, they forcibly took over the city of Tunis. Panicking, the Carthaginian Senate agreed to payment in full. The discontent seemed to have abated when discipline broke down. Several soldiers insisted that no deal with Carthage was acceptable, a riot broke out, dissenters were stoned to death, the Carthaginian negotiators were taken prisoner and their treasury was seized. Spendius, an escaped Roman slave who faced death by torture if he were recaptured, and Mathos, a Berber dissatisfied with Hanno's attitude towards tax raising from Carthage's African possessions, were declared generals. The news of a formed, experienced, anti-Carthaginian army in the heart of its territory spread rapidly and many cities and towns rose in rebellion. Provisions, money and reinforcements poured in; eventually an additional 70,000 men according to the ancient Roman historian Polybius, although many would have been tied down in garrisoning their home towns against Carthaginian retribution. The pay dispute had become a full-scale revolt. The three years of war that followed are known as the Mercenary War and threatened Carthage's existence as a state. ## War Mathos ordered two groups of rebels north to blockade the two main cities – other than Carthage – that had not already come over: the major ports of Utica and Hippo (modern Bizerte). Hanno, as the commander of Carthage's African army, took the field with an army of 8,000–10,000 men and 100 war elephants. Most of the Africans in his force remained loyal; they were accustomed to acting against their fellow Africans. His non-African contingent also remained loyal. An unknown number of Carthaginian citizens were incorporated into this army. In early 240 BC Hanno was defeated while attempting to raise the siege of Utica at the Battle of Utica. For the rest of the year Hanno skirmished with the rebel force, repeatedly missing opportunities to bring it to battle or to place it at a disadvantage; the military historian Nigel Bagnall writes of Hanno's "incompetence as a field commander". At some point during 240 BC the Carthaginians raised another army, of approximately 10,000. It included deserters from the rebels, 2,000 cavalry, and 70 elephants, and was placed under the command of Hamilcar Barca, who had previously led the Carthaginian forces in Sicily. Hamilcar defeated a large rebel force at the Battle of the Bagradas River and then brought various towns and cities which had gone over to the rebels back to Carthaginian allegiance with varying mixtures of diplomacy and force. He was shadowed by a superior-sized rebel force under Spendius, which kept to rough ground for fear of the Carthaginians' cavalry and elephants, and harried his foragers and scouts. Meanwhile, Hanno manoeuvred against Mathos to the north near Hippo. South west of Utica Hamilcar moved his force into the mountains in an attempt to bring the rebels to battle, but was surrounded. He was only saved from destruction when an African leader, Naravas, who had served with and admired Hamilcar in Sicily, swapped sides with his 2,000 cavalry. This proved disastrous for the rebels, and in the resulting battle they lost 10,000 killed and 4,000 captured. ### Truceless War Since leaving Carthage, Hamilcar had treated rebels he had captured well and offered them a choice of joining his army or free passage home. He made the same offer to the 4,000 captives from the recent battle. Spendius perceived this generous treatment as the motivation behind Naravas's defection and feared the disintegration of his army; he was aware that such generous terms would not be extended to the rebel leaders. To remove the possibility of any goodwill between the sides, he had 700 Carthaginian prisoners tortured to death: they had their hands cut off, were castrated, their legs broken and were thrown into a pit and buried alive. The Carthaginians, in turn, killed their prisoners. From this point, neither side showed any mercy, and the unusual ferocity of the fighting caused Polybius to term it the "Truceless War". Any further prisoners taken by the Carthaginians were trampled to death by elephants. At some point between March and September 239 BC the previously loyal cities of Utica and Hippo slew their Carthaginian garrisons and joined the rebels. Mathos and the rebels previously operating in the area moved south and joined their comrades in Tunis. Having a clear superiority in cavalry, Hamilcar raided the supply lines of the rebels around Carthage. In early 238 BC the lack of supplies forced Mathos to lift the close siege of Carthage; he maintained a more distant blockade from Tunis. While Mathos maintained the blockade, Spendius led 40,000 men against Hamilcar. After a period of campaigning, the details of which are not clear in the sources, the Carthaginians pinned the rebels in a pass or against a mountain range known as the Saw. Trapped in the mountains and with their food exhausted, the rebels ate their horses, their prisoners and then their slaves, hoping that Mathos would sortie from Tunis to rescue them. Eventually, the surrounded troops forced their leaders, including Spendius, to parley with Hamilcar, who, on a thin pretext, took them prisoner. The Carthaginians then attacked the leaderless, starving rebels with their whole force, led by their elephants, and massacred them to a man in the Battle of the Saw. ## Opposing armies Carthaginian armies were nearly always composed of foreigners; citizens only served in the army if there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage. Roman sources refer to these foreign fighters derogatively as "mercenaries", but the historian Adrian Goldsworthy describes this as "a gross oversimplification". They served under a variety of arrangements; for example, some were the regular troops of allied cities or kingdoms seconded to Carthage as part of formal arrangements. The majority of these foreigners were from North Africa. Libyans provided close-order infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears; as well as close-order shock cavalry carrying spears (also known as "heavy cavalry") – both were noted for their discipline and staying power. Numidians provided light cavalry who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat, and javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers. Both Spain and Gaul provided experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted. Specialist slingers were recruited from the Balearic Islands. The close-order Libyan infantry and the citizen militia would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a phalanx. Sicilians and Italians had also joined up during the war to fill the ranks. The Carthaginians frequently employed war elephants; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time. At Tunis, the Carthaginians had approximately 20,000 men and the rebel army was roughly the same size. ## Siege After their victory at the Saw the Carthaginians marched on the main rebel force at Tunis around October 238 BC, accepting the surrender of many towns and villages on the way. The city was difficult to access; the sea lay to the east, while an approach from the west was hampered by a large salt marsh. Hamilcar occupied a position to the south with half the army, and his deputy Hannibal was to the north with the balance. The historian Dexter Hoyos notes that this is difficult to explain: Hamilcar was dividing his forces in the face of an equally large enemy army and he risked defeat in detail. In addition, the rebels' camp was outside of Tunis to the north and the salt marsh and the hilly terrain made speedy mutual support by Hannibal and Hamilcar impossible. Hoyos suggests that situated in fortified camps and fresh from their victory at the Saw, Hamilcar and Hannibal were confident of victory, and that they believed that their elephants and their cavalry superiority would continue to deter any rebel attack. Hamilcar then travelled to the northern camp with the ten rebel leaders captured at the Saw. There they were tortured and mutilated in a similar way to the 700 Carthaginian prisoners and their bodies crucified to the south of the camp, in clear sight of the rebels' camp. Observers were encouraged to travel from Carthage to view the bodies, a concrete sign of the successes of their generals. Hamilcar, satisfied that the constant sight of their dead leaders would complete the demoralisation of the rebels, returned to his camp to the south. Instead, the reminder that they would receive no mercy from the Carthaginians steeled the rebels for desperate measures. Hamilcar kept his force at a high state of readiness, in case of a rebel assault. Hannibal was more confident and laxer in ensuring that his men were effective in their patrols and sentry duties. Observing this, Mathos determined to strike north in an attempt to break the siege. He organised a large-scale night attack. Although only a part of the rebel army participated, it surprised the Carthaginians and their northern camp was overrun. They suffered heavy casualties in dead and captured and lost all of their baggage and most of their troops' personal equipment. In addition, Hannibal and a delegation of 30 Carthaginian notables who were visiting the army were captured. Mathos removed his colleagues' bodies from their crosses for burial. Hannibal and the 30 senior Carthaginians were brutally tortured and then crucified, still breathing; Hannibal was nailed to the cross previously occupied by Spendius. They were then killed as part of Spendius's funeral rites. When news reached Hamilcar of the attack, he set out to support Hannibal, but returned once he heard that the northern camp had been overrun. With half of his army lost and no blocking force to the north of the rebel camp his position was untenable. He abandoned the siege and withdrew to the north. Mathos let him go unmolested, possibly because he was afraid to oppose the Carthaginian elephants in an open battle. ## Aftermath Despite the siege being lifted, few supplies arrived and Mathos decided that he could not maintain his position. He led the army 160 km (100 mi) south to the wealthy port city of Leptis Parva (just south of the modern city of Monastir, Tunisia). This was the capital of the prosperous Byzacium region and had risen against Carthage earlier in the war. Hanno and Hamilcar marched after the rebels with an army totalling over 25,000 men, including every Carthaginian citizen of military age, and a large number of war elephants. At the ensuing Battle of Leptis Parva the rebels were crushed, with few losses to the Carthaginians. In a change of policy, prisoners were taken, which probably helped to ensure that there was no desperate last stand. Captives were sold into slavery. Mathos was also captured, and he was dragged through the streets of Carthage and tortured to death by its citizens. Most of the towns and cities which had not already come to terms with Carthage now did so, with the exceptions of Utica and Hippo, whose inhabitants feared vengeance for their massacre of Carthaginians. They attempted to hold out, but Polybius says that they too "quickly" surrendered, probably in late 238 BC or very early 237 BC. The surrendered towns and cities were treated leniently, although Carthaginian governors were imposed on them. ## Notes, citations and sources
41,356,984	Jealous (Beyoncé song)	1,168,742,361	Song by Beyoncé	[ "2010s ballads", "2013 songs", "Beyoncé songs", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Song recordings produced by Beyoncé", "Song recordings produced by Detail (record producer)", "Songs written by Beyoncé", "Songs written by Boots (musician)", "Songs written by Detail (record producer)", "Songs written by Lyrica Anderson" ]	"Jealous" is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her self-titled fifth studio album (2013). The song was written by Beyoncé, Detail, Andre Eric Proctor, Brian Soko, Lyrica Anderson and its additional producers Rasool Diaz and Boots. Musically inspired by Hanni El Khatib's "Roach Cock", the song is a power ballad with a slow tempo exploring different styles and music genres. Lyrically, "Jealous" is a self-referential song discussing feelings of jealousy, suspicion, and revenge directed at a present love interest. A music video for the song was directed by Beyoncé along with Francesco Carrozzini and Todd Tours and filmed in New York City in November 2013. It was released through the iTunes Store on December 13, 2013 on the album itself. The visual was shot as a sequel to the previous song on the album, "Partition" and it shows Beyoncé in different sets — alone at home waiting for her partner to come to dinner, at a party, and out in the streets in search for him. Beyoncé performed "Jealous" live at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards during a medley consisting of songs from her self-titled album. ## Background "Jealous" was written with Detail, Lyrica Anderson, Boots, Andre Eric Proctor, Brian Soko, and Rasool Diaz. Beyoncé and Detail also served as its producers with contributions by Boots, Hit-Boy, Hazebanga and Proctor who were credited as additional producers. Beyoncé further served as the vocal producer of the track which also included backing vocals sung by Boots. "Jealous" was recorded in New York City at Jungle City Studios and Oven Studios with guidance from Stuart White. The audio engineering was finished by Ramon Rivas and Rob Suchecki with assistance by Carlos Perezdeanda, while the mixing was done by Tony Maserati at Mirrorball Studios, North Hollywood, California. All instruments in the song were provided by Boots. "Jealous" was initially conceived when Boots first saw it and the song consisted of "some drums and that synth". He added a "high" melody containing the lines "If you're keeping your promise I'm keeping mine" as he felt it seemed "like a shame something more melodic didn't happen in the song". When Beyoncé's creative team was widely searching for the concept of the song's music video, the singer sent a clip of a song called "Roach Cock" by Hanni El Khatib to Boots. Inspired by its feel, she requested from him to bring elements of that track to "Jealous". He added a "gnarly fuzz guitar ripping in the background" to the song also present in its final version. Beyoncé explained the meaning of "Jealous" on her iTunes Radio channel, "[It's] a song about being human. We all get jealous. It doesn't matter who you are. At some point, it's just inevitable." ## Composition "Jealous" is a power ballad, further described as a "silky slow jam". Consequence of Sound writer Chris Bosman found elements of "slow down radio R&B to molasses RPMs" in its composition. The song opens with distant yelps heard in the background and continues with a slow beat which is distorted and contains an echoing sound throughout. A "wall of crashing sounds" and backing vocals are also heard. "Jealous" further displays "genre diversity, vocal range and a penchant of musical experimentation" while exploring a brooding beat by mixing different tones and styles throughout. Billboard writers Andrew Hampp and Erika Ramirez found the vibe of the song reminiscent to works by Lana Del Rey, Jeff Bhasker, and Emile Haynie due to its brooding beat. Michael Cragg from The Guardian also compared "Jealous" and its lyrics portraying romance with materials by Del Rey noting that it showed the singer as a "spurned lover". Chris Kelly of Fact noted that the song's theme about equality in relationships was similar to her single "If I Were a Boy" (2008). The Irish Times editor Una Mullally felt the song offered Robyn-esque sentiments and added that it recalls Beyoncé's own song, "Halo" (2008). Tim Finney from Complex felt that the singer adopted a conversational, "talk-over-the beat" vocal style in the song. Finney argued she adopted that style to convey "unmediated spontaneity or truth-telling", particularly during the "rueful admission" in the lines, "I know that I'm being hateful but that ain't nothin'." "Jealous" is a self-referential song as Beyoncé tries to make her love interest envious. Lyrically, the song speaks about "promises, suspicion and potential revenge". Its lyrics illustrate a woman getting "fierce" when taken for granted as stated by Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune. She questions the loyalty of her male love interest and he is believed to be cheating on her with another woman. Claire Lobendfeld of Complex interpreted the song as being about a person fighting with his own feelings of jealousy. She felt that instead of flirting with other people during a night out to make a lover jealous, the protagonist goes for a "downtrodden" direction and reconnects with old people from her past. The song opens with the singer using sexually explicit language to describe an evening at her home where she is cooking a meal for her love interest while being naked and alone, "I'm in my penthouse half-naked / I cook this meal for you naked". Idolator's Mike Wass interpreted these lines as showing the singer's "emotional shortcomings". The Atlantic editor Nolan Feeney felt that these lines showcased many of the singer's recurring themes present on her other albums — "the empowerment that comes with being a strong, independent woman, and the fulfillment that comes with love and marriage". Finney wrote that during the beginning of the song, Beyoncé seemed excited about her role as a wife in the kitchen, but afterwards as the events go wrong and she is left alone, the same role feels oppressive. The singer continues singing lines about jealousy and realizes her partner will not come: "I wish you were me/ So you could feel this feeling/ I never broke one promise, and I know when you're not honest." After the chorus, Beyoncé sings the lines "Sometimes I want to walk in your shoes, do the type of things I never ever do. I take one look in the mirror, and I say to myself, 'Baby girl, you can't survive like this.'" The protagonist can not tolerate the fact she has been underappreciated and goes on to put on a "freakum dress out my closet" (a reference to her own song "Freakum Dress" (2006)) and stay the night outside further singing about her own attractiveness. As she continues to describe her love–hate relationship detailing her emotions, Beyoncé sings the song's bridge: > And I hate you for your lies and your covers > And I hate us for making good love to each other > And I love making you jealous but don't judge me > And I know that I'm being hateful but that ain't nothing > That ain't nothing > I'm just jealous > I'm just human > Don't judge me ## Critical reception Ludovic Hunter-Tilney from the Financial Times concluded the song was similar to Beyoncé's previously recorded ballads in the sense that it made her albums "uneven". However, he argued that "Jealous" had an "intriguing dynamic" between invincibility and vulnerability, with the latter being convincingly executed by the singer for the first time. Editor Caitlin White for the website The 405 found the song to offer a glimpse into the singer's flaws and insecurities. Similarly, James Montgomery writing for MTV News, felt that the song offered a view of the same states, adding, "she is not always perfect, a point she drives home on tracks like... 'Jealous'". A writer from the website Fuse concluded that the feeling of jealousy expressed in the song were rare for the singer, and added "we didn't even know [it] was an emotion she experienced". Mesfin Fekadu from the Associated Press noted the song to be "self-explanatory" and found the singer more honest than in her previous work. Kevin Fallon from The Daily Beast found the song's theme about jealousy to be relatable to many people and different from the rest of the album's central theme about sex. Claire Lobenfeld of Complex felt "Jealous" took the album from its risqué nature to a "softer side", further describing it as a "grown-up sequel to 'Freakum Dress'". Erika Ramirez and Andrew Hampp of Billboard felt that the song mixed "uncanny" styles and noted that as the chorus starts, listeners "can see Beyonce singing this from the stage surrounded by smoke machines." USA Today writer Elysa Gardner wrote that in "Jealous" along with "Haunted", the singer "embodies success and privilege on the surface, but there is a sense that her contentment is fragile". Entertainment Weekly writer Nick Catucci observed that the song "treat[s] relationships with the same raw instinct that suffuses her sex songs" on the album. Writing for Clash magazine, Mike Diver praised Beyoncé's vocal performance noting, "When Beyoncé truly unleashes her vocals on ballad-tempo moments... 'Jealous', she immediately casts long shadows over singers who might have tried to shift her from the top table of pop". Mike Wass of Idolator considered "Jealous" to be an update of the singer's "If I Were a Boy", sung by a grown woman. He went on to praise the "frank, honest and vulnerable" characteristics the singer decided to showcase in the song, opposed to her other material where she was reluctant to discuss about them. Wass finished his review by noting that "Jealous" would be a "dark horse for a radio single down the line". Brittany Spanos of The Village Voice described the song as a "grown up version" of "If I Were a Boy" with lyrics about "persistent mistrust". Latifah Muhammad of BET deemed the song a "distant cousin" to "If I Were a Boy" and stated that its turning point comes during several lines of the bridge. Philip Sherburne of Spin magazine wrote "[w]hile we're getting hyperbolic, 'Jealous' is the most uplifting take on invidiousness" since the song "Suspicious Minds" (1968). Jon Pareles, a New York Times writer called it an "accusatory anthem". Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani described "Jealous" as a "standout" ballad while Rolling Stone's Jon Dolan hailed it as a "monster" ballad. Nick McCormick of The Daily Telegraph wrote that despite the song lacked a lift off, "there is something impressively dramatic about the restraint she maintains in a song of emotional tension". Jody Rosen of Vulture, lauded the line "freakum dress out my closet", but noted, "I want more of a melody from a wronged-woman's-revenge anthem, but I suspect it's a grower". Philadelphia Media Network writer Dan DeLuca gave a more mixed review for the song writing that it was part of the slower material of the album which showed Beyoncé was not flawless. Nolan Feeney of The Atlantic argued that "Jealous" was both one of the album's best songs and one of singer's most notable songs overall. Feeney felt that its message was interesting, particularly during the bridge, "It's not exactly an apology, and it's not exactly an admission that she's somehow responsible for her date (Jay Z, presumably) not showing. But it is, by my count, only the second time in her solo career that Beyoncé has ever admitted that just maybe it's she who's in the wrong." He went on to say that by moving away from the big and "sweeping" statements present in some of her older material, towards personal narration, Beyoncé managed to effectively examine the themes and statements she explored throughout her career. Feeney concluded by stating: "It's not a breakup anthem, nor is it a declaration of undying love. It's angry, it's introspective, it's regretful, it's playful, it's loving, and it's everything in between." ## Music video ### Background and release A music video for "Jealous" was released on December 13, 2013 to iTunes Store on Beyoncé itself along with sixteen other music videos for every track on the album. Beyoncé served as a director for the video along with Francesco Carrozzini and Todd Tourso, the latter also serving as a creative director for the entire project. On November 24, 2014 the clip was also uploaded to the singer's Vevo account. It was shot in New York City, three weeks prior to its release, in November 2013. An image of Beyoncé while filming the video surfaced online the same month, showing her wearing a red leather trench coat with a matching lipstick and silver stiletto heels. Cinya Burton from E! praised her look as a "sexy getup". Beyoncé's team contacted Carozzini several days prior to the commencing of the shooting for the visual. Carozzini revealed that collaborating with the singer on the video was different than his previous efforts as the precise storyline of the clip was conceived and written by herself containing many references. When shooting the scenes on St. Marks, Beyoncé only got out of a car and her crew immediately started filming. Carozzini told MTV News: > "We really shot it — some people in the video did not know we were filming. I think the real idea of the video is in a moment like that — in a private moment like that, she can never be by herself... This song is not about someone who feels those emotions, it's about Beyoncé feeling those emotions. It's personal to her. It's her that cannot be by herself no matter where she goes or what she does, because she's who she is." ### Synopsis The video of "Jealous" was considered to be a sequel to the one for the previous clip on the album, "Partition". It opens with Beyoncé watching a man while he is sitting on a table in front of her, reading a newspaper. She stands up and the scene transitions to the singer walking down the stairs in a mansion, wearing a gown. It continues with Beyoncé, sitting alone at an arranged table for dinner, waiting for her love interest to come home. As she waits for him, at one point she angrily sweeps the crystal, dinnerware and candles from the table with her hands as he does not show up. Afterwards, she dresses in a red leather trench coat with a gold choker and goes outside to look for her man. She is seen on a street surrounded by various fans taking pictures of her. The scenes also transition to the singer being at a party in a bar, chatting with people, holding a drink in her hands and straddling a pinball machine. As the song nears its end, sped-up scenes of a car driving on different streets follows. During the end, Beyoncé runs to a man who is seen only from the back, dressed in a hooded coat. She embraces him with teary eyes, sighing with relief. Throughout the video, close-up shots of the singer are also featured, showing her expressions. Beyoncé is seen wearing a high-waist corset and a cropped lace top designed by Ulyana Sergeenko with her look being complete with an earring. She also wears a studded plate cuff, a chain, and a gold bracelet from jewelry by Eddie Borgo. During scenes at the party, she wears a sweatshirt designed by Givenchy. ### Reception and analysis A writer of The New York Times described the singer's look in the video as "bold". Lauren Cochrane from The Guardian also focused on the singer's look praising the attire she wore as "perfectly acceptable as dinner party" and praising her for wearing the corset with aplomb. An editor of Billboard felt that she "gets sexy" in the song's visual. A writer of the website Fuse praised the concept of the video, noting that "instead of crying into the steak she just made for her date, she puts on a leather trench coat and hits the town. Ultimately, she wins." Dan DeLuca of the Philadelphia Media Network noted that the video gave an opportunity to the singer to showcase her "dark side". Writing on behalf of Vanity Fair, Michelle Collins felt that the set was "bizzaro", similar to a set as in the film Sliding Doors (1998). She further found several of the scenes to accompany the song's lyrics and story. Melissa Locker from Time magazine wrote in her review that the video follows the steps of "Partition" while also being a "natural precursor to 'Irreplaceable,' at least in our imagination". Michael Zelenko from The Fader wrote that it served as a follow-up to "Partition" noting that in "Jealous", "Bey's lingering needs are transformed into a burning suspicion of infidelity". Whitney Phaneuf from the website HitFix described the scene where the singer is seen sweeping the table as "one of her best diva moments". She also interpreted her character as a "scorned" woman and neglected wife. Similar sentiments were offered by Brenna Ehrlich of MTV News who felt that the man's role in the video was a neglectful and possibly cheating lover. Ehrlich went on to describe the mansion seen in the beginning of the video as Versailles-esque and felt that the singer unveiled her new alter ego, Yoncé, while seen at the party in a bar, flirting with other people. She concluded that despite the "emotional turmoil" featured throughout, the video ended on a hopeful note. John Walker, writing for the same publication, noted the singer managed to show real madness and jealousy, while "smashing up her home out of insecurity". A more mixed review came from Brent DiCrescenzo of the magazine Time Out who wrote in his review, "Walking down the street in a leather jacket. A car racing down roads at night. That's about it." ## Live performance and other version During the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards, Beyoncé performed "Jealous" live during a medley consisting of songs from her self-titled album. She performed the song dressed in a bodysuit and was backed by a clip. In a review of the performance, Nadeska Alexis felt that the singer managed to emphasize "the weight of... [the] lyrics" while performing the song. Writing for Fuse, Hilary Hughes concluded that the rendition of the song was "enough to halt all conversation, silence all phones and pause the internet for a moment, as she got real right off the bat". A remix of the song was released on April 2, 2015 featuring additional vocal from singer Chris Brown. According to Brown, it was originally recorded for "the Beyoncé collaboration album but it was never used". ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the singer's official website and the album's liner notes. Song credits - Writing — Noel "Detail" Fisher, Lyrica Anderson, Beyoncé Knowles, Andre Eric Proctor, Rasool Diaz, Brian Soko and Boots - Production — Fisher and Knowles - Additional production — Boots, Hit-Boy, Hazebanga and Proctor - Vocals production — Knowles - Recording — Stuart White; Jungle City Studios and Oven Studios, New York City - Second engineering — Ramon Rivas and Rob Suchecki, assisted by Carlos Perezdeanda - Backing vocals — Boots - Instruments — Boots - Audio mixing —Tony Maserati; Mirrorball Studios, North Hollywood, California - Mix engineering — Stuart White, James Krausse and Justin Hergett - Mix consulting — Derek Dixie - Mastering — Tom Coyne and Aya Merrill; Sterling Sound, New York City Video credits - Directors — Knowles, Francesco Carrozzini, Todd Tourso - Director of photography — Jackson Hunt - Additional photography — Douglas E. Porter - Executive producers —Erinn Williams, Jonathan Lia, Brian Welsh - Producer — Brian Welsh - Production company —Good Company, Parkwood Entertainment - Stylist — Lysa Cooper - Additional styling — Ty Hunter, Raquel Smith, B. Åkerlund, Tim White - Production designer — Anthony Asaro - Editor — Alexander Hammer - Brand manager — Melissa Vargas - Hair — Neal Farinah - Make-up — Sir John - Color correction — Ron Sudul for Nice Shoes - Visual effects — Charlex - Additional visual effects — The Artery - Photography — Aviva Klein ## Certifications
11,078,232	Elias Zoghby	1,167,353,173	Melkite Greek Catholic Archbishop	[ "1912 births", "2008 deaths", "Clergy from Cairo", "Lebanese Melkite Greek Catholics", "Lebanese clergy", "Melkite Greek Catholic bishops", "Participants in the Second Vatican Council" ]	Elias Zoghby (January 9, 1912 – January 16, 2008) was the Melkite Greek Catholic Archbishop of Baalbek and a leading advocate of Catholic-Orthodox ecumenism. He is best known for his ecumenical interventions during Vatican II and his 1995 Profession of Faith, known as the Zoghby Initiative, which attempted to re-establish communion between the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church while maintaining communion with the Roman Catholic Church. Zoghby's views on topics such as Catholic–Orthodox "double communion" and dissolution of marriage were controversial. Critics labeled him the enfant terrible of his church, while supporters lauded him as an energetic visionary who sought to re-unite the Eastern Churches. ## Biography ### Early life and ministry in Egypt Elias Zoghby was born on January 9, 1912, in Cairo. His mother, Hanne Ishak Yared, was a Melkite Greek Catholic and his father, Abdallah Mikail Zoghby, was an Antiochian Orthodox convert and former Maronite Catholic. The couple had recently emigrated from Lebanon and settled in Cairo's Arb-el-Guenena neighborhood. The area had a Melkite church nearby which his parents attended. Elias and his siblings were baptized into the Melkite faith and raised in a devout household, attending liturgy daily, reading the bible together as a family and praying the Office every afternoon. Zoghby related in Memoires that he first received a vocational call at age sixteen. With his parents' blessing he left for seminary in the summer of 1928, going to Jerusalem to study with the White Fathers at the Melkite seminary of Saint Anne. He was ordained a priest at Saint Anne Melkite Basilica in Jerusalem on July 20, 1936, following which he was appointed a professor of Arabic Literature and Mathematics at the seminary. He later returned to Cairo as a parish priest. While in Egypt, Zoghby considered the issues of ecumenism and the schism between the Melkite Catholic and Antiochian Orthodox Churches. As he began to study both the historical roots of the separation and the modern divisions of Middle Eastern churches he came to the opinion that the schism was unjustifiable. He also began to question the domination of the so-called Uniate churches by the See of Rome. Zoghby, along with other Melkite priests in Egypt such as George Hakim and Joseph Tawil, were influenced by Father Oreste Karame, who advocated the need for the Melkite Church to return to its proper traditions and work for communion with the Orthodox Church. In 1951 he was elevated to archimandrite while serving in Alexandria. While there he was threatened with arrest for preventing the execution of a sentence passed by a Sharia tribunal. On August 27, 1954, he was named auxiliary bishop of Antioch; then, on September 2, 1954, he was appointed Titular Archbishop of Nubia. Zoghby was formally consecrated bishop on November 21, 1954, when he was elevated to Patriarchal Vicar for the See of Alexandria, Cairo and the Sudan. As the leader of the Melkite church in Egypt Zoghby was a vocal proponent of rights for Christians, and opposed the limitations placed on them by that country's Law of Personal Statutes. The Nasser regime imprisoned him on December 20, 1954, for his public opposition to the statutes. Released shortly afterwards, he continued to serve as patriarchal vicar in Egypt. ### Vatican II and Baalbek Zoghby was one of the most active eastern Catholic bishops to participate at the Second Vatican Council, where he offered eleven interventions. While some of the interventions were pastoral in nature, a good number were ecumenical, focusing on the Eastern churches and their relationship with Western Christianity. Zoghby's efforts helped shape the formation of Orientalium Ecclesiarum, although, to his disappointment, in his view it did not adequately address the needs of the Eastern Catholic Churches or bridge the gulf between Orthodoxy and Catholicism. While Orientalium Ecclesiarum encouraged Eastern Catholics to uphold their traditions and values, Zoghby felt that it "turn[ed] a blind eye" to true intercommunion (communicatio in sacris). Following the Council he opposed the acceptance of a Roman cardinalate by Melkite Patriarch Maximos IV Sayegh, stating that the leader of an Eastern Catholic church should not hold a subordinate Latin-rite office. In protest, Zohgby resigned his position as patriarchal vicar of Alexandria. Maximos IV died in 1967; his successor, Maximos V Hakim, was a friend of Zoghby's and a fellow Egyptian. In August 1968 the Melkite Synod elected Zoghby archbishop of Baalbek to replace the recently deceased eparch, Joseph Malouf. Installed as archbishop there on September 9, 1968, he led the small eparchy during the Lebanese Civil War. In 1982 he was kidnapped by pro-Iranian terrorists. Zoghby retired on October 24, 1988, at age 76. He remained an active proponent of ecumenism following his retirement, urging the reunification of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Antiochian Orthodox Church. He died on January 16, 2008, in Lebanon; his funeral was held on January 19 at St. Paul Basilica in Harissa. ## Ecumenism and the Zoghby Initiative Zoghby's ecumenical initiatives gained visibility in May 1974 with the exchange of visits between the Melkite Catholic and the Antiochian Orthodox synods, which met simultaneously in Lebanon. During the visit of the Melkite Catholic delegation to the Orthodox synod Zoghby drew attention to the fact that the original causes of separation between the groups had ceased to exist and the way was open for the "creation by stages of a real union between the two Churches, without waiting for the union of the Church of Rome and the Orthodox Churches." Afterwards, the churches agreed to form separate commissions for dialogue. Zogby outlined his views on the topic in his book Ecumenical Reflections, which was characterized by Vsevolod, the Orthodox Bishop of Scopelos, as an invitation "to ecumenical metanoia ... to recognize that where there is the fundamental common faith, held alike by Catholics and Orthodox, there is no defensible impediment to Eucharistic Communion." ## Views on dissolution of marriage While attending Vatican II Zoghby spoke to the Council on September 29, 1965, about the trauma of the innocent spouse in cases of adultery. Zoghby suggested a solution which considers adultery and abandonment as causes for the dissolution of marriage: "We know how much the Fathers of the Eastern Church tried to dissuade widowers and widows from a second marriage, thus following the Apostle's advice, but they have never wished to deprive the innocent spouse who has been unjustly abandoned of the right to remarry. This tradition, preserved in the East, and which was never reproved during the ten centuries of union, could be accepted again and adopted by Catholics. Progress in patristic studies has indeed brought to the fore the doctrine of the Eastern Fathers who were no less qualified exegetes or moralists than the Western ones." The following month, Melkite Patriarch Maximos IV declared that, while "Archbishop Zoghby, like all Fathers of the council, enjoys full freedom to say what he thinks ... [Zoghby] speaks only for himself personally. With respect to the heart of the problem, the Church must hold fast to the indissolubility of marriage." ## Publications by Elias Zoghby - We Are All Schismatics (Tous Schismatiques?). - A Voice from the Byzantine East. . This work of ecumenical theology and ecclesiology focuses on the role of the Eastern Catholic Churches in furthering the cause of Christian unity. - Ecumenical Reflections. . Translated by Bishop Nicholas Samra, 1998 - St. Mathiew, lu par un Eveque d'Orient. Two volumes - Le Credo de l'Amour. Anthology of poetry - Pour vivre notre foi. Anthology of poetry - Memoires. Un Eveque peu commode, dit-on. Autobiographical reflections - Une Experience de Vie en Christ. - Quand la Tendresse divine se fait Mere. - Orthodox Uni, oui! Uniate, non!. Reproduced in Eastern Churches Journal, 2:3 (1995)
21,315,059	Francis Marbury	1,068,315,449	Anglican minister and school teacher in the 16c	[ "1555 births", "1611 deaths", "16th-century English Puritan ministers", "16th-century English dramatists and playwrights", "16th-century English educators", "16th-century English writers", "16th-century male writers", "17th-century English Puritan ministers", "17th-century English educators", "17th-century English male writers", "17th-century English writers", "Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge", "English Renaissance dramatists" ]	Francis Marbury (sometimes spelled Merbury) (1555–1611) was a Cambridge-educated English cleric, schoolmaster and playwright. He is best known for being the father of Anne Hutchinson, considered the most famous English woman in colonial America, and Katherine Marbury Scott, the first known woman to convert to Quakerism in the United States. Born in 1555, Marbury was the son of William Marbury, a lawyer from Lincolnshire, and Agnes Lenton. Young Marbury attended Christ's College, Cambridge. He is not known to have graduated, though he was ordained as a deacon in the Church of England in January 1578. He was given a ministry position in Northampton and almost immediately came into conflict with the bishop. Taking a position commonly used by Puritans, he criticised the church leadership for staffing the parish churches with poorly trained clergy and for tolerating poorly trained bishops. After serving two short jail terms, he was ordered not to return to Northampton, but disregarded the mandate and was subsequently brought before the Bishop of London, John Aylmer, for trial in November 1578. During the examination, Aylmer called Marbury an ass, an idiot and a fool, and sentenced him to Marshalsea prison for his impudence. After two years in prison Marbury was considered sufficiently reformed to preach again and was sent to Alford in Lincolnshire, close to his ancestral home. Here he married and began a family, but again felt emboldened to speak out against the church leadership and was put under house arrest. Following a time without employment, he became desperate, writing letters to prominent officials, and was eventually allowed to resume preaching. Making good on his promise to curb his tongue, he preached uneventfully in Alford and with a growing prominence was rewarded with a position in London in 1605. He was given a second parish in 1608, which was exchanged for another closer to home a year later. He died unexpectedly in 1611 at the age of 55. With two wives Marbury had 18 children, three of whom matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford, and one of whom, Anne, became a puritan dissident in the Massachusetts Bay Colony who had a leading role in the colony's Antinomian Controversy. ## Early life Francis Marbury, born in London and baptised on 27 October 1555, was one of six children of William Marbury (1524–1581), and the youngest of three sons. His father, who possibly attended Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1544, was a lawyer in Lincolnshire, a member of the Middle Temple, where he was admitted "specially ... at the instance of Mr. Francis Barnades" in May 1551, and still active until 1573; he was elected Member of Parliament for Newport Iuxta Launceston in 1572. His mother was Agnes, the daughter of John Lenton of Old Wynkill, Staffordshire according to historian John Champlin, but genealogist Meredith Colket suggests that Lenton was from Aldwinkle in Northamptonshire, which is much closer to where the Marburys lived. Marbury was likely educated in London, perhaps at St Paul's School, and he became well grounded in Latin as well as learning some Greek. Though he was born and raised in London, his family maintained close ties with Lincolnshire. His older brother, Edward, was knighted there in 1603, and died in 1605 as the High Sheriff of Lincolnshire. Marbury matriculated at Christ's College, Cambridge in 1571, but is not known to have graduated. He was ordained deacon by Edmund Scambler, Bishop of Peterborough, on 7 January 1578. Though he was young when he became a deacon, he was not ordained as priest until 1605. While Marbury was of the Church of England, he had decidedly Puritan views. Not all English subjects thought that Queen Elizabeth had gone far enough to cleanse the English Church of Catholic rites and governance, or to ensure that its ministers were capable of saving souls through powerful preaching. The most vocal of these critics were the Puritans, and Marbury was among the most radical of the non-conforming Puritans, the Presbyterians. These more extreme non-conformists wanted to "abolish all the pomp and ceremony of the Church of England and remodel its government according to what they thought was the Bible's simple, consensual pattern." To do this, they would eliminate bishops appointed by the monarchs, and introduce sincere Christians to choose the church's elders (or governors). The church leadership would then consist of two ministers, one a teacher in charge of doctrine, and the other a pastor in charge of people's souls, and also include a ruling lay leader. ## 1578 trial As a young man Marbury was considered to be a "hothead" and felt strongly that the clergy should be well educated, and clashed with his superiors on this issue. He spent time preaching at Northampton, but soon came into conflict with the bishop's chancellor, Dr James Ellis, who was on a mission to suppress any nonconforming clergy. After two short imprisonments, Marbury was directed to leave Northampton and not return. He disregarded this order, and was then brought to trial in the consistory court of St Paul's in London before the high commission on 5 November 1578. Here he was examined by the Bishop of London, John Aylmer, and by Sir Owen Hopton, Dr Lewis, and Archdeacon John Mullins. Marbury made a transcript of this trial from memory and used it to educate and amuse his children, he being the hero, and the Bishop being portrayed as somewhat of a buffoon, and the transcript can be found in Benjamin Brook's study of notable Puritans. Historian Lennam finds nothing in this transcript that is either "improbable or inconsistent with the Bishop's testy reputation." In the trial, Aylmer began the accusations of Marbury, saying "you had rattled the Bishop of Peterborough," to which Marbury accused the bishop of placing poorly trained ministers in the parish churches, adding that the bishops were poorly supervised. Aylmer then retorted, "The Bishop of Peterborough was never more overseen in his life than when he admitted thee to be a preacher in Northampton." Marbury warned that for every soul damned by the lack of adequate preaching, the guilt "is on the bishops' hands." To this Aylmer replied, "Thou takest upon thee to be a preacher, but there is nothing in thee. Thou art a very ass, an idiot, and a fool." As the examination continued, Aylmer considered the ability of the Church of England to put trained ministers in every parish. He barked, "This fellow would have a preacher in every parish church!" to which Marbury replied, "so would St. Paul." Then Aylmer asked, "But where is the living for them?" To this Marbury answered, "A man might cut a large thong out of your hide, and that of the other prelates, and it would never be missed." Having lost his patience, the bishop retorted, "Thou are an overthwart, proud, puritan knave." Marbury answered, "I am no puritan. I beseech you to be good to me. I have been twice in prison already, but I know not why. To this, Aylmer was unsympathetic, and he rendered the sentence, "Have him to the Marshalsea. There he shall cope with the papists." Marbury then threatened divine retribution upon the bishop by warning him to beware the judgements of God. His daughter Anne Hutchinson would make a similar threat towards the magistrates and ministers at her civil trial before the Massachusetts Court, nearly 60 years later. ## Later life For his conviction of heresy, Marbury spent two years in the Marshalsea prison, on the south side of the River Thames, across from London. In 1580, at the age of 25, he was released and was considered sufficiently reformed to preach and teach, and moved to the market town of Alford in Lincolnshire, about 140 miles (230 km) north of London, near his ancestral home. He was soon appointed curate (deputy vicar) of St Wilfrid's Church, Alford. His father died in 1581, leaving Marbury with some welcome income as well as "lawe bookes and a ring of gold." Sometime about 1582 he married his first wife, Elizabeth Moore, and in 1585 he became the schoolmaster at Alford Grammar School, free to the poor and founded under Queen Elizabeth. Marbury is thought to have been the teacher or tutor of young John Smith, who became an early explorer and leader in the Jamestown Colony in Virginia. After bearing three daughters, Marbury's first wife died about 1586, and within a year of her death he married Bridget Dryden, about ten years younger than he, from a prominent Northamptonshire family. Bridget was born in the Canons Ashby House in Northamptonshire, the daughter of John Dryden and Elizabeth Cope. Her brother, Erasmus Dryden, was the grandfather of the playwright and Poet Laureate John Dryden. In 1590 Marbury once again felt emboldened to speak out against his superiors, denouncing the Church of England for selecting poorly educated bishops and poorly trained ministers. The Bishop of Lincoln, calling him an "impudent Puritan," removed him from preaching and teaching, and put him under house arrest. On 15 October 1590 Marbury wrote a letter to the statesman William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, who was the uncle of Marbury's acquaintance, Francis Bacon. In the letter he explained his religious creed and claimed that he was deprived of his preaching licence "for causes unknown to him." Without employment, he tended his gardens and tutored his children, reading to them from his own writings, the Bible, and John Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Somehow the family was able to survive, perhaps from borrowing from the Drydens. While this suspension from preaching was thought to be short by historian Lennam, his daughter's biographer, Eve LaPlante, wrote that it lasted nearly four years. Whichever the case, by 1594 he was once again preaching, and from this point forward, Marbury resolved to curb his tongue and not openly question those in positions of authority. Following this final suspension, both his fame and fortune rose, and at one point Marbury became lecturer at St Saviour, Southwark. In 1602 he was given the honour of delivering the "Spittle sermon" in London on Easter Tuesday, and again at St Paul's Cross in London in June. The following year he had the distinction of delivering a special sermon on the accession of James I to the throne, and at this point several of his sermons were finding their way into print. With the support of Richard Vaughan, the Bishop of London, he was moved to London in 1605, finding a residence in the heart of the city where he was given the position of vicar of St Martin Vintry. Here his Puritan views, though somewhat muffled, were nevertheless present and tolerated, since there was a shortage of pastors. London was a vibrant and cosmopolitan city, and active playwrights of the time were William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson, whose plays were performed just across the river. The Marburys managed to avoid the bubonic plague that occasionally worked its way through the city. Marbury took on additional work in 1608, preaching in the parish of St Pancras, Soper Lane, travelling there by horse twice a week. In 1610 he was able to replace that position with one much closer to home, and became rector of St Margaret, New Fish Street, a short walk from St Martin Vintry. Marbury died unexpectedly in February 1611, at the age of 55. He had written his will in January 1611, and its brevity suggests that it was written in a hurry following a sudden and serious illness. The will mentions his wife by name and 12 living children, but only his daughter Susan, from his first marriage, is mentioned by name. His widow resided for a time at St Peter, Paul's Wharf, London, but about December 1620 she married Reverend Thomas Newman of Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire, and died in 1645. ## Works and legacy Marbury's most noted work, The Contract of Marriage between Wit and Wisdom was written in 1579 while he was in prison. It was a moral interlude or "wit play", following The Play of Wit and Science by John Redford, and an adaptation of its sequel The Marriage of Wit and Science. The play was noted in 1590 as one of the "current plays of the time." Author T. N. S. Lennam described the work as a "lusty, occasionally very coarse, short interlude in which the morality material is dominated by rather imitative farcical episodes more elementally entertaining than didactic." Marbury also helped write the preface to the works of other religious writers. One of these prefaces was written for Robert Rollock's A Treatise on God's Effectual Calling (1603), and another was for Richard Rogers' seminal work, Seven Treatises (1604). In the latter, Marbury praised Rogers "for having delivered a crushing blow against the Catholics and thereby vindicating the Church of England." This prefatory material summed up the puritan unitary vision for England: "one godly ruler, one godly church, and one godly path to heaven, with puritan ministers writing the guidebooks." While Marbury was not considered one of the great Puritan ministers of his day, he was nevertheless well known. Sir Francis Bacon called him "The Preacher," and recognised him as such in his 1624 work Apothegm. A leading minister of the time, Reverend Robert Bolton, expressed a considerable respect for Marbury's teachings. One negative aspect of Marbury's later career involved his time in Alford when he was the governor of the free grammar school there between 1595 and 1605. A 1618 court case pointed to Marbury's improper handling of the school's endowments, and following an inquisition, the surviving executors to Marbury's will were ordered to pay "certain sums unto the Governors" of the school as compensation. ## Family Marbury was said to have 20 children, but only 18 have been identified, three with his first wife, Elizabeth Moore, and 15 with his second wife, Bridget Dryden. The three children from his first marriage were all girls, Mary (c. 1584–1585), Susan (baptised 12 September 1585; married a Mr Twyford) and Elizabeth (c. 1587–1601). His children with Bridget Dryden were Mary (born c. 1588), John (baptised 15 February 1589/90), Anne (baptised 20 July 1591), Bridget (baptised 8 May 1593; buried 15 October 1598), Francis (baptised 20 October 1594), Emme (baptised 21 December 1595), Erasmus (baptised 15 February 1596/7), Anthony (baptised 11 September 1598; buried 9 April 1601), Bridget (baptised 25 November 1599), Jeremuth (or Jeremoth, baptised 31 March 1601), Daniel (baptised 14 September 1602), Elizabeth (baptised 20 January 1604/5), Thomas (born c. 1606?), Anthony (born c. 1608), and Katherine (born c. 1610). Three of Marbury's sons, Erasmus, Jeremuth, and the second Anthony, all matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford. His daughter Anne married William Hutchinson and sailed to New England in 1634, becoming a dissident Puritan minister at the centre of the Antinomian Controversy, and was, according to historian Michael Winship, "the most famous, or infamous, English woman in colonial American history." His only other child to emigrate was his youngest child, Katherine, who married Richard Scott and settled in Providence in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Katherine and her husband were at times Puritans, Baptists, and Quakers, and Katherine was whipped in Boston for confronting Governor John Endecott over his persecution of Quakers and supporting her future son-in-law Christopher Holder who had his right ear cut off for his Quaker evangelism. Marbury's sister, Catherine, married in 1583 Christopher Wentworth, and they became grandparents of William Wentworth who followed Reverend John Wheelwright to New England, and eventually settled in Dover, New Hampshire, becoming the ancestor of many men of prominence. ### Ancestry In 1914, John Champlin published the bulk of the currently known ancestry of Francis Marbury. Most of the material in the following ancestor chart is from Champlin, supplemented by genealogist Meredith Colket. The Williamson line was published in The American Genealogist by F. N. Craig in 1992, while an online source, cited within, covers the Angevine line. An online source giving the ancestry of Agnes Lenton is incorrect based on Walter Davis' research published in the New England Historic Genealogical Register in 1964. ## See also - Puritanism - List of Puritans
2,405,448	Bixby letter	1,147,539,610	Letter written by Abraham Lincoln	[ "1864 documents", "Authorship debates", "Letters (message)", "Massachusetts in the American Civil War", "Presidency of Abraham Lincoln", "Works by Abraham Lincoln" ]	The Bixby letter is a brief, consoling message sent by President Abraham Lincoln in November 1864 to Lydia Parker Bixby, a widow living in Boston, Massachusetts, who was thought to have lost five sons in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Along with the Gettysburg Address and his second inaugural address, the letter has been praised as one of Lincoln's finest written works and is often reproduced in memorials, media, and print. Controversy surrounds the recipient, the fate of her sons, and the authorship of the letter. Bixby's character has been questioned (including rumored Confederate sympathies), at least two of her sons survived the war, and the letter was possibly written by Lincoln's assistant private secretary, John Hay. ## Text President Lincoln's letter of condolence was delivered to Lydia Bixby on November 25, 1864, and was printed in the Boston Evening Transcript and Boston Evening Traveller that afternoon. The following is the text of the letter as first published: > Executive Mansion, > Washington, Nov. 21, 1864. > > Dear Madam, > > I have been shown in the files of the War Department a statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts that you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle. > > I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic they died to save. > > I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of Freedom. > > Yours, very sincerely and respectfully, > A. Lincoln. > > Mrs. Bixby. ## History Lydia Parker married shoemaker Cromwell Bixby on September 26, 1826, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. The couple had at least six sons and three daughters before Cromwell's death in 1854. Some time before the Civil War, Bixby and her family settled in Boston. ### Meeting with Adjutant General Schouler On September 24, 1864, Massachusetts Adjutant General William Schouler wrote to Massachusetts Governor John Albion Andrew about a discharge request sent to the governor by Otis Newhall, the father of five Union soldiers. In the letter, Schouler recalled how, two years prior, they had helped a poor widow named Lydia Bixby to visit a son who was a patient at an Army hospital. About ten days earlier, Bixby had come to Schouler's office claiming that five of her sons had died fighting for the Union. Governor Andrew forwarded Newhall's request to the U.S. War Department with a note requesting that the president honor Bixby with a letter. In response to a War Department request of October 1, Schouler sent a messenger to Bixby's home six days later, asking for the names and units of her sons. He sent a report to the War Department on October 12, which was delivered to President Lincoln by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton sometime after October 28. On November 21, both the Boston Evening Traveller and the Boston Evening Transcript published an appeal by Schouler for contributions to assist soldiers' families at Thanksgiving which mentioned a widow who had lost five sons in the war. Schouler had some of the donations given to Bixby and then visited her home on Thanksgiving, November 24. The letter from the President arrived at Schouler's office the next morning. ### Military record of the Bixby sons Nevertheless, at least two of Lydia Bixby's sons survived the war: - Private Arthur Edward Bixby (known as "Edward") – Company C, 1st Massachusetts Heavy Artillery (enlisted June 24, 1861). Deserted from Ft. Richardson, Virginia on May 28, 1862. Trying to secure a discharge for him, his mother filed an affidavit on October 17, 1862, which claimed Edward had enlisted underage without her permission. Born July 13, 1843, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. Returned to Boston after the war. - Sergeant Charles N. Bixby – Company D, 20th Massachusetts Infantry (served July 18, 1861 – May 3, 1863). Killed in action near Fredericksburg. Born c.1841 in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. - Corporal Henry Cromwell Bixby – 1st enlistment, Company G, 20th Massachusetts Infantry (served July 18, 1861 – May 29, 1862). 2nd enlistment, Company K, 32nd Massachusetts Infantry (served August 5, 1862 – December 17, 1864). Captured at Gettysburg and sent to Richmond, Virginia. Paroled on March 7, 1864, at City Point, Virginia. Born March 30, 1830, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. Died November 8, 1871, in Milford, Massachusetts, from tuberculosis he contracted while a soldier. - Private Oliver Cromwell Bixby, Jr. – Company E, 58th Massachusetts Infantry (served February 26, 1864 – July 30, 1864). Wounded at Spotsylvania on May 12, 1864. Killed in action near Petersburg, Virginia. Born February 1, 1828, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. - Private George Way Bixby – Company B, 56th Massachusetts Infantry (served March 16, 1864 – ?). Enlisted under the name "George Way", apparently to conceal his enlistment from his wife. Captured at Petersburg on July 30, 1864. First held prisoner at Richmond but later transferred to Salisbury Prison in North Carolina, arriving there on October 9, 1864. His fate after that remains uncertain. Military records report conflicting accounts of him either dying at Salisbury or deserting to the Confederate Army. Born June 22, 1836, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. Schouler's report to the War Department erroneously listed Edward as a member of the 22nd Massachusetts Infantry who had died of his wounds at Folly Island, South Carolina. Bixby may have been trying to conceal—possibly from embarrassment or hope of further financial aid—Edward's 1862 desertion. (She had been receiving a pension following Charles's death in 1863.) At the time of her September meeting with Schouler, Bixby's son George had been a prisoner of war for just over a month, and Henry was still hospitalized following his exchange. The War Department failed to use its own records to correct errors in the Schouler report. ### Questions of character Lydia Bixby died in Boston on October 27, 1878, while a patient at Massachusetts General Hospital. In his initial letter to Governor Andrew, Schouler called Bixby "the best specimen of a true-hearted Union woman I have yet seen," but in the years following her death both her character and loyalty were questioned. Writing to her daughter in 1904, Boston socialite Sarah Cabot Wheelwright claimed she had met and had given charitable aid to Lydia Bixby during the war, hoping that one of her sons, in Boston on leave, might help deliver packages to Union prisoners of war; but she later heard gossip that Bixby "kept a house of ill-fame, was perfectly untrustworthy and as bad as she could be". In the 1920s, Lincoln scholar William E Barton interviewed the oldest residents of Hopkinton, Massachusetts for their memories of Bixby's family before she moved to Boston. They recalled her sons as being "tough" with "some of them too fond of drink". One son may have "served a jail sentence for some misdemeanor". On August 12, 1925, Elizabeth Towers, a daughter of Oliver Bixby, told the Boston Herald that her grandmother had "great sympathy for the South" and that her mother recalled that Bixby had been "highly indignant" about the letter with "little good to say of President Lincoln". In 1949, Towers' nephew, Arthur March Bixby, claimed that Lydia Bixby had moved to Massachusetts from Richmond, Virginia; though this assertion is contradicted by contemporary records which list her birthplace as Rhode Island. ## Copies ### Original copy The fate of the original letter given to Bixby is unknown. William A. Bixby, a son of Oliver, told The New York Times in an August 9, 1925, interview that he did not know what happened to the letter after his grandmother received it, though he doubted it still survived. A few days later, William's sister, Elizabeth told the Boston Herald that she also did not know the letter's fate but speculated Bixby may have torn it up, resenting that it incorrectly said five of her sons had been killed. William's son, Arthur March Bixby, told the New York Sun in 1949 that he recalled his father telling him that she had angrily destroyed the letter after receiving it. In the early 20th century, it was sometimes claimed that the original letter could be found on display at Brasenose College at the University of Oxford along with other great works in the English language. Lincoln scholar F. Lauriston Bullard investigated this claim in 1925, discovering that it was untrue and the college had never heard of the Bixby letter. ### Tobin facsimile Christie's auction house receives many supposed original Bixby letters every year, including copies of a lithographic facsimile of the letter in widespread circulation. These first appeared in 1891, when New York City print dealer Michael F. Tobin applied for a copyright to sell souvenir copies of the letter with an engraving of Lincoln by John Chester Buttre for \$2 each. Soon, Huber's Museum, a dime museum in Manhattan, began displaying a copy, "stained by coffee and exposure", of Tobin's facsimile as "the original Bixby letter" and selling their own copies for \$1 each. Charles Hamilton, an autograph dealer and handwriting expert, examined the Tobin facsimile; concluding it had been copied from a poorly executed forgery originally written in pencil and retraced in ink to imitate Lincoln's handwriting, calling it "halting and awkward and makes his forceful hand appear like a child's scrawl". Tobin's facsimile also errs when compared to the original text of the letter published in Boston newspapers; adding the salutation "To Mrs Bixby, Boston Mass", misspelling the word "assuage" as "assauge", omitting the word "to" after the word "tendering", changing the plural "words" into "word", not capitalizing the words "freedom" and "republic", missing the recipient "Mrs. Bixby" on the bottom left, and combining the original three paragraphs into one. Huber's Museum corrected the spelling of "assuage" in their version of the facsimile. ## Authorship Scholars have debated whether the Bixby letter was written by Lincoln himself or by his assistant private secretary, John Hay. November 1864 was a busy month for Lincoln, possibly forcing him to delegate the task to Hay. Second- and third-hand recollections of acquaintances suggest Hay may have claimed to others that he wrote it, but his children could not recall him ever mentioning composing the letter. Writing to William E. Chandler in 1904, Hay said "the letter of Mr. Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby is genuine", but he may only have been referring to its text. In a 1917 letter to historian Isaac Markens, Robert Todd Lincoln said Hay had told him that he did not have "any special knowledge of the letter at the time" it was written. Historian Michael Burlingame, who believes Hay is the author, has pointed out that Hay's scrapbooks have two newspaper clippings of the letter while largely containing Hay's own writing. However, they also contain material written by Lincoln including the Gettysburg Address and the Second Inaugural. Scholars favoring Lincoln's authorship, including Edward Steers and Jason Emerson, note that the Gettysburg Address and the Farewell Address are similar examples of Lincoln's highly regarded style. Other scholars, such as Burlingame, have countered that Hay wrote pieces that compare favorably to the Bixby letter and note words and phrases in the letter that appear more frequently in Hay's writings than those of Lincoln. For instance, Burlingame notes the word beguile appears numerous times in the works of Hay and the phrase I cannot refrain from tendering is used by Hay in an 1864 letter to Quincy Gillmore, but neither appears once in the other collected works of Lincoln. However, the phrase I cannot refrain from is used by Lincoln in an 1859 letter to Salmon P. Chase. In 1988, at the request of investigator Joe Nickell, University of Kentucky professor of English Jean G. Pival studied the vocabulary, syntax, and other stylistic characteristics of the letter and concluded that it more closely resembled Lincoln's style of writing than Hay's. A computer analysis method, developed to address the difficulty in attribution of shorter texts, used in a 2018 study by researchers at Aston University's Centre for Forensic Linguistics identified Hay as the letter's author. ## Legacy The letter's passage "the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom" is inscribed on the base of the statue of Lady Columbia at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Hawaii. Discussions on the topic of siblings dying in war have frequently mentioned the letter; such as the Sullivan brothers, the Niland brothers, the Borgstrom brothers, and the Sole Survivor Policy of the United States military. In the 1998 war film Saving Private Ryan, General George Marshall (played by Harve Presnell) reads the Bixby letter to his officers before giving the order to find and send home Private James Francis Ryan after Ryan's three brothers died in battle, setting in motion the eponymous story of the film. In a voiceover near the end of the film, Marshall quotes the Bixby letter in a letter to Mrs. Ryan. On September 11, 2011, former U.S. President George W. Bush read the Bixby letter during the memorial ceremony at the World Trade Center site on the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks. ## See also - Letter to Fanny McCullough
32,223,838	Edward Scissorhands (dance)	1,152,699,602	2005 dance adaptation of a film	[ "2005 ballet premieres", "Ballets by Matthew Bourne" ]	Edward Scissorhands is a contemporary dance adaptation of the 1990 American romance fantasy film Edward Scissorhands, created by Matthew Bourne, with music by Terry Davies. The screenwriter and composer of the film version, Caroline Thompson and Danny Elfman, helped to develop the dance version, which is set in the 1950s (the film is set in the late 1980s). The story is told entirely through music and dance with no discourse although the plot is similar to the movie. The piece debuted in London in 2005 and, despite mixed reviews, has subsequently toured in Britain, Asia, the U.S. (earning a 2007 Drama Desk Award for Unique Theatrical Experience), Australia and Europe. The productions have been put on by Bourne's New Adventures dance company. ## Composition and development Bourne's all-male 1995 version of Swan Lake has become the longest-running ballet production and earned him the distinction as the only British director to become a winner of both the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical and the Tony Award for Best Choreography at the 53rd Tony Awards in 1999. In 2002, 2003 and 2005, he earned the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Theatre Choreographer for My Fair Lady, Play Without Words and Mary Poppins, respectively. Eventually (in 2008), Time would begin an article on Bourne with the following summary: "Matthew Bourne is the world's most popular living dance maker." Bourne was asked by composer friends to brainstorm about films that could be adapted into stage productions in his dance style. Thompson met Bourne in 1997 through Alan Cumming after already having seen Swan Lake. Bourne asked Thompson's consent to adapt the Scissorhands film the following year, but it took another seven years to obtain the necessary funding and get the film's director Tim Burton and composer Elfman to go along. The work, which Bourne choreographed, was developed as dance theatre instead of as a traditional musical and has no singing or speaking. The musical score is by Terry Davies, but it includes significant portions of Elfman's film score. Thompson claims Scissorhands is based on a pet dog of hers. She described her dog as follows: "he was the most soulful, yearning creature I ever met. She wanted to participate in everything. She didn’t need language to communicate. She communicated with her eyes." She described the character as similar to Frankenstein's monster and Pinocchio in the sense that he is "an outsider who wants to be an insider". ## Plot The work "tells the gothic story of a boy, created by an eccentric inventor, trying to adapt to suburban life with only scissors for hands." The dance version is set in the 1950s, unlike the 1990 film, which was set in the late 1980s. An inventor's son was electrocuted in a dungeon-like room while holding scissors. In his grief, the inventor creates another "son" with flashing scissors for hands. The creation is orphaned when unsavory characters frighten his father to death with some Halloween activities. He then ventures from his gothic origins into a suburban town where his loneliness is reinforced until he is taken in by Peg Boggs and adopted by both her family and the town. In the promotional video for the American debut, Bourne highlights the juxtaposition of the gothic horror setting and the suburban settings of the adaptation. He also notes that San Francisco was a good place for the United States debut of the work in part because as a city it exhibits a tolerance similar to that of the suburbanites in the work. The piece has no spoken words. Like in the film, Edward is equipped with only scissors for hands because his inventor died in the middle of outfitting him. He is discovered in his castle by an Avon lady who brings him into her home. He then wanders into a town where a family takes him in. The theatrical adaptation has a more robust prologue than the film, but the additional backstory does not add content to the character. ## Productions The British New Adventures dance company raised \$2 million that was augmented by \$780,000 from the Arts Council England to stage the original production at London's Sadler's Wells Theatre, which opened in November 2005 and closed on February 5, 2006. Eventually, the show was staged in Asia, the United States, Australia and Europe with New Adventures. The dance adaptation featured 30 members of the company. Martin McCallum and Marc Platt were the lead producers. Sam Archer and Richard Winsor alternated in the main role, wearing a heavily elasticized costume with fiberglass blades and a thick leather forearm brace. They also starred in the following tour, with Archer staying on through the U.S. tour. Regular Bourne collaborators Scott Ambler and Etta Murfitt were associate directors and co-stars. Set and costume design were both by Lez Brotherston in a style described as a sort of Desperate Housewives suburbia of mild-mannered characters. His 1950's suburbia sets were inspired by Peggy Sue Got Married and Back to the Future. Howard Harrison designed lights and Paul Groothuis was sound designer. Following its 11-week London run, it had a United Kingdom tour that lasted for 14 weeks and that was followed by performances in Japan, Korea and the United States, where it ran until Spring 2007. In November and December 2006, it played in San Francisco at the Orpheum Theatre, where it made its American debut with previews on November 11 and 12 and a November 14 opening. In February 2007, it played at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. It spent part of April and May at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle. The New York run was held at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. Other venues on the United States tour included Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, Belk Theatre in Charlotte, North Carolina, Benedum Center in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Kimmel Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Fox Theatre in St. Louis, Missouri. By the time it played in Brooklyn, it had visited a dozen North American cities. In May 2008, an Australian national tour was launched at the Sydney Opera House. The piece returned to Europe for a 2008–09 tour that included performances in Britain for the 2008 Christmas season. Venues on the Europe tour included Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, Hippodrome Theatre in Birmingham, New Wimbledon Theatre and Sadler's Wells Theatre in London as well as stops in Salford, Athens and Antwerp. Among the cities that it sold out are New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Sydney, Melbourne and Paris. ## Reception The dance adaptation received mixed reviews. The earliest review of the London production by The New York Times in November 2005 said that like the film version, "doomed love story remains bittersweet". Matt Wolf of The New York Times panned the original run with statements such as "a potential dance sensation seems peculiarly short on actual dance" and "But a dream ballet late in the first act and various set pieces later seem, in terms of actual choreography, oddly pro forma for Bourne. . ." He felt that overcoming the obstacle of choreographing dances around a lead with blades for fingers was too much to overcome. A fellow critic from The New York Times described it as "visually alluring" two weeks later. On its Christmas 2008 return to England, The Times gave the show a positive review: "Matthew Bourne's adaptation of Tim Burton's 1990 film is one of the biggest and brightest of this season's glut of cultural ornaments. Indeed, so much skill has been lavished on this dance-theatre show for Bourne's company, New Adventures, that it almost feels churlish to withhold my affections." The Independent'''s reviewer was critical, saying "Edward is more kids' cartoon than satire, with two-dimensional characters that stand a hair's breadth from cliché". Another critic from The Independent opened her review as follows: "The best part of Matthew Bourne's Edward Scissorhands is the curtain call." However, contemporaneous reviews by The Guardian were a bit more positive saying that "Bourne is a natural storyteller, who never leaves his audience behind". The work's American debut in San Francisco drew mixed reviews. Robert Hurwitt of the San Francisco Chronicle described it as a high point in his "Theatre Year in Review top 10", saying it was "invigoratingly choreographed and beguilingly designed". However, when analyzing the year from the entire Arts and culture perspective the Steven Winn (also with the San Francisco Chronicle) described the work as lacking, noting that its November run "fell well short of this show's [Swan Lake]'s inspired high mark" from March in the arts and culture year end top 10. Hurwitt stated at the beginning of the San Francisco run that "Where Bourne triumphs, with considerable help from Davies, Thompson and Brotherston, is in replicating Burton's delicately bittersweet whimsy in a manner uniquely his own." Johnny Depp attended the December 30, 2006 show danced by Archer and signed a souvenir program for Bourne with the following partial inscription: "Trembled on the verge of tears, mate." At the time of its off-Broadway debut, The New York Times described it as not "so much a dance enhanced by a famous story as a drama condensed by the removal of words." It was further panned in a more detailed review the following week by The New York Times Jennifer Dunning, who said "Mr. Bourne's "Edward Scissorhands" is mostly a candy-coated bore." In Time, he was praised for the uniqueness of his dancing hedges. ### Awards and nominations The work received a nomination for the 2007 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Choreography (for Bourne) and won the 2007 Drama Desk Award for Unique Theatrical Experience. Bourne was also nominated for Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Choreography that year for Mary Poppins''.
3,213,042	Lisa's Pony	1,167,598,124	null	[ "1991 American television episodes", "Television episodes about horses", "Television episodes written by Al Jean", "The Simpsons (season 3) episodes" ]	"Lisa's Pony" is the eighth episode of the third season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox Network in the United States on November 7, 1991. In this episode, Homer goes drinking at Moe's Tavern instead of buying a new reed for Lisa's saxophone, making her flop at the school talent show. Desperate to win back his daughter's love, Homer gives Lisa the one thing she has always wanted: a pony. Homer struggles with two jobs to cover the cost of sheltering and feeding it. After seeing the sacrifices he endures to pay for it, Lisa decides to part with her pony. The episode was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss and directed by Carlos Baeza. Lunchlady Doris, a recurring character on The Simpsons, made her first appearance on the show in this episode. "Lisa's Pony" features cultural references to films such as The Godfather and 2001: A Space Odyssey the comic strip Little Nemo in Slumberland, and the Chuck Berry song My Ding-a-Ling. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13.8 and was the highest-rated show on Fox the week it aired. ## Plot Lisa needs a new saxophone reed for the school talent show. Homer agrees to buy her one but visits Moe's Tavern first. When he arrives at the music shop next door, it has closed for the night. Dejected, Homer returns to the bar, where he finds the shop's owner. Moe convinces him to re-open his store, but when Homer reaches the school with the new reed, Lisa has already butchered her performance. Humiliated and dejected, she ignores her father's attempts to appease her. While watching old family videos, Homer realizes how much he has neglected Lisa over the years. After Homer's attempts to mend his relationship with Lisa fail, he buys her, using a loan through the power plant credit union, the one thing she has always wanted: a pony. Lisa wakes one morning – the pony is lying next to her in bed. She is delighted with her and names her Princess; she forgives her father. Homer is glad Lisa respects him again, but Marge is upset when he ignores her warning that they cannot afford the horse. To pay for Princess' stabling, Homer moonlights at the Kwik-E-Mart, which exhausts him over time. Marge tells the children about the sacrifices their father is making but says that Lisa must decide for herself whether to part with Princess. After watching Bart take advantage of a sleep-deprived Homer at the Kwik-E-Mart, Lisa shares a heartbreaking goodbye with her pony. She tells Homer there is a "big dumb animal" she loves even more than Princess: her father. When Homer—who was lazy, stole from the Kwik-E-Mart, and was rude to the customers—quits his job, Apu admits that he was the "best damned employee a convenience store ever had" despite these failings. ## Production "Lisa's Pony" was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss, who were show runners of The Simpsons when the episode was produced. According to Reiss, being a show runner is a stressful job as he has to supervise all the processes the episodes go through. Jean and Reiss were working approximately 80–100 hours a week when they were assigned to write an episode on top of their regular job. "Lisa's Pony" was written between 10.00 p.m. and 1.00 a.m. every night after they had finished their 12- to 14-hour workday. They came up with idea for it while going through a list of Lisa's interests, and Jean told Reiss, "Lisa likes ponies; we [should] give her a pony." While writing down ideas for the story, they decided to explore the consequences of having a pony in a suburban house. Carlos Baeza served as animation director for the episode. The Simpsons creator Matt Groening said animating horses is "the most difficult thing to do". The animators used Eadweard Muybridge's famous animation of a horse galloping and other photo references as models for Princess. In the talent show scene, Lisa is lit up by a spotlight when she performs with her saxophone. After the episode came back from the animation studio in Korea, the staff noticed the light was colored blue, making Lisa look like "a Smurf". The scene had to be re-animated in the United States, and the spotlight effect was reduced. The woman who sells the pony to Homer is based on actress Katharine Hepburn. Cast member Tress MacNeille provided the voice for the character. Lunch Lady Doris, a recurring character on The Simpsons, made her first appearance on the show in this episode as one of the judges in the talent show. She was voiced by the show's script supervisor Doris Grau, who had a "beautiful, tobacco-cured voice" the staff thought was perfect for the role. Following Grau's death in 1995, the characters she voiced were retired out of respect, with the exception of Lunch Lady Doris, who stayed on the show without speaking roles. ## Cultural references The beginning of the episode, in which Homer has a dream of himself as an ape, is a reference to the Dawn of Man sequence from the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. The Simpsons director David Silverman had difficulties with making the ape resemble Homer and struggled with the design for several hours. After hurting Lisa's feelings at the talent show, Homer watches old home movies of him and Lisa, including one in which a young Homer is seen watching Fantasy Island on television instead of paying attention to Lisa's taking her first steps. The scene in which Lisa wakes up in her bed and discovers the pony lying next to her is a reference to a scene in the 1972 film The Godfather, in which Jack Woltz awakens to discover the severed head of his favorite horse placed in his bed. The musical chords used in the episode are the same as in the film but shortened. While driving home from the Kwik-E-Mart, Homer falls asleep behind the wheel and dreams that he is in Slumberland, drawn in the style of Winsor McCay's Little Nemo in Slumberland. An instrumental cover version of the song "Golden Slumbers" by The Beatles plays during the sequence. Lisa calls Homer and says over the telephone I Just Called to Say I Love You dad, a reference to the song by Stevie Wonder. One of the children at the talent show performs the song "My Ding-a-Ling" by Chuck Berry. According to Jean, it was a "huge difficulty" to clear the rights for the song so it could be used on the show. John Boylan, who produced the album The Simpsons Sing the Blues, personally appealed to Berry to clear the song for them. The lyrics to "My Ding-a-Ling", with their heavy innuendo, caused many radio stations to ban the song. This is parodied in the episode when Principal Skinner rushes the child off the stage before he is able to finish the first line of the refrain. The man who owns the music shop Homer visits is based on actor Wally Cox. ## Reception In its original American broadcast, "Lisa's Pony" finished 35th in the ratings for the week of November 4–10, 1991, with a Nielsen rating of 13.8, equivalent to approximately 12.7 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week. "Lisa's Pony" was released with the episode "Treehouse of Horror II" on a VHS collection in 1999, called Best of the Simpsons. Homer's voice actor, Dan Castellaneta, received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance in 1992 for his performance in the episode. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics. Niel Harvey of The Roanoke Times called the episode a "classic bit of Simpsonia," and The Baltimore Sun's Kevin Valkenburg named it one of the "truly classic" The Simpsons episodes. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called the episode "good stuff" and praised the "nice flashbacks to Lisa as a baby". Cinema Blend's Bryce Wilson called "Lisa's Pony" one of the best Lisa episodes, and added that the only words to describe it are "funny as hell". Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed rated the episode a 5 (of 5), praising it for its references to The Godfather and 2001: A Space Odyssey which "film buffs will find uproarious". Meyers added that Homer's and Lisa's relationship is "the heart of the episode, showing Homer to be more than just a brute". The episode's reference to The Godfather was named the seventh greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film's Nathan Ditum. The Star-Ledger named this episode's reference to 2001: A Space Odyssey one of their favorite references to Stanley Kubrick on The Simpsons. The Guardian's David Eklid said episodes such as "Lisa's Pony" and "Stark Raving Dad" make season three "pretty much [the] best season of any television show, ever". Molly Griffin of The Observer commented that "Lisa's Pony" is one of the third season's episodes that "make the show into the cultural force it is today". Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict said "Lisa's Pony" is a "priceless part" of the show because of its "meshing of old storylines with new experiences, combined with some of the best jokes in the series". Gibron gave the episode a perfect score of 100. DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson, however, gave the episode a less positive review, commenting episodes "in which Homer has to redeem himself to others aren't a rarity, and 'Lisa's Pony' falls in the middle of that genre's pack. Homer's escapades at the Kwik-E-Mart definitely add life to the proceedings, and some of his other antics make the show good. I like 'Lisa's Pony' but don't consider it to offer a great program." According to Greg Suarez of The Digital Bits, "Lisa's Pony" is considered a fan favorite. In a list of the show's top 10 episodes, compiled by the webmaster of the fan site The Simpsons Archive and published by USA Today, this episode was listed in seventh place. Paul Cantor, a professor of English at the University of Virginia, utilized "Lisa's Pony" as an example that The Simpsons does not promote negative morals and values, which some critics have criticized the show for.
62,108	Elliot See	1,142,420,270	American test pilot and astronaut (1927–1966)	[ "1927 births", "1966 deaths", "Accidental deaths in Missouri", "American aerospace engineers", "American astronauts", "American test pilots", "Aviators from Texas", "Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in the United States", "Burials at Arlington National Cemetery", "Engineers from Texas", "General Electric people", "Highland Park High School (University Park, Texas) alumni", "Military personnel from Dallas", "NASA Astronaut Group 2", "NASA civilian astronauts", "Space program fatalities", "United States Merchant Marine Academy alumni", "United States Naval Aviators", "University of California, Los Angeles alumni", "University of Texas at Austin alumni", "Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1966" ]	Elliot McKay See Jr. (July 23, 1927 – February 28, 1966) was an American engineer, naval aviator, test pilot and NASA astronaut. See received an appointment to the United States Merchant Marine Academy in 1945. He graduated in 1949 with a Bachelor of Science degree in marine engineering and a United States Naval Reserve commission, and joined the Aircraft Gas Turbine Division of General Electric as an engineer. He was called to active duty as a naval aviator during the Korean War, and flew Grumman F9F Panther fighters with Fighter Squadron 144 (VF-144) from the aircraft carrier USS Randolph in the Mediterranean, and USS Boxer in the Western Pacific. He married Marilyn Denahy in 1954, and they had three children. See rejoined General Electric (GE) in 1956 as a flight test engineer after his tour of duty, and became a group leader and experimental test pilot at Edwards Air Force Base, where he flew the latest jet aircraft with GE engines. He also obtained a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from UCLA. Selected in NASA's second group of astronauts in 1962, See was the prime command pilot for what would have been his first space flight, Gemini 9. He was killed along with Charles Bassett, his Gemini 9 crewmate, in a NASA jet crash at the St. Louis McDonnell Aircraft plant, where they were to undergo two weeks of space rendezvous simulator training. ## Early life and education Elliot McKay See Jr. was born on July 23, 1927, in Dallas, Texas, to Elliot McKay See Sr. (1888–1968) and Mamie Norton See (née Drummond; 1900–1988). He was the first of two children; his sister Sally Drummond See rounded out the family in 1930. His father was an electrical engineer who worked for General Electric, and his mother worked in jobs ranging from advertising to real estate. See was active in the Boy Scouts of America for five years, and earned the rank of Eagle Scout. He attended Highland Park High School and was on the varsity team in several sports, including boxing. He was also on the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) Rifle Team. He graduated from high school in 1945. The United States entered World War II in December 1941. See had to choose between going to war or going to college, as he would otherwise be drafted at age 18. He decided to apply for aviation cadet training. He failed a physical, and, according to See, "going to college became the most important thing". He enrolled at the University of Texas, and after a few months pledged to Phi Kappa Psi. While at the University of Texas, he signed up for flying lessons and received his private pilot's license. See applied for military officer training and received an appointment to the United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA) in 1945. As the end of the war drew near, the USMMA changed its curriculum to a four-year college-level program, which was the minimum requirement to be a merchant marine in peacetime. He spent his plebe year at Pass Christian, Mississippi, where the USMMA had a satellite campus, and then transferred to the main campus at Kings Point, New York. He commanded the Third Company as a cadet officer. He was a member of the Propeller Club and head cheerleader. He was on the mile relay running team, played intramural softball, and was a varsity boxer. As co-captain of the rifle team, he won the Captain Tomb Trophy for individual rifle and pistol marksmanship in December 1948. In 1949, Congress authorized the USMMA to award Bachelor of Science degrees to its graduates, so on graduation that year Elliot received his B.S. degree, his marine engineer's licenses, and a commission as an officer in the United States Naval Reserve. ## Navy service and General Electric After graduation, See took a summer job with Lykes Brothers Steamship Company. On September 1, 1949, he joined the Aircraft Gas Turbine Division of General Electric, the firm his father had worked for, in Boston. He moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, when the division was relocated. There he met Marilyn Jane Denahy from Georgetown, Ohio, who worked at General Electric as a secretary. He and his friend Tay Haney pooled their funds to buy a Luscombe Silvaire Sprayer aircraft, which they flew on cross-country trips. In November 1952, while taking Marilyn on a joyride, the Luscombe's engine began to fail. See attempted to land the aircraft on a short, unimproved field, but the tail wheel snagged a power line and forced the aircraft into the ground. See suffered deep cuts to his face which required plastic surgery. Marilyn escaped the crash with only minor injuries. By 1953, See was working as a flight test engineer at General Electric's plant in Evendale, Ohio. Like many naval reservists, he was called to active duty due to the Korean War. He was initially stationed at Miramar Naval Air Station near San Diego, California. He married Marilyn on September 30, 1954, before shipping out for a sixteen-month operational tour as a naval aviator, flying the Grumman F9F Panther with Fighter Squadron 144 (VF-144), part of Carrier Air Group 14. He was deployed to the Mediterranean on the aircraft carrier USS Randolph, which returned to the United States in June 1955. In October, after further training at El Centro Naval Air Station, California, he embarked with VF-144 on an operational cruise on the aircraft carrier USS Boxer, which formed part of Task Force 77. The task force traveled to Hawaii, Japan, the Philippine Islands, and Hong Kong. See primarily focused on line maintenance, but also became proficient at carrier landings. By the end of the tour, he had reached the rank of lieutenant commander. He returned home in February 1956, in time for the birth of his first child, Sally. The couple later had two more children: Carolyn in 1957, and David in 1962. See rejoined General Electric in 1956 as a flight test engineer after his tour of duty. He became a group leader and experimental test pilot at Edwards Air Force Base, California, where the United States Air Force conducted flight tests. He served as a project pilot for the development of the General Electric J79-8 engine used in the F4H aircraft. He also conducted powerplant flight tests on the J-47, J-73, J-79, CJ805 and CJ805 aft-fan engines, which involved flying in F-86, XF4D, F-104, F11F-1F, RB-66, F4H, and T-38 aircraft. He worked towards his master's degree one night a week, starting in 1960, eventually obtaining a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from UCLA in 1962, and continued flying with the Naval Reserve. He was eventually promoted to commander. ## NASA In 1962, See applied to become a NASA astronaut. After undergoing preliminary evaluations, medical tests, and interviews during the selection process, See was selected to be in NASA's second group of astronauts, known as The New Nine. He was 35 at the time of his selection; the oldest in the group. On his selection, he said "Overwhelmed isn't the right word. I was amazed and certainly pleased. It's a very great honor." At the time of his selection, See had logged more than 3,900 hours of flying time, including more than 3,300 in jet aircraft. He drove from Edwards with fellow civilian pilot Neil Armstrong to start his new career in Houston, Texas, where the new Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) was under construction. Every astronaut was assigned a core competency, a special area in which they had to develop expertise, by the NASA Astronaut Office. The knowledge they gathered could then be shared with the others, and the astronaut-expert was expected to provide astronaut input to the spacecraft designers and engineers. See's special area of expertise was the spacecraft electrical and sequential systems, and the coordination of mission planning. See was tasked with determining if the crewed lunar landing should occur in direct sunlight or using light reflected from the Earth. To help make the decision, he flew helicopters and airplanes wearing special welding goggles to simulate different lighting conditions. See also landed helicopters with Jim Lovell on lava flows that simulated the terrain on the Moon. See was announced as the backup pilot for Gemini 5 on February 8, 1965, with Armstrong serving as the backup command pilot. They were the first civilians selected for a spaceflight. Gemini 5 was launched on August 21, 1965. Early in the flight, a problem was discovered with the fuel cells, and the flight controllers considered ending the mission early. See had worked with General Electric in developing the fuel cells and was confident that they could find a solution to the problem. Flight Director Chris Kraft gave them 24 hours to fix the problem or he would terminate the flight early. After working through the night, they diagnosed the problem and developed procedures that allowed the astronauts to fix the fuel cells, which allowed the mission to continue. See was a capsule communicator (CAPCOM) at MSC in Houston during the Gemini 7/Gemini 6A rendezvous mission in December 1965. Under the crew rotation system devised by chief astronaut Deke Slayton, as the backup for Gemini 5, Armstrong and See were in line for prime crew of Gemini 8. From the spring to the fall of 1965, Armstrong and See trained for the Gemini 5 mission. They spent a significant amount of time training in the spacecraft simulators. They flew back and forth to Kennedy Space Center, from which their spacecraft would be launched; to North Carolina to develop experiments to be conducted during the flight; and to McDonnell Aircraft in St. Louis, where the Gemini spacecraft was made. Contrary to Slayton's typical crew rotation, David Scott took See's place as the pilot of Gemini 8. According to his autobiography, Slayton did not assign See to Gemini 8 because he considered him as too out-of-shape to perform an extravehicular activity. Life photographer Ralph Morse asked Armstrong why See was no longer assigned with him on the Gemini 8 mission, and Armstrong replied, "Elliot's too good a pilot not to have a command of his own." In October 1965 See was promoted to command pilot (first seat) of Gemini 9, with Charles Bassett as his pilot. The Gemini 9 mission was similar to the previous mission. An extravehicular activity (EVA) that used the Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU) was scheduled, and they would rendezvous with an Agena target vehicle. Bassett was scheduled for the EVA and See would stay in the capsule. ## Death On February 28, 1966, See and Charles Bassett were flying with their backup crew, Gene Cernan and Thomas Stafford, from Ellington Air Force Base to Lambert Field in St. Louis, Missouri, for two weeks of space rendezvous simulator training. The prime crew flew in one jet and the backup crew in another. See was the pilot of their T-38 trainer jet, with Bassett in the rear seat. The weather at Lambert Field that Monday morning was poor and required an instrument approach. Both jets overshot the initial landing attempt; See continued with a visual circling approach and Stafford elected to follow the standard procedure for a missed approach. On his second attempt, See undershot the runway, hit the afterburners and turned to the right. The jet crashed into McDonnell Aircraft Building 101, where the Gemini spacecraft was built. See was found in a parking lot still strapped to his ejection seat. Both astronauts died instantly from trauma sustained in the accident, within five hundred feet (150 m) of their spacecraft. See and Bassett were buried near each other in Arlington National Cemetery, and the graves are about one hundred yards (90 m) from Theodore Freeman, another astronaut who died in a T-38 crash sixteen months prior. After a reporter had disclosed to Freeman's wife that he had died, NASA enacted new policies to avoid a similar embarrassing situation in the future. In compliance with these policies, astronaut John Young asked Marilyn Lovell and Jane Conrad to go to Marilyn See's house and ensure she did not find out about her husband's death from a non-NASA source. They rushed over and made excuses for their early surprise visit. After Young arrived to break the news, the three hugged her for comfort. Marilyn Lovell then went to the school to pick up Marilyn See's children, to make sure they did not find out from the press. A NASA investigative panel later concluded that pilot error, caused by bad weather, was the principal cause of the accident. The panel concluded that See was flying too low on his second approach, probably due to poor visibility. At the time, See was known as one of the better pilots in the astronaut corps. Slayton later expressed doubts about See's flying abilities, claiming that he flew too slowly, and "wasn't aggressive enough ... he flew too slow–a fatal problem in a plane like the T-38, which will stall easily if you get below 270 knots (500 km/h; 310 mph)." Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin were promoted to the backup crew as a result of the accident. Stafford and Cernan, the original backup crew, were launched three months later on June 3 as Gemini 9A. The shuffling of the Gemini crews caused by the deaths of See and Bassett affected crew assignments for subsequent Gemini and Project Apollo missions. In particular, Aldrin flew as the pilot of Gemini 12, and later Apollo 11. Both men were buried in Arlington National Cemetery on Friday, March 4. During funeral services in Texas two days earlier, Aldrin, Bill Anders, and Walter Cunningham flew the missing man formation in See's honor, while Lovell, Jim McDivitt, and civilian pilot Jere Cobb did the same to honor Bassett. ## Legacy See was survived by his wife Marilyn and three children. After his death she continued to live in Houston, where she worked as a court reporter. See's name is inscribed on the Fallen Astronaut plaque placed on the Moon by Apollo 15 in 1971. He is also listed on the Space Mirror Memorial at the John F. Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, dedicated in 1991. He was honored by Highland Park High School in 2010 as one of the recipients of its Distinguished Alumni Award. A room at the USMMA is also dedicated to his memory. See was a member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots (SETP) and an associate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). ## In media See was played by Steve Zahn in the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, and by Patrick Fugit in the 2018 film First Man. ## See also - Fallen Astronaut - List of Eagle Scouts - List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents
226,150	Moaning Lisa (The Simpsons)	1,167,597,972	null	[ "1990 American television episodes", "Television episodes about video games", "Television episodes written by Al Jean", "The Simpsons (season 1) episodes", "Works about blues", "Works about melancholia" ]	"Moaning Lisa" is the sixth episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 11, 1990. The episode was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss, and was directed by Wes Archer. Ron Taylor guest stars in the episode as Bleeding Gums Murphy. The episode deals with Lisa's depression and her attempts to sublimate it by playing her saxophone. ## Plot Lisa wakes up one morning saddened. At school, she gets in trouble with her music teacher for improvising and becomes reluctant to play dodgeball in gym. At home, Homer and Bart pummel each other at video boxing, but despite Homer's attempts, he is unable to defeat Bart. Homer and Marge try to cheer Lisa up, but she is consumed with existentialism and worry over all the suffering in the world. In her room, Lisa hears music coming from outside her window. She follows the music through town and meets Bleeding Gums Murphy, a soulful saxophonist playing the blues. Lisa learns about expressing herself through her music from him, only to be discovered and whisked away by Marge. Homer goes to the arcade and enlists the help of an arcade boxing expert, while Marge takes Lisa to band practice. She tells Lisa to smile no matter how she feels inside, to suppress her emotions to be popular, and that happiness will follow. But when she sees Lisa hiding her true feelings and being taken advantage of by her classmates and her music teacher, Marge changes her tune and tells Lisa to be herself and her support helps Lisa to feel genuinely happy. When Homer returns home, he is about to defeat Bart in a rematch but Marge unplugs the game console to announce Lisa's recovery, while Bart declares his retirement as an undefeated video boxing champ. Later, the Simpsons visit a jazz club to hear Bleeding Gums Murphy sing a blues number written by Lisa. ## Cast - Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson - Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson and Jacqueline Bouvier - Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson and Boy \#1 - Yeardley Smith as Lisa Simpson - Harry Shearer as Mr. Largo, News announcer and Clerk - Hank Azaria as Moe Szyslak - Susan Blu as Howie and Boy \#2 - Miriam Flynn as Miss Barr - Pamela Hayden as Janey Powell, Boy with Howie and Howie's mother - Ron Taylor as Bleeding Gums Murphy ## Production "Moaning Lisa" was the first episode of the series to focus on the character, Lisa Simpson. The idea for it was suggested by The Simpsons producer James L. Brooks, who wanted to do an episode where Lisa was sad but she did not know why. The writers also felt they had done several "jokey" episodes on the show and wanted to try something new that was "really emotional and sweet". While writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss were initially thrilled to write an episode pitched by Brooks, for whom they had deep admiration, they were unsure that the depression-themed episode would work. Matt Groening taunted the pair for having been assigned the episode, while Sam Simon told them that Brooks had been trying to get such an episode made since Taxi. According to Reiss, the episode establishes Lisa as a character, as in his and Jean's previous episode "There's No Disgrace Like Home", she is as badly behaved as Bart. The song Lisa sings in this episode later reappeared in expanded form on The Simpsons Sing the Blues CD. Mr. Largo, Lisa's music teacher, was partly inspired by a music teacher Groening had as a child. The designs of the boxers in the video game Homer and Bart play were loosely based on Homer and Bart, and the referee in the game was based on a character from Matt Groening's Life in Hell comic strip. Bleeding Gums Murphy was loosely based on the famous blues musician Blind Lemon Jefferson. Ralph Wiggum, Bleeding Gums Murphy, and Jacqueline Bouvier (during Marge's childhood flashback) all make their first (going by production order rather than airdate) appearances on The Simpsons in this episode. ## Reception In its original American broadcast, "Moaning Lisa" finished 34th place in the weekly ratings for the week of February 5–11, 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 13.8. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, said: "Certain scenes of this, the most syrupy of Simpsons episodes, sent viewers raised on the later seasons scurrying to the bathroom. Yes, the final moments may give you goosepimples, and are a world away from the anti-schmaltz normally associated with the series, but there is still much to recommend here. In fact, the Homer–Bart subplot is more successful than the main storyline; Homer's nightmare about their relationship is genuinely disturbing." In a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode a 2+1⁄2 (of 5) and added: "Lisa develops much of her future personality in this episode. The family dynamic is starting to fall into place, as is the relationship between Homer and Lisa." Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that "overall, this was a pretty drab episode" and added that "it had some moments, such as the videogame boxing matches between Homer and Bart, but Lisa lacked the strength at this point to carry an entire show". Yeardley Smith, the voice actress of Lisa, has cited the episode as one of her favorite Simpsons episodes of all time. In his 2018 memoir Springfield Confidential, Mike Reiss named the episode as one of four that broke new ground, alongside "Like Father, Like Clown", "Homer at the Bat" and the original "Treehouse of Horror". ## Home media The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection; the episode was paired with season one episode "Homer's Odyssey". It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons, Vol. 2 (1997), paired with "Bart the General". In the United States, it was later re released in a collector's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections. In the United Kingdom, it was re released as part of a VHS boxed set of the complete first season, in November 1999. The episode's début on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Reiss, Archer, and Jean participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season, including the episode, was published December 20, 2010 in the United States through Amazon Video and iTunes.
36,352,390	Jharokha Darshan	1,152,819,222	Practice of addressing the public at the balcony at forts and palaces of medieval kings in India	[ "Government of the Mughal Empire", "Hindi words and phrases", "Indian culture", "Indian royalty", "Mughal Court" ]	Jharokha Darshan (Persian: جهروکه درشن) (Hindi: झरोखा दर्शन) was a daily practice of addressing the public audience (darshan) at the balcony (jharokha) at the forts and palaces of medieval kings in India. It was an essential and direct way of communicating face-to-face with the public, and was a practice which was adopted by the Mughal emperors. The balcony appearance in the name of Jharokha Darshan also spelled jharokha-i darshan was adopted by the 16th-century Mughal Emperor Akbar, even though it was contrary to Islamic injunctions. Earlier, Akbar's father Emperor Humayun had also adopted this Hindu practice of appearing before his subjects at the jharokha to hear their public grievances. Darshan is a Sanskrit word which means "sight" and "beholding" (also means: "the viewing of an idol or a saint") which was adopted by Mughals for their daily appearance before their subjects. This also showed a Hindu influence, It was first practiced by Humayun before Akbar adopted it as a practice at sunrise. Jharokha is an easterly facing "ornate bay-window", canopied, throne-balcony, the "balcony for viewing" (an oriel window projecting out of the wall) provided in every palace or fort where the kings or emperors resided during their reign. Its architecture served not only the basic need for lighting and ventilation but also attained a divine concept during the reign of Mughals. The jharokha appearances by the Mughals have been depicted by many paintings. Giving Jharokha Darshan from this jharokha was a daily feature. This tradition was also continued by rulers who followed Akbar (r. 1556–1605 CE). Jahangir (r. 1605–27 CE) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58 CE) also appeared before their subjects punctiliously. However, this ancient practice was discontinued by Aurangzeb during his 11th year of reign as he considered it a non-Islamic practice, a form of idol worship. In Agra Fort and Red Fort, the jharokha faces the Yamuna and the emperor would stand alone on the jharokha to greet his subjects. Mughal emperors during their visits outside their capital used to give Jharokha Darshan from their portable wooden house known as Do-Ashiayana Manzil. During the Delhi Durbar held in Delhi on 12 December 1911, King George V and his consort, Queen Mary, made a grand appearance at the jharokha of the Red Fort to give a "darshan" to 500,000 common people. ## Practices by various rulers ### During Humayun's reign The Hindu practice of appearing before the people at the jharokha was started by Humayun, though the practice is generally credited to Akbar. Humayun had fixed a drum beneath the wall so that the petitioners assembled below the jharokha could beat it to draw his attention. ### During Akbar's reign Akbar's daily practice of worshiping the sun in the early morning at his residence in Agra Fort led him to initiate the Jharokha Darshan. Hindus, who used to bathe in the river at that hour greeted Akbar when he appeared on the jharokha window for sun worship. It was also the period when Akbar was promoting his liberal religious policy, and in pursuance of this liberal approach he started the Jharokha Darshan. Thereafter, Akbar would religiously start his morning with prayers and then attend the Jharokha Darshan and greet the large audience gathered every day below the jharokha. He would spend about an hour at the jharokha "seeking acceptance of imperial authority as part of popular faith", and after this he would attend the court at the Diwan-i-Aam for two hours attending to administrative duties. The crowd of people assembled below the balcony generally consisted of soldiers, merchants, craft persons, peasants, women and sick children. As the balcony was set high, the king would stand on a platform so that people gathered below could reassure themselves that he was alive and that the empire was stable; even when the sovereign was ill. He felt that it was necessary to see them publicly at least once a day in order to maintain his control, and guard against immediate anarchy. It also had a symbolic purpose. During this time people might make personal requests directly to Akbar, or present him with petitions for some cause. Akbar, therefore, began appearing at the jharokha twice a day and would hear the complaints of the people who wished to speak to him. Sometimes, while the emperor gave his Jharokha Darshan, he would let out a thread down the jharokha so that people could tie their complaints and petitions seeking his attention and justice. It was an effective way of communication and information exchange process, which Badauni, a contemporary of Akbar noted Jharokha Darshan worked effectively under Akbar who spent about four and half hours regularly in such darshan. Akbar's paintings giving Jharokha Darshan are also popular. ### During Jahangir's reign Akbar's son, Emperor Jahangir, also continued the practice of Jharokha Darshan. In Agra Fort, the jharokha window is part of the structure which represents the Shah Burj, the Royal Tower. The tower is in the shape of an octagon and has a white marble pavilion. During Jahangir's time and even more frequently under Shah Jahan's rule this jharokha was used for giving darshan. During Jahangir's Jharokha Darshan, hanging a string to tie petitions, was also practiced. This was also a Persian system under naushrwan. Jahangir elaborated on this system by adopting a golden chain to tie the petitions but Aurangzeb stopped it. Nur Jahan, Jahangir's wife, was also known to have sat for the Jharokha Darshan and conducted administrative duty with the common people and hearing their pleas. Jahangir was fully dedicated to the practice and made it a point to conduct the Jharokha Darshan even if he was sick; he had said "even in the time of weakness I have gone every day to the jharokha, though in great pain and sorrow, according to my fixed custom." Jahangir's painting giving Jharokha Darshan shows him sitting at the jharokha in a side profile, bedecked with jewelry and wearing a red turban in the background of a pale purple coloured cushion. ### During Shah Jahan's reign Emperor Shah Jahan maintained a rigorous schedule during his entire thirty years rule and used to get up at 4 AM and, after ablutions and prayers, religiously appeared at the jharokha window to show himself to his subjects. During his stay in Agra or Delhi, huge crowds used to assemble to receive his darshan below the balcony. He would appear before the public 45 minutes after sunrise. His subjects would bow before him which he would reciprocate with his imperial salute. There was one particular group of people known as darshaniyas (akin to the guilds of Augustales of the Roman Empire) who were "servile" to the king and who would take their food only after they had a look at the face of the emperor which they considered as auspicious. More than half an hour had to be spent by the King at the balcony as it was the only time people could submit petitions to the king directly through the chain let down for the purpose (which was drawn up by attendants) of receiving such petitions by passing the nobles of the court. At one time in 1657 when Shah Jahan was sick he could not appear for the Jharokha Darshan which spread speculations of his death. There were times when people used to gather below the jharokha window to hold protest demonstrations to place their grievances before the emperor. One such incident occurred in 1641 in Lahore when people who were affected by famine and were starving pleaded before Shah Jahan to provide famine relief. It is also said of Shah Jehan that his Islamic orthodoxy was more than that of his father or his grandfather and that he was skeptical to carry out the function of Jharokha Darshan as it could be misconstrued as worship of the sun. However, this practice was so deep-rooted with in the "Mughal Kingship and State" that he was compelled to continue this practice. ### During Aurangzeb's reign There is a proof that Aurangzeb continued the Mughal practice of Jharokha Darshan in a painting dated 1710 in which he is shown at the jharokha with two noblemen in attendance in the foreground. In this painting, the emperor is painted in a side profile and has a white jama (upper garment) attire adorned with a turban in a background of blue colour. In 1670, Hindus had assembled at the jharokha to protest against the jizya tax imposed on them by Aurangzeb. However, Aurangzeb who was a "puritanical" and practiced strict Islamic codes of conduct in his personal life, stopped this practice on the basis that it was idolization of human beings. `He stopped this practice during the 11th year of his rule. He also felt that it was "savouring of the Hindu ceremony of darshan".` ### Guru Gobind Singh The Ibratnama written by Muhammad Qasim Ibrat, mentions that the 10th Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh showed his face from the jharokha and his followers called him "Badshah". It is mentioned that Aurangzeb issued an order to Wazir Khan, the faujdar of Sirhind, that he should be stopped from doing so. ## Do-Ashiayana Manzil Do-Ashiayana Manzil was a portable wooden house used by the Mughal emperors during their visits outside their capital. This was a double storied house built with a platform supported over 16 pillars, of 6 yards height. Pillars were 4 cubits in height joined with nuts and bolts which formed the upper floor. This functioned as a sleeping quarter for the king and also for worship and holding Jharokha Darshan, and considered it an emulation of Hindu practice. ## Delhi Durbar On the occasion of the Delhi Durbar that was held on 12 December 1911, King George V and his consort, Queen Mary, made a grand appearance at the jharokha of the Red Fort to give a "darshan" to 500,000 common people who had assembled there to greet them.
57,740,564	Virgil L. Peterson	1,151,017,126	Inspector General of the US Army (1882–1956)	[ "1882 births", "1956 deaths", "Burials at Arlington National Cemetery", "Centre College alumni", "Inspectors General of the United States Army", "Military personnel from Kentucky", "Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)", "United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni", "United States Army Command and General Staff College faculty", "United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel", "United States Army War College alumni", "United States Army generals", "United States Army generals of World War II", "United States Army personnel of World War I", "United States Military Academy alumni" ]	Virgil Lee Peterson (22 September 1882 – 15 February 1956) was an Inspector General of the United States Army. Peterson graduated third in the United States Military Academy class of 1908, and much of his early career was spent in the United States Army Corps of Engineers, including serving as the district engineer of the Los Angeles District and commander of the 3rd Engineers. During World War I, he was Commanding Officer, Engineer Officers' Training Camp at Camp Lee, Virginia, from April to August 1918; and Director of Training at Camp Humphreys, Virginia, until October 1918. He was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal twice, once for his service during World War I, and again for his work as Inspector General during World War II. ## Early life Peterson was born on 22 September 1882 in Raywick, Kentucky, and attended Centre College, where he played football and received a Bachelor of Science in 1902. He then taught until 1904, when he entered the United States Military Academy. He was made a cadet corporal, cadet first sergeant, and eventually cadet captain. Peterson was a skilled rifleman and played for the school's polo team. He graduated third of 108 in the United States Military Academy class of 1908. Upon graduation, Peterson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army Corps of Engineers. ## Military service ### Junior officer From February to May 1908, Peterson was stationed at Fort Leavenworth. Until September, he was at Fort Riley, when he was assigned to map work in Fort Benjamin Harrison. From 30 June to 13 July 1909, he was at the military tournament in Toledo, Ohio. Peterson then attended the engineering school at Fort Lesley J. McNair, graduating on 5 November 1910. He was stationed with the 3rd Battalion of Engineers at Fort Leavenworth until 9 March 1911, during which he performed various duties and embarked on several short map-making tours in Ohio and Indiana. Peterson was then stationed in San Antonio with the Maneuver Division until 4 November 1911, when he was sent to the Philippines. First at Camp Stotsenburg, Peterson worked on a topographical survey of Luzon from 5 February to 1 May 1912. He was in charge of construction of a mechanical and electrical plant on Corregidor Island until 1 September 1913. Peterson then served as an aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell until 15 September 1914. He also supervised the construction of a hydroelectric plant and officers barracks. He then returned to the United States in late 1914. On February 28, 1915, Peterson was made a captain. From February 1915 to August 1918, Peterson commanded groups; including the 9th Engineer Battalion and the 8th Engineer Mounted Battalion, at various camps; including in Brownsville, Texas, the Washington Barracks, and in El Paso, Texas. He then commanded the Fourth Engineer Officers' Training Camp at Camp Lee until 10 August 1918 and at Camp A. A. Humphreys, he was a director of Military Training until October 1918. At Camp Lee and Camp A. A. Humphreys, he directed the training of 4,500 engineer officers and 20,000 enlisted soldiers. For his service he received the Army Distinguished Service Medal. The citation for the medal reads: > The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Colonel (Corps of Engineers) Virgil L. Peterson, United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. As Commanding Officer, Engineer Officers' Training Camp at Camp Lee, Virginia, from April to August 1918; and Director of Training at Camp Humphreys, Virginia, until October 1918, Colonel Peterson displayed marked foresight, rare ability, and sound judgment in the reorganization of the standardization of the instruction for engineer troops. By his organizing and training ability, indefatigable efforts, and high military attainments he successfully directed the training of 4,500 engineer officers and 20,000 enlisted men, thereby rendering services of great value to our Government in positions of great responsibility. ### Rise and infrastructure work Peterson left Camp A. A. Humphreys to attend the United States Army War College to November 1918. Peterson was then the commandment of the engineering school at Camp Humphreys from November 1918 to June 1920, and served as the assistant to the District Engineer in Boston until 31 December 1920. During his tenure he was credited with increasing the quality of education for engineers, while shortening the course length. After 1920, he spent his time in New England, in various engineering districts, with the majority as Providence, Rhode Island district engineer. At the United States Army Command and General Staff College in Fort Leavenworth, Peterson was a student from August 1924 to June 1925. Until 1929, he was an instructor at the school. He then was Assistant Director of Public Buildings and Public Parks of the Capitol in Washington D.C. until 30 March 1930. Peterson next was an assistant to the United States Army Corps of Engineers Chief of Engineers, as chief of the Miscellaneous Civil Section from April 1930 to August 1932, during which he was promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel on 1 November 1931. As chief of the section, he oversaw the study of projects, preparation of correspondence, and recommendations in all matters relating to the establishment of and changes in harbor lines; the removal of wrecks and other obstructions to navigation; the bridging of navigable waters; the supervision of New York Harbor; the lakes survey; the water supply and the public buildings and grounds of Washington, D.C.; the preservation of Niagara Falls; the national parks; and other miscellaneous matters. He spent a year at the United States Army War College, where upon graduating he was appointed district engineer of the Los Angeles Engineering District. From February 1934 to February 1936, Peterson commanded the 3rd Engineers at Schofield Barracks. From May 1936 to March 1938, he served as the district engineer of the Detroit River and Harbor District. From March 1938 to February 1940, Peterson was chief of staff at the headquarters of the Sixth Corps Area in Chicago. ### Inspector General On 27 February 1940, Peterson was appointed to Inspector General of the United States Army. As Inspector General, he was credited with "seeing more men, maneuvers, and facilities than any other officer in the Army." In this role, he helped instill a number of policies that would guide the military through coming cultural shifts. In the spring of 1942, he recommended forming fewer black units due to slow deployment of black units because staff at overseas theaters often refused to accept them. Peterson argued that it was more important to focus on supplying the army with adequate combat forces. The suggestion was not acted upon. He investigated the treatment of Japanese American soldiers at Fort Riley and in Arizona. He was charged by George C. Marshall, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, to investigate whether training and maneuvers knowledge were adequate among soldiers. Peterson advocated for forecasting the construction of cantonments so that there would be fewer material shortages, which was successfully incorporated. He was hesitant towards the Psychological Warfare Division in its early stages, feeling it provided unclear value to the army; Peterson's recommendations led to changes in the structure of the department. ## Later life The amount of work began to affect his health, and after having a heart attack, was reassigned to the Army Service Corps. Peterson retired from the Army on 28 February 1946. He received the Army Distinguished Service Medal (presented as an oak leaf cluster) for his work as Inspector General. In his column Washington Merry-Go-Round, Drew Pearson claimed that Peterson was "not a brilliant success," and he received his post of Inspector General as a result of his friendship with Edwin Watson. Peterson lived in Washington, D.C. until his death on 15 February 1956, at the age of 73. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
15,741,677	Cubzac-les-Ponts	1,168,419,977	null	[ "Communes of Gironde" ]	Cubzac-les-Ponts (; Occitan: Cubzac daus Ponts), also referred to as Cubzac, is a commune of the Gironde department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine, a region in southwestern France. Located 20 km northeast of Bordeaux, it is a crossing point of the river Dordogne. Cubzac has three bridges, one designed by Gustave Eiffel. During the Middle Ages, Cubzac served as a watchtower through the Four Sons of Amon castle. Different means of crossing the river in Cubzac have historically been used, from pontoon bridges and horse-powered ferries to steel and concrete bridges. Part of a vibrant wine region, Cubzac has several wine castles, including the Terrefort castle. It has developed its own sparkling wine, in what is now called the Café de Paris. The limestone quarries of Cubzac supplied for the typical white constructions found in Bordeaux and its region. Cubzac has two Monuments Historiques; the first is a painting in a church, the other is the ruins of the Four Sons of Amon castle. ## Geography Cubzac is located about 20 km northeast of Bordeaux, on the north riverbank of the Dordogne. Several transport networks converge in Cubzac to cross the river. These include the A10 motorway, the N10 trunk road and the Bordeaux-Nantes railroad. The LGV Sud-Ouest, a high-speed railway line running between Tours and Bordeaux, is in the process of being built. Cubzac has an elevation ranging from 1 m to 42 m, the highest points being limestone cliffs dating from the Oligocene epoch, some of which have been used as source of stone. In oenological terms, Cubzac is near the appellations d'origine contrôlée (AOC) côtes de Bourg and Fronsac, with its own wine castles. ## Population ## Climate Cubzac's climate is oceanic, part of the Dfb group in the Köppen climate classification. Periodically, the river Dordogne causes flooding. Nowadays Cubzac is protected by a dam, but is still vulnerable to flooding during high tides and strong winds. Flooding occurred last in the 1999 Martin and 2010 Xynthia storms. The 1999 storm destroyed many trees from the Terrefort castle park. In 1708, a temperature extremum of -15 °C caused the river and vineyards to freeze. ## Administration Administratively, Cubzac-les-Ponts is a commune part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, the Gironde département, the arrondissement of Blaye and the canton of Le Nord-Gironde. Before 2006, it was part of the arrondissement of Bordeaux. The current mayor of Cubzac is Alain Tabone, re-elected in 2020. ## Economy In 2007, 890 inhabitants were professionally active, the unemployment rate for the population between 15 and 64 was 6,7% for men and 10,0% for women, and the average net taxable income was €21 593. Of the 310 jobs available in Cubzac, only 34,9% were given to its inhabitants. As of 1 January 2010, there were no hotels and no camping sites in Cubzac. Agriculture in Cubzac is mostly dedicated to vine, corn and hay. In 2000, 244 ha of Cubzac's land was farmland, representing 25% of the total 987 ha. ## History The first traces of settlements in Cubzac date back to the Magdalenian epoch. Those were discovered in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with scrapers, chisels, nuclei, and harpoons found. Cut and polished axes, arrowheads, scrapers, awls and flint strikers, and a few fragments of pottery from the Neolithic epoch are plentiful in Cubzac, especially on the mound of the "Four Sons of Amon". A very large bronze deposit for making weapons was found from the time of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The town was mentioned in the Roman epoch as a surveillance post. Already, crossing the river Dordogne was done at Cubzac. The town has been reconverted through the centuries. The territory was occupied from the 6th century BC by a Bituriges Vivisques tribe. The village was occupied in 1250 by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester. The centre of Cubzac is built on a small hill that dominates the Dordogne valley. The village has developed from the domain of Cupitius, a wealthy landowner of the Gallo-Roman era, from which the name Cubzac derives. ### Ancient crossing methods The first ferries crossing the Dordogne were flat-bottomed boats driven by oars or keelboats driven by a sail. The passage was very risky and accidents occurred, especially during high tides and storms. From 1754, a cable ferry crossed the 550 m wide river. The cable lay above the waters and stretched obliquely to the current. In 1821, the cable ferry was replaced by a two-part ferry powered by a carousel of twelve horses. The horses set in motion gears which in turn powered a large paddle wheel. In good weather, the crossing time was improved to 30–45 minutes, but in bad weather the trip remained uncertain. The decision to establish a bridge in Cubzac is taken by Napoleon Bonaparte on 30 January 1812 and 3 February 1813. The bridge was originally to be completed in 1820. However, Cubzac's first bridge was a suspension bridge for which construction works started in 1834, under Louis-Philippe I. Works lasted four years, and public inauguration occurred on 17 August 1839 by the Duc and Duchesse of Orleans. The bridge had cost an estimated 3 million gold francs, was 545 m long and had 5 bays. Shortly after its construction, the pillars sank about one metre. During its 30 years of existence, it withstood storms despite the large amplitude oscillations caused. However, on 2 March 1869 a large storm, causing oscillations of more than two metres, partially destroyed the bridge and rendered it useless. Ancient methods to cross the Dordogne where reinstated. At first, barges and steamboats were used. Then, starting from October 1870, a large steam tub was used, measuring 21 m by 13 m. To cover the expensive construction costs, a toll was levied for the first 27 years. ## Current bridges ### Eiffel bridge When the suspension bridge fell in 1869, the idea of a new bridge was discussed at length. The initial project dates from 1875, which proposed that the new bridge had accompanying rail tracks, and that it be built on the remaining foundations of the suspension bridge, using scaffolding. Actually, given the height of the bridge and the river's depth and current, scaffolding is almost technically impossible to implement. In the final project from 1878, a jetting alternative was offered, despite very few companies mastering the technique at the time. The problem of fitting rail tracks, which was later abandoned, delayed the project. In 1873, masonry works had started on the right bank. In 1879, Gustave Eiffel, who had waited more than ten years for a positive response to his project, took in hand the large undertaking in Cubzac, which finished in 1883. The Cubzac bridge is the most important roadwork by the Eiffel company. It necessitated 3284 tonnes of metal, measures 552 m, and is divided in eight bays. The parapet consists of iron braces rather than solid walls, alleviating the structure. The company manufacturing the iron pieces later provided those used for the Eiffel Tower. As the Allies landed in Normandy, the German troupes, in their escape, partially destroyed the Eiffel bridge using explosives. Starting from 21 August 1944, all traffic on the bridge was restricted for the retirement of the German troupes. On 28 August 1944, as the last soldiers passed, German engineers arrived in bicycles and fitted explosives which detonated at 9:20pm. Three of the eight bays had fallen in the waters and the North abutment was seriously damaged. The delicate repair works where operated by the company Anciens Ets Eiffel with the help of the Entreprise Générale Industrielle du Sud-Ouest, which coincidentally was directed by Jacques Eiffel, the grand son of Gustave Eiffel. For this reason, the bridge is sometimes called "the twice Eiffel bridge". The bridge is now part of the Route nationale 10 which runs between Hendaye and Paris. Both viaducts to the bridge date from 1839 and each measures approximately 250 m. Over time, large settlements occurred, causing serious disturbances in the masonry and requiring the replacement of many vaults in 1880, 1903 and 1934. ### Railway bridge The rail bridge was constructed by Lebrun, Dayde and Pile by the compagnie Deyle et Pillet. Its style resembles that of the adjacent Eiffel bridge. It was commissioned by the Chemins de Fer de l'État for the Chartres-Bordeaux line, and the construction lasted from 1884 to 1885. Inaugurated in 1886, it is 561,60 m long above the Dordogne are divided in eight bays. The rails are 21.80 m above the highest waters. The bridge is made of iron pillars fitted in braces. Despite being younger than the Eiffel bridge, the construction necessitated more funds and effort. The constructions hidden under water and earth make up the bulk of the value and volume of materials used. Foundations only total to 57,800 cubic meters. Even though less damaged than the Eiffel bridge, it also sustained damage from German bombing on the same day. The reconstruction works ended on 15 June 1946, having taken less than two years to complete. ### Motorway bridge In 1957 it was decided to study the implementation of a bridge to relieve the old Eiffel bridge which allowed only one lane per direction, and reduce traffic jams. From 1957 to 1963 various solutions where studies. In 1971 the construction works were tendered and given to the company Campenon-Bernard-Europe. The works should have lasted only two years but were completed in 1974. The new motorway bridge made of reinforced concrete, having relieved the traffic jams, was celebrated on radio, and by the song "Ne partez pas en vacances, ne partez pas!" (Do not, do not go on holiday!) by Pierre Perret. In 2000, the bridge was doubled to 2x3 lanes. ## Sights ### Saint-Julien church The Saint-Julien church is named after Julian the Hospitaller, patron of Cubzac. Julian is a legendary saint destined to kill his parents, and informed about his destiny by a stag. He fled to escape his fate, but the prophecy realized nonetheless, and he became a hermit, helping people cross a river. One day, the Christ arrived to announce his pardon. From the Middle Ages to the French Revolution, the town would have been called Saint-Julien-de-Cubzac. The church is made of limestone and underwent important modifications in the 19th century, when in particular the steeple was rebuilt. The façade, however, still contains Roman remains. The church holds an 18th-century painting of the Baptism of Christ, classified Monument historique in 1913. The church is surrounded by a cemetery which was excavated in August 1978 by archaeologists under the direction of Richard Boudet. Coins dating from the time of Francis I, Henry III, Henry IV, Louis XIII, Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel were uncovered. A gold Merovingian signet ring bearing the Christian symbol Ichthys was also discovered under many potsherds. ### Four Sons of Amon castle At Cubzac, on the high rocky shoreline overlooking the Dordogne, and in the town centre, are the ruins of the castle "des Quatre fils Aymon" within ordinary houses. The entrance of the fortress is flanked by the remains of two towers. These few stones are however extraordinarily rich in history and legend. First off, the castle did not belong to the four sons of Aymon who lived, perhaps, the time of Charlemagne. It was built and rebuilt in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It was the seat of the lordship of Cubzaguais. In 1206, John Lackland, the king of England and youngest son of Eleanor of Aquitaine, took revenge of the king of France Philippe Auguste, who accused him of treason and deprived him of his fiefs, by engaging in miscellaneous abuses. He stormed the castle of Cubzac, and destroyed it. It is a brief English victory. The lordship returns to the French, and is attributed to Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, son of the terrible and bloody winner of the Albigensian Crusade. He built a new castle deemed impregnable, on behalf of the King of England, with double walls, and yet it is the one for which ruins remain. He was sacked by the Gascon barons revolted against Simon de Montfort. Half sacked, it served as a stately home, until moving to the lordship Bouih. The legions days that the two mediaeval castles have erected on the site of a building dating from the Carolingian period, which nothing remains. The Four Sons of Amon castle was registered as a historic monument in 1938. ### Terrefort-Quancard castle Positioned atop a hill dominating Cubzac-les-Ponts and Saint-André-de-Cubzac, the Terrefort-Quancard castle is a wine property and family house. The main building is a limestone rectangular body of living area, covered with slate for the roof. The surrounding grape wines, most of which are Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, span approximately 70 hectares of land. Various vestiges remain, including a wash for linen and horses, and a wind-will for flour. During its history spanning seven centuries, the castle was owned by a succession of seven families. One of the owners, the count Lafaurie of Monbadon, peer of France, was a catalyst to the construction of the Eiffel bridge. In March 1891, the Quancard brothers Jean and Eugène bought the property for 110 000 francs, and the Quancard family remains the last owners. The purchase came after a severe phylloxera outbreak, causing the death of over half of French vineyards, devalued the property. The land area was covered mostly with rock until the Quancard brothers used explosives to remove it, and large amounts of clay-limestone soil, known to be beneficial for the wine produce, was brought to replace it. The Quancard family has played a role in the life and history of Cubzac-les-Ponts. Firstly, Jean Quancard was elected by absolute majority as mayor of Cubzac on 15 May 1892 and remained in office for 27 years. Also, a fair, organised annually from 1936 to 1939 for its success, supported restoration work for the Saint-Julien steeple and provided financial help to the priest. Finally, the owners periodically host events, including expositions, family weddings and family reunions. The last family reunion, from May 2006, saw approximately 200 members of the Quancard family. ### Wine caves During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the mound of Cubzac was slashed all around to provide stone for Bordeaux's construction and the ballast of some river banks, creating deep excavations in the limestone. In 1898, André Cousteau, uncle of the researcher and ecologist Jacques Cousteau, started using the caves to make a sparkling wine based on traditional Champagne-making techniques. The wine, treated in a closed tank, bottled, and kept neck down many months at constant temperature, became bubbly and had its impurities accumulate near the cap. Once this deposit was removed, the bottles were resealed by force, and the corks muzzled. In 1920, the Cousteau property was sold to the Société Anonyme Gay-Mousse. In 1966, the caves where entrusted to Monsieur Lateyron who, one year later, created the Café de Paris. ## See also - Communes of the Gironde department
24,184,105	Light Force	1,169,272,979	1986 shooter game	[ "1986 video games", "Amstrad CPC games", "Commodore 64 games", "Gargoyle Games games", "Shoot 'em ups", "Single-player video games", "Vertically scrolling shooters", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by Rob Hubbard", "ZX Spectrum games" ]	Light Force is a 1986 vertically scrolling shooter designed by Greg Follis and Roy Carter, developed by their company Gargoyle Games, and published under their Faster Than Light imprint. It was released for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum platforms. The player controls a spaceship which must defeat waves of attacking enemies in five different levels. Light Force received positive reviews from video games critics, later being ranked as one of the best games for the Spectrum by multiple gaming magazines. The game was a commercial success, with the Spectrum version debuting at number two in the UK sales charts. ## Gameplay Light Force is a vertically scrolling shooter. The player controls a "Light Force" flightcraft in the Regulus system, tasked as the only fighter in the area to fight off a species of aliens taking over the peaceful system. The game spans five levels, ranging from a jungle section, an asteroid belt, an ice planet, desert planet, and ends at the aliens' factories. Every level has the player tasked with shooting down multiple waves of enemy spaceships to progress to the next level. Weapon upgrades and a shield for your ship can be acquired as you progress. After completing the last level, the game loops back to the first. The game has a high score feature, where the player can get point bonuses for completing optional objectives, like destroying all alien buildings. ## Development Light Force is the first game published under Gargoyle Games' Faster Than Light label. The company's co-founder Greg Follis explained that Faster Than Light was originally the title of the game, but he considered it "too good to waste". The game was the first to use "Lasermation" for the graphics, which was described by Gargoyle director Ted Heathcote as "a new technique for showing really vivid high speed animation". Rob Hubbard was the composer for the Commodore 64 version. It was released in 1986 for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum computers. ## Reception According to MicroScope, the ZX Spectrum version of Light Force debuted at number two in the UK sales charts, behind Paperboy. It dropped down to number three the following week. All three versions of the game received positive reviews from video game critics. Graham Taylor for Sinclair User called it, "The ultimate blaster, Light Force is mindless destruction at its very best. An essential purchase." One reviewer for Amtix considered it to be one of the best shoot 'em ups for the Amstrad. Crash praised its graphics, calling it the best he has seen on a Spectrum shoot 'em up. Computer and Video Games' Tim Metcalfe positively compared it to Galaxian. Zzap!64 said it was "a must for shoot 'em up addicts." The game won the award for best graphics of the year according to the readers of Crash, and was nominated in the "Best Shoot 'em up" and "State of the Art award" categories. In 1991, Crash placed it 82nd in their list of the top 100 games for the Spectrum. The Spectrum version was rated number 26 in the Your Sinclair "Official Top 100 Games of All Time" list.
53,885,717	2017 Emirates Cup	1,054,636,287	null	[ "2017 sports events in London", "2017–18 in English football", "2017–18 in German football", "2017–18 in Portuguese football", "2017–18 in Spanish football", "Emirates Cup", "July 2017 sports events in the United Kingdom" ]	The 2017 Emirates Cup was a pre-season football friendly tournament hosted by Arsenal at its home ground, the Emirates Stadium. It was the ninth Emirates Cup, an invitational competition inaugurated in 2007. Held on the weekend of 29–30 July 2017, the participants were Arsenal, Sevilla, Benfica, and RB Leipzig. It was the first edition since 2015 as pitch reconstruction works put the tournament on hiatus in 2016. Each team played two matches, with three points awarded for a win, one point for a draw and none for a loss. An additional point is awarded for every goal scored. Arsenal did not face RB Leipzig, and Benfica did not play against Sevilla. On the first day of the Emirates Cup, Sevilla defeated RB Leipzig by a single goal, while Arsenal came from behind to beat Benfica 5–2. Although Sevilla were victorious against Arsenal and took maximum points, the hosts won the competition due to scoring more goals over the two days. RB Leipzig beat Benfica by two goals to finish in third place. ## Background The Emirates Cup was inaugurated in July 2007 after Arsenal finalised plans to stage a pre-season competition at its home ground. The competition is named after Arsenal's main sponsor Emirates; the airline's association with the football club began in 2004. Arsenal won the first tournament, which was attended by over 110,000 people across the two days. In 2016, the Emirates Cup was cancelled in order to facilitate essential pitch reconstruction works at the Emirates Stadium. The 2017 edition was televised live in the United Kingdom on Quest and ESPN Deportes in the United States. ## Summary RB Leipzig faced Sevilla in the opening match of the tournament; the German side were without striker Timo Werner, but manager Ralph Hasenhüttl named new signing Jean-Kevin Augustin in his first eleven. Midfielder Emil Forsberg forced Sevilla goalkeeper Sergio Rico into action early on with a shot, but the ball was comfortably held on to. RB Leipzig continued to create chances and in the 18th minute a ball played over the Sevilla defence found Augustin. The forward's volley however flew over the goal and into the stand. Sevilla's first meaningful attack just after the half-hour mark resulted in a penalty. Bernardo's challenge on Walter Montoya in the penalty area was adjudged as a foul, despite video replays showing the defender managed to take the ball off the Sevilla midfielder. Wissam Ben Yedder stepped up to take the penalty and duly converted to give Sevilla the lead. The scoreline remained 1–0, despite both clubs' best efforts to score. Arsenal played Benfica in the later game. The hosts went behind early on; Pizzi's long pass in the Arsenal box was headed downwards by Jonas and reached Franco Cervi, whose effort deflected off Per Mertesacker and into the net. Theo Walcott responded by scoring twice in nine minutes, but Eduardo Salvio equalised for the Portuguese champions just before the break. In the second half Arsenal scored three goals – first, an own goal by Lisandro López, then a well-worked move finished off by striker Olivier Giroud and finally Alex Iwobi whose shot went into the roof of the net. New signing Sead Kolašinac was involved in the build-up play for three of the goals; Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger, afterwards, said of his contribution: "Today he was influential, the first two goals came from him. He looks powerful and the timing of his availability going forward is very good." On the second day of the tournament RB Leipzig beat Benfica by two goals. Halstenberg opened the score in the 19th minute, combining well with Federico Palacios before shooting the ball into the top left corner of the net. RB Leipzig made sure of victory in the second half when Marvin Compper scored. From Dominik Kaiser's free-kick, the defender headed the ball beyond Benifca goalkeeper Bruno Varela. RB Leipzig ended the tournament in third place with five points, whereas Benfica finished bottom of the table on two points. Hasenhüttl was delighted with his team's performance, telling reporters: "I am proud of how our young players performed. The constant regaining of possession was key to the win." Arsenal went into the final day of the competition knowing a draw was enough to win the Emirates Cup. Alexandre Lacazette started for Arsenal, as did Mesut Özil, while Ben Yedder continued to lead the line for Sevilla in a front three – either side of Nolito and Joaquín Correa. After an uneventful first half which saw both sides create few chances, Sevilla took the lead when Ben Yedder's reverse ball found an incoming Correa who slotted the ball past Petr Čech. Lacazette equalised for Arsenal, but the hosts went behind again after Steven Nzonzi's long shot looped into the far top corner. Sevilla held on to win, but despite a 100% record they finished second because Arsenal's points and goal difference was identical to theirs, and the Spanish club had scored fewer goals over the two days. ## Standings Each team plays two matches, with three points awarded for a win, one point for a draw, and a point for every goal scored. ## Matches ## Goalscorers
2,430,996	Seneca Village	1,170,180,696	Former settlement in Manhattan, New York	[ "1825 establishments in New York (state)", "1857 disestablishments in New York (state)", "African-American history in New York City", "Central Park", "Evicted squats", "Forcibly depopulated communities in the United States", "Former New York City neighborhoods", "History of New York City", "Populated places in New York established by African Americans", "Squats in New York City", "Underground Railroad in New York (state)" ]	Seneca Village was a 19th-century settlement of mostly African American landowners in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, within what would become present-day Central Park. The settlement was located near the current Upper West Side neighborhood, approximately bounded by Central Park West and the axes of 82nd Street, 89th Street, and Seventh Avenue, had they been constructed through the park. Seneca Village was founded in 1825 by free Black Americans, the first such community in the city, although under Dutch rule there was a "half-free" community of African-owned farms north of New Amsterdam. At its peak, the community had approximately 225 residents, three churches, two schools, and three cemeteries. The settlement was later also inhabited by Irish and German immigrants. Seneca Village existed until 1857, when, through eminent domain, the villagers and other settlers in the area were forced to leave and their houses were torn down for the construction of Central Park. The entirety of the village was dispersed. Several vestiges of Seneca Village's existence have been found over the years, including two graves and a burial plot. The settlement was largely forgotten until the publication of Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar's book The Park and the People: A History of Central Park in 1992. After a 1997 New-York Historical Society exhibition, the Seneca Village Project was formed in 1998 to raise awareness of the village, and several archaeological digs have been conducted. In 2001, a historical sign was unveiled, commemorating the site where Seneca Village once stood. In 2019, the Central Park Conservancy installed a temporary exhibit of signage in the park, marking the sites of the Village's churches, some houses, gardens, and natural features. ## Etymology The origin of Seneca Village's name is obscure, and was only recorded by Thomas McClure Peters, rector of St. Michael's Episcopal Church; however, a number of theories have been advanced. 1. One theory suggests that the word "Seneca" came from Roman philosopher Seneca the Younger, whose Moral Epistles - particularly Letter 47 - were appreciated by African American activists and abolitionists. The scholar Leslie M. Alexander notes this as a possible influence of the African Free School. 2. The village could have also been named after the Seneca nation of Native Americans. Although the presence of Seneca specifically would be unlikely as their territory was distant, Peters did mention "white and black and Indian" as among the diverse population at the site, as well as "white and black and all intermediate shades" worshiping at All Angels', and there is a later report of "aborigines and cross-breed Indians" at its Sunday school. After 1857, Peters was involved in a church mission to the multi-racial Ramapo Lenape of a nearby section of New Jersey by his friend Abram Hewitt's Ringwood Manor. 3. According to Central Park Conservancy historian Sara Cedar Miller, "Seneca" could have been influenced by anti-Native American and anti-Black slurs. 4. Another theory posits that Seneca Village could be named after the West African nation of Senegal, which may have been the origin country for some of the village's residents. 5. The name could have also come from use as a code-word on the Underground Railroad, when fugitive slaves from the Southern United States were being hidden in nearby areas. In the socially active "burned-over district", there was a noted concentration of abolitionism around Rochester and Seneca Falls in the former Seneca territory of Western New York. ## Existence ### Development Natural features on the Seneca Village landscape which still survive today are Summit Rock, then known as Goat Hill, the highest natural elevation in modern Central Park, and Tanner's Spring near its southern base. The settlement's main street was "Spring Street" as marked on an 1838 map, or as "old Lane" on an 1856 map, and it connected to "Stillwells Lane". Only Eighth Avenue and 86th Street were developed by 1856, although property lines generally followed the Commissioners' Plan of 1811. Seneca Village was in the city's 19th Ward, and was sometimes associated with Yorkville. The previous landowner before African American settlement was a white farmer named John Whitehead, who purchased his property in 1824. One year later, Whitehead began selling off smaller lots from his property. At the time, the area was far from the core of New York City, which was centered south of 23rd Street in what is now Lower Manhattan. On September 27, 1825, a 25-year-old African American man named Andrew Williams, employed as a bootblack and later as a cartman, purchased three lots from the Whiteheads for \$125. On the same day, African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion Church) trustee Epiphany Davis, employed as a feed store clerk, bought twelve lots for \$578. Both men were part of the New York African Society for Mutual Relief, an organization whose members supported each other financially. The AME Zion Church bought six additional lots the same week, and by 1832, at least 24 lots had been sold to African Americans. Additional nearby development was centered around "York Hill", a plot bounded by where Sixth and Seventh Avenues would have been built, between 79th and 86th Streets. York Hill was mostly owned by the city, but 5 acres (2.0 ha) were purchased by William Matthews, a young African American, in the late 1830s. Matthews's African Union Church also bought land in Seneca Village around that time. More African Americans began moving to Seneca Village after slavery in New York state was outlawed in 1827. In the 1830s, people from York Hill were forced to move so that a basin for the Croton Distributing Reservoir could be built, so many of York Hill's residents migrated to Seneca Village. The reservoir's massive granite walls formed a prominent landmark, bordering Seneca Village on the east. Seneca Village provided a safe haven during the anti-abolitionist riot of 1834. Later, during the Great Famine of Ireland, many Irish immigrants came to live in Seneca Village, swelling the village's population by 30 percent during this time. Both African Americans and Irish immigrants were marginalized and faced discrimination throughout the city. Despite their social and racial conflicts elsewhere, the African Americans and Irish in Seneca Village lived close to each other. By 1855, one-third of the village's population was Irish. George Washington Plunkitt, who later became a Tammany Hall politician, was born in 1842 to Pat and Sara Plunkitt, two of the first Irish settlers at the western edge of the village on Nanny Goat Hill. This location was in the vicinity of a cluster of Irish-American households led by John Gallagher. Richard Croker, who later became the leader of Tammany, was born in Ireland, but he came with his family to Seneca Village in 1846, and lived there until his father received a job that enabled them to move. By 1855, there were 52 houses in Seneca Village. On maps of the area, most of the houses were identified as one-, two-, or three-story houses made out of wood. Archeological excavations uncovered stone foundations and roofing materials, indicating that they were well-built. Some of the houses were identified as shanties, meaning that they were less well-constructed. Land ownership among Black residents was much higher than that in the city as a whole: more than half owned property in 1850, five times the property ownership rate of all New York City residents at the time. Many of Seneca Village's Black residents were landowners and relatively economically secure compared to their downtown counterparts in the Little Africa neighborhood by Greenwich Village. Many African-Americans owned property in Seneca Village but lived downtown, perhaps seeing it as an investment. ### Inhabitants Based on analysis of various documents including census records, maps, and tax records, researchers have estimated that in 1855, approximately 225 people lived in Seneca Village. On average, the residents had lived there for 22 years. Three-quarters of these residents had lived in Seneca Village at least since 1840, and nearly all had lived there since 1850. The unusually high level of address stability gave a sense of permanence and security to the community. At this time in New York City's history, most of the city's population lived below 14th Street; the region above 59th Street was only sporadically developed and was semi-rural or rural in character. Under a New York state law created in 1821, African American men in the state could vote only if they had \$250 worth of property and had lived in the state for at least three years. Owning property was a way to gain political power, and the purchase of land by Black people likely had a significant effect on their political engagement. Of the 13,000 Black New Yorkers in 1845, either 100 or 91 were qualified to vote that year. Of the voting-eligible Black population, 10 lived in Seneca Village. Nevertheless, many of the residents were still poor, since they worked in service industries such as construction, day labor, or food service. Only three residents could be considered middle-class as measured by occupation, of which two were grocers and the other was an innkeeper. Many Black women worked as domestic servants. However, historian Leslie M. Harris holds that the African-American middle class of the time should be judged by educational and social criteria that were different from that of the white middle class. Many residents boarded in homes they did not own, demonstrating that there was significant class stratification even with Seneca Village's high land ownership rate. Maps show that residents had gardens, likely to grow food for their own consumption. The residents likely also relied on the abundant natural resources nearby, such as fish from the nearby Hudson River, and the firewood from nearby forests, as well as driftwood. Some residents also had barns and raised livestock. Tanner's Spring likely supplied the Village with fresh water. ### Community institutions The economic and cultural stability of Seneca Village enabled the growth of several community institutions. The village had three churches, two schools, and three cemeteries; by 1855, approximately two-thirds of the inhabitants were regular churchgoers. Two of the churches, First African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church of Yorkville and African Union Church, were all-Black churches, while All Angels' Church was racially mixed. The AME Zion Church, a denomination officially established in lower Manhattan in 1821, owned property for burials in Seneca Village beginning in 1827. The Seneca Village congregation was known as the AME Zion Branch Militant from 1848. In 1853, the Church established a congregation and built a church building in Seneca Village. According to the New York Post, at a ceremony officiated by Christopher Rush, the cornerstone included a capsule with "a Bible, a hymn book, the church's rules, a letter with the names of its five trustees and copies of the newspapers, The Tribune and The Sun". AME Zion maintained a church school in its basement. The church building was destroyed as part of the razing of Seneca Village. The African Union Church, a Methodist denomination, purchased lots in Seneca Village in 1837, about 100 feet (30 m) from AME Zion Church. It had 50 congregants. There was also a branch of the African Free School next to the African Union Church, founded in the mid-1840s, which had become Colored School No. 3 as part of the public school system by the 1850s, serving 75 students. The school was led by teacher Caroline W. Simpson. All Angels' Church was founded in 1846 as an affiliate of St. Michael's Episcopal Church, a wealthy white church whose main campus was located at Amsterdam Avenue and 99th Street in the Bloomingdale District. St. Michael's had earlier established a Sunday school in the area in 1833, founded by William Richmond and led by his brother James Cook Richmond as part of a church mission to Seneca Village and nearby areas, and accommodating at first forty children. Initially the church was hosted in a white policeman's home, but a wooden church at 84th Street was built in 1849. The congregation was racially diverse, with Black and German Protestant parishioners from Seneca Village and nearby areas. It had only 30 parishioners from Seneca Village. There was a cemetery set up to serve the congregation, which was much used during the 1849 cholera epidemic, but was closed by city law in 1851 along with all cemeteries south of 86th Street; St. Michael's Cemetery in Queens was established thereafter as a replacement for this and other communities. When the community was razed, the church was physically relocated a few blocks west and was officially incorporated at the corner of 81st Street and West End Avenue, standing there until replaced by a new building in 1890. ## Nearby settlements While Seneca Village was the largest former settlement in what is now Central Park, it was also surrounded by smaller areas that were occupied mainly by Irish and German immigrants. One of these areas, called "Pigtown", was a settlement of 14 mostly Irish families located in the modern park's southeastern corner, and was so named because the residents kept hogs and goats. Pigtown was originally located farther south, from Sixth to Seventh Avenues somewhere within the "50s"-numbered streets, but was forced northward because of complaints about the pungent animal smells. An additional 34 families, mainly Irish, lived in an area bounded by 68th and 72nd Streets between Seventh and Eighth Avenues. Nearby, on the current site of Tavern on the Green, were a collection of bone-boiling plants, which employed people from Seneca Village and nearby settlements. To the southwest of Seneca Village was the settlement of Harsenville, which is now part of the Upper West Side between 66th and 81st Streets. There were also two German settlements: one at the modern-day park's northern end and one south of the current Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir. Many of the Irish and German residents were also farmers with their own gardens. An additional settlement in the northeast corner of Central Park included a portion of the former Boston Post Road. That corner contains McGowan's Pass, a topological feature that was the site of a Hessian encampment during the American Revolutionary War, and Blockhouse No. 1, a still-extant fortification built during the War of 1812. Mount St. Vincent's Academy was also sited near McGowan's Pass until 1881. A later Irish settlement was known as "Goatville". ## Demise ### Planning of Central Park By the 1840s, members of the city's upper class were publicly calling for the construction of a new large park in Manhattan. Two of the primary proponents were William Cullen Bryant, the editor of the New York Evening Post, and Andrew Jackson Downing, one of the first American landscape designers. The Special Committee on Parks was formed to survey possible sites for the proposed large park. One of the first sites considered was Jones's Wood, a 160-acre (65 ha) tract of land between 66th and 75th Streets on the Upper East Side. The area was occupied by multiple wealthy families who objected to the taking of their land, particularly the Jones and Schermerhorn families. Downing stated that he would prefer a park of at least 500 acres (200 ha) at any location from 39th Street to the Harlem River. Following the passage of an 1851 bill to acquire Jones's Wood, the Schermerhorns and Joneses successfully obtained an injunction to block the acquisition, and the transaction was invalidated as unconstitutional. The second site proposed for a large public park was a 750-acre (300 ha) area labeled "Central Park", bounded by 59th and 106th Streets between Fifth and Eighth Avenues. The Central Park plan gradually gained support from a variety of groups. After a second bill to acquire Jones's Wood was nullified, the New York State Legislature passed the Central Park Act in July 1853; the act authorized a board of five commissioners to start purchasing land for a park, and it created a Central Park Fund to raise money. In the years prior to the acquisition of Central Park, the Seneca Village community was referred to in pejorative terms, including racial slurs. Park advocates and the media began to describe Seneca Village and other communities in this area as "shantytowns" and the residents there as "squatters" and "vagabonds and scoundrels"; the Irish and Black residents were often described as "wretched" and "debased". The residents of Seneca Village were also accused of stealing food and operating illegal bars. The village's detractors included Egbert Ludovicus Viele, the park's first engineer, who wrote a report about the "refuge of five thousand squatters" living on the future site of Central Park, criticizing the residents as people with "very little knowledge of the English language, and with very little respect for the law". Other critics described the inhabitants as "stubborn insects" and used racial slurs to refer to Seneca Village. While a minority of Seneca Village's residents were landowners, most residents had formal or informal agreements with landlords; only a few residents were actual squatters with no permission from any landlord. ### Razing In 1853, the Central Park commissioners started conducting property assessments on more than 34,000 lots in and near Central Park. The Central Park commissioners had completed their assessments by July 1855, and the New York State Supreme Court confirmed this work the following February. All land owners and long-term lease holders did receive compensation. However, roughly only 20% of those living in Seneca Village owned land. As part of the tax assessment, owners were offered an average of \$700 for their property. These financial settlements were not without contention. For instance, Andrew Williams was paid \$2,335 for his house and three lots, and even though he had originally asked for \$3,500, the final compensation still represented a significant increase over the \$125 that he had paid for the property in 1825. Clearing occurred as soon as the Central Park commission's report was released in October 1855. The city began enforcing little-known regulations and forcing Seneca Village residents to pay rent. Members of the community fought to retain their land. For two years, residents protested and filed lawsuits to halt the sale of their land. However, in mid-1856, Mayor Fernando Wood prevailed, and residents of Seneca Village were given final notices. In 1857, the city government acquired all private property within Seneca Village through eminent domain, and on October 1, city officials in New York reported that the last holdouts living on land that was to become Central Park had been removed. A newspaper account at the time suggested that Seneca Village would "not be forgotten ... [as] many a brilliant and stirring fight was had during the campaign. But the supremacy of the law was upheld by the policeman's bludgeons." All of the inhabitants of the village were evicted by 1857, and all of the properties within Central Park were razed. The only institution from Seneca Village to survive was All Angels' Church, which relocated a couple of blocks away, albeit with an entirely new congregation except for one person. There are few records of where residents went after their eviction, as the community was entirely destroyed. In the 20th century, no one had been identified as a descendant of a Seneca Village resident, although subsequent genealogy proved more fruitful. Elsewhere in Central Park, the impact of eviction was less intense. Some residents, such as foundry owner Edward Snowden, simply relocated elsewhere. Squatters and hog farmers were the most affected by Central Park's construction, as they were never compensated for their evictions. Seneca Village's absence was felt during the 1863 New York City draft riots, when it could not provide the refuge it did in 1834; instead, some fled to Weeksville, Brooklyn. Some traces of Seneca Village persisted in later years. As workers were uprooting trees at the corner of 85th Street and Central Park West in 1871, they came upon two coffins, both containing Black people from Seneca Village. A half-century later, a gardener named Gilhooley inadvertently found a graveyard from Seneca Village while turning soil at the same site, subsequently called "Gilhooley's Burial Plot" after him. ## Rediscovery The settlement was largely forgotten for more than a century after its demolition. It came to the attention of Peter Salwen in the late 1970s, who noted a discrepancy in city maps of the village's impressive architecture that belied its negative reputation, and he included it in his 1989 Upper West Side Story. Public interest in Seneca Village was invigorated after the publication of Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar's 1992 book The Park and the People: A History of Central Park, which described the community extensively. A 1997 New-York Historical Society exhibition brought together a non-profit initiative that has since supported historical research and archaeological excavations into the 21st century. A call for descendants found the lineage of first land purchaser Andrew Williams, who has been the namesake for successive generations of his family until the present day, as documented by family genealogist Ariel Williams. The historical example of Seneca Village has been cited in the context of racialized community displacement and more recent urban renewal initiatives. ### Commemoration The Seneca Village Project was formed in 1998 as a collaboration between Cynthia Copeland of the New-York Historical Society, Nan Rothschild of Barnard College, and Diana Wall of City College of New York, and was later organized under the non-profit Institute for the Exploration of Seneca Village History. It is dedicated to raising awareness about Seneca Village's significance as a free, middle-class Black community in 19th-century New York City. The project facilitates educational programs, which engage school children, teachers, and the general public, and bring Seneca Village into public knowledge. In February 2001, former Parks Commissioner Henry Stern, State Senator David Paterson, Borough President C. Virginia Fields, and New York Historical Society Executive Director Betsy Gotbaum unveiled a plaque commemorating the site where Seneca Village once stood. The plaque is located near the modern-day Mariners Playground, near 85th Street and Central Park West. In 2019, the city announced a request for proposals for a statue honoring the Lyons family, property owners in the village: Albro Lyons Sr. (another member of the New York African Society for Mutual Relief) and Mary Joseph Lyons (née Marshall) and their children, most notably Maritcha Remond Lyons. The statue would be placed at 106th Street in the North Woods section of the park, and has received funding from several private donors including the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, Ford Foundation, JPB Foundation, and Laurie M. Tisch Illumination Fund. Also in 2019, the outdoor exhibit "Discover Seneca Village" opened with temporary historical markers at points across the Seneca Village landscape of Central Park. The exhibit was originally scheduled to run until October 2020, but its run was extended. ### Archaeological excavations Following the 1997 exhibition "'Before Central Park: The Life and Death of Seneca Village" at the New-York Historical Society, Wall, Rothschild, Copeland, and Herbert Seignoret decided to see if any archaeological traces of the village remained. They worked with local historians, churches, and community groups to shape the direction of their research project on the site. In June 2000, Wall, Rothschild, Copeland, and other researchers started performing imaging tests to determine if any traces of Seneca Village remained. With student participation, the project conducted exhaustive archival research and preliminary remote sensing. Researchers used soil boring to identify promising areas with undisturbed soil. In 2005, the team used ground-penetrating radar to successfully locate traces of Seneca Village. After extended discussions with the New York City Department of Parks and the Central Park Conservancy, researchers were granted permission for test excavations in the regions of the village thought most likely to contain intact archaeological deposits. Digs took place in 2004, August 2005, and mid-2011. The 2011 excavation uncovered the foundation walls and cellar deposits of the home of William Godfrey Wilson, a sexton for All Angels' Church, and a deposit of items in the backyard of two other Seneca Village residents. Archaeologists filled over 250 bags with artifacts, including the bone handle of a toothbrush and the leather sole of a child's shoe. In 2020, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission launched an online exhibit, Seneca Village Unearthed, with around 300 artifacts from the 2011 excavation. ### Art and culture Keith Josef Adkins's play The People Before the Park had its first performances at Premiere Stages in 2015. Marilyn Nelson's poetry collection My Seneca Village was published the same year. Before Yesterday We Could Fly, a period-room exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, opened in 2021. The period room in the exhibit recreates the house of a fictional Seneca Village resident as it may have existed at the time, but also how their descendants may have lived in the present and future, as if the settlement had not been destroyed. The latter parts are influenced by Afrofuturism, an art genre, aesthetic, and philosophy which imagines possible futures through the lens of the African diaspora, touching on themes of imagination, self-determination, technology, and liberation. ### In popular culture The history of Seneca Village was chronicled in a play staged by Kean University in 2015, The People Before the Park. The animated musical sitcom Central Park (2020) references Seneca Village in its first episode, with the ensemble referring to it as a "dark history". ## See also - List of freedmen's towns - Allensworth, California - American Beach, Florida - Brooklyn, Illinois - Bruce's Beach - Butler Beach - Fargo, Arkansas - Glenarden, Maryland - Goldsboro, Florida - Greenwood District, Tulsa - Hayti, Durham, North Carolina - Highland Beach, Maryland - Hogan's Alley, Vancouver - Idlewild, Michigan - North Brentwood, Maryland - Kowaliga, Alabama - Mound Bayou, Mississippi - Robbins, Illinois - Rosewood, Florida - Slocum, Texas - Weeksville, Brooklyn - Wilmington, North Carolina
59,641,588	2019 Marrakesh ePrix	1,164,241,930	null	[ "2018–19 Formula E season", "2019 in Moroccan sport", "January 2019 sports events in Africa", "Marrakesh ePrix" ]	The 2019 Marrakesh ePrix (formally the 2019 Marrakesh E-Prix) was a Formula E electric car race held at the Circuit International Automobile Moulay El Hassan in the Agdal district of Marrakesh, Morocco on 12 January 2019. It was the second round of the 2018–19 Formula E Championship and the third Marrakesh ePrix. Jérôme d'Ambrosio of Mahindra won the 31-lap race after starting from tenth place. Second place went to Virgin's Robin Frijns and his teammate Sam Bird was third. Bird won the pole position by setting the fastest lap in qualifying and held the lead despite Techeetah's Jean-Éric Vergne clattering into his left-hand sidepod and spinning 180 degrees on the race's opening lap. António Félix da Costa of BMW Andretti passed Bird to move into first place on lap ten and pulled away to lead the following fourteen laps until a collision on lap 26 with his teammate Alexander Sims careened him into a barrier. That promoted d'Ambrosio into the lead, which he maintained through a safety car period; he held off Frijns on the final lap to win by 0.143 seconds. It was d'Ambrosio's third career victory and his first without having inherited the win through driver disqualifications. D'Ambrosio's victory put him in the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 40 points. Félix da Costa fell to second and Vergne, who recovered to finish fifth in the race, dropped to third. Vergne's teammate André Lotterer moved up a place to fourth and Frijns moved from twelfth to fifth. In the Teams' Championship, Techeetah led with 47 points, Mahindra and BMW were tied for second as Virgin progressed to fourth with eleven races left in the season. ## Background The Marrakesh ePrix was confirmed as part of the 2018–19 Formula E Championship by the FIA World Motor Sport Council in October 2018. It was the second of thirteen scheduled single-seater electric car races of the 2018–19 Championship, and third annual edition of the event. The ePrix was held at the 2.97 km (1.85 mi) anti-clockwise 12-turn semi-permanent Circuit International Automobile Moulay El Hassan street circuit in the Agdal district of the Moroccan city of Marrakesh on 12 January. The track's configuration requires teams to develop their spring rates, anti-roll bar, car ride height and vehicle chassis configuration for maximum mechanical grip. The circuit was unchanged from the 2018 race with the mandatory attack-mode activation zone to provide drivers with extra power for a certain amount of time situated on the outside of turn three and the timing loops to activate the system were made visible to drivers. The driver adviser to the stewards was former Trulli GP driver Vitantonio Liuzzi. After winning the season-opening Ad Diriyah ePrix four weeks earlier, BMW Andretti driver António Félix da Costa led the Drivers' Championship with 28 points, ahead of Jean-Éric Vergne of Techeetah with 18 points, and Mahindra's Jérôme d'Ambrosio with 15 points. With 12 points, Mitch Evans for Jaguar was in fourth place and Vergne's teammate André Lotterer was fifth with 10 points. In the Teams' Championship, Techeetah led with 29 points; BMW Andretti were a further point behind in second. Mahindra, Jaguar and e.Dams-Nissan in positions three through five were each separated by a single point. The race saw the introduction of a mandated winglet on the roll hoop of all cars, next to the television camera. The addition came after some teams lobbied the series to free up space on the hoop's side for commercial partners. Following a software-related drive-through penalty that lost him a potential victory in Ad Diriyah, Vergne said he was eager to demonstrate his team had the fastest car in Marrakesh, "Being so close to the victory in the first round has left me very hungry for more, and it’s what my focus is all about right now, Marrakesh hasn’t been a good track for us in the past so I’m hoping that we can change that and leave Morocco on a high note this year. It still [sic] a very long way to go and we know that we need to continue to be razor sharp for the rest of the season." D'Ambrosio stated that he thought he could achieve another podium finish in Marrakesh, and aimed to continue improving his performance and maintain Mahindra's strong record at the track: "It’s a challenging street circuit and, while it hasn’t been the best track for me over the past two years, I’m going to make sure that I change that and I’m looking forward to having a good race this weekend." The second in-season rookie test was scheduled to be held at the circuit the day after the race. Teams were required to field two drivers who were not in possession of an e-licence at the time of the test. There were eleven teams entering two drivers each for the race with a total of 22 competitors. There was one driver change going into the race. Having missed the Ad Diriyah ePrix because his Mercedes-Benz contract barred him from driving with another team until 31 December 2018 without performing certain pre-requisites, 2015 Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters champion Pascal Wehrlein replaced the outgoing Felix Rosenqvist at Mahindra; Rosenqvist moved to Chip Ganassi Racing's IndyCar Series team for 2019. Wehrlein spent the week before the race at Mahindra's simulator in Banbury as part of his preparation. ## Practice Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the late-afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second for half an hour. The first practice session was first held in darkness and cold weather with drivers struggling to get tyre temperature before the sun rose. Robin Frijns of Virgin was fastest with a lap of 1 minute and 17.808 seconds, followed by Félix da Costa, Bird, e.Dams-Nissan's Oliver Rowland, Oliver Turvey for NIO, the Jaguar duo of Evans and Nelson Piquet Jr., Alexander Sims of BMW Andretti, Sebastien Buemi for Nissan and Vergne. During the session, where drivers locked their tyres due to them fine-tuning their brake-by-wire systems, several competitors ran onto the turn seven run-off area because they braked later than usual. Evans avoided contact with a trackside barrier, and his teammate Piquet swerved to avoid hitting Venturi's Felipe Massa who made a late decision to enter the pit lane. With 13 minutes remaining, Wehrlein's car briefly switched off at turn ten and the session was red flagged as he reset his car to allow his return to the pit lane. The second practice session was held in warmer weather. Evans led with an early benchmark lap which Frijns improved in the final ten minutes. Lotterer then bettered Frijns' lap before Evans ran with 250 kW (340 hp) of power to set a 1-minute and 17.762 seconds lap to go fastest, 0.242 seconds ahead of Lotterer. Buemi, Félix da Costa, Frijns, Rowland, José María López for Dragon, Turvey, Vergne, and Sims completed the top ten ahead of qualifying. As the session passed relatively peacefully, drivers again locked their brakes into turn seven. As Massa activated 250 kW (340 hp) mode, his car shut down on the start/finish straight; he restarted it with radio engineer assistance. Massa's powertrain was later replaced and Lucas di Grassi's Audi had a water pump change. ## Qualifying Saturday's 75-minute afternoon qualifying session was divided into two groups of five cars and two groups of six. Each group was determined by a lottery system and given six minutes of on-track activity. All drivers were limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest six overall competitors in the four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by their fastest times; positions six through twenty were determined by group qualifying times. The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships. In the first session to have a direct comparison between the two cars—the preceding Ad Diriyah race was rain-affected—the SRT05e was three seconds a lap faster than the Spark-Renault SRT 01E. In group one, Félix da Costa was fastest, ahead of Vergne, Evans, d'Ambrosio and Lotterer after a driver error at turn seven. Buemi led the second session with Piquet second. Di Grassi had an untidy lap and was third in the group, followed by Rowland. Abt was group two's slowest driver by losing a large amount of time midway on the track. In the third group, Bird set the fastest overall kap in group qualifying at 1 minute and 17.851 seconds despite a minor error in the first turn. His teammate Frijns was second and provisionally sixth overall. The NIO pair of Turvey and Dillmann were third and fourth. Dragon's Maximilian Günther was fifth after hitting a bump on a kerb on the exit to turn six, going airborne briefly, and crashing into the side of a barrier. Stoffel Vandoorne's HWA car shut down halfway through his maximum power lap as he looked set to enter the top ten. After group three ended, Dillmann's car had a sudden brake failure en route to parc fermé in the pit lane and he had to decide whether to hit the rear of Frijns' car or a track marshal. He elected to hit Frijns, which caused a chain reaction incident that sent him into the rear of his teammate Bird's car. Bird sustained rear diffuser damage; parc fermé regulations dictated any repairs made to his car would send him to the rear of the grid. In group four, Sims was fastest and he advanced to Super Pole. He demoted Wehrlein to seventh overall after the latter ran over the kerbs at the final corner. López was third; the Venturi duo of Massa and Edoardo Mortara took fourth and fifth. HWA's Gary Paffett was slowest in group four because of a heavy understeer in turn one and electrical energy issues. After group qualifying, Buemi, Sims, Félix da Costa, Vergne and Evans progressed to Super Pole. Bird took the fifth pole position of his career and his first since the second 2017 New York City ePrix race with a 1-minute and 17.489 seconds lap. He was joined on the grid's front row by Vergne who recorded a mistake-free lap. Félix da Costa had an untidy lap and came third. Buemi in fourth was smooth and Sims took fifth. Sixth-place Evans locked his front tyres on the approach to turn seven and ran deep onto the run off-area. ### Post-qualifying After qualifying, Félix da Costa was demoted three places on the starting grid because he was adjudged to have exceeded the maximum amount of permitted electrical power on his non-timed lap at 204.92 kW (274.80 hp) because of a temporary spike. Hence, the grid lined up after penalties as Bird, Vergne, Buemi, Sims, Evans, Félix da Costa, Wehrlein, Frijns, Piquet, d'Ambrosio, di Grassi, Rowland, López, Turvey, Massa, Abt, Mortara, Dillmann, Paffett, Lotterer, Günther and Vandoorne. ### Qualifying classification Notes - — António Félix da Costa was demoted three places for exceeding the amount of permitted power on his non-timed lap. ## Race The race, which lasted 45 minutes plus one full lap after time had elapsed, began at 16:03 Central European Time (UTC+01:00). The weather at the start was hot and clear and the air temperature ranged from 20.25 to 20.95 °C (68.45 to 69.71 °F) and the track temperature was between 18.3 and 20 °C (64.9 and 68.0 °F); a 20-per-cent chance of rain was forecast. Each driver was required to use attack mode twice and was permitted to arm the system no more than five times. A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 25 kW (34 hp) of power to use during the race's second half. The five drivers who were allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. For the Marrakesh race, Vandoorne, Félix da Costa, Massa, Buemi, Wehrlein were handed the extra power. Bird made a good getaway and Buemi drew alongside the fractionally slower Vergne entering the first corner. As he turned to the inside line to block Vergne, it appeared Bird would lead comfortably. Vergne went onto the inside run-off area and clattered into Bird's left-hand sidepod on the turn-one apex at high speed. That caused a small titanium television camera from Vergne's car to detach and lodge itself in the aperture of Bird's left-hand sidepod. Vergne spun 180 degrees, and several drivers swerved to avoid his car. Wehrlein's suspension, diffuser, rear tyre bearing and rims were damaged when di Grassi misjudged his braking point for the first turn and rammed into him. An attempt to continue driving proved impossible and he entered the pit lane to retire. Additionally, Paffett and his HWA teammate Vandoorne were unsighted because of smoke emitted from Vergne's spin, and the two made contact with each other's sidepods in the same area, causing Vandoorne to retire with a broken suspension at the end of the first lap and Paffett to sustain a slow rear-left puncture. Turvey moved from 16th to seventh by the end of the first lap while Vergne's spin dropped him to 19th and Buemi fell to 14th. At the start of lap two, Buemi passed Evans on the inside into turn one for 13th. Lotterer passed Evans soon after and then overtook Buemi into the turn-five and six chicane. On the third lap, a brief yellow flag was waved as Paffett spun exiting the chicane as the slow puncture deteriorated, causing him to retire. Félix da Costa passed his teammate Sims on the inside line at turn three for the second position on the following lap. On lap seven, Günther activated the attack mode, passing Dillmann, Vergne and Massa over the next four laps. Gunther's act confirmed to the field that the attack mode was a huge advantage without losing a large amount of time during activation, and a steady trickle of drivers activated the system over the following few laps. On lap ten, López overtook Turvey on the inside for seventh before turn one. That lap, Félix da Costa attempted to pass Bird for the lead on the inside into turn eleven, which Bird blocked and Félix da Costa's right-rear corner hit Bird's left-rear quarter; both continued without any car damage. Félix da Costa tried again going into the turn-four and five chicane on lap 11, and moved past Bird on the inside as the latter cut the corner under braking. Sims got an advantage to overtake Bird and took second on the straight entering turn eight. Abt used the attack mode to pass López on the entry to turn one on lap 12 but López responded by doing the same two laps later. On lap 14, d'Ambrosio went to the inside to pass di Grassi into turn seven for fifth. That prompted Virgin to allow Frijns to take third from his teammate Bird entering turn seven on lap 15. Bird blocked d'Ambrosio from overtaking him for fourth on the outside into turn eleven. On lap 16, di Grassi activated the attack mode, as d'Ambrosio successfully overtook Bird to move into fourth going into turn eleven, before the latter lost fifth to di Grassi on the start/finish straight. During the 17th lap, d'Ambrosio and d'Grassi got ahead of Frijns at turns seven and on the straight linking turns 10 and 11 to demote him to fifth. Di Grassi began to pressure d'Ambrosio as Bird activated the attack mode, falling to seventh behind López on the next lap. Bird however immediately retook sixth from López entering the turn four and five chicane. As the pack began to close up to the BMWs, Félix da Costa and Sims activated their first attack modes on the 19th lap in an attempt to increase their lead. Frijns and Bird used their second attack mode activation on lap 23, with the two passing di Grassi at the end of the lap, motivated by Vergne moving to sixth. Furthermore, as he caught the battle for third, they were gaining on the BMWs, resulting in a lead change with ten minutes left. Around this time, BMW Andretti team principal Roger Griffiths liaised with its senior engineering team to consider allowing Sims to pass his teammate Félix da Costa for the lead because he was the faster driver and had better electrical energy management. Despite his team's liaison, Sims, approaching turn seven on the 26th lap, challenged his teammate Félix da Costa for first on the outside as both drivers locked their brakes. This caused Félix da Costa to slide wide and hit the front-left quarter of Sims's car, who had regained control; he could not avoid the former and their front wings interlocked. Félix da Costa careened into a right-side tyre wall and retired. Sims made it through the corner, but fell from second to fourth. D'Ambrosio moved into first with Frijns second. To recover Félix da Costa's car, the race director Scot Elkins ordered the safety car's deployment with seven minutes remaining. The safety car stayed on the track until only 20 seconds were left to run and Sims used their second attack modes beforehand to challenge Bird for third place. On the final lap, d'Ambrosio locked his tyres at the final corner and held off Frijns to win the race. It was d'Ambrosio's third career victory, his first since the 2016 Mexico City ePrix, and his first on-track win; his previous two came via technical disqualifications involving di Grassi. Frijns was 0.147 seconds behind in second and took the best finish of his career at the time, besting prior third-place finish in the 2015 Putrajaya ePrix. His teammate Bird finished third. Off the podium, Sims took fourth, Vergne completed his recovery to finish fifth and his teammate Lotterer sixth. Di Grassi finished seventh and earned one extra point for setting the race's fastest lap on the final lap, at 1-minute and 20.296 seconds. Buemi, Evans, and Abt rounded out the top ten. The final finishers were López, Günther, Mortara, Piquet, Rowland, Turvey, Dillmann and Massa. ### Post-race The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. D'Ambrosio was euphoric over taking his third career victory, "This is a real win, I fought hard for it and I'm really happy. I've been here since the start [of the series] and I've been fighting to be in this position. Last year we had some tough moments and I'm happy I can pay the team back like this." Frijns said he regretted not challenging d'Ambrosio harder on the final lap. He commented on the importance of his second-place finish for the Virgin team, "At one point, I was like, 'Shall I go for it at Turn 10?' and then I was like, 'Yeah, but we are P2, [team-mate] Sam [Bird] is P3 and I'm not going to be a bully that drives over Jerome and doesn't finish at all'. I think it's smart to not do it at the beginning of the season - just to score the points." Third-placed Bird said the camera from Vergne's car lodged in his vehicle possibly affected its handling, "I didn’t know too much about the move from Vergne at the start and from there on I suspect it may have caused a slight issue with the car as we didn’t have the pace we had seen earlier. Nevertheless, it was an amazing result for the team and we did a great job in qualifying." BMW Andretti personnel convened immediately after the race to discuss the collision with Félix da Costa and Sims. Félix da Costa apologised to the team, expressed contrition to the press, and conceded Sims was faster than him: "I'm sorry - that's a mistake and a mistake coming from me only. [It's] terribly frustrating in this story because we lost a win, we lost a one-two, and even if it was just me, Alex could have won the race. But because of that, I denied him the win, denied the team a one-two. I'm feeling very bad for myself." Sims attributed the contact to an intra-team communication breakdown and refused to apportion blame. He additionally stated to the media he did not wish to challenge Félix da Costa because he was conserving electrical energy and was attempting to maintain the gap over the rest of the field. Jens Marquardt, director of BMW Motorsport, said that any similar incidents would not re-occur in the future and the team would learn over the rest of the season. Griffiths later emphasised a priority scenario was non-existent over favouring one driver over the other and praised Félix da Costa for accepting responsibility for the accident. Vergne called himself an "idiot" for clattering into Bird on the first lap, and stated any similar mistakes would not re-occur in the future: "I didn't stop the car and I obviously didn't want to crash into Sam, I didn't want to ruin his race, ruin my race and have a penalty for the next race. So I went completely on the inside and obviously I spun because there was no other way. I either spin or take us both out - so I chose that option. It was unnecessary because I clearly had the pace to win today." Wehrlein said he was certain he could have finished on the podium had di Grassi not hit him at the start; he enjoyed the weekend as a whole, "You know, I got to experience Formula E, apart from the race, but I like the formula and again the race was very interesting. It’s a busy day with a lot of driving so I really like that as well but it starts early, I don’t like it so much but you cannot have everything!" After the race, d'Ambrosio on 40 points took the Drivers' Championship lead from Félix da Costa, who now tied with Vergne for second with 28. Lotterer moved to fourth place with 19 points and Frijns moved from twelfth to fifth. In the Teams' Championship, Techeetah continued to lead with 47 points; Mahindra moved from third to second, displacing BMW Andretti, which tied Mahindra with 40 points. Virgin's results progressed the team to fourth while e.Dams-Nissan fell to fifth with eleven races left in the season. ### Race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. - — Pole position. - — Fastest lap. ## Standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Teams' Championship standings - Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
22,222,862	Sir George Collier, 1st Baronet	1,149,452,464	Officer during the French Revolutionary Wars, Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.	[ "1772 births", "1820s suicides", "1824 deaths", "Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom", "British military personnel who committed suicide", "Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath", "Military personnel from London", "Royal Navy officers", "Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars", "Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars", "Royal Navy personnel of the War of 1812", "Suicides by sharp instrument in England", "Suicides in Westminster" ]	Sir George Ralph Collier, 1st Baronet, KCB (bapt. 4 June 1772 – 24 March 1824) was an officer of the Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, and the War of 1812. He had an eventful early life, being shipwrecked early in his career and later captured by the French. Nevertheless, he saw enough service to attract the attention of powerful patrons that secured his rise through the ranks. An officer of considerable ability, he won a noteworthy victory against a stronger French opponent, before embarking on a period of distinguished service off the Spanish and Portuguese coasts, working closely with the British generals fighting the Peninsular War, and markedly contributing to their success. His good service led to a prime posting in command of a squadron despatched to hunt down and neutralise the American super frigates during the War of 1812. He came close to capturing the USS Constitution, but lost her in circumstances that were unclear and would later return to haunt him. The years of peace that followed the end of the Napoleonic Wars saw him rewarded with a baronetcy, and he continued to serve in the navy where he was tasked with the suppression of the slave trade. The publishing of William James's account of the War of 1812, which lambasted him for incompetence and cowardice in his failure to catch the Constitution, broke his personal peace. Having failed to clear his name, and increasingly depressed by the accusations, Collier killed himself. ## Family and early life Collier was born in London in 1774, the second son of the chief clerk of the Victualling Board Ralph Collier, and his wife Henrietta Maria. He began his education at the Chelsea Maritime Academy, but by January 1784 his name appeared in the books of the 74-gun third rate HMS Triumph as a captain's servant to the Triumph's commander, Captain Robert Faulknor. This was likely to have been only a nominal entry to gain seniority, and Collier's naval service probably actually began three years later in January 1787, when he joined the 28-gun frigate HMS Carysfort at the rank of midshipman. He moved in June 1790 to take up a position aboard Captain Edward Pellew's 50-gun HMS Salisbury and spent the rest of that year serving on the Newfoundland station. Collier transferred again in December 1790, joining the 100-gun first rate HMS Victory, then under Captain John Knight in the English Channel. Collier's next ship was Captain Samuel Hood's 32-gun HMS Juno, which he joined in March 1791. He remained with the Juno until she was paid off. On being discharged he took passage aboard the East Indiaman Winchelsea, bound for the East India station. The Winchelsea ran onto a reef in the Mozambique Channel on 3 September 1792 and was wrecked. Collier and the other survivors were able to reach Madagascar, where they remained until being picked up a Portuguese brig in May the following year. Before they could reach friendly soil the Portuguese ship was captured by a French privateer and Collier and his fellow survivors were sent to Île de France as prisoners. He remained in captivity there until being released in late 1794, whereupon he sailed to the British-held port of Madras. ## French Revolutionary Wars By now the French Revolutionary Wars had broken out, and after a period spent recuperating from his several ordeals, Collier joined Commodore Peter Rainier's flagship HMS Suffolk in June 1795. Collier had passed his lieutenant's examination in 1790, but only now did he receive his commission, when he was appointed lieutenant and commander of the Suffolk Tender on 31 July 1795. Rainer sent him to the Cape of Good Hope, but shortly after his arrival, the commander of the station, Admiral Thomas Pringle ordered that Suffolk Tender be surveyed. She was subsequently condemned as unseaworthy, and Collier returned to Rainer at Madras without a ship. Rainer recommended that he return to Britain, where the good report of his service would assure him further employment and promotion. Collier duly arrived in England in May 1799, and on 2 July that year received an appointment to the 64-gun HMS Zealand, which was then under the command of Captain Thomas Parr. A further advance came shortly afterwards, when he made first lieutenant on 29 July aboard Vice-Admiral Andrew Mitchell's flagship, the 50-gun HMS Isis. He was present at the capture of the Dutch squadron in the Vlieter Incident in August, and was chosen by Mitchell to carry the despatches back to Britain. ### Battle with the Flèche As was customary Collier received a promotion, to master and commander on 3 September 1799, and a command, the 18-gun sloop HMS Victor, on 21 October. Collier commanded the Victor for the next couple of years, escorting convoys and on one occasion a convoy of troop transports to the Red Sea, bringing troops to defeat the French forces in Egypt. He stopped briefly at Diego Garcia to take on supplies, whereupon he fell in with the 22-gun French corvette Flèche. The two ships fought a brief engagement on 1 September 1801, during which the Flèche damaged the Victor's rigging and managed to escape. After repairing the damage, Collier searched the surrounding area before coming across his opponent on 5 September, sheltering in Mahé Roads. The channel was very narrow, and the wind unfavourable, but Collier managed to warp the Victor into the harbour, and with the aid of her staysails, closed on the French ship. After enduring raking fire for some time, he was finally able to haul his ship around and the two vessels exchanged broadsides for over two hours. By then the Flèche was observed to be in a sinking condition, and her captain ran her aground. A party of men were sent over from the Victor, but having boarded the French vessel, found her crew had set her on fire and then abandoned ship. The men were temporarily evacuated while further assistance was sent across, after which they re-boarded and managed to extinguish the fire. Just as this had been achieved, the Flèche slipped off the reef into deeper water and sank. Collier therefore came away without his prize, but his exploit came to the attention of the First Lord of the Admiralty Earl St Vincent. Impressed by Collier's daring, St Vincent promoted him to post-captain, with the 50-gun HMS Leopard as his command. As a further mark of favour, St Vincent antedated his commission to 22 April 1802, giving him greater seniority over the officers promoted a week later in the general promotion that followed the Peace of Amiens. With the paying off of the Leopard in 1803 Collier moved ashore, spending until 20 January 1806 in command of the Sea Fencibles at Liverpool. On 18 May 1805 he married Maria Lyon, a resident of the city. The couple did not have any children. It was during this period ashore that Collier devised and presented the plans for a blockade of the Texel, in the hopes of being appointed to lead the expedition. Nothing had come of the scheme by the time he received his next sea-going command, that of the 32-gun HMS Minerva in February 1806. ## Napoleonic Wars The Minerva was sent south to the Spanish and Portuguese coasts, where Collier found himself busy suppressing privateering, and the Spanish coastal forts. He was moved on 22 April 1807 to take up command of the 38-gun HMS Surveillante, and duly took part in the expedition to Copenhagen. He received approbation for his services, and the British commander, Admiral James Gambier sent him back to Britain with his despatches. Collier received a knighthood on 19 September 1807, and by 1812 was back in the Bay of Biscay. He was active off the coast of Spain that year, supporting the guerrillas in the countryside under Admiral Sir Home Popham, and was personally involved in some of the land-based operations of the Peninsular War. He was wounded on 1 August 1812 in an attack on the castle at Santander, but though the attack failed, it led to the French withdrawing from the castle, considering it too exposed. Collier's raids were particularly useful in forcing the French forces in the north of the county to attempt to fortify and defend hundreds of small coastal creeks and villages, instead of supporting the forces in the south, allowing Wellington to defeat them. It was while operating off the Iberian Peninsula that Collier devised a need for an improved type of ships' boat. He developed a design based on elements of both a whaleboat and a jolly boat, and had one built for him at Plymouth Dockyard. The boat proved extremely useful after tests aboard the Surveillante, especially at being able to land safely on a flat beach to give close support. Collier further modified it by installing a howitzer in the bows, and soon boats of its type were being requested by other captains for their ships. In 1813 Collier succeeded Sir Home Popham in commanding the north coast squadron, Spain. He and a small squadron supported General Arthur Wellesley and General Sir Thomas Graham in the capture of San Sebastián and the siege of Bayonne. ## War of 1812 On 15 March 1814 Collier received command of the 50-gun HMS Leander and was sent to North America to deal with the American super frigates that were causing losses to British merchant shipping. It was a highly sought after posting, and reflected the Admiralty's approval of his efforts off Spain. Collier sought battle with the USS Constitution, but the American ship escaped from Boston and evaded him. He gathered a squadron consisting of the Leander, the 60-gun HMS Newcastle and the 40-gun HMS Acasta, and set off in pursuit. He almost caught up with the Constitution off St Jago, but weather prevented Leander from closing on her. The Constitution was at the time sailing with two captured British prizes, the former HMS Levant and HMS Cyane. Collier's three ships gave chase and were overhauling the Constitution, when, having allowed the Cyane to escape, the Levant broke away and Collier followed her. In doing so he retook the Levant, but allowed Constitution to escape. Collier continued to cruise in the area, but before he had another opportunity to pursue the Constitution, news reached him that the Treaty of Ghent had been signed and that the war was over. ## Years of peace Collier returned to Britain and on 20 September 1814 was created a baronet. He was invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1815. He was also appointed groom of the bedchamber to the Duke of Gloucester that day. ## West Africa Squadron In 1818, he continued to see active service at sea, being appointed the first Commodore of the West Africa Squadron, with the 36-gun HMS Creole as his flagship. On 19 September 1818, the navy sent him to the Gulf of Guinea with the orders: "You are to use every means in your power to prevent a continuance of the traffic in slaves." Unfortunately, however, the squadron initially had only six ships with which to patrol over 5,000 kilometres (3,000 mi) of coast. Collier served in this post from 1818 to 1821. His distinguished role in anti-slavery efforts led to his election as an honorary life member of the African Institution on 17 May 1820. ## James's account and death Collier's life was disturbed by the publication of William James's Naval History in 1823. James paid particular attention to the escape of the Constitution, and lamented Collier's failure to bring her to action and capture her. James claimed Collier's incompetence had allowed the Constitution to escape from Boston, while his failure to bring her to action when his squadron later sighted her was attributed to what amounted to cowardice on his part. James summed up the episode with > Most sincerely do we regret...that this last and most triumphant escape of the Constitution, the first frigate of the United States that had humbled the proud flag of Britain, had, not long ago, been brought under the scrutiny of a court-martial. The blame would then have fallen where it ought to have fallen...The more it is investigated, the more it will show itself to be, the most blundering piece of business recorded in these six volumes. Collier applied to the Admiralty for the opportunity to clear his name, but this was not satisfied. Friends and relations had become increasingly concerned about his mental state as a result. His brother took the precaution of removing the razors from his home, but Collier appears to have smuggled one to his room, and used it to cut his own throat early in the morning on 24 March 1824. His servant who was sleeping in the same room immediately brought help, but nothing could be done and Collier died less than five minutes after inflicting the injury, aged 51. The inquest later determined that 'The deceased destroyed himself, being in a state of temporary mental derangement.' The baronetcy became extinct upon his death.
7,714,130	Brazil at the 1998 Winter Olympics	1,004,268,206	null	[ "1998 in Brazilian sport", "Brazil at the Winter Olympics by year", "Nations at the 1998 Winter Olympics" ]	Brazil sent a delegation to compete at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan from 7–22 February 1998. The delegation consisted of a single athlete Marcelo Apovian, who competed in alpine skiing. Making his second Olympic appearance, he finished his only event, the men's super-G in 37th place, last among those who finished the race. ## Background The Brazilian Olympic Committee was recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on 1 January 1935, 21 years after its creation. Brazil first joined Olympic Competition at the 1900 Summer Olympics, and made their first Winter Olympics appearance in 1992. Therefore, the 1998 Winter Olympics were their third appearance at a Winter Olympic Games. The 1998 Games were held from 7–22 February 1998; a total of 2,176 athletes took part, representing 72 National Olympic Committees. The only athlete sent by Brazil to the Nagano Olympics was Marcelo Apovian, an alpine skier. He was chosen as the flagbearer for the opening ceremony. ## Alpine skiing Marcelo Apovian was 25 years old at the time of the Nagano Olympics, and was making his second Olympic appearance, having previously represented Brazil at the 1992 Winter Olympics six years prior. The only event he was entered into was the super-G, held on 16 February as a one-leg race. He finished the race in 1 minute and 49.43 seconds, which put him in 37th and last place among all classified finishers. The gold medal was won in a time of 1 minute and 34.82 seconds, by Hermann Maier of Austria. The silver was shared by fellow Austrian Hans Knauß and Swiss racer Didier Cuche.

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